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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRPV6
TRPV6
TRPV6 is a membrane calcium (Ca2+) channel protein which is particularly involved in the first step in Ca2+absorption in the intestine. Classification Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid subfamily member 6 (TRPV6) is an epithelial Ca2+ channel that belongs to the transient receptor potential family (TRP) of proteins. The TRP family is a group of channel proteins critical for ionic homeostasis and the perception of various physical and chemical stimuli. TRP channels can detect temperature, osmotic pressure, olfaction, taste, and mechanical forces. The human genome encodes for 28 TRP channels, which include six TRPV channels. The high Ca2+-selectivity of TRPV5 and TRPV6 makes these channels distinct from the other four TRPV channels (TRPV1-TRPV4). TRPV5 and TRPV6 are involved in Ca2+ transport, whereas TRPV1 through TRPV3 are heat sensors with different temperature threshold for activation, and TRPV4 is involved in sensing osmolarity. Genetic defects in TRPV6 gene are linked to transient neonatal hyperparathyroidism and early-onset chronic pancreatitis. Dysregulation of TRPV6 is also involved in hypercalciuria, kidney stone formation, bone disorders, defects in keratinocyte differentiation, skeletal deformities, osteoarthritis, male sterility, Pendred syndrome, and certain sub-types of Cancer. Identification Peng et al identified TRPV6 in 1999 from rat duodenum in an effort to search for Ca2+ transporting proteins involved in Ca2+absorption. TRPV6 was also called calcium transport protein 1 (CaT1) initially although the names epithelial calcium channel 2 (ECaC2) and CaT1-like (CaT-L) were also used in early studies to describe the channel. The human and mouse orthologs of TRPV6 were cloned by Peng et al and Weber et al, respectively. The name TRPV6 was confirmed in 2005. Gene location, chromosomal location, and phylogeny The human TRPV6 gene is located on chromosomal locus 7q33-34 close to its homolog TRPV5 on 7q35. The TRPV6 gene in human encodes for 2906 bp-long mRNA. In contrast to most other proteins, which initiate translation with an AUG codon, TRPV6 translation is initiated by non-AUG-codon-mediated reading. TRPV6 protein bears a 40-a.a-long N-terminal extension in placenta and in some physiological settings in comparison to the annotated version of the protein used in biological studies. However, it is still to be determined whether the long version of the TRPV6 protein is the dominant form in different tissues. aTo be verified in different tissues. It has been hypothesized that Trpv5 and Trpv6 genes were generated from a single ancestral gene by gene duplication events. Phylogenetic analysis has shown that TRPV6 paralogs in mammals, sauropsids, amphibians, and chondrichthyes arose out of independent duplication events in the ancestor of each group. It is speculated that two specialized Ca2+-selective Trpv homologs arose as an adaptation to achieve a greater degree of functional specialization for navigating distinct renal challenges of terrestrial animals. Two alleles of the TRPV6 gene have been identified in humans (originally noted as CaT-La and CaT-Lb). These alleles exhibit coupled polymorphisms generating two versions of the same gene. The polymorphisms give rise to an “ancestral variant” and a “derived variant” that differ in five bases and three amino acids. The ancestral allele codes for C197(157, in parentheses are annotated amino acid numbering), M418(378), and M721(681) whereas the derived allele codes for R197(157), V418 (378) and T721(681). The frequency of the ancestral TRPV6 allele varies across different population groups. It is hypothesized that selection pressures that could have changed TRPV6 allele distribution include changes in patterns of milk consumption, domestication of animals, change in ultraviolet light exposure due to trans-equatorial migration, genomic adaptations providing immune advantages to populations encountering new pathogens. Tissue distribution The TRPV6 protein is expressed in epithelial tissues such as the intestine, kidney, placenta, epididymis, and exocrine glands such as pancreas, prostate and salivary, sweat, and mammary glands. TRPV6 protein expression in humans has been demonstrated in the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, pancreas, mammary glands, ovary, thyroid, and prostate by immunohistochemistry approaches. TRPV6 expression mainly confines on the apical membrane of epithelial cells. In the intestine, the protein is expressed on the brush-border membrane of enterocyte. Differences in the TRPV6 expression profile have been reported possibly due to variation in assay-dependent such primer design, hybridization probes, PCR vs. northern blotting, semi-quantitative PCR vs. RT-PCR, and antibodies used for immunodetection. TRPV6 expression profile is also influenced by age, gender, Ca2+ and vitamin D3 levels in food, hormonal status, location within the tissue, cellular location, reproductive status, and weaning status (see Section Regulation). In humans, TRPV6 transcripts have been detected in the placenta, pancreas, prostate cancer, and duodenum and the prostate by northern blotting; and in duodenum, jejunum, placenta, pancreas, testis, kidney, brain, and colon by semi-quantitative PCR. In rodents, TRPV6 expression has been validated in the duodenum, cecum, small intestine, colon, placenta, pancreas, prostate, and epididymis by Northern Blotting. In mouse, TRPV6 transcript abundance measured by RT-PCR is as follows: prostate > stomach, brain > lung > duodenum, cecum, heart, kidney, bone > colon > skeletal muscle > pancreas. Data from Human Protein Atlas and RNA-Seq based suggest TRPV6 mRNA is low in most tissues except for the placenta, salivary gland, pancreas, and prostate. TRPV6 mRNA is expressed in the apical domain of murine osteoclasts of cortical bone. Cortical and trabecular osteocytes do not express TRPV6 mRNA whereas osteoblasts show weak expression. Structure and biophysical properties Primary and secondary structure Overall, four subunits of TRPV6 arrange to form a tetrameric channel displaying a four-fold symmetry. Beginning from N-terminus and moving towards the C-terminus of the protein, each TRPV6 polypeptide contains: an N-terminal helix, an ankyrin repeat domain (ARD) containing six ankyrin repeats, a β-hairpin structure linker domain made up two β-strands, a helix-turn-helix motif, a pre-SI helix, TM domain made up of six TM helices (S1 through S6), a pore-loop (also called P-loop), amphipathic TRP helix, C-terminal hook, and a six-residue β-strand (β3) (Figure 1). Tertiary and quaternary structure The TRPV6 channel protein displays four-fold symmetry and contains two main compartments: a 30 Å-tall transmembrane domain with a central ion channel pore and a ~70 Å-tall and a ~110 Å-wide intracellular skirt enclosing a 50 Å × 50 Å cavity wide cavity underneath the ion channel. The clustering of four TRPV6 subunits forms an aqueous pore exhibiting a fourfold symmetry (Figure 2). A pre-SI helix links the intracellular portion of the protein to the TM domain through a linker domain made up of β-hairpin structure and a helix-turn-helix motif. Helices S1 through S4 form a transmembrane helical bundle or TM domain that is inserted almost perpendicularly to the plane of the plasma membrane. The pore module elements are made up of S5, S6, and the P-loop in TM domains. The pore module from each TRPV6 polypeptide participates in inter-subunit interactions to form a central ion pore (Figure 1). The pore-forming elements of each TRPV6 subunit also interact with S1-S4 domains of the adjacent polypeptide in a domain-swapped arrangement. Intersubunit interactions also occur between S1-S2 extracellular loops and S5-P and S6-P loops of the neighboring TRPV6 subunits. The conserved N-linked glycosylation site on the S1-S2 loop is required for by the Klotho-mediated activation. The intracellular skirt portion of the TRPV6 protein is mainly made up of the ankyrin repeats. The TRP domain is oriented parallel to the membrane and participates in hydrophobic interactions with the TM domain and the hydrophilic interactions in the intracellular skirt. The N-terminal helix, C-terminal hook, and β-sheets (formed by the β-hairpin structure in the linker domain) in the channel participates in intersubunit interactions with the ARDs to provides a framework for holding the elements of the intracellular skirt together. Pore architecture and cation binding sites The TRPV6 pore has four main elements, namely, the extracellular vestibule, a selectivity filter, a hydrophobic cavity, and a lower gate. Facing the central lumen of the channel, a four-residue selectivity filter (538TIID541) containing four Aspartate 541 (D541) side chains (one from each protomer) is critical for Ca2+ selectivity and other biophysical properties of the channel. This filter forms a negatively charged ring that discriminates between ions based on their size and charge. Mutations in the critical pore-forming residue of TRPV6 blocks Ca2+uptake, a strategy has been used to generate TRPV6 loss-of-function models to examine the role of the channel in animal physiology. Four different types of cation binding sites are thought to exist in the TRPV6 channel. Site 1 is located in the central pore and shares the same plane that is occupied by the key selective residues D541. Site 2 is thought to be present about 6-8 Å below Site 1 followed by Site 3 which is located in the central pore axis about 6.8 Å below Site 2. Site 2 and 3 are thought to interact with partially-hydrated to equatorially-hydrated Ca2+ ions. Finally, four symmetrical cation binding sites in the extracellular vestibule mediate the recruitment of cations towards the extracellular vestibule of TRPV6 and are referred to as recruitment sites. Ion permeation The conductance of TRPV6 for divalent cations follows the preference: Ca2+ > Ba2+ > Sr2+ > Mn2. Intra-cellular Mg2+ inhibits TRPV6 and contributes to the strong inward rectification exhibited by the channel. TRPV6 uptake activity is inhibited by divalent Pb2, Cu2+, Cd2+, Zn2, Co2+, Fe2+, and trivalent cations La3+, Fe3+, Gd3+. The concentration of ions to achieve the inhibition ranges from 1 to 10 μM. The TRPV6 protein is constitutive with a single-channel conductance of 42-58 ps. At low Ca2+ concentrations, a single Ca2+ ion binds in the selectivity filter formed by D541 and permits Na+ permeation. At high Ca2+ concentration, Ca2+ permeation occurs by a knock-off mechanism that involves the formation of short-lived conformations involving binding of three Ca2+ ions to residue D541. Channel gating The conformational changes involved in channel opening are hinged around the residue Alanine 566 (A566) and occur in the pore-lining helix S6 (Figure 3). The upper portion of S6 helix undergoes an α-to-π helical transition which forces the lower portion of the helix to turn by 100 degrees and tilt away from the pore axis by 11 degrees. This conformational change moves the lower portion of the helix gating the pore and thereby widens the pore size. The conformational change alters the residues facing the pore axis and triggers the formation of new electrostatic bonds subunit and salt bridges that offset the high energetic cost of unfavorable α-to-π helical transition that occurs during channel opening. Regulation by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and calmodulin (CaM) The influx of Ca2+ inside the cell triggers negative feedback mechanisms to suppress TRPV6 activity and prevent Ca2+ overload. TRPV6 channel activity is regulated by the intracellular level of phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and interactions with Ca2+-Calmodulin (CaM) complex. The depletion of PIP2 or CaM-binding inactivates TRPV6. The influx of Ca2+ in TRPV6 expressing cells activates phospholipase C (PLC) which in turn hydrolyzes PIP2. Depletion in PIP2 levels results in a decline in channel activity since most TRP channels require this lipid for activation. The lipid PIP2 can override Ca2+-CaM-mediated inhibition of TRPV6. Overall, TRPV6 inactivation by calmodulin is orchestrated by a balance of intracellular Ca2+ and PIP2 concentration. Interacting proteins Among 20+ TRPV6 interactors identified so far, the functional consequences of Ca2+-binding protein Calmodulin (CaM) and Glucuronidase Klotho have been most extensively characterized [36, 37, 41, 42]. Functional consequences of TRPV6 channel activation are summarized in the table below). Abbreviations Protein Interactor BSPRY: B-Box and Spry Domain Containing Protein; FYN: Fyn Kinase Belonging Src Family of Kinases; I-MFA: Myo D Family Inhibitor; NHERF: Na Exchanger Regulatory Factor; NIPSNAP14-Nitrophenylphosphatase Domain and Non-Neuronal SNAP25-Like Protein Homolog 1; Numb: Drosophila mutation that removes most of the sensory neurons in the developing peripheral nervous system; PTP: Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase; Rab11a: Member RAS Oncogene Family; RGS2: Regulator Of G-Protein Signaling 2; RyR1: Ryanodine Receptor 1; TRPC1: Transient receptor potential canonical 1; TRPML3: Transient receptor potential Mucolipin-3. Physiological functions The Ca2+-selective channel proteins TRPV6 and TRPV5 cooperate to maintain calcium concentration in specific organs. TRPV6 functions as apical Ca2+ entry channels mediating transcellular transport of this ion in the intestine, placenta, and possibly some other exocrine organs. TRPV6 also plays important roles in maternal-fetal calcium transport, keratinocyte differentiation, and Ca2+ homeostasis in the endolymphatic system of the vestibular system, and maintenance of male fertility. Ca2+ absorption in intestine Two routes of Ca2+ absorption are recognized: paracellular transport and transcellular transport (see Figure 4). A high-Ca2+-diet favors paracellular transport of the ion across the length of the intestine allowing them to pass between the intercellular tight junctions that connect epithelial cells. In contrast under conditions when [Ca2+] in the lumen of the intestine is lower in comparison to its concentration in the plasma (e.g. during low dietary Ca2+), the transcellular pathway is required for adequate Ca2+ absorption. Three important steps in transcellular Ca2+ transport are recognized: cellular entry of Ca2+ ion on the apical side via TRPV6 (Step-1), the binding of Ca2+ ion with calbindin-D9k (Step-2), and exit of Ca2+ from the basolateral side via the plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase (PMCA1b). The hormone Vitamin D3 (or 1,25(OH)2D3) plays an important role in TRPV6-mediated intestinal Ca2+ absorption). Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidney In contrast to the intestine, where TRPV6 is the gatekeeper of Ca2+ absorption, the transcellular reabsorption of this ion in the kidney occurs through TRPV5. Although TRPV5 is a recognized gatekeeper for transcellular reabsorption of Ca2+ ion in the kidney, TRPV6 knockout (KO) mice also struggle to concentrate their urine and display hypercalciuria. TRPV6 is known to co-localize with TRPV5 Calbindin-D28K in apical domains of distal convoluted tubules and connecting tubules [20]. TRPV5 KO mice compensate for Ca2+ loss by increasing TRPV6 expression in the duodenum. Moreover, a recent study analyzing vitamin D responsive genes in ovine, canine and, equine kidney suggested that TRPV6, calD9k/calD28k, and PMCA could be the main pathways orchestrating transcellular Ca2+ transport in the kidney of sheep, dogs, and horses. Maternal-fetal Ca2+ transport TRPV6 plays an indispensable role in placental Ca2+ transport. Fetal bone mineralization peaks during late pregnancy. At this stage, fetal blood has a higher concentration of Ca2+ in comparison to maternal blood thereby creating conditions that require active transcellular transport of Ca2+ from mother to the fetus. This process is very important since defects in placental transport of calcium can be precursors for Ca2+ deficiency syndromes and intrauterine growth restrictions. The expression of TRPV6 increases 14-fold during the last 4 days of the murine gestational period and coincides with the peak phase of fetal bone mineralization. The protein TRPV6 is abundantly expressed in the mammalian placental tissues. Indeed, TRPV6 expression is ~1000-fold higher in comparison to TRPV5. In the placenta, TRPV6 is expressed in trophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts. In mice, TRPV6 mRNA and protein are expressed in the intraplacental yolk sac and the visceral layer of the extraplacental yolk sac. Most importantly, TRPV6 KO fetuses exhibit a 40% reduction in 45Ca2+ transport activity and a dramatic decrease in the ash weight (a measure of fetal bone health). In humans, trophoblasts fluid shear stress (FSS) is known to induce a TRPV6-mediated Ca2+ influx and promote microvilli formation through a mechanism involving Ezrin and Akt-phosphorylation. Epididymal Ca2+ regulation and implications on male fertility The regulation of calcium concentration in the epididymal lumen is critical for sperm motility. TRPV6-mediated reduction of luminal Ca2+ concentration in the epididymis is critical for male fertility in mice. TRPV6 KO mice or mice expressing loss-of-function version of TRPV6 channel (Trpv6D541A homozygous mice) have a severely impaired fertility. Mice expressing nonfunctional TRPV6 have a 10-fold higher concentration of Ca2+ in the epididymal lumen and Ca2+ uptake in this space is reduced by 7-to-8 folds. The increases Ca2+ ion in epididymal lumen concentration leads to significant defects in motility, fertilization capacity, and viability of sperms in TRPV6D541A mice. It appears TRPV6 and chloride channel transmembrane manner 16 A (TMEM16A) act cooperatively to reduce the luminal concentration of Ca2+ in the epididymal lumen. Bone health Under conditions of sub-optimal dietary Ca2+, normal serum calcium levels in TRPV6 KO mice are maintained at the expense of bone. TRPV6 plays an important role in osteoclasts but not in osteoblasts. In mice, TRPV6 depletion results in increased osteoclasts differentiation whereas TRPV5 is essential for proper osteoclastic bone resorption. Keratinocyte differentiation Keratinocytes differentiation is orchestrated by calcium switch, a process that entails an influx of Ca2+ in keratinocyte which induces broad transcriptional changes necessary for desmosome formation, stratification, and cornification. TRPV6 KO mice display thinner layers of stratum corneum and 20% of the mice also show alopecia and dermatitis. The silencing of TRPV6 impairs Ca2+-mediated differentiation of human primary keratinocytes and downregulates differentiation markers such as involucrin, transglutaminase-1, and cytokeratin-10. The hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin-D3 upregulates TRPV6 in keratinocytes and triggers a Ca2+ influx. This in turn induces the expression of keratinocyte differentiation-specific pathways. Role in the inner ear The proteins TRPV5 and TRPV6 are expressed in several regions of the inner ear as well as in primary cultures of semicircular canal duct (SCCD) epithelium. Some studies have indicated that TRPV5 and TRPV6 are needed for lowering the Ca2+ concentration in the lumen of mammalian endolymph, a requirement that is essential for normal hearing and balance. Uterine and placental expression of TRPV6 and implications in pregnancy The endometrial and uterine expression of TRPV6 has been reported in mammals. The expression of TRPV6 in the uterus is thought to be hormonally regulated by 17β-estradiol and progesterone in rodents. In rodents, TRPV6 mRNA is expressed in the labyrinth and spongy zone as well as placenta-unattached areas of the uterus. The stage of pregnancy is an important regulator of TRPV6 expression. The downregulation of TRPV5/6 expression and a resulting decline in Ca2+ transport is thought to change the proliferative profile of human trophoblasts; a process which in turn is linked to the development of pre-eclampsia. This juxtaposition of TRPV6 expression and its stringent regulation by sex hormones during pregnancy suggest that the protein may be important for embryo implantation, however conclusive evidence for this connection does not exist. Implications in Human Diseases Transient Neonatal Hyperparathyroidism Loss of TRPV6 in murine placenta severely impairs Ca2+ transport across trophoblast and reduces embryo growth, induces bone calcification, and impairs bone development. In humans, the insufficient maternal-fetal transport caused by pathogenic genomic variants of TRPV6 is thought to be a cause for skeletal defects observed in selected case reports of transient neonatal hyperparathyroidism (TNHP) cases. These variants are believed to compromise the plasma membrane localization of the protein. Exome sequencing of an infant with severe antenatal onset thoracic insufficiency with accompanying fetal skeletal abnormalities indicates the critical role of TRPV6 in maternal-fetal transport. The study indicated that compound heterozygous variants of TRPV6 result in severe undermineralization and severe dysplasia of the fetal skeleton. Chronic Pancreatitis Recent evidence indicates that naturally occurring TRPV6 loss of function variants predisposes certain demographics to chronic pancreatitis (CP) by dysregulating calcium homeostasis in the pancreatic cells. Sequencing studies among chronic pancreatitis patients revealed the presence of 33 missense and 2 nonsense variants predisposed Japanese, German, and French patients to a higher risk of CP. Overall, these studies have shown that disease-inducing TRPV6 loss-of-function genomic variants are over-represented in German, French, Chinese, and Japanese CP patients in comparison to controls in their respective groups. The loss-of-function variants are believed to compromise calcium transport in the pancreas by act by either reducing the total protein level and/or compromising Ca2+ uptake activity by the channel. Kidney Stone Formation The role of TRPV6 in renal stone formation has been suggested through sequencing studies conducted on a cohort of 170 patients in Switzerland. The studies revealed that the frequency of TRPV6 gain-of-function haplotype is significantly higher in Ca2+-stone formers (nephrolithiasis) in comparison to non-formers. The observed hypercalciuria phenotypes from animal studies and studies on TRPV6 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) suggest that TRPV6 haplotype could be an important risk factor for absorptive and renal hypercalciuria (kidney stones due to impaired intestinal absorption and renal re-absorption respectively). The lower incidence of kidney stone diseases in African-Americans and a relatively higher prevalence of ancestral haplotype suggest theory according to which this haplotype endows an advantage of increased Ca2+ reabsorption in this demographic and reduces the incidence of kidney stones. Bone Resorptive Diseases TRPV6 KO mice exhibit osteoporosis-like symptoms such as reduced bone mineral density and hypercalciuria. The hormone estrogen, the deficiency of which is linked to post-menopausal osteoporosis, also regulates the expression of TRPV6 in humans. Indeed, a lower calcium absorption seen in older postmenopausal women is attributed to reduced TRPV6. The C-terminal portion of Soricidin is a drug that inhibits Ca2+-uptake activity by binding to TRPV6. Preclinical studies of this drug have shown great promise in the treatment of bone resorptive diseases. The high degree of similarity between Hereditary Vitamin D–Resistant Rickets (HVDRR) disease symptoms and observed phenotypes in TRPV6 KO mice has led some experts to postulate pathological connections between the disease and TRPV6 dysfunction. TRPV6 plays an important chondroprotective role by regulating multiple aspects of chondrocyte function, such as extracellular matrix secretion, the release of matrix-degrading enzymes, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. Furthermore, TRPV6 knockout mice display multiple osteoarthritis (OA) phenotypes such as cartilage fibrillation, eburnation, and loss of proteoglycans. Pendred Syndrome The dysfunction gene Slc26a4 has been linked to Pendred syndrome – a genetic disorder that results in syndromic deafness in children. The disease is caused by mutations in which compromise the function of the encoded protein pendrin - an anion Cl−/HCO3 − exchanger expressed in the inner ear. The loss of function in this gene is thought to reduce the pH value of mammalian endolymph and impair Ca2+ absorption via TRPV5 and TRPV6. This in turn could prevent the uptake of Ca2+ and impairs the luminal reduction in Ca2+ concentration within the endolymphatic system of the ear. Cancer The overexpression of TRPV6 has been validated in the colon, parathyroid, pancreatic, and thyroid cancer whereas its expression is reportedly downregulated in esophageal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and renal cancer. TRPV6 is considered to be an oncochannel that is hypothesized to mediate cancer progression by triggering Ca2+-entry induced aberrations in molecular drivers regulating processes such as cell cycle, apoptosis, and migration; thereby conferring proliferative and survival advantages to cancer cells. Overexpression of TRPV6 correlates strongly with pathological stage, tumor grade, extra-prostatic invasion, lymph node metastasis, and resistance to androgen-targeted therapies in prostate cancer. The expression TRPV6 has been touted as a prognostic marker for advanced prostate cancer since its expression is strongly dependent on the grade of the tumor. Expression of TRPV6 is significantly elevated in breast adenocarcinoma tissue in comparison to normal breast tissue. TRPV6 expression has been reported multiple breast cancer cell lines and prostate cancer cell lines. The prostate cancer cell lines PC-3 and LnCAP overexpress TRPV6 relative to benign epithelial cells PrEC and BPH-1. The silencing of TRPV6 in prostate cancer cells decreases proliferation rate, S-phase accumulation, and expression of tumor marker proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression. TRPV6 overexpression is believed to induce aberrant Ca2+-uptake in prostate cancer line and activate transcription factor Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells (NFAT). Expression of TRPV6 is upregulated by estrogen, progesterone, and estradiol in breast cancer cell line T47D. In agreement with these observations, the estrogen receptor antagonist Tamoxifen reduces TRPV6 expression in T47D cells and suppresses Ca2+-uptake of the channel in both ER-positive and ER-negative breast cancer cell lines. The overexpression of TRPV6 is associated with early-stage colon cancer and its silencing in colon cancer induces apoptosis and inhibits cancer cell proliferation. In terms of mechanism, mutations within the calmodulin-binding domains of TRPV6 channels confers invasive properties to colon adenocarcinoma cells. The proteins p38α and GADD45α are believed to upregulate TRPV6 expression signaling in SW480 colon cancer cells by enhancing vitamin D signaling. TRPV6 has been reported to amplify Insulin-like growth factors (IGF)-induced PI3K-PDK1-Akt signaling in human colon cancer and promote colon cancer. TRPV6 is up-regulated in primary cancer tissues from pancreatic cancer patients and promotes the proliferation of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors NFAT-dependent mechanisms. Silencing of TRPV6 induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in pancreatic cancer cells and inhibits their invasion, proliferation, and migration. Forced expression of TRPV6 in gastric cancer cells increases their sensitivity to capsaicin-induced apoptosis whereas the siRNA-mediated silencing of the channel suppresses this sensitivity. TRPV6 downregulation in esophageal carcinoma has been suggested to be a prognostic marker of disease-specific survival in patients suffering from esophageal cancer. Low TRPV5 and TRPV6 co-expression have suggested as predictive markers for poor recurrence-free survival in non-small cell lung cancer. Pharmacological Targeting Several chemical inhibitors are known to inhibit TRPV6. Some compounds that have demonstrated inhibitory activity towards TRPV6 include TH-1177, 2-Aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), 2-APB derivative 22b, Econazole, Miconazole, Piperazine derivative Cis-22a, Capsaicin, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin, Xestospongin C, Lidocaine, gold-caged nanoparticle (PTX-PP@Au NPs) and Sorcidin C-13 (SOR-C13) synthetic peptide. Among different inhibition strategies tested so far, the 13-amino acid peptide SOR-C13 has shown the most promise. This 13-amino acid peptide derived from 54-amino acid peptide found in the paralytic venom of the northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) reduces cancer growth in cell and animal models. This anti-cancer agent has recently completed a Phase I clinical safety trial that had enrolled 23 patients with advanced solid tumors of epithelial origin non-responsive to all standard-of-care treatments. Regulation The regulation of TRPV6 can be examined mainly in the context of its physiological, hormonal, and molecular factors. The hormonal regulation of TRPV6 has been characterized most extensively. In this regard, its regulation by the hormone vitamin D3 and sex hormones has been examined in considerable detail. Rodent studies suggest that the TRPV6 channel is regulated by a wide range of physiological factors such as diet, age, gender, pregnancy, lactation, sex hormones, exercise, age, and gender. Some biological and pharmacological agents known to regulate TRPV6 include glucocorticoids, immunosuppressive drugs, and diuretics. Vitamin D Multiple dose-response and time-course experiments in rodents and colon cancer cell lines have conclusively shown TRPV6 mRNA is robustly induced by this vitamin D at extremely low concentrations. At least five vitamin D response elements (VDREs) at positions −1.2, −2.1, −3.5, −4.3, and −5.5 kb relative to transcriptional start site (TSS) have been identified on TRPV6 transcripts. Among these five sites, VDREs at positions −1.2, −2.1, and −4.3 kb are significantly more responsive to 1,25-(OH)2D3 in comparison to VDREs located at −3.5 and −5.5 kb which do not appear to contribute substantially to vitamin D mediated transcriptional regulation in the intestine. Mechanism wise, TRPV6 transcription is initiated in response to vitamin D Receptor (VDR)-mediated signaling, although other non-direct mechanisms cannot be ruled out. Important steps in vitamin D mediated transcriptional regulation include 1) binding of vitamin D on its cognate vitamin D receptor (VDR), 2) the translocation of vitamin D receptor (VDR)-retinoid X receptor heterodimer complex in the nucleus, 3) binding VDR-RXR complex on the TRPV6 gene promoter, 4) recruitment of steroid receptor coactivator 1 and RNA polymerase II on the promoter, and 5) transcriptional activation mediated through histone H4 acetylation events. Diet The level of Ca2+ and vitamin D in the diet are the most important regulators of TRPV6 expression. The expression of TRPV6 is thought to be modulated strongly to fine-tune Ca2+ absorption from the diet, especially under conditions when dietary Ca2+ availability is low. In rodents, restricting Ca2+ availability in the diet induces dramatic up-regulation in the duodenal expression of TRPV6. Calcium influx from the diet and its subsequent binding to calbindin-D9k could be the rate-limiting step that modulates vitamin D-dependent regulation TRPV6. When dietary Ca2+ is insufficient, normal blood calcium levels in TRPV6 KO mice are maintained at the expense of bone. In many rodent lines, genetic variations in TRPV6, calbindin-D9k, PMCA1b mRNA influence intestinal Ca absorption and its impact on bone marrow density. Pregnancy and lactation Duodenal expression of TRPV6 transcripts is upregulated in WT and VDR KO mice during pregnancy and lactation. The hormone prolactin upregulates TRPV6 transcription and facilitates an increase in intestinal Ca2+ absorption in lactating and pregnant rats, possibly as an adaptive mechanism for overcoming the loss in bone mineralization content during lactation. Aging The intestinal expression of TRPV6 in mice varies dramatically by age and relative tissue location. The duodenal expression of TRPV6 is undetectable at P1 and increases 6-fold as mice age to P14. Similarly, the expression also varies with age in the jejunum, where TRPV6 levels increases from P1 to P14, become weak at 1-month age and becomes undetectable in older mice. The expression of TRPV6 in older rats (12-months) is at least 50% lower in comparison to younger counterparts (2-months old). In both WT and VDR KO mice, the age-associated decline in intestinal absorption of Ca2+ is accompanied by a decline in duodenal expression of TRPV6. Sex hormones Sex hormones play an important role in the regulation of TRPV6. In comparison to male mice, female mice exhibit a 2-fold higher increase in duodenal expression of TRPV6 mRNA following vitamin D treatment. Sex hormone-associated differential regulation of TRPV6 across genders is believed to be correlated to differences in relative risk to osteoporosis in older postmenopausal women which have been reported to have lower TRPV6 and VDR expression in comparison to males. Estrogen treatment upregulates TRPV6 transcripts by 8-fold in VDR KO mice and by 4-fold in ovariectomized mice. Greater than 50% reduction in TRPV6 mRNA has been observed in estrogen receptor α KO mice. It is believed that estrogen could be differentially regulating Ca2+ absorption in the duodenum by increasing TRPV6 expression through ERα. Anti-progesterone agent RU486 and anti-estrogen agent ICI 182,780 suppress TRPV6 expression in rodents by their respective antagonist action on progesterone and estrogen receptors. Estrogen, progesterone, and dexamethasone are known to upregulate TRPV6 expression in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus of mice suggesting a potential involvement of TRPV6 in calcium absorption in the brain. Glucocorticoids Subcutaneous administration of glucocorticoids dexamethasone induces both renal and intestinal expression of TRPV6 in mice within 24 hours of whereas oral application of prednisolone reduction in TRPV6 which is also accompanied by reduced Ca2+ absorption in duodenum. Intestinal regulation of TRPV6 in response to glucocorticoids appears to be VDR-dependent. The enzyme serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 (SKG1) regulates TRPV6 expression by enhancing phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate-5-kinase PIKfyve (PIP5K3). This kinase is critical for the generation of secondary messenger PIP2, a known lipid activator of TRPV6. TRPV TRPV5 calcium channels calcium absorption transcellular pathway gating mechanism calmodulin maternal-fetal transport transient neonatal hyperparathyroidism chronic pancreatitis kidney stones cancer Notes References Further reading External links Ion channels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah
Jehovah
Jehovah () is a Latinization of the Hebrew , one vocalization of the Tetragrammaton (YHWH), the proper name of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. The Tetragrammaton is considered one of the seven names of God in Judaism and a form of God's name in Christianity. The consensus among scholars is that the historical vocalization of the Tetragrammaton at the time of the redaction of the Torah (6th century BCE) is most likely Yahweh. The historical vocalization was lost because in Second Temple Judaism, during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, the pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton came to be avoided, being substituted with ('my Lord'). The Hebrew vowel points of were added to the Tetragrammaton by the Masoretes, and the resulting form was transliterated around the 12th century CE as Yehowah. The derived forms Iehouah and Jehovah first appeared in the 16th century. The vocalization of the Tetragrammaton Jehovah was first introduced by William Tyndale in his translation of Exodus 6:3, and appears in some other early English translations including the Geneva Bible and the King James Version. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops states that in order to pronounce the Tetragrammaton "it is necessary to introduce vowels that alter the written and spoken forms of the name (i.e. "Yahweh" or "Jehovah")." Jehovah appears in the Old Testament of some widely used translations including the American Standard Version (1901) and Young's Literal Translation (1862, 1899); the New World Translation (1961, 2013) uses Jehovah in both the Old and New Testaments. Jehovah does not appear in most mainstream English translations, some of which use Yahweh but most continue to use "Lord" or "" to represent the Tetragrammaton. Pronunciation Most scholars believe the name Jehovah (also transliterated as Yehowah) to be a hybrid form derived by combining the Hebrew letters (, later rendered in the Latin alphabet as JHVH) with the vowels of . Some hold that there is evidence that a form of the Tetragrammaton similar to Jehovah may have been in use in Semitic and Greek phonetic texts and artifacts from Late Antiquity. Others say that it is the pronunciation Yahweh that is testified in both Christian and pagan texts of the early Christian era. Some Karaite Jews, as proponents of the rendering Jehovah, state that although the original pronunciation of has been obscured by disuse of the spoken name according to oral Rabbinic law, well-established English transliterations of other Hebrew personal names are accepted in normal usage, such as Joshua, Jeremiah, Isaiah or Jesus, for which the original pronunciations may be unknown. They also point out that "the English form Jehovah is quite simply an Anglicized form of Yhovah," and preserves the four Hebrew consonants "YHVH" (with the introduction of the "J" sound in English). Some argue that Jehovah is preferable to Yahweh, based on their conclusion that the Tetragrammaton was likely tri-syllabic originally, and that modern forms should therefore also have three syllables. In an article he wrote in the Journal of Biblical Literature, Biblical scholar Francis B. Dennio said: "Jehovah misrepresents Yahweh no more than Jeremiah misrepresents Yirmeyahu. The settled connotations of Isaiah and Jeremiah forbid questioning their right." Dennio argued that the form Jehovah is not a barbarism, but is the best English form available, being that it has for centuries gathered the necessary connotations and associations for valid use in English. According to a Jewish tradition developed during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, the Tetragrammaton is written but not pronounced. When read, substitute terms replace the divine name where () appears in the text. It is widely assumed, as proposed by the 19th-century Hebrew scholar Wilhelm Gesenius, that the vowels of the substitutes of the name— (Lord) and (God)—were inserted by the Masoretes to indicate that these substitutes were to be used. When precedes or follows , the Masoretes placed the vowel points of into the Tetragrammaton, producing a different vocalization of the Tetragrammaton (), which was read as . Based on this reasoning, the form () has been characterized by some as a "hybrid form", and even "a philological impossibility". Early modern translators disregarded the practice of reading (or its equivalents in Greek and Latin, and ) in place of the Tetragrammaton and instead combined the four Hebrew letters of the Tetragrammaton with the vowel points that, except in synagogue scrolls, accompanied them, resulting in the form Jehovah. This form, which first took effect in works dated 1278 and 1303, was adopted in Tyndale's and some other Protestant translations of the Bible. In the 1560 Geneva Bible, the Tetragrammaton is translated as Jehovah six times, four as the proper name, and two as place-names. In the 1611 King James Version, Jehovah occurred seven times. In the 1885 English Revised Version, the form Jehovah occurs twelve times. In the 1901 American Standard Version the form "Je-ho'vah" became the regular English rendering of the Hebrew , all throughout, in preference to the previously dominant "the ", which is generally used in the King James Version. It is also used in Christian hymns such as the 1771 hymn, "Guide Me, O Thou Great Jehovah". Development The most widespread theory is that the Hebrew term has the vowel points of (). Using the vowels of , the composite () under the guttural () becomes a () under the (), the () is placed over the first (), and the () is placed under the (), giving (). When the two names, and , occur together, the former is pointed with a () under the () and a () under the second (), giving , to indicate that it is to be read as in order to avoid being repeated. Taking the spellings at face value may have been as a result of not knowing about the Q're perpetuum, resulting in the transliteration Yehowah and derived variants. Emil G. Hirsch was among the modern scholars that recognized "Jehovah" to be "grammatically impossible". appears 6,518 times in the traditional Masoretic Text, in addition to 305 instances of (). The pronunciation Jehovah is believed to have arisen through the introduction of vowels of the —the marginal notation used by the Masoretes. In places where the consonants of the text to be read (the ) differed from the consonants of the written text (the ), they wrote the in the margin to indicate that the was read using the vowels of the . For a few very frequent words the marginal note was omitted, referred to as q're perpetuum. One of these frequent cases was God's name, which was not to be pronounced in fear of profaning the "ineffable name". Instead, wherever () appears in the of the biblical and liturgical books, it was to be read as (, "My Lord [plural of majesty]"), or as (, "God") if appears next to it. This combination produces () and () respectively. is also written , or even , and read ("the name"). Scholars are not in total agreement as to why does not have precisely the same vowel points as . The use of the composite () in cases where the name is to be read , has led to the opinion that the composite () ought to have been used to indicate the reading . It has been argued conversely that the disuse of the is consistent with the Babylonian system, in which the composite is uncommon. Vowel points of and The table below shows the vowel points of and , indicating the simple in in contrast to the in . As indicated to the right, the vowel points used when the Tetragrammaton is intended to be pronounced as are slightly different to those used in itself. The difference between the vowel points of and is explained by the rules of Hebrew morphology and phonetics. and were allophones of the same phoneme used in different situations: on glottal consonants including (such as the first letter in ), and simple on other consonants (such as the Y in ). Introduction into English The earliest available Latin text to use a vocalization similar to Jehovah dates from the 13th century. The Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon suggested that the pronunciation Jehovah was unknown until 1520 when it was introduced by Galatinus, who defended its use. In English it appeared in William Tyndale's translation of the Pentateuch ("The Five Books of Moses") published in 1530 in Germany, where Tyndale had studied since 1524, possibly in one or more of the universities at Wittenberg, Worms and Marburg, where Hebrew was taught. The spelling used by Tyndale was "Iehouah"; at that time, "I" was not distinguished from J, and U was not distinguished from V. The original 1611 printing of the Authorized King James Version used "Iehouah". Tyndale wrote about the divine name: "IEHOUAH [Jehovah], is God's name; neither is any creature so called; and it is as much to say as, One that is of himself, and dependeth of nothing. Moreover, as oft as thou seest in great letters (except there be any error in the printing), it is in Hebrew Iehouah, Thou that art; or, He that is." The name is also found in a 1651 edition of Ramón Martí's . The name Jehovah (initially as Iehouah) appeared in all early Protestant Bibles in English, except Coverdale's translation in 1535. The Roman Catholic Douay–Rheims Bible used "the Lord", corresponding to the Latin Vulgate's use of (Latin for , "Lord") to represent the Tetragrammaton. The Authorized King James Version, which used "" in a few places, most frequently gave "the " as the equivalent of the Tetragrammaton. The form Iehouah appeared in John Rogers' Matthew Bible in 1537, the Great Bible of 1539, the Geneva Bible of 1560, Bishop's Bible of 1568 and the King James Version of 1611. More recently, Jehovah has been used in the Revised Version of 1885, the American Standard Version in 1901, and the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures of Jehovah's Witnesses in 1961. At Exodus 6:3–6, where the King James Version has Jehovah, the Revised Standard Version (1952), the New American Standard Bible (1971), the New International Version (1978), the New King James Version (1982), the New Revised Standard Version (1989), the New Century Version (1991), and the Contemporary English Version (1995) give "" or "Lord" as their rendering of the Tetragrammaton, while the New Jerusalem Bible (1985), the Amplified Bible (1987), the New Living Translation (1996, revised 2007), and the Holman Christian Standard Bible (2004) use the form Yahweh. Hebrew vowel points Modern guides to Biblical Hebrew grammar, such as Duane A Garrett's A Modern Grammar for Classical Hebrew state that the Hebrew vowel points now found in printed Hebrew Bibles were invented in the second half of the first millennium AD, long after the texts were written. This is indicated in the authoritative Hebrew Grammar of Gesenius, and Godwin's Cabalistic Encyclopedia, and is acknowledged even by those who say that guides to Hebrew are perpetuating "scholarly myths". "Jehovist" scholars, largely earlier than the 20th century, who believe to be the original pronunciation of the divine name, argue that the Hebraic vowel-points and accents were known to writers of the scriptures in antiquity and that both Scripture and history argue in favor of their ab origine status to the Hebrew language. Some members of Karaite Judaism, such as Nehemia Gordon, hold this view. The antiquity of the vowel points and of the rendering Jehovah was defended by various scholars, including Michaelis, Drach, Stier, William Fulke (1583), Johannes Buxtorf, his son Johannes Buxtorf II, and John Owen (17th century); Peter Whitfield and John Gill (18th century), John Moncrieff (19th century), Johann Friedrich von Meyer (1832) Thomas D. Ross has given an account of the controversy on this matter in England down to 1833. G. A. Riplinger, John Hinton, Thomas M. Strouse, are more recent defenders of the authenticity of the vowel points. Proponents of pre-Christian origin 18th-century theologian John Gill puts forward the arguments of 17th-century Johannes Buxtorf II and others in his writing, A Dissertation Concerning the Antiquity of the Hebrew Language, Letters, Vowel-Points and Accents. He argued for an extreme antiquity of their use, rejecting the idea that the vowel points were invented by the Masoretes. Gill presented writings, including passages of scripture, that he interpreted as supportive of his "Jehovist" viewpoint that the Old Testament must have included vowel-points and accents. He claimed that the use of Hebrew vowel points of , and therefore of the name Jehovah , is documented from before 200 BCE, and even back to Adam, citing Jewish tradition that Hebrew was the first language. He argued that throughout this history the Masoretes did not invent the vowel points and accents, but that they were delivered to Moses by God at Sinai, citing Karaite authorities Mordechai ben Nisan Kukizov (1699) and his associates, who stated that "all our wise men with one mouth affirm and profess that the whole law was pointed and accented, as it came out of the hands of Moses, the man of God." The argument between Karaite and Rabbinic Judaism on whether it was lawful to pronounce the name represented by the Tetragrammaton is claimed to show that some copies have always been pointed (voweled) and that some copies were not pointed with the vowels because of "oral law", for control of interpretation by some Judeo sects, including non-pointed copies in synagogues. Gill claimed that the pronunciation can be traced back to early historical sources which indicate that vowel points and/or accents were used in their time. Sources Gill claimed supported his view include: The Book of Cosri and commentator Rabbi Judab Muscatus, which claim that the vowel points were taught to Adam by God. Saadiah Gaon (927 CE) Jerome (380 CE) Origen (250 CE) The Zohar (120 CE) Jesus Christ (31 CE), based on Gill's interpretation of Matthew 5:18 Hillel the Elder and Shammai division (30 BCE) Karaites (120 BCE) Demetrius Phalereus, librarian for Ptolemy II Philadelphus king of Egypt (277 BCE) Gill quoted Elia Levita, who said, "There is no syllable without a point, and there is no word without an accent," as showing that the vowel points and the accents found in printed Hebrew Bibles have a dependence on each other, and so Gill attributed the same antiquity to the accents as to the vowel points. Gill acknowledged that Levita, "first asserted the vowel points were invented by "the men of Tiberias", but made reference to his condition that "if anyone could convince him that his opinion was contrary to the book of Zohar, he should be content to have it rejected." Gill then alludes to the book of Zohar, stating that rabbis declared it older than the Masoretes, and that it attests to the vowel-points and accents. William Fulke, John Gill, John Owen, and others held that Jesus Christ referred to a Hebrew vowel point or accent at , indicated in the King James Version by the word tittle. The 1602 Spanish Bible (Reina-Valera/Cipriano de Valera) used the name Iehova and gave a lengthy defense of the pronunciation Jehovah in its preface. Proponents of later origin Despite Jehovist claims that vowel signs are necessary for reading and understanding Hebrew, modern Hebrew (apart from young children's books, some formal poetry and Hebrew primers for new immigrants), is written without vowel points. The Torah scrolls do not include vowel points, and ancient Hebrew was written without vowel signs. The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in 1946 and dated from 400 BCE to 70 CE, include texts from the Torah or Pentateuch and from other parts of the Hebrew Bible, and have provided documentary evidence that, in spite of claims to the contrary, the original Hebrew texts were in fact written without vowel points. Menahem Mansoor's The Dead Sea Scrolls: A College Textbook and a Study Guide claims the vowel points found in printed Hebrew Bibles were devised in the 9th and 10th centuries. Gill's view that the Hebrew vowel points were in use at the time of Ezra or even since the origin of the Hebrew language is stated in an early 19th-century study in opposition to "the opinion of most learned men in modern times", according to whom the vowel points had been "invented since the time of Christ". The study presented the following considerations: The argument that vowel points are necessary for learning to read Hebrew is refuted by the fact that the Samaritan text of the Bible is read without them and that several other Semitic languages, kindred to Hebrew, are written without any indications of the vowels. The books used in synagogue worship have always been without vowel points, which, unlike the letters, have thus never been treated as sacred. The Qere Kethib marginal notes give variant readings only of the letters, never of the points, an indication either that these were added later or that, if they already existed, they were seen as not so important. The Kabbalists drew their mysteries only from the letters and completely disregarded the points, if there were any. In several cases, ancient translations from the Hebrew Bible (Septuagint, Targum, Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus, Theodotion, Jerome) read the letters with vowels different from those indicated by the points, an indication that the texts from which they were translating were without points. The same holds for Origen's transliteration of the Hebrew text into Greek letters. Jerome expressly speaks of a word in Habakkuk 3:5, which in the present Masoretic Text has three consonant letters and two vowel points, as being of three letters and no vowel whatever. Neither the Jerusalem Talmud nor the Babylonian Talmud (in all their recounting of Rabbinical disputes about the meaning of words), nor Philo nor Josephus, nor any Christian writer for several centuries after Christ make any reference to vowel points. Early modern arguments In the 16th and 17th centuries, various arguments were presented for and against the transcription of the form Jehovah. Discourses rejecting Jehovah Discourses defending Jehovah Summary of discourses William Robertson Smith summarizes these discourses, concluding that "whatever, therefore, be the true pronunciation of the word, there can be little doubt that it is not Jehovah". Despite this, he consistently uses the name Jehovah throughout his dictionary and when translating Hebrew names. Some examples include Isaiah [Jehovah's help or salvation], Jehoshua [Jehovah a helper], Jehu [Jehovah is He]. In the entry, Jehovah, Smith writes: "JEHOVAH (, usually with the vowel points of ; but when the two occur together, the former is pointed , that is with the vowels of , as in Obad. i. 1, Hab. iii. 19:" This practice is also observed in many modern publications, such as the New Compact Bible Dictionary (Special Crusade Edition) of 1967 and Peloubet's Bible Dictionary of 1947. Usage in English Bible translations The following versions of the Bible render the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah either exclusively or in selected verses: William Tyndale, in his 1530 translation of the first five books of the English Bible, at Exodus 6:3 renders the divine name as Iehovah. In his foreword to this edition he wrote: "Iehovah is God's name... Moreover, as oft as thou seeist in great letters (except there be any error in the printing) it is in Hebrew Iehovah." The Great Bible (1539) renders Jehovah in Psalm 33:12 and Psalm 83:18. The Geneva Bible (1560) translates the Tetragrammaton as in Exodus 6:3, Psalm 83:18, and two other times as place-names, Genesis 22:14 and Exodus 17:15. In the Bishop's Bible (1568), the word Jehovah occurs in Exodus 6:3 and Psalm 83:18. The Authorized King James Version (1611) renders in Exodus 6:3, Psalm 83:18, Isaiah 12:2 (see image), Isaiah 26:4, and three times in compound place names at Genesis 22:14, Exodus 17:15 and Judges 6:24. Webster's Bible Translation (1833) by Noah Webster, a revision of the King James Bible, contains the form Jehovah in all cases where it appears in the original King James Version, as well as another seven times in Isaiah 51:21, Jeremiah 16:21; 23:6; 32:18; 33:16, Amos 5:8 and Micah 4:13. Young's Literal Translation by Robert Young (1862, 1898) renders the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah 6,831 times. The Julia E. Smith Parker Translation (1876) considered the first complete translation of the Bible into English by a woman. This Bible version was titled The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments; Translated Literally from the Original Tongues. This translation prominently renders the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah throughout the entire Old Testament. The English Revised Version (1881-1885, published with the Apocrypha in 1894) renders the Tetragrammaton as where it appears in the King James Version, and another eight times in Exodus 6:2,6–8, Psalm 68:20, Isaiah 49:14, Jeremiah 16:21 and Habakkuk 3:19. The Darby Bible (1890) by John Nelson Darby renders the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah 6,810 times. The American Standard Version (1901) renders the Tetragrammaton as Je-ho'vah in 6,823 places in the Old Testament.(Note: The Watchtower Edition of the ASV renders Jehovah in 6,870 places in the Old Testament, 47 more times than in mainstream editions.) The Modern Reader's Bible (1914) an annotated reference study Bible based on the English Revised Version of 1894 by Richard Moulton, renders Jehovah where it appears in the English Revised Version of 1894. The Holy Scriptures (1936, 1951), Hebrew Publishing Company, revised by Alexander Harkavy, a Hebrew Bible translation in English, contains the form Jehovah where it appears in the King James Version except in Isaiah 26:4. The Modern Language Bible—The New Berkeley Version in Modern English (1969) renders Jehovah in Genesis 22:14, Exodus 3:15, Exodus 6:3 and Isaiah 12:2. This translation was a revision of an earlier translation by Gerrit Verkuyl. The New English Bible (1970) published by Oxford University Press uses in Exodus 3:15-16 and 6:3, and in four place names at Genesis 22:14, Exodus 17:15, Judges 6:24 and Ezekiel 48:35. A total of 7 times. The King James II Version (1971) by Jay P. Green, Sr., published by Associated Publishers and Authors, renders Jehovah at Psalms 68:4 in addition to where it appears in the Authorized King James Version, a total of 8 times. The Living Bible (1971) by Kenneth N. Taylor, published by Tyndale House Publishers, Illinois, Jehovah appears 428 times according to the Living Bible Concordance by Jack Atkeson Speer and published by Poolesville Presbyterian Church; 2nd edition (1973). The Bible in Living English (1972) by Steven T. Byington, published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, renders the name Jehovah throughout the Old Testament over 6,800 times. Green's Literal Translation (1985) by Jay P. Green, published by Sovereign Grace Publishers, renders the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah 6,866 times. The 21st Century King James Version (1994), published by Deuel Enterprises, Inc., renders Jehovah at Psalms 68:4 in addition to where it appears in the Authorized King James Version, a total of 8 times. A revision including the Apocrypha entitled the Third Millennium Bible (1998) also renders Jehovah in the same verses. The American King James Version (1999) by Michael Engelbrite renders Jehovah in all the places where it appears in the Authorized King James Version. The Recovery Version (1999, 2003, 2016) renders the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah throughout the Old Testament 6,841 times. The New Heart English Translation (Jehovah Edition) (2010) [a Public Domain work with no copyright] uses "Jehovah" 6,837 times. Bible translations with the divine name in the New Testament: In the Emphatic Diaglott (1864) a Greek-English Interlinear translation of the New Testament by Benjamin Wilson, the name Jehovah appears eighteen times. The Five Pauline Epistles, A New Translation (1900) by William Gunion Rutherford uses the name Jehovah six times in the Book of Romans. Bible translations with the divine name in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: render the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah either exclusively or in selected verses: In the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (1961, 1984, 2013) published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Jehovah appears 7,199 times in the 1961 edition, 7,210 times in the 1984 revision and 7,216 times in the 2013 revision, comprising 6,979 instances in the Old Testament, and 237 in the New Testament—including 70 of the 78 times where the New Testament quotes an Old Testament passage containing the Tetragrammaton, where the Tetragrammaton does not appear in any extant Greek manuscript. The Original Aramaic Bible in Plain English (2010) by David Bauscher, a self-published English translation of the New Testament, from the Aramaic of The Peshitta New Testament with a translation of the ancient Aramaic Peshitta version of Psalms & Proverbs, contains the word "JEHOVAH" approximately 239 times in the New Testament, where the Peshitta itself does not. In addition, "Jehovah" also appears 695 times in the Psalms and 87 times in Proverbs, totaling 1,021 instances. The Divine Name King James Bible (2011) – Uses JEHOVAH 6,973 times throughout the OT, and LORD with Jehovah in parentheses 128 times in the NT. Non-usage The Douay Version of 1609 renders the phrase in Exodus 6:3 as "and my name Adonai", and in its footnote says: "Adonai is not the name here vttered to Moyses but is redde in place of the vnknowen name". The Challoner revision (1750) uses ADONAI with a note stating, "some moderns have framed the name Jehovah, unknown to all the ancients, whether Jews or Christians." Various Messianic Jewish Bible translations use Adonai (Complete Jewish Bible (1998), Tree of Life Version (2014) or Hashem (Orthodox Jewish Bible (2002)). A few sacred name Bibles use the Tetragrammaton instead of a generic title (e.g., the LORD) or a conjectural transliteration (e.g., Yahweh or Jehovah): The Scriptures (ISR) Version (1993, 1998, 2009) Sacred Name King James Bible (2005). HalleluYah Scriptures (2009, 2015). Literal English Version (2014) Most modern translations exclusively use Lord or , generally indicating that the corresponding Hebrew is Yahweh or YHWH (not JHVH), and in some cases saying that this name is "traditionally" transliterated as Jehovah: The Revised Standard Version (1952), an authorized revision of the American Standard Version of 1901, replaced all 6,823 usages of Jehovah in the 1901 text with "" or "", depending on whether the Hebrew of the verse in question is read "Adonai" or "Elohim" in Jewish practice. A footnote on Exodus 3:15 says: "The word when spelled with capital letters, stands for the divine name, YHWH." The preface states: "The word 'Jehovah' does not accurately represent any form of the name ever used in Hebrew". The New American Bible (1970, revised 1986, 1991). Its footnote to Genesis 4:25–26 says: "... men began to call God by his personal name, Yahweh, rendered as "the " in this version of the Bible." The New American Standard Bible (1971, updated 1995), another revision of the 1901 American Standard Version, followed the example of the Revised Standard Version. Its footnotes to and state: "Related to the name of God, YHWH, rendered , which is derived from the verb HAYAH, to be"; "Heb YHWH, usually rendered ". In its preface it says: "It is known that for many years YHWH has been transliterated as Yahweh, however no complete certainty attaches to this pronunciation." The Bible in Today's English (Good News Bible), published by the American Bible Society (1976). Its preface states: "the distinctive Hebrew name for God (usually transliterated Jehovah or Yahweh) is in this translation represented by 'The Lord'." A footnote to states: "I am sounds like the Hebrew name Yahweh traditionally transliterated as Jehovah." The New International Version (1978, revised 2011). Footnote to , "The Hebrew for sounds like and may be related to the Hebrew for I AM in verse 14." The New King James Version (1982), though based on the King James Version, replaces JEHOVAH wherever it appears in the Authorized King James Version with "", and adds a note: "Hebrew YHWH, traditionally Jehovah", except at Psalms 68:4, Isaiah 12:2, Isaiah 26:4 and Isaiah 38:11 where the tetragrammaton is rendered "Yah". The God's Word Translation (1985). The New Revised Standard Version (1990), a revision of the Revised Standard Version uses "LORD" and "GOD" exclusively. The New Century Version (1987, revised 1991). The New International Reader's Version (1995). The Contemporary English Version or CEV (also known as Bible for Today's Family) (1995). The English Standard Version (2001). Footnote to , "The word , when spelled with capital letters, stands for the divine name, YHWH, which is here connected with the verb hayah, 'to be'." The Common English Bible (2011). The Modern English Version (2014). A few translations use titles such as The Eternal: Moffatt, New Translation (1922) The Voice (2012) Some translations use both Yahweh and : The Bible, An American Translation (1939) by J.M. Powis Smith and Edgar J. Goodspeed. Generally uses "" but uses Yahweh and/or "Yah" exactly where Jehovah appears in the King James Version except in Psalms 83:18, "Yahweh" also appears in Exodus 3:15. The Amplified Bible (1965, revised 1987) generally uses Lord, but translates as: "I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob as God Almighty [El-Shaddai], but by My name the Lord [Yahweh—the redemptive name of God] I did not make Myself known to them [in acts and great miracles]." The New Living Translation (1996), produced by Tyndale House Publishers as a successor to the Living Bible, generally uses , but uses Yahweh in and . The Holman Christian Standard Bible (2004, revised 2008) mainly uses , but in its second edition increased the number of times it uses Yahweh from 78 to 495 (in 451 verses). Some translate the Tetragrammaton exclusively as Yahweh: Rotherham's Emphasized Bible (1902) retains "Yahweh" throughout the Old Testament. The Jerusalem Bible (1966). The New Jerusalem Bible (1985). The Christian Community Bible (1988) is a translation of the Christian Bible in the English language originally produced in the Philippines and uses "Yahweh". The World English Bible (1997) is based on the 1901 American Standard Version, but uses "Yahweh" instead of "Jehovah". Hebraic Roots Bible (2009, 2012) The Lexham English Bible (2011) uses "Yahweh" in the Old Testament. Names of God Bible (2011, 2014), edited by Ann Spangler and published by Baker Publishing Group. The core text of the 2011 edition uses the God's Word translation. The core text of the 2014 edition uses the King James Version, and includes Jehovah next to Yahweh where "LORD Jehovah" appears in the source text. The print edition of both versions have divine names printed in brown and includes a commentary. Both editions use "Yahweh" in the Old Testament. The Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition (1981) is a Sacred Name Bible which uses the name "Yahweh" in both the Old and New Testaments (Chamberlin p. 51–53). It was produced by the Assemblies of Yahweh elder, the late Jacob O. Meyer, based on the American Standard Version of 1901. Other usage Following the Middle Ages, before and after the Protestant Reformation, some churches and public buildings across Europe were decorated with variants and cognates of "Jehovah". For example, the coat of arms of Plymouth (UK) City Council bears the Latin inscription, Turris fortissima est nomen Jehova (English, "The name of Jehovah is the strongest tower"), derived from . Lyrics of some Christian hymns, for example, "Guide me, O thou great Jehovah", include "Jehovah". The form also appears in some reference books and novels, appearing several times in the novel The Greatest Story Ever Told, by Catholic author Fulton Oursler. Some religious groups, notably Jehovah's Witnesses and proponents of the King-James-Only movement, continue to use Jehovah as the only name of God. In Mormonism, "Jehovah" is thought to be the name by which Jesus was known prior to his birth; references to "the " in the KJV Old Testament are therefore understood to be references to the pre-mortal Jesus, whereas God the Father, who is regarded as a separate individual, is sometimes referred to as "Elohim". "Jehovah" is twice rendered in the Book of Mormon, in 2 Nephi 22:2 and Moroni 10:34. Similar Greek names Ancient (, ): Pistis Sophia cited by Charles William King, which also gives (, ) (2nd century) (, ): Pistis Sophia (2nd century) (, ), the seven vowels of the Greek alphabet arranged in this order. Charles William King attributes to a work that he calls On Interpretations the statement that this was the Egyptian name of the supreme God. He comments: "This is in fact a very correct representation, if we give each vowel its true Greek sound, of the Hebrew pronunciation of the word Jehovah." (2nd century) (): Eusebius, who says that Sanchuniathon received the records of the Jews from Hierombalus, priest of the god Ieuo. (c. 315) (): Hellenistic magical text (2nd–3rd centuries), M. Kyriakakes (2000) Modern (like Jehova[h]): Paolo Medici (1755) (like Je[h]ova[h]): Greek Pentateuch (1833), Holy Bible translated in Katharevousa Greek by Neophytus Vamvas (1850) (like Jehova[h]): Panagiotes Trempelas (1958) Similar Latin and English transcriptions Transcriptions of similar to Jehovah occurred as early as the 12th century. Ieve: Petrus Alphonsi (c. 1106), Alexander Geddes (1800) Jehova: Raymond Martin (Raymundus Martini) (1278), Porchetus de Salvaticis (1303), Tremellius (1575), Marcus Marinus (1593), Charles IX of Sweden (1606), Rosenmüller (1820), Wilhelm Gesenius (c. 1830) Yohoua: Raymond Martin (1278) Yohouah: Porchetus de Salvaticis (1303) Ieoa: Nicholas of Cusa (1428) Iehoua: Nicholas of Cusa (1428), Peter Galatin (Galatinus) (1516) Iehova: Nicholas of Cusa (1428), Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (1514), Sebastian Münster (1526), Leo Jud (1543), Robert Estienne (1557) Ihehoua: Nicholas of Cusa (1428) Jova: 16th century, Rosenmüller (1820) Jehovah: Paul Fagius (1546), John Calvin (1557), King James Bible (1671 [OT] / 1669 [NT]), Matthew Poole (1676), Benjamin Kennicott (1753), Alexander Geddes (1800) Iehouáh: Geneva Bible (1560) Iehovah: Authorized King James Version (1611), Henry Ainsworth (1627) Jovae: Rosenmüller (1820) Yehovah: William Baillie (1843) Jahovah: Sebastian Schmidt (1872), Samuel Hammond (1899) See also El God in Christianity, God in Islam, God in Mormonism, God in the Bahá'í Faith I am that I am Jah Names of God Theophoric name Footnotes Notes External links "Tetragrammaton", Jewish Encyclopedia 1906 16th-century neologisms Deities in the Hebrew Bible Christianity and Judaism related controversies Names of God in Christianity Names of God in Judaism Reconstructed words Tetragrammaton Yahweh ja:ヤハウェ (ヘブライ語)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20Network
Night Network
Night Network, Night Time and Night Shift were names given to the overnight (usually between 12 and 6am) schedule of the ITV network in the United Kingdom. The first ITV company began 24-hour broadcasting in 1986, with all of the companies broadcasting through the night by the end of 1988. At first, individual companies created their own services, however before too long, many of the smaller ITV stations began simulcasting or networking services from others. From this, numerous services began each offering their own distinct take on programmes, with regions taking one of the services on offer. As each franchise was taken over however, the services became fewer in number. Today, all of the ITV plc regions (except ITV Channel Television and UTV for legal reasons), show teleshopping, followed by repeats of daytime programming and then Unwind with ITV (previously the ITV Nightscreen service was shown until October 2021). STV broadcasts its own strand, Teleshopping and Nightvision. History Up until the mid-1980s, all British television stations closed down for the night at around 12:30am, sometimes up to an hour later on Friday and Saturday nights. Some of the ITV companies wanted to expand their broadcasting hours in the belief there was an untapped market for television through the night. As early as 1983, London Weekend Television (LWT) was experimenting with extra hours on Friday and Saturday nights during its Nightlife strand, which pushed back closedown until after 2am. By 1988, Channel 4 had extended late night broadcasting hours and transmission staff for the ITV regional companies were required to play out the network's commercial breaks, even if the main ITV station had already closed down. There was also speculation of a threat from the Independent Broadcasting Authority to franchise overnight hours to a new company as had been done with breakfast television (TV-am) in 1983. Within just over two years of ITV's first overnight experiment (at Yorkshire Television in 1986), the entire network had commenced 24-hour transmission. Early experiments On 9 August 1986, Yorkshire Television became the first ITV company and the first British terrestrial television station to offer 24-hour broadcasting. This was achieved by simulcasting the satellite station Music Box for a three-month trial, as permitted by the IBA. The all-night simulcasts continued until Friday 2 January 1987 – shortly before Music Box ceased operations as a broadcaster. On 13 January 1987, Yorkshire became the second region to launch a teletext-based Jobfinder service for one hour after close-down (Central had launched a Jobfinder service the previous April) with a Through Till Three strand on Thursday, Friday and Saturday nights introduced in April. On 25 April 1987, Central began extending its programming hours to 3am on weeknights and 4am at weekends, airing its own schedule of films, series and hourly Central News bulletins entitled More Central. The station's Jobfinder service (launched a year beforehand) was expanded from a single hour after close-down to fill the remainder of the night until TV-am took over at 6am. Meanwhile, Granada Television took a more restrictive approach – during 1987, the station introduced a Nightlife strand, which saw programming hours extended until around 3am on Friday and Saturday nights only. A short-lived joint schedule was introduced by Central, Granada and Scottish Television when the companies began full 24-hour transmission on 13 February 1988, but was abandoned within a few months. During this time, all three stations provided local presentation. Central continued to air its own overnight service until 1994, when it briefly took Carlton's Nightime [sic] service (with opt-outs for regional programming until circa 2003). In August 1987, Anglia Television, Thames Television and LWT began 24-hour broadcasting. Thames's Into the Night strand began in June 1987 with broadcasts originally running until around 4am, extending to a full service on Monday 17 August 1987. Anglia originally opted to air Night Network on weekends alongside its own overnight schedule on weeknights while LWT filled the post-Night Network slot with a short-lived Thru to 6 strand. Tyne Tees Television also experimented with 24-hour transmission when in December 1987, it began airing its own teletext Jobfinder service between close-down and 6am. This continued until Granada's Night Time service launched on Tyne Tees the following September. TVS, which also aired Night Network at weekends, started its own Late Night Late strand on Monday 25 January 1988, gradually extending its broadcast hours until a full 24-hour service began on 30 May 1988 – the strand was the first to be simulcast on another ITV station, (Channel Television). HTV Wales and HTV West began broadcasting its own Night Club service on 22 August 1988. Both Late Night Late and Night Club took on a different approach to the practice of in-vision continuity – incorporating viewers' letters, competitions and live studio guests – such features were also used by Thames and Anglia's regional overnight strands. One constant of all the overnight services, regardless of their differing schedules, was overnight news bulletins provided by ITN, referred to as simply the ITN News Headlines. These were no-frills bulletins, originally proceeded by a variant of the ITN animation of the time set over a dusk sky background (as opposed to the usual light blue); these bulletins would lead into the ITN Morning News, and typically the anchor of that day's edition of the ITN Morning News would also anchor the short updates. The headlines were aired at different times depending on the schedule; both the bulletins and the Morning News debuted on 15 February 1988. Thames also briefly aired editions of CNN Headline News before the ITN World News in 1988. Night Network Night Network was ITV's first major experiment into the area of overnight broadcasting beginning on Friday 28 August 1987, originally for the ITV regions covered by LWT, TVS and Anglia, before expanding to other regions from September 1988. Whereas overnight broadcasts are commonplace today, back in the late 1980s, LWT decided it would take a more cautious approach with Night Network only initially broadcasting between 1am and 4am in the Friday and Saturday night schedules, and between 1am and 3am in the Sunday night schedule. The show was produced for Night Network Productions and LWT by Jill Sinclair who had been the producer of BBC1's Pop Quiz and Channel 4's The Tube at Tyne Tees Television, aiming for a similar audience to that of these two shows. The format of Night Network was similar to Channel 4's Network 7, or even a late night adult version of Saturday morning kids TV, as it was a mixture of quizzes, celebrity guests, imported serials and bands. Feature segments included Street Cred with Paul Thompson, Video View with Steve Allen and Kate Davies, Rowland Rivron in The Bunker Show, Tim Westwood's N-Sign Radio, Emma Freud's chat segment Pillow Talk, Geoffrey Cantor's video segment The Axeman, Barbie Wilde's video review for The Small Screen, and quiz show The All New Alpha Bet Show hosted by Nicholas Parsons, whilst cult TV series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and Batman were also frequently seen. Originally, on Sunday nights, classic movies were shown but this was only until the programme was expanded to other ITV regions on Friday 2 September 1988. Although it proved a success, Night Network was never broadcast nationally as Central opted out of the entire programme from the start to provide its own schedule. With more programmes (be it imports, repeats or original output) competing for the overnight slots, the Sunday edition was eventually dropped in Autumn 1988. Around the same time, the first hour of Night Network became a regional For London Only segment on LWT while the remaining two hours continued to air across other regions, albeit in differing timeslots depending on the stations' preferred schedules. Night Network was broadcast for the last time on Friday 31 March 1989. Night Time from Granada On 2 September 1988, four of the smaller ITV companies (Border, Grampian, Tyne Tees and TSW – joined from 3 October 1988 by Ulster – began 24-hour broadcasting with the introduction of Night Time, a part-networked service provided by Granada Television's presentation department in Manchester and intended to help the smaller ITV stations who were unable to provide a service of their own. This new late night line up consisted mainly of films, and syndicated American shows such as America's Top Ten (presented by Casey Kasem), American Gladiators (the popularity of which prompted LWT to commission their own equivalent series in 1992), WCW Worldwide (which would later be promoted to British wrestling's old Saturday afternoon slot) and Donahue. There was also a limited number of home-produced programming such as Granada's Nightbeat, The Other Side of Midnight (hosted by Factory Records' Tony Wilson), The Hitman and Her (and replacement BPM), Quiz Night, Movies, Games and Videos, Get Stuffed, Stand Up and LWT's Cue the Music. Traditionally, Grampian would opt out of the overnight networked service by providing its own regional schedule on Hogmanay night into New Year's Day morning - with the exception of 1988 and 1997, as Grampian carried the network schedule through the night as normal after their hogmanay output had finished broadcasting to their region respectively, Border Scotland would also carry STV's hogmanay show on a yearly basis too, but didn't provide a regional schedule of their own afterwards, so they too carried the overnight network schedule as normal. Granada's Night Time service was wound down during 1995 – with programming carried from LNN from January onwards before presentation was handed over to the London service on 5 June. Night Shift from Yorkshire On 29 May 1988, Yorkshire Television reintroduced a full through-the-night service, this time consisting of films, imports, series and networked original programming including YTV's The James Whale Radio Show, simulcast locally with Radio Aire. Following Yorkshire's buyout of Tyne Tees Television in 1992, a new overnight service for both stations was launched entitled Night Shift, broadcast across both regions from YTV's transmission centre in Leeds with pre-recorded continuity from the station's announcing staff. Separate overnight presentation for the YTV and Tyne Tees areas was introduced two years later. Both regions aired the same schedule of imports, films, local programming and Bollywood movies although for a short while, YTV refused to air more adult programming such as The Good Sex Guide and God's Gift – while such output continued to air on Tyne Tees. The service remained locally originated (despite the introduction of networked idents in 1997) until 25 January 1998. YTV continued to opt out of the network for its regular Jobfinder programme at 5am until around 2005. ITV Night Time from Thames/LWT During 1991, Anglia, HTV and TVS discontinued their own overnight strands and began carrying a new ITV Night Time service from London, provided by Thames from Monday to Thursday and LWT from Friday to Sunday. For the first time, both London companies utilised the same on-screen branding throughout the week – the only notable difference being LWT's near non-use of a continuity announcer at the weekend. Around this time, original programming for the network included LWT's Cue the Music, Dial Midnight, ...in Profile, The Big E, Noisy Mothers, One to One, In Bed With Medinner, Night Shift, Get Stuffed and Thames's Video Fashion, albeit airing in differing timeslots depending on each strand's schedule. Imported output increased with featured shows including Night Heat, Soap, Three's Company, The Time Tunnel, Too Close for Comfort, The Equalizer and American sporting programmes. Following the loss of Thames' franchise on 31 December 1992, Anglia and HTV began taking Granada's Night Time, leaving LWT with its own overnight presentation – the network-branded 3 Nights, which featured some of LWT's local programming. Nightime On 1 January 1993, the new ITV franchise holder for London weekdays, Carlton introduced a new Nightime [sic] service, airing from Monday – Thursday nights and simulcast by Meridian and Channel Television. It was also briefly simulcast by Central between 1994 and 1995. On Friday, Saturday and Sunday nights, Meridian & Channel broadcast its own version of Nightime, presented in-vision from Southampton by ex-Late Night Late presenter Graham Rogers. Both Carlton and Meridian/Channel services utilised the same on-screen branding and presentation throughout the week. Around this time, programming largely consisted of output airing on the other services as well as imports including French soap Riviera and in the case of Meridian, regional programming, including World Of Sailing and Freescreen, an experimental series featuring viewers' videos and social action features. ITV Night Time from LNN From 13 February 1995, London News Network (a subsidiary of Carlton & LWT) launched a revamped overnight service featuring new neon-themed presentation (without any station-specific branding) and a year later, a brand slogan – Television with Attitude. Initially broadcast in London only, the service expanded on 5 June to most of the regions formerly served by Granada's version of Night Time (which had been following the same schedule as LNN's service since the start of the year). New original programming was also produced for the network including Bonkers!, Bushell on the Box, Carnal Knowledge, Club @vision, Cyber Cafe, Cybernet, Curtis Calls, Hotel Babylon, God's Gift, Late and Loud, The Paul Ross Show, Pyjama Party, The Lads and Rockmania. Although less reliant on imports than before, shows including Coach and Box Office America continued to feature within the schedules. NightTime/The Edge from Meridian Following the launch of the LNN service over much of the ITV network, Meridian's overnight service expanded to seven days a week in February 1995 and began airing in the Anglia region. Overnight continuity links were discontinued in favour of announcer-less idents and presentation. Meridian's programming was also adopted in January 1996 by HTV and Westcountry, who opted to run separate local presentation from HTV's presentation centre in Cardiff. The arrangement continued when Meridian revamped and relaunched the service as The Edge in September 1996. The service largely carried the same programmes provided by LNN with some regional opt-outs for programmes such as Meridian’s World of Sailing and Freescreen. In 1998, The Edge was dropped and replaced by a set of idents using generic ITV branding. These idents were amended later that year to reflect the change of ITV's generic logo and continued to be used until May 2000, by which time, Meridian had adopted the generic overnight branding used by the rest of the network since November 1999. 1999 – 2000s With 24-hour programming becoming the norm on British television, ITV phased out the Night Time logos and presentation on overnight shows by late 1999 with generic network branding taking its place in most regions and ITV Nightscreen starting to take up timeslots towards the end of the night. From 2001 onwards, many of the former overnight programmes associated with the old Night Network and Night Time services were replaced with repeats of networked daytime shows (many of these including on-screen BSL signing for the deaf). By 2005, the only original Night Time programme still airing was the offbeat cookery show Get Stuffed. Scottish and Grampian (both branded overnight as "Nighttime TV") continued to run its own overnight schedule until around late 2004. Quiz programming in the form of Quizmania and later, ITV Play output such as The Mint and Make Your Play aired overnight between December 2005 and December 2007. Present All ITV plc regions now carry the same schedule from London. Up until mid-2019, ITV's overnight schedule consisted mainly of repeats of talk and lifestyle shows such as Loose Women and ITV Nightscreen, as well as the roulette strand Jackpot247. STV in Northern & Central Scotland, UTV in Northern Ireland and ITV Channel Television opt out of the overnight schedule regularly for teleshopping, alternative programming and ITV Nightscreen. STV also continues to provide its own localised presentation overnight – in April 2010, the station introduced The Nightshift, a nightly strand consisting of interactive viewers' chat, local & national news and extracts from current and archived STV programming, linked by live out-of-vision announcers in Glasgow. Initially launched as a pilot in the Central Scotland region, the programme began airing a separate edition for Northern Scotland and later, separate editions for each of STV's four sub-regions. A single pan-regional programme was later broadcast across the STV North and STV Central regions at weekends. The Nightshift was axed in October 2015 and replaced by After Midnight, a rolling service of regional news and local programming highlights from the STV City channels. From 1 August 2019, home shopping channel Ideal World began simulcasting during part of the overnight period on ITV, including in the UTV and Channel regions which for legal reasons hadn't been able to carry the prior casino gaming strand in the slot (replacing it with repeated programmes and Nightscreen). STV began simulcasting Ideal World content from September 2021, having previously carried its own separate teleshopping content, After Midnight (until its cancellation following the demise of STV2) and ITV Nightscreen - the latter in some cases for longer than in ITV-branded regions. (Due to schedule opt-outs, on some nights STV will join Ideal at a different point to ITV.) On 1 October 2021 ITV Nightscreen was scrapped and replaced by footage-and-music strand Unwind With ITV (branded as 'Unwind With STV' in STV regions), produced by Rock Oyster Media. In October 2022, STV launched their own overnight filler programme, called Nightvision in a similar format to the former After Midnight programme, but only contains regional news on a loop throughout the allocated timeslot between roughly 3am and 5am. In June 2023, the Ideal World strand on ITV was discontinued prior to the company's collapse into administration. Since then the slot formally occupied by the Ideal World strand has been filled with repeats of some of ITV's general entertainment or factual programming, most of which carries on-screen British Sign Language for deaf viewers. Advertising Most of the ITV stations experienced great difficulty in selling advertising slots for the overnight schedules – many companies were not convinced that the low viewing audiences were enough to justify buying airtime. In most cases, stations who were unable to sell advertising overnight simply replaced commercial breaks with public information films or interval captions. Notably, LWT's Thru To 6 service placed animated captions on-screen with music from the week's charts playing in the background. During the 1990s, when advertising space couldn't be sold, an intermission took place between programming, with a message showing simply "Back Soon" and a music track by composer Curtis Schwartz, titled Beat This, playing through. During the 1990s, commercials for premium-rate phone chat lines and edited versions of infomercials for firms such as Teledisc and Time–Life appeared rather prominently inbetween regular advertisements. However, by 2003, commercial breaks during overnight programmes became extremely rare, resulting in a block of public information films being shown during the breaks of programmes, many of which were rarely ever seen outside of the early morning hours of television. Since 2005, overnight commercial breaks on the ITV network now consist of programme trailers and promos. Regional variations Regional services Note: Central continued to have its own regional service at the weekends until early 1995. Part-networked services Timeline of services NOTE: Area which had Granada Night Time service never changed over to the LNN until June 1995. Notes References History of ITV ITV (TV network) original programming
4593958
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Maltese%20Falcon%20%281941%20film%29
The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)
The Maltese Falcon is a 1941 American film noir written and directed by John Huston in his directorial debut, based on the 1930 novel of the same name by Dashiell Hammett and indebted to the 1931 movie of the same name. It stars Humphrey Bogart as private investigator Sam Spade and Mary Astor as his femme fatale client. Gladys George, Peter Lorre and Sydney Greenstreet co-star, with the last appearing in his film debut. The story follows a San Francisco private detective and his dealings with three unscrupulous adventurers, all of whom are competing to obtain a jewel-encrusted falcon statuette. The film premiered in New York City on October 3, 1941, and was nominated for three Academy Awards. Considered one of the greatest films of all time, it was one of the first 25 films selected by the Library of Congress to be included in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It is a part of Roger Ebert's series The Great Movies and was cited by Panorama du Film Noir Américain as the first major film noir. Plot In San Francisco in 1941, private investigators Sam Spade and Miles Archer meet prospective client Ruth Wonderly. She claims to be looking for her missing sister, who ran off from their home in New York and came to the city with a man named Floyd Thursby. Archer agrees to help get her sister back. However, later that night, the police inform Spade that Archer has been killed. Spade tries calling his client at her hotel to discover she has checked out. Back at his apartment, he is grilled by Police Detective Tom Polhaus and Lieutenant Dundy, who tell him that Thursby was murdered the same evening. Dundy suggests that Spade had the opportunity and motive to kill Thursby, who likely killed Archer. Later that morning, Spade meets Wonderly, now calling herself Brigid O'Shaughnessy, who confesses that her story was made up. However, she convinces Spade to investigate the murders and also reveals that Thursby was her partner. He took advantage of her and probably killed Archer, but she claims to have no idea who killed Thursby. At his office, Spade meets Joel Cairo, who first offers him $5,000 to find a "black figure of a bird". When Spade is skeptical, Cairo pulls a gun on him and searches the room for it. Spade knocks Cairo out and goes through his belongings. When Cairo comes round, he hires Spade. On his way to visit O'Shaughnessy later that evening, Spade is followed by a young man but manages to evade him. When he tells O'Shaughnessy about Cairo, her nervousness indicates she knows him. He arranges a meeting between the two at his apartment, where Cairo becomes agitated when O'Shaughnessy reveals that the "Fat Man" is in San Francisco. When Spade goes to Cairo's hotel in the morning, he spots Wilmer Cook, the young man who trailed him earlier. Wilmer works for Kasper Gutman, the "Fat Man". In his hotel suite, Gutman relates the history of the Maltese Falcon, then offers Spade his pick of $25,000 for the bird and another $25,000 after its sale, or a quarter of the proceeds from its sale. Spade passes out because his drink is spiked. Wilmer and Cairo come in from another room and leave with Gutman. On coming round, Spade searches the suite and finds a newspaper with the arrival time of the freighter La Paloma circled. He goes to the dock, only to find the ship on fire. Later, the ship's captain Jacoby is shot several times and staggers into Spade's office before dying. The bundle he was clutching contains the Maltese Falcon. O'Shaughnessy calls the office, gives an address, then screams before the line goes dead. Spade stashes the package at the bus terminal, then goes to the address, which turns out to be an empty lot. Spade returns home to discover O'Shaughnessy hiding in a doorway. He takes her inside and finds Gutman, Cairo, and Wilmer waiting for him, guns drawn. Gutman gives Spade $10,000 for the Falcon, but Spade tells them that part of his price is someone he can turn over to the police for the murders of Thursby and Captain Jacoby, suggesting Wilmer. After some intense negotiation, Gutman and Cairo agree and Wilmer is knocked out and disarmed. Just after dawn, Spade calls his secretary, Effie Perine, to bring him the bundle. However, when Gutman inspects the statuette, he finds it is a fake and Wilmer escapes during the tumult. Recovering his composure, Gutman invites Cairo to return with him to Istanbul to continue their quest. After they leave, Spade calls the police and tells them where to pick up the pair. Spade then angrily confronts O'Shaughnessy, telling her he knows she killed Archer to implicate Thursby, her unwanted accomplice. She confesses, but begs Spade not to turn her over to the police. Despite his feelings for her, Spade gives O'Shaughnessy up, then submits the statuette as evidence, describing it as "the stuff that dreams are made of". Cast Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade Mary Astor as Ruth Wonderly/Brigid O'Shaughnessy Gladys George as Iva Archer Peter Lorre as Joel Cairo Barton MacLane as Lieutenant Dundy Lee Patrick as Effie Perine Sydney Greenstreet as Kasper Gutman Ward Bond as Detective Tom Polhaus Jerome Cowan as Miles Archer Elisha Cook Jr. as Wilmer Cook James Burke as Luke, hotel detective Murray Alper as Frank Richman, taxi driver John Hamilton as District Attorney Bryan Walter Huston as Captain Jacoby (uncredited) Production Background Hammett had once worked as a private detective for the Pinkerton Detective Agency in San Francisco, and he used his birth name "Samuel" for the story's protagonist. He wrote of the book's main character in 1934: Spade has no original. He is a dream man in the sense that he is what most of the private detectives I worked with would like to have been, and, in their cockier moments, thought they approached. Other characters in The Maltese Falcon were based on people whom he met or worked with during that time. The character of sinister "Fat Man" Kasper Gutman was based on Maundy Gregory, an overweight British detective-entrepreneur who was involved in many sophisticated endeavors and capers, including a search for a long-lost treasure like the jeweled Falcon. The character of Joel Cairo was based on a criminal whom Hammett arrested for forgery in Pasco, Washington, in 1920. The novel was serialized in five parts in Black Mask during 1929 and 1930 before being published in book form in 1930 by Alfred A. Knopf. Warner Bros. quickly bought the film rights of the novel, and made an adaptation the following year starring Ricardo Cortez and Bebe Daniels. The film closely followed the novel, including its references to homosexuality and a scene of Spade strip-searching Wonderly for a missing $1,000 bill. These topics made the film unscreenable a few years later under the Motion Picture Production Code, who refused to grant the studio a certificate when they tried to re-release it in 1935. The studio remade the story as the more Code-friendly Satan Met a Lady starring Bette Davis and Warren William. The film changed much of the novel's elements and became a comedy. However, it was panned by critics and audiences alike, including Davis, who referred to it as "junk." Pre-production During his preparation for The Maltese Falcon, his directorial debut, John Huston planned each second of the film to the last detail, tailoring the screenplay with instructions to himself for a shot-for-shot setup, with sketches for every scene, so filming could proceed fluently and professionally. Huston was adamant the film be methodically planned, thus ensuring the production maintained a tight schedule within their budget. It was shot quickly and completed for less than $400,000. Such was the extent and efficacy of Huston's preparation of the script that almost no line of dialogue was eliminated in the final edit. Except for some exterior night shots, Huston shot the entire film in sequence, which greatly helped his actors. Much of the dialogue from the original novel was retained. The only major section of the novel missing in the film is the story of a man named "Flitcraft", which Spade tells to Brigid while waiting in his apartment for Cairo to arrive. Huston removed all references to sex that the Hays Office had deemed to be unacceptable. He was also warned not to show excessive drinking. The director fought the latter, on the grounds that Spade was a man who put away a half bottle of hard liquor a day and showing him completely abstaining from alcohol would mean seriously falsifying his character. Casting Bogart was not the first choice to play Sam Spade; the role was originally offered to George Raft. Raft rejected the role because he did not want to work with an inexperienced director, and had a stipulation in his contract from making remakes. Raft chose instead to make director Raoul Walsh's comedy-drama Manpower with Edward G. Robinson and Marlene Dietrich, which was released to lesser success. This was one of several roles Raft turned down in movies that ended up being classics. Huston was grateful that Bogart had quickly accepted the role, and the film helped consolidate their lifelong friendship and set the stage for collaboration on other films. Bogart's convincing interpretation became the archetype for a private detective in the film noir genre, providing him acclaim and solidifying his onscreen persona. Ingrid Bergman watched Maltese Falcon over and over again while preparing for Casablanca in order to learn how to interact and act with Bogart. Bergman, Joan Bennett, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Paulette Goddard, Janet Gaynor, Olivia de Havilland, and Loretta Young were all considered for the role of Brigid. Fitzgerald was offered the part, but turned it down. Eve Arden was considered for the role of Effie. Lee Patrick was initially considered for the role of Iva, but later received the part of Effie. Having difficulty casting Kasper Gutman, Huston screen tested stage actor Sydney Greenstreet on the suggestion of producer Hal Wallis. Greenstreet, who was 61 and weighed between 280 and 350 pounds, had not appeared on film before. However, he managed to impress Huston with his sheer size, distinctive abrasive laugh, bulbous eyes, and manner of speaking. Filming Principal photography took place on the Warner Bros. backlot from June 9 to July 18, 1941, with some reshoots on August 8. Following a preview screening on September 5, studio head Jack L. Warner ordered reshoots to simplify the opening scene. These reshoots took place on September 10, with Ernest Haller as cinematographer since original cinematographer Arthur Edeson was unavailable. Cinematography Director of photography Arthur Edeson, who had a background that included Universal's monster films, used low-key lighting and arresting angles to emphasize the nature of the characters and their actions, such as the scene where Gutman explains the history of the Falcon to Spade, drawing out his story so that the knockout drops in Spade's drink will take effect. Roger Ebert describes this scene as "an astonishing unbroken seven-minute take", and script supervisor Meta Wilde remarked of this scene: It was an incredible camera setup. We rehearsed two days. The camera followed Greenstreet and Bogart from one room into another, then down a long hallway and finally into a living room; there the camera moved up and down in what is referred to as a boom-up and boom-down shot, then panned from left to right and back to Bogart's drunken face; the next pan shot was to Greenstreet's massive stomach from Bogart's point of view. ... One miss and we had to begin all over again. Props Fred Sexton, an American artist, sculpted the Maltese Falcon statuette prop for the film. The "Maltese Falcon" itself was based on the "Kniphausen Hawk", a ceremonial pouring vessel made in 1697 for Georg Wilhelm von Kniphausen, Count of the Holy Roman Empire. It is modeled after a hawk perched on a rock and is encrusted with red garnets, amethysts, emeralds, and sapphires. It is currently owned by the Cavendish family and is part of the collection at Chatsworth House. Several tall falcon props were made for the film. One of the falcons was given to actor William Conrad by studio chief Jack L. Warner; it was auctioned in December 1994 for $398,500, the highest price paid for a film prop at that time. A 45-pound metal prop that appeared in the film was sold at auction on November 25, 2013, for over $4 million. Reception Critical Following a preview in September 1941, Variety called it "one of the best examples of actionful and suspenseful melodramatic story telling in cinematic form": Unfolding a most intriguing and entertaining murder mystery, picture displays outstanding excellence in writing, direction, acting and editing—combining in overall as a prize package of entertainment for widest audience appeal. Due for hefty grosses in all runs, it's textured with ingredients presaging numerous holdovers in the keys—and strong word-of-mouth will make the b.o. wickets spin. Upon its release, Bosley Crowther described it as "the best mystery thriller of the year", saying "young Mr. Huston gives promise of becoming one of the smartest directors in the field"; according to Crowther, "the trick which Mr. Huston has pulled is a combination of American ruggedness with the suavity of the English crime school—a blend of mind and muscle—plus a slight touch of pathos". The widely read trade paper The Film Daily agreed with Crowther's assessment of the film and focused special attention as well on Huston's directorial debut. In its 1941 review of the "beautifully made" production, the paper asserted: "John Huston's direction of his own screenplay is as brilliant as any of the jewels which are alleged to encrust the falcon whose possession is the crux of the story". As a measure of modern or more current reactions to the film, the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports The Maltese Falcon holds an approval rating of 99% based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 9.20/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Suspenseful, labyrinthine, and brilliantly cast, The Maltese Falcon is one of the most influential noirs—as well as a showcase for Humphrey Bogart at his finest." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 97 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Box office According to Warner Bros.' records the film earned $967,000 domestically and $805,000 foreign. Awards The film received three nominations at the 14th Academy Awards: Best Picture, Sydney Greenstreet for Best Supporting Actor, and John Huston for Best Adapted Screenplay. Proposed sequel and adaptations In the wake of the film's success, Warner Bros. immediately put a sequel tentatively titled The Further Adventures of the Maltese Falcon into development. Huston was set to direct the sequel, with Jack Warner approaching Dashiel Hammett to write a screenplay. However, Huston and Bogart's high demand and the studio's inability to agree on a salary with Hammett caused the plans to be dropped. The film was adapted for radio several times. The first was for the Silver Theater broadcast on the CBS radio network on February 1, 1942, with Bogart as star. Philip Morris Playhouse staged an adaptation August 14, 1942, with Edward Arnold starring. CBS later created a 30-minute adaptation for The Screen Guild Theater with Bogart, Astor, Greenstreet and Lorre all reprising their roles. This radio segment was originally released on September 20, 1943, and was played again on July 3, 1946. Legacy The Maltese Falcon has been cited by some to be the first true film noir, though this is heavily debated. Nonetheless, it did have a lasting influence on the industry. Its success launched the careers of Huston, Bogart, and Greenstreet and helped revitalize the career of Astor. Bogart would largely portray characters like Spade for the studio in several notable films, including Casablanca (1942) and The Big Sleep (1946). The 1975 comedy film The Black Bird directed by David Giler served as a parody sequel, starring George Segal as Sam Spade Jr., son of the recently deceased Sam Spade, who is forced to take over his father's agency. Lee Patrick and Elisha Cook Jr. reprised their respective roles of Effie and Wilmer; Patrick came out of retirement for the film, which turned out to be her final acting appearance. The film was released by Columbia Pictures on May 9, 1975. In 1989, The Maltese Falcon was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant", going in the first year of voting. Roger Ebert added it to his "Great Movies" list. American Film Institute recognition 1998 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – No. 23 2001 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – No. 26 2003 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains: Kasper Gutman – Nominated Villain Brigid O'Shaughnessy – Nominated Villain 2005 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes: "The stuff that dreams are made of." – No. 14. The expression is based on Act 4 of William Shakespeare's play The Tempest, wherein Prospero says, "We are such stuff / As dreams are made on". "You're good, you're very good." – Nominated 2007 – AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 31 2008 – AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 6 Mystery Film See also Tribute of the Maltese Falcon Notes References External links The Maltese Falcon essay by Richard T. Jameson on the National Film Registry website Books about The Maltese Falcon from film.virtual-history.com Streaming audio The Maltese Falcon on Lux Radio Theater: February 8, 1943 The Maltese Falcon on Screen Guild Theater: September 20, 1943 1941 films 1940s English-language films 1941 crime films 1941 mystery films American black-and-white films American crime films American detective films American mystery films Film noir Films scored by Adolph Deutsch Films based on American novels Films based on mystery novels Films directed by John Huston Films set in San Francisco Films with screenplays by John Huston Films about treasure hunting United States National Film Registry films Warner Bros. films Films based on works by Dashiell Hammett 1941 directorial debut films Remakes of American films 1940s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montaukett
Montaukett
The Montaukett ("Metoac"), more commonly known as Montauk are an Algonquian-speaking Native American people from the eastern and central sections of Long Island, New York. Name The exact meaning of the name Montauk is unknown. Montauk roughly translates to "the fort country". Montauk is derived from a place-name in the Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett language. The Montaukett ("Metoac" or Matouwac), are Native Americans on Long Island and are often known in colonial writings by the place name of their geographic territories, such as the Montauk and the Shinnecock, which may or may not be the same as their name for themselves. European colonists tended to mistakenly assume that the different bands they encountered were different tribes, even in cases where the bands clearly shared the same culture and language. Anthropology Language The Montauketts are an Algonquian-speaking Native American people from the eastern and central sections of Long Island, New York. The Montauk spoke an Eastern Algonquian language. Prior to the 17th century, the Montauk people spoke the Mohegan-Pequot language, also known as the Algonquian "N" dialect until about 1600 when they moved to the "Y" dialect. On March 25, 1798, John Lyon Gardiner wrote: “March 25, 1798. A vocabulary of the Indian language spoken by the Montauk tribe. George Pharoah, aged 66, oldest man of that tribe and their chief gave me this specimen of their language. There are only about seven persons that can now speak this language and a few years more and it will be gone forever. It was spoken with little difference by all the Indians upon the East end of Long Island and perhaps the whole Island and the adjoining Islands. George says the Moheags of Connecticut speak the same language. George repeated these words several times and I write them as near as he pronounced as I can with the English alphabet.” Class, Race, Ethnicity The Native Americans of the east end of the Island shared a common culture with each other and with Lenape groups along most of the northern shore of what is now called Long Island Sound. The Montauk are specifically related in language and ethnicity to the Pequot and Narragansett peoples who live across Long Island Sound in what is now Connecticut and Rhode Island. American ethnologist John R. Swanton identified the following subdivisions of the Montauk: Corehaug, Manhasset, Massapequa, Matinecock, Merric, Montauk (proper), Nesaquake, Patchoque, Rockaway, Secatogue, Setauket, and Shinnecock. Swanton also identified several Montauk villages including Aquebogue, Ashamomuck, Cutchogue, Massapequa, Merric, Montauk, Nesaquake, Patchogue, and Rechquaakie. Subsistence The pre-colonial Montaukett manufactured wampompeag (or wampum) from quahog clamshells available on Long Island. Before the Montaukett obtained metal awls from the Europeans, the Montaukett artisans would make "disk-shaped beads from quahog shells ... used for trade and for tribute payments" with the nearby tribes. The Montaukett farmed, fished, hunted, and gathered food. The colonial Montauketts participated in the new European economic and cultural systems by using their traditional skills: hunting to provide game and fowl for colonists' tables: woodworking to make bowls, scrubs, tools, toys, and later, houses and mills, craftwork to make baskets, eel pots, and rush and cane bottoms for chairs. The "women would harvest corn, squash, and beans." While the men fished and hunted whales, by using their dugout canoes, made by hollowing out large trees. They also participated in the economy by purchasing their guns and sometimes furniture from the local colonial craftsmen. The Montauketts skilled at whaling were eagerly sought after by those engaged in the trade. Between 1677 and 1684, a documented system of credit allowed indigenous men (and their families) to purchase goods from local merchants and traders, in exchange for their share (or “lay”) of the catch during the following whaling season. Eventually, the in-shore whaling operations over-fished the local seas, and Indigenous labor from the Montauketts and other Native American groups was vital to deep-sea whaling throughout the late eighteenth century. Even both Rev. Horton and Rev. Occum mentioned in their records (as late as ca. 1740–1760) that Montaukett men were working at sea during their visits. History 16th Century 1524 - Giovanni Verrazano explores and maps the area - It is unclear whether these specific expeditions had any contact with the Montauk tribe. 17th century In 1609 an expedition by Henry Hudson, explores the area. It is unclear whether these specific expeditions had any contact with the Montauk tribe. In 1619 - Adriaen Block, sailed around the point, naming it Visscher's Hoek while mapping the area around the point and nearby Block Island. It is unclear whether these specific expeditions had any contact with the Montauk tribe. In 1637, during the Pequot War, the Montauketts sided with the Settlers for protection, but Cockenoe, a Montaukett native, was captured and wound up working with John Eliot in Boston in the 1640s to translate the first parts of the Eliot Indian Bible, before returning to Long Island. In 1639 during the aftermath of the war, a settler-colonist Lion Gardiner purchased an island from the Montaukett chief Wyandanch and named it Gardiner's Island. It is one of the largest privately owned islands in the United States. In 1648 the Settlers purchased from Connecticut the lands that would become the town of East Hampton, with the western boundary of today's Hither Hills State Park is also known as the 1648 purchase line, leaving only the lands to the east to the point for the Montaukett. Through the 1650s as the white settlement was expanding, the Montaukett population was in decline. In 1653, Narragansetts under Ninigret attacked and burned the Montaukett village, killing 30 Montaukett warriors and capturing fourteen prisoners including one of Chief Wyandanch's daughters. The daughter was recovered with the aid of Lion Gardiner (who in turn was given a large portion of Smithtown, New York in appreciation). The Montauketts, ravaged by smallpox and fearing extermination by the Narragansetts, were provided temporary refuge by white settlers in East Hampton. Many short but famous battles ensued. Fort Pond Bay derives its name from a Montaukett "fort" on its shores. After 1653, three different groups of East Hampton colonial settlers purchased Native land, each expanding East Hampton rights further and further east. (Further purchase agreements were entered into in 1660, 1661, 1672 and 1686 which, among other things, allowed Easthampton townsmen to graze cattle on the Montaukett lands.) The native skirmishes ended in 1657. In 1658 - historians estimate there were 500 Montauk. In 1659 - Montaukett Sachem Wyandanch dies. In 1660 - Wyandanch's widow sold all of Montauk from Napeague to the tip of the island for 100 pounds to be paid in 10 equal installments of "Indian corn or good wampum at six to a penny". In 1661 - A deed was issued titled "Ye deed of Guift" which granted all of the lands east of Fort Pond to be for the common use of both the Indians and the townsmen. In 1686 - Governor of New York Thomas Dongan issued a patent creating the governing system for East Hampton. The patent did not extend beyond Napeague to Montauk. This lack of authority has formed the basis for various control disputes ever since. The Dongan Patent allowed the Montauk Proprietors to purchase the remaining unpurchased lands between the ponds and east of Lake Wyandanee (Lake Montauk). This further separated the Montauketts from governing their tribal lands. In a purchase that was finalized in 1687 in which the East Hampton town purchased the remaining Native lands east of Fort Pond for 100 pounds, and granted the Montauketts residency rights in perpetuity (but no governance). The Montauketts agreed to accept two pounds per year instead of the lump sum of one hundred pounds (in addition to amounts that they already received yearly for grazing access). The Montaukett noted in 1702 that the fees had never been paid. Dissatisfied with their treatment by the town, the Montauketts negotiated a more lucrative sale of the same lands east of Fort Pond to two wealthy men from New York. This deal, however, violated a previous agreement between the Montauketts and the town which permitted the Town Trustees exclusive rights to the purchase of Montauk lands. The town challenged the Montaukett sale to the New York men, and moved quickly to establish a new agreement with the Montauketts, detailing transactions and rights between the two parties. 18th century A 1703 agreement included a limit on Montaukett livestock to 250 swine and 50 head of cattle or horses. The subsequent 1703 “Agreement Between the Trustees of East Hampton and the Indians of Montauk” (reprinted in Stone 1993:69) specified that the Montauketts were to inhabit the land referred to as North Neck (between Great Pond and Fort Pond), establishing fencing where necessary. The land east of Great Pond (including Indian Fields) was reserved for colonial use, which primarily consisted of cattle grazing. The Montauketts were permitted to move east of Great Pond if they did not interfere with the colonists's right to graze. The agreement also specified how the Montauketts were able to use their land: fields were expected to remain open for livestock owned by colonists grazing and they were permitted to keep a 30-acre field enclosed to protect crops of winter wheat. If the Montauketts were to move from North Neck and relocate to Indian Fields, they must take possessions with them; they could return to North Neck, but not inhabit both locations concurrently. In 1719, despite the enforced limitations on lifeways, the Montaukett population grew in small numbers and reinforced social and economic networks through exogamous marriage practices. The colonial government responded to this threat of an expanding Montaukett population with yet another “agreement” that prohibited Montaukett marriages with non-Montauketts. Altogether, these eighteenth-century encumbrances left the Montauketts, resentful of their white neighbors, in a position of tenancy on their ancestral homelands. During and after the 1730 - 1740 First Great Awakening, the Montauketts received attention from New Light preachers, most notably James Davenport and Azariah Horton. The Settler colonists continued to pursue an idea of making the Montauketts become Christianized and therefore integrated into society by having the Rev. Azarlah Horton, originally of Southold, to minister to them from 1740 to about 1750. Staying and preaching in their wigwams, the reverend traveled a circuit from Jamaica to Montauk, but spending most of his time at Montauk. In a diary entry from December 1741, Rev. Horton mentioned visiting the wigwams of Montaukett people in Montauk who were suffering from illnesses. By the 1740s, the population was around 160 people. In 1749, Samson Occom a Mohegan Native American of Connecticut, came to Montauk to minister and to educate them (from 1749-1761 ), and began to take over Azariah Horton’s mission, while Rev. Horton eventually left for New Jersey. Rev. Occom was an exceptionally talented man, not formally educated until 16, but mastering English, Greek, and Latin, as well as theology beginning in 1743. Later he was ordained a Presbyterian minister by East Hampton's Rev. Samuel Buell. Around 1759, the Narragansett attacked the Montauk, until the latter sought refuge with white colonists in Easthampton. Disease had greatly reduced their population. In 1773 - Samson Occum and his brother-in-law, David Fowler (c. 1735-1807, Montaukett native) form the "Brothertown Plan" with members of the neighboring Shinnecock and Christian Algonquins, including contingents of the Mohegan, Pequot, and Narragansett, to move them to the Oneida Territory. They moved from Long Island to escape colonial encroachment. In 1784 - The Brotherton were forced to move westward (and throughout the United States), ending up in Wisconsin, founding a town they named Brothertown, and became the Brothertown Indian Tribe. They have married into many of the northeastern native tribes and live on many reservations throughout the country. Today they are part of the Brothertown Indians movement. By 1788, most Montaukett had left their ancestral lands and joined the Brotherton Indians of New York. The attempts at assimilation continued for some time afterwards for those who stayed behind when the Brothertown group left. 19th century Off-shore and deep-sea whaling operations continued into the 19th century even though exploitative labor practices continued. Still, not all Indigenous men in southern New England faced coercion, debt, and indentured servitude in seafaring. Through the 19th century, whaling ships often included tri-racial and multi-national crews. White, Indigenous, and African-American seamen encountered sailors from international ports as vessels travelled for sometimes years at a time. In 1830 while the Rev. Thomas James (minister) was in Sag Harbor on an anti-slavery ministry for the free black former slaves in the whaling industry, he was engaged to preach to the Montauketts too. The Reverend James gave the Montauketts shelter near the village during their problems with the Narragansett, and allegedly got them to sell from Napeague to Montauk Point to himself and a few other men (maybe Hedges / Benson / et. al. ?). Rev. James allegedly composed a Catechism In the Montauk language, a variant of Mohegan-Pequot, which has never been found. From 1830 to 1920, Indigenous whalers went to work as free agents. Indigenous men voluntarily went to sea, as viable alternatives to mainland and reservation opportunities and Indigenous men from eastern Long Island continued to work in whaling through the early 20th century. In 1839, slaves who had seized the schooner La Amistad came ashore in the hamlet (possibly "Indian Fields") looking for provisions after being told by the white crew they had returned to Africa. American authorities were alerted, and the slaves were recaptured and ultimately freed in a historically significant trial. In 1851 a judgment was entered against the Trustees of the Freeholders and Commonalty of the Town of Easthampton and on March 9, 1852 a deed to Montauk was entered at Riverhead in liber 63 of deeds p. 171 to plaintiffs Henry P. Hedges and others including Arthur W. Benson, the claimant equitable owners of Montauk (Proprietors), because their predecessors had contributed the money to purchase Montauk from the native Montaukett Indians in the 1600s. Mr. Hedges (with Benson, and others) paid US$151,000 for 10,000 acres (40 km2) for the east end. The deed releasing claim to Montauk was entered on March 9, 1852. Mr. Benson also received clear title to the Montaukett property at Big Reed Pond, buying it from tribesmen for $10 each. This deed caused the lands covered by the Dongan Patent to be split, leaving the still unsettled lands at Montauk without government. Less than one month later, on April 2, 1852, a NY state law was passed that incorporated the Proprietors Montauks, establishing the corporation of the trustees of Montauk and affirming its right to govern. The 1859 discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania, along with the growing demand for kerosene and the onset of the Civil War, led to the start of the demise of whaling. Montaukett men sailed from ships out of Sag Harbor until 1871, a year that marked the final deep-sea departure from the port. After 1871, Montaukett men sailed out of New Bedford. Men of all backgrounds left whaling for employment in factories. In 1879, an extension of the Long Island Railroad began construction to Montauk. This potential increasing tourism sparked the idea of the sale of the entire Montauk peninsula by the Town Trustees to Arthur W. Benson in 1879 for development as a resort. Mr. Benson began buying up any additional available land in the area with an eye to future development. The entirety of Montauk that was not already owned by Mr. Benson was eventually sold in 1890 to Mr. Benson "subject to the rights of the Montauk tribe of indians," noting that a few members and their families still survived. According to Marla Pharoah's autobiography, the remaining Montaukett families were allegedly contestibly "bought out" and two of those houses were moved off Montauk to Freetown, while the others were simply burned down and all their possessions stolen. The first train from the Austin Corbin extension of the Long Island Rail Road pulled into Montauk in 1895, (to the station built in fort pond bay) the land having been bought in 1882. A court case was begun by the Montauketts In 1896 to regain their land: It continued until 1917 and bankrupted them. In 1898, after the Benson / Corbin plan did not work out as planned, the United States Army bought the Benson property to establish a base called Camp Wikoff to quarantine Army personnel returning from the Spanish–American War – and that's how Teddy Roosevelt and His Rough Riders wound up exposed to the few remaining Montauketts as they stayed in what became known as "Third House." 20th century In 1906; Amid their court case, New York State passed legislation to enable the Montaukett to establish land claims through colonial deeds from 1660 through 1702, but, as a result of the court battle, the Montaukett lost their legal status and right to compensation, and Judge Abel Blackmar declared to more than 20 Montauketts in the courtroom and scores waiting outside that the tribe had ceased to exist and that they had therefore lost their claim to the reservation. This was probably the proverbial straw that broke the camel's back for a while at least. In 1910, there were an estimated 29 Montauk on Long Island, and in 1923, there were 30. In 1924, Robert Moses began condemning the Benson land to establish state parks on either end of Montauk − Hither Hills State Park in the west and Montauk Point State Park in the east. The two parks were to be connected via the Montauk Point State Parkway.(State Route 27) In 1926, Carl G. Fisher bought all of the remaining (non-state park) Montaukett Lands in Long Island (10,000 acres (40 km2)) for only $2.5 million. He planned to turn Montauk into the "Miami Beach of the North", a "Tudor village by the sea". His projects included blasting a hole through the freshwater Lake Montauk to access Block Island Sound to replace the shallow Fort Pond Bay as the hamlet's port; establishing the Montauk Yacht Club and the Montauk Downs Golf Course; and building Montauk Manor, a luxury resort hotel; the Montauk Tennis Auditorium, which became a movie theater (and is now the Montauk Playhouse); and the six-story Carl Fisher Office Building (later the Montauk Improvement Building and now The Tower at Montauk, (commonly called the "white elephant") now a residential condominium). In the Great Hurricane of 1938, water flooded across Napeague, turning Montauk into an island. Floodwaters from the hurricane inundated the main downtown, which was then located in fort pond bay, and it was moved 3 miles (5 km) to the south, immediately next to the Atlantic Ocean, with State Route 27 as the main drag. In 2022 - a bill to acknowledge the tribe has passed by the state Legislature for the fourth time, and Gov. Kathy Hochul vetoed it in December 2022. Current Status Currently, there is no state or federally recognized Montauk tribe. The Montauk Indian Nation and the Montaukett Tribe of Long Island, both unrecognized tribes, submitted letters of intent to petition for federal recognition in the 1990s; however, neither has followed through with submitting a petition. Assemblyman Fred Thiele Jr. has introduced legislation to restore state recognition of the Montaukett Indian Nation in 2013, 2017, 2018, and 2019, but Governor Andrew M. Cuomo vetoed these bills, "arguing that a tribe must follow a prescribed federal administrative process to obtain recognition rather than achieve it through setting up a costly duplicated process at the state level." The last 2019–20 bill, sponsored by Sen. Kenneth LaValle died after being referred to state senate investigations and government operations. Throughout all of this the Montaukett stay strong and continue to petition for federal recognition and the return of their ancestral lands. Today, the Montauk Tribe of Indians is trying to reverse of the 1910 Blackmar decision, as well as revitalizing of the Montauk language and culture. Archaeology Allison Manfra McGovern who studied the archeology of the Montauketts over time (ca. 1750–1885) wrote a dissertation about two houses at Indian Fields compared to Freetown. Manfra McGovern concluded that "...despite the seemingly remote location of Indian Fields, Montaukett men and women were deeply entangled in local and global markets as producers and consumers; and they maintained social relationships with other laborers, employers, and kin throughout and beyond the East Hampton Town...". Additionally, Stonybrook University puts forth some similarly interesting cultural observations when they studied the Pharoah Home(s) also at Indian Fields (Institute for Long Island Archaeology, Stony Brook University). Some Relics and ruins of their settlements are visible at the Theodore Roosevelt County Park, on the edge of the village of Montauk, New York. Descendants Historically, some of the Montaukett remained in the area in and around Montauk, chiefly because the land was often considered inaccessible. But over time, the Montauketts were increasingly dispersed from the last "reservation" at the tip of Montauk peninsula, to enclaves in Freetown (a multicultural neighborhood north of E.Hampton), Eastville (eastern Sag Harbor), the Shinnecock Reservation, and were appearing, (through the Federal censuses) in Southampton, East Hampton, Sag Harbor, Southold, Greenport, Brookhaven Town, Smithtown, Oyster Bay, and New York City – and other areas of Long Island and the nation – usually as laborers, farmhands, domestic servants, seamstresses, etc. Many Montauk descendants today live in Wisconsin (Brotherton Tribe), while others live on the Shinnecock Reservation. See also Notable Montaukett people Sachem Mongotucksee (Long Knife) (c. 1550 - 1595) Cockenoe, (born before 1630 and died after 1687) early translator for the Eliot Indian Bible, the first Bible printed in America. Grand Sachem Chief Wyandanch (c. 1620 – 1659), Wyandanch, New York is named after him. Samson Occom (1723 – July 14, 1792), co-created the Brotherton Plan David Fowler (c. 1735-1807), co-created the Brotherton Plan Stephen Talkhouse (Stephen Taukus "Talkhouse" Pharaoh, c. 1821–1879). Olivia Ward Bush-Banks (née Olivia Ward; February 27, 1869 – April 8, 1944), African American-Montaukett author, poet, and journalist. Further reading Montauk land claim John Lyon Gardiner Robert Moses Carl G. Fisher Tribal sovereignty in the United States Shinnecock Reservation Praying town External links Allison Manfra-McGovern's Dissertation Matouwac Research Center One Montauk Nation Montauk artifacts, National Museum of the American Indian Suffolk County Archaeological Association NY State Assembly Bill A5411, passed assembly References East Hampton (town), New York Native American tribes in New York (state) African–Native American relations Algonquian ethnonyms Unrecognized tribes in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete%20Loncarevich
Pete Loncarevich
Peter Pete Loncarevich (born April 8, 1966) is a former bicycle motocross (BMX) racer. Loncarevich was an "old school" professional BMX racer whose prime competitive years were from 1980 to 1994. He is of Croatian origin. Nicknamed the "Pistol Pete", Loncarevich received the moniker the way many racers did with the announcer choosing one for him. In 1984 at an American Bicycle Association national, Merl Mennenga, the founder and then President of the ABA, who often also announced "play by play" for the audience at ABA nationals called him "The Pistol" for his penchant in getting the "holeshot" out of the starting gate like a bullet out of a gun. It was also a simultaneous allusion to Loncarevich's similar-sounding name to former professional National Basketball Association (NBA) Guard Pete Maravich who had the moniker of "Pistol Pete". BMX racing career milestones Note: Professional first are at the national level until otherwise indicated. *In the NBL it was/is "B" Pro/Super Class/"A" Pro/Junior Men, all depending on the era; in the ABA it has been and is "A" Pro regardless of the era (post 1980). **In the NBL it is "A" Pro/All Pros/"AA" Pro/Elite Men, all depending on the era; in the ABA it has been and is "AA" Pro regardless of the era (post 1980). Career factory and major bicycle shop sponsors Note: This listing only denotes the racer's primary sponsors. At any given time a racer could have numerous co-sponsors. Primary sponsorships can be verified by BMX press coverage and sponsor's advertisements at the time in question. When possible exact dates are given. Amateur Cook Bros.: 1977 S&S (Street & Strip) Performance Products: 1978 TW Racing: December 1979-September 1980. Allegedly Peter Loncarevich's father's business partners who ran TW stole and absconded with US$5,000 from his father and he subsequently stopped racing for them after they couldn't be found. Diamond Back (Centurion): September 1980-December 1982. Loncarevich would turn pro while with this sponsor. Professional Diamond Back: September 1980-December 1982. Briefly with DB as a pro, about three days. DB and Loncarevich did not see eye to eye about Loncarevich turning pro at the time. DB did not think he was ready and wanted Loncarevich to help them win Team Trophy, a prestigious accolade for the best factory team of the year awarded by a sanctioning body depending on how well a team does as a group in Nationals throughout the season. They wanted Eddy King (who joined DB at the same time Loncarevich did but was two years older) to turn pro before Loncarevich and for Loncarevich to wait a year. After his second-place result in "A" pro in his pro debut at the ABA Jag World Championship in 1982, Diamondback terminated his contract. The two parties went their separate ways. The termination motivated him to prove to himself he was a top pro and beat Harry Leary and Eddy King, Diamondback's marque pros. SE Racing (formerly Scot Enterprises Racing Division, now called Sports Engineering, Inc.): January 1983-Mid February 1983. Allegedly Scot Breithaupt, the owner of SE Racing and a BMX pioneer, wanted Loncarevich to drop the family BMX business, Loncarevich Racing Products, and race solely for SE Racing. LRP (Loncarevich Racing Products): Mid February 1983-November 1983. LRP was a company he and his father started that sold BMX accessories like titanium seatpost and pedal cages and a small clothing line. Shadow Racing: November 1983-Mid December 1983. Shadow Racing was owned by the same person who owned CW, Roger Worsham. It made its own line of BMX bicycles and components. Loncarevich would later move over to CW. CW (Custom Works) Racing: Mid December 1983-April 1, 1986. Although Mr. Loncarevich had a contract to race for CW until April 1986, he showed up and raced in the November 1985 ABA Grand Nationals in a Haro uniform. He had previously signed a contract with Haro to race for them after Haro offered more money and CW didn't match the offer. Roger Worsham threatened to sue Loncarevich for breach of contract. Worsham apparently went so far as to file a restraining order to prevent Loncarevich from moving to Haro prematurely. The court turned down the request. Roger Worsham appealed the decision but dropped the case after, according to Loncarevich, it was clear he wasn't going to become ABA No.1 pro for 1985. As it is with most disputes of this kind it was over salary. Loncarevich felt that he should have gotten a large monetary raise in lieu of winning the ABA number one pro for 1985. Haro Designs did offer a raise increase to his salary. As Peter said. "When you're an athlete, you have to get what you can while you can, because next year you might have a terrible season. So I went with Haro Designs." This is particularly true in the sport of BMX racing in which there isn't the infrastructure for a pension plan for retired Pros or a minimum salary requirement and no effective professional racer's union (although they have been efforts to organize such going back to 1976 in the National Bicycle Association (NBA)). Things are very much like what professional baseball players faced 120 years ago, except there is no formal or informal collusion to prevent racers from going from one sponsor to another if he doesn't like the terms. One irony in Loncarevich signing with CW in the first place: Apparently CW made it a clause of sponsorship for the Loncarevich family to shut down their business, Loncarevich Racing Products. That was the very same condition that allegedly made Pete Loncarevich leave SE Racing. Side Note: "CW" never stood for "Coast Wheels" as it is widely thought. Coast Wheels was a bike shop that Roger Worsham owned. Custom Works was a completely different and independent company. This is in contrast with JMC (Jim Melton Cyclery) which did start out as a bicycle shop and then began manufacturing its own BMX components including entire bicycles. Haro Designs/Bicycles: April 1, 1986-May 1989. Apparently Haro Designs allegedly lured Mr. Loncarevich under the false pretense of a co-sponsorship offer when they fully intended to offer Peter a full factory contract. Left Haro after extended and fruitless contract negotiations. Vans (Van Doren Rubber Co.): May 1989-November 1989 Vans/MCS (Moto Cross Specialties) Bicycle Specialties: November 1989-July 1990. Vans and MCS joined forces. MCS supplied the racing bicycles. Vans/Diamondback: July 1990-May 1992. MCS dropped Loncarevich and all other riders except Terry Tenette, but Vans kept him and he picked up Diamondback as a second primary sponsor. Vans/Hawk Racing: May 1992-Mid November 1992. Peter was still sponsored by Vans and was still his main sponsor sending him around the racing circuit, but Hawk Racing supplied the bike. Vans was and is a tennis shoe and skateboard/BMX apparel maker. GHP (Greg Hill Products)/Pro Forx: Mid November 1992-May 1993. GHP would discontinue making frame and fork sets in mid-1993 causing GHP sponsored racers to find other sponsors. ParkPre Bicycles (Integra Precision Corporation): 1993-1995 Retired from competition 1996 through 1999. Vans: January 2000 – 2001. Loncarevich raced in the Veteran Pro class for approximately a year before retiring from Professional BMX racing permanently. Retired from competition 2001 through 2009 Redman Rockstar: January 2010–Present. Loncarevich returned to BMX competition after an approximate eight-year hiatus. Career bicycle motocross titles Note: Listed are District, State/Provincial/Department, Regional, National, and International titles in italics. "Defunct" refers to the fact of that sanctioning body in question no longer existing at the start of the racer's career or at that stage of his/her career. Depending on point totals of individual racers, winners of Grand Nationals do not necessarily win National titles. Series and one off Championships are also listed in block. Amateur National Bicycle Association (NBA) 1979 Jag 13 Expert and 11-13 Trophy Dash World Champion (Doubled) (NBA/NBL sanctioned) 1981 15 Expert, 15 & Over Open and Trophy Dash (Triple) Grandnational Champion. This was the last NBA National event before merging with the NBL. Bicycle Motocross League (BMXL) 1978 National No.1 Amateur National Bicycle League (NBL) 1980 California State No.1 1980 Jag 14 Expert World Champion (NBL sanctioned) 1981 15 Expert National No. 1 United Bicycle Racers (UBR) 1981 15 Expert Grandnational Champion American Bicycle Association (ABA) 1980 California District 3 (Cal-3) No.1† and State No.1 1980 14 Expert and 14 year Old Trophy Dash Grandnational Champion 1982 California District 14 (Cal-14) No.1 †Shared with 13 Expert Kelly McDougall International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF) 1981 15 Expert International Champion United States Cycling Federation (USCF)* 1981 Jag 15 Expert World Champion NBL rules and nomenclature were followed generally, however, no points were awarded and applied to the NBL or any other recognized BMX governing body. The NBL ceased sanctioning the Jag World Championships because by this time it was the US affiliate of the IBMXF which was holding its own World Championships. Renny Roker, the promoter of the Jag World Championship races refused to rename this race. Consequently, the NBL pulled its sanction for the 1981 race and future Jag "World Championship" races. *The USCF is now USA Cycling. Professional National Bicycle Association (NBA) None Bicycle Motocross League (BMXL) None National Bicycle League (NBL) 1985 "A" Pro Grandnational Champion 1986 "A" Pro and Pro Award Grandnational Champion 1986, 1987 National No. 1 Pro United Bicycle Racers (UBR) None American Bicycle Association (ABA) 1982 "A" Pro 2nd Place Jag World Champion (ABA sanctioned) 1983 "AA" Pro U.S. Gold Cup Champion. 1984 "AA" Pro U.S. Gold Cup Champion. 1984 National No. 1 Pro. 1986 Honda Supercup Champion. Prize: Honda Reflex Motorcycle. 1986 "AA" Pro Grandnational Champion 1986 National No. 1 Pro. Prize: 1986 GMC Chevrolet S-15 4X4 truck. 1988 Pro U.S. Gold Cup East Champion. 1989 Pro Cruiser Grandnational Chimpion 1991 Pro U.S. Gold Cup West Champion. 1991 "AA" Pro Grandnational Champion 1991 National No. 1 Pro. Loncarevich won a 1991 Isuzu mini pick-up truck. 1992 "King of Los Angeles"* (KOLA) series (ABA sanctioned). 1992 Pro Supercup Champion. He won a US$5,000 trip for two to Tahiti. 1992 "AA" Pro Grandnational Champion 1992 National No. 1 Pro. He won a red 1992 Izusu pickup truck. 1995 Veteran Pro Grandnational Champion *The King of Los Angeles was a pro series of seven races held at ABA tracks in the Southern California/Los Angeles area hastily put together on the same weekend to counter the debut and emergence of a new and as it turned out short live sanctioning body called the International Cycling Association (ICA) (which was founded in part by Pro racer Greg Hill) which was holding its first event, the Cowboy National in Dallas, Texas, during that same weekend. The ABA paid some top pro racers including Pete Loncarevich to participate along with putting up a US$7,000 pro purse. Terry Tenette was the only elite top pro to attend the inaugural ICA national. United States Bicycle Motocross Association (USBA) 1986 National No. 1 Pro International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF) 1987 20" Pro Vision Street Wear World Cup* Champion 1990 Pro World Champion *The Vision Street Wear World Cup was the direct descendant of the Murry World Cup. Murray stopped sponsoring the World Cup after the fifth 1986 edition due to the failure of Murray of Ohio bicycle company and the NBL to come to an agreement about the sponsorship fee Murray would have had to pay the NBL. If Murray continued its sponsor ship, the 1987 addition would have been the sixth (VI) in the series. Pro Series Championships and Invitationals Bicross de Paris 1986 Challenge Yop Champion (King of Bercy 3) The 1986 Paris Yoplait BMX Challenge was an invitational race sponsored and promoted by the Yoplait Yogurt company in which American and English pros as well as French pros were brought together to compete in a single race. As is typical in Europe, the public had greater enthusiasm for BMX than the American public, in part because bicycle racing of any type was and is much more popular in Europe (and in Asia and South America as well) than in the United States. As with the 1985 addition, which Tommy Brackens won, it was a hit in France with tickets sold out two months in advance. BMX related product lines 1984: The CW Racing "Pistol Pete" Pro Frame. Product evaluation: BMX Action August 1984 Vol.9 No.8 pg.50 1992: Applied Tectonics Inc. (ATi) "The Pistol Grip" handlebar hand grips. Product evaluation: Notable accolades 1986 BMX Plus! Racer of the Year Award winner with 35.07% of the total 2,997 votes cast. Prize won: A 1986 Suzuki Quad sport four wheel drive All Terrain Vehicle (ATV), also known as a Quad Bike or Quad Cycle, essentially a motocross motorcycle with four wheels instead of just two. 1987 BMX Plus! Racer of the Year Award winner with 36.92% of the total 2,925 votes cast. Prize won: A Suzuki RM125 motocross motorcycle. 1988 BMX Action Number One Racer Award (NORA) winner. No vote totals or breakdown given. 1992 BMX Plus! Racer of the Year Award winner. No percentage or total vote given. Prize won: An Ovation Celebrity Deluxe Guitar. Very appropriate given his Rockabilly hobby. In 1992 American BMXer, the ABA's in-house tabloid newspaper formerly called ABA Action and now known as BMXer named Loncarevich the greatest Racer of all time. He was also named Golden Crank "Pro of the Year" in the First Annual Reader's Choice Award for 1992 with 23% of the vote. Named the 1993 ABA BMXer Golden Crank "Racer of the Year" 1993 BMX Plus! Racer of the Year Award winner. No percentage or total vote given. Apparently no prize was given. Pete Loncarevich is a 1997 ABA BMX Hall of Fame Inductee. His four ABA "No. 1 pro" titles are only matched by Gary Ellis. Significant BMX related injuries Broken arm at a race in New Jersey in 1980. Injured knee at 1981 Jag World Championships in a collision with teammate Eddy King in Trophy Dash. Required surgery and was laid up for six months. Broke collar bone on October 25, 1987, at the ABA Western Regional Gold Cup in Reno, Nevada, five weeks before 1987 ABA Grand national. Was told he would be out three months by doctors, but Peter did not want to miss the Grands. He contacted a renowned sports medicine doctor that involved a 12-hour a day at a cost of $1000 per diem in an effort to retain. He attempted to race and made it as far as the semi-finals, but did not transfer to the main. Broke two ribs while training on his bike on July 4, 1988, while visiting his cousin in Ohio. Laid up approximately a month. His first race back was the 1988 US Gold Cup Championships East event held in Mississippi. Sprained ankle playing basketball between the two weeks of January 24 and January 27, 1990, missing the ABA Lonestar Nationals held on the weekend of January 27. Other activities Music During his amateur BMX career he was a member of a Rockabilly band singing and playing guitar in Orange County, California. Due to racing commitments he had to leave it but he still played during his leisure time. By most accounts he was very good. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu In his early twenties he began studying Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) and other martial arts. He is now a 3rd degree black belt in BJJ under Joe Moreira. He has won a couple of titles including coming in first in the Black Belt Senior 1 Male Lightweight class at the 2006 Pan American Championship held by the International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation under the Brazilian Confederation (CBJJ). Pete Loncarevich now teaches BJJ out of the Lotus Club in Medford, Oregon. BMX magazine covers Bicycle Motocross News: None Minicycle/BMX Action & Super BMX: May 1984 Vol.11 No.5. (SBMX) February 1985 Vol.12 No.2. Also posing in centerfold with actress Debbie Sue Voorhees. (SBMX&F) September 1985 Vol.10 No.9 with Greg Hill and Harry Leary. (BMXA) December 1985 Vol.12 No.12 in insert with unidentified racer. Main image Ron Wilkerson. (SBMX&F) March 1986 Vol.13 No.3 (SBMX&F) November 1988 Vol.15 No.11 with teammate Mike King in insert. In separate inserts Eric Carter; Jeff Donnell & Charlie Davidson; freestyler Eddie Fiola. (SBMXF) Bicycle Motocross Action & Go: July 1988 Vol.13 No.7 (BMXA) December 1991 Vol.3 Iss.2 In inset Keith Treanor. (Go) BMX Plus!: April 1984 Vol.7 No.4 in inset. In separate insets D.D. Leone, freestyler Mike Dominguez; and Richie Anderson. July 1984 Vol.7 No.7 behind Stu Thomsen with Brian Patterson in third. In insets Mercury Morgan (top "rip"), freestyler Mike Dominguez (circle). December 1984 Vol.7 No.12 (73) in insert ahead of Anthony Sewell (13) (bottom center) In other inserts Eric Rupe (22) & Clearance Perry (20) (top center); freestylers Mike Dominguez (top left); Woody Itson (top right); Rick Avella (bottom left); Ron Wilkerson with Shawn Buckley clowning around. May 1985 Vol.8 No.5 in insert with Gary Ellis, Tommy Brackens, Ronnie Anderson & Eddy King; Scott Clark in circular insert; Martin Aparijo insert; and Chris Meier as main image. August 1985 Vol.8 No.8 with Mike Miranda, Scott Clark, Harry Leary, Robert Fehd & Billy Griggs in separate inserts and together on a starting line in the top insert. December 1985 Vol.8 No.12 with Gary Ellis (9) and Tommy Brackens (3). Also Dizz Hicks and Brian Scura (building quarter pipe) in separate inserts. February 1986 Vol.9 No.2 behind of Mike Miranda. Inset Sidehackers Perez & Garrido. March 1986 Vol.9 No.3 in top insert (1) ahead of Frank Post (18) Ronnie Anderson (3) Eddy King (7) Don Johle (10) and Brian Patterson (6) in bottom right insert skateboarder Lester Kasai and in bottom left insert freestyler Mike Dominguez. In main image both Dominguez and Kasai. October 1986 Vol.9 No.10 in bottom insert (3) ahead of Eric Rupe (2), Eddy King (6); in upper insert left to right is Robby Rupe, Scott Towne, Billy Griggs, Dave Cullinan & Tim Ebbett. Main image Todd Anderson. February 1987 Vol.10 No.2. (2) in insert behind Mike Miranda (5) and beside Eddy King (6). In separate insert top freestyler Martin Aparijo frame standing on MX motorcycle. Main Image: Freestyler Rich Sigur April 1987 Vol.10 No.4 In bottom insert (2) with Rick Palmer (13 in green) & Ken Aman (13 in blue) in top insert freestyler Tod Anderson. Main image freestyler Tim Rogers. June 1987 Vol.10 No.6 ahead of Stu Thomsen in insert. In cartoon caricature at bottom Ron Anderson. Main image: freestyler Tim Rodgers. October 1991 Vol.14 No.10 with Gary Ellis, Todd Corbitt & Steve Veltman. July 1992 Vol.15 No.7 (1) in left center insert ahead of Gary Ellis (2)and two unidentifies (4) & (13). In right center insert unidentifieds; in bottom insert unidentifieds; in top insert freestyler Matt Hoffman December 1992 Vol.15 No.12 in top insert in a dead tie with Gary Ellis (2) in center and Charles Townsend (3) in background. In right center insert Tim Judge ; in bottom left insert unidentified BMXer and MXer. Main image freestylers Brian Blyther & Ron Wilkerson in 1986. March 1994 Vol.17 No.3 Fifth from right (head obscured) on the starting gate with fellow pros on his left side Brian Lopes (5), Mike King, Eric Carter (25), Steve Veltman and to Loncarevich's right an unidentified racer. In top insert Haro Monocoque BMX racing bicycle. Total BMX: Bicycles and Dirt: January 1984 Vol.2 No.4 (A) with Clint Miller just inside of the frame to the left. Snap BMX Magazine & Transworld BMX: NBA World & NBmxA World (The official NBA/NBmxA membership publication): Bicycles Today & BMX Today (The official NBL membership publication with one name change): ABA Action, American BMXer, BMXer (The official ABA membership publication with two name changes): USBA Racer (The official USBA membership publication): October 1986 (16) with two unidentified racers. This cover was page 55 within the October 1986 Vol.8 No.9 issue of the ABA's American BMXer. The USBA paper was incorporated into American BMXer after the ABA acquired* the USBA, so technically it is not a cover but probably would have been if the USBA was still an independent sanctioning body. *After the ABA acquired the USBA the ABA printed USBA Racer within American BMXer beginning with the May 1986 issue. USBA Racer (as an independent publication): BMX and general media interviews and articles LRP Products by Pete Loncarevich Super BMX March 1982 Vol.9 No.3 pg.74 article about Loncarevich Racing Products, Pete's family owned BMX company. "Pete Loncarevich:"Pistol Pete" Shoots from the Hip" BMX Plus! April 1984 Vol.7 No.4 pg.48 "Devonshire" BMX Action July 1984 Vol.9 No.7 pg.26. One of eight mini-interviews with other racers held during the 1984 Devonshire Downs NBL race. "Five minutes with Pete himself" BMX Action August 1984 Vol.9 No.8 pg.52 "Unquestionably Pete!" Super BMX September 1984 Vol.11 No.9 pg.16 "Pete Loncarevich's Last Lap At Lubbock" Bicycles and Dirt September 1984 Vol.2 No.10 pg.52 Mini sidebar with Loncarevich describing how best to race the 1983 ABA Lonestar National track in Lubbock, Texas. "Round Table Blabbin' With ABA Numero Uno Pro, Pistol Pete Loncarevich" BMX Action June 1985 Vol.10 No.6 pg.26 "Pistol Pete: Gunning for Glory" BMX Plus! August 1985 Vol.8 No.8 pg.59 "How I Won the ABA Number One Pro Plate" Super BMX & Freestyle September 1985 Vo.12 No.9 pg.36 Story written by Pete Loncarevich "A Tale Of Two Champions" Super BMX & Freestyle December 1985 Vol.12 No.12 pg.26 Duel interview with Pete Loncarevich and Greg Hill on how they did at the 1985 NBL Grand Nationals. "Peter!" Super BMX & Freestyle January 1987 Vol.14 No.1 pg.47 "Pistol Pete's Training Plan" BMX Plus! March 1987 Vol.10 No.3 pg.40 "Peter Loncarevich" BMX Action December 1987 Vol.12 No.12 pg.14 "Hill & Loncarevich" BMX Plus! May 1988 Vol.11 No.5 pg.140 A joint interview with Greg Hill & Pete Loncarevich. "The Pistol Goes Off" Go Magazine December 1991 Vol.3 Issue 2 pg.18 "On the Air With BMX Plus! A BMX talk show?" BMX Plus! March 1992 Vol.15 No.3 pg.62. Partial transcript of radio show interview with Pete Loncarevich, Todd Anderson and Freestyler Dave Voelker. Vans' Grand Slam! Taking a stand on BMX!" BMX Plus! April 1992 Vol.15 No.4 pg.32 Interviews with Loncarevich and his team mates Terry Tenette, Steve Veltman and Racer/Team Manager Everette Rosecrans. "Bang, Bang The Pistol Fires Twice More" side bar. BMX Plus! June 1992 Vol.15 No.6 pg.19 "Pistol Pete Speaks" BMX Plus! July 1993 Vol.16 No.7 pg.64 Detailed article on Loncarevich's career. "Back In Action: Pete Loncarevich" Snap BMX Magazine July 2000 Vol.7 Iss.7 No.45 pg.87 mini interview about his return to BMX competition. "Flashback: Pete Loncarevich" Transworld BMX March 2003 Vol.10 Iss.3 No.77 pg.30 Post BMX Career After BMX, Pete went on to have a major career in mountain biking, and after that, he, for a short time, was the team manager for the west coast Razor Scooter pro team, touring the world for such events as the Panasonic Core Tour, and various promotional demos. Mountain Bike (MTB) career Like many of his fellow BMX top amateurs and pros, Pete Loncarevich tried his hand at mountain bike racing (MTB) late in his BMX career. In 1994 Loncarevich moved on in such a manner to MTB after essentially winning everything there was to win in BMX and getting bored as this 1998 Dirtrag.com interview excerpt illustrates: Fraser: So how come you decided to switch to downhill mountain biking from BMX? Pete: Ah, because I'd accomplished all the goals that I'd accomplished more than three times. So I was, like, you know, wasn't really accomplishing anything that I hadn't already accomplished so I wanted to move, you know? I didn't want to be just a BMX racer my whole life. So that's where I switched to downhill Mountain biking. It was new to me; it was like BMX when I first started. Fraser: So you were basically bored riding BMX? Pete: Exactly! ----dirtrag.com 1998 He went on to have a career almost as successful racing mountain bikes as he did racing BMX, earning several titles starting in 1992. His main MTB discipline is in the Downhill category. Started Racing: 1994 Sub Discipline: Downhill First race result: Sanctioning Body: Retired: Career MTB Sponsors Note: This listing only denotes the racer's primary sponsors. At any given time a racer could have numerous co-sponsors. Primary sponsorships can be verified by MTB press coverage and sponsor's advertisements at the time in question. When possible exact dates are given. Amateur No amateur status Professional Vans/Pro Forx: 1993- ParkPre Bicycles (Integra Precision Corporation): 1993- Vans (Van Doren Rubber Co.)/Iron Horse Bicycle Company: 1999- ParkPre Bicycles: 2000- Career MTB racing titles Note: Listed are Regional, National, and International titles. Amateur No amateur status. Because of his previous status of being a professional in BMX racing, he was placed into the professional class of MTB immediately. Professional Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) 1996 Mountain Bike World Cup 1998 Masters World Downhill Championships Men's 30-39 Mont-Sainte-Anne, CAN 3rd. Men's Master US National Team included: Lou DeAngelis, Tommy Rogers, Mike Giem, Pete Loncarevich, Jimmy Deaton, Stephen Sturges, and Greg Herbold. 1999 Masters World Downhill Champion (4' 41.88" beating Pete Zablotny by over 10 seconds) Significant MTB related injuries MTB magazine covers Mountain Bike Action: MTB and general media interviews and articles Notes External links Pete Loncarevich MTB racing shot from Parkpre site. American Bicycle Association (ABA) website National Bicycle League (NBL) website 1966 births Living people Sportspeople from Lake Forest, California BMX riders Downhill mountain bikers American male cyclists People from Central Point, Oregon American mountain bikers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura%20Knight
Laura Knight
Dame Laura Knight ( Johnson; 4 August 1877 – 7 July 1970) was an English artist who worked in oils, watercolours, etching, engraving and drypoint. Knight was a painter in the figurative, realist tradition, who embraced English Impressionism. In her long career, Knight was among the most successful and popular painters in Britain. Her success in the male-dominated British art establishment paved the way for greater status and recognition for women artists. In 1929 she was created a Dame, and in 1936 became the third woman elected to full membership of the Royal Academy. Her large retrospective exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1965 was the first for a woman. Knight was known for painting amidst the world of the theatre and ballet in London, and for being a war artist during the Second World War. She was also greatly interested in, and inspired by, marginalised communities and individuals, including Romani people and circus performers. Biography Early life Laura Johnson was born in Long Eaton, Derbyshire, the youngest of the three daughters of Charles and Charlotte Johnson. Her father abandoned the family not long after her birth, and Knight grew up amid financial problems. Her grandfather owned a lace-making factory but the advent of new technology led to the business going bankrupt. The family had relations in northern France who were also in the lace-making business and in 1889 Knight was sent to them with the intention that she would eventually study art at a Parisian atelier. After a miserable time in French schools, the bankruptcy of her French relations forced Knight to return to England. Charlotte Johnson taught part-time at the Nottingham School of Art, and managed to have Knight enrolled as an 'artisan student' there, paying no fees, aged just 13. At the age of fifteen, and still a student herself, Knight took over her mother's teaching duties when Charlotte was diagnosed with cancer and became seriously ill. Later, Laura won a scholarship and the gold medal in the national student competition held by the then South Kensington Museum. She continued to give private lessons after she left the School of Art, as both she and her sister Evangeline Agnes, known as Sissie, had been left to live alone on very little money, after the deaths of their mother, their sister Nellie and both their grandmothers. At the School of Art, Laura met one of the most promising students, Harold Knight, then aged 17, and determined that the best method of learning was to copy Harold's technique. They became friends, and married in 1903. Staithes and Laren In 1894, the couple visited Staithes on the Yorkshire coast, for a holiday and soon returned, accompanied by her sister Evangeline Agnes, to live and work there. In Staithes Laura drew the people of the fishing village and the surrounding farms, showing the hardship and poverty of their lives. She made studies, paintings and watercolours, often painting in muted, shadowy tones. Lack of money for expensive materials meant she produced few oil paintings at this time. Local children would sit for her, for pennies, giving her the opportunity to develop her figure painting technique. Less successful at this time were her landscape and thematic works. Although she painted on the moors, high inland from Staithes, she did not consider herself successful at resolving these studies into finished pieces. Later she recalled: Laura Johnson and Harold Knight married in 1903 and made their first trip to the Netherlands in 1904. They spent six weeks there that year and six months there in 1905. They visited the artists colony at Laren. The colony was a group of followers of the Hague School of artists who had been painting in remote rural communities since the 1850s. The Knights made a third trip to Laren in 1906 before spending that winter in Yorkshire. Cornwall In late 1907 the Knights moved to Cornwall, staying first in Newlyn, before moving to the nearby village of Lamorna. There, alongside Lamorna Birch and Alfred Munnings, they became central figures in the artists colony known as the Newlyn School. By March 1908 both had work exhibited at the Newlyn Art Gallery and Harold Knight was an established professional portrait painter, while Laura Knight was still developing her art. Around Newlyn the Knights found themselves among a group of sociable and energetic artists, which appears to have allowed the more vivid and dynamic aspects of Laura's personality to come to the fore. Laura Knight spent the summer of 1908 working on the beaches at Newlyn making studies for her large painting of children in bright sunlight. The Beach was shown at the Royal Academy in 1909, and was considered a great success, showing Laura painting in a more Impressionist style than she had displayed previously. Around this time she began painting compositions of women in the open air, in the plein-air manner, often on the rocks or cliff-tops around Lamorna. Knight would sometimes use models from London who were prepared to pose nude. Although there was some resentment locally about this, the landowner, Colonel Paynter of Boskenna, was fully supportive and allowed Knight and the other artists a free rein. Daughters of the Sun, which showed several women, some naked, sitting by a coastal inlet was completed in 1911 and well received when shown at the Royal Academy. It is now only known from photographs but was considered to be a challenge to the then prevailing attitudes towards female nudity and aroused considerable controversy when included in a touring exhibition. The painting was badly damaged during World War I and was eventually destroyed by mould. In recent years, examples of Knight's plein-air compositions from Cornwall have attracted high prices at auction. Another work from this time is The Green Feather, which Knight painted outdoors in a single day, and reworked due to a change in the weather, which shows the model Dolly Snell in an emerald evening dress with a hat and a large feather. Knight sent the painting to an international exhibition held at the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh and it was purchased by the National Gallery of Canada for £400. Knight started the vast painting Lamorna Birch and his Daughters in 1913, painting in a wood in the Lamorna Valley but then kept the painting unfinished in her studio until finally completing it in 1934, the same year Birch was elected a full member of the Royal Academy. Self Portrait with Nude In 1913 Knight made a painting that was a first for a woman artist, Self Portrait with Nude, showing herself painting a nude model, the artist Ella Naper. The painting is a complex, formal composition in a studio setting. Using mirrors, Knight painted herself and Naper as seen by someone entering the studio behind them both. As an art student Knight had not been permitted to directly paint nude models but, like all female art students in England at the time, was restricted to working from casts and copying existing drawings. Knight deeply resented this, and Self Portrait with Nude is a clear challenge, and reaction, to those rules. The painting was first shown in 1913 at the Passmore Edwards Art Gallery in Newlyn, and was well received by both the local press and other artists. Although the Royal Academy rejected the painting for exhibition, it was shown at the International Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers in London, as The Model. The Daily Telegraphs critic called the painting "vulgar", and suggested that it "might quite appropriately have stayed in the artist's studio". Despite this reaction, Knight continued to exhibit the painting throughout her career, and it continued to receive press criticism. After Knight's death the picture, now known simply as Self Portrait (1913), was purchased by the National Portrait Gallery, and is now considered both a key work in the story of female self-portraiture and as symbolic of wider female emancipation. In 2015, Simon Schama described the painting as a "masterpiece" and "incomparably, her greatest work, all at once conceptually complex, heroically independent, formally ingenious and lovingly sensual." First World War Knight worked with Ella Naper, who was experienced in enameling techniques, to produce a set of small enamel pieces featuring several ballet dancers, which were shown at the Fine Art Society in London in 1915. Wartime censorship during the First World War included restrictions on sketching and painting around the British coastline, which caused problems for Knight, particularly when painting Spring. Special painting and sketching permits available after 1915 allowed her to continue her paintings of cliff-top landscapes. These were often depicted as relaxed summer scenes but some of her works, particularly those painted after the start of World War I, of a lone woman on a clifftop staring down at a turbulent sea had a darker undertone. Spring was shown at the Royal Academy in 1916 but later reworked. Several others were completed from studies in the Knights' first London studio after they moved to the capital in 1919. Also in 1916 Knight received a £300 commission to paint a canvas for the Canadian Government War Records office on the theme of Physical Training in a Camp, and produced a series of paintings of boxing matches at Witley in Surrey. During the war, in 1916, Harold Knight had registered as a conscientious objector and was eventually required to work as a farm labourer. Ballet Between 1911 until 1929, Knight drew and painted backstage, some of the most famous ballet dancers of the day from Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Her subjects included Lydia Lopokova, Anna Pavlova and the dance teacher Enrico Cecchetti. Knight also painted backstage, and in the dressing rooms, at several Birmingham Repertory Theatre productions. In 1924 she was commissioned to design the costumes for the ballet Les Roses. Etching In the early 1920s Knight bought Sir George Clausen's printing press and began etching. She produced 90 prints between 1923 and 1925, including a poster advertising tram travel to Twickenham for London Transport. Knight continued to produce posters for London Transport throughout her career, including one on circus clowns in 1932 and Winter Walks in 1957. In 1922, Knight made her first trip to the United States, where she served on the jury at the Pittsburgh International Exhibition of Pictures. Baltimore 1926 In 1926 Harold Knight spent several months at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, in America, painting portrait commissions of surgeons. Laura joined him there and was given permission to paint at the Baltimore Children's Hospital and in the black wards of the racially segregated Johns Hopkins Hospital. Whilst in Baltimore Knight painted a nurse, Pearl Johnson, who took her to meetings and concerts of the early American civil rights movement. Knight also hired a mother and child model to pose for the composition originally known as the Madonna of the Cotton Fields. Knight took these paintings back to London with her and they feature in the Pathé newsreel produced to mark her election as an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1927. Another portrait of Johnson, Irene and Pearl, shows two women against a backdrop of skyscrapers and was one of a number of portraits Knight painted in the late 1920s that appear strikingly modern. Miss Ealand, shown at the Royal Academy in 1928, depicts a woman with cropped hair wearing a jacket and holding a shotgun. The same year Knight's portrait of a woman saxophone player was displayed at the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC. Circus folk In the early 1920s Knight visited the Bertram Mills Circus at Olympia in West London. Mills' circus was a highly polished show with internationally renowned performers. Knight painted some of these performers, such as the clown Whimsical Wilson, several times. Charivari or The Grand Parade, exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1929, depicts practically the entire circus cast of performers and animals. Throughout 1929 and 1930, she went on a tour of Britain with the combined Bertram Mills and Great Carmo's Circus. Painting within a working circus forced Knight to paint at great speed, as the performers rarely had much time to pose. Knight responded by painting directly onto the canvas without any preliminary drawing. Whilst this led to some of her circus scenes appearing 'flat', her paintings of small groups of clowns, such as The Three Clowns (1930) and Old Time Clowns (1957), were much more successful. Her Circus Folk exhibition, at the Alpine Club in 1930, was heavily criticised in art journals, but her paintings of more mundane subjects, such as domestic interiors and London streets, were highly praised. Notable works from this period include Susie and the Wash-basin (1927), Blue and Gold (1927), A Cottage Bedroom (1929) and Spring in St. John's Wood (1933). Two of her circus designs were among the winning entries in a 1933 competition run by Cadbury's for a series of chocolate box designs and which were displayed at the Leicester Galleries in London. In 1934 Knight developed a series of circus designs for the Modern Art for the Table tableware range produced by Clarice Cliff. Recognition At the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam Knight won the Silver Medal in Painting with the painting Boxer (1917), one of the series she had painted at Witley in 1916. In 1929 Knight was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, and in June 1931 she received an honorary degree from St. Andrews University. Knight was elected president of the Society of Women Artists in 1932 and held the post until 1967. In 1936 she became the first woman since 1769 elected to full membership of the Royal Academy. The same year Knight published her first autobiography, Oil Paint and Grease Paint, which became a best-seller, with four hardback editions followed in 1941 by a Penguin paperback printing. From 1933 the Knights became regular visitors to Malvern, Worcestershire, making an annual visit to the Malvern Festival, which had been established by their friend Barry Jackson. During one such visit Knight met George Bernard Shaw and painted his portrait. A blue plaque at the Mount Pleasant Hotel on Belle Vue Terrace, Great Malvern, commemorates the time the Knights spent in the area. They found much inspiration for their work in the Malvern Hills and in the surrounding countryside and by the start of World War Two the couple were living at Colwall in Herefordshire. Gypsies In the mid-1930s Knight befriended and painted groups of Gypsies at the Epsom and Ascot racecourses. Knight frequently returned to the racecourses and painted from the back of an antique Rolls-Royce car, which was large enough to accommodate her easel. Often pairs of Gypsy women would pose at the open door of the Rolls-Royce, with the race-day crowds in the background. From Epsom, Knight was invited to the Gypsy settlement at Iver in Buckinghamshire. Knight visited the Iver settlement, normally closed to outsiders, every day for several months in the late 1930s. These visits resulted in a series of portraits of great intensity. Two women, in particular, sat a number of times for Knight: Lilo Smith, the subject of Old Gypsy Women (1938) and Gypsy Splendour (1939), and her daughter-in-law, Beulah. Gypsy Splendour was shown at the Royal Academy in 1939, the year Lilo Smith died. Second World War In September 1939 Knight was asked to produce a recruitment poster for the Women's Land Army, WLA. Knight hired two Suffolk Punch horses and a plough from a farmer and painted them outdoors in a cherry orchard on Averills' farm in Worcestershire. Her original design for the WLA poster was rejected for placing too much emphasis on the horses rather than the women working. A new design, with a single woman, was accepted. Knight painted her 1940 Royal Academy entry, January 1940, showing a similar scene at the same time. During the Second World War, Knight was an official war artist, contracted by the War Artists' Advisory Committee on several short-term commissions. Among the works Knight produced for these commissions were: Corporal J. D. M. Pearson, GC, WAAF (1940) – shows Corporal Daphne Pearson of the Women's Auxiliary Air Force, WAAF, a recipient of the Empire Gallantry Medal, later exchanged for the George Cross. Pearson, at Knight's insistence, sat for the portrait holding a rifle; as WAAF personal were not allowed to carry arms on duty, Knight had to paint over the rifle, which was replaced by a gas mask in the finished painting, with the hands positioned as if still holding a rifle. Corporal J. M. Robins (1940) – Robins was awarded the Military Medal for the courage she showed in assisting the wounded when a shelter was directly hit by a bomb during an attack on RAF Andover. WAAC had requested that Knight paint Robins as part of a group of medal-winning women, but Knight refused. In For Repairs (1941) – showing a partly inflated barrage balloon being repaired by several members of the Women's Auxiliary Air Force at Wythall, near Birmingham. The painting was shown at the Royal Academy in 1941. Corporal Elspeth Henderson and Sergeant Helen Turner (1941) – Henderson and Turner were both awarded the Military Medal for staying at their post when the building they were in received a direct hit from a bomb during an air raid on RAF Biggin Hill. Although painted in Knight's studio in Malvern, the painting shows the two women on duty at their airfield. A Balloon Site, Coventry (1943) – shows a team of women hoisting a barrage balloon into position with the chimneys of industrial Coventry in the background surrounding the spire of Coventry Cathedral. WAAC commissioned the work as a propaganda tool to recruit women for Balloon Command, and Knight's composition succeeds in making the work appear both heroic and glamorous. Ruby Loftus Screwing a Breech-ring (1943) – in the autumn of 1942 the WAAC commissioned Knight to paint a portrait to bolster female recruitment to the ordnance factories, as the Ministry of Supply were concerned at the level of disaffection and absenteeism among women working in the factories. The resulting painting is one of the largest oil paintings in the entire WAAC collection, and the largest single figure portrait it acquired throughout the war. The painting was first shown on 30 April 1943 at the Royal Academy and the next day was reproduced in eight British newspapers. The painting, along with Knight and Loftus, also featured in a British Paramount News short film shown in cinemas, and was reproduced in a poster version by WAAC. The success of the painting led to further industrial commissions for Knight throughout the 1940s. In 1945 she painted Switch Works at Ellison Switchgear in Birmingham. This was followed by paintings of operations at the Dow Mac concrete railway-sleeper works and at the Skefko ball bearing factory. Take Off (1944) – a large and complex group portrait of four from the seven-man crew of a Short Stirling bomber, deep in concentration, preparing for a flight, which Knight painted over several months at RAF Mildenhall. Knight lived in the WAAF Officers' Mess while on the base, and the RAF gave her the use of an obsolete Stirling to work in while preparing the painting. When Knight learned that the navigator in the picture, Raymond Frankish Escreet, had been killed in action, she arranged that his family received a photograph of the painting. In total, Knight had seventeen completed paintings, together with numerous studies, accepted by the WAAC, most of which were exhibited in the National Gallery or the Royal Academy during the war. Throughout the war Knight also continued taking private commissions, usually for individual or family portraits. The most notable war-time example of these is the composition, Betty and William Jacklin showing a mother and child, along with their pet rabbit and the Malvern countryside in background, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1942, beside In for Repairs. Nuremberg 1946 In the aftermath of the war Knight proposed to the War Artists' Advisory Committee the Nuremberg war crimes trials as a subject. The Committee agreed, and Knight went to Germany in January 1946 and spent three months observing the main trial from inside the courtroom. The result was the large oil painting, The Nuremberg Trial. This painting departs from the realism of her wartime paintings, in that, whilst apparently realistically depicting the Nazi war criminals sitting in the dock, the rear and side walls of the courtroom are missing, to reveal a ruined city, partially in flames. Knight explained this choice of composition in a letter to the War Artists' Advisory Committee: The painting was coolly received at the subsequent Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, but was greatly praised by those who had witnessed the trials. Later life After the war Knight returned to her previous themes of the ballet, the circus and Gypsies, and continued to divide her time between London and Malvern. In 1948 Knight painted backstage at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, mostly observing the work of the wardrobe department, still working under austerity restrictions. The same year she painted a large group portrait of Princess Elizabeth and several civic dignitaries opening the new Broadgate Centre in Coventry. A period of illness affected her work on this commission, and, despite Knight's repainting large parts of the canvas, the finished painting was not well received. A major exhibition of over eighty works by Knight was held at the Ian Nicol Gallery in Glasgow, in 1952. The following year Knight returned to the theatre, painting and producing crayon studies, backstage at the Old Vic in London during the Birmingham Repertory Theatre's production of Henry IV, Part 1 & Part 2. Throughout this period Knight continued to exhibit at the Royal Academy each year, most notably with a portrait of Jean Rhodes, a professional strong woman known as 'The Mighty Mannequin', which when shown in 1955 led to further portrait commissions for Knight. In 1956 Knight worked backstage at the Royal Opera House during performances and rehearsals by the Bolshoi Ballet. In 1961, Harold Knight died at Colwall; the couple had been married fifty-eight years. Knight's second autobiography, The Magic of a Line was published in 1965, to coincide with a major retrospective of her work at the Royal Academy. The exhibition, the first such for a woman at the Academy, contained over 250 works, and was followed in 1968 and 1969 by further retrospective exhibitions at the Upper Grosvenor Galleries. Knight died on 7 July 1970, aged 92, three days before a large exhibition of her work opened at the Nottingham Castle Art Gallery and Museum. Published works 1921: Twenty-one Drawings of the Russian Ballet 1923: Laura Knight: A Book of Drawings, with an introduction by Charles Marriott 1936: Oil Paint and Grease Paint 1962: A Proper Circus Omie 1965: The Magic of a Line Membership Knight was a member of or affiliated with the following organisations: 1907: Member of the Newlyn Society of Artists, 1909: Elected associate of the Royal Watercolour Society, 1913: Elected member of Royal West of England Academy, 1925: Elected member of Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 1927: Elected associate of the Royal Academy, 1928: Elected full member of the Royal Watercolour Society, 1932: Elected full member of Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 1932: President of Society of Women Artists, 1932: Elected Fellow of Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, 1936: Elected full member of the Royal Academy, 1960: Elected Member of the Royal Society of Portrait Painters. Exhibitions Exhibitions of her work held during Knight's life included: 1901: Exhibits at the Royal Institute of Oil Painters, 1903: Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, also in 1906 and then regularly from 1909, 1906: Dutch Life and Landscape, Ernst Brown & Phillip's Leicester Galleries, 1907: Life and Landscape, Ernst Brown & Phillip's Leicester Galleries, 1910: Venice Biennale, and again in 1914 and 1924, 1912: Leicester Galleries, also 1926, 1928, 1932, 1934 and 1939, 1912: Carnegie International, Pittsburg, and in 1914 and 1922, 1915: Fine Art Society, with Ella Naper and Lamorna Birch, 1918: Camp Life and Other Paintings, Leicester Galleries, 1920: Pictures of the Russian Ballet, Leicester Galleries, 1920: Pictures of Modern Artists, Manchester City Art Gallery, 1922: Alpine Club Galleries, 1930: Circus Folk, Alpine Club Galleries, 1931: Usher Gallery, Lincoln, 1931: Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, 1933: Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle upon Tyne, 1934: Nottingham Castle Museum, 1963: Upper Grosvenor Galleries, and also in 1968 and 1969, 1965: Diploma Galleries, Royal Academy, Posthumous exhibitions 1970: Nottingham Castle Museum, 1983: Edition Graphique Gallery, London, 1985: Painting in Newlyn 1900–1930, Newlyn Art Gallery then at the Barbican Art Gallery, 1988: David Messum Fine Art, 1989: Nottingham Castle Museum, 1991: David Messum Fine Art, 1996: Women Artists in Cornwall 1880–1940, Falmouth Art Gallery, 2005: Painting at the Edge, Penlee House Gallery, 2006: From Victorian to Modern..., Djanogly Art Gallery and on tour, 2008: Laura Knight at the Theatre, The Lowry and on tour, 2008: The Magic of a Line: Drawings by Dame Laura Knight, R.A., Library Print Room, Royal Academy of Arts, then at Penlee House Gallery in 2008, 2012: Laura Knight: In the Open Air, Penlee House Gallery and on tour, 2013: Laura Knight Portraits, National Portrait Gallery, London, then Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle and Plymouth City Museum and Art Gallery in 2014 2021: Laura Knight: A Panoramic View, Milton Keynes Gallery, 160 works displayed, 9 October 2021 – 20 February 2022 Notes References Further reading Janet Dunbar, Laura Knight (Collins, 1975) Alice Strickland, Laura Knight - Modern Women Artists (Eiderdown Books, 2019) Helen Valentine, Laura Knight: A Working Life (Royal Academy of Arts, 2022) External links Works by Laura Knight in the Imperial War Museum collection. Poster designs by Knight in the London Transport Museum collection. 1877 births 1970 deaths 20th-century English painters 20th-century English women artists Alumni of Nottingham School of Art Artists from Nottingham British war artists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English autobiographers English women painters Lamorna Art colony Newlyn School of Artists Olympic competitors in art competitions Olympic silver medalists in art competitions People from Long Eaton Royal Academicians Royal Society of Portrait Painters Women autobiographers Women of the Victorian era World War II artists Society of Women Artists members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roar%20%28film%29
Roar (film)
Roar is a 1981 American adventure comedy film written and directed by Noel Marshall, and produced by Marshall and Tippi Hedren. Roars story follows Hank, a naturalist who lives on a nature preserve in Africa with lions, tigers, and other big cats. When his family visits him, they are instead confronted by the group of animals. The film stars Marshall as Hank, his real-life wife Tippi Hedren as his wife Madeleine, with Hedren's daughter Melanie Griffith and Marshall's sons John and Jerry Marshall in supporting roles. In 1969, while Hedren was filming Satan's Harvest in Mozambique, she and Marshall had occasion to observe a pride of lions move into a recently vacated house, driven by increased poaching. They decided to make a film centered around that theme, with production starting when the first script was completed in 1970. They began bringing rescued big cats into their homes in California and living with them. Filming began in 1976; it was finished after five years. The film was fully completed after 11 years in production. Roar was not initially released in North America. Instead, in 1981, Noel and John Marshall released it internationally. It was also acquired by Filmways Pictures and Alpha Films. Despite performing well in Germany and Japan, Roar was a box office failure, grossing $2 million worldwide against a $17 million budget. In 2015, 34 years after the film's original release, it was released in theaters in the United States by Drafthouse Films. Roar message of protection for African wildlife as well as its animal interactions were praised by critics, but its plot, story, inconsistent tone, dialogue, and editing were criticized. The cast and crew members of Roar faced dangerous situations during filming; seventy people, including the film's stars, were injured as a result of multiple animal attacks. Flooding from a dam destroyed much of the set and equipment during its production, and the film's budget increased drastically. In 1983, Hedren founded the Roar Foundation and established the Shambala Preserve sanctuary, to house the animals appearing in the film. She also wrote a book, The Cats of Shambala (1985), about the events that took place during its production. The film has been described as "the most dangerous film ever made" and "the most expensive home movie ever made", and has gained a cult following. Plot American naturalist Hank (Noel Marshall) lives on a nature preserve in Tanzania with a collection of big cats to study their behavior. Although he is due to pick up his wife Madeleine (Tippi Hedren) and their children John, Jerry, and Melanie (Melanie Griffith) from the airport to bring them to his home, he is delayed by his friend Mativo (Kyalo Mativo) warning him that a committee is coming to review his grant. As he shows Mativo around his ranch and the rest of the preserve while they wait, Hank explains the nature of the lion pride and their fear of Togar, a rogue lion who often quarrels with the pride's leader, Robbie. Hank asks Mativo to help keep the pride safe. The grant committee arrives. One of its members, Prentiss (Steve Miller), disapproves of the big cats and threatens to shoot them. A fight between two lions distracts Hank; he breaks it up despite having his hand bitten. While Hank is bandaging his hand, the tigers attack members of the committee and injure some of them, and, although Hank offers assistance, they leave in fear. Mativo expresses his concerns over another attack when Hank brings his family to the ranch. As they leave for the airport on Mativo's boat, two tigers jump aboard, traveling with them. Mativo steers into a log in the water, causing the craft to sink. The two men swim to safety. Madeleine, John, Jerry, and Melanie are advised by an airport attendant, Lenord (Lenord Bokwa), to board a bus. They arrive at the ranch and enter the house, realizing that it has been left unattended. When Madeleine and Jerry open the windows and doors, they are shocked to see the lions eating a zebra carcass in front of the house. The family are frightened when animals enter the house and try to escape but Togar pursues them. Jerry finds a rifle and tries to shoot Togar while he is fighting Robbie. Melanie fears that her father has been killed by the animals. Hank and Mativo—still pursued by the tigers—take two bikes from a local village. To prevent the tigers from following Hank to the airport, Mativo climbs a tree and distracts them. Hank encounters the airport attendant, who tells him that his family have taken the bus to his ranch. Hank drives back in Lenord's car and rescues Mativo from the tree. One of the car's tires is punctured on a rocky road, and Hank runs to the ranch while Mativo fends off the tigers with an umbrella. The following morning, the family board Hank's boat to try to escape, but an elephant pulls the craft back to shore and destroys it. John goes for help on Hank's motorcycle, but he is chased by the big cats, and drives into the lake. After escaping another elephant, the family swims across the lake and find another house that they use to sleep in. When they awake, they find themselves surrounded by the pride and conclude that, since they are still alive, the animals do not intend to hurt them. Prentiss tries to persuade the committee to hunt down and kill Hank's lions. Though he is unsuccessful, he and Rick (Rick Glassey), another committee member, shoot many of the big cats anyway. Eventually Togar attacks them and although Hank sees the assault and tries to intervene, the lion kills Prentiss and Rick before returning to the house to battle Robbie. Robbie stands up to Togar and the fight ends. Hank arrives at the ranch to find his family waiting for him. Mativo arrives, and Hank asks him not to mention Prentiss or Rick's death; he is introduced to Hank's family, who agree to stay for the week. Cast Noel Marshall as Hank, a naturalist who lives alongside numerous animals in Africa. Despite his lack of experience with writing and acting, Marshall, in addition to producing, directing, and financing the film, had lived with the big cats for years and understood their behavior. In Hedren's opinion, he had developed a relationship with the animals and displayed a much-needed confidence and bravery when handling them, making him the best and only plausible choice as Hank. Tippi Hedren as Madeleine, Hank's wife. Hedren was a professional actress; she had played the lead character in Alfred Hitchcock's films The Birds (1963) and Marnie (1964). She had also completed a few films in Africa. Melanie Griffith as Melanie, the daughter of Hank and Madeleine. Griffith had a promising career at the time, appearing in the films Night Moves, The Drowning Pool, and Smile (all made in 1975). She left the film after a fight between two lions, saying that she did not want to "come out of this with half a face." Although Griffith was replaced by her friend, actress Patsy Nedd, she later expressed interest in the film and reshot many scenes. John Marshall as John, the eldest son of Hank and Madeleine. John Marshall (Noel Marshall's middle son) had acted in small television roles from the age of five. Jerry Marshall as Jerry, the youngest son of Hank and Madeleine. Jerry Marshall had, like his brother, been cast in a small number of commercials but had not acted in film and television as much as John and Melanie. Kyalo Mativo as Mativo, Hank's friend and assistant zoologist. Born in Kenya, Mativo (who died on June 7, 2021) was a Kamba, and was chosen over other two men; one Senegalese and one Nigerian. He was majoring in film at UCLA, held a PhD in Developmental Journalism, wrote and directed for Voice of Kenya, and had previously acted in two German short films before taking the role, under stipulation that he "only be with those animals while [we're] filming". Expert and experienced animal trainers such as Frank Tom, Rick Glassey and Steve Miller were given acting parts as committee members attacked by tigers. Zakes Mokae plays a committee member, and Will Hutchins portrays a man in a rowboat. The untrained lions Robbie, his offspring Gary, and Togar are all credited as actors. Production Development Roar was conceived by husband and wife Noel Marshall and Tippi Hedren in 1969. Marshall was Hedren's talent agent while she starred in Satan's Harvest, which was filmed in Mozambique. Near the film set, they came across an abandoned plantation house in Gorongosa National Park which had been overrun by a pride of lions, and were told by their bus guide and local residents that animal populations were becoming endangered due to poaching; this inspired them to consider making either one or a series of films. Marshall and Hedren discussed the film with their family (Melanie Griffith, Joel, John, and Jerry Marshall), who liked the idea and agreed to participate as actors, except Joel, who preferred to be the art director and set decorator. Marshall and Hedren visited animal preserves in their free time and talked to lion experts. They learned they would have to film in the United States, as tame lions were rare in Africa. A number of lion tamers warned that it was impossible to bring a large number of big cats together on a film set. Other tamers, such as animal trainer Ron Oxley—who brought a lion named Neil over to introduce the family to big cats—suggested that they obtain their own animals, give them basic training, and gradually introduce them to each other. The Marshalls developed ideas for funding the project and estimated that the film would be completed on a budget of $3 million. Pre-production Marshall wrote the first script for the project in the spring of 1970, and gave it the working title Lions; later, he changed it to Lions, Lions and More Lions. He also enlisted the assistance of actor and voice artist Ted Cassidy, with whom he had co-written and produced The Harrad Experiment. The original script allowed for up to thirty or forty trained lions. Marshall was also inspired by Mack Sennett's slapstick routines, and decided to incorporate a mixture of comedy, drama, and moments of "stark terror" in the human and animal encounters, with an underlying message of the need for the preservation of African wildlife. Scenes where animals chase after the characters required that the actors pretend to be scared and scream, in order to trigger a reaction from the animals. The script developed with frequent changes but always allowing for inclusion of spontaneous actions by the animals, such as playing with the family's boat or riding a skateboard. This led some of the lions to be credited as writers. Marshall and Hedren began keeping young lions that they had acquired from zoos and circuses in their house in Sherman Oaks. This was illegal as they did not secure permission from the authorities beforehand—though it was before the more stringent regulations of the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The authorities discovered the animals in 1972 and ordered the family to remove them from the property. The couple purchased land in Soledad Canyon, and hired staff to construct a set along with a two-storey house inspired by African architecture. The house was supported by fourteen telephone poles which made it sturdy enough to bear the weight of fifty big cats, or . The staff was composed of non-union workers; the Marshalls did not use union workers as they were unable to afford them and were afraid of breaking union rules. A flat roof was installed on the house, the surrounding land's Californian desert characteristics were adapted to mimic Tanzania, by the planting of thousands of cottonwoods and Mozambique bushes, and a nearby creek was dammed to create a lake. A crew of five men cordoned off areas of up to with fences to prevent the animals from escaping. A miniature studio was constructed alongside numerous other buildings, such as editing rooms and a kitchen commissary. An animal hospital, elephant barn, and a freezer—to store meat for the big cats—were also constructed. Hedren operated a backhoe on the set, and was in charge of the film's wardrobe, which she described as a plain "wash-and-wear look". After Marshall took in two infant Siberian tigers and an African bull elephant named Timbo from the Okanagan Game Preserve, he decided to revise the film's script to include different animals, and changed the formerly leo-centric title to Roar. Another addition to the script involved Timbo crushing the family's rowboat, inspired by seeing the elephant destroy a metal camper shell. The family would eventually accumulate, by 1979, 71 lions, 26 tigers, a tigon, nine black panthers, 10 cougars, two jaguars, four leopards, two elephants, six black swans, four Canada geese, four cranes, two peacocks, seven flamingos, and a marabou stork; the only animal they turned down was a hippopotamus. Marshall and Hedren had to hire animal trainers when they received more lions; one trainer, Frank Tom, brought his pet cougar that needed re-homing. After six years of production had been completed, the big cats numbered about 100; the total would eventually reach 150. Issues with funding started in 1973, as by then the cost of the crew and feed for the animals was $4,000 per week. The family sold their four houses and near Magic Mountain to pay debts, and Marshall's commercial-production company went bankrupt. He had been executive producer of The Exorcist and the proceeds from that film partially funded production. The Marshalls also sold some possessions, including Hedren's fur coat, given to her by Alfred Hitchcock for her starring role in The Birds. The lack of funds meant that members of the family had to cover crew tasks and take on other work. John Marshall was an animal wrangler, set mechanic, boom operator, and camera operator; he also undertook veterinary work, such as giving vaccines and drawing blood from the animals. In a 1977 interview, Noel Marshall was asked why he took personal risks for the project: Some of the big cats were plagued with airborne illnesses; 14 lions and tigers died as a result. Filming Principal photography began on October 1, 1976, and was initially scheduled to last for six months, but filming was restricted to five months at a time because the cottonwood trees on set turned brown from November until March. Filming the big cats was difficult and frustrating; cinematographer Jan de Bont often spent hours setting up five cameras and waiting for the cats to do something that could be included in the film. This eventually led to Marshall and the crew recording footage in documentary style with up to eight Panavision 35mm cameras. One scene where Marshall and Mativo drive a 1937 Chevrolet containing two tigers took seven weeks to complete, because Glassey and Miller had to train the animals to ride in a car. Marshall often refused to stop filming because he did not want to lose a take; sometimes only one take was usable from a day's filming. The opening footage of Marshall racing a bull giraffe on a motorcycle was filmed in Kenya, with the location acknowledged in the credits. One session involved a leopard licking Hedren's face which had been coated in honey; Hedren considered it to be one of the most dangerous scenes she agreed to film as although handlers were away, they would not have been able to stop the cat from biting her. In the scenes where some of the big cats are shot and killed by hunters, the effect was achieved by filming the animals when they were tranquilized for their annual blood draw. Filming took five years to complete. Although Hedren has claimed that principal photography ended on October 16, 1979, after just over three years, additional pick-up shots were filmed in Kenya during the editing stage. The total production time was 11 years. Injuries and set damages Due to the large number of untrained animals on set, there were a reported 48 injuries within two years of the start of filming. It has been estimated that, of Roar 140-person crew, at least 70 were injured during production. In a 2015 interview, John Marshall said that he believed the number of people injured was over 100. Noel Marshall was bitten through the hand when he interacted with male lions during a fight scene; doctors initially feared that he might lose his arm. By the time he suffered eight puncture wounds on his leg caused by a lion which was curious about his anti-reflection makeup, Marshall had already been bitten around eleven times. He was hospitalized when his face and chest were injured and was diagnosed with blood poisoning. Marshall was also diagnosed with gangrene after being attacked many times. It took Marshall several years to fully recover from his injuries. During a promo shoot in 1973, Hedren was bitten in the head by a lion, Cherries, whose teeth scraped against her skull. She was taken to Sherman Oaks Hospital, where her wounds were treated and she was given a tetanus shot. She was admitted to Antelope Valley Hospital after Tembo, the five-ton elephant, picked her up by and fractured her ankle with his trunk before bucking her off his back; Hedren said that Tembo had been trying to keep her from falling and was not at fault. She was left with phlebitis and gangrene, in addition to a fractured hand and abrasions on her leg. Several days earlier Tembo had bucked his trainer into a tree and broken her shoulder. Hedren was also scratched on the arm by a leopard and bitten on the chest by a cougar. Griffith received 50 sutures after being attacked by a lioness. It was feared that she would lose an eye, but she eventually recovered without being disfigured, although she did require some facial reconstruction. A lion jumped on John Marshall and bit the back of his head, inflicting a wound that required 56 sutures. Jerry Marshall was bitten in the thigh by a lion while he was in a cage on set, and he was in hospital alongside Hedren for a month. Most members of the crew were injured, including de Bont, who was scalped by Cherries while he was filming under a tarpaulin; he received 220 sutures, but resumed his duties after recovering. Togar, one of the lead lions, bit assistant director Doron Kauper in the throat and jaw and tried to pull off one of his ears after Kauper unintentionally cued an attack; Kauper also received injuries to his scalp, chest and thigh, and he was admitted to Palmdale General Hospital where he had to undergo four and a half hours of surgery. Although the attack was reported as nearly fatal, a nurse told a Santa Cruz Sentinel reporter that Kauper's injuries were acute (sudden and traumatic), but that he was conscious and in fair condition after the surgery. After witnessing the attacks, twenty crew members left the set en masse; turnover was high, and many did not want to return. Because of Marshall's financial proceeds from his producer credit on The Exorcist, rumors spread that the set of Roar was plagued by the "curse of The Exorcist". Pipes and berms from Aliso Canyon became flooded with water and burst on February 9, 1978, after a night of heavy rain. Both were pointed towards the Marshall property to redirect water from the Southern Pacific Railroad tracks. The property was destroyed by a flood, from which four sound-crew members had to be rescued. Marshall, who had left the hospital despite being scheduled to undergo knee surgery, helped to rescue many of the animals. Fifteen lions and tigers escaped from the set after fences and cages collapsed; the sheriff and local law enforcement killed three lions, including Robbie the lead lion, who was replaced with another lion, Zuru, when filming resumed. A broken dam and several floods also caused the surrounding lake to fill with sediment, adding six feet to its height. Most of the set, ranch, editing equipment and film stock were destroyed; over $3 million of damage was caused, though the negative had already been sent to be edited in a Hollywood studio. Many friends and strangers offered help to the Marshalls and their crew, including the Southern Pacific Railroad office who offered to send railway cars as temporary housing for the animals. As a result of the flood, production was halted for a year to allow the surrounding area to recover. It took eight months to rebuild the set, and 700 replacement trees were purchased. After most of the issues resulting from the flood had been resolved, twelve wildfires in an Acton, California area broke out in September, though the animals remained unharmed. Music Terence P. Minogue composed the film's score and recorded it with the National Philharmonic Orchestra. Robert Florczak—credited in the film as Robert Hawk—provided vocals for original songs such as "Nchi Ya Nani? (Whose Land Is This)", a song with an African-pop style like others on the soundtrack. Both musicians visited the set to seek inspiration, and Minogue created the composition using a piano he brought to the family's ranch. Percussionist Alexander Lepak used grinding drums and synthesizers to augment dialogue-free scenes, and Minogue's orchestral score was used in lighter scenes. Dominic Frontiere wrote a theme for Togar, the rogue lion. The soundtrack, originally released in 1981, became available online in 2005. Releases Theatrical Roar was not released theatrically in North America. Hedren stated that it was not released in the United States because distributors wanted the "lion's share" of the profits, which she and Marshall had intended to allocate for the care of the film's animals. Terry Albright, who was part of the film's crew throughout its production, said that another reason prohibiting the film's release in North America was because the crew was non-unionised, except for de Bont. While Roar was initially screened internationally on February 22, 1981, by Noel and John Marshall, its world premiere was held in Sydney, Australia on October 30, 1981. The film was also picked up for a one-week distribution in Australia and the United Kingdom by Filmways Pictures and Alpha Films, the latter giving it the title Roar - Spirit of the Jungle. The Marshalls also signed deals to release Roar in Japan, Germany, and Italy. Re-release In 2015, 34 years after its initial release, Drafthouse Films founder Tim League expressed interest in the film and the company bought Roar rights. It began a limited theatrical run on April 17, 2015 at six theaters across the United States; the following month, distribution was expanded to 50 cities. The Drafthouse re-release used promotional text in its trailers and press materials such as: "No animals were harmed during the making of 'Roar.' But 70 members of the cast and crew were", and called it the "snuff version of Swiss Family Robinson". Hedren canceled an interview with the Associated Press after the Roar Foundation and Shambala Preserve's board of directors asked her not to speak publicly about the film, although she stated through a spokesman that its Drafthouse promotion was filled with "inaccuracies". Reception Box office Roars worldwide gross (excluding the U.S.) was less than $2 million against its $17 million budget, making the film a box-office bomb. Hedren had predicted that it would be a hit, projecting a gross of $125–150 million, and claimed in 1982 that it was making $1 million a month. Though it was popular in West Germany and Japan, performing well at the box office. Despite this, John Marshall later said in a Grantland interview that "$2 million is a long way off" due to the film's success in West Germany and Japan; the latter's distributor paid $1 million, and Noel Marshall told him that the film made $10 million. It had an opening weekend gross of $15,064 in its re-release, ending with a domestic gross of $110,048. Critical reception Roar has an approval rating of 72% (based on 25 reviews) on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 5.77/10. According to the site's critical consensus: "Roar may not satisfy in terms of acting, storytelling, or overall production, but the real-life danger onscreen makes it difficult to turn away." The film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100 (based on 9 critics) on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The film received mixed reviews when it was first released. Although Variety praised its intended message ("a passionate plea" to preserve African wildlife), Roar was described as "a kind of Jaws of the jungle" which seemed "at times more like Born Free gone berserk"; its "thin" plot was also noted. David Robinson believed he was obligated to dismiss the story and plot, instead choosing to compliment the "superb" animals in his review for The Times, and he was impressed by the depiction of the interactions between the humans and the animals in the film which "overturns centuries of preconceptions about relationships in nature." Time Out, in a review published in 2004, disliked the film's "ingenuous documentary portrait of the Marshalls as mega-eccentrics and misguided animal lovers", and called its narrative a "farcical melange of pseudo David Attenborough and Disneyspeak" with "bizarre contradictions" and "fickle camerawork." Roar continued to receive mixed reviews after its 2015 re-release. Writing for RogerEbert.com, Simon Abrams rated the film a 2; the untrained big cats were the only assets in an "otherwise slack thriller", and some scenes were dull due to their emphasis on "Scooby Doo-like" chase scenes that focused more on the animals than on the plot, though Abrams concluded that for animal lovers, Roar was "worth seeing once". Matt Patches, in his mostly positive review for Esquire, said the film worked as a "portrait of recklessness and beastly terror", akin to watching a Jackass movie; although "plotless enough" to give animals writing credits, Patches said the film was "shock cinema worth preserving". On a more negative note, Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian thought the film had little story to offer and described it as "a tad incoherent", picking up on Hank's confusing background. Hoffman criticized the film's dialogue, calling a scene of Hedren and Griffith discussing sexuality "undeniably creepy". Amy Nicholson in LA Weekly observed the subjugation of the script to the boisterous impulses of the animal cast and noted that the actors seemed keen to get through their scenes quickly; this, she said, conflicted with the film's goal of proving "big cats are lovable". Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald was displeased with the film's editing, saying it was "pasted together into a threadbare story", producing "a hysterically bad, awful movie". Flavorwire included the re-release in their monthly "So Bad It's Good" review; writer Jason Bailey saw Roar as "a cross between a nature special, a home movie, a snuff film, and a key exhibit at a sanity hearing" with animals inflicting "horrifying bloodshed" before abruptly becoming "cuddly kittens, accompanied by a sappy string score" and said much of the film consisted of "odd, semi-improvised" dialogue. Legacy After its release, Roar'''s financial failure hindered the intended plan to fund the animals' retirement. Marshall and Hedren had grown distant by the time production was completed, and they divorced in 1982. Hedren founded the Roar Foundation, and established the Shambala Preserve sanctuary in Soledad Canyon in 1983 to house the animals after filming was completed. As a result of establishing Shambala and rescuing more than 230 big cats, Hedren advocates animal rights and the preservation of natural habitat, and opposes animal exploitation. Although Marshall continued to provide most of Shambala's financial support, according to John Marshall he "couldn't be with the animals that he loved and raised". He never directed another film again and died in 2010. The film has been mentioned by authors Harry and Michael Medved in the 1984 book The Hollywood Hall of Shame as "the most expensive home movie ever made" due to its inflated budget. Hedren wrote The Cats of Shambala, published in 1985, which told many behind-the-scenes stories and described the many on-set injuries. Hedren stated in her book she and Noel realized that, while they accomplished their goal (to "capture wild animals in an astonishing and absolutely unique way"), the story was poorly made and secondary to "the actions, reactions and interactions of the big cats". She also said that the injuries inflicted on the crewmembers and cast were the result of putting their lives at risk to make the film. Hedren, however, noted a positive outcome for those who worked on Roar: many of the people involved went on to have successful careers or jobs in the film industry, such as de Bont and Griffith. She later reflected on the film, saying that despite the danger, Roar had been worthwhile, but still called it "the toughest movie of my life". Due to the many injuries on set, the film's re-release trailers and adverts called it "the most dangerous film ever made". Since its original release, it has built up a cult following. Home media A non-anamorphic version of the film was originally released on DVD but, as stocks dwindled, it became a cult item and was listed at high prices on Amazon and eBay. After its 2015 theatrical release in the United States, the film was released in November 2015 by Olive Films for Blu-ray in anamorphic format. The Blu-ray bonus features included audio commentary by John Marshall and Tim League, "The Making of ROAR''" featurette, and a Q&A with the cast and crew at Cinefamily in Los Angeles. Drafthouse also authorized an at-home VOD release featuring a video Q&A with John Marshall. Ten percent of the profits went to the Will Rogers Motion Picture Pioneers Foundation's Pioneers Assistance Fund, which in turn channel profits to theater employees affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. See also Cult film List of film and television accidents List of films with longest production time References Bibliography External links Roar, the Most Dangerous Movie Ever Made (documentary) on Animal Planet 1981 films 1981 comedy-drama films 1981 thriller films 1981 independent films English-language South African films Films about lions Films about tigers Films set in Tanzania Films shot in Africa Films shot in California American independent films American adventure comedy-drama films American adventure comedy films American comedy thriller films South African thriller films South African comedy-drama films South African adventure comedy films Filmways films Films directed by Noel Marshall 1981 adventure films 1980s English-language films 1980s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Firefly%20%28film%20series%29%20characters
List of Firefly (film series) characters
This article lists characters from the Rob Zombie's Firefly film series, consisting of House of 1000 Corpses, The Devil's Rejects, and 3 from Hell. Cast list This table shows the recurring characters and the actors who have portrayed them throughout the franchise. A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the film, or that the character's presence in the film has not yet been announced. A indicates an appearance as a younger version of a pre-existing character. A indicates a cameo appearance. A indicates an appearance in onscreen photographs only. A indicates an appearance in deleted scenes only. A indicates a voice role. A indicates an uncredited role. Firefly family Captain Spaulding Portrayed by Sid Haig. Captain Spaulding, just as several other characters from the series are named after characters from Marx Brothers films, is named for Groucho Marx's character from the musical Animal Crackers and the film of the same name. In House of 1000 Corpses, Spaulding is introduced as a vulgar clown, and the proprietor of a gas station in Texas that sells fried chicken and also serves as a roadside haunted house attraction. In this first film, when a group of four people visit Spaulding's establishment and learn of the local legend of Dr. Satan, Spaulding directs them in the path of the murderous Firefly family. Spaulding's connection to the Firefly clan is kept ambiguous throughout most of the film. In The Devil's Rejects, Spaulding is established as the patriarch of the Firefly family, and the father of Baby Firefly. At the beginning of the film, the Firefly house is subjected to a search and destroy mission by state troopers, but Spaulding is elsewhere during the raid. Later in the film, Spaulding is captured with Baby Firefly and Otis Driftwood by Sheriff John Wydell and brought to the Firefly house. Wydell tortures them and sets the house on fire, leaving Spaulding and Otis to die, but they are rescued by Tiny Firefly. Spaulding, Baby, and Otis escape by car, and are shot by authorities while speeding towards a police barricade. In 3 from Hell, Spaulding is revealed to have just barely survived the shootout alongside Otis and Baby, and the trio are put on trial and imprisoned not long after their recovery. Spaulding is executed by lethal injection sometime later, leading to Otis and Baby attempting an escape. Otis Driftwood Portrayed by Bill Moseley Otis is the most depraved and violent member of the Firefly family. He is a sadist who makes the freaks for Captain Spaulding's museum from the victims that he kills. On two occasions in both films, he wore his victims skin as a costume and often fights with Spaulding for control of the family. Although Otis is albino and clean shaven in the first film, Rob didn't think it would fit the style and realism of the sequel, which also saw Otis coming across as less manic and more calculating than he did earlier. In the second film Otis sports a beard, giving him more of a rugged and feral appearance. One feature in both films is Otis' taste for sexual violence: the implication that he is a rapist and necrophiliac with female victims of the first movie is confirmed in the sequel, where he also sexually assaults one of his hostages with a gun (a scene Moseley talks about on the DVD and is visibly horrified by). Although the family member whose actions are the most monstrous, Otis is not a biological member of the Firefly family at all. Gloria "Mama" Firefly adopted him, but not legally. In the song "Pussy Liquor", the lyrics suggest that Otis' biological father's name is Tim. He is named after the Groucho Marx character in the film A Night at the Opera. He and Baby have a combative relationship and spend much of the sequel screaming at each other during the family's road trip of murder and fleeing from Sheriff Wydell. After narrowly escaping death at the hands of Sheriff Wydell, Otis was thought to have been killed, along with "Baby" and Capt. Spaulding in a shootout on a deserted highway. A roadblock was set for their capture, and they were shot and taken into custody by Sheriff's deputies. Rather than surrender, the surviving Firefly clan drove speeding towards the roadblock with their guns blazing in one final act of defiance. Baby Firefly Portrayed by Sheri Moon Zombie Besides Mama Firefly, her mother, Baby is the only female member of the Firefly family. In The Devil's Rejects her father is revealed to be Captain Spaulding. In the first film, Mary Knowles describes Baby as being a "slut" and a "redneck whore," which later results in her gruesome demise. In House of 1000 Corpses she hitchhikes and lures the teenagers into visiting the farm (a nod to the classic hitchhiker scene in the 1974 film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre). She showed a liking to Bill, which his girlfriend Mary didn't appreciate very much, prompting the four to try and leave. After they were captured, she took part in the demise of Bill that involved severing his limbs. Baby approached Jerry wearing one of the dead cheerleader's uniforms and scalped him when he failed to answer who her favorite actor was. Otis, who is the adoptive brother of Baby, was going to shoot Mary when she tried to escape at the ritual ground, but Baby insisted to go after her that resulted in Mary being stabbed to death. She escapes the police in The Devil's Rejects and goes on the rampage with her father and Otis. In the end they are shot and arrested by the police when trying to drive through a roadblock. In the Rob Zombie song "Pussy Liquor" it is stated that Earl (presumably Earl Firefly/"The Professor") is the biological father of both Baby and Tiny. Baby's actual given name (seen on a wanted poster in The Devil's Rejects) is Vera Ellen, though her mother has also referred to her daughter as "my Angel". In 3 From Hell Baby, Otis, and Spaulding barely survive the shooting and fully recover before being sentenced to death row in prison. Spaulding gets executed by lethal injection while Baby and Otis spend 10 years in prison. She is shown to have become even more insane, even hallucinating a cat doing ballet. After Otis and his half-brother Foxy escape the law and have Warden Virgil sneak Baby out of prison before killing him; Baby is shown now to be more independent of herself and controlling, much to Otis's surprise. The trio then decide to move to Mexico as their next escape route. They arrive and have a night partying but are soon under attack by Rondo's son Aquarius. Baby manages to kill most of his hitmen with a bow and arrow she took from Virgil's house. Baby and Foxy are captured and are tied up. While they watch Otis machete battle one of Aquarius's men, Sebastian helps untie them before being fatally shot by a hitman. The trio overthrow Aquarius and then set him on fire right before they walk into the distance. Tiny Firefly Portrayed by Matthew McGrory The younger half-brother of Baby. Suffers from gigantism and is scarred all over because the Professor doused him in lighter fluid and set him alight when he was a child. When the four teenagers tried to leave his family house, he and Otis, who is his adoptive brother, went to attack them. Tiny pulled Denise out of their car and dragged her back in the house while Otis dealt with the rest. Tiny took Denise to his room, where the family dressed her as a doll for Halloween and offered her to him, but did not take advantage of it as he had a soft spot for women. He would however, show no signs of remorse when they were to be killed at a ritual ground that he attended. In the second film, after saving Baby from being murdered, and Otis and Spaulding from the burning Firefly manor, he does not go with the rest of the clan and enters the burning house, where he presumably burns himself to death. He is referenced frequently in 3 from Hell by Baby; she tells Sebastian he reminds her of him because he was different too. One of her prison tattoos on her right arm is a tombstone that reads "R.I.P. Tiny". Gloria "Mama" Firefly Portrayed by Academy Award-nominee Karen Black in the first film and Leslie Easterbrook in the second. Mama Firefly (whose real name was Gloria Teasdale) was a prostitute, and the mother of Rufus, Tiny, and Baby. Baby's father is Captain Spaulding, and the father of Rufus is a man named Rufus (which is why his family calls him R.J for Rufus Junior) and the father of Tiny was Earl Firefly. It is revealed in the sequel, that Mother Firefly has a long criminal record, including several cases of prostitution and theft. Mama is captured in the shootout and begins taunting Sheriff Wydell about his dead brother and sexually propositioning him constantly. After one of these occasions Wydell walks into her cell and feigns being seduced by her, before stabbing Mama several times in the stomach (and possibly genitalia, depending on an open interpretation of Wydell's later boasts). Rufus "R.J." Firefly Portrayed by Robert Allen Mukes in House of 1000 Corpses and by Tyler Mane in The Devil's Rejects A member of the Firefly family, namely Tiny's older brother. Rufus was abnormally tall, and often shot down nearby cars so their drivers would have to stop by the Firefly house for help. His father was a man named Rufus, hence Rufus Jr. or R.J. He was a fairly minor character in House of 1000 Corpses. In The Devil's Rejects, Rufus defended the house from police covered in homemade steel body armor. In the end of the assault, Rufus fought alone while the others retreated and was shot multiple times by Wydell and his men. He is named after the Groucho Marx character in the film Duck Soup. House of 1000 Corpses Hugo Firefly Portrayed by Dennis Fimple. Grandpa Hugo is arguably one of the more harmless members of the Firefly family. It assumed he is the father of Gloria "Mama" Firefly and the grandfather of Rufus, Tiny, and Baby. He never murders anyone and does not engage in any acts of sadism or cruelty. Rather, he just seems to be a harmless (albeit dirty) old man. Grandpa Hugo has a penchant for crude, sexual humor and loves telling dirty jokes. He is usually seen watching TV and yelling at the screen. He is named after the Groucho Marx character in the film A Day at the Races. Fimple died not long after House Of 1000 Corpses was completed. Zombie omitted his role from the sequel, The Devil's Rejects, out of respect. In an early cut of the film, Grandpa Hugo was revealed to be none other than Dr. Satan himself. Supposedly, the whole legend of Dr. Satan was to be a ruse concocted by the Firefly family to attract more victims, and Grandpa Hugo played the role of the sinister physician. Zombie later scrapped this idea, saying it would be too anticlimactic, and would rather have the real Dr. Satan show up in the film's climax instead. Lieutenant George Wydell Portrayed by Tom Towles. Investigating the disappearance of four missing teenagers, he interrogated Captain Spaulding, the owner of the gas station and freak show museum where the kids were last seen. Spaulding directed him to the site of the infamous Doctor Satan murders. Spaulding, who was later established as a member of the Firefly family, would later admit that he deliberately sent them to their doom. With fellow police officer Deputy Steve Nash and Don Willis, one the teens' fathers and a former officer himself, he sought out the Firefly House. Nash and Willis went out back to investigate, but Wydell himself went to talk to a hesitant Mother Firefly for questioning. He showed several pictures of the missing teenagers, but Mother Firefly claimed to know nothing about them. He was about to leave, when Nash called him on his walkie talkie. He and Willis had discovered a small shack outside the house where some of the teens were being locked up, right before Otis B. Driftwood killed them both. Before Wydell could do anything, Mother Firefly pulled out a gun and shot him in the neck, killing him. In the Devil's Rejects his brother Sheriff John Wydell discovers that George was killed by the Firefly family and is hellbent on revenge. Tom Towles reprises his role as George Wydell in a cameo appearance in one of his brother's dreams. In it, Sheriff Wydell goes to the basement of the Firefly House where George is waiting for him. He tells him he has to stay there and cannot rest until his brother kills the Firefly family. Dr. Satan / S. Quentin Quale Portrayed by Walter Phelan Local legend of Ruggsville, Texas, Captain Spaulding tells the legend of Dr. Satan – S. Quentin Quale, an intern at the "Willows County Mental Hospital". Through primitive brain surgery he believed he could create a race of "super-humans" from the mentally ill. When the locals discovered what he had been doing, they formed a mob and hanged him, the next day his body was missing, never to be found. From then on he had been living in the catacombs under the Firefly farm, continuing operations on people the family would lure to their home. He is named after the Groucho Marx character in the film Go West. In Otis B. Driftwood's biography on The Devil's Rejects official site, a different tale is told. Here we find that he and Baby were drawn into a cult led by Dr. Satan. Otis and Baby, were later expelled by the leader of this cult, after they murdered one of the cult's leaders with an axe following a dispute over a bottle of whiskey. In an early cut of the film, Grandpa Hugo was revealed to be none other than Dr. Satan himself. Supposedly, the whole legend of Dr. Satan was to be a ruse concocted by the Firefly family to attract more victims, and Grandpa Hugo played the role of the sinister physician. Zombie later scrapped this idea, saying it would be too anticlimactic, and would rather have the real Dr. Satan show up in the film's climax instead. Dr. Satan did not appear in the sequel. Rob Zombie said he felt uncomfortable having him in the film, saying that the character would seem too out of place given the drastically different tone of the two movies. However Dr. Satan did appear in deleted scenes. According to Rob Zombie's commentary on the DVD, he was wounded in the opening shootout and was taken away to a hospital. (Doctor Satan is apparently in the ambulance during the opening scenes.) A nurse (played by Rosario Dawson) checks the doctor, now in a coma, when suddenly he awakes, grabs her throat and brutally tears it open before collapsing back onto the bed and possibly dying. The actor who portrayed Dr. Satan (Walter Phalen) also makes an appearance as Tiny in a flashback sequence to when The Professor sets him on fire. Denise Willis Portrayed by Erin Daniels The daughter of retired sheriff Don Willis who travels to the site of Dr. Satans burial with her three friends. Of the four she is the most logical and manages to escape the Firefly family only to be captured moments later by Captain Spaulding and presumably killed by the mad doctor himself as her fate is left ambiguous. Earl "The Professor" Firefly Portrayed by Jake McKinnon. Earl "The Professor" Firefly is a large hulking mutant who worked with Dr. Satan. "The Professor" is a Harpo Marx character, fitting in with the rest of the Firefly family. He was Mama Firefly's husband, who she considered a good man. One day, he went insane and tried to burn the house down, accidentally disfiguring Tiny in the process. He is never seen in The Devil's Rejects; however, he is shown in House of a 1000 Corpses in flashbacks and near the end when he chases Denise through the catacombs with an axe. It is never clarified why he, or any of Dr. Satan's other mutants for that matter, are not shown in The Devils Rejects. Ravelli Played by Irwin Keyes Ravelli is Captain Spaulding's sidekick and the mascot for the Museum of Monsters and Madmen. His connection to the Firefly family is left ambiguous, but as he is seen helping Spaulding kill a defenseless Killer Karl, it is likely he is aware of their activities. Killer Karl and Richard Wick Portrayed by Chad Bannon and David Reynolds A duo of bumbling armed robbers. Killer Karl is violent and nearly kills Captain Spaulding, while Wick is emotionally unstable and works at a hardware store. While attempting a robbery at Spaulding's gas station, both Spaulding and Stucky begin mocking them. Stucky identified Wick and begins taunting him with his nickname "Little Dick" Wick, and Karl prepared to kill Spaulding. Before he can do so, Ravelli knocks him to the floor, allowing Spaulding to shoot them both. Bill Hudley Portrayed by Rainn Wilson Bill Hudley was a college student traveling the country with his girlfriend Mary and friends Jerry and Denise. Bill went with them to Dr. Satan's alleged burial site, picking up Baby, who lured them to the Firefly home and flirted with Bill. Otis knocks him unconscious when he tries to leave, and mutilates him to make him into a work of art for the museum called "Fish Boy". Steve Naish Portrayed by Walton Goggins A county deputy who accompanied George Wydell in investigating the Firefly residence to question them about the disappearance of several people. When Steve realizes the Fireflys are serial killers, Otis shoots him in the head. Stucky Portrayed by Michael J. Pollard Stucky is an elderly man and friend of Captain Spaulding. He arrived at his gas station to show Spaulding his autograph collection, only to be involved in an armed robbery. Stucky recognizes one of the robbers as Richard Wick, and begins taunting Wick with his nickname. Ravelli then bursts in and incapacitates Karl, allowing Spaulding to kill them. Stucky's knowledge of the Firefly family's activities is left ambiguous, though the robbery seems to imply he is. Jerry Goldsmith Portrayed by Chris Hardwick Jerry Goldsmith was a wisecracking teenager, joining his girlfriend Denise Willis and friends Bill Hudley and Mary Knowles in a road trip. Jerry is fascinated by Captain Spaulding's Murder Ride, and happily makes his friends go to Dr. Satan's alleged burial site. Jerry is the only one of the group to enjoy their time with the Fireflies; still, he is captured and partially scalped by Baby. He is captured by Dr. Satan's minions, and killed when Dr. Satan performs exploratory brain surgery on him. Mary Knowles Played by Jennifer Jostyn Mary Knowles was a snotty and sarcastic teen and Bill's girlfriend. Despite her disinterest in Captain Spaulding's Murder Ride, she goes on. She joins her friends in driving to Dr. Satan's burial site, and immediately develops an enmity with Baby for her advances on Bill. After being captured by the Fireflys, Mary is forced to see Bill's corpse by Otis, who then beats her for insulting him. Soon all three are dressed in rabbit costumes and taken to a graveyard, where Mary breaks free and runs off, only to be caught by Baby, who violently stabs her to death. In The Devil's Rejects a photograph of her is stapled onto Baby's chest by Sheriff Wydell. Sheriff Frank Huston Portrayed by William Bassett Frank Huston is the sheriff of Ruggsville. Huston joins in the search for Denise and her friends. Huston is not present during the search at the Firefly family's house, and is thus not killed by them. The Devil's Rejects Sheriff John Quincey Wydell Portrayed by William Forsythe. Sheriff Wydell led a siege on the Firefly house, hoping to arrest the serial killer family that lived inside. After a brutal shootout, he managed to kill Rufus and capture Mother Firefly, but two of the most dangerous members of the family, Otis B. Driftwood and Baby managed to escape, who later reunited with Baby's father, Captain Spaulding. He interrogated Mother Firefly for whereabouts of her kin, but the family matriarch refused. Instead, she revealed to him that she had killed his brother, Lieutenant George Wydell, taunting him by saying "I felt contrite about blowin' his brains out". Furious, Wydell promised to her that he would kill every member of her family. After hiring two amoral bounty hunters called the 'Unholy Two' to track down the Devil's Rejects, he became witness to the aftermath of the brutal murders of Banjo and Sullivan, a traveling country band. After a dream about his dead brother telling him to kill the Firefly family, Wydell revisited Mother Firefly again, only this time to stab her to death. Upon finding out that the escaped killers had taken shelter at a whorehouse, he tracked down the owner, Captain Spaulding's pimp brother Charlie Altamont and told him to keep the family there so he could ambush them. With the help of the Unholy Two, he managed to capture the Rejects and bring them to their house. Becoming increasingly disturbed by his vengeance, the Sheriff brought them to their basement and tied them to a bunch of chairs. There, he proceeded to sadistically torture them like they had done to their victims throughout the night. He nailed Otis's hands to his chair, he electrocuted and beat Spaulding with a cattle prod, and he taunted Baby over the death of her mother after stapling a picture of one of her victims to her chest. After dousing the room with gasoline and leaving Spaulding and Otis to burn, Wydell let Baby escape so he could track her down and kill her. Charlie returned to save his family but Wydell killed him with an axe. Wydell proceeded to shoot Baby, flog her, and then tried to strangle her to death. It was only the return of Tiny that finally stopped Wydell. The mute giant picked up the Sheriff and snapped his neck, ultimately killing him. Charlie Altamont Portrayed by Ken Foree. Charlie Altamont (alias 'Wolf J. Flywheel') is Captain Spaulding's African American half-brother and a pimp. Charlie runs a brothel and strip club and was a pimp by profession, and he also has a cocaine addiction. To emphasize his style as a pimp, he was given a large amount of valuable and suggestive paraphernalia; it was not on camera, but in a scene where he was sharing his cocaine with Cutter, he had a necklace that was a cocaine spoon in the shape of a naked woman. When the Firefly family are on the run from the police, they come to Charlie for refuge. But when Sheriff Wydell tracks him down, Charlie is pressured to give his family up. Charlie returns later to save his family, but Wydell attacks and kills him with an axe while he tries to save Baby. The Unholy Two Portrayed by Danny Trejo and Dallas Page. Two amoral bounty hunters hired to track down the Rejects. Rondo is Mexican and the more business savvy of the two, describing Wydell's situation with the rejects as the U2 working as exterminators to wipe out the cockroach-like Devil's Rejects. Billy Ray Snapper is the more quick to action type guy whose main pleasure is a good fight, and he and Wydell don't like each other. Though some may be fooled by their biker persona's and unfashionable lifestyle, the Unholy Two are tactical and relentless when on a hunt and will gladly kill anyone between them and their targets, along with the targets themselves. The Unholy Two capture the Fireflys and deliver them to Wydell after killing many of Charlie's prostitutes before departing. In 3 from Hell, 10 years after Devil's Rejects, Rondo is seen in prison digging ditches with Otis but does not remember him. Otis soon escapes prison and shoots Rondo in the head, killing him. Ray Dobson Portrayed by Dave Sheridan Ray Dobson is a police officer and Wydell's right-hand man. Dobson appears to be much more reasonable and level headed than Wydell, though Dobson is unaware of Wydell's illegal and unsavory actions. Dobson takes over the hunt for the Fireflys shortly after Wydell is killed and leads the roadblock that(supposedly) kills Otis, Baby, and Captain Spaulding. Roy Sullivan Portrayed by Geoffrey Lewis Roy Sullivan is the lead singer of Banjo & Sullivan and the husband of Gloria Sullivan. Roy often badmouths Jimmy and claims to have once partnered with Johnny Cash. Roy encounters Baby while getting beer, and Baby attempts to seduce him. Otis then holds Roy at gunpoint and takes the band captive. Otis then takes Roy and Adam with him to unearth a cache of weapons Otis had buried nearby. Upon realizing Otis intended to kill them, Adam and Roy attack Otis only to be fought off. Otis then beats Roy to death with a large branch. Adam Banjo Portrayed by Lew Temple Adam Banjo is the guitarist for Banjo & Sullivan and the husband of Wendy Banjo. Adam dismisses a news report on the Fireflys to be exaggerated, only to be almost immediately attacked after by the Fireflys. After being captured by Baby and Otis, Otis takes a special dislike to Adam. Otis holds Adam and Roy at gunpoint and forces them to help him unearth a cache of weapons he had buried nearby. Upon realizing Otis intended to kill them, Adam attacks Otis only to be shot in the throat. Otis then brutally attacks Adam for “being a hero”, and cuts off Adam's face while Adam defiantly screams out profanity at Otis. Wendy Banjo Portrayed by Kate Norby Wendy Banjo is a member of Banjo & Sullivan and Adam's wife. Wendy is taking a shower when Otis and Baby take the band captive. After Otis takes Adam and Roy out of the room at gunpoint, Wendy is forced to humiliate herself in front of Baby and punch Gloria in the face so she can go to the bathroom. Wendy manages to get out of the room, only to be knocked unconscious by Captain Spaulding. Otis ties Wendy to the door and puts Adam's face on her before Spaulding, Otis, and Baby leave. Wendy is later discovered by a maid and begs for help, but the maid mistakes her for attempting to attack her and runs off. Wendy runs out into the highway where she is run over by a passing semi-truck. Gloria Sullivan Portrayed by Priscilla Barnes Candy Portrayed by E. G. Daily Cleavon Portrayed by Michael Berryman Jimmy Portrayed by Brian Posehn Jimmy is the roadie for Banjo & Sullivan. Jimmy is a stoner, and is often put down by Roy. Jimmy expresses his desires to be a rodeo clown or a part of a pit crew. Jimmy leaves Banjo & Sullivan to get food from a nearby gas station, leading to him not being help captive by Otis and Baby. Jimmy later returns, only to be shot in the head by Otis. Fanny Portrayed by Ginger Lynn Allen Morris Green Portrayed by Daniel Roebuck Morris Green is a local talk show host. Green is seen interviewing an occult specialist about the Fireflys’ crimes, under the apparent belief that the Fireflys are a cult. Abbie Portrayed by Mary Woronov A motorist who sees Baby having apparently collapsed on the road shortly after the assault on the Fireflys. Abbie gets out of her car and checks on Baby, who reveals herself to be alive before Abbie is killed by Otis. Susan Portrayed by PJ Soles Susan was a mother who had stopped at Buck's Grab 'n Go and had her car stolen by Captain Spaulding. Casey Portrayed by Deborah Van Valkenburgh Jamie Portrayed by Jordan Orr Jamie was the young son of Susan. Captain Spaulding terrified the child to tears when he stole his mother's car. 3 From Hell Winslow "Foxy" Coltrane Portrayed By Richard Brake Winslow "Foxy" Coltrane is the half-brother of Otis and Baby Firefly. Prior to the events of the film, he was known to have committed a series of crimes which earned him the nickname the “Midnight Wolfman”. He helps free his brother Otis from a chain gang by shooting the guards and inmates. They then take Warden Harper’s family hostage so that he will get Baby out of prison. Warden Virgil Dallas Harper Portrayed by Jeff Daniel Phillips Warden Virgil Dallas Harper was the warden of the prison that housed the Three. He was shot in the head and killed by Otis Driftwood during the plan to get Baby out of prison. Greta Portrayed by Dee Wallace A female prison guard who works in a facility where Baby is Incarcerated. She has a mad hatred for Baby, one reason for punching her in the nose in one scene. She later attempts to have Baby killed by two female prisoners, but Baby outwits them and kills them instead. Later on after Otis and Foxy take Warden Virgil's wife and friends hostage in his own house, Otis instructs him to sneak Baby out or else he'll kill them all. Virgil calls Greta to bring Baby up to his office. After that she leaves Baby alone with Virgil who uncuffs her and makes her wear a prison guard uniform. Greta walks back in for Baby and is strangled to death by her. Aquarius Portrayed by Emilio Rivera References Firefly Firefly (film series)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Intel%20Xeon%20processors
List of Intel Xeon processors
The following is a list of Intel Xeon microprocessors, by generation. P6-based Pentium II Xeon Pentium II Xeon 400 Pentium II Xeon 400 Pentium II Xeon 450 Pentium II Xeon 450 Pentium II Xeon 450 Pentium III Xeon Pentium III Xeon 500 Pentium III Xeon 500 Pentium III Xeon 500 Pentium III Xeon 550 Pentium III Xeon 550 Pentium III Xeon 550 Pentium III Xeon 600 Pentium III Xeon 667 Pentium III Xeon 700 Pentium III Xeon 700 Pentium III Xeon 733 Pentium III Xeon 800 Pentium III Xeon 866 Pentium III Xeon 900 Pentium III Xeon 933 Pentium III Xeon 1.00 NetBurst-based Xeon UP/DP Xeon 1.4 Xeon 1.5 Xeon 1.7 Xeon 2.0 Xeon 1.8 Xeon 2.0A Xeon 2.0B Xeon 2.2 Xeon 2.4 Xeon 2.4B Xeon 2.6 Xeon 2.66 Xeon 2.8 Xeon 2.8B Xeon 3.0 Xeon 3.06 Xeon LV 1.6 Xeon LV 2.0 Xeon LV 2.4 Xeon 2.4B Xeon 2.8B Xeon 3.06 Xeon 3.2 Xeon 3.2 Xeon 2.8 Xeon 2.8D Xeon 3.0 Xeon 3.0D Xeon 3.2 Xeon 3.4 Xeon 3.6 Xeon LV 2.8 Xeon 2.8 Xeon 2.8E Xeon 3.0 Xeon 3.0E Xeon 3.2 Xeon 3.2E Xeon 3.4 Xeon 3.4E Xeon 3.6 Xeon 3.6E Xeon 3.8 Xeon 3.8E Xeon MV 3.2 Xeon LV 3.0 Xeon 2.8 Xeon 5020 Xeon 5030 Xeon 5040 Xeon 5050 Xeon 5060 Xeon 5070 Xeon 5080 Xeon MV 5063 Xeon MP Xeon MP 1.4 Xeon MP 1.5 Xeon MP 1.6 Xeon MP 1.5 Xeon MP 1.9 Xeon MP 2.0 Xeon MP 2.0 Xeon MP 2.2 Xeon MP 2.5 Xeon MP 2.7 Xeon MP 2.8 Xeon MP 3.0 Xeon MP 3.16 Xeon MP 3.66 Xeon MP 2.83 Xeon MP 3.0 Xeon MP 3.33 Xeon 7020 Xeon 7030 Xeon 7040 Xeon 7041 Xeon 7110N Xeon 7110M Xeon 7120N Xeon 7120M Xeon 7130N Xeon 7130M Xeon 7140N Xeon 7140M Xeon 7150N Pentium M (Yonah)-based Xeon DP Xeon LV 1.66 Xeon LV 2.0 Xeon LV 2.16 Xeon ULV 1.66 Core-based Xeon UP/DP Xeon 3040 Xeon 3050 Xeon 3040 Xeon 3050 Xeon 3060 Xeon 3065 Xeon 3070 Xeon 3075 Xeon 3085 Xeon 5110 Xeon 5120 Xeon 5130 Xeon 5140 Xeon 5150 Xeon 5160 Xeon LV 5113 Xeon LV 5128 Xeon LV 5133 Xeon LV 5138 Xeon LV 5148 Xeon L3014 Xeon E3113 Xeon E3110 Xeon E3120 Xeon L3110 Xeon E5205 Xeon E5220 Xeon E5240 Xeon MP Xeon X5260 Xeon X5270 Xeon X5272 Xeon L5215 Xeon L5238 Xeon L5240 Xeon L5248 Xeon X3210 Xeon X3220 Xeon X3230 Xeon X3320 Xeon X3330 Xeon X3350 Xeon X3360 Xeon X3370 Xeon X3380 Xeon L3360 Xeon X3323 Xeon X3353 Xeon X3363 Xeon E5310 Xeon E5320 Xeon E5330 Xeon E5335 Xeon E5340 Xeon E5345 Xeon E5350, X5350 Xeon X5355 Xeon X5365 Xeon L5310 Xeon L5318 Xeon L5320 Xeon L5335 Xeon E5405 Xeon E5410 Xeon E5420 Xeon E5430 Xeon E5440 Xeon E5450 Xeon X5450 Xeon X5460 Xeon E5462 Xeon X5470 Xeon E5472 Xeon X5472 Xeon X5482 Xeon X5492 Xeon L5408 Xeon L5410 Xeon L5420 Xeon L5430 Xeon E7210 Xeon E7220 Xeon E7310 Xeon E7320 Xeon E7330 Xeon E7340 Xeon X7350 Xeon L7345 Xeon E7420 Xeon E7430 Xeon E7440 Xeon L7445 Xeon E7450 Xeon E7458 Xeon X7460 Xeon L7455 Nehalem-based Xeon 3000 series Xeon X3430 Xeon X3440 Xeon X3450 Xeon X3460 Xeon X3470 Xeon X3480 Xeon L3426 Xeon W3503 Xeon W3505 Xeon W3520 Xeon W3530 Xeon W3540 Xeon W3550 Xeon W3565 Xeon W3570 Xeon W3580 Xeon LC3518 Xeon LC3528 Xeon EC3539 Xeon L3403 Xeon L3406 Xeon W3670 Xeon W3680 Xeon W3690 Xeon 5000 series Xeon E5502 Xeon E5503 Xeon L5508 Xeon E5504 Xeon E5506 Xeon E5507 Xeon E5520 Xeon E5530 Xeon E5540 Xeon X5550 Xeon X5560 Xeon X5570 Xeon W5580 Xeon W5590 Xeon L5506 Xeon L5518 Xeon L5520 Xeon L5530 Xeon EC5539 Xeon EC5509 Xeon EC5549 Xeon LC5518 Xeon LC5528 Xeon X5698 Xeon E5603 Xeon E5606 Xeon E5607 Xeon E5620 Xeon E5630 Xeon E5640 Xeon X5647 Xeon X5667 Xeon X5672 Xeon X5677 Xeon X5687 Xeon L5609 Xeon L5618 Xeon L5630 Xeon E5645 Xeon E5649 Xeon X5650 Xeon X5660 Xeon X5670 Xeon X5675 Xeon X5679 Xeon X5680 Xeon X5690 Xeon L5638 Xeon L5639 Xeon L5640 Xeon L5645 Xeon 6000 series Xeon E6510 Xeon 7000 series Xeon E7520 Xeon E7530 Xeon E6540 Xeon E7540 Xeon X7542 Xeon L7545 Xeon X6550 Xeon X7550 Xeon X7560 Xeon L7555 Xeon E7 Xeon E7-2803 Xeon E7-4807 Xeon E7-2820 Xeon E7-2830 Xeon E7-4820 Xeon E7-4830 Xeon E7-8830 Xeon E7-8837 Xeon E7-2850 Xeon E7-2860 Xeon E7-2870 Xeon E7-4850 Xeon E7-4860 Xeon E7-4870 Xeon E7-8850 Xeon E7-8860 Xeon E7-8870 Xeon E7-8867L Sandy Bridge-based Xeon E3 Xeon E3-1105C Xeon E3-1125C Xeon E3-1220 Xeon E3-1220L Xeon E3-1225 Xeon E3-1230 Xeon E3-1235 Xeon E3-1240 Xeon E3-1245 Xeon E3-1260L Xeon E3-1265L Xeon E3-1270 Xeon E3-1275 Xeon E3-1280 Xeon E3-1290 Xeon E5 Xeon E5-1410 Xeon E5-1428L Xeon E5-2403 Xeon E5-2407 Xeon E5-2418L Xeon E5-2420 Xeon E5-2428L Xeon E5-2430 Xeon E5-2430L Xeon E5-2440 Xeon E5-2448L Xeon E5-2449L Xeon E5-2450 Xeon E5-2450L Xeon E5-2470 Xeon E5-1603 Xeon E5-1607 Xeon E5-1620 Xeon E5-1650 Xeon E5-1660 Xeon E5-2637 Xeon E5-2603 Xeon E5-2609 Xeon E5-2618L Xeon E5-2620 Xeon E5-2628L Xeon E5-2630 Xeon E5-2630L Xeon E5-2640 Xeon E5-2643 Xeon E5-2648L Xeon E5-2650 Xeon E5-2650L Xeon E5-2658 Xeon E5-2660 Xeon E5-2665 Xeon E5-2667 Xeon E5-2670 Xeon E5-2680 Xeon E5-2687W Xeon E5-2689 Xeon E5-2690 Xeon E5-4603 Xeon E5-4607 Xeon E5-4610 Xeon E5-4617 Xeon E5-4620 Xeon E5-4640 Xeon E5-4650 Xeon E5-4650L Ivy Bridge-based Xeon E3 v2 Xeon E3-1105C v2 Xeon E3-1125C v2 Xeon E3-1135C v2 Xeon E3-1220L v2 Xeon E3-1220 v2 Xeon E3-1225 v2 Xeon E3-1230 v2 Xeon E3-1240 v2 Xeon E3-1245 v2 Xeon E3-1270 v2 Xeon E3-1275 v2 Xeon E3-1280 v2 Xeon E3-1285 v2 Xeon E3-1290 v2 Xeon E3-1265L v2 Xeon E3-1285L v2 Xeon E5 v2 Xeon E5-1410 v2 Xeon E5-1428L v2 Xeon E5-2403 v2 Xeon E5-2407 v2 Xeon E5-2420 v2 Xeon E5-2430 v2 Xeon E5-2418L v2 Xeon E5-2430L v2 Xeon E5-2440 v2 Xeon E5-2450 v2 Xeon E5-2428L v2 Xeon E5-2470 v2 Xeon E5-2448L v2 Xeon E5-2450L v2 Xeon E5-1607 v2 Xeon E5-1620 v2 Xeon E5-1650 v2 Xeon E5-1660 v2 Xeon E5-1680 v2 Xeon E5-2603 v2 Xeon E5-2609 v2 Xeon E5-2637 v2 Xeon E5-2620 v2 Xeon E5-2630 v2 Xeon E5-2643 v2 Xeon E5-2618L v2 Xeon E5-2630L v2 Xeon E5-2640 v2 Xeon E5-2650 v2 Xeon E5-2667 v2 Xeon E5-2673 v2 Xeon E5-2687W v2 Xeon E5-2628L v2 Xeon E5-2658 v2 Xeon E5-2660 v2 Xeon E5-2670 v2 Xeon E5-2680 v2 Xeon E5-2690 v2 Xeon E5-2648L v2 Xeon E5-2650L v2 Xeon E5-2651 v2 Xeon E5-2692 v2 Xeon E5-2695 v2 Xeon E5-2696 v2 Xeon E5-2697 v2 Xeon E5-4603 v2 Xeon E5-4607 v2 Xeon E5-4610 v2 Xeon E5-4620 v2 Xeon E5-4627 v2 Xeon E5-4624L v2 Xeon E5-4640 v2 Xeon E5-4650 v2 Xeon E5-4657L v2 Xeon E7 v2 Xeon E7-2850 v2 Xeon E7-2870 v2 Xeon E7-2880 v2 Xeon E7-2890 v2 Xeon E7-4809 v2 Xeon E7-4820 v2 Xeon E7-4830 v2 Xeon E7-4850 v2 Xeon E7-4860 v2 Xeon E7-4870 v2 Xeon E7-4880 v2 Xeon E7-4890 v2 Xeon E7-8893 v2 Xeon E7-8891 v2 Xeon E7-8850 v2 Xeon E7-8857 v2 Xeon E7-8870 v2 Xeon E7-8880 v2 Xeon E7-8880L v2 Xeon E7-8890 v2 Xeon E7-8895 v2 Haswell-based Xeon E3 v3 Xeon E3-1220L v3 Xeon E3-1220 v3 Xeon E3-1225 v3 Xeon E3-1226 v3 Xeon E3-1230 v3 Xeon E3-1231 v3 Xeon E3-1240 v3 Xeon E3-1241 v3 Xeon E3-1245 v3 Xeon E3-1246 v3 Xeon E3-1270 v3 Xeon E3-1271 v3 Xeon E3-1275 v3 Xeon E3-1276 v3 Xeon E3-1280 v3 Xeon E3-1281 v3 Xeon E3-1285 v3 Xeon E3-1286 v3 Xeon E3-1265L v3 Xeon E3-1268L v3 Xeon E3-1275L v3 Xeon E3-1284L v3 Xeon E3-1285L v3 Xeon E3-1286L v3 Xeon E3-1230L v3 Xeon E3-1240L v3 Xeon E5 v3 Xeon E5-1428L v3 Xeon E5-2408L v3 Xeon E5-2418L v3 Xeon E5-2428L v3 Xeon E5-2438L v3 Xeon E5-1603 v3 Xeon E5-1607 v3 Xeon E5-1620 v3 Xeon E5-1630 v3 Xeon E5-1650 v3 Xeon E5-1660 v3 Xeon E5-1680 v3 Xeon E5-1681 v3 Xeon E5-1686 v3 Xeon E5-1691 v3 Xeon E5-2623 v3 Xeon E5-2637 v3 Xeon E5-2603 v3 Xeon E5-2608L v3 Xeon E5-2609 v3 Xeon E5-2620 v3 Xeon E5-2643 v3 Xeon E5-2618L v3 Xeon E5-2622 v3 Xeon E5-2628 v3 Xeon E5-2629 v3 Xeon E5-2630 v3 Xeon E5-2630L v3 Xeon E5-2640 v3 Xeon E5-2667 v3 Xeon E5-2628L v3 Xeon E5-2649 v3 Xeon E5-2650 v3 Xeon E5-2652 v3 Xeon E5-2660 v3 Xeon E5-2663 v3 Xeon E5-2666 v3 Xeon E5-2687W v3 Xeon E5-2648L v3 Xeon E5-2650L v3 Xeon E5-2658 v3 Xeon E5-2658A v3 Xeon E5-2669 v3 Xeon E5-2670 v3 Xeon E5-2673 v3 Xeon E5-2676 v3 Xeon E5-2678 v3 Xeon E5-2680 v3 Xeon E5-2685 v3 Xeon E5-2690 v3 Xeon E5-2692 v3 Xeon E5-2693 v3 (ES) Xeon E5-2683 v3 Xeon E5-2695 v3 Xeon E5-2697 v3 Xeon E5-2675 v3 Xeon E5-2698 v3 Xeon E5-2698A v3 Xeon E5-2698B v3 Xeon E5-2686 v3 Xeon E5-2696 v3 Xeon E5-2699 v3 Xeon E5-4655 v3 Xeon E5-4610 v3 Xeon E5-4620 v3 Xeon E5-4627 v3 Xeon E5-4640 v3 Xeon E5-4648 v3 Xeon E5-4650 v3 Xeon E5-4660 v3 Xeon E5-4667 v3 Xeon E5-4669 v3 Xeon E7 v3 Xeon E7-4809 v3 Xeon E7-4820 v3 Xeon E7-4830 v3 Xeon E7-4850 v3 Xeon E7-8893 v3 Xeon E7-8891 v3 Xeon E7-8860 v3 Xeon E7-8867 v3 Xeon E7-8870 v3 Xeon E7-8880 v3 Xeon E7-8880L v3 Xeon E7-8890 v3 Xeon E7-8895 v3 Broadwell-based Xeon D Xeon D-1513N Xeon D-1518 Xeon D-1520 Xeon D-1521 Xeon D-1523N Xeon D-1527 Xeon D-1529 Xeon D-1528 Xeon D-1531 Xeon D-1533N Xeon D-1537 Xeon D-1539 Xeon D-1540 Xeon D-1541 Xeon D-1543N Xeon D-1548 Xeon D-1553N Xeon D-1557 Xeon D-1559 Xeon D-1567 Xeon D-1571 Xeon D-1577 Xeon D-1581 Xeon D-1587 Xeon D-1602 Xeon D-1622 Xeon D-1627 Xeon D-1637 Xeon D-1623N Xeon D-1633N Xeon D-1649N Xeon D-1653N Xeon E3 v4 Xeon E3-1285 v4 Xeon E3-1258L v4 Xeon E3-1265L v4 Xeon E3-1270L v4 Xeon E3-1278L v4 Xeon E3-1283L v4 Xeon E3-1284L v4 Xeon E3-1285L v4 Xeon E5 v4 Xeon E5-1603 v4 Xeon E5-1607 v4 Xeon E5-1620 v4 Xeon E5-1630 v4 Xeon E5-1650 v4 Xeon E5-1660 v4 Xeon E5-1680 v4 Xeon E5-2623 v4 Xeon E5-2637 v4 Xeon E5-2603 v4 Xeon E5-2643 v4 Xeon E5-2608L v4 Xeon E5-2609 v4 Xeon E5-2620 v4 Xeon E5-2667 v4 Xeon E5-2689A v4 Xeon E5-2618L v4 Xeon E5-2630 v4 Xeon E5-2630L v4 Xeon E5-2640 v4 Xeon E5-2689 v4 Xeon E5-2628L v4 Xeon E5-2650 v4 Xeon E5-2666 v4 Xeon E5-2687W v4 Xeon E5-2648L v4 Xeon E5-2650L v4 Xeon E5-2658 v4 Xeon E5-2660 v4 Xeon E5-2680 v4 Xeon E5-2690 v4 Xeon AWS-1100 v4 Xeon E5-2676 v4 Xeon E5-2682 v4 Xeon E5-2683 v4 Xeon E5-2697A v4 Xeon E5-2686 v4 Xeon E5-2695 v4 Xeon E5-2697 v4 Xeon E5-2673 v4 Xeon E5-2679 v4 Xeon E5-2698 v4 Xeon E5-2696 v4 Xeon E5-2699 v4 Xeon E5-2699A v4 Xeon E5-2699C v4 Xeon E5-2699R v4 Xeon E5-2699P v4 Xeon E5-4610 v4 Xeon E5-4620 v4 Xeon E5-4627 v4 Xeon E5-4628L v4 Xeon E5-4640 v4 Xeon E5-4650 v4 Xeon E5-4655 v4 Xeon E5-4660 v4 Xeon E5-4667 v4 Xeon E5-4669 v4 Xeon E7 v4 Xeon E7-4809 v4 Xeon E7-4820 v4 Xeon E7-4830 v4 Xeon E7-4850 v4 Xeon E7-8855 v4 Xeon E7-8860 v4 Xeon E7-8867 v4 Xeon E7-8870 v4 Xeon E7-8880 v4 Xeon E7-8890 v4 Xeon E7-8891 v4 Xeon E7-8893 v4 Xeon E7-8894 v4 Skylake-based Xeon D Xeon D-2141I Xeon D-2161I Xeon D-2191 Xeon D-2123IT Xeon D-2142IT Xeon D-2143IT Xeon D-2163IT Xeon D-2173IT Xeon D-2183IT Xeon D-2145NT Xeon D-2146NT Xeon D-2166NT Xeon D-2177NT Xeon D-2187NT Xeon E3 v5 Xeon E3-1220 v5 Xeon E3-1225 v5 Xeon E3-1230 v5 Xeon E3-1240 v5 Xeon E3-1245 v5 Xeon E3-1270 v5 Xeon E3-1275 v5 Xeon E3-1280 v5 Xeon E3-1260L v5 Xeon E3-1268L v5 Xeon E3-1235L v5 Xeon E3-1240L v5 Xeon E3-1585 v5 Xeon E3-1505M v5 Xeon E3-1515M v5 Xeon E3-1535M v5 Xeon E3-1545M v5 Xeon E3-1575M v5 Xeon E3-1565L v5 Xeon E3-1585L v5 Xeon E3-1505L v5 Xeon E3-1558L v5 Xeon E3-1578L v5 Xeon W Xeon W-2102 Xeon W-2104 Xeon W-2123 Xeon W-2125 Xeon W-2133 Xeon W-2135 Xeon W-2140B Xeon W-2145 Xeon W-2150B Xeon W-2155 Xeon W-2175 Xeon W-2190B Xeon W-2195 Xeon W-3175X Xeon Bronze Xeon Bronze 3104 Xeon Bronze 3106 Xeon Silver Xeon Silver 4106H Xeon Silver 4108 Xeon Silver 4109T Xeon Silver 4110 Xeon Silver 4112 Xeon Silver 4114 Xeon Silver 4114T Xeon Silver 4116 Xeon Silver 4116T Xeon Silver 4123 Xeon Gold Xeon Gold 5115 Xeon Gold 5117 Xeon Gold 5117F Xeon Gold 5118 Xeon Gold 5119T Xeon Gold 5120 Xeon Gold 5120T Xeon Gold 5122 Xeon Gold 6122 Xeon Gold 6126 Xeon Gold 6126F Xeon Gold 6126T Xeon Gold 6127M Xeon Gold 6128 Xeon Gold 6130 Xeon Gold 6130F Xeon Gold 6130T Xeon Gold 6132 Xeon Gold 6133 Xeon Gold 6134 Xeon Gold 6134M Xeon Gold 6135 Xeon Gold 6135M Xeon Gold 6136 Xeon Gold 6137 Xeon Gold 6137M Xeon Gold 6138 Xeon Gold 6138F Xeon Gold 6138P Xeon Gold 6138T Xeon Gold 6139 Xeon Gold 6139M Xeon Gold 6140 Xeon Gold 6140M Xeon Gold 6142 Xeon Gold 6142F Xeon Gold 6142M Xeon Gold 6143 Xeon Gold 6144 Xeon Gold 6145 Xeon Gold 6146 Xeon Gold 6148 Xeon Gold 6148F Xeon Gold 6149 Xeon Gold 6150 Xeon Gold 6151 Xeon Gold 6152 Xeon Gold 6154 Xeon Gold 6155 Xeon Gold 6159 Xeon Gold 6161 Xeon Platinum Xeon Platinum P-8124 Xeon Platinum 8124M Xeon Platinum P-8136 Xeon Platinum 8153 Xeon Platinum 8156 Xeon Platinum 8158 Xeon Platinum 8160 Xeon Platinum 8160F Xeon Platinum 8160H Xeon Platinum 8160M Xeon Platinum 8160T Xeon Platinum 8163 Xeon Platinum 8164 Xeon Platinum 8165 Xeon Platinum 8167M Xeon Platinum 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noh-Varr
Noh-Varr
Noh-Varr is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Grant Morrison and artist J.G. Jones, the character first appeared in Marvel Boy #1 (August 2000). He later appeared in the Civil War: Young Avengers/Runaways and the New Avengers: Illuminati limited series. After his appearance in Secret Invasion, he joined the Dark Avengers. He was a member of the main Avengers team. He was a part of the Young Avengers, West Coast Avengers, and Guardians of the Galaxy. The character has also been known as Marvel Boy, Captain Marvel, and Protector at various points in his history. Noh-Varr has been described as one of Marvel's most notable and powerful male heroes, being labeled as a queer sex symbol. Publication history Marvel Boy was a six-issue limited series published from August 2000 to March 2001, as part of the experimental Marvel Knights line. The series was written by Grant Morrison, illustrated by J.G. Jones (with Sean Parsons) and colored by Matt Milla of Avalon Studios. In a 2000 interview, Morrison described their stylistic intentions for the book: Following his own mini, he was featured in Civil War: Young Avengers/Runaways and the New Avengers: Illuminati. He took a big part in the finale of the Secret Invasion, which leads into his new role as Captain Marvel in the Dark Avengers title. The writer Brian Michael Bendis has said "what he represents is Norman can put an alien on the team, whose [sic] one of the Anti-Skrulls. It's like, 'You hate Skrulls? Well this guy kills Skrulls for a living! He came to our planet to kill Skrulls!'." He appeared as a regular character in the Dark Avengers series from issue #1-6. In the Dark Avengers Annual, Noh-Varr changed his codename to the Protector. As Protector, he appeared as a regular character in the 2010-2013 Avengers series, from issue #2 (August 2010) through his dismissal from the team in issue #27 (August 2012) during the Avengers vs. X-Men storyline. Noh-Varr appeared as Marvel Boy in the 2013 Young Avengers series by Kieron Gillen and Jamie McKelvie where he begins to date Kate Bishop and reveals that, like the majority of the team, he is "not completely straight". Marvel Boy starred alongside the Inhumans in 2017's Royals written by Al Ewing and drawn by Jonboy Meyers. In 2019, he returned in the third volume of the West Coast Avengers, he met the team while he was masquerading as Graviton, who was a member of the Masters of Evil, he would aid the team and eventually join them in the last story-arc. It was written by Kelly Thompson It was during this run that it was confirmed Noh-Varr is bisexual, since he started dating Kate Bishop's former boyfriend and teammate, Fuse. In 2020, Marvel Boy was featured as a member of a new Guardians of the Galaxy team alongside Star-Lord, Rocket Raccoon, Moondragon, Phyla-Vell, Hercules and Nova. Fictional character biography Noh-Varr serves as an ensign aboard the 18th Kree Diplomatic Gestalt interstellar schooner the Marvel, which traverses millions of alternate dimensions on its way home. The ship is drawn toward the Marvel Universe and shot down by the forces of Doctor Midas, a multi-trillionaire obsessed with gaining powers through the absorption of cosmic rays. Midas blasts the Marvel out of the sky in an attempt to acquire the ship's cosmic ray-powered engines. His friends and comrades killed, Noh-Varr emerges as the only survivor. Noh-Varr then encounters the sentient corporation known as Hexus. Accidentally released from a containment cell when the Marvel crashed, Hexus begins to take over world-wide commerce in an attempt to subjugate the human population and ultimately control Earth. Noh-Varr invades the control center of Hexus and ultimately destroys the "social parasite" by releasing all of its trade secrets to its competitors. Noh-Varr finds himself pursued by Doctor Midas and his minions, and upon striking an alliance with Midas' daughter Oubliette, Noh-Varr defeats the megalomaniac. After the battle, agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. capture Noh-Varr and incarcerate him in a seemingly inescapable prison known as the Cube. While in custody, Noh-Varr declares war on Earth and the human race. New Avengers: Illuminati Noh-Varr at one stage gets the attention of the Illuminati. Its members: Professor X, Mister Fantastic, Black Bolt, Iron Man, Doctor Strange, and Namor are worried about the fact Noh-Varr has declared war on the entire planet and try to change his mind. They visit him at the Cube in the form of a mental projection, and speak to him in turn, explaining the legacy of Captain Marvel and telling Noh-Varr that he can choose to live as a hero or spend the rest of his life in The Cube. They ultimately leave him with the choice and tell him to earn his way out. (Illuminati #1) Civil War Noh-Varr is brainwashed and ordered to capture the Runaways by S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Maria Hill. After being released for his mission by the cruel warden of the Cube, Noh-Varr brutally subdues the Runaways and the Young Avengers. When the warden of the Cube feels the mission has finished successfully, he orders Noh-Varr's retrieval. As the Young Avengers and the Runaways assault the Cube, he engages them in battle. After a brief fight, Noh-Varr is defeated and the Vision reverses the Cube's mental control over him. He is seen taking control of the Cube, declaring it to be the capital city of the new Kree Empire. Secret Invasion When the alien virus the Skrulls upload releases all the prisoners within the Cube, Noh-Varr announces that it is "time to go." Later, while escaping on a stolen S.H.I.E.L.D. minijet, he's stopped by a dying Khn'nr. At first mistaking him for the original Captain Marvel, Noh-Varr stops to listen to his final words, as Khn'nr appoints him as the new Protector of the Earth, spurring him to fill in the role once covered by Mar-Vell himself, and stop the Skrulls, perceived as liars and honorless beings. Noh-Varr is left shaken by the revelation, after witnessing the dying Khn'nr reverting to his alien Skrull appearance. Finally deciding to take a side in the war, Noh-Varr uses the solar energies of Captain Marvel's Nega-Bands, causing a huge explosion in the middle of the battle in New York. Then he declares to the Skrull army that their invasion is over. Dark Avengers Noh-Varr is told by Norman Osborn that he is a war hero and he wants him to be who he truly is. He is recruited to Norman Osborn's Avengers team, and takes on the mantle of the new Captain Marvel. When the Church of Hala branch in Charleston, South Carolina commit mass suicide due to Noh-Varr taking Captain Marvel's name, Carol Danvers goes to investigate. While looking around, she finds Noh-Varr in an alley behind the church. After Carol tries to attack Nor-Varr twice and blames him for what the church has done in the original Captain Marvel's name, he explains that the Captain Marvel they founded this church for was a Skrull and he died in his arms, claiming his love for this world and her people and asked he protect this world from those who wish to harm it. Carol does not believe it and Noh-Varr flies away, telling her to believe what she will and to remember this meeting, because he never threw a punch. After their first mission Noh-Varr shows an attraction to teammate Ms. Marvel, which is noticed by teammate Ares, much to his amusement. The team then decide to relax in the Avengers Tower once they have returned. In the evening, Noh-Varr is walking back to his room from a shower, when Karla invites him into her room. After having sex with Noh-Varr, Karla turns on the television, telling him she wanted to see how Norman would explain why his "Avengers" are full of criminals. Noh-Varr is shocked at the news that the rest of his teammates are all criminals pretending to be heroes. He then goes missing. Post-Dark Avengers Since abandoning the team, Noh-Varr has kept a low profile in order to elude the Dark Avengers and has been trying to determine what his role is while he is living on Earth. In Dark Reign: The List - Wolverine, it is revealed that one of Noh-Varr's missions as a Dark Avenger was to capture the World facility. He goes to Wolverine and warns him of Osborn's plan and together, they take the World facility from Osborn's grasp, leaving it in the hands of Fantomex. Later, Noh-Varr befriends a young woman named Annie at the same time he is found by the Sentry, who has come to take him back to Osborn. A battle ensues in the middle of Manhattan with Noh-Varr on the verge of losing when Annie intervenes and fires on the Sentry with one of Noh-Varr's Kree weapons, distracting him. Noh-Varr flees and returns to an abandoned building where he has been building a Kree communicator to contact the Kree Supreme Intelligence. In Dark Avengers Annual #1, a holographic message sent by the Supreme Intelligence tells Noh-Varr that the actions of the Skrulls during Secret Invasion have left Earth in more danger than ever before and that Noh-Varr is the planet's new protector. The Supreme Intelligence then grants him the power needed to carry out his mission in the form of a set of Nega-Bands, more advanced than the ones worn by Captain Marvel. The bands also provide him with a new costume and prevent the Dark Avengers from detecting his presence. After finding Annie and thanking her for her help, he teleports away. Unbeknown to Noh-Varr however, he was being observed by Captain America (Bucky) and Steve Rogers, who are trying to determine if he could be a potential ally against Osborn. Aftermath Noh-Varr later appears as the new costumed hero, Protector, in the back matter of Ms. Marvel vol. 2 #50. Taking place after an undefined amount of time after the events of Dark Avengers Annual #1, Noh-Varr and Annie are seen traveling together. An unidentified female, wearing hi-tech battle armor, from the future has located Noh-Varr and time slips in to "test" Noh-Varr. Noh-Varr transforms into the Protector and battles the female. The female realizes she has met a younger and weaker Protector than expected and before killing the civilians is knocked aside by Protector. The now unmasked assailant is revealed to be an older Annie, telling Noh-Varr "it will all make sense... someday" before locking onto another Noh-Varr and time slipping out. Heroic Age Noh-Varr is recruited into the Avengers team to help them build a time machine to save the future. Tony Stark attempts to hire him due to his vast knowledge in order to 'unleash his alien mind onto the world', which Noh-Varr turns down, having vowed to keep the secrets of Kree technology out of the economy of Earth. Within a short time, Noh-Varr creates a time-space continuum viewer which allows the Avengers to view myriad possible futures, including MC2, Marvel 2099, Days of Future Past and Age of Apocalypse, before seeing the timestream collapse. Noh-Varr then helps the Avengers fight off an angry Wonder Man, who is convinced the reformation of Avengers is a mistake. Shortly afterwards, they are then attacked by a time-lost future Apocalypse and his four horsemen, which consists of corrupted heroes including the Scarlet Witch, Spider-Man, and Wolverine. In the aftermath, Noh-Varr manages to calm down Spider-Man, who is bemoaning his possible future, with a joke before he heads off with some of the team to build a new time machine. Having traveled to the future with Wolverine, Captain America, and Iron Man, they are promptly defeated by a possible future team of Avengers, and taken to their leader Maestro, who is happy to see them, as he is working with a future version of Tony Stark. Fear Itself https://comicsalliance.com/the-replacements-mar-vell-captain-marvel/During the Fear Itself storyline, Noh-Varr arrives in Brazil with Spider-Woman and Ms. Marvel to help Red She-Hulk fight the Hulk, who was transformed into Nul: Breaker of Worlds. Avengers vs. X-Men During the Avengers vs. X-Men storyline, Noh-Varr locates a secret A.I.M. base. The Avengers assemble where they take out the base and arrest Monica Rappaccini and the rest of the A.I.M. scientists that escaped following Osborn's defeat. After the battle, Noh-Varr checks in with the Supreme Intelligence of the Kree Empire, who informs him of the coming Phoenix force and orders him to intercept and contain it at all cost... even if that means eliminating his Avenger teammates. In space, after the Avengers fail to stop the Phoenix, Noh-Varr analyzes the reason for their failure and discovers that Thor's Mjolnir hammer can injure and absorb the Phoenix' essence. Before the team can celebrate, Noh-Varr declares that he will take the collected energy back to the Kree. While the Avengers wake up in their spaceship heading to a sun and try to escape death, Noh-Varr takes the Phoenix energy to the Supreme Intelligence. However, the Supreme Intelligence declares that the energy will not be used to save Earth. Noh-Varr turns against the Supreme Intelligence and escapes with the energy. The Avengers meet him, take the energy, and declare him an enemy of the team telling him never to return to Earth. Noh-Varr is left in Hala running for his life from the Kree. Marvel NOW! Noh-Varr later appears in the Young Avengers series as part of Marvel NOW! where he reconciles with the team with whom he clashed during Civil War: Young Avengers/Runaways. Rather than fleeing Earth, he established a base in a satellite orbiting Earth where he regains his identity as Marvel Boy and begins a relationship with Hawkeye. Throughout the series, he struggles to fully assimilate into Earth culture, though his knowledge of alien technology such as a pair of energy guns he wields during battle and the laser bow he gives to Hawkeye give a significant advantage. His spaceship serves as the team's primary source of transport. Noh-Varr is depicted as being fascinated by Earth music including pop, rock and country (which inspires him to briefly grow a beard similar to that of Kenny Rogers), however, he frequently describes his favourite track as Be My Baby by R&B trio The Ronettes. Marvel Boy officially joins the Young Avengers when he is asked by Hawkeye to help her and her teammates face the interdimensional parasite known as Mother. His relationship with Hawkeye is questioned when it is revealed that Loki's former associate Leah, who is working for Mother, has recruited three of his former lovers, Merree, Oubliette and Annie, to serve on her superpowered team. Noh-Varr decides to break up with Hawkeye to be with Oubilette but, when Leah's team are revealed to be nothing but guilt-based constructs, Marvel Boy tries to unsuccessfully win Kate back. After defeating Mother once and for all, Noh-Varr DJ's at the party held by Loki in the Young Avengers' honor. At the party, he attempts to reconcile with Hawkeye but she denies him the chance to end things on good terms, leaving him to conclude that he must stop dwelling on the past so that he can move forward. Rededicating himself to heroism, Noh-Varr sets his sights on rebuilding the Kree empire, offering his services to the Inhuman Royal Family. He takes them to the ruins of Hala, predicting that investigating the origins of the Inhuman species may provide a way for them to survive following the destruction of the Terrigen Mist. During their quest, the team are attacked by Ronan the Accuser who uses his advanced technology to create a psychic projection of Hawkeye, who berates Noh-Varr for throwing their love away for Oubilette, a girl who didn't even exist. He apologises to her and admits that he didn't trust his own heart enough to believe that she really wanted to be with him. When she further insults him, Noh realises that he has been trapped by Ronan and uses his own technology to escape. Noh-Varr stays with the Inhumans and is nearly killed by a Progenitor but is able to heal thanks to his cockroach-infused DNA and remains with the Royal Family in Artican, their new base located on the Moon. Noh-Varr later joined the Guardians of the Galaxy. He's in a relationship with fellow Guardian Hercules. In the aftermath of the "Empyre" storyline, Noh-Varr represents the Kree when Super-Skrull meets with Nova and the representatives of the Badoon, the Kymellians, the Zn'rx, the Shi'ar, the Spartaxians, the Chitauri, and an alien from the planet Silnius. When No-Varr heads to the restroom, he finds Emperor Stote of Zn'rx dying on the ground mentioning about a shapeshifter. The Skrull Subaltern Val-Korr accuses him of murder causing Noh-Varr to act in self-defense. Super-Skrull brings up Noh-Varr's actions to the rest of the Galactic Council as Nova calls in the Guardians of the Galaxy to investigate Emperor Stote's murder. Powers and abilities Noh-Varr is a Kree from an alternate universe who has been enhanced with insect DNA. He has demonstrated enhanced reflexes, speed, strength, and endurance well beyond that capable of a normal human and standard Kree. He is able to re-route his neurological impulses so that he can avoid experiencing physical pain, and even suppress any stimulus he does not want to experience, making him a deadly opponent in battle. In Civil War: Young Avengers/Runaways he performs a "White run", pushing everything unrelated to the fight from his mind, allowing him to defeat Xavin, Karolina Dean, Wiccan, and Hulkling within 5 seconds. In addition, Noh-Varr is "triple jointed", allowing extreme feats of contortion and the ability to survive what would otherwise be crushing forces. Noh-Varr can also scale even the smoothest surfaces, including vertical walls, glass windows, and ceilings. Noh is also capable of escape velocity aerial travel unaided by boost propulsion under his own power, he can also emit energy blasts from his hands at will. When needed, he can digest any organic substance without adverse effects. As a result, he can eat rotting or poisonous food as well as non-food stuffs (e.g., cardboard, paper, etc.). He uses this ability to recover from wounds or extreme stress. Noh-Varr's saliva contains nano-active properties that infects the bodies & minds of those it touches. This causes hallucinations and allows Noh-Varr a degree of psyche-control. His fingernails can grow into a deadly crystalline spike. Noh-Varr can insert this nail into an opponent and leave it to explode, killing the target as well as causing extensive damage to the surrounding area or break off & fling them at an adversary as a ranged attack. They also have toxic effects depending upon Noh-Varr's inclination. Marvel Boy also seems capable of flight under his own power, as well as possessing self-sustenance. being able to survive in space without need of physical nourishment or comforts. Marvel Boy later showcased hand emitted concussion blasts of an unknown energy type while battling Vox Supremes' gene patterned drones. In Dark Avengers Annual #1, Noh-Varr makes contact with his people and is given a pair of Nega-Bands of his own along with a new costume and entirely new abilities. Such as technopathy, apparatus conjuration, teleportation, computerized holographic interact and the like. Plus a number of in-universe Band functions pertaining to flight, physical enhancement and energy manipulation. They are later taken away after his last mission with the New Avengers for betraying the prime universes Supreme Intelligence by Ronan the Accuser. Noh-Varr also has access to a wide variety of advanced Kree technology, including high-tech weaponry such as self-replicating grenades, plasma guns, shapeshifting armbands called Nega-Gauntlets which turn into razor blades, hand cannons channelling varied energy types and can initiate trans-matter displacement with other gauntlet wearers. Along with imagination powered space ships and a "pocket battlefield" that can simulate unique combat environments for the user by adjusting local physics. Noh-Varr is adept at the sciences of interdimensional & extra-dimensional travel. He can construct and operate devices to view and traverse the timestream and alternate dimensions. Reception Critical reception Andrew Wheeler of ComicsAlliance referred to Noh-Varr as "Marvel's first male pin-up," writing, "Noh-Varr hit all the usual beats of the comics sex symbol. He found more than one reason to take his clothes off. He played with his look. He showed us his butt. Yet Noh-Varr wasn't quite like all those thousand female heroes. Noh-Varr wasn't only there to be sexy. He got to both kick some ass and experience some angst. He had his crowning moment of awesome... And his crowning moment of douche. He had plot. Personality. Agency. Gillen and McKelvie weren't setting out to replicate the mistakes that are made with female sex symbols. They upped the game for sex symbols everywhere. Sexy can be important... But a sexy character should not be interchangeable with a sexy lamp. To quote Kelly-Sue DeConnick: "[I]f you can replace your female character with a sexy lamp and the story still basically works, maybe you need another draft." (That's the clean version. The dirty version utilizes the phrase "f---ing hack".) Gillen and McKelvie didn't invent Marvel Boy, and they didn't invent his sexy; they just gave him his sexy back. Marvel Boy was made to be sexy, in the 2000's Marvel Boy by Grant Morrison and J.G. Jones. Noh-Varr was young, dumb and full of... sexuality, from his first appearance. Created because Morrison thought comics weren't being "sexy enough," Noh-Varr was a pouty bad boy in tight, tight shorts whose nemesis was an assassin in a dominatrix outfit. "Sexy" is his motif in the same way that "spider" is Peter Parker's." Lauren Davis of Gizmodo called Noh-Varr one of the "male superheroes who truly are sexualized the way women are in comics," saying, "Now this is a great example of a character being portrayed as sexy in a fun and sweet way that doesn't overwhelm the scene. In Kieron Gillen and Jamie McKelvie's Young Avengers #1, we see Kate Bishop watching Noh-Varr dance in her room. It's her gaze that's on him, and some readers can appreciate Noh-Varr in the same way that Kate does, but at the same time, it's a nice character moment. And it's much sexier than running one's hands down an unwilling Batman's chest." Afreen Khan of Sportskeeda dubbed Noh-Varr as an "outright sex symbol," stating, "Noh-Varr, in simpler terms, is a hunk. He is a part of the Marvels and goes by many aliases. The most popular ones are Marvel Boy and Protector. The superhero was introduced in the self-titled 2000 comic. As one of the many younger superheroes, he was also a part of the Young Avengers. [...] That’s not all. One of the main reasons the post about Park Seo-joon reprising Noh-Varr has gained so much attention is because of the hero’s sexual orientation. The Young Avenger is canonically bisexual, or pansexual. [...] Social media was bombarded with excited fans' reactions after the Twitter account of Marvel Updates posted that the actor would be playing Noh-Varr. A major reason for it is that the queer superhero is one of the few comic characters who was explicitly portrayed as a s*x symbol, in a good way. " Benjamin Riley of Special Broadcasting Service described Noh-Varr was one of the "queer superheroes who changed the face of comics," asserting, "This one’s cheating a bit—Marvel Boy’s status as a queer character is debatable, but aside from being one of the hottest male superheroes in recent memory, the alien Noh-Varr (his real name) certainly has a queer sensibility. He’s also another Young Avengers alum—Marvel Boy’s teammate and sometime girlfriend Kate Bishop jokes at one point that she’s the only "straightie" on the team. What makes Marvel Boy queer isn’t just his sexuality (he implies his race doesn’t have sexual identities, only sexual acts) it’s how the comic treats him, visually: in a medium dominated by the male gaze, he’s not only sexy, he’s sexualized." Noh-Varr also has received significant discussion in scholarly literature such as Lyubansky, Sweeney, and Beam & Clay-Buck. Accolades In 2013 ComicsAlliance ranked Noh-Varr 2nd in their "50 Sexiest Male Characters in Comics" list. In 2014, Gizmodo ranked Noh-Varr 9th in their "10 Times When Comics And Movies Sexualized Male Superheroes" list. In 2016, Special Broadcasting Service included Noh-Varr in their "10 queer superheroes who changed the face of comics" list. In 2018, CBR.com ranked Noh-Varr 7th in their "Every Captain Marvel Ever" list. In 2019, CBR.com ranked Noh-Varr 5th in their "All The Captain Marvels" list and 5th in their "Every Single Young Avenger Ever" list. In 2021, Screen Rant ranked Noh-Varr 5th in their "10 Most Powerful Members Of The Young Avengers" list and 5th in their "10 LGBTQ+ Marvel Heroes That Should Join The MCU" list. In 2021, CBR.com ranked Noh-Varr 10th in their "10 Most Powerful Young Avengers" list. In 2022, Screen Rant ranked Noh-Varr 15th in their "15 Most Powerful Guardians Of The Galaxy Members In The Comics" list and included him in their "10 Best Hercules Love Interests In Marvel Comics" list. Literary reception Volumes Marvel Boy (2000) According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Marvel Boy #1 was the 21st best selling comic book in June 2000. Marvel Boy #2 was the 50th best selling comic book in July 2000. Tom Spurgeon of The Comics Reporter called Marvel Boy #1 a "refreshingly goofy take on superhero source material," saying, "Morrison displays uncharacteristic restraint in Marvel Boy. The overriding emphasis seems to be on making certain everything works first as a comic book adventure story rather than as an idea virus, magic spell, pop culture cluster bomb, or whatever grandiloquent description writers like Morrison use for comics that goose superhero formulae with a formal twist and one or two declarations about the state of reality. By making less obvious the stabs at relevance and deeper meaning, particularly those he sometimes attempts through sentiment and affectation, Morrison with Marvel Boy hewed closer to the Lee/Kirby model of superhero storytelling than anything he had done to date. It is a good fit. What the series resembles most closely is the later, Kirby-dominated and slightly tossed-off seeming issues of Fantastic Four. Like Kirby, Morrison focuses on the weirdness of the superhero concept itself, leaving many of the out-there science fiction ideas, the bizarre combat technologies and hints of radical, identity-focused politics, to sizzle at the perimeter of the page." David Harth of CBR.com ranked the Marvel Boy comic book series 6th in their "10 Marvel Comics That Read Like Sci-Fi Epics" list, asserting, "Grant Morrison's time at Marvel was short and tumultuous, but they produced brilliant tales. Their opening salvo was Marvel Boy, with artist J. G. Jones. Following the genetically engineered alternate reality soldier Noh-Varr on a quest for revenge, Morrison and Jones created a sci-fi superhero epic like nothing else at Marvel. With all it has to offer, Marvel Boy should be Marvel's next big sci-fi superhero movie. It's a sci-fi revenge tale full of big concepts, breathtaking action, and brilliant characters, turning the Marvel sci-fi story formula on its ear." Rosie Knight of Nerdist included the Marvel Boy comic book series in their "8 Must-Read Marvel Knights Stories" list. In other media Video games Noh-Varr appears as a playable character in the video game Marvel Avengers Academy, voiced by Andy Field. Noh-Varr / Protector appears as a playable character in the video game Lego Marvel's Avengers. Collected editions References External links Marvel Boy (Noh-Varr) at the Marvel Universe Captain Marvel (Marvel Comics) 2000 comics debuts Avengers (comics) characters Comics characters introduced in 2000 Characters created by Grant Morrison Fictional bisexual men Kree Marvel Comics aliens Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Marvel Comics extraterrestrial superheroes Marvel Comics extraterrestrial supervillains Marvel Comics LGBT superheroes Marvel Comics limited series Marvel Comics male superheroes Marvel Comics male supervillains Marvel Comics child superheroes Teenage superheroes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante%27s%20Cove
Dante's Cove
Dante's Cove is an American LGBT-oriented supernatural soap opera which aired on here! from October 7, 2005, through December 21, 2007. Created and written by Michael Costanza and directed by Sam Irvin, the series combines elements of the horror and soap opera genres in telling the story of Kevin (Gregory Michael) and Toby (Charlie David), a young couple seeking to be together and to overcome the dark mystical forces that conspire to separate them. The show debuted to a mixed critical reception. Although an announcement was made regarding a fourth season, no fourth season was produced. Plot Young couple Kevin and Toby arrive in Dante's Cove, home to a sect dedicated to the supernatural religion Tresum. By freeing the charismatic Ambrosius from his magical imprisonment, Kevin reignites a rivalry between Ambrosius and the Tresum Avatar Grace that has simmered for over 150 years. Ambrosius's obsession with claiming Kevin and Grace's own obsession with avenging herself on Ambrosius threaten to tear Kevin and Toby apart forever, with unforeseen collateral damage. Mythology Tresum is a supernatural religion within the Dante's Cove universe, similar in all things but names to witchcraft. It's overseen by a council of unknown composition which acts through envoys, although there are rogue practitioners, like those of Dante's Cove, who don't abide by the council's rule. Tresum practitioners are shown to be able to teleport, control minds and kill with a glance. All practitioners of Tresum are divided into two houses: Moon, related to water and female energy, and Sun related to fire and male energy, each having a book unreadable to non-initiates in which its knowledge is kept. A third house, Sky, is stated to combine both houses, with a book merging the knowledge of both. A fourth house, Shadows, is revealed as a major threat in season three, having previously been imprisoned by the other houses. Within the mythology of Dante's Cove, Saint is an entheogenic drug local to the Dante's Cove area, obtained from a plant. In non-practitioners, it produces a euphoric high, sometimes accompanied by a prophetic trance. For Tresum practitioners, it induces visions of the past and future and enhances their magical abilities. Cast William Gregory Lee – Ambrosius "Bro" Vallin Tracy Scoggins – Grace Neville Gregory Michael – Kevin Archer Charlie David – Toby Moraitis Nadine Heimann (seasons 1–2, recurring via stock footage in season 3) – Van Josh Berresford (season 1, recurring in season 2) – Cory Dalmass Zara Taylor (season 1) – Amber Rena Riffel (season 1) – Tina Stephen Amell (season 1) & Jon Fleming (seasons 2–3) – Adam Thea Gill (seasons 2–3) – Diana Childs Erin Cummings (season 2) & Jill Bennett (season 3) – Michelle Gabriel Romero (season 2, one guest appearance in season 3) – Marco Laveau Michelle Wolff (season 3, recurring in season 2) – Brit German Santiago (season 2) – Kai Jensen Atwood (season 3) – Griffen Jenny Shimizu (season 3) – Elena Reichen Lehmkuhl (season 3) – Trevor Episodes Season 1 (2005) 1. "In the Beginning" In 1840, Ambrosius Vallin is engaged to marry Grace Neville in the island town of Dante's Cove. When she discovers Ambrosius having sex with his valet, she uses her powers as the Avatar, or high priestess, of one sect of the mystical religion, called Tresum, to kill the valet. Grace imprisons Ambrosius in the sub-basement of her home, cursing him with advanced age. The only way he can win his freedom is through the kiss of a handsome young man. In the present, Kevin moves to Dante's Cove to be with his boyfriend Toby, after moving out of his home to get away from his abusive, homophobic stepfather. He moves in with Toby in Grace's old house, now the Hotel Dante, along with Toby's lesbian artist friend Van and Toby's childhood friend, Adam, who's a straight "trust fund brat." Kevin begins seeing visions and hearing voices calling him by name. During a party, Kevin is drawn to the sub-basement and finds Ambrosius. Ambrosius kisses him, regaining his youth and freedom. Ambrosius uses his own Tresum powers, learned while he was in captivity, to force Kevin to cut his own wrist, landing Kevin in the hospital. 2. "Then There Was Darkness" Ambrosius quickly becomes obsessed with Kevin, using his Tresum powers to seduce him. Grace, still jealous and angry over Ambrosius's betrayal, murders Kevin in the hospital. Enraged, Ambrosius attacks Grace and imprisons and ages her as she did him. Through some unknown means, Kevin is restored to life by a kiss from Ambrosius. However, Grace's act breaks the spell that Kevin had been under, leaving him without any memory of Ambrosius. Using a spell from a Book of Tresum she's found, Van reverses this curse and frees Kevin to again be with Toby. Also drawn into Ambrosius's influence is Cory, who also lives at the hotel. Cory develops a Renfield-like fixation on Ambrosius. After Cory tries and fails to break up the couple by lying about their infidelities, the season ends with Ambrosius, deeply obsessed with Kevin, and Cory seemingly murdering Toby and dumping his body in the ocean. Season 2 (2006) Season 2 sees the introduction of several new residents of Dante's Cove, including Kai, an amoral "fixer" who can get anything (and anyone) he wants; Marco, owner of the hot new club H2Eau; Michelle, Van's girlfriend; Brit, a bartender and scuba instructor; Colin, the owner and operator of a private sex club; and Diana, who has a mysterious connection to Ambrosius and Grace. Jon Fleming took over the role of Adam from Stephen Amell. One of Amell's scenes from the first season was re-shot with Fleming for use in the recap of season one to establish him in the role. 1. "Some Kind of Magic" Toby washes ashore, having survived Ambrosius's murder attempt, but with a loss of memory. Grace escapes her prison and reclaims her youth. Ambrosius digs up his own grave and recovers a cache of gold coins that his mother buried there. Following Adam's advice, he updates his look and wardrobe and starts calling himself "Bro." Van casts a spell to reveal the truth about what happened to Toby, drawing Grace's attention and her girlfriend Michelle's disapproval. Van promises not to use magic again but, when Grace attacks, the Book of Tresum rises and defends her and Michelle sees the aftermath. Toby, having recovered his memory, follows Cory to Bro's new place and calls Van. Bro begins to strangle Cory and, when Toby tries to intervene, again tries to murder him. Van arrives and instinctively defeats Bro, casting him and Cory far out to sea. Adam later finds Cory's body washed up on shore. Michelle delivers Van an ultimatum to leave the island with her. Instead, Van casts a spell to make Michelle forget the magic. The spell backfires, wiping out Michelle's memory of Van completely. 2. "Playing with Fire" Van and Toby spot Bro at Cory's funeral. After meeting the mysterious Diana Childs, Van gets into an argument with the amnesiac Michelle and Brit. Van then seeks out Grace, asking her to teach her Tresum, but Grace refuses because Van is unwilling to swear herself to Grace's service. Michelle and Brit have sex but Michelle is troubled by visions of Van. Bro visits Diana, who warns him not to reveal her secrets. In flashback, it's revealed that Diana taught Ambrosius Tresum during his captivity. Van and Grace perform a spell to repel any "love magic" directed at Kevin by Ambrosius. At his new construction job at the hotel, a co-worker puts the moves on Kevin. Toby catches them and makes Kevin move out. Diana tells Ambrosius that he has to secure a willing Aspirant before the upcoming Solstice. Diana insinuates herself further with Van, who offers her services as a house cleaner. As an after-effect of Van's spell on her, Michelle is tormented by memory flashes. 3. "Come Together" Van sketches Grace, who's surprised to see that Van has included Diana in the picture. Grace confronts Diana and it's revealed that they are sisters. Diana says that the power of Tresum has been dammed up since Grace's wedding to Ambrosius was cancelled and Grace says that at the Solstice all the blocked power will flow into her. Adam starts to spin out of control, abusing the local drug Saint. Under its influence he begins to realize his true sexual orientation, having sex with Bro. Kevin and Toby reconcile. Van has a disturbed night's sleep and is awakened on the beach by Diana. 4. "Spring Forward" Van cleans Diana's house, discovering a broken china doll and a page from a Book of Tresum that she as yet can't read. The page, as revealed in the flashback, was given to Diana by her father shortly before her mother killed him. Her father also gave her the Book of the Sun House of Tresum. Van takes the page to Grace, who takes it away from her. Diana later discovers the page is missing and confronts Grace, who tells her she knows that the upcoming Solstice is a Libra Solstice. Adam continues to spiral downward and the housemates stage an unsuccessful intervention. Van follows Adam, trailing him to a hot spring where Saint grows. She discovers, after returning to the hotel, that she can now read more of the Book of Tresum. She later learns from Grace that this is a result of the Saint, which Tresum practitioners call "starflower." Bro casts a spell to learn details of Kevin's past, including learning about his first love, Derrick. Bro has Kevin tune up his car and gives him a bracelet in payment. Toby is incensed when he sees the bracelet and Van discovers it has a spell on it. Toby throws it into the ocean. An out-of-control Adam ends up having sex with the members of the new private sex club and finally collapsing on the Hotel Dante lawn. Toby cares for him as he detoxes. Diana and Ambrosius talk of the upcoming Libra Solstice, revealing that in three days one Tresum practitioner will gain power over time itself, to go back in the past to change one event. They plot to keep Grace from attaining power so Diana can go back in time to save her father and "save Tresum from Grace." Van returns to the spring and gains the ability to read Diana's Libra Solstice page. Michelle, growing ever more tormented, confronts Van with a photograph of the two of them. Van denies knowing her. Michelle, distraught, walks into the ocean and drowns. 5. "The Solstice" Derrick, Kevin's ex, arrives at Dante's Cove for his bachelor party. With the Libra Solstice at hand, Van agrees to become Grace's Aspirant to gain the chance to save Michelle. Ambrosius makes another attempt to enchant Kevin through the use of the china doll, which has a powerful love charm on it cast by his mother. The charm leads Derrick to try to seduce Kevin and for Marco and Kai to have sex. Bro uses the charm to try to get Adam and Toby together, but Toby's true love for Kevin overcomes the charm. Toby destroys the charm by breaking the doll, but Bro uses his Tresum powers to control Toby. Ambrosius then threatens Kevin to become his aspirant or else he would never see Toby again, and he will hold him for all eternity. Ambrosius thus extorts Kevin into agreeing to become his Aspirant, binding Kevin to him with the recovered enchanted bracelet. Grace and Van arrive at the spring before the others and together perform the ritual. Bro intervenes and attacks Grace. Grace and Bro each draw upon the strength of their respective Aspirants in the battle, but Toby interferes. Grace gains the upper hand and seemingly disintegrates Bro. Suddenly Diana appears and seems to destroy Grace. As Diana prepares to claim the Libra power to save her father and destroy her mother, Van beseeches her to give life instead of taking it, and Diana relinquishes the power to her, allowing her to go back in time to save Michelle. The following day Michelle leaves for home. Bro suddenly reappears and claims Kevin, saying Kevin agreed willingly. The two vanish before Toby's and Van's eyes. Season 3 (2007) Season 3 sees more new additions to the Dante's Cove cast and some departures, notably Nadine Heimann as Van, who is presumed dead. Another absent character is Kai. New characters include Trevor (Reichen Lehmkuhl), a possible love interest for Adam; Elena (Jenny Shimizu), an antiquarian who is involved with Brit; and Griffen (Jensen Atwood), an Emissary of the Tresum Council. Jill Bennett replaced Erin Cummings in the role of Michelle. Similar to how the transition between "Adams" was handled in season two, shots of Bennett were inserted into the recap of season two to establish her as Michelle. 1. "Sex and Death (and Rock and Roll)" Toby awakens from a nightmare vision of Van's apparent death. It is six months later and Kevin is living with Ambrosius. Bro is now a silent partner with Marco, having invested money to rebuild H2Eau, which was washed away in a tsunami that levelled the leeward side of the Cove. Brit is now seeing an antiquarian named Elena and studying the chaotic tidal patterns around the Cove. Kevin finally gets to see Toby away from Bro at the bar. Kevin claims to be happy with Bro. The next morning, a burst of light from the sky deposits Grace on the shore. While walking to her estate, a man offers her a lift. He introduces himself as Griffen, or "Griff" for short, an Emissary of the Tresum Council. Griff tells her that he has come to see Diana. Arriving at her windward estate, Grace is shocked to learn that various Cove residents have moved in following Van's death and the destruction of the hotel. She allows the renters to stay until the end of the month. Griff warns Diana not to try to correct the errors caused by her failure at the Libra solstice. Grace later confronts Diana, accusing her of causing the tsunami. Noticing Griff outside Diana's shop, Grace asks him why her powers are so weak. He tells her it's a result of her six months "in limbo" and that full control of her magic should return eventually. At Bro's beach house, Kevin sneaks away and casts a spell that takes him momentarily to Toby. Kevin attempts to assure Toby that he wants to return, but Toby assumes it was a dream. That night, Toby is closing the bar when he is greeted by Michelle, who has returned to the Cove searching for Van. Toby tells her that Van is dead. Michelle explains that her parents were murdered by something evil. She asks both Toby and Marco if they might be able to help her perform Tresum spells to stop the evil but balks when either suggests asking either Grace or Bro for help. Adam, still in love with Toby, has also been spending time with Trevor. Convinced that he will never have Toby, Adam has sex with Trevor. Later, Grace recruits Trevor to be her eyes and ears in addition to being her handyman. Toby spies on Kevin with Bro at their beach house. He later mentions to Adam that Kevin seems genuinely happy with Bro, and seemingly agrees to end his relationship with Kevin. That night, Diana, in defiance of the Council, continues to invoke Tresum spells. Griff arrives, repeating his warning to stop. Diana shrugs him off, forcing Griff to strip her of her powers. Back at H2Eau, Marco tries to get Grace's attention. He warns her of a "dark force" in Dante's Cove, showing her the stone of his ring that darkens in the presence of dark energy, but Grace dismisses his concerns. He decides to go see Bro. He never makes it there, as he is attacked on the beach by a demonic-appearing Michelle. 2. "Blood, Sugar, Sex, Magik" Michelle seeks out Diana for help in finding out who killed her parents. A powerless Diana initially refuses but later relents. Grace discovers Marco's dismembered body on the beach and takes his mystic ring off his finger, experiencing an incomplete vision of his death. At Marco's funeral, Michelle embraces Brit to Elena's consternation. Grace tries to advise Ambrosius about Marco's warning, but he is unreceptive. Bro then announces to all attending the service that he will be taking over as owner of H2Eau. Grace casts a spell to reveal Marco's killer, but it fails. She realizes that she needs a star flower and determines to get some from Diana. That night at H2Eau, two clubgoers exhale a puff of Saint smoke into Adam's face. He experiences mystical visions before collapsing. When he comes to, he sees that Toby has remained vigilant for him. Toby accuses him of using again, but Adam angrily denies it, saying that though he does not want the drug, the drug may want him. Kevin casts a spell on Bro which inadvertently kills him. He manages to reverse the spell, bringing Bro back to life. The next day, Bro attempts a spell on Toby which fails. He goes to Diana for an explanation, who points him in Griff's direction. Bro confronts him, but Griffen convinces him that he is not responsible for his problem. Griff later explains that Bro can replenish his energy by having sex with men other than Kevin. Michelle and Diana begin researching ancient Tresum scrolls and share an unexpected kiss. Diana excuses herself to find more scrolls, and Michelle takes the opportunity to slip a few drops of her own blood into Diana's tea. Grace arrives demanding a starflower from Diana, who has none. Grace leaves for the spring. Diana calls out for Michelle, who hid from Grace and finishes the blood-spiked cup of tea. But Michelle has slipped away, and in her demonic form, uproots all of the starflower. Grace arrives at the spring later with Trevor to discover the shredded plant, but Trevor salvages a small sprig. Meanwhile, Brit discovers a mysterious chest during a late-night scuba dive. Bro informs Toby that Adam is starting as H2Eau's newest bartender. Toby confronts Bro, accusing him of forcing Adam to work for him, but Bro denies the use of magic, or that he has any sexual interest in Adam. After Adam's shift ends, Toby tries to convince him to quit. Adam explains that his parents have cut off his allowance because he refused to leave Dante's Cove so that he could stay with Toby. Toby finally gives in, and he and Adam have sex for the first time. Diana, drinking another cup of the spiked tea, reads in her scrolls of the same dark force that Grace, finally able to cast her to reveal spell, discovers—the House of Shadows. 3. "Sexual Healing" Featuring a guest appearance by David Moretti Diana is tormented by spectral voices. She angrily accuses Griffen of being behind them, but as the torment continues it is revealed that Michelle is the source. Brit, Elena, and Kevin manage to open the box that Brit retrieved from the ocean but find it empty. Later, Kevin touches a symbol on the box's lid and experiences a rush of energy. Bro decides to release Kevin from his bondage, but the very night he plans to do so, he discovers that Kevin has been stealing his energy. Kevin attacks Bro magically, and Bro flees to Griffen. Griffen teaches Bro how to draw upon the energy of others. Grace tries to convince Bro to give her his Tresum Book of the Sun, but he denies her, dismissing her fears and the House of Shadows as a myth. At Trevor's birthday party, Grace learns of Adam's visions and entreats him to take Saint with her so she can share them. He refuses. After acquiring some Saint at The Lair, Grace secretly doses Adam and experiences his vision, confirming that it is the House of Shadows that is behind the disturbances in the Cove. Toby later confronts Adam, still high, and Adam denies knowingly taking Saint. Kevin finds Toby at H2Eau, telling him "today's the day." Michelle seduces Brit. Grace tries to convince Bro of the Shadow threat but he dismisses her, calling the House of Shadows a "myth." Grace then seeks out Griffen, who believes her visions of the House of Shadows but who will not align himself with her "rogue magic." The only way he will help her is if she swears allegiance to him and the Tresum Council. Initially, she angrily refuses but her growing fear later compels her to agree to become Griffen's Aspirant. Bro, having drained several men of their energy, returns to confront Kevin. Kevin uncorks a potion that knocks Bro out and draws upon Bro's power to finally remove the bracelet. 4. "Like a Virgin" Featuring a guest appearance by David Moretti Michelle asks Brit to help her perform a Tresum spell, but because Brit is a scientist, she refuses. Griffin and Grace complete the ritual in which she becomes his Aspirant. They "seal the deal" by making love. Kevin approaches Toby and tells him he has broken free of Ambrosius' control. Bro meanwhile uses a locator spell to see Kevin with Toby, despite him no longer wearing a bracelet. Michelle assaults Elena, who then hides out of sight just before Brit arrives on the scene, discovering her lover bleeding on the floor and screaming for help. Kevin and Toby hear her and suggest using magic to save Elena's life. Toby enlists Grace, whose powers have returned after the night's events. Grace discovers that the House of Shadows has taken a human host after examining Elena's injuries. Kevin returns to Bro's home looking for the Sun Book. Bro tries to reenslave his former captive, but Kevin shrugs off his attempts. Later, needing more power in his desire to get Kevin back, Bro resumes his power-leeching rampage. Grace manages to stabilize Elena, but she explains that she'll need either the Moon or Sun Book to get her completely out of the woods. Toby suggests getting Kevin to read the Sun Book (since Grace is a Moon Witch), but Grace says she'll need far more experienced help to perform the healing spell. Griff and Grace cast a reveal spell, confirming Grace's suspicions about the Shadows and finally exposing Michelle as their host. As they begin to alert the Cove residents of the danger they face, Grace tells Griff that she deceived him by switching the medallions for the allegiance ceremony, invalidating the entire ritual, meaning they are not aspirant/avatar after all. Still posing as a sympathetic friend, Michelle rejoins a distraught Brit. She convinces Brit to join her in a spell using the Moon Book (which she has had for months) to heal Elena, but Grace arrives in time to drive Michelle away. Upon touching the Moon Book, Grace learns that Van was the first to fall to the Shadows. At The Lair, Trevor stumbles upon Bro amid his indiscriminate draining rampage and becomes his latest victim. Griff and Adam arrive in time to save him from being drained to death. The next day, Brit shows Grace the wooden box that served as the Shadows' ancient prison. Diana arrives, offering to join the effort to help trap them back inside of it. Kevin begs Toby to run away with him but Toby turns him down. Just then, Adam arrives and Toby kisses him, setting off Kevin, who threatens to use magic to force Toby to be with him. Toby calls his bluff, making Kevin back down. However, he refuses to help them stop the Shadows and leaves. Diana and Grace arrive at Michelle's house. She emerges to greet them in full Shadow form. 5. "Naked in the Dark" Seemingly in preparation to defeat the House of Shadows, Diana asks Grace for her Tresum power. Grace reluctantly consents and her power is transferred to Diana, who incants a spell that draws the Shadows out of Michelle and into her instead. At H2Eau, Diana forces the employees to kill each other and themselves. Ambrosius wonders what the commotion is, only to be greeted by a Shadows-possessed Diana. She attempts to kill him, but Bro manages to escape with the Sun Book. Toby and Adam look for Michelle in her hotel room. They hear what seems like a cry for help coming from the closet. While investigating, Adam is pulled in by the Shadows and Toby almost is as well, but manages to break free. Toby attempts to rescue Adam and becomes infected by the Shadows. Elsewhere on the Cove, Kevin is alarmed by entire buildings burning and runs back to Grace and the others. He offers to use magic to help the others stop the threat, but Grace rejects him as a novice. Toby arrives, fighting off the Shadows' attempt to fully infect him and take him over. Grace prepares to kill him but Kevin uses a spell to free Toby from the Shadows' influence. Grace and the other Cove residents are joined by Bro, now clearly convinced of the threat, and Grace persuades them all to regroup at Griffen's estate. Bro attempts in vain to read the Sun Book's passage on defeating the Shadows, and then Trevor brings him the Moon Book. When the two books come into contact, they magically merge into a larger book which both Sun and Moon Witches can read. Bro tells Griff and Grace about the prophecy meant to stop the House of Shadows, which reads: "A mighty Tresum master will level the playing field in the war against the Shadows. But only a virgin can deliver the killing stroke to close the Shadow portal forever." Bro interprets this to mean that the box is the portal, he and Griff are the Tresum masters, and Grace is the virgin until she informs him that this is no longer the case, apparently leaving them all at square one. Diana arrives, leaving the combatants unprepared to stop her. She immediately plunges the entire Cove into darkness. Trevor finds one of the doors open and becomes possessed by Shadows that used the opening to slip inside. Grace belittles Brit's attempts to protect herself using common weapons until she realizes that Brit's refusal to use magic under clearly supernatural threats makes her the "virgin" in the prophecy, deducing that it refers to one untouched by magic rather than sex. Kevin becomes agitated by the others' back-and-forth debate on how to interpret the prophecy and stop the Shadows, but Grace sends him away. It is in this state that Diana uses a possessed Trevor to lure him outside in an attempt to stop her himself. When the others become aware that Kevin has been manipulated into confronting Diana alone, the three Tresum witches emerge from the estate and retrieve a weakened Kevin. Michelle arrives, claiming she knows how to stop Diana, and joins them inside. Once again, the Shadows seem to emerge from within a closet. Brit and Toby hold the door shut until Toby thinks he hears Adam's voice from within. He opens the door and is sucked in, joining Adam in the Shadows dimension. Diana enters the estate, prompting the three witches to attempt to reimprison the Shadows inside the box, without success. Brit attempts to sneak up on Diana and stab her, but Diana spots and repels her before she gets close enough. Finally, Michelle uses the knife in Brit's hand to stab herself and grabs Diana before falling to the floor. Michelle was correct in surmising that since the Shadows arrived upon her resurrection, she must die for them to be cast out. With Michelle dead, Griff, Grace and Bro succeed in trapping Diana and the Shadows in the box. With the Shadows gone, daylight returns, Elena awakens and is reunited with Brit and Trevor returns to normal. Griff plans to return to the Tresum Council and deliver the box to them, but Grace reveals that she is pregnant with his child. Griff forsakes his allegiance to the council to stay with her to raise their baby. Kevin, having lost Toby, decides that he wants to stay with Bro, of his own free will for the first time. As the two kisses, Toby and Adam are seen banging on the other side of a mirror in their bedroom, screaming for help. Production The first season was shot in the Turks and Caicos Islands on 35 mm film. Initially intended to be three episodes, the footage was re-edited and packaged as an 84-minute first episode and a 106-minute second episode. These originally aired in the fall of 2005. The second season was shot on the north side of Oahu in Hawaii in the spring of 2006. Shooting took place near the filming location of Lost; the cast and crew of the two shows socialized during the shoot. The change in locale and obvious change in sets was for the most part ignored within the series, though actress Tracy Scoggins was given a line about "what a fresh coat of paint can really do." Behind the scenes, however, the change led to shifts in the shooting schedule, notably changes in the number of night scenes filmed because of curfew issues and restrictions imposed. The season was shot entirely on high definition videotape. It was originally intended to be six one-hour episodes, but episodes five and six were condensed into a single one. The season aired in the fall of 2006. A third season of five one-hour episodes, again filmed in Hawaii, aired in the fall of 2007. Connections to The Lair Dante's Cove takes place in the same fictional universe as another here! original production, the vampire series The Lair. Characters from The Lair refer to Saint as "the new drug all the kids are doing," being banished by an "Avatar" and covens of witches centered around a spring. These are all components of Tresum, although Tresum has not been mentioned specifically within the series. Dylan Vox plays a character named Colin in The Lair and in three episodes in season 2 of Dante's Cove. Dialogue in The Lair indicates that his character from that series has been a vampire for a long time, perhaps centuries. Director Sam Irvin and Charlie David refer to the Cove's sex club as "The Lair" and call the series The Lair "sort of like a spin-off." According to The Lair's Peter Stickles, The Lair was originally intended to be a direct spin-off of Dante's Cove and was originally entitled "Dante's Lair". Early in production the name was changed but the show was intended to be set in the town of Dante's Cove, but eventually the connection was dropped. The Lair's David Moretti reported on The Lair podcast that he would appear as his Lair character Thom in season three of Dante's Cove (episodes 3 and 4), running the island's sex club in Colin's absence, but did not elaborate on how that will come about. Moretti appeared in the third episode, "Sexual Healing", and the fourth episode, "Like a Virgin", and the Cove's sex club was finally identified by name as "The Lair". Whether this establishes that the two series are indeed set in the same location remains unclear. Thom appears in the second season of The Lair, unaffiliated with the club. He begins season three living in The Lair as the lover of the club's leader Damian. DVD releases Critical response Formal reviews for Dante's Cove have been light and the series has failed to attract enough reviewers at Rotten Tomatoes to date to garner a rating. One outlet that has reviewed each of the complete seasons is the lesbian-themed website AfterEllen.com. Season one was deemed "campy, gothic, mysterious, homoerotic, and a bit silly" with the reviewer noting the series' apparent debt to such earlier fare as Dark Shadows and Buffy the Vampire Slayer. These sentiments were echoed by the gay-interest Instinct magazine, which called the series a "guilty pleasure TV hit...with...camp goodness and sexy soap appeal." In looking at season two, AfterEllen's reviewer noted the improved acting and production values and (in keeping with the lesbian focus of the website) expressed appreciation of the central position of the lesbian characters and storyline. Thea Gill in particular has been singled out by reviewers for praise for her performance as Diana Childs. Series director Sam Irvin has relayed that the fan base is expanding beyond the niche of the LGBT community. "There are gay, lesbian, bisexual and straight people on this show, and certainly maybe more gay and lesbian characters than most shows, but it seems to appeal to a mainstream heterosexual audience, too." At least one straight reviewer disagreed, not because of the sexuality but instead finding the show too "over-the-top." Podcast A Dante's Cove podcast was launched through the show's official site and through iTunes on October 6, 2006. The podcast is hosted by New York City DJ Ben Harvey and includes episode recaps and discussion and interviews with the cast. There have been no podcasts released since the airing of the third episode of season three. References External links here! TV's Dante's Cove Site 2005 American television series debuts 2007 American television series endings 2000s American LGBT-related drama television series American television soap operas Here TV original programming 2000s American horror television series Television series about witchcraft LGBT speculative fiction television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20Charter%20Treaty
Energy Charter Treaty
The Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) is an international agreement that establishes a multilateral framework for cross-border cooperation in the energy industry, principally the fossil fuel industry. The treaty covers all aspects of commercial energy activities including trade, transit, investments and energy efficiency. The treaty contains dispute resolution procedures both for States Parties to the Treaty (vis-à-vis other States) and as between States and the investors of other States, who have made investments in the territory of the former. Full versions of the treaty, both consolidated and official, are readily accessible. Initially, the Energy Charter process aimed to integrate the energy sectors of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe at the end of the Cold War into the broader European and world markets. Its role, however, extends beyond east–west cooperation and, through legally binding instruments, free trade in global energy markets and non-discrimination to stimulate foreign direct investments and global cross-border trade. Awards and settlements of the international arbitrations put forward by breaking the law of the Energy Charter Treaty are sometimes in the hundreds of millions of dollars. In 2014, the Yukos cases were decided in favour of the claimants on the basis of the treaty with a record-breaking US$50 billion award, although appeals continue in courts in the Netherlands. The Energy Charter Treaty has been criticized for being a significant obstacle to enacting national policies to combat climate change, and for actively disincentivizing national governments from compliance with recent international climate treaties such as the Paris Agreement due to the threat of significant financial loss. , numerous countries have either left or have announced plans to leave the ECT, with reports that the European Commission was planning legislation for the EU and all its member states to leave the ECT simultaneously. History European Energy Charter The beginnings of the Energy Charter date back to a political initiative launched in Europe in the early 1990s. The end of the Cold War offered an unprecedented opportunity to overcome previous economic divisions between the nations on both sides of the Iron Curtain. The brightest prospect for mutually co-dependent beneficial cooperation was the energy sector, given Europe's growing energy demand and vast resource availability in post-Soviet nations. Additionally, there was a recognised need to establish a commonly accepted foundation for energy cooperation among the states of Eurasia. By these considerations, the Energy Charter process was born. The original European Energy Charter declaration was signed in The Hague on 17 December 1991. It was a political declaration of principles for international energy cooperation in trade, transit and investment, together with the intention to negotiate a legally binding treaty, setting the beginning of the development of the Energy Charter Treaty. One of the final hurdles was to find language to ensure national sovereignty over natural resources while enshrining the principle of international cooperation to allow outside access to those resources. Negotiators also succeeded in assuring Austria and Switzerland that they would not bear an undue transit burden for energy resources. Energy Charter Treaty The treaty is a legally binding multilateral agreement covering investment promotion and protection, trade, transit, energy efficiency and dispute resolution. The treaty was signed in Lisbon in December 1994, together with a "protocol on energy efficiency and related environmental aspects" (PEEREA). The treaty and the protocol came into effect in April 1998. An amendment to the trade-related provisions reflecting the change from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to World Trade Organization processes was also agreed at that time. International Energy Charter The International Energy Charter is a non-binding political declaration underpinning key principles for international energy cooperation. The declaration attempts to reflect the changes in the energy world that have emerged since the development of the original Energy Charter Treaty in the early 1990s. The International Energy Charter was signed on 20 May 2015, by 72 countries plus the EU, Euratom and ECOWAS at a Ministerial conference hosted by the government of The Netherlands. Energy Charter Conference Article 33 of the treaty establishes the Energy Charter Conference, which is the governing and decision-making body of the Organisation and has United Nations General Assembly observer status in resolution 62/75 adopted by the General Assembly on 6 December 2007. Members consist of Countries and Regional Economic Integration Organisations that have signed or acceded to the treaty and are represented in the Conference and its subsidiary bodies. The Conference meets on a regular basis to discuss issues affecting energy cooperation among Members and to review the implementation of the treaty and PEEREA provisions, and to consider new activities within the Energy Charter framework. The Energy Charter Conference has the following subsidiary bodies: Strategy Group Implementation Group Budget Committee Legal Advisory Committee Additionally, a consultative board—the Industry Advisory Panel—presents the private sector's views on relevant issues related to energy investments, cross-border flows and energy efficiency to the Conference and its groups. The Legal Advisory Task Force was set up by the Energy Charter Secretariat in 2001 to assist in the drafting of balanced and legally coherent Model Agreements for cross-border oil and gas pipelines. Scope The treaty's provisions focus on four broad areas: Energy Trade, Investment, Energy Efficiency, Dispute Settlement, Energy Transit. Trade The Energy Charter Treaty's purpose in Energy Trade is to create open and non-discriminatory energy markets throughout its member states. This framework follows the rules of the multilateral trading system as embodied in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which later became the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Energy Charter Treaty extends the GATT and later the WTO rules in the energy sector amongst its members. Additionally, the treaty covers the trade of all energy materials (e.g. crude oil, natural gas, wood fuel, etc.), all final energy products (e.g. petroleum, electricity, etc.) and energy-related equipment. The rules of trade only cover trade in goods, not trade in services, nor does it concern itself with intellectual property rights. Investment The treaty is responsible for the protection of foreign direct investment. It is estimated that just in the European Union, the United Kingdom and Switzerland, the treaty protects fossil investments of at least €344.6 billion. Its provisions protect investors and their investments from political risks involved in investing in a foreign country such as discrimination, expropriation, nationalisation, breach of contract, damages due to war, etc. The legally binding nature of the Energy Charter Treaty makes it the world's only multilateral framework for matters specifically related to energy. Dispute settlement Whereas Article 27 sets out the provisions for dispute resolution between two contracting states, Article 26 of the Energy Charter Treaty provides express provisions for resolving disputes arising under the treaty between an investor of a Contracting State and another Contracting State. This process is generally known as Investor State Dispute Settlement or ISDS. The choices of arbitration rules are: ICSID Rules ICSID Additional Facilities Rules UNCITRAL Ad hoc Rules The Arbitration Rules of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce The most significant claims against Russia, pertaining to the Yukos decision, arose under the provisions of Article 26. The drafting of the treaty has raised some difficult questions in the area of Investor-State Disputes by academics. In 2021 the treaty was struck down by the European Court of Justice for intra-EU disputes only. Some areas of discussion are: the standards of protection granted by the treaty; the international responsibility of States for breaches of the treaty; the various procedures available for the vindication of rights under the treaty; the conditions to be satisfied before a claimant's complaint may be considered on the merits; the impact of EU law on claims under the treaty; the treaty's provisions concerning taxation; possible effects of the ECT on climate; possible geopolitical, climate and financial impacts and also: allegedly deleterious effects on states' budgets. Nathalie Bernasconi-Osterwalder, a lawyer at the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), criticises the ECT for not having "more precise definitions of investment protection standards, [for not] set[ting] out responsibilities for investors and [for not] integrat[ing] innovations with respect to dispute settlement to ensure transparency and independence," unlike more modern approaches. Moreover, she claims it is following expansionist ambitions. Tania Voon, a Professor in Law at the University of Melbourne, criticises the modernization of the ECT for not including a removal of the art. 47 survival clause, and for failing to introduce "a distinction between investments based on fossil fuels and those based on renewable energy" in order to achieve climate goals. Cross-party members of the European Parliament advised the commission to withdraw if modernization is not adequate. Energy efficiency The Energy Charter's involvement in matters of energy efficiency and its relation to a cleaner environment was introduced in the 1991 European Energy Charter. The subsequent Energy Charter Treaty, and in particular Article 19 of the treaty, requires that each Contracting Party "... shall strive to minimise in an economically efficient manner, harmful Environmental Impacts arising from energy use." Building on article 19 of the Energy Charter Treaty, the Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects (PEEREA) defines in more detail the policy principles that can promote energy efficiency and provides guidance on the development of energy efficiency programmes. PEEREA was negotiated, opened for signature and entered into force at the same time (16 April 1998) as the Energy Charter Treaty. In contrast to other activities in the Charter process, the emphasis in the work on energy efficiency is not legally binding, but rather on practical implementation of a political commitment to improve energy efficiency. This is promoted through policy discussions based on analysis and exchange of experience between the member countries, invited independent experts and other international organisations. The implementation of PEEREA provides its member countries with a range of best practices and a forum in which to share experiences and policy advice on energy efficiency issues. Within this forum, particular attention is paid to national energy efficiency strategy, taxation, pricing policy in the energy sector, environmentally related subsidies and other mechanisms for financing energy efficiency objectives. Energy transit The Energy Charter Treaty provides a set of rules that covers the entire energy chain, including not only investments in production and generation but also the terms under which energy can be traded and transported across various national jurisdictions to international markets. As such, the agreement is intended to prevent disruption of fuel passing between countries. Transit Protocol The Energy Charter Transit Protocol is a draft protocol which negotiations are not finalised yet. The Protocol would amplify and strengthen the treaty provisions on energy transit issues to mitigate some specific operational risks that continue to affect energy transit flows. Negotiations on the text of the Transit Protocol began in early 2000 and a compromise text reflecting an extended discussion between the European Union and Russia was tabled for adoption at the meeting of the Energy Charter Conference on 10 December 2003. It became clear during the meeting that a unanimous decision could not be reached on the basis of the compromise text; a complicating factor was that energy issues, including transit, were a subject on the bilateral agenda for the European Union and Russia in the context of Russian negotiations for accession to the World Trade Organization. The Protocol negotiations were then temporarily suspended. In December 2007, the Energy Charter Conference reaffirmed its support for the finalisation of negotiations and adoption of the Energy Charter Protocol on Transit to expand the existing provisions of the treaty. This work proceeded until October 2011, when the European Union argued that, given current developments in the international energy situation and the lack of progress in negotiations and consultations, it appeared no longer opportune to continue talks. A review of the issue at the end of 2015 noted the continued demand for a multilateral legally-binding framework for energy transit, and recommended further exploring the basis for negotiations of such an agreement, which could address various aspects of oil, gas and electricity transportation and transit. The Energy Charter Treaty includes an obligation of member countries to facilitate energy transit across their territory, in line with the principle of freedom of transit, and to secure established transit flows. At the same time, the treaty provisions do not oblige any country to introduce mandatory third-party access. The principle of national sovereignty The principles of the Energy Charter are based on the idea that international flows of investments and technologies in the energy sector are mutually beneficial. But at the same time, national sovereignty over energy resources is a core principle of the treaty (ECT Article 18). An objective of the treaty is to promote transparency and efficiency in the operation of energy markets, but it is for governments to define the structure of their domestic energy sector. Each country is free to decide whether and how its national energy resources are developed, and the extent to which its energy sector is open to foreign investors. The treaty does not deal with the ownership issues of the energy companies–there is no obligation to privatise state-owned energy companies, or to break up vertically integrated energy companies. Membership Members are countries and Regional Economic Integration Organisations are a party to the treaty through ratification or accession. Membership also includes signatories which provisionally apply the treaty pending entry into force. Such provisional application applies automatically after signature, unless it is inconsistent with the domestic law of the country concerned. As October 2022, the treaty has 51 parties, while it is provisionally applied by two countries. All Members have ratified the treaty except for Australia, Belarus, Norway, and the Russian Federation. Belarus has accepted provisional application of the treaty. Members of the Energy Charter Conference Russia and Australia provisionally applied the treaty, but indicated the end of the provisional application period in 2009 and 2021 respectively. Italy was a party to the treaty from 1998 until 2016. In October 2022, a minister from the Netherlands announced his intention to facilitate withdrawal from the treaty. On 21October 2022, French President Emmanuel Macron also announced France's withdrawal from the treaty. One month later, the German government also expressed its intent to leave the accord. See also announced withdrawals below. Note: * denotes a state that has signed the treaty and is applying it provisionally but has not ratified it, and denotes a state that has announced that it will withdraw from the treaty. Observers Observers status is granted to countries and Regional Economic Integration Organisations that have signed either the European Energy Charter or the International Energy Charter. Observers have the right to attend all Charter meetings and to receive all related documentation, reports and analysis, and to participate in the working debates taking place within the Energy Charter. Also, International Organisations can be granted Observer status by decision of the Energy Charter Conference. The intention is that Observer status should provide the chance for a country to familiarise itself with the Charter and its functions, to facilitate its assessment of the benefits of accession to the Energy Charter Treaty. Countries Signatories of European Energy Charter (1991) Signatories of the International Energy Charter (2015) International organisations Former members (signed 1991, withdrawn 2016) Russian participation The Russian Federation signed the treaty and applied it provisionally but did not ratify it. It linked the ratification of the treaty to negotiations on an Energy Charter Transit Protocol. In October 2006, German chancellor Angela Merkel and French president Jacques Chirac proposed the creation of a balanced energy partnership between France and Germany, representing the European Union, and Russia. Under the agreement, Russia would have to sign the European Energy Charter, which, according to a New York Times summary of a report in Russian newspaper Kommersant, Russian President Vladimir Putin said impinges on Russia's national interests. In December 2006, Russia indicated that the ratification of the treaty was unlikely due to the provisions requiring third-party access to Russia's pipelines. On 20 August 2009, it officially informed the depository of the treaty (Government of Portugal) that it did not intend to become a contracting party to the treaty and the related protocol terminating the provisional application of the treaty and the PEEREA starting from 18 October 2009. Notwithstanding the termination of provisional application of the treaty by Russia, the provisions regarding dispute settlements and investment protection are still in force for additional twenty years. On 30 November 2009, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, which had been considering this case since 2005 under the UNCITRAL Rules, ruled that former Yukos shareholders can move on to the merits phase of their arbitration claim against the Russian government. GML, previously known as Menatep, the principal shareholder in Yukos, is suing Russia for more than $100 billion in an international arbitration case under the treaty. The hearings took place in October 2012. In July 2014, the international arbitration panel in The Hague unanimously ruled in favour of the shareholders, awarding $50 billion damages for the seizure of assets and dismantling of Yukos. The Russian government has vowed not to comply with the ruling, setting off an international legal dispute which has resulted in France and Belgium seizing Russian assets for possible use as restitution for the claimants. However, a French court ruled against the seizure by the French authorities, and a Dutch court later overturned the $50 billion ruling, arguing Russia had not ratified the Energy Charter Treaty and so was not bound by it. Case law Renewable energy investment cases in Spain As of 2020, Spain was the state most affected by ECT awards, having lost €825 million to investors. In a series of 20 arbitral decision, Spain was found liable for having generated legitimate expectations of a stable framework of renewable energy investment incentives and having afterwards abruptly reversed these expectations. Secretariat The Energy Charter Treaty established the creation of a permanent Secretariat that was originally set up to accommodate the dialogue amongst the contracting parties during the negotiation of the treaty. The Secretariat is mandated by the Energy Charter Conference Primarily to provide the Conference with all necessary assistance for the performance of its duties including promotion, organisation and legal support along with meeting space for subsidiary body meetings hosted at the Secretariat. Since 1 January 2022, the Secretary General is Guy Lentz and, since September 2021, the Assistant Secretary General is Atsuko Hirose. Organisation One of the primary mandates given by the Energy Charter Conference to the Secretariat is to organise and administer meetings of the Conference and its subsidiary bodies. In addition, the Secretariat organises conferences and energy forums related to the global ongoing energy dialogues. Monitor ECT and PEEREA obligations Article 19 of the treaty, requires that each Contracting Party minimise, in an economically efficient manner, harmful environmental impacts arising from energy use. The Secretariat monitors the enforcement of these obligations in the contracting parties of the treaty and creates various publicly available reports on each of the contracting parties such as energy efficiency and the investment climate. Legal support The Energy Charter Treaty contains a comprehensive system for settling disputes on matters covered by the treaty. The two primary forms of binding dispute settlement are state-state arbitration on the interpretation or application of almost all aspects of the treaty (except for competition and environmental issues), and investor-state arbitration (Article 26) for investment disputes. There are special provisions, based on the WTO model, for the resolution of inter-state trade issues and the treaty also offers a conciliation procedure for transit disputes. The Secretariat maintains legal advice to these arbitrations as well as has responsibility for maintaining the Travaux préparatoires used to clarify the intentions of the treaty by Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The Secretariat maintains a publicly available list of cases that have been brought by investors to international arbitration. These cases have been litigated under the arbitration regulations of the ICSID, Arbitration Institute of the SCC, and UNCITRAL. The Arbitration Awards or Settlements are sometimes in the hundred of millions of dollars. Disputes concerning competition (Article 6) and environmental issues (Article 19) the Secretariat provides for bilateral (in the case of competition) or multilateral (in the case of environmental protection) non-binding consultation mechanisms. Criticism The Energy Charter Treaty has come under heavy criticism for being an obstacle to the transition to renewable energy. Transnational corporations who have invested in fossil fuel production and nuclear power can sue national governments for loss of profit on their investments as a consequence of the transition to renewable energy. Critics argue that the Energy Charter Treaty has a chilling effect on energy-related legislation. Russia and Norway refused to ratify the treaty, and Italy left in 2016, over environmental concerns about ECT. For example, the German energy company RWE has sued the Dutch government for €1.4billion in compensation for the phasing out of coal power plants. In October 2020, the European Parliament voted to end fossil fuel protection under the ECT. In late2022, the European Commission was seeking to clarify that the ECT does not apply within the European Union. The Commission says "the risk of legal conflict is such as to render an international agreement incompatible with EU law" and adds that EU [member] states should thus "confirm that the ECT does not apply, and has never applied to intraEU relations". A joint investigation by The Guardian, the Transnational Institute, and Berlinbased Powershift, made public in midNovember 2022, revealed opaque proceedings, inadequate controls on conflicts of interest for key personnel, including arbitrators, and potential bias in favor of fossil fuel interests. Calls and plans for withdrawal Several countries and organisations have proposed withdrawing from the ECT. However, the Treaty has a "sunset clause" that allows lawsuits to be filed for 20 years after the departure of a member; Italy left the ECT in 2015, but was successfully sued in 2022. In 2020, Julia Steinberger and Yamina Saheb (both co-authors of the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) initiated an open letter that calls for the withdrawal from the ECT. They justify the call with the claim that the ECT is an obstacle to the Paris Agreement and the European Green Deal. The letter has been signed, for example, by Sandrine Dixson-Declève, Connie Hedegaard, James K. Galbraith, Helga Kromp-Kolb, Rachel Kyte, Thomas Piketty, Olivier de Schutter and Jean-Pascal van Ypersele. On 15 December 2020, the Spanish minister for ecological transition, Teresa Ribera, supported the idea of withdrawing from it if it was not possible to reach an agreement to make the Energy Charter Treaty compatible with the Paris Agreement. The International Institute for Sustainable Development describes the possibility of a withdrawal with neutralization of the survival clause. The UK government announced in September 2023 that it would consider leaving the "outdated" treaty if modernisation was not agreed by that November. Announced withdrawals As of October 2022, Spain, the Netherlands and Poland intended to withdraw from the ECT, and Germany, France and Belgium were "examining their options". On 21 October 2022, France announced that it would leave the treaty, citing a desire to accelerate nuclear and renewable energy use before fossil fuels. And on 14November 2022, Germany announced its intention to withdraw in order to better tackle climate change. Slovenia had earlier stated its intention to withdraw. Denmark announced in April 2023 that it intends to withdraw. In July 2023 the European Commission formally proposed legislation for both the union and its member states to make a "coordinated and orderly" simultaneous withdrawal from the ECT. Withdrawals Italy withdrew in 2016. See also Energy law Russia in the European energy sector Energy policy of the European Union Energy policy of Russia Energy Community INOGATE References External links Treaty texts Energy Charter website The Energy Charter Treaty – Legal Document A Reader's Guide to the Energy Charter Treaty ECT Provisional Application Noriko Yodogawa & Alexander M. Peterson, "An Opportunity for Progress: China, Central Asia, and the Energy Charter Treaty", 8 Texas Journal of Oil, Gas, and Energy Law 111 (2013). Energy policy Energy law Energy treaties International energy organizations Treaties concluded in 1994 Treaties entered into force in 1998 Treaties establishing intergovernmental organizations Treaties extended to Jersey Treaties extended to the Isle of Man Treaties of Albania Treaties of Armenia Treaties of Austria Treaties of Azerbaijan Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina Treaties of Belgium Treaties of Bulgaria Treaties of Croatia Treaties of Cyprus Treaties of Denmark Treaties of Estonia Treaties of Finland Treaties of France Treaties of Georgia (country) Treaties of Germany Treaties of Greece Treaties of Hungary Treaties of Ireland Treaties of Japan Treaties of Kazakhstan Treaties of Kyrgyzstan Treaties of Latvia Treaties of Liechtenstein Treaties of Lithuania Treaties of Luxembourg Treaties of Malta Treaties of Moldova Treaties of Mongolia Treaties of Poland Treaties of Portugal Treaties of Romania Treaties of Russia Treaties of Slovakia Treaties of Slovenia Treaties of Spain Treaties of Sweden Treaties of Switzerland Treaties of Tajikistan Treaties of the Czech Republic Treaties of the Netherlands Treaties of North Macedonia Treaties of the United Kingdom Treaties of Turkey Treaties of Turkmenistan Treaties of Ukraine Treaties of Uzbekistan
4597198
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvan%20Hills%20High%20School
Sylvan Hills High School
Sylvan Hills High School is an accredited comprehensive public high school located in the city of Sherwood, Arkansas, United States, serving grades nine through twelve. Sylvan Hills is one of four high schools administered by the Pulaski County Special School District (PCSSD). Prior to 1956, Sylvan Hills School instructed students through grade nine until local citizens gathered to approve expanding the school to a senior high, resulting in its first graduating class in 1959. Then, because of the increasing population in the surrounding communities, the school moved to its current campus adjacent to its former facilities starting in the 1968–69 school year. In 2021, Sylvan Hills was ranked at No. 129 in the state and No. 7,757 in the U.S. News & World Report Best High Schools report. , Sylvan Hills High's varsity sports teams have won 24 state championships across nine sports teams, primarily in baseball and girls’ track and field. History Early school history (1928–1956) In 1928, the first building of the Sylvan Hills School was built at 8900 Highway 107 for students in the 1st–9th grades that lived in the Sylvan Hills community. This building, which was known as "Roy Todd Hall," no longer stands. In December 1928, the newly created Pulaski County Special School District (PCSSD) purchased two lots near the original building from Justin Matthews Sr., for $550 each. As Todd Hall could no longer accommodate the growing population of students, the PCSSD built a new building for students in the 5th–9th grades, named "J. H. Forby Hall," which opened in February 1930 at a cost of $26,542. This is equivalent to $ in present-day terms.. Forby Hall contained eight classrooms and a gymnasium. This is the building that is now the Sherwood First Church of the Nazarene, located at 8800 Highway 107 in Sherwood. In 1948, a third school building was built and was named "Gertrude Price Hall." Mrs. Price was one of the first teachers at the Sylvan Hills School. Today, this building is now the home of the Retirement Centers of Arkansas, Inc. Original high school campus (1956–1968) Established in 1956 to serve the nearby city of Sherwood and surrounding northeastern Pulaski County communities, Sylvan Hills High School was named after the early and heavily wooded community and to expand Sylvan Hills School, which previously served students from first through ninth grade. Between 1956 and 1959, students attended North Little Rock High School to graduate high school until the Sylvan Hills naturally expanded each year to accept students in the 10th, 11th and 12th grades. The complex that was completed in the fall of 1956 produced the first Sylvan Hills High School graduating class of 1959 consisted of 101 students with the baseball team making it to the state finals. As the community grew population due, in part, to the 1955 development of the Little Rock Air Force Base in nearby Jacksonville, it became necessary to expand once again. Current high school campus (1968–) In 1967, the Baldwin Company began construction on a new high school facility, which cost $1.25 million (or $ in present-day terms.) Along with $250,000 in furnishings (present day $)., the school consisted of 23 classrooms, a gymnasium and pressrooms, choir home, home economics department, cafeteria and a fully equipped library. In November 1968, 523 students and 32 staff moved into the present day Sylvan Hills High School, resulting in junior high students (grades 7–9) now occupying the older complex until 2011. Annexation of the combined high school, middle school and elementary campus locations from North Little Rock to the city of Sherwood occurred in 1976. Enrollment for 1976 shows 1,289 students at Sylvan Hills High School and 1,414 students attending Sylvan Hills Junior High School. Since 1962 the school has been accredited by AdvancED and by 1965 the school won its first sports state championship in baseball. When North Pulaski High School was opened in 1977, the school board zones were redrawn, which subsequently has led to a natural rivalry between the two schools throughout the years. In the 1990s, the high school facility began serving grades 9–12, shifting the junior high to be renamed as Sylvan Hills Middle School for grades 6–8. In April 2008, the school suffered severe roof damage from a storm's high winds resulting in over $750,000 (present day $) in repairs. Following those repairs, the school dedicated the Jim Burgett Auditorium in honor of the school's musical director from 1967 to 1982. By 2011, major renovations had been completed to the school's gymnasium, bathrooms and the construction of a bridge to the practice field. Since the original construction, the school has added several smaller buildings, including the East and West buildings, the automotive shop facilities and has housed temporary buildings throughout the years based on changing student populations. In fall 2011, a new campus facility for Sylvan Hills Middle School opened for grades 6–8 students and staff, replacing the original high school (1955–1968) / middle school (1968–2011) facilities located adjacent to the high school and Sylvan Hills Elementary School campus. Since 2011–12 school year, the high school has used the former middle school campus as a 9th grade academy. The high school and its new middle school are feed by Sylvan Hills Elementary School, Oakbrooke Elementary School, Sherwood Elementary School, and the William J. Clinton Speech Communications and Technology Magnet Elementary School, which is a 2008 National Blue Ribbon School. Addition of Sylvan Hills North / Junior High (2016–present) In 2016, PCSSD opened the Sylvan Hills Freshman Campus after the closure of Northwood Middle School, due to an over-expansion of 9th graders at the high school. The freshman campus is held on a portion of the former middle school campus. In 2018, it was announced that the 10th graders would also move to the freshman campus, as the main campus was being partially demolished to build a new, larger high school campus. Starting in fall 2021, the school will be known as Sylvan Hills Junior High. Campus expansion (2019–present) Beginning in fall 2019, the school year began in a new three-story classroom expansion, which is now the main school building and boasts state-of-the-art science labs, a new library/media center, cafeteria, and more than 30 classrooms in an open airy environment designed by WER Architects/Planners. This will complete the $65M capital improvement and expansion of the SHHS campus. Three other buildings that are currently under construction and are scheduled to be complete within the next year. The Indoor Practice Facility (IPF) and the Multipurpose Arena opened August 2020. The Performing Arts Center opened in fall 2020 and holds 999 seats. In addition to the main building, several elements of the original campus are in use for the 2020–21 school year including: (1) Building 1 — the two-story, original main building used for various classes and 10th grade cafeteria; (2) Building 500 — which supports art, stagecraft and cosmetology classes; and (3) Engineering Building — a single story, 4–classroom annex. Policy enforcement controversy In 2010, Sylvan Hills was the subject of legal controversy surrounding the confiscation of a student's cell phone by school officials. Sylvan Hills' administration officials were enforcing the PCSSD policy regarding cell phone use by students while in the classroom, which is a violation of the PCSSD Student Handbook. According to the district's handbook, such a violation allows officials to confiscate the phone for two weeks before returning the device. These actions eventually resulted in the lawsuit Koch v. Adams on the basis that the officials' actions resulted in conversion and trespass to chattels. The trial court dismissed the case, which subsequently led to the case being heard by the Arkansas Supreme Court, which by unanimous decision had upheld the school district's policy and the lower court's decision to allow such confiscation and that no violation of state or federal policy occurred. As school districts around the United States have similar policies regarding students' cell phone use in classrooms, this legal decision has been widely discussed in the education community. Awards and recognition Since 1993, Sylvan Hills High School has been an institutional member of The College Board. In 2008, Sylvan Hills was recognized with an Arkansas Picturing America Award, which is an initiative by the National Endowment for the Humanities that brings masterpieces of American art into classrooms and libraries nationwide. A Sylvan Hills student was named one of Arkansas' top two youth volunteers for 2009 by The Prudential Spirit of Community Awards, a nationwide program honoring young people for acts of voluntarism. The scholar was honored for mapping and compiling information on the 3,500 gravesites at the Arkansas State Veterans Cemetery located in North Little Rock. The awards program is conducted by Prudential Financial in partnership with the National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP). In 2012, AdvancED recognized the school for maintaining 50 years of educational certification. Academics Sylvan Hills is a closed campus; students are not allowed to leave school supervision during school hours. The school’s attendance boundary includes Sherwood, Gibson, and portions of McAlmont. Enrollment As of the 2018–19 school year, the school had an enrollment of 1,427 students and 97.55 classroom teachers (on full time equivalent (FTE) basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 14.63:1 The student population at Sylvan Hills is predominantly White and African American, with a small Hispanic and Latino American minority and other minorities. The attendance rate is 90.4 percent and the dropout rate is 0.9 percent for Sylvan Hills students. Forty-five percent of students qualify for free or reduced price lunch; the state average is 60 percent. Sylvan Hills receives federal funding via the Title I "schoolwide program". Curriculum The assumed course of study for Sylvan Hills students is the Smart Core curriculum, which is the Arkansas' college and career-ready curriculum for high school students. For the 2011–2013 school years, Sylvan Hills became a participant in the Arkansas Leadership Academy School Support Program to provide support to low performing schools designated by the Arkansas Department of Education as being in school improvement based on the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act. Since fall 2013, Sylvan Hills is a part of the Arkansas Advanced Initiative for Mathematics and Sciences (AAIMS), a member of the National Math and Science Initiative, to strengthen the teaching of Advanced Placement mathematics, science, and English courses. Starting in 2017, Sylvan Hills High School applied and was selected for a four-year term as an ADE School of Innovation (SOI). The SOI goal is to implement a personalized learning model, which will provide flexible, student-centered, nurturing environments focused on placing the highest priority on student learning, mastery of content, and school to career connections based on students’ interests. As part of the SOI program outcomes, Sylvan Hills has begun entering into partnerships with the University of Arkansas at Little Rock (UALR) and Pulaski Technical College (UA–PTC) to provide students access to concurrent enrollment offerings and industry credentialed programming that appeal to student interests and better prepare them for career endeavors. Students may choose between regular classes and exams and numerous Advanced Placement (AP) classes with college-level curriculum and examinations for college credit. Career and technical education offerings including building trades, cosmetology, and Cisco Systems network training, which can lead to state-licensure and professional certification. According to the Arkansas Department of Career Education (ACE), the Standards of Accreditation of Public Schools require that each high school offer three programs of career and technical education study in three different occupational pathway areas. Sylvan Hills High School offered 6 programs of study in 6 different pathways, including: Family & Community Services: Family & Consumer Sciences Education Maintenance, Installation & Repair: Industrial Equipment Maintenance Marketing Research: Marketing Technology & Research Network Systems: Computer Engineering Personal Care Services: Cosmetology (in partnership with Paul Mitchell Schools) Web and Digital Communications: Digital Communications Since 2003, Sylvan Hills offers EAST (Environmental and Spatial Technology) classes, which are designed to help the school and community using state-of-the-art technology. In 2008 and 2009, Sylvan Hills was recognized as an EAST Founder's Award Finalist. Sylvan Hills serves special needs students with a full range of special education courses. The school has produced students who have received the AP Scholar with Honor award, National Merit Scholars, Finalist and Semifinalist honors, and Arkansas Governor's School and Boys/Girls State attendance. Additionally, Sylvan Hills maintains a cadre of career teaching professionals with several educators qualified as National Board Certified Teachers. Throughout its history, the school's faculty have garnered various awards including the 1977 Southern States Communication Association (SSCA) Speech Teacher of the Year and 1988 Marketing Education Teacher of the Year awards. Publications Sylvan Hills students may take classes in journalism and creative writing to produce the award-winning online and print publications. Sylvan Hills is a member of the Arkansas Scholastic Press Association (ASPA), which provides an opportunity to compete in individual and school contests, seminars, and workshops. ASPA has awarded its Adviser of the Year to school educators including Dixie Martin (1986), Allen Loibner-Waitkus (2002) and Tonia Weatherford, NBCT, CJE (2014). In 1994, Martin received the Arkansas Press Association (APA) with the APA's Journalism Educator Award to recognize her years of dedication and the quality of the publications. The Banner First published during the 1970–71 school year, the student newspaper (The Banner) once served as the state's only high school weekly newspaper. Several students have won national Quill and Scroll Gold Key awards for newspaper feature articles, along with serving as state officers and capturing state-level awards at the annual ASPA convention, including the All-Arkansas Award (Superior) rating. In recent years, the print publication has been supplemented with an online edition. The Bruin Since 1956, the school's yearbook (The Bruin) has served as an annual print publication that chronicles the students, teachers and staff activities throughout the school year. Throughout the years, the publication has garnered All-Arkansas Superior and Excellent awards while student writers and photographers have won awards in individual competitions for onsite contests and for published works in the yearbook at the annual ASPA convention. The Breeze The school maintains a literary magazine (The Breeze), which showcases student works in poetry, artwork, photographs and creative writing. In 1985 and 1986, the Breeze was awarded Excellent and Superior awards, respectively, by the National Council of Teachers of English Program to Recognize Excellence in Student Literary Magazines (PRESLM). Visual and performing arts Students may participate in various creative writing, visual, musical, and performing arts programs. Choir programs The school's choir programs consist of various formats including a cappella choir, male chorus and barbershop quartet, female chorus and beautyshop quartet. Concert Choir has garnered several Division I (Superior) ratings at regional and state choir festivals administered by the Arkansas Choral Directors Association (ArkCDA). In 2005 and 2009, the Male Chorus received the Best in Class award at the Arkansas State Choral Festival. The Sylvan Hills 9–10 Girls have won four consecutive Best in Class for the 5A Female Chorus – Medium competition at the 2013 through 2016 state festivals. The program is led by Elaine Harris (NBCT), who in 1998 and again in 2011, was awarded the Senior High Choir Director of the Year Award from the ArkCDA Central Region. Theatre programs Sylvan Hills theater program educators lead various classes and theatrical productions involving drama and stagecraft that are produced by students and held at the school's Jim Burgett Auditorium and beyond. In 2010, Sylvan Hills' Thespian Troupe 2945 were invited to perform on the main stage of International Thespian Festival 2010 after receiving multiple awards for Fences at the thespian festival sponsored by the Arkansas Chapter of the Educational Theatre Association (EdTA). Honor societies Honor society organizations that academically qualified students draw participation include math (Mu Alpha Theta); science (Science National Honor Society (SNHS)); vocal and instrumental music (Tri-M Music Honor Society); journalism (Quill and Scroll Society); drama (International Thespian Society); and Spanish language (Sociedad Honoraria Hispánica), in addition to National Honor Society and National Beta Club. Extracurricular activities The Sylvan Hills High School mascot is the bear with blue and white serving as the school colors. Athletics Individual and team sports are primarily sanctioned by the Arkansas Activities Association. Sports The Sylvan Hills Bears and Lady Bears participate in 6A East for football and in the 5A-Central conference for all other sports. Starting with the 2014–15 school year, Bill Blackwood Field at Bears Stadium shifted from natural grass to synthetic turf and replaced track surfaces. In October 2016, the football game between Sylvan Hills and Pulaski Academy was the nation’s first high school football game aired in real-time via Facebook Live. Championship seasons Sylvan Hills Bears teams have won championships in several sports and disciplines. It has won eight state baseball championships in 44 tournaments, with a state-record 64 victories. Its players have won nine Arkansas Baseball State Tournament MVP trophies. SHHS has hoisted six girls' track and field, two boys' golf, two girls' golf, one football, one boys' basketball, one slow-pitch softball, and one volleyball state championships, along with one state and multiple national cheerleading titles. Football Home football games and track and field meets are held at Bill Blackwood Field at Bears Stadium, which is named for a long-time school supporter, bus driver and official scorer. Golf In 2006 and 2007, the boys' golf team finished as the Class 6A state runner-up. In 2007, the boys' team lost the Class 6A team title in a playoff hole to Mountain Home. The girls' team won the state championships in 1979 and 1981. Basketball The boys basketball team has played in three state championship games, winning the school’s only title in 2012. In 2011 and 2012, Archie Goodwin was selected as the Gatorade Arkansas Boys' Basketball Player of the Year. In 2021, Nick Smith Jr. (NBA drafted in 2023) was selected as Gatorade Arkansas Boys' Basketball Player of the Year his junior season before transferring out. In the 1980s–1990s, the Sylvan Hills gymnasium and basketball court served as home to wheelchair basketball coach Harry Vines and his 5-time national champion Arkansas Rollin' Razorbacks. Baseball The Bears baseball team has been to thirteen state championship games, winning the state title eight times, including 1965, 1974 (statewide); 1978, 1981 (Class AAA), 2003 (Class AAAA), 2005 (Class AAAAA), 2008 (Class 6A), and 2018 (Class 5A). In 1978, Kevin McReynolds led the Bears to the Class AAA state baseball championship and was named Arkansas Baseball Player of the Year. Located adjacent to the high school campus and leveraged by the school is the Kevin McReynolds Sports Complex, named after a major league baseball player who attended Sylvan Hills High School, is a park featuring seven baseball fields, five softball fields, a soccer field, three concession stands, playgrounds, pavilions, and covered bleachers. Track and field Since 2007, Jeff Henderson maintains the state high school decathlon record in the 100 meter dash with his 10.84 second run. Competitive cheer Since the school has opened, Sylvan Hills cheerleading and dance teams have been supporting interscholastic teams. Since the 1999–2000 school year, Sylvan Hills has been producing competitive cheer teams against state and national competition and becoming the National Cheerleaders Association (NCA) National Cheerleading Champion (Super Large Varsity). Tragedy struck the school and the community on March 18, 2004, as three Sylvan Hills cheerleaders were involved in a fatal automobile accident that took their lives at the intersection of Arkansas Highway 89 and Arkansas Highway 5 near Cabot. That same year for 2004–05, Sylvan Hills won the National Cheerleading Champion (Super Large Varsity) division at the American Spirit Championships (ASC). A 3 Cheerleaders Memorial Scholarship has been created to honor their memories. In 2005–06, the competitive cheer team won the national title sponsored by the World Cheerleading Association (WCA) and its second NCA National Cheerleading Champion (Super Large Varsity) title. In 2009–10, the cheer squad won the Class 5A state cheer championship title. Clubs and traditions As is common throughout the United States, Sylvan Hills students participate in annual events and school dances such as the annual homecoming football game and dance, a Sadie Hawkins dance, a Powderpuff flag football game, the Miss Sylvan Hills pageant, the selection of Top 10 seniors (as selected by staff) and the year-end prom before graduation. For the graduation ceremonies, graduates typically wear academic regalia including blue gowns with blue mortarboard caps and blue-and-white tassels. Honor graduates wear a gold honor cord, students in the top 10% academically wear white gowns, with National Honor Society members wearing gold stoles, Beta Club members with gold tassel, Mu Alpha Theta members with blue cord, and Quill & Scroll members with blue and gold cord. In recent years, ′Hillside′ students and teacher/mentors have participated in robotic education and competition programs. At the 2018–19 Arkansas VEX Robotics High School State Championship, Sylvan Hills was 1 of 3 tournament finalists and was eligible for the VEX Robotics World Championships. Notable people The following are notable people associated with Sylvan Hills High School. If the person was a Sylvan Hills High School student, the number in parentheses indicates the year of graduation; if the person was a faculty or staff member, that person's title and years of association are included: Wes Bentley (1996)—Film and television actor; notable roles in Yellowstone, American Beauty and The Hunger Games. Billy Bock (Coach, 1971–74)—Inductee, American Baseball Coaches Hall of Fame, National High School Coach of the Century. John Burkhalter (1976)—Businessman and politician. Josh Cowdery (1996)—Film and television actor, best known for Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them Archie Goodwin (2012)—Professional basketball player; two-time Arkansas Gatorade Boys Basketball Player of the Year. Jeff Henderson (2007)—Athlete, 2016 Olympic long jump gold medalist, Arkansas high school state decathlon record holder in 100-meter dash; 2014, 2016 and 2018 USA Outdoor national champion in long jump. Wes Johnson (1990)—Collegiate baseball coach Mark Lowery (1975)—Politician; Treasurer of Arkansas Kevin McReynolds (1978)—Retired Major League Baseball player and member of National High School Hall of Fame. Shekinna Stricklen (Coach, 2023–)—Girl's head basketball coach (2023-present); WNBA player. Monica Staggs (1988)—Actress and stunt performer/coordinator. Nick Smith Jr. (2022)—Professional basketball player; two-time Arkansas Gatorade Boys Basketball Player of the Year; transferred out after his junior year. Terry Tiffee (1997)—Retired Major League Baseball player and Olympic medalist. Ashur Tolliver (2006)—Major League Baseball player. References External links 1956 establishments in Arkansas Educational institutions established in 1956 High schools in Sherwood, Arkansas Public high schools in Arkansas Pulaski County Special School District School buildings completed in 1956 School buildings completed in 1968
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiceworld%20Tour
Spiceworld Tour
The Spiceworld Tour (also known as Spice Girls in Concert and the Girl Power Tour '98) was the debut concert tour by English girl group the Spice Girls. It was launched in support of their first two studio albums, Spice (1996) and Spiceworld (1997). The sell-out European/North American tour ran from February to August 1998, after which it returned to the UK in September 1998 for a series of stadium shows. The final concert at London's Wembley Stadium was filmed and broadcast live on pay-per-view, for later VHS release in 1998 and eventual DVD release in 2008. The tour saw the group perform to an estimated 2.1 million fans over 97 total shows, covering the UK, continental Europe and North America. The 41-date sold-out North American leg of the tour played to over 720,000 fans and grossed $60 million. The first UK portion of the tour saw the group play 20 arena shows to over 350,000 fans; the second UK portion of the tour saw the group play two Don Valley Stadium shows to 76,000 fans, and two Wembley Stadium shows to 150,000 fans. The 1998 Spiceworld Tour remains the highest-grossing tour ever by a female group. Background The Spiceworld Tour was the first global tour staged by the group, and proved to be an almost instant sell-out. Tickets for the first two shows in Ireland sold out within 2 hours, and various shows on the North American leg such as Los Angeles, Toronto and Philadelphia sold out within mere minutes of sale. In New York City, the group set the record for the quickest ever sell-out, selling 13,000 tickets for Madison Square Garden in less than 12 minutes. Such was the interest, it led to State Attorney General Dennis Vacco (together with the co-operation of the group) to investigate whether illegal scalping to ticket brokers had taken place – a claim that was later dropped by the Attorney General's office. The tour kicked off in Dublin, Ireland on 24 February 1998 before moving on to mainland Europe. Days before the end of the European portion of the tour, Geri Halliwell did not appear for shows in Oslo, Norway. Halliwell's final performances occurred in Helsinki, Finland at the Hartwall Arena. Promotional appearances with the new 4-piece promoting the release of 'Viva Forever' on the National Lottery also claimed that Halliwell was ill. On 31 May 1998, Halliwell announced her departure from the Spice Girls. Through her solicitor she stated: "Sadly I would like to confirm that I have left the Spice Girls. This is because of differences between us. I'm sure the group will continue to be successful and I wish them all the best." The Spice Girls quickly released a statement which stated that the North American leg of the tour would continue as planned with the remaining group members. The Spice Girls finally wrapped up the tour by performing to 150,000 fans over two gigs at Wembley Stadium in September 1998. Concert synopsis Against a futuristic space-age themed backdrop, the show began with a CGI video introduction of a spaceship flying through the galaxy. The introduction included William Shatner as the narrator in a parody of his famous Star Trek title sequence speech, and included samples from "Wannabe", "Say You'll Be There", "2 Become 1" and "Mama". The spaceship was shown to land on earth and as its doors appeared to open so did the door at the back of the stage to reveal the Spice Girls. The group members were dressed in futuristic costumes, the first of 11 costume changes. They entered the stage performing "If U Can't Dance", followed by "Who Do You Think You Are", which included an introduction sample from Club 69's "Diva" and RuPaul's "Supermodel (You Better Work)". Accompanied by the tour dancers, referred to as the "Spice Boys", the group then performed "Do It" as their third song during the European leg of the tour; for the North American leg the third song was changed to "Step To Me". After a brief costume change, the group returns to the stage to perform "Denying". In this performance, Geri Halliwell played the role of a waitress, Mel B the role of a gambler, Victoria Adams the role of a dancer, Emma Bunton the role of a gangster's girlfriend and Melanie C the role of a club owner. The group then sang "Too Much" sat down on chairs. After another costume change, the group performed "Stop". Kenny Ho, their stylist and costume designer, dressed the group in '60s themed clothing to fit the Motown-influenced song. Halliwell's costume was inspired by Madonna's "Holiday section from her Blond Ambition World Tour. After "Stop", Bunton sang a solo rendition of "Where Did Our Love Go?" by The Supremes. Bunton had stated that "I've always been a fan of Diana Ross, that song is perfect for me, it's just the right pitch. I wouldn't want to do a song I found hard to sing." The group then performed "Move Over", portraying supermodels on a runway, dressed in outrageous, outlandish clothes. The dancers, dressed in black, play the role of photographers. Originally, they were going to have Adams wear a chainmail Versace dress with linked gold squares. However, the dress was too heavy and too impractical for maintenance. After the performance of "Move Over", there was a thirty-minute intermission. The second segment begins with "The Lady Is a Vamp". For this performance, the group wore tailcoats while the dancers wore bowler hats. Then they perform Say You'll Be There, dancing with canes. The group performed "Naked" next, singing from behind chairs to give the illusion that they were naked. The group then sang "2 become 1" wearing velvet catsuits. Ho wanted something luxurious, but not too over the top and felt that velvet was perfect, and it matched the song's feel as well, which was quiet and atmospheric. After "2 Become 1", they performed "Walk of Life". Mel B & Melanie C then covered "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves", which was originally sung by Annie Lennox and Aretha Franklin. The group then returned to the stage and sang "Wannabe", "Spice Up Your Life" and "Mama". For their performance of "Mama", they set on steps above the stage, with three huge video screens projecting childhood photos of each member. In their next performance of "Viva Forever", all five group members were dressed in white clothing, as their costume designer Ho wanted their outfits to reflect a sense of purity and spirituality to fit the song. They were originally going to put dry ice on the stage, but the idea was dropped because it would have made the stage slippery, dangerous and very hard to dance on. During later performances of "Viva Forever", Chisholm would ad-lib the line "Spice Girls forever", in place of the lines "Viva Forever", towards the end of the song. The show ended with a '70s theme, with each group member dressed in a colour scheme arranged by their costume designer Ho to fit their style and character. Brown had a lot of patches of animal prints and greens; Halliwell's tones were different reds and purples; Bunton's were almost entirely bright red, pale blues and pink; Chisholm had very bright colours and Adams had patchwork on her corset. During the encore of the show, they sang "Never Give Up On The Good Times" and a cover of the Sister Sledge song "We Are Family". The Spice Girls exited the stage via the same doors from which they entered on top of the staircase. Reception Box office Total attendance for the Spiceworld Tour was estimated to be 2.1 million over the 97 shows in the UK, mainland Europe and North America. The 41-date North American leg of the tour grossed $60 million and saw the group perform to over 720,000 fans. The first UK portion of the tour saw the group play 20 arena shows to over 350,000 fans; the second UK portion of the tour saw the group play two Don Valley Stadium shows to 76,000 fans, and two Wembley Stadium shows to 150,000 fans. Critical reception The tour received mixed to positive reviews. Natalie Nichols of the Los Angeles Times wrote that "[t]heir energy and dedication were sincere, even though the music was all unconvincing dance grooves and slick soul-pop, lightly seasoned with funk, hip-hop and rock by a bland six-piece band." On the other hand, The New York Times Jon Pareles felt that "the songs, more than the act, are their real asset. [...] These numbers are exuberant, direct and immediately likeable, and they've turned a group of hard-working but only moderately gifted performers into stars." BBC News noted the audiences were mostly composed of families, and that even "most of the parents there seemed to be enjoying themselves". Gilbert Garcia of the Phoenix New Times wrote that: "Rarely has any concert experience so carefully worked so many marketing angles at once. For one thing, the Spice Girls have managed to carve out a niche as a pop group that even moms can love, and they offered just enough nostalgia to keep beleaguered parents happy. When Baby Spice embarked on a solo version of The Supremes' "Where Did Our Love Go", or when the group launched into a spirited take on the Annie Lennox-Aretha Franklin duet "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves", you could see the mothers in the crowd jump up in appreciation." Throughout the American leg of the tour, commercials were played on large concert screens before the shows and during intermissions. It was the first time advertising had been used in pop concerts and was met with mixed reactions in the music industry. Garcia wrote that the adverts were a "strange note" in a show that otherwise "delivered what it promised". He also criticised the group's performance of "Move Over", their Pepsi advert song, saying that the "rampant, near-subliminal Pepsi imagery on the video screen, seemed a tad too mercenary for even this ultracommercial setting." On the other hand, tour promoter John Scher acknowledged that, "[T]he cost of touring has become somewhat obscene. If it allows corporate sponsors to put more money into the entertainment world and allows us to see more shows, it's positive." By opening up a whole new source of revenue, industry experts predicted more acts would follow the Spice Girls' lead. Broadcasts and recordings The audio of the full show at Birmingham's NEC Arena was broadcast live on BBC Radio 1. Originally, Molly Dineen was meant to film a behind-the-scenes documentary with the Spice Girls during their American leg of the tour. After Geri Halliwell's departure, Dineen was called and started filming a documentary starring her instead. She was replaced by Ian Denyer who directed the documentary, broadcast on Channel 4 and subsequently released on VHS under the title Spice Girls In America: A Tour Story. The final show at Wembley Stadium was broadcast live on 20 September 1998 on Sky Box Office and presented by Dani Behr and Georgie Stait. A full behind the scenes tour of the stage was also aired prior to the broadcast of the Wembley Stadium concert on MuchMusic in Canada. Live at Wembley Stadium, a video release of the group's show at Wembley Stadium, was released on VHS on 16 November 1998 and on DVD on 6 October 2008. Setlist {{hidden | headercss = background: #dddddd; font-size: 100%; width: 100%; | contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 100%; | header = Main set (February 24 – July 22, 1998) | content =   "Video Introduction" (contains samples of Wannabe, Say You'll Be There, 2 Become 1 and Mama) "If U Can't Dance" "Who Do You Think You Are" (contains elements of "Diva" and "Supermodel")" "Do It" "Denying" "Too Much" "Stop" "Where Did Our Love Go?" (Emma Bunton solo) "Move Over" Intermission "The Lady Is a Vamp" "Say You'll Be There" "Naked" "2 Become 1" "Walk of Life" "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves" (Mel B & Melanie C duet) "Wannabe" "Spice Up Your Life" "Mama" Encore "Viva Forever" (contains excerpts from the film Blade Runner) "Never Give Up on the Good Times" "We Are Family" }} {{hidden | headercss = background: #dddddd; font-size: 100%; width: 100%; | contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 100%; | header = Alternate setlist (July 24 – August 26, 1998) | content =   "Video Introduction" (contains samples of Wannabe, Say You'll Be There, 2 Become 1 and Mama) "If U Can't Dance" "Who Do You Think You Are" (contains elements of "Diva" and "Supermodel")" "Step to Me" "Denying" "Too Much" "Stop" "Where Did Our Love Go?" (Emma Bunton solo) "Move Over" Intermission "The Lady Is a Vamp" "Say You'll Be There" "Naked" "2 Become 1" "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves" (Mel B & Melanie C duet) "Wannabe" "Spice Up Your Life" "Mama" Encore "Viva Forever" (contains excerpts from the film Blade Runner) "Never Give Up on the Good Times" "We Are Family" }} {{hidden | headercss = background: #dddddd; font-size: 100%; width: 100%; | contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 100%; | header = Back in Britain setlist (September 11 – September 20, 1998) | content =   "Video Introduction" (contains samples of Wannabe, Say You'll Be There, 2 Become 1 and Mama) "If U Can't Dance" "Who Do You Think You Are" (contains elements of "Diva" and "Supermodel")" "Something Kinda Funny" <li value="5">"Do It" <li value="6">"Too Much" <li value="7">"Stop" <li value="8">"Where Did Our Love Go?" (Emma Bunton solo) <li value="9">"Love Thing" <li value="10">"The Lady Is a Vamp" <li value="11">"Say You'll Be There" <li value="12">"Naked" <li value="13">"2 Become 1" <li value="14">"Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves" (Mel B & Melanie C duet) <li value="15">"Wannabe" <li value="16">"Spice Up Your Life" <li value="17">"Mama" Encore <li value="18">"Viva Forever" (contains excerpts from the film Blade Runner) "Never Give Up on the Good Times" <li value="20">"We Are Family" }} Setlist background "Who Do You Think You Are" contained a sound bite from the song "Diva" by Club 69 & "Supermodel (You Better Work)". In the beginning of the song the lyrics "You have to work to get this good" could be heard. During the European leg of the tour, "Move Over" featured some rather interesting lyrical changes. Instead of the usual "dedication, babynation etc...", the girls would alternate the lyrics with "penetration, menstruation, lubrication and masturbation" on various nights in the predominantly non-English speaking countries. "Naked" sampled two sound bits from the film Batman Forever. In the beginning of the song dialogue from the motion picture was included: "Relax. Tell me your dreams, tell me your fantasies, tell me your secrets, tell me your deepest, darkest, fears." In the middle 8 of the song, the Riddler's growls were heard. The original "London town" lyric in "Walk of Life" was replaced by the name of the city the girls were performing in. The lyrics varied depending on the pronunciation of the city name, for example "Birmingham", "Antwerp Town", or "Boston City". "Viva Forever" sampled a sound bite from the film Blade Runner. In the beginning of the song the famous words "The light that burns twice as bright burns half as long, and you my friend, have burned so very, very brightly" spoken by Dr. Eldon Tyrell are heard. This inspired a similar, revamped sound bite that was used during "Who Do You Think You Are" on the Return of the Spice Girls. This sound bite consisted of a deep, male, American-accented voice saying "The flame that burns twice as bright burns half as long, and you, my friend, have burned the brightest". After Geri Halliwell's departure, a pre-recorded backing track of Geri's vocals were used during the Spanish Rap in "If U Can't Dance" and the remaining girls sang her original "Ginger" lyric in "The Lady Is a Vamp". In other songs her lines were distributed by the remaining members, with notably Victoria finally singing lead in "Wannabe" after Halliwell's departure. Starting in Noblesville on July 24, "Step to Me" replaced "Do It", and "Walk of Life" was removed from the setlist (although “Walk of Life” was still performed on various dates for the duration of the US leg of the tour). Both of these changes were due to several dancers' injuries, as well as the (unannounced at the time) pregnancies of Mel B and Victoria Beckham, who were picked up and carried around in various positions during "Walk of Life." As presented on Sky Box Office Live, there was no 30 minute intermission during the "Backin' Britain" leg of the tour, and additional songs were added to the setlist. "Something Kinda Funny" replaced "Denying", and "Step to Me" was dropped. "Do It" was added back to the setlist, but was performed in Act 2 instead of its original spot in Act 1. "Something Kinda Funny", "Do It", and "Too Much" were retooled into their own act with a new set of outfits, replacing the restaurant act. "Love Thing" replaced "Move Over" as a one-song act, with a dancer intro and another new set of outfits. Tour dates Personnel Vocals Mel B Emma Bunton Melanie C Victoria Adams Geri Halliwell (until 26 May 1998 live but her studio vocal remained in "If U Can't Dance") Band Simon Ellis – Musical Director / Keyboards Andy Gangadeen – Drums Paul Gendler – Guitars Fergus Gerrand – Percussion Steve Lewinson – Bass Michael Martin – Keyboards Dancers Louie Spence Takao Baba Carmine Canuso (aka Jake Canuso) Jimmy Gulzar Eszteca Noya Robert Nurse Christian Storm (until Halliwell's departure) References Further reading NME review – Wembley Arena gig The Los Angeles Times review – The Forum gig BBC News review – Wembley Stadium gig The New York Times review – PNC Bank Arts Center gig Spice Girls concert tours 1998 concert tours
4597268
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termessos
Termessos
Termessos (Greek Τερμησσός Termissós) was a Pisidian city built at an altitude of more than 1000 metres at the south-west side of the mountain Solymos (modern-day Güllük Dağı) in the Taurus Mountains (modern-day Korkuteli, Antalya Province, Turkey). It lies 17 kilometres to the north-west of Antalya. It was founded on a natural platform on top of Güllük Dağı, soaring to a height of 1,665 metres from among the surrounding travertine mountains of Antalya. Concealed by pine forests and with a peaceful and untouched appearance, the site has a more distinct and impressive atmosphere than many other ancient cities. Termessos is one of the best preserved of the ancient cities of Turkey. The city was founded by the Solims, who were mentioned by Homer in the Iliad in connection with the legend of Bellerophon. Because of its natural and historical riches, the city has been included in a national park bearing its name, the Mount Güllük-Termessos National Park. History The mythical founder of the city is Bellerophon. What is known of Termessos' history commences principally at the time that Alexander the Great surrounded the city in 333 BC; he likened the city to an eagle's nest and in one of few cases, failed to conquer it. Arrian, one of the ancient historians who dealt with this event and recorded the strategic importance of Termessos, notes that even a small force could easily defend it due to the insurmountable natural barriers surrounding the city. The location of the city at the mountain pass from the Phrygian hinterland to the plains of Pamphylia is described by Arrian, Annals 1,26,6. Alexander wanted to go to Phrygia from Pamphylia, and according to Arrian, the road passed by Termessos. There are other passes much lower and easier to access, so why Alexander chose to ascend the steep Yenice pass is still a matter of dispute. It is even said that his hosts in Perge sent Alexander up the wrong path. Alexander wasted a lot of time and effort trying to force his way through the pass, which had been closed by the Termessians, and so, in anger he turned toward Termessos and surrounded it. Probably because he knew he could not capture the city, Alexander did not undertake an assault, but instead marched north and vented his fury on Sagalassos. According to Strabo, the inhabitants of Termessos called themselves the Solymi and were a Pisidian people. Their name, as well as that given to the mountain on which they lived, was derived from Solymeus, an Anatolian god who in later times became identified with Zeus, giving rise there to the cult of Zeus Solymeus . This name still exists as a surname in some people in Antalya region, providing evidence to their Solymi heritage. The coins of Termessos often depict this god and give his name. The historian Diodorus has recorded in full detail another unforgettable incident in the history of Termessos. In 319 BC, after the death of Alexander, one of his generals, Antigonos Monophtalmos, proclaimed himself master of Asia Minor and set out to do battle with his rival Alcetas, whose base of support was Pisidia. His forces were made up of some 40,000 infantry, 7,000 cavalry, and included numerous elephants as well. Unable to vanquish these superior forces, Alcetas and his friends sought refuge in Termessos. The Termessians gave Alcetas their word that they would help him. At this time, Antigonos came and set up camp in front of the city, seeking delivery of his rival. Not wanting their city to be dragged into disaster for the sake of a Macedonian foreigner, the elders of the city decided to hand Alcetas over to Antigonos. However, the youths of Termessos wanted to keep their word and refused to go along with the plan. The elders sent Antigonos an envoy to inform him of their intent to surrender Alcetas. According to a secret plan to continue the fight, the youth of Termessos managed to leave the city. Learning of his imminent capture and preferring death to being handed over to his enemy, Alcetas killed himself. The elders delivered his corpse to Antigonos. After subjecting the corpse to all manner of abuse for three days, Antigonos departed Pisidia leaving the corpse unburied. The youth, greatly resenting what had happened, recovered Alcetas' corpse, buried it with full honours, and erected a beautiful monument to his memory. Termessos was obviously not a port city, but its lands stretched south-east all the way to the Gulf of Attaleia (Antalya). Because the city possessed this link to the sea it was taken by the Ptolemies. An inscription found in the Lycian city of Araxa yields important information about Termessos. According to this inscription, in the 2nd century BC, Termessos was at war for unknown reasons with the league of Lycian cities, and again in 189 BC found itself battling its Pisidian neighbour Isinda. At this same time we find the colony of Termessos Minor being founded 85 km in the south-south-west (Oinoanda) in the 2nd century BC. Termessos entered into friendly relations with Attalos II, king of Pergamon, the better to combat its ancient enemy Selge. Attalos II commemorated this friendship by building a two-storied stoa in Termessos. Termessos was an ally of Rome, and so in 71 BC was granted independent status by the Roman Senate; according to this law its freedom and rights were guaranteed. This independence was maintained continuously for a long time, the only exception being an alliance with Amyntas king of Galatia (reigned 36-25 BC). This independence is documented also by the coins of Termessos, which bear the title "Autonomous". The end of Termessos came when its aqueduct was crushed in an earthquake, destroying the water supply to the city. The city was abandoned (year unknown), which helps to explain its remarkable state of preservation today. Site today Approach From the main road, a steep road leads up to the city. From this road one can see the famous Yenice pass, through which wound the ancient road that the Termessians called "King Street" as well as Hellenistic period fortification walls, cisterns and many other remains. King Street, built in the 2nd century AD by contributions from the people of Termessos, passes through the city walls higher up and stretches in a straight line all the way to the centre of the city. In the walls to the east of the city gate are some extremely interesting inscriptions with augury by dice. Throughout the history of the Roman Empire, beliefs of this sort-in sorcery, magic, and superstition-were widespread. The Termessians were probably very interested in fortune telling. Inscriptions of this kind are usually four to five lines long and include numbers to be thrown with the dice, the name of the god wanted for soothsaying, and the nature of the prediction given in the counsels of that god. Main square The city Termessians where the principal official buildings are located lies on a flat area a little beyond the inner walls. The most striking of these structures is the agora, which has very special architectural characteristics. The ground floor of this open-air market place has been raised on stone blocks, and to its north-west five big cisterns have been hollowed out. The agora is surrounded on three sides by stoas. According to the inscription found on the two-storey stoa on the north-west, it was presented to Termessos by Attalos II, king of Pergamum (reigned 150-138 BC) as proof of his friendship. As for the north-eastern stoa, it was built by a wealthy Termessian named Osbaras, probably in imitation of the stoa of Attalos. The ruins lying to the north-east of the agora must belong to the gymnasium, but they are hard to make out among all the trees. The two-storey building consisted of an internal courtyard surrounded by vaulted rooms. The exterior is decorated with niches and other ornamentation of the Doric order. This structure dates from the 1st century AD. Theatre Immediately to the east of the agora lies the theatre. Commanding a view out over the Pamphylian plain, this building is no doubt the most eyecatching in all the Termessos plain. It displays most clearly the features of the Roman theatre, which preserved the Hellenistic period theatre plan. The Hellenistic cavea, or semicircular seating area, is divided in two by a diazoma. Above the diazoma rise eight tiers of seats, below it are sixteen, allowing for a seating capacity of some 4–5,000 spectators. A large arched entrance way connects the cavea with the agora. The southern parados was vaulted in Roman times, the northern has been left in its original open-air state. The stage building exhibits features characteristic of the 2nd century AD. A long narrow room is all that lies behind it. This is connected with the podium where the play took place, by five doors piercing the richly ornamented facade or scaenae frons. Under the stage lie five small rooms where wild animals were kept before being taken into the orchestra for combat. As in other classical cities, an odeon lies about 100 metres from the theatre. This building, which looks like a small theatre, can be dated to the 1st century BC. It is well preserved all the way to roof level and exhibits the finest quality ashlar masonry. The upper storey is ornamented in the Doric order and coursed with square-cut blocks of stone, while the lower storey is unornamented and pierced by two doors. It is certain that the building was originally roofed, since it received its light from eleven large windows in the east and west walls. Just how this roof, which spanned 25 metres, was housed, has not been determined yet. Because the interior is full of earth and rubble at present, it is not possible to gauge either the building's seating arrangement or its capacity. Seating capacity was probably not larger than 600–700. Amid the rubble, pieces of coloured marble have been unearthed, giving rise to the possibility that the interior walls were decorated with mosaic. It is also possible that this elegant building served as the bouleuterion or council chamber. Temples Six temples of varying sizes and types have been accounted for at Termessos. Four of these are found near the odeon in an area that must have been sacred. The first of these temples is located directly at the back of the odeon and is constructed of truly splendid masonry. It has been proposed that this was temple of the city's chief god, Zeus Solymeus. What a pity, then, that apart from its five-metre-high cella walls, very little remains of this temple. The second temple lies near the south-west corner of the odeon. It possesses a 5.50 × 5.50 metre cella and is of the prostylos type. According to an inscription found on the still complete entrance, this temple was dedicated to Artemis, and both the building and the cult statue inside were paid for by a woman named Aurelia Armasta and her husband using their own funds. To the other side of this entrance, a statue of this woman's uncle stands on an inscribed base. The temple can be dated on stylistic grounds to the end of the 2nd century AD. To the east of the Artemis temple are the remains of a Doric temple. It is of the peripteral type, with six or eleven columns to a side; judging from the size of it, it must have been the largest temple in Termessos. From surviving reliefs and inscriptions, it too, is understood to have been dedicated to Artemis. Further to the east, the ruins of another smaller temple lie on a rock-hewn terrace. The temple rose on a high podium, but to what god it was dedicated is not known at present. However, contrary to general rules of classical temple architecture, the entrance to this temple lies to the right, indicating that it may have belonged to a demi-god or hero. It can be dated to the beginning of the 3rd century AD. As for the other two temples, they are located near the stoa of Attalos belong to the Corinthian order, and are of the prostylos type. Also dedicated to deities who are as yet unknown, these temples can be dated to the 2nd or 3rd century AD. Other parts of the city Of all the official and cult buildings to be found in this broad central area, one of the most interesting is in the form of a typical Roman period house. An inscription can be seen above the Doric order doorway along the west wall, which rises to a height of six metres. In this inscription the owner of the house is praised as the founder of the city. Doubtless, this house was not really that of the founder of Termessos. Maybe it was a little gift awarded the owner for extraordinary service rendered to the city. This type of house generally belonged to nobles and plutocrats. The main entrance gives onto a hall which leads through a second entrance to a central courtyard, or atrium. An impluvium or pool designed to catch rainwater lies in the middle of the courtyard. The atrium held an important place in the daily activities of houses such as this, and was also used as a reception room for guests. As such it was often ostentatiously decorated. The other rooms of the house were arranged around the atrium. A street with wide, shop-lined porticoes ran north–south through the city. The space between the columns of the porticoes was often filled with statues of successful athletes, most of them wrestlers. The inscribed bases for these statues are still in place, and by reading them we can recreate the ancient splendour of this street. Cemeteries To the south, west and north of the city, mostly within the city walls, there are large cemeteries containing rock-cut tombs, one is supposed to have belonged to Alcetas himself. Unfortunately the tomb has been despoiled by treasure hunters. In the tomb itself a kind of lattice work was carved between the columns behind the kline; at the top there was probably an ornamental frieze. The left part of the tomb is decorated with the depiction of a mounted warrior dateable to the 4th century BC. it is known that the youth of Termessos, much affected by the death of General Alcetas, built a magnificent tomb for him, and the historian Diodoros records that Alcetas did battle with Antigonos while mounted on a horse. These coincidences suggest that this is indeed the tomb of Alcetas and that it is he who is depicted in the relief. The sarcophagi, hidden for centuries among a dense growth of trees south-west of the city, transports one in an instant to the depths of history ceremony, the dead were placed in these sarcophagi along with their clothing, jewellery, and other rich accouterments. The bodies of the poor were buried in simple stone, clay, or wooden sarcophagi. Dateable to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, these sarcophagi generally rest on a high pedestal. In the family tombs of the wealthy on the other hand, the sarcophagi were placed inside a richly ornamented structure built in the shape of the deceased together with his lineage, or the names of those given permission to be buried alongside him. Thus the right of usage was officially guaranteed. In this manner the history of one specific tomb can be ascertained. In addition, one finds inscriptions calling on the fury of the gods to prevent the sarcophagi from being opened and to scare away grave robbers. The inscriptions also state the fines meted out to those who did not conform to these rules. These fines, ranging from 300 to 100,000 denarii and generally paid to the city treasury in the name of Zeus Solymeus, took the place of legal judgments. Termessos, after a gradual decline, was finally abandoned in the 5th century. Some of the remains found there are the walls, the Hadrian's triumphal arch, the cisterns, the theater, the gymnasium, the agora, the odeon and the heroon. Among the tombs which are scattered far and wide can be seen those of Alcates, Agatemeros and the Lion decorated sarcophagi, which are extraordinary. No excavations have as yet been undertaken at Termessos. References External links Official website Antalya and Termessos Termessos photos with explanations How to go to Termessos Antalya Website Visit Termessos (American Company) Extensive information on Turkish Archaeonews Over 300 pictures from 4 visits Archaeological sites in Antalya Province Populated places in Pisidia Former populated places in Turkey Geography of Antalya Province History of Antalya Province World Heritage Tentative List for Turkey Populated places of the Byzantine Empire Ancient Greek cities in Anatolia Catholic titular sees in Asia Roman towns and cities in Turkey Rock-cut tombs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture%20chamber
Torture chamber
A torture chamber is a room where torture is inflicted. The medieval torture chamber was windowless and often built underground, dimly lit and specifically designed to induce horror, dread and despair. Historically, torture chambers were located in royal palaces, in castles of the nobility and even buildings belonging to the church. They featured secret trap-doors which could be activated to throw victims into dark dungeons where they remained and eventually died. The skeletal remains of people who disappeared were strewn on the floor of the hidden dungeons. Other times the dungeons under the trap-doors included pits of water where the victim was thrown to drown after a lengthy torture session in the chamber above. In Peru, the torture chambers of the Spanish Inquisition were specifically constructed with thick walls so that the screams of the victims could not penetrate them and no sound could be heard from the outside. Other more sophisticated designs used principles of acoustics to muffle the screams of the tortured and included walls which recessed and protruded in such a fashion as to reflect the screams of the victims so that the sounds would not be carried to the exterior. The mere presence of the torture chamber was used as a form of intimidation and coercion. The victims were first shown the chamber and if they confessed they would not be tortured inside it. Other times the torture chamber was used as the final destination in a series of prison cells where the victims would gradually be moved from one type of cell to another, under progressively worsening conditions of incarceration, and if they did not recant in the earlier stages they would finally reach the torture chamber. The final stage of actually going to the torture chamber itself, just prior to the initiation of torture, was euphemistically called the "Question". History Throughout history, torture chambers have been used in a multiplicity of ways starting from Roman times. Torture chamber use during the Middle Ages was frequent. Religious, social and political persecution led to the widespread use of torture during that time. Torture chambers were also used during the Spanish Inquisition and at the Tower of London. Another example of a torture chamber, perhaps not generally well known, is "The Thieves' Tower" in the Alsace region of France. Once a tower used for torture, it is now a small museum displaying instruments used upon the prisoners to get them to confess crimes. In Venice, the Palazzo Ducale had its own torture chamber, which was deemed to be of such importance that renovations started in 1507 so that the chamber walls could be kept strong and secure: "considerata la grandissima importantia de j cameroti di la Camera del tormento che siano forti e securi". Ashoka's Hell According to the narrations of Ashokavadana, King Ashoka, prior to his conversion to Buddhism, was a fierce and sadistic ruler, known as Ashoka the Fierce, who built a palatial torture chamber known as Ashoka's Hell. The legend of the torture palace is detailed in the writings of the Ashokavadana. According to Ashokavadana, Ashoka asked Girika, who was the official executioner of his kingdom, to design an elaborate torture chamber disguised as a beautiful and "enticing" palace adorned with all kinds of decorations and full of amenities such as exclusive baths decorated with flowers, fruit trees and many ornaments. It was artfully designed to make people long to just look at it. According to legend, beneath the veneer of beauty deep inside the exclusive mansion, torture chambers were constructed which were full of the most sadistic and cruel instruments of torture including furnaces producing molten metal. According to the accounts contained in the Ashokavadana, Girika, the architect of the chamber, was inspired by descriptions of the five tortures of the Buddhist hell for the design of the torture chamber and of the torture methods he inflicted upon his victims. The torture chamber was so terrifying, that King Ashoka himself was thought to have visited hell so that he could perfect its evil design. Ashoka made Girika promise that he would never allow anyone who entered the palace to exit alive, including Ashoka himself. In the Biographical Sutra of King Ashoka the palace is described by the sentence: 'King Ashoka constructed a hell'. Some time later a Buddhist monk by the name of Samudra happened to visit the palace and upon entering he was informed by Girika that he would be tortured to death, and was subsequently led into the torture chamber. His torturers however failed to injure him and he appeared able to neutralise their torture methods by performing miracles. Ashoka converted to Buddhism when he witnessed Samudra's miracles inside the torture chamber. He also ordered Girika burned alive and ordered the demolition of the torture palace. According to the Ashokavadana, "the beautiful jail was then torn down and a guarantee of security was extended to all beings". Xuanzang in his writings mentions that in the 7th century AD he had visited the place where Ashoka's Hell once was. In India the palace is known as "Ashoka's Hell" and its location near Pataliputra became a popular destination for pilgrims. Faxian also reports visiting it and his account of the story of the palace differs slightly from that of Xuanzang's. Inquisition Methods of coercion According to Frederick Howard Wines in his book Punishment and Reformation: A Study of the Penitentiary System there were three main types of coercion employed in the torture chamber: coercion by cord, water, or fire. There were five stages of torture that could have been applied to the accused: he could have been threatened with torture, he could have been taken to the torture chamber and been shown the instruments, he could have been undressed as if in preparation to be tied to the instrument, without actually being tied, he could have been tied to the instrument of torture but not actually getting tortured and finally he could have been tied to the instrument and tortured. The process of being tied and led to the torture rack inside the torture chamber was a form of intimidation and was called territio realis as opposed to territio verbalis oder lexis which was the verbal threat of torture being made at the judgment hall. Territio realis as well as the actual torture session were called examen rigorosum. In the book Crime and Criminal Justice in Europe and Canada it is mentioned that fear was a factor in the process of torture and that there was a form of torture known as La présentation de la question or simply the "Question", where the prisoner was led to the torture chamber and was shown the implements of torture. While at the chamber, sentence to full torture was pronounced but, immediately after, the prisoner was taken back to the prison cell, without actually having been tortured. The torture chamber was specifically designed to evoke fear in the victims. It was usually built underground and only dimly lit. Inside the chamber waited the executioner, his face completely covered apart from two holes in the garment to enable him to peer through and wearing a black hood; his menacing appearance being described as "most diabolical" and "satanic". When during the Question, the view of the chamber, the torture implements and the executioner did not cause the victim to confess, a full-scale torture session was planned. To prepare for torture, the victim was stripped naked with hands tied. The penultimate step to torture included a repetition of the questions asked earlier of the victims. If the victims still proclaimed their innocence, full torture was initiated. The most common instrument of torture was the strappado, which was a simple rope and pulley system. With the pulley attached to ceiling of the chamber, the lifting rope was tied to the wrist of the victim, whose hands were tied behind their back. Subsequently, the victim was raised to the ceiling and then lowered using a jerking motion causing dislocation of the shoulder joints. To increase the suffering caused by the strappado, weights were attached to the feet of the victim. Church doctrine protected human life so it was problematic if a victim were to die, especially before he or she confessed. In difficult cases, when a victim would not readily confess or was too weak to continue in an uninterrupted torture session, breaks were allowed between torture sessions because Inquisition regulations allowed only one torture session per victim. That way, a torture session could resume after a break to allow time for the victim to recover or reconsider his or her opposition to confessing, and it was considered to have been the continuation of the previous torture session and not a new one. Because confession under torture was not acceptable, the victim had to sign a written confession after he or she had made his or her oral confession under torture. Typically, during confession, the inquisitors demanded that the prisoner implicate as many people as possible and not only him or herself. If the prisoner resisted signing, the inquisitors could always resume the torture by claiming that they had just halted the session, just for the signing, but did not really put an end to it. Construction The method of construction of the torture chamber of the papal palace at Avignon, used during the Inquisition, has been described as ingenious. The construction of some of the torture chambers at Avignon was based on principles of acoustics, specifically designed to muffle the screams and cries of the tortured. The walls of the torture chamber recessed and protruded in a complementary fashion to the walls on the opposite side so as to reflect the screams of the victims locally, ensuring that their shrieks would not be carried to the exterior. A chamber located above the main torture chamber had a dungeon with a hole near the middle of the floor through which, according to accounts, the tortured bodies of the prisoners were thrown into a cavity. The chamber where the victims were being burnt was of circular construction and resembled the furnace of a glass-house with a funnel-like chimney at the top. There were secret staircases and hidden spaces which were used to overhear the discussions in the prison cells. The ceiling of the torture chamber was especially designed to muffle the cries of the victims. Inside the torture chamber, furnaces and grates were also present. Up to 1850 the chambers were shown to visitors after which time the ecclesiastical authorities of Avignon decided to shut them down. In a similar vein the torture chamber of the Spanish Inquisition in Lima, Peru had one metre thick walls so that the screams of the victims could not penetrate them. In Nuremberg and Salzburg the torture chambers featured trapdoors on their floors. In Nuremberg the room underneath the main torture chamber featured torture machinery while in Salzburg, the room under the trapdoor, functioned like a waiting room for prisoners. When the time came the prisoner was pulled up and into the upper torture chamber. Other times, deep water pits could be found under the trapdoor, where the victims of the torture chamber could be thrown, after a torture session, to drown. Palace of the Inquisition The torture chamber was the final destination in a progression of four cell types during incarceration at the Palace of the Inquisition. The palace contained the Judgement Hall, the offices of the employees, the private apartments of the Grand Inquisitor and the detention cells adjacent to the apartments. The detention cell gradations started with the cells of mercy reserved mainly for rich transgressors who upon bequeathing all their property to the Inquisition were normally let go after a time of detention in the cells. For more difficult prisoners the next cell stage was the cell of penitence. These were situated in small round towers of about 3 metres (ten feet) in diameter. They were painted white and included rudimentary furniture such as a stool and a bed. Very little light was allowed in. If the prisoner did not cooperate, the next step in the detention process was the dungeon. The dungeon had walls 1.5 metres (five feet) thick, double doors and was in complete darkness. No conversation of any type was allowed in the dungeon. The food allowance for prisoners was less than a penny a day including the profit of the warden while any human refuse was removed every four days. After a stay in the dungeon, uncooperative prisoners were moved to their final destination: the torture chamber. Palace of Inquisition in Cartagena The Palace of Inquisition was a torture chamber in Cartagena, Colombia, built under orders of Philip III, which served as headquarters for the Spanish Inquisition. It was used to torture Jews and other non-Catholics. Approximately 800 individuals were put to death there. Modern times Nazi Germany The traditional torture users of modern times have been dictatorship governments e.g. the Nazis, Argentine military junta (at the Navy School of Mechanics), and the Chilean dictatorship led by Augusto Pinochet as well as other South American regimes. The isolation felt inside the Nazi torture chambers was so strong that author, and victim, K. Zetnik, during his testimony at the Eichmann trial in Jerusalem in 1961, has described them as another galaxy. South America In Chile, during the Pinochet dictatorship, the use of converted locker-rooms and skyboxes as torture chambers has been reported. The Esmeralda, a training ship of the Chilean Navy had also been used as a "floating torture chamber" during Pinochet's dictatorship. In 2011, protests erupted in Vancouver, Canada, upon a visit by the Esmeralda. In Santiago, Chile, Villa Grimaldi, once a cultural center, was used as a torture centre which included torture chambers. A tour of Villa Grimaldi has been described as a "tour of barbarity" featuring exhibits with descriptive signs such as "Place of hangings", "Torture chamber", "Annex torture chamber", "Women's cells 1x1 meter", "The Grill: Electric Beds" and others. Michelle Bachelet, who later became President of Chile, was tortured in a torture chamber during the Pinochet years. After the fall of Pinochet, the torture chamber victims and the relatives of the desaparecidos refused to strike a deal with Pinochet or with the politicians that followed him. Europe Use of torture chambers was also reported in Europe during the Greek military junta years (1967–1974). Alexandros Panagoulis and Army Major Spyros Moustaklis are examples of people tortured at the EAT/ESA (Greek Military Police) interrogation cell units. Middle East Under his reign (1979–2003), Saddam Hussein reportedly tortured those whom he deemed as a threat. After the invasion of Iraq by U.S. forces, pictures of dead Iraqis, with their necks slashed, their eyes gouged out and their genitals blackened, were located in many torture chambers. Jail cells, with dried blood on the floor and rusted shackles bolted to the walls, lined the corridors. In November 2004, U.S. Marines found a number of torture rooms in Fallujah by following trails of dried blood, or the smell of dead bodies. Some rooms were hidden behind fake walls, or concealed in basements. Libyans have entered abandoned torture chambers and found devices that have been used against opposition members in the past. United States The CIA has been found to torture prisoners at black sites around the world. Russia In April 2022, evidence of the brutal mass rape and massacre by Russian forces of the residents of the Ukrainian town of Bucha came to light. Soldiers of the Ukrainian Territorial Defense Forces said they had found eighteen mutilated bodies of men, women, and children in a summer camp's basement in Zabuchchya, near Bucha. Footage released by the Ukrainian army appeared to show a torture chamber in the basement. One of the soldiers said that some of the bodies had cut-off ears or pulled out teeth, and that the bodies had been removed a day before the interview. Corpses of other killed civilians were left in the road. An investigation by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty verified that the basement was used as an "execution cellar" by Russian forces. See also Black site Extraordinary rendition Iron maiden Medieval instruments of torture Palace of Inquisition Psychology of torture Psychological warfare The Box (torture) Books Guida Billingue all mostra di Strumenti di Tortura Chamber dal Medioeve all Epoca Industriale. By Roberto Held. Florence, Qua d' Arno 1983. "The Iron Shroud" by William Mudford, a short story, published also as a chapbook, about an iron torture chamber which shrinks through mechanical action and eventually crushes the victim inside. Edgar Allan Poe is considered to have been influenced by Mudford's story when he wrote The Pit and the Pendulum. References External links Fort Breendonk (Nazi Camp): Pictorial essay. Mentions local torture chamber Torture Rooms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burhan%20Do%C4%9Fan%C3%A7ay
Burhan Doğançay
Burhan C. Doğançay (11 September 1929 – 16 January 2013) was a Turkish-American artist. Doğançay is best known for tracking walls in various cities across the world for half a century, integrating them in his artistic work. Biography Born in Istanbul, Turkey, Burhan Dogançay obtained his artistic training from his father Adil Doğançay, and Arif Kaptan, both well-known Turkish painters. In his youth, Dogançay played on the Gençlerbirliği football (soccer) team. In 1950, he received a law degree from the University of Ankara. While enrolled at the University of Paris between 1950 and 1955, from where he obtained a doctorate degree in economics, he attended art courses at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière. During this period he continued to paint regularly and to show his works in several group exhibitions. Soon after his return to Turkey, he participated in many exhibitions, including joint exhibitions with his father at the Ankara Art Lovers Club. Following a brief career with the government (diplomatic service), which brought him to New York City in 1962, Dogançay decided in 1964 to devote himself entirely to art and to make New York his permanent home. He started searching the streets of New York for inspiration and raw materials for his collage and assemblages. He began to think it was impossible to make a reasonable living as an artist. Thomas M. Messer, director of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum for 27 years, significantly influenced Dogançay, urging him to stay in New York and face the city's challenges. In the 1970s, Dogançay started traveling for his Walls of the World photographic documentary project. He met his future wife, Angela, at the Hungarian Ball at the Hotel Pierre in New York. In 2006, a painting by Dogancay titled Trojan Horse was gifted by the Turkish government to the OECD in Paris. Dogançay lived and worked during the last eight years of his life alternating between his studios in New York and Turgutreis, Turkey. He died at the age of 83 in January 2013. Artistic contribution Since the early 1960s, Dogançay had been fascinated by urban walls and chose them as his subject. He considered them the barometer of societies and a testament to the passage of time, reflecting the emotions of a city, frequently withstanding the assault of the elements and the markings left by people. It began, Dogancay said, when something caught his eye during a walk along 86th street in New York: It was the most beautiful abstract painting I had ever seen. There were the remains of a poster, and a texture to the wall with little bits of shadows coming from within its surface. The color was mostly orange, with a little blue and green and brown. Then, there were the marks made by rain and mud. As a city traveler, for half a century he mapped and photographed walls in various cities worldwide. In this context, urban walls serve as documents of the respective climate and zeitgeist, as ciphers of social, political and economic change. Part of the intrinsic spirit of his work is to suggest that nothing is ever what it seems. Dogançay's art is wall art, and thus his sources of subjects are real. Therefore, he can hardly be labeled as an abstract artist, and yet at first acquaintance much of his work appears to be abstract. In Dogançay's approach, the serial nature of investigation and the elevation of characteristic elements to form ornamental patterns are essential. Within this, he formulates a consistent continuation of decollagist strategies – effectively the re-contextualised deconstruction of positions related to the nouveau réalistes. Dogançay may have started out as a simple observer and recorder of walls, but he fast made a transition to being able to express a range of ideas, feelings, and emotions in his work. His vision continued to broaden, driven both by content and technique. Walls of the World In the mid-1970s, Dogançay embarked on what he thought of as a secondary project: photographing urban walls all over the globe. These photographs – which Dogançay called Walls of the World – are an archive of our time and the seeds for his paintings, which also expressed contemporary times. The focus of his "encyclopedic" approach was exclusively directed toward the structures, signs, symbols and images that humans leave on walls. Here he found the entire range of the human condition in a single motif, without any cultural, racial, political, geographical, or stylistic, limitations. Dogançay got to the heart of his exploration when he said: Walls are the mirror of society. Dogancay's consequential execution, his radical thematic self-limitation and obsession with capturing what interested him most is comparable to other "documentarians" such as August Sander (portraits) and Karl Blossfeldt (plants). His pictures are not snapshots but elaborate segmentations of surfaces, subtle studies of materials, colors, structures and light, sometimes resembling monochromies in their radical reductionism. Over time, this project gained importance as well as content; after four decades it encompasses about 30'000 images from more than 100 countries across five continents. In 1982, images from the archive were exhibited as a one-man exhibition at the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris; it later traveled to the Palais des Beaux-Arts, Brussels, and the Musée d'Art Contemporain, Montreal. Painting and collage With posters and objects gathered from walls forming the main ingredient for his work, Dogançay's preferred medium has been predominantly 'collage' and to some extent 'fumage'. Dogançay re-creates the look of urban billboards, graffiti-covered wall surfaces, as well as broken or neglected entrances, such as windows and doors, in different series. The only masters with whom he compares himself are Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns from the last heroic period of art, of which he was a part. Dogancay, however, has always preferred to reproduce fragments of wall surface in their mutual relations just as he found them, and with minimal adjustment of color or position, rather than to up-end them or combine them casually as in the Rauschenberg manner. In large measure his practice has been one of simulation in the spirit of record-keeping, carried out with the collector's rather than the scavenger's eye. In many cases, his paintings evoke the decay and destruction of the city, the alienated feeling that urban life is in ruins and out of control, and cannot be integrated again. Pictorial fragments are often detached from their original context and rearranged in new, sometimes inscrutable combinations. His complex and uniformly experimental painterly oeuvre ranges from photographic realism to abstraction, from pop art to material image/montage/collage. In the 1970s and 1980s, he gained fame with his interpretation of urban walls in his signature ribbons series, which consist of clean paper strips and their calligraphy-like shadows. These contrast with his collaged billboard works, such as the Cones Series, Doors Series or Alexander's Walls. These brightly intense, curvilinear ribbon forms seem to burst forth from flat, solid-colored backgrounds. The graceful ribbonlike shapes take on a three-dimensional quality, especially as suggested by the implied shadows. This series later gave rise to alucobond–aluminum composite shadow sculptures and the series known as Aubusson Tapestries. Tamarind lithography In 1969, Henry Geldzahler, then head of 20th Century Art Department at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, secured a fellowship for Dogancay at the Tamarind Lithography Workshop in Los Angeles. The workshop, founded by June Wayne, was a ten-year project, attended by approximately seventy artists – among them were Ed Ruscha, Jim Dine, Josef Albers and Louise Nevelson – between 1960 and 1970, conceived to promote lithography in the USA. Dogancay created sixteen lithographs, including a suite of eleven impressions titled Walls V. These marked a turning point in his career as they are essentially a dialogue with flatness. At the workshop, in part because of the medium, he was obliged to relinquish his casual approach, inspired by his raw subject matter, in favor of organizing his work graphically. This imposed discipline helped him to create arresting new effects that led to more defined flat areas and brighter colors within the images. Dogancay created a new resolution between subject and method, and was a profound influence on his future evolution as an artist. A canon of high-colored tonality and visual impact has remained for him the essence of urban contradiction which he wants to share with viewers of his works. Aubusson Tapestry In Paris, Dogancay was introduced to Jean-François Picaud, owner of L'Atelier Raymond Picaud in Aubusson, France. Fascinated by Dogançay's Ribbons series and believing they would be ideal tapestry subjects, he invited Dogançay to submit several tapestry cartoons. In the words of Jean-François Picaud, "the art of tapestry has found its leader for the 21st century in Burhan Dogançay". The first three Dogançay tapestries woven in 1984 were an immediate critical success. Art market In November 2009, one of Dogançay's paintings, Mavi Senfoni (Symphony in Blue), was sold in auction to Murat Ülker for US$1,700,000. This collage relates to an impressive cycle of works within the Dogançay oeuvre, called Cones series, that evolved as a development of his iconic Breakthrough and Ribbon series and as an exhilarating exploration of the urban space. Together with its two sister works, Magnificent Era (collection of Istanbul Modern) and Mimar Sinan (private collection), Symphony in Blue is one of the largest and most expressive works in which Dogançay enters into a dialogue with the history of Turkey. It was executed in 1987 for the first International Istanbul Biennial. Istanbul Modern commissioned composer Kamran Ince to set Mavi Senfoni to music. The solo piano piece was premiered by Huseyin Sermet on 26 June 2012. In May 2015, Dogancay's painting Mavi Güzel (Blue Beauty) from the Ribbon Series sold for TL 1,050,000 (US$390’000) at Antik AS in Istanbul Doğançay Museum The Doğançay Museum is exclusively dedicated to the work of Burhan Doğançay, and to a minor extent also to the art of his father, Adil. It provides a retrospective survey of the artist's various creative phases from his student days up to his death, with about 100 works on display. Established in 2004, the Doğançay Museum in Istanbul's Beyoğlu district is being considered to be Turkey's first contemporary art museum. Doğançay's works are in the collections of many museums around the world including New York's MoMA, Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum as well as National Gallery of Art in Washington, MUMOK in Vienna, Musée National d'Art Moderne in Paris, Istanbul Modern in Istanbul, The Israel Museum in Jerusalem and The State Russian Museum in St. Petersburg. Works in public collections (selection) 1964: Billboard, New York, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum 1964: Yankees and Beatles, London, Tate Modern 1965: Eddie, Vienna, Albertina 1966: Peace of Mind, Mannheim, Kunsthalle 1966: Diner's Window, Dallas, Dallas Museum of Art 1966: J. Payn Window, Minneapolis, Walker Art Center 1969: New York Puzzle, Stuttgart, Staatsgalerie 1969: untitled, Washington, National Gallery of Art 1969: Walls V, New York, MoMA 1969: untitled, Cambridge/MA, Harvard Art Museums 1974: Red and Black Composition No. 5, New York, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum 1975: White Cone & Shadow, Basel, Kunstmuseum 1977: Heart No. 26, Saint-Paul de Vence, Fondation Maeght 1979: Lofty Ribbons, London, British Museum 1980s: Whispering Wall III, London, V&A Museum 1980s: #150, Vienna, MAK 1980: Long Lost Ribbons, Vienna, mumok stiftung ludwig 1980: untitled, Bruxelles, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium 1982: Ribbon Mania, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1987: Magnificent Era, Istanbul, Istanbul Modern 1987: Symphony in Blue, Istanbul, Yildiz Holding (Murat Ülker) 1989: Kinder, Hannover, Sprengel Museum 1989: Neruda, Stockholm, Moderna Museet 1989: Versace Man, Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum 1992: I Am Really Old, Salzburg, Museum oder Moderne 1995: Tit Steaks, Ann Arbor/MI, University of Michigan Museum of Art 1997: Garden of Eden, Munich, Pinakothek der Moderne 1997: Push Love, Saint Louis, Saint Louis Art Museum 1998: Two Fine Red Lines, Vienna, Albertina 2002: Red Ada, Geneva, Musée d'art et d'histoire (MAH) 2002: Throw FD, Pittsburgh, Carnegie Museum of Art 2008: Peace Partners, Cleveland, Cleveland Museum of Art 2009: Rising Star, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts Boston 2011: The Days of the Fez, Vienna, Albertina Awards 2005 – Contribution to the Arts Award given by the International Contemporary Art Exposition, İstanbul 2005 – Art Honor Award given by the Art Forum Plastic Arts Fair, Ankara 2004 – Honorary doctorate from Hacettepe University, Ankara 2004 – Painter of the Year Award given by Sanat Kurumu, Ankara 1995 – National Medal for the Arts for Lifetime Achievement & Cultural Contribution given by the President of the Republic of Turkey 1992 – Medal of Appreciation given by the Ministry of Culture of Russia 1984 – Enka Arts & Science Award, İstanbul 1969 – Tamarind Lithography Workshop Fellowship, Los Angeles 1964 – Certificate of Appreciation by the City of New York Exhibitions Solo exhibitions (selection) 1976: Istanbul: Galeri Baraz. Burhan Dogançay 1977: Zurich: Kunstsalon Wolfsberg. Acrylmalereien und Gouachen 1966–1976 1982: Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou. Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ... 1983: Montreal: Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal 1983: Antwerp: International Cultural Center 1989: Tokyo: The Seibu Museum of Art–Yurakucho Art Forum. Dogançay 1992: St. Petersburg: Russian Museum. Walls and Doors 1990–91 1993: Istanbul: Atatürk Cultural Center. Walls 1990–93 (Organized by Yahşi Baraz) 2000: New York: The Brooklyn Historical Society. Bridge of Dreams. 2001: Istanbul: Dolmabahçe Cultural Center. Dogançay: A Retrospective (Organized by Dr. Nejat F. Eczacıbaşı Foundation) 2001: Athens, Ohio: Kennedy Museum of Art–Ohio University. Dogançay–Wall Paintings from the Museum Collection 2003: Siegen: Siegerlandmuseum. Walls of the World 2012: Istanbul: Istanbul Modern. Fifty Years of Urban Walls: A Burhan Dogancay Retrospective 2014: Istanbul: Dogançay Museum. Picture the World: Burhan Dogançay as Photographer 2016: Ankara: CER Modern. Picture the World: Burhan Dogançay as Photographer 2016: Essen: Museum Folkwang. New to the collection: Burhan Dogancay 2016: Taipei: Taiwan National Museum of History. Picture the World: Burhan Dogançay as Photographer 2017: Vienna: Albertina. Burhan Dogançay (works on paper) 2018: Leverkusen: Museum Morsbroich. Zeichen an der Wand Group exhibitions (selection) 1972: New York: Pace Gallery. Printmakers at Pace 1977: New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. From the American Collection 1983: Washington: National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution 1987: Istanbul: 1st International Istanbul Biennial 1999: New York: The Museum of the City of New York, The New York Century: World Capital, Home Town, 1900–2000 2006: Fredonia, N.Y.: Rockefeller Arts Center Art Gallery. Connoisseurship 2009: Salzburg: Museum der Moderne. SPOTLIGHT 2009: Biel/Bienne: CentrePasquArt. Collage–Décollage: Dogançay–Villeglé 2009: Berlin: Martin-Gropius-Bau. Istanbul Next Wave 2010: London: British Museum. Modern Turkish Art at the British Museum 2010: Minneapolis, MN: Walker Art Center, Perlman Gallery. 50/50: Audience and Experts Curate the Paper Collection 2012: Vienna: Belvedere, Orangerie. Kokoschka sucht einen Rahmen 2012: Maastricht: Bonnefantenmuseum. Different Impressions, Changing Traditions 2013: Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Uncontainable Portraits 2013: Doha: Bahrain National Museum. Istanbul Modern-Bahrain 2013: Grenoble: Musée de Grenoble-Bibliothèque Teisseire-Malherbe. Les Mots dans l'Art 2013: Zurich: Museum Haus Konstruktiv. Hotspot Istanbul 2013: Minneapolis: Weisman Art Museum. Reviewing The Real 2013: New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Fifty Years of Collecting Islamic Art 2014: Boston: Museum of Fine Arts. National Pride (and Prejudice) 2015: Stockholm: Moderna Museet. A Larger World 2015: Leverkusen: Museum Morsbroich. Eddie Murphy und die Milk-Brothers 2016: Los Angeles: LACMA. Islamic Art Now, Part 2 2016: Istanbul: Elgiz Museum. Faces & Masks 2016: Purchase/NY: Neuberger Museum of Art. Post No Bills: Public Walls as Studio and Source 2017: Minneapolis: Weisman Art Museum. Prince from Minneapolis 2017: Wolfsburg: Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg. Im Käfig der Freiheit 2017: Saint-Paul-de-Vence: Fondation Maeght. Is this how men live? 2018: Ankara: Evliyagil Museum. Icons of Thinking: Images and Texts 2019: Vienna: Albertina. Warhol to Richter 2019: Istanbul: Istanbul Modern. The Event of a Thread: Global Narratives in Textiles 2019: Wolfsburg: Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg. Now is the Time 2019: Geneva: MAMCO Musée d'art moderne et contemporain. Collection(s) 2020: London: Tate Modern. Materials and Objects: Collage 2021: London: British Museum. Reflections: Contemporary Art of the Middle East and North Africa 2021: Zurich: Museum Haus Konstruktiv. Works on Paper from the Collection 2021: Ann Arbor/MI: University of Michigan Museum of Art. You Are Here References Emslander, Fritz, Dogramaci, Burcu, "Burhan Doğançay Zeichen an der Wand", Wien, VfmK, 2018, Schröder, Klaus-Albrecht, Lahner, Elsy, "Burhan Dogancay", Wien, Hirmer Verlag, 2017, 978-3777428871 Köb, Eldelbert, Zuckriegel, Margit, Kushner, Marilyn, et al., "Picture the World – Burhan Dogancay As Photographer", Istanbul, Dogancay Museum Publications, 2014, 978-6056504303 Calikogu, Levent, Giboire, Clive, Taylor, Brandon, Vine, Richard, Fifty Years of Urban Walls: A Burhan Dogançay Retrospective, Munich, Prestel, 2012, . Piguet, Philippe, Denaro, Dolores, Collage-Décollage:Dogancay-Villeglé, Nürnberg, Verlag für Moderne Kunst, 2009, . Taylor, Brandon, Urban Walls – A Generation of Collage in Europe and America, New York, Hudson Hills Press, 2008, . Blanchebarbe, Ursula, Walls of the World, Bielefeld, Kerber Verlag, 2003, Budak, Emel, Burhan Dogancay: A Retrospective, Istanbul, Duran Editions, 2001, Vine, Richard, Burhan Dogançay: Works on Paper 1950 -2000, New York: Hudson Hills Press, 2003, Lopate, Phillip, Bridge of Dreams, New York, Hudson Hills Press, 1999, Moyer, Roy, Rigaud, Jacques, Messer, Thomas M., Dogançay, New York, Hudson Hills Press, 1986, External links Burhan Doğançay's Official Website The Doğançay Museum's Official Website Burhan Dogançay photographs and sketchbooks at the New-York Historical Society 1929 births 2013 deaths Painters from New York City Turkish artists Turkish painters Turkish photographers American people of Turkish descent Alumni of the Académie de la Grande Chaumière Ankara University Faculty of Law alumni Turkish men's footballers Men's association football forwards Gençlerbirliği S.K. footballers People from Istanbul
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan%20Farmar
Jordan Farmar
Jordan Robert Farmar (born November 30, 1986) is an Israeli-American former professional basketball player who played in the National Basketball Association (NBA). In high school, he was named the Los Angeles Times High School Player of the Year in 2003–04. Playing college basketball for the UCLA Bruins, he was the Rivals.com National Freshman of the Year in 2004–05. Farmar was selected 26th overall in the first round of the 2006 NBA draft by the Los Angeles Lakers. With the Lakers, he won two NBA championships in 2009 and 2010. Early life Farmar was born in Los Angeles. His mother is named Melinda, known as "Mindy", and his father is Damon Farmar, a former minor league baseball outfielder who was a second round pick in both the 1981 January draft and the 1982 June draft secondary phase. His father is African-American. His maternal grandfather, Dr. Howard Baker, attended UCLA and worked at the UCLA Medical Center as a neurologist. Farmar has a half-sister, Shoshana Kolani. Farmar's parents divorced when he was two years old, and he went to live with his mother. She soon met and married her current husband (Farmar's stepfather), Israeli Yehuda Kolani from Tel Aviv. Farmar is Jewish, as are his mother and stepfather. He attended Hebrew school and had his bar mitzvah at Temple Judea in Tarzana, California. Farmar started playing basketball at age 4. He credits his stepfather Yehuda Kolani with instilling discipline, mental strength, persistence, and a sense of obligation. Farmar inherited his competitive drive from his father and mentor, Damon Farmar, who played football and baseball at University High and baseball in the minor leagues. The younger Farmar spent hours in his father's clubhouses, with his father's teammates, and watching his father play. Farmar's godfather is former major league baseball player Eric Davis. High school career Farmar attended Portola Middle School and Temple Judea in Tarzana and Birmingham High School in Van Nuys, before transferring his second year to Taft High School in Woodland Hills, a suburban community of the San Fernando Valley within Los Angeles. At Taft High School, Farmar scored a record 54 points in a single game. As a junior, he averaged 28.5 points per game, 8.0 rebounds, 5.9 assists, and 4.5 steals. As a senior, he averaged 27.5 points and 6.5 assists, and led Taft to the school's first Los Angeles City title. He had over 2,000 points in two seasons at Taft. Farmar was named the Los Angeles Times Player of the Year, LA City Co-Player of the Year, and California Interscholastic Federation Los Angeles City Section High School Player of the Year. He earned USA Today Super 25 selection, second-team Parade All-American, Slam Magazine Honorable Mention All-American, CalHi Sports All-State honors, and the Southern California Jewish Athlete of the Year. He was a teammate with former New York Giants wide receiver Steve Smith. Additionally, he was selected to play in the McDonald's High School All American game, where he scored 6 points and had 3 assists and 7 steals in 19 minutes of playing time. College career Considered one of the elite point guards in the nation at UCLA, Farmar was named to the All-Pac-10 First Team and the all Pac-10 Tournament team. As a freshman in 2004–05, Farmar was the Rivals.com National Freshman of the Year, and Pac-10 Freshman of the Year. He led the team in assists (5.28 average) and free throw percentage (.801), and was # 2 in minutes (34.3) and points (13.2 points; # 1 among freshman guards), while topping all Pac-10 freshmen in scoring, assists, free throw percentage, and minutes played, as he was second in steals. He was named All-Pac-10 First Team the next season. In the 2006 NCAA Tournament, Farmar led the UCLA Bruins to the National Championship game against the Florida Gators, which they lost by a score of 73–57. Farmar led all scorers with 18 points, and finished with 2 rebounds, 4 assists, and 2 steals. Farmar made a notable steal and assist at the end of UCLA's Sweet Sixteen matchup with the Gonzaga Bulldogs, giving his team the lead for good after an impressive comeback effort. On April 20, 2006, he declared for the NBA draft. Professional career Los Angeles Lakers (2006–2010) Farmar impressed NBA scouts at the pre-draft combine with a vertical leap, the highest of any player there. Later, he was drafted by the Los Angeles Lakers with the 26th pick in the NBA draft, which was acquired along with Brian Grant, Caron Butler and Lamar Odom in a trade that sent Shaquille O’Neal to the Miami Heat. On July 8, 2006, he made his debut at the Summer Pro League, which was held at the Walter Pyramid. His final game totals were 17 points and 3 assists in 31 minutes of play. For most of the 2006–07 NBA season, Farmar played backup to Smush Parker. On March 31, 2007, Farmar was assigned to the Lakers' D-League team, the Los Angeles D-Fenders. On April 1, Farmar scored 18 points in a 109–101 home loss against the Anaheim Arsenal. Later on that afternoon, he was re-called by the Lakers to play against the visiting Sacramento Kings. Farmar added 4 points and 4 rebounds in 7:38 minutes playing time, helping the Lakers take a home victory, thereby making history by becoming the first player ever to participate in both a D-League and an NBA game on the same day. On April 15, against the Seattle SuperSonics, Farmar got his first professional career start, replacing Smush Parker in the starting lineup. Along with two starts in the regular season, Farmar started all five playoff games at point guard. In those games against first round opponent the Phoenix Suns, he averaged 6.4 ppg and 1.2 spg against Steve Nash. With the departure of Smush Parker, Aaron McKie, and Shammond Williams, the Lakers lacked a point guard. Therefore, with the 19th selection in the 2007 NBA draft the Los Angeles Lakers selected point guard Javaris Crittenton, who was later traded to the Memphis Grizzlies. As a result, during the summer and fall of 2007 Farmar became a denizen of the team training facility, working on his shot from June through September. He knew his job was in jeopardy with a new point guard in town, and knew he had to work to keep his position within the organization. His hard work paid off, and he averaged 9.1 points, 2.2 rebounds, and 2.7 assists per game, in 20.6 minutes per game, as the backup to veteran point guard Derek Fisher, who made his return to the Lakers. He played in all 82 games in the 2007–08 season, and shot 46.1% from the field, 3.9% up from the prior season, as well as 37.1% from three-point range, 4.3% up from the prior season. "I'm just trying to shorten [my shot], square my shoulders up and just knock it down", Farmar said. "It's all hand–eye coordination, and I believe in my ability." He had a career high of 24 points in a game against the Miami Heat. On December 24, 2008, Farmar underwent surgery to repair a torn lateral meniscus in his left knee after suffering an injury in a game against the Miami Heat. He was expected to miss 8 weeks. Farmar was averaging 7.9 points and 2.4 assists before his injury. On January 25, 2009, Farmar returned to action nearly a month earlier than expected, recording 14 points and 2 assists against San Antonio. New Jersey Nets (2010–2011) After winning two championship rings with his hometown Los Angeles Lakers, Farmar agreed to a three-year, $12 million contract with the New Jersey Nets on July 14, 2010. A large factor in his decision was his feeling stifled playing behind the established Fisher with the Lakers. In 2010–11, he averaged 9.6 points per game on .467 field goal percentage. Maccabi Tel Aviv (2011) On August 3, 2011, Farmar signed a one-year contract with the Israeli Basketball Super League champion Maccabi Tel Aviv, in the wake of the 2011 NBA lockout. Farmar was very excited to go to Tel Aviv, because his step-father is from the city, and he spent time there as a child. Because Farmar is Jewish, he is eligible to apply for Israeli citizenship, and he has expressed an interest in doing so. That way he would be considered an Israeli player, and thereby avoid being counted against the Israeli league's limit of four non-Israeli players per team. He would also be eligible to play for the Israel national basketball team in the Olympics and other international competitions. Farmar began playing for the team when its season began on October 1, 2011. His teammates included former All-American Duke guard Jon Scheyer, who joined the team in June. In the first week of November 2011, he won EuroLeague Player of the Week honors after a 27-point game against Real Madrid. His final game with the team was a 74–71 loss to Partizan Belgrade. He averaged 14.1 points in seven EuroLeague games. Return to the Nets (2011–2012) Farmar returned to the New Jersey Nets after the NBA lockout ended. On March 7, 2012, Farmar hit an open game-winning 3-point shot against the Los Angeles Clippers, leaving the clock with 0.2 seconds left. The final score was 101–100. In 2011–12, he averaged 10.4 points per game and 5.0 assists per game, as he played 24.6 minutes per game. On July 11, 2012, Farmar, Anthony Morrow, Jordan Williams, Johan Petro, DeShawn Stevenson, and a 2013 first round draft pick were traded to the Atlanta Hawks for Joe Johnson. Five days later, he was waived by the Hawks. Anadolu Efes (2012–2013) On July 12, 2012, Farmar signed a three-year $15 million contract, with opt-outs after each season, with the Turkish League team Anadolu Efes. He averaged 13.8 points in 29 EuroLeague games. Return to the Lakers (2013–2014) On July 17, 2013, Farmar returned to the Lakers, signing for the 2013–14 season. On December 1, Farmar tore his left hamstring and was expected to miss a month of action. He only played 56 seconds before leaving the game. On February 28, 2014, he scored a career-high 30 points in a 126–122 win over Sacramento. He was a career-high 8-for-10 on 3-pointers in the game, and the Lakers set a franchise record for most threes made in a regulation game, shooting 19-for-27. In 2013–14, he averaged 10.1 points per game, 4.9 assists per game, and 2.5 rebounds per game. Los Angeles Clippers (2014–2015) On July 9, 2014, Farmar signed with the Los Angeles Clippers. The team signed him to replace former UCLA teammate Darren Collison, who left the Clippers as a free agent. Farmar never quite fit in with the team, and was waived on January 16, 2015, after agreeing to a buyout. He had complained of an inconsistent role and playing time on the team, while coaches were unhappy with his performance. In 36 games, he averaged 4.6 points, 1.9 assists and 1.2 rebounds. Darüşşafaka (2015) On February 7, 2015, Farmar signed with Darüşşafaka of Turkey for the rest of the 2014–15 Turkish Basketball League season. He averaged 14.9 points in 14 Turkish national league games. Return to Maccabi Tel Aviv (2015–2016) On July 6, 2015, he returned to Maccabi Tel Aviv, signing a contract for the 2015–16 season. On January 10, 2016, he parted ways with Maccabi. He averaged 8.9 points, 2.4 rebounds, and 2.8 assists in eight EuroLeague games. Memphis Grizzlies (2016) On March 21, 2016, Farmar signed a 10-day contract with the Memphis Grizzlies. That night, he made his debut for the Grizzlies in a 103–97 win over the Phoenix Suns, recording 12 points, three rebounds, one assist, and one steal in 23 minutes. On March 31, he signed with the Grizzlies for the rest of the season. Then, on the same day, Farmar scored a season-high 14 points and dished out 5 assists in a losing effort against the Denver Nuggets. On April 5, Farmar, scored a new season-high with 15 points in a 108–92 victory over the visiting Chicago Bulls. He also grabbed 2 rebounds and dished out 4 assists. Sacramento Kings (2016) On September 14, 2016, Farmar signed with the Sacramento Kings. He was waived by the Kings on October 24, and later re-signed on November 2. On November 7, he was waived by the Kings after appearing in two games. Accolades In 2010 he was inducted into the Southern California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Career statistics NBA Regular season |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 72 || 2 || 15.1 || .422 || .328 || .711 || 1.7 || 1.9 || .6 || .1 || 4.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 0 || 20.6 || .461 || .371 || .679 || 2.2 || 2.7 || .9 || .1 || 9.1 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"| † | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 65 || 0 || 18.3 || .391 || .336 || .584 || 1.8 || 2.4 || .9 || .2 || 6.4 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"| † | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 0 || 18.0 || .435 || .376 || .671 || 1.6 || 1.5 || .6 || .1 || 7.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 73 || 18 || 24.6 || .392 || .359 || .820 || 2.4 || 5.0 || .8 || .1 || 9.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 39 || 5 || 21.3 || .467 || .440 || .905 || 1.6 || 3.3 || .6 || .1 || 10.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 41 || 5 || 22.2 || .415 || .438 || .746 || 2.5 || 4.9 || .9 || .2 || 10.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Clippers | 36 || 0 || 14.7 || .386 || .361 || .909 || 1.2 || 1.9 || .6 || .1 || 4.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Memphis | 12 || 10 || 24.3 || .420 || .356 || 1.000 || 2.1 || 3.1 || 1.3 || .2 || 9.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento | 2 || 0 || 17.5 || .333 || .444 || – || 1.5 || 4.5 || 1.0 || .0 || 6.0 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan=2| Career | 504|| 40 || 19.5 || .423 || .374 || .739 || 1.9 || 2.9 || .8 || .1 || 7.7 Playoffs |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2007 | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 5 || 5 || 22.8 || .429 || .200 || .857 || 2.8 || 1.6 || 1.2 || .2 || 6.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2008 | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 21 || 0 || 17.1 || .383 || .386 || .875 || 1.6 || 1.3 || .3 || .2 || 5.7 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"| 2009† | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 20 || 1 || 13.0 || .391 || .308 || .737 || 1.6 || 1.7 || .5 || .2 || 4.7 |- | style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"| 2010† | style="text-align:left;"| L.A. Lakers | 23 || 0 || 13.1 || .404 || .400 || .692 || 1.2 || 1.4 || .7 || .0 || 4.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2016 | style="text-align:left;"| Memphis | 4 || 4 || 28.3 || .323 || .333 || 1.000 || 1.5 || 4.0 || .8 || .3 || 6.8 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan=2| Career | 73 || 10 || 15.7 || .389 || .355 || .793 || 1.5 || 1.6 || .6 || .1 || 5.2 EuroLeague |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2011–12 | style="text-align:left;"| Maccabi Tel Aviv | 7 || 0 || 31.2 || .500 || .412 || .783 || 4.7 || 4.1 || 1.4 || .0 || 14.1 || 17.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2012–13 | style="text-align:left;"| Anadolu Efes | 29 || 27 || 29.9 || .443 || .397 || .863 || 3.6 || 3.9 || .8 || .1 || 13.8 || 14.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2015–16 | style="text-align:left;"| Maccabi Tel Aviv | 8 || 6 || 20.4 || .500 || .389 || .500 || 2.4 || 2.8 || .8 || .1 || 8.0 || 8.9 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan=2| Career | 44 || 33 || 28.3 || .486 || .397 || .826 || 3.6 || 3.7 || .9 || .1 || 13.8 || 12.8 Personal life On July 29, 2012, Farmar married soccer player Jill Oakes. Farmar has a tattoo on his left arm of him with his arm around his little half-sister, while the words "just the two of us" surround them. He also has a tattoo across his back that reads "Farmar." He is a Barack Obama supporter, and attended a fundraiser for Obama in Orange County, California. In 2009, Farmar played himself in the television series Numb3rs. Philanthropy In one week in August 2008, he led a basketball camp for Israeli and Palestinian children, having them play together on the same team. He also started Hoop Farm, a children's basketball camp at UCLA which he leads that promotes eco-friendly behavior. He joined the Chabad Telethon in September 2008, shooting free-throws in order to raise funds. Rabbi Chaim Cunin, executive producer of the telethon and CEO of Chabad of California, said: "Jordan is a real mensch. He raised $66,600 in 90 seconds. He made 37 free throws in 90 seconds." In 2009, during the summer he was the host of the first annual Jordan Farmar Celebrity Golf Classic, which was held at Sherwood Country Club in Thousand Oaks. The money that was raised was contributed to the Jordan Farmar Foundation, which his mother runs and which is focused on assisting at-risk youths and children who are taking cancer treatment at Mattel Children's Hospital UCLA. See also List of select Jewish basketball players References External links UCLA bio Euroleague.net profile TBLStat.net profile 1986 births Living people ABA League players African-American basketball players African-American Jews American expatriate basketball people in Israel American expatriate basketball people in Turkey American men's basketball players Anadolu Efes S.K. players Basketball players from Los Angeles Darüşşafaka Basketbol players Israeli American Jewish American sportspeople Jewish men's basketball players Los Angeles Clippers players Los Angeles D-Fenders players Los Angeles Lakers draft picks Los Angeles Lakers players Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. players Memphis Grizzlies players New Jersey Nets players McDonald's High School All-Americans Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball) Point guards UCLA Bruins men's basketball players William Howard Taft Charter High School alumni Birmingham High School alumni National Basketball Association players from Israel 21st-century African-American sportspeople 21st-century American Jews 20th-century African-American people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Devil%20Wears%20Prada%20%28film%29
The Devil Wears Prada (film)
The Devil Wears Prada is a 2006 American comedy-drama film directed by David Frankel and produced by Wendy Finerman. The screenplay, written by Aline Brosh McKenna, is based on Lauren Weisberger's 2003 novel of the same name. The film adaptation stars Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly, a powerful fashion magazine editor, and Anne Hathaway as Andrea "Andy" Sachs, a college graduate who goes to New York City and lands a job as Priestly's co-assistant. Emily Blunt and Stanley Tucci co-star as co-assistant Emily Charlton and art director Nigel Kipling, respectively. Simon Baker and Adrian Grenier play pivotal supporting roles. In 2003, 20th Century Fox bought the rights to a film adaptation of Weisberger's novel before it was completed for publication; the project was not greenlit until Streep was cast in the lead role. Principal photography lasted 57 days, primarily taking place in New York City from October to December 2005. Additional filming was done in Paris, France. After premiering at the LA Film Festival on June 22, 2006, The Devil Wears Prada was theatrically released in the United States on June 30. The film received positive reviews from critics, with Streep's performance receiving widespread critical acclaim, thus earning her numerous awards and nominations, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical and nominations for the Academy Award for Best Actress and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role. Hathaway and Blunt also drew favorable reviews and various nominations for their performances. The film grossed over $326 million worldwide, against its $41 million budget, and was the 12th highest-grossing film worldwide in 2006. Although the film is set in the fashion world, and references well-known establishments and people within that industry, most designers and other fashion notables avoided appearing as themselves for fear of displeasing US Vogue editor Anna Wintour, who is widely believed to have been the inspiration for Priestly. Still, many allowed their clothes and accessories to be used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed films in history. Wintour later overcame her initial skepticism, saying she liked the film and Streep in particular. Plot Andrea "Andy" Sachs is an aspiring journalist newly graduated from Northwestern University. Despite her ridicule of the fashion industry, she lands a job as junior personal assistant to Miranda Priestly, the editor-in-chief of Runway magazine, a job that "millions of girls would kill for." Andy plans to put up with Miranda's excessive demands and humiliating treatment for one year in the hopes of getting a job as a reporter or writer somewhere else. Andy initially fumbles with her job and fits in poorly with her gossipy, fashion-forward co-workers, especially Miranda's senior assistant, Emily Charlton. After a dress trial meeting in which Miranda berates her in front of the entire team, Andy approaches art director Nigel to help her learn the ropes in the world of fashion. She begins to dress stylishly and makes an effort to accommodate all of Miranda's whims and fancies, which strains her relationship with her boyfriend Nate, who is frustrated that she is always at Miranda's beck and call. Noticing Andy's changed appearance and commitment, Miranda begins to give her more responsibility and complicated tasks to handle. Slowly but surely, Andy becomes more glamorous and absorbs the Runway philosophy. Andy gradually outperforms Emily, who is consumed with the thought of attending Paris Fashion Week as Miranda's assistant and, in preparation for the event, attempts extreme diets that are dangerous to her health. When Emily is too unwell to remember important details about the guests at a charity benefit, Andy steps in to save Miranda from embarrassment and is rewarded by being asked to replace Emily as Miranda's assistant at the Paris Fashion Week. When Andy calls Emily to inform her, the latter is hit by a car. Andy relays the news to Emily while she is recovering in the hospital, and she is furious. Nate is angered that Andy has become what she once ridiculed, and they break up. In Paris, Andy learns from Miranda about her impending divorce. Later that night, Nigel tells Andy that he has accepted a job as creative director with rising designer James Holt. Andy spends the night with an attractive writer, Christian Thompson, who tells her that Miranda is to be replaced by Jacqueline Follet as editor of Runway. Andy attempts to warn her, but Miranda sends her away. At a luncheon later that day, Miranda announces Jacqueline as the new creative director to Holt, leaving Andy and Nigel stunned. Later, Miranda explains to Andy that she already knew of the plot to replace her and sacrificed Nigel to keep her own job. Andy is repulsed, but Miranda points out that Andy did the same to Emily by agreeing to go to Paris. When they arrive at their destination, Andy exits the car without a word and returns to New York. Sometime later, Andy meets up with Nate, who tells her he has a new job as a sous-chef in Boston, and they agree to continue to see each other. The same day, Andy is interviewed and accepted to work at a major New York publication company. The editor recounts how he called Runway for a reference, and was informed by Miranda that, while Andy was the biggest disappointment she ever had as an assistant, he would be an idiot not to hire her. Andy then calls Emily and reconciles with her by offering her the clothes she obtained in Paris. While passing the Runway office building, Andy makes eye contact with Miranda and waves at her. Miranda does not acknowledge her, but smiles to herself once she is seated in her car. Cast Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly Anne Hathaway as Andrea "Andy" Sachs Emily Blunt as Emily Charlton Stanley Tucci as Nigel Kipling Simon Baker as Christian Thompson Adrian Grenier as Nate Cooper Gisele Bündchen as Serena Tracie Thoms as Lily Rich Sommer as Doug Daniel Sunjata as James Holt James Naughton as Stephen Colleen Dengel as Caroline Priestly Suzanne Dengel as Cassidy Priestly David Marshall Grant as Richard Sachs Tibor Feldman as Irv Ravitz Rebecca Mader as Jocelyn Alyssa Sutherland as Clacker Ines Rivero as Clacker at elevator Stéphanie Szostak as Jacqueline Follet David Callegati as Massimo Paul Keany as St. Regis Doorman Cameos Valentino Garavani Giancarlo Giammetti Carlos de Souza Bridget Hall Lauren Weisberger as the twins' nanny Robert Verdi as a fashion journalist in Paris who interviews Miranda Heidi Klum Jen Taylor as Lou Nigel Barker Production Director David Frankel and producer Wendy Finerman had originally read The Devil Wears Prada in book proposal form. It would be Frankel's second theatrical feature, and his first in over a decade. He, cinematographer Florian Ballhaus, and costume designer Patricia Field, drew heavily on their experience in making Sex and the City. Frankel recalls the whole experience as having high stakes for those involved, since for himself and the others behind the camera it was the biggest project they had yet attempted, with barely adequate resources. "We knew we were on very thin ice," he told Variety for a 2016 article on the film's 10th anniversary. "It was possible this could be the end of the road for us." Weisberger is widely believed to have based Miranda on Anna Wintour, the powerful editor of Vogue, for whom she herself had once worked as a personal assistant. Fear of what Wintour might do in retribution for any visible cooperation with the production posed obstacles, not just in the fashion industry but also in Hollywood. Pre-production Fox bought the rights to Weisberger's novel before it was not only published in 2003, but even finished. Carla Hacken, then the studio's executive vice president, had only seen the first hundred pages of manuscript and an outline for how the rest of the plot was to go. But for her that was enough. "I thought Miranda Priestly was one of the greatest villains ever," she recalled in 2016. "I remember we aggressively went in and scooped it up." Writing Work on a screenplay started promptly, before Weisberger had even finished her work. When it became a bestseller upon publication, elements of the plot were incorporated into the screenplay in progress. Most took their inspiration from the 2001 Ben Stiller film Zoolander and primarily satirized the fashion industry. But it was still not ready to film. Elizabeth Gabler, later head of production at Fox, noted that the finished novel did not have a complete narrative. "Since there wasn't a strong third act in the book," she said later, "we needed to invent that." In the meantime, the studio and producer Wendy Finerman sought a director. Out of many candidates with experience in comedy, David Frankel was hired despite his limited experience, having only made one feature, Miami Rhapsody, along with some episodes of Sex and the City and Entourage. He was unsure about the property, calling it "undirectable ... a satire rather than a love story". Later, he cited Unzipped, the 1995 documentary about designer Isaac Mizrahi, as his model for the film's attitude towards fashion: "[It] revels in some of the silliness of the fashion world, but is also very serious." At a meeting with Finerman, Frankel told her that he thought the story unnecessarily punished Miranda. "My view was that we should be grateful for excellence. Why do the excellent people have to be nice?" He prepared to move on and consider more scripts. Two days later his manager persuaded him to reconsider and look for something he liked that he could shape the film into. He took the job, giving Finerman extensive notes on the script and laying out a detailed vision for the film. Four screenwriters worked on the property. Peter Hedges wrote the first draft, but did not think he could do more; another writer passed. Paul Rudnick did some work on Miranda's scenes, followed by a Don Roos rewrite. After that, Aline Brosh McKenna, who was able to relate her own youthful experiences attempting to launch a journalism career in New York to the story, produced a draft after a month's work that struck the right balance for Finerman and Frankel, whose notes were incorporated into a final version, rearranging the plot significantly, following the book less closely and focusing the story on the conflict between Andy and Miranda. She found the experience of writing a story with female protagonists that did not center around a relationship "very liberating ... I felt I was allowed to do what the movie wanted to be, a Faust story, a Wall Street for ladies." McKenna also initially toned down Miranda's meanness at the request of Finerman and Frankel, only to restore it later for Streep. She later cited Don Rickles as her main influence for the insults in the dialogue; before even starting work on the screenplay she had come up with Miranda's "Take a chance. Hire the smart fat girl" line, which she felt summed up the disparity between Andy and the world she found herself in. Weisberger recalled in 2021, on the film's 15th anniversary, that McKenna's draft took it away from the "typical chick flick" direction it was going in. In a 2017 interview with Entertainment Weekly, McKenna revealed that the character she and Frankel had the most discussions about was Andrea's boyfriend Nate. She likened his role in the story to that usually played by a male protagonist's girlfriend or wife who regularly reminds him of responsibilities at home that he has neglected. "[W]e wanted to make sure he wasn't a pain in the ass, but he is the person who is trying to say, 'Is this who you want to be morally?'" McKenna consulted with acquaintances who worked in fashion to make her screenplay more realistic, a task she said later was difficult since many of them did not want to risk offending Wintour. In a 2010 British Academy of Film and Television Arts lecture, she told of a scene that was changed after one of these reviews, where Nigel told Andy not to complain so much about her job. Originally, she had made his speech more of a supportive pep talk, but one of those acquaintances said that would not happen: "[N]o-one in that world is nice to each other ... There's no reason to be, and they don't have time." she quoted him as saying. Cerulean sweater speech The "cerulean speech", where Miranda draws the connection between the designer fashion in Runways pages and Andy's cerulean blue sweater, criticizing Andy's snobbishness about fashion and explaining the trickle-down effect, had its origins in a scene cut from earlier drafts that Streep had asked to have restored. It slowly grew from a few lines where the editor disparaged her assistant's fashion sense to a speech about "why she thought fashion was important ... She is so aware that she is affecting billions of people, and what they pick off the floor and what they are putting on their bodies in the morning." Streep said in 2016 she was interested in "the responsibility lying on the shoulders of a woman who was the head of a global brand ... That scene wasn't about the fun of fashion, it was about marketing and business." McKenna recalls that she kept expanding it to suit Streep and Frankel, but even a few days before it was scheduled to be filmed she was unsure if it would be used or even shot. She was revising it at a nearby Starbucks when she realized that Miranda would describe something not as just blue—chosen as the color for Andy's sweater since it would work best on screen—but would instead use an exact shade. From a list of shades McKenna sent, Streep picked cerulean; the final speech takes up almost a page of the script, long for a mainstream film. "I was like, it'd be cool if half of that ended up in the movie," the writer says. "Every word is in the movie." The references to past designer collections are entirely fictional, McKenna explains, since the speech was written around the sweater's color (however, the Huffington Post later pointed out, designers often take their fashion inspiration from the streets). The speech has become one of the film's most memorable moments; "Miranda's signature monologue" to The Ringer. "'Cerulean' [has never] sounded more sinister," the Huffington Post wrote in 2016, In 2018 New York Times chief fashion critic Vanessa Friedman invoked the speech in her defense of the importance of covering haute couture: Morwenna Ferrier, a fashion reporter for The Guardian agreed, despite the speech's references to fictional collections. "As a fashion journalist I can vouch for its gist: that regardless of how immune you think you are to fashion, if you buy clothes, you are indebted to someone else's choice", she wrote in an article about how the fashion industry continues to embrace the speech's argument. "Arguing that you are oblivious to trends is a fashion choice in itself." As an example of how that had happened in reality since the film, she cited the yellow Guo Pei dress Rihanna wore to the 2015 Met Gala, greatly popularizing that color for clothing over the next two years. But a 2021 Study Breaks piece argues that the idea it promotes that fashion always trickles down from a cultural elite is contradicted by brands such as Vetements, which takes its inspiration from everyday streetwear, and Champion, the sportswear brand whose popularity with low-income customers helped make an elite brand those customers can no longer afford. In 2016, on the film's 10th anniversary, Mic wrote that the speech's logic also functioned as a critique of cultural appropriation. "In many ways, Priestley's monologue nailed the real problem with cultural appropriation: people not understanding the history or meaning behind something like cornrows or headdresses, but treating it like a new trend or accessory anyway." Six years later, in a Slate article discussing the appeal of female characters in movies and TV who deliver incisive insults and other commentary with no apparent affect, such as those played by Aubrey Plaza, Nadira Goffe recalled Streep's "epic, unfeeling monologue" about the sweater as a "perfect example" of the archetype. "In a moment where a character would usually be showing a hint of frustration, anger, or even annoyance, Streep schools Anne Hathaway's character in a manner that feels as though she barely even thought about the words she was saying", she writes. "It gives her an air of removal, and therefore control—being straight-faced and even-toned in an emotional situation shows how little she cares, or that she's lying about caring at all." Casting Once the screenplay was completed, the filmmakers and Fox focused on getting Meryl Streep to play Miranda; Carla Hacken recalled she was seen as so perfect for the part that no one had discussed any alternatives (although McKenna recalls writing provisional dialogue should the producers have had to settle for another actress). However, another source has claimed that Michelle Pfeiffer, Glenn Close, and Catherine Zeta-Jones had also been considered for the part. Weisberger, who initially could not imagine Streep playing the part, recalled that after seeing her on set it was "crystal clear" that she was perfect for the role. Her casting helped offset some of the difficulties Wintour's resistance to the film had created. The news that Streep would meet with Frankel was celebrated at Fox. But while Streep, for her part, knew the film could be very successful, she felt the pay she was being offered for playing Miranda was "slightly, if not insulting, not perhaps reflective of my actual value to the project". The producers doubled it to around $4 million, and she signed on, allowing Fox to greenlight the film. According to Frankel, Streep saw the film as a chance to "skewer the doyennes of the fashion world". She has three daughters and, as an ardent feminist, felt that fashion magazines "twisted the minds of young women around the world and their priorities. This was an interesting way to get back at them." Also, she said, the film passed the Bechdel test. She insisted on the cerulean sweater speech, and the scene where Miranda briefly opens up to Andy, without makeup, about her divorce. "I wanted", she explained, "to see that face without its protective glaze, to glimpse the woman in the businesswoman." Casting Andy was more difficult. Fox wanted a young A-list actress, and felt Rachel McAdams, then coming off successes in Mean Girls and The Notebook, would help the film's commercial prospects. McAdams turned down several offers to play Andy, telling the studio she was trying to avoid mainstream Hollywood projects for a while. Kirsten Dunst, Natalie Portman, Scarlett Johansson, and Kate Hudson were other actresses considered for the role. Anne Hathaway, by contrast, actively sought the part, tracing "Hire me" in the sand of the zen garden on Hacken's desk when she talked about the project with the executive. While Frankel liked her enough to not require her to audition, she knew she was not the studio's first choice and he would have to be patient (other accounts say that she was the only actress considered for the role). Fox production chief Elizabeth Gabler says the studio had not realized how strong her audience was after the Princess Diaries films. In one of their meetings, Gabler recalls Hathaway sitting on her couch giving her notes on the third act. While the studio did not use those notes, "her sensibilities were completely aligned with what we ended up doing." Hathaway took the part to work with Streep, but also due to some personal aspects. She celebrated when she learned she had gotten the part. Over 100 actresses had been considered for Emily before one of the casting agents taped Emily Blunt reading some of the lines elsewhere on the Fox lot as she was leaving for her flight to London following her audition for Eragon. Although she read them in her own British accent despite the character being written as American like in the novel, Frankel was interested; Finerman liked her for her sense of humor. After the makers of Eragon cast Sienna Guillory, Frankel called her in the bathroom of "some dive club" in London, where she was consoling herself with her sister. He told her that while he would have cast her just from the tape, the studio wanted to see another audition with her dressed more in character. She insisted on continuing to play the character as British. Both Hathaway and Blunt lost weight for their roles, with Hathaway later recounting that they "would clutch at each other and cry because we were so hungry." Blunt later denied rumors she did this at the filmmakers' request. Colleen and Suzanne Dengel, the twins who played Miranda's daughters, were cast two weeks after auditioning for Frankel and Finerman. The director and producer laughed, which the sisters believed help them get the part. They recalled in 2017 that they were excited both by being able to work together on camera for the first time, as well as the chance to act opposite Hathaway since they were big fans of the Princess Diaries films as well. Tucci was one of the last actors cast; he agreed to play Nigel only three days before shooting started. "It was just such a beautiful piece of writing, and there's no way that you could ever say no to such a thing", he recalled. The filmmakers reportedly had auditioned Barney's creative director Simon Doonan and E!'s Robert Verdi, both openly gay men highly visible as media fashion commentators, for the part; the BBC's Graham Norton also auditioned from among 150 actors considered for the part. Verdi would later say there was no intention to actually hire him and the producers had just used him and Doonan to give whoever they ultimately did cast some filmed research to use in playing a gay character (he would end up with a walk-on part as a fashion journalist in Paris). Tucci says he was unaware of this: "All I know is that someone called me and I realized this was a great part." He based the character on various people he was acquainted with, insisting on the glasses he ultimately wore. Daniel Sunjata had originally read for Tucci's part, rather unenthusiastically since he had just finished playing a similar character, but then read the Holt part and asked if he could audition for it. Simon Baker auditioned by sending a video of himself, wearing the same self-designed green jacket he has on when he and Andy meet for the first time. Wintour reportedly warned major fashion designers who had been invited to make cameo appearances as themselves in the film that they would be banished from the magazine's pages if they did so; Frankel said in 2021 the most any were willing to do was help the production with background information, like allowing visits to their showrooms or giving notes on the authenticity of the script. Vogue and other major women's and fashion magazines have avoided reviewing or even mentioning the book in their pages. Wintour's spokespeople deny the claim, but costume designer Patricia Field says many designers told her they did not want to risk Wintour's wrath. Only Valentino Garavani, who designed the black evening gown Miranda wears during the museum benefit scene, chose to make an appearance. Coincidentally, he was in New York City during production and Finerman dared Field, an acquaintance, to ask him personally. Much to her surprise, he accepted. Other cameos of note include Heidi Klum as herself and Weisberger as the twins' nanny. Streep's daughter's film debut as a barista at Starbucks was cut. Gisele Bündchen agreed to appear in the film only if she did not play a model. Filming Principal photography took place over 57 days in New York and Paris between October and December 2005. The film's budget was initially $35 million and was to only include filming in New York. The limited budget caused problems with some locations—the crew could not get permission to shoot at the Museum of Modern Art or Bryant Park, which they also attribute to fear of Wintour. The co-op boards at many apartment buildings also refused to let the production use them for Miranda's, which Frankel also believes was because of Wintour's influence. Ballhaus, at Finerman and Frankel's suggestion, composed as many shots as possible, whether interiors or exteriors, to at least partially take in busy New York street scenes in the background, to convey the excitement of working in a glamorous industry in New York. He also used a handheld camera during some of the busier meeting scenes in Miranda's office, to better convey the flow of action, and slow motion for Andrea's entrance into the office following her makeover. A few process shots were necessary, mainly to put exterior views behind windows on sets and in the Mercedes where Miranda and Andy are having their climactic conversation. Fox originally refused permission to let Frankel shoot some scenes from the third act in Paris, where it is set, due to the low budget. After six "nightmarish" weeks of shooting, he had an editor cut a "sizzle reel" of highlights. That convinced the studio to increase the budget to allow for limited shooting overseas. Streep did not go as Fox believed it would be too expensive; green screen shots and her body double were used instead. Acting Several weeks after all the major parts had been cast, the actors gathered in New York for a table read. Hathaway was nervous and goofy, she recalls, since she still had not developed her idea of the part; she described her performance at that point as "[nothing] particularly impressive". Blunt, by contrast, found Streep's laugh relaxed her enough to keep her focused on playing a nervous, distracted Emily. The highlight of the session was Streep's first line as Miranda. Instead of the "strident, bossy, barking voice" everyone expected, Hathaway says, Streep silenced the room by speaking in a near whisper. "It was so unexpected and brilliant." At the reading Streep also changed Miranda's last line to "everybody wants to be us" from the original "me". Streep made a conscious decision not to play the part as a direct impression of Wintour, right down to not using an accent and making the character American rather than English ("I felt it was too restricting"). "I think she wanted people not to confuse the character of Miranda Priestly with Anna Wintour at all," said Frankel. "And that's why early on in the process she decided on a very different look for her and a different approach to the character." The "that's all," "please bore someone else ..." catchphrases; her coat-tossing on Andrea's desk and discarded steak lunch are retained from the novel. Streep prepared by reading a book by Wintour protégé Liz Tilberis and the memoirs of Vogue editor Diana Vreeland. She lost so much weight during shooting that the clothes had to be taken in. During the movie's press tour, Streep also said her performance as Miranda was inspired by different men she knew, but did not say which ones. In 2016, she disclosed to Variety that she took Miranda's soft speaking style from Clint Eastwood: "He never, ever, ever raises his voice and everyone has to lean in to listen, and he is automatically the most powerful person in the room." However, she said, Eastwood does not make jokes, so instead she modeled that aspect of the character on theatrical and film director Mike Nichols, whose delivery of a cutting remark, she said, made everyone laugh, including the target. "The walk, I'm afraid, is mine," Streep added. For Miranda's actual look, Streep looked to two women. The bouffant hairstyle was inspired by model and actress Carmen Dell'Orefice, which Streep said she wanted to blend with "the unassailable elegance and authority of [French politician] Christine Lagarde". She wanted Miranda's hair to be white, which the producers feared would make her look too old, but the studio trusted her and she worked with makeup artist and stylist J. Roy Helland, a longtime associate, to create the look. The costumes Field designed to go with that look resulted in numerous blown takes during the montage where Miranda repeatedly throws her overcoat on Andrea's desk when she arrives in the morning. When McKenna saw Streep as Miranda for the first time on set, she recalls being so terrified she threw her arm in front of Frankel "like we were in a car wreck". Hathaway prepared for the part by volunteering for a week as an assistant at an auction house where she was "put through the wringer" according to Weisberger, who adds that Hathaway supplemented that by asking her many questions about working for Wintour. Frankel recalls that she was nervous through most of the shooting, particularly when working late, since Raffaello Follieri, her boyfriend at that time, preferred strongly that she not do so; she was also having health issues due to a cyst. The director said she was "terrified" before starting her first scene with Streep, who had begun her working relationship with Hathaway by saying first "I think you're perfect for the role and I'm so happy we're going to be working on this together" then warning her that was the last nice thing she would say. Streep applied this philosophy to everyone else on set as well, keeping her distance from the cast and crew members unless it was necessary to discuss something with them. The scene where Andy delivers the Book, the mockup of the magazine in progress, to Miranda's apartment, was, according to the Dengels, who played Miranda's twin daughters, totally improvised. "That was just something we did with Anne and it made the cut," Colleen Dengel told BuzzFeed in 2017. Nevertheless, it took three more days of filming to get the shot of the girls up in the stairwell the way Frankel wanted it, a look she believes was inspired by a similar scene with twin girls in The Shining. Improvisations Several of the actors contributed dialogue and scenes to the film. Streep suggested the editorial meeting scene, which does not advance the plot but shows Miranda at work without Andy present. It was also her idea that Miranda not wear makeup in the scene where she opens up to Andy and worries about the effect on her daughters of her divorce becoming public knowledge. Hathaway suggested taking the kiss between Andy and Nate out of the scene where he makes her a grilled cheese sandwich. "I just don't think it's right…just doesn't feel like we're at that point in our relationship", Grenier recalls her saying. "There's too much history." Blunt, for her part, contributed the line where she tells Andy "I'm hearing this", while opening and closing her hand, "and I want to hear this" keeping the other one closed. In 2015 she told Howard Stern that she had overheard a mother saying that to a child in a supermarket during production. Bündchen's "She looks good" upon seeing Andy following her makeover is likewise her improvised addition to the script; she thought it balanced Emily's meanness to Andy. Costuming Frankel, who had worked with Patricia Field on his feature-film debut Miami Rhapsody as well as Sex and the City, knew that what the cast wore would be of utmost importance in a movie set in the fashion industry. "My approach was to hire her and then leave the room," he joked later. While only Valentino Garavani appeared onscreen, many other designers were helpful to Field. Frankel recalls that Prada's decision to assist Field "helped her break the ice". The $100,000 budget for the film's costumes was supplemented by help from Field's friends throughout the industry. Ultimately, she believes, at least $1 million worth of clothing was used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed movies in cinema history. The single priciest item was a $100,000 Fred Leighton necklace on Streep, who likened Field's success in putting the movie's wardrobe together to the special effects in the Mission: Impossible films. When Hathaway enters the office after Nigel gives her access to Runway's closet, she is dressed entirely in Chanel. Field explained in 2016 that "I felt Annie Hathaway was a Chanel girl organically, as opposed to let's say a Versace [or Roberto Cavalli] girl." When she called the company to ask for assistance, they were delighted because "they wanted to see Chanel on a young girl to give it another point of view," showing it as a brand for "not just middle-aged women in suits, but youthful and funky." Calvin Klein rounds out Andrea's wardrobe. Most of the garments seen onscreen were borrowed; Streep recalls not being able to eat spaghetti at lunch while wearing one dress because if it got soiled the production could not return it. Dolce & Gabbana and Calvin Klein helped Field as well, with some contributions from Lebanese designer Georges Chakra. Although Field avoids making Streep look like Wintour, she dresses her in generous helpings of Prada (By Field's own estimate, 40 percent of the shoes on Streep's feet are Prada). "I know her character was originally based on Anna Wintour," Field said, "but I didn't want to copy someone's style." But, like Wintour and her Vogue predecessor Diana Vreeland, the two realized that Miranda needed a signature look, which was provided primarily by the white wig and forelock she wore as well as the clothes the two spent much time poring over look-books for. "[I]n choosing her wardrobe my idea was that she's a chief fashion editor, she has her own style," Field told Women's Wear Daily in 2016. "We're creating an original character." Blunt recalls that she and Streep generally wore the shoes that came with their outfits only when they were shown in full. Whenever only their upper bodies needed to be visible, they put on more comfortable footwear like Uggs. Hathaway, by contrast, always wore whatever shoes she had been given. "[She was running] over cobblestone streets like a sure-footed little mountain goat", Blunt recalls. Field said she avoided prevailing fashion trends for Miranda during production in favor of a more timeless look based on Donna Karan archives and pieces by Michaele Vollbracht for Bill Blass. She did not want people to easily recognize what Miranda was wearing. She contrasted Andy and Emily by giving Andy a sense of style, without much risk-taking, that would suggest clothing a fashion magazine would have on hand for shoots, clothing a recent college graduate with little sense of style would feel comfortable wearing in a fashion-conscious workplace. Blunt, on the other hand was "so on the edge she's almost falling off". For her, Field chose pieces by Vivienne Westwood and Rick Owens to suggest a taste for funkier, more "underground" clothing. After the film's release, some of the looks Field chose became popular, to the filmmakers' amusement. Tucci praised Field's skill in putting ensembles together that were not only stylish but helped him develop his character: He found one Dries van Noten tie he wore during the film to his liking and kept it. Production design After touring some offices of real fashion magazines, Jess Gonchor gave the Runway offices a clean, white look meant to suggest a makeup compact ("the chaste beiges and whites of impervious authority," Denby called it). Miranda's office bears some strong similarities to the real office of Anna Wintour, down to an octagonal mirror on the wall, photographs and a floral arrangement on the desk. Gonchor later told Women's Wear Daily that he had based the set on a photo of Wintour's office he found online; the similarity led Wintour to have her office redecorated after the movie's release. In 2021, Frankel said Gonchor had actually managed to sneak into Vogues offices to get a look at Wintour's. "They got it really, really close", Weisberger said. Gonchor even chose separate computer wallpaper to highlight different aspects of Blunt's and Hathaway's character: Paris's Arc de Triomphe on Blunt's suggests her aspirations to accompany Miranda to the shows there, while the floral image on Andy's suggests the natural, unassuming qualities she displays at the outset of her tenure with the magazine. For the photo of Andy with her parents, Hathaway posed with her own mother and David Marshall Grant. The Dengel twins recalled being asked every day for three years straight if the Harry Potter advance copies were real; to their great disappointment they were not and in fact were "all gibberish". They eventually auctioned them for $586 on eBay, along with various clothing used in the film, to benefit Dress for Success, a charity which provides business clothing to help women transition into the workforce. Locations New York The building at 1221 Avenue of the Americas on Sixth Avenue was used for the exteriors and lobby of Elias-Clarke's headquarters. The Runway offices are partially corridors in the neighboring Fox building and partially sets. The Elias-Clarke cafeteria is the one at the Reuters office in Manhattan. Nate and Andy's apartment is on the Lower East Side. Andy gets on the subway at the Spring Street station and gets off at 51st Street, both on the Lexington Avenue Line. Bubby's, the restaurant Nate works at (and where Andrea, Doug and Lily eat dinner on occasion) is in TriBeCa. The Smith & Wollensky steakhouse and its kitchen were used. The Calvin Klein showroom is used in the deleted scenes. Holt's studio is a loft used by an actual designer. The American Museum of Natural History was used for the exterior of the museum benefit, while the lobby of one of the Foley Square courthouses is used for the interior. The Priestly townhouse is on the Upper East Side and belongs to a friend of Finerman's. It had to be dressed on short notice after another one could not be used. Christian gives Andy the unpublished Harry Potter manuscript at the St. Regis Hotel's King Cole Bar. The Amtrak train the twins are taking is going up the Hudson River at Haverstraw Bay. Streep exits her limousine, supposedly in Paris, at 77th Street and Central Park West. The New York Mirror newsroom where Andy gets hired at the end of the film is that of the now-defunct New York Sun. The café where Andy apologizes to Nate was the Mayrose at 920 Broadway (near the Flatiron Building), which has since closed. On its site is a Flying Tiger Copenhagen store. Paris The crew were in Paris for only two days, and used only exteriors. Streep did not make the trip. The fountain Andy throws her phone into is on the Place de la Concorde. All the hotel interiors are actually the St. Regis in Manhattan. The fashion shows were filmed on a soundstage in Queens. Likewise, Christian's hotel is the W Hotel at Times Square. Post-production Editing Mark Livolsi realized, as McKenna had on the other end, that the film worked best when it focused on the Andrea-Miranda storyline. Accordingly, he cut a number of primarily transitional scenes, such as Andrea's job interview and the Runway staff's trip to Holt's studio. He also took out a scene early on where Miranda complimented Andrea. Upon reviewing them for the DVD, Frankel admitted he had not even seen them before, since Livolsi did not include them in any prints he sent to the director. Frankel praised Livolsi for making the film's four key montages—the opening credits, Miranda's coat-tossing, Andrea's makeover and the Paris introduction—work. The third was particularly challenging as it uses passing cars and other obstructions to cover Hathaway's changes of outfit. Some scenes were also created in the editing room, such as the reception at the museum, where Livolsi wove B-roll footage in to keep the action flowing. In 2021 McKenna estimated that she had signed off on $10 million in cut scenes. An opening scene in which Andy goes to the wrong building on her way to her interview was taken out to get the story started more quickly. The scene where she misses Nate's birthday was originally more elaborate, with the couple supposed to meet up with their friends at a concert, but that proved to be too expensive, and so the scene with the cupcake was written instead. "We had many versions of that." And an alternate ending for the couple's arc, where they have the same conversation about the future of their relationship while running through the park, was filmed but replaced with the less optimistic scene in the restaurant. McKenna had also been willing to cut Miranda's "Florals... for spring. Groundbreaking" line, but Frankel had it kept in. Music Composer Theodore Shapiro relied heavily on guitar and percussion, with the backing of a full orchestra, to capture a contemporary urban sound. He ultimately wrote 35 minutes of music for the film, which were performed and recorded by the Hollywood Studio Symphony, conducted by Pete Anthony. His work was balanced with songs by U2 ("City of Blinding Lights", Miranda and Andy in Paris), Madonna ("Vogue" & "Jump", Andrea's fashion montage & her first day on the job, respectively), KT Tunstall ("Suddenly I See", female montage during opening credits), Alanis Morissette ("Crazy", Central Park photo shoot), Bitter:Sweet ("Our Remains," Andy picks up James Holt's sketches for Miranda; Bittersweet Faith, Lily's art show), Azure Ray ("Sleep," following the breakdown of her relationship with Nate), Jamiroquai ("Seven Days in Sunny June," Andy and Christian meet at James Holt's party) among others. Frankel had wanted to use "City of Blinding Lights" in the film after he had used it as a soundtrack to a video montage of Paris scenes he had put together after scouting locations there. Likewise, Field had advocated just as strongly for "Vogue". The soundtrack album was released on July 11, 2006, by Warner Music. It includes most of the songs mentioned above, as well as a suite of Shapiro's themes. Among the tracks not included is "Suddenly I See," an omission which disappointed many fans. Pre-release and marketing Originally intended just to convince Fox to fund some shooting in Paris, Frankel's sizzle reel led the studio to put a stronger marketing push behind the movie. It moved the release date from February to summer, scheduling it as a lighter alternative audiences could consider to Superman Returns at the end of June 2006, and began to position it as an event movie in and of itself. Two decisions by the studio's marketing department that were meant to be preliminary wound up being integral to promoting the film. The first was the creation of the red stiletto heel ending in a pitchfork as the film's teaser poster. It was so successful and effective, becoming almost "iconic" (in Finerman's words), that it was used for the actual release poster as well. It became a brand, and was eventually used on every medium related to the film—the tie-in reprinting of the novel and the soundtrack and DVD covers as well. The studio also put together a trailer of scenes and images strictly from the first three minutes of the film, in which Andy meets Miranda for the first time, to be used at previews and film festivals until they could create a more standard trailer drawing from the whole film. But, again, this proved so effective with early audiences it was retained as the main trailer, since it created anticipation for the rest of the film without giving anything away. Gabler credits the studio's marketing team for being "really creative". Fox saw the film as "counter-programming" on the weekend Superman Returns was released. While they knew that the material and Hathaway would help draw a younger female audience that would not be as interested in seeing that film, "[w]e didn't want it to just seem like a chick flick coming out." Reception Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 75% based on 195 reviews, along with an average rating of 6.7/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "A rare film that surpasses the quality of its source novel, this Devil is a witty expose of New York's fashion scene, with Meryl Streep in top form and Anne Hathaway more than holding her own." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade "B" on an A+ to F scale. Initial reviews of the film focused primarily on Streep's performance, praising her for making an extremely unsympathetic character far more complex than she had been in the novel. "With her silver hair and pale skin, her whispery diction as perfect as her posture, Ms. Streep's Miranda inspires both terror and a measure of awe," wrote A. O. Scott in The New York Times. "No longer simply the incarnation of evil, she is now a vision of aristocratic, purposeful and surprisingly human grace." Kyle Smith agreed at the New York Post: "The snaky Streep wisely chooses not to imitate Vogue editrix Anna Wintour, the inspiration for the book, but creates her own surprisingly believable character." David Edelstein, in New York magazine, criticized the film as "thin", but praised Streep for her "fabulous minimalist performance". J. Hoberman, Edelstein's onetime colleague at The Village Voice, called the movie an improvement on the book and said Streep was "the scariest, most nuanced, funniest movie villainess since Tilda Swinton's nazified White Witch in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Blunt, too, earned some favorable notice. "[She] has many of the movie's best lines and steals nearly every scene she's in," wrote Clifford Pugh in the Houston Chronicle. Other reviewers and fans concurred. While all critics were in agreement about Streep and Blunt, they pointed to other weaknesses, particularly in the story. Reviewers familiar with Weisberger's novel assented to her judgment that McKenna's script greatly improved upon it. An exception was Angela Baldassare at The Microsoft Network Canada, who felt the film needed more of the nastiness others had told her was abundant in the novel. David Denby summed up this response in his New Yorker review: "The Devil Wears Prada tells a familiar story, and it never goes much below the surface of what it has to tell. Still, what a surface!" Reactions to Hathaway's performance were not as unanimous as for many of her costars. Denby said "she suggests, with no more than a panicky sidelong glance, what Weisberger takes pages to describe." Whereas, Baldassare said she "barely carrie[d] the load". Depiction of fashion industry Some media outlets allowed their present or former fashion reporters to weigh in on how realistic the movie was. Their responses varied widely. Booth Moore at Los Angeles Times chided Field for creating a "fine fashion fantasy with little to do with reality," a world that reflects what outsiders think fashion is like rather than what the industry actually is. Unlike the movie, in her experience fashionistas were less likely to wear makeup and more likely to value edgier dressing styles (that would not include toe rings). "If they want a documentary, they can watch the History Channel", retorted Field. Fashion writer, Hadley Freeman of The Guardian, likewise complained the film was awash in the sexism and clichés that, to her, beset movies about fashion in general. But Charla Krupp, the executive editor of SHOP, Inc., wrote, "It's the first film I've seen that got it right ... [It] has the nuances of the politics and the tension better than any film—and the backstabbing and sucking-up." Joanna Coles, the editor of the U.S. edition of Marie Claire, agreed: The film brilliantly skewers a particular kind of young woman who lives, breathes, thinks fashion above all else ... those young women who are prepared to die rather than go without the latest Muse bag from Yves Saint Laurent that costs three times their monthly salary. It's also accurate in its understanding of the relationship between the editor-in-chief and the assistant. Ginia Bellefante, former fashion reporter for The New York Times, called it "easily the truest portrayal of fashion culture since Unzipped (1995)" and giving it credit for depicting the way fashion had changed in the early 21st century. Her colleague Ruth La Ferla found a different opinion from industry insiders after a special preview screening. Most found the fashion in the movie too safe and the beauty too overstated, more in tune with the 1980s than the 2000s. "My job is to present an entertainment, a world people can visit and take a little trip," responded Field. Commercial On its June 30 opening weekend, right before the Independence Day holiday, the film was on 2,847 screens. Through that Sunday, July 2, it grossed $27 million, second only to the big-budget Superman Returns, breaking The Patriot's six-year-old record for the largest take by a movie released that holiday weekend that did not win the weekend; a record that stood until Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs broke it in 2009. During its first week it added $13 million. This success led Fox to add 35 more screens the next weekend, the widest domestic distribution the film enjoyed. Although it was never any week's top-grossing film, it remained in the top 10 through July. Its theatrical run continued through December 10, shortly before the DVD release. "The core marketing was definitely to women," Gabler recalls, "but the men didn't resist going to the movie." She felt that male viewers responded favorably to the movie because they sought a glimpse inside fashion, and because Miranda "was enjoyable to watch". The release date helped generate word of mouth when people who had seen it discussed it at holiday gatherings. "They were talking about it, like a summer reading book," said Gabler. It had a very successful run in theaters, making nearly $125 million in the United States and Canada and over $326 million worldwide, a career-high for all three top-billed actresses at that time. Streep would surpass it two years later with Mamma Mia while Hathaway exceeded it in 2010 with Alice in Wonderland. Blunt would not be in a higher-grossing film until 2014 with Edge of Tomorrow. It was also Tucci's highest-grossing film until Captain America: The First Avenger (2011). Anna Wintour Anna Wintour attended the film's New York premiere, wearing Prada. Her friend Barbara Amiel reported that she said shortly afterward that the movie would go straight to DVD. McKenna said later that Wintour and her daughter Bee sat in front of her and Frankel. The latter, McKenna recalls, kept telling her mother that the film got many things right. In an interview with Barbara Walters that aired the day the DVD was released, she called the film "really entertaining" and said she appreciated the "decisive" nature of Streep's portrayal. "Anything that makes fashion entertaining and glamorous and interesting is wonderful for our industry. So I was 100 percent behind it." Streep said Wintour was "probably more upset by the book than the film". Wintour's popularity skyrocketed after her portrayal in The Devil Wears Prada. Streep said she did not base her character in The Devil Wears Prada on Anna Wintour, instead saying she was inspired by men she had known previously: "Unfortunately you don't have enough women in power, or at least I don't know them, to copy." Frankel believes Wintour may still harbor some hard feelings about the movie. He was again seated behind her some years later at a tennis tournament in Miami, and afterwards introduced himself. When he told her that he had directed The Devil Wears Prada, he recalls, she took her hand out of the handshake. International Weisberger's novel had been translated into 37 different languages, giving the movie a strong potential foreign audience. The international box office would ultimately deliver 60% of the film's gross. "We did our European premiere at the Venice Film Festival", Gabler says, where the city's gondoliers wore red T-shirts with the film's logo. "So many people around the world were captivated by the glossy fashion world. It was sexy and international." The Devil Wears Prada topped the charts on its first major European release weekend on October 9, after a strong September Oceania and Latin America opening. It would be the highest-grossing film that weekend in the United Kingdom, Spain and Russia, taking in $41.5 million overall. Continued strong weekends as it opened across the rest of Europe helped it remain atop the overseas charts for the rest of the month. By the end of the year only its Chinese opening remained; it was released there at the end of February 2007 and took in $2.4 million. The greatest portion of the $201.8 million total international box office came from the United Kingdom, with $26.5 million. Germany was next with $23.1 million, followed by Italy at $19.3 million and France at $17.9 million. Outside Europe, Japanese box office was the highest at $14.6 million, followed by Australia at $12.6 million. Most reviews from the international press echoed the domestic response, heaping praise on Streep and the other actors, but calling the whole film "predictable". The Guardians Peter Bradshaw, who found the film "moderately entertaining," took Blunt to task, calling her a "real disappointment ... strained and awkward". In The Independent, Anthony Quinn said Streep "may just have given us a classic here" and concluded that the film as a whole was "as snappy and juicy as fresh bubblegum". In most markets the title remained unchanged; either the English was used or a translation into the local language. The only exceptions were Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela, where it was El diablo que viste Prada and El diablo se viste a la moda. In Poland, the title was Diabeł ubiera się u Prady which roughly means "The Devil dresses (itself) at Prada" rather than "The Devil Wears Prada". In Italian, the title was ″Il diavolo veste Prada" which roughly means "The devil wears Prada". In Turkey, the title was "Şeytan Marka Giyer," roughly translated as "The Devil Wears Brand-Names". In Romania, the title was "Diavolul se îmbracă de la Prada," which roughly means "The Devil Dresses itself from Prada", the same construction being found in the French title, "Le Diable s'habille en Prada". The Japanese version is titled "プラダを着た悪魔", which translates as "The devil wearing Prada". Awards and nominations Three months after the film's North American release (October 2006), Frankel and Weisberger jointly accepted the first Quill Variety Blockbuster Book to Film Award. A committee of staffers at the magazine made the nominations and chose the award winner. Editor Peter Bart praised both works. The Devil Wears Prada is an energetically directed, perfect-fit of a film that has surprised some in the industry with its box-office legs. It has delighted the country, much as did Lauren Weisberger's book, which is still going strong on several national bestseller lists. The film was honored by the National Board of Review as one of the year's ten best. The American Film Institute gave the film similar recognition. The film received ample attention from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association when its Golden Globe Award nominations were announced in December. The film itself was in the running for Best Picture (Comedy/Musical) and Supporting Actress (for Blunt). Streep later won the Globe for Best Actress (Musical/Comedy). In January 2007, Streep's fellow members of the Screen Actors Guild nominated her for Best Actress as well. Four days later, at the National Society of Film Critics awards, Streep won Best Supporting Actress for her work both in Devil and A Prairie Home Companion. McKenna earned a nomination from the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. When the British Academy of Film and Television Arts announced its 2006 nominations, Blunt, Field, McKenna and Streep were all among the nominees. Makeup artist and hairstylists Nicki Ledermann and Angel de Angelis also were nominated. At the end of January, Streep received her 14th Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, lengthening her record from 13 for most nominations by any actor, male or female. Field received a Best Costume Design nomination as well. Neither won, but Blunt and Hathaway presented the last mentioned award, amusing the audience by slipping into their characters for a few lines, nervously asking which of them had gotten Streep her cappuccino. Streep played along with a stern expression before smiling. In other media The success of the film led to a proposed, but unrealized, American dramedy series that was in contention to air for the 2007–08 television season on Fox. It was to be produced by Fox Television Studios, with the premise adjusted for the confines of a traditional half-hour or one-hour dramedy with a single camera set-up. However, it never reached the point of even producing a pilot episode. With the video release came renewed interest in Weisberger's novel. It ranked eighth on USA Today's list of 2006 best sellers and was the second most borrowed book in American libraries. The audiobook version was released in October 2006 and quickly made it to third on that medium's fiction best seller list. Home media The DVD was released on December 12, 2006, and has, in addition to the film, the following extras: Audio commentary from Frankel, editor Mark Livolsi, Field, screenwriter Aline Brosh McKenna, producer Wendy Finerman and cinematographer Florian Ballhaus. A five-minute blooper reel featuring, among other shots, unintentional pratfalls by Hathaway due to the high stiletto heels she had to wear. It also includes gag shots such as a chubby crewmember in loose-fitting clothing walking along the runway at the fashion show, and Streep announcing "I have some nude photographs to show you" at the Paris brunch scene. Unlike most blooper reels, it is not a collection of sequential takes but rather a fast-paced montage set to music from the film with many backstage shots and a split screenshot allowing the viewer to compare the actual shot with the blooper. The many shots of actors touching their noses are, Rich Sommer says, a game played to assign blame for ruined takes. Five featurettes "Trip to the Big Screen", a 12-minute look at the film's pre-production, discussing the changes made from the novel, how Frankel was chosen to direct and other issues. "NYC and Fashion", a look at the real New York fashion scene and how it is portrayed in the film. "Fashion Visionary Patricia Field", a profile of the film's costume designer. "Getting Valentino", covering how the designer was persuaded to appear as himself in the film. "Boss from Hell", a short segment on difficult, nightmarish superiors like Priestly. Fifteen deleted scenes, with commentary from Frankel and Livolsi available (see below). The theatrical trailer, and promotional spots for the soundtrack album and other releases. Closed captions in French and Spanish are also available. The DVD is available in both full screen and widescreen versions. Pictures of the cast and the tagline "Hell on Heels" were added to the red-heel image for the cover. It was released in the UK on February 5, 2007. A Blu-ray Disc of the film was released simultaneously with the DVD. The Blu-ray maintains the same features as the DVD; however, the featurettes were dropped and replaced with a subtitle pop-up trivia track that can be watched by itself or along with the audio commentary. Reception Immediately upon its December 12 release, it became the top rental in the United States. It held that spot through the end of the year, adding another $26.5 million to the film's grosses; it dropped out of the top 50 at the end of March, with its grosses almost doubling. The following week it made its debut on the DVD sales charts in third position. By the end of 2007 it had sold nearly 5.6 million units, for a total of $94.4 million in sales. Deleted scenes Among the deleted scenes are some that added more background information to the story, with commentary available by the editor and director. Most were deleted by Livolsi in favor of keeping the plot focused on the conflict between Miranda and Andrea, often without consulting Frankel. Frankel generally approved of his editor's choices, but differed on one scene, showing more of Andy on her errand to the Calvin Klein showroom. He felt that scene showed Andrea's job was about more than running personal errands for Miranda. A different version of the scene at the gala was the subject of a 2017 discussion on Twitter when it was rediscovered by Spencer Althouse, BuzzFeeds community manager. In it, instead of Andy reminding Miranda of a guest's name after the sickened Emily cannot, Miranda's husband shows up and makes rude comments to not only his wife but Ravitz, the head of Elias-Clark. Andy earns a silent "thank you" from Miranda when she helps prevent the confrontation from escalating by diverting Ravitz with a question of her own. Althouse and many of the other participants on the thread disagreed as to whether it should have been used; those who said it was properly cut believed that it would have been out of character for Miranda at that point in the film. All agreed, as Glamour wrote, that "[t]his one, brief exchange would have completely changed the movie." Cultural impact and legacy In 2016, around the 10th anniversary of the film's release, Vanity Fair did a rundown of some Independence Day weekend movie box results from the previous 15 years, noting how some better-remembered films had been bested by films that have not stood the test of time. It called Superman Returns' win over The Devil Wears Prada the "most ironic" of these victories. "[T]he degree to which The Devil Wears Prada has penetrated pop culture needs no explanation–as does the degree to which Superman Returns didn't." The cast's opinions on why the movie has endured differ. Hathaway told Variety that she thinks many people relate to Andy's predicament of working for someone who seems impossible to please. "Everybody has had an experience like this." Tucci did not believe specific explanations were necessary. "It's a fucking brilliant movie ... The brilliant movies become influential, no matter what they are about." Cast The cast members bonded tightly on the set, and remained close afterwards. Blunt invited them to her wedding to John Krasinski in 2010. There, Tucci met her sister Felicity, whom he later married. "Ten years after The Devil Wears Prada, Stanley is in my actual family," she told Variety. "How frightening is that?" In its anniversary story, Variety argued that it had benefited all three of its lead actresses. In addition to Streep's record-setting Oscar nomination, the magazine observed, it had proven that she could be a box-office draw by herself, opening doors up for her to be cast as a lead in later summer movies such as Mamma Mia! (2008) and Julie & Julia (2009). For Hathaway, it was her first leading role in a film intended for an adult audience. Subsequent producers were impressed that she had held her own playing opposite Streep, which led eventually to her being cast in more serious roles like Rachel Getting Married (2008) and Les Misérables (2012), for which she won an Oscar. "I think what people saw was promising—it made people want to see more." Hathaway believes that Blunt's career took off because of her role. "I've never witnessed a star being born before," Hathaway says. "That's the first time I watched it happen." Blunt agrees that it was "a night and day change" for her—the day after the film was released, she told Variety, the staff at the coffee shop she had been going to for breakfast every morning in Los Angeles suddenly recognized her. Even ten years later, people still quote her lines from the film back to her at least once a week, she says. Audience demographics "[The film] definitely paved the way for the filmmakers and distributors of the world to know that there was a female audience that was really strong out there", Gabler recalls, one that was not segmented by age. She pointed to later movies, such as Mamma Mia!, 27 Dresses (2008) (written by McKenna) and Me Before You (2016), that appeared to her to be trying to replicate The Devil Wears Prada's success with that demographic. However, Gabler feels they did not do so as well. "Prada reminds me of movies that we don't have a lot of now—it harkens back to classic movies that had so much more than just one kind of plot line ... You just keep wanting to find something that can touch upon the same zeitgeist as this film." For Streep, the most significant thing about the film was that "[t]his was the first time, on any movie I have ever made, where men came up to me and said, 'I know what you felt like, this is kind of like my life.' That was for me the most ground-breaking thing about Devil Wears Prada—it engaged men on a visceral level," she told Indiewire. Popular culture and society The film has made a lasting impact on popular culture. Although a TV series based on it was not picked up, in the years after its release The Simpsons titled an episode "The Devil Wears Nada" and parodied some scenes. The American version of The Office began an episode with Steve Carell as Michael Scott imitating Miranda after watching the film on Netflix. On episode 18 of season 14 of Keeping Up with the Kardashians, Kris Jenner dressed as Miranda, channeling her 'Boss Lady' persona. In 2019, reports that Minnesota Senator Amy Klobuchar, then seeking the Democratic presidential nomination for the 2020 election, mistreated her staff and made unreasonable demands of them led some writers to invoke Miranda as a point of reference. In 2008, The New York Times wrote that the movie had defined the image of a personal assistant in the public mind. Seven years later, Dissent's Francesca Mari wrote about "the assistant economy" by which many creative professionals rely on workers so titled to do menial personal and professional tasks for them; she pointed to The Devil Wears Prada as the best-known narrative of assistantship. The next year, writing about a proposed change in U.S. federal overtime regulations that was seen as threatening to that practice, the Times called it the 'Devil Wears Prada' economy", a term other news outlets also used. On the film's 10th anniversary, Alyssa Rosenberg wrote in The Washington Post that Miranda anticipated female antiheroines of popular television series of the later 2000s and 2010s such as Scandals Olivia Pope and Cersei Lannister in Game of Thrones. Like them, she observes, Miranda competently assumes a position of authority often held by male characters, despite her moral failings, that she must defend against attempts to use her personal life to remove her from it, to "prov[e], as a creature of sentiment, that she never belonged there in the first place." In doing so, however successfully to herself and others, "she has zipped herself into a life as regimented and limited as a skintight pencil skirt." Five years later, Harper's Bazaar, took a different perspective. Mekia Rivas faulted the film's portrayal of Miranda and Andy's relationship as reinforcing a false belief that since a young woman may only get one career break, she should take it no matter what she has to put up with from her boss. At the time of the film's release, "girlbosses" epitomized by Miranda had been seen as potentially revolutionizing the workplace, she noted. But the idea had since been discredited by real-life examples of women like Elizabeth Holmes and Steph Korey who ran companies where workers lived in fear of their bosses' tempers and whims. Rivas described Miranda as "a totally toxic superior who, in the end, was more interested in upholding the status quo than in reinventing it, despite having all the power and authority to do so. She wanted Andy to believe that saying no to her would be the end of her career, even though she knew Andy had all the potential in the world to make it without her or her connections." "Like many instant classics, Prada benefited from perfect timing", Variety's 2016 article observed, attempting to explain the film's enduring appeal. "It marked the beginning of the democratization of the fashion industry—when the masses started to pay attention to the business of what they wore." It credited the movie with helping stir interest in Ugly Betty, an American adaptation of the Colombian telenovela Yo soy Betty, la fea, which debuted months after the film's release. The film also has been credited with increasing interest in R.J. Cutler's documentary The September Issue, which followed Wintour and other Vogue editors as they prepared the issue for that month of 2007. Writing in The Ringer on the tenth anniversary, Alison Herman observed that "The Devil Wears Prada transformed Wintour's image from that of a mere public figure into that of a cultural icon." Once known primarily as a fashion editor, she was now "every overlord you'd ever bitched about three drinks deep at happy hour, only to dutifully fetch her coffee the next day." Ultimately, the film had effected a positive change in Wintour's image, Herman argued, "from a tyrant in chinchilla to an idol for the post-Sandberg age". As the film turned 10, Variety's 2016 article stated, '[The characterization] showed Hollywood that it was never wise to underestimate a strong woman's worth.' Antipathy to Nate Miranda has not been the only character in the film to provoke a negative reaction from viewers over time; Nate has been called the film's "real villain", described as "not just an insecure boyfriend, he is judgemental, toxic, and repulsive". "He mocks her for her new interest in fashion, he trivializes the magazine she works at, and dismisses her hard work", Entertainment Weekly wrote in 2017, collecting some tweets and other posts from social media critical of the character. Many, like the writer of that piece, found it particularly upsetting that he berated Andy for missing his birthday party even though she had a good work-related reason for her absence. McKenna defended the character. "[W]hat people focus on is that he's trying to restrict her ambition," she told EW. "But her ambition is going towards something that she doesn't really believe in, so he has a point." While she admitted he seemed "whiney" about his birthday, McKenna also pointed out that he tells Andy later that that really was not what he was upset about. She gave Grenier credit for what she admitted was a "thankless" role, saying he captured "that actual college boyfriend, that guy who's a drummer in a cool band, and plays intramural rugby, and plays guitar, and maybe took a ceramics class". On the film's 15th anniversary, Grenier weighed in. "When that whole thing ... first came out, I couldn't get my head around it." He ultimately came to realize that he had more in common with the character at the time and, like Nate, had not completely matured. "[Now], after taking time to reflect and much deliberation online, I can realize the truth in that perspective ... He couldn't support her like she needed because he was a fragile, wounded boy." Hathaway was more forgiving. Themes Beauty standards University of Houston gender studies professor Andrew Joseph Pegoda notes that the film never challenges the arbitrariness and unfairness of female beauty standards, rather presenting them as unchangeable and unchallengeable, even where the women in the film seem to chafe at them. He sees this in the beginning, with Tunstall's "Suddenly I See", its lyrics celebrating the ideal of a beautiful woman over images of Andy and the other women working for Runway getting dressed ("When have we ever seen a movie play a song where standards for male beauty are described?" he asks). Even Miranda is framed by the male gaze when seen for the first time with only her legs visible. He reads the film as suggesting that Andy gets her job at the Sun at the end in part due to her improved attention to her appearance. Future In 2013, Weisberger wrote a sequel, Revenge Wears Prada. However, it does not seem likely that a film version of it, or any sequel, will be made, as two of the film's stars are not eager to do so. Streep has reportedly said that she is not interested in making a sequel for this film in particular. And while Hathaway admits she'd be interested in working with the same people, it would have to be "something totally different". The Devil Wears Prada, she told Variety "might have just hit the right note. It's good to leave it as it is." Eight years later, Frankel said that while the studio did not ask them to consider a sequel, a meeting was held to discuss possible ideas. As they felt the movie's story had been told, and there were no good ideas, the idea was dropped. Weisberger said it was "[not] out of the realm of possibility" and discussions have been held since then, but McKenna notes that the technology involved in producing print magazines has changed considerably since 2006, such that it would no longer be necessary for an assistant in Andrea's position to bring a physical copy of the magazine in progress to the editor's residence. "It had its moment!" the screenwriter said. Musical adaptation In 2015, it was reported that Broadway producer Kevin McCollum had signed a deal two years earlier with Fox to develop some of the films from its back catalog into musicals for the stage. Two he expressed particular interest in were Mrs. Doubtfire (1993) and The Devil Wears Prada. Early in 2017, McCollum announced that in partnership with Fox Stage Productions, he was developing a musical version of The Devil Wears Prada (based on both the film and the book). Sir Elton John and Shaina Taub will be writing the score and lyrics for the project with playwright Paul Rudnick, who had written some early scenes for the screenplay, writing the book and lyrics. McCollum did not say when he expected it to premiere but hoped it would eventually play on Broadway. In July 2019, the show held its first industry-only presentation of the initial reading for the show. It featured Emily Skinner as Miranda, Krystina Alabado as Andy, Heléne Yorke as Emily and Mario Cantone as Nigel. There has been no announcement about future workshops or tryouts before the anticipated Broadway run. In late September a premiere run was announced for July and August 2020 at the James M. Nederlander Theatre in Chicago. According to producer Kevin McCollum, it was important to director Anna D. Shapiro, artistic director of the Steppenwolf Theater Company, also located in Chicago, to have the show premiere there. Afterwards the show is expected to make its Broadway debut; where and when have not been announced. See also 2006 in film Films with similar plot elements The Intern, 2000 comedy about an overworked and mistreated low-level employee at a New York fashion magazine Swimming with Sharks, 1994 film starring Kevin Spacey as a tyrannical movie producer and Frank Whaley as his beleaguered assistant Ugly Betty is a TV show about an overworked assistant working for a fashion magazine Lists List of 2006 box office number-one films in Australia List of 2006 box office number-one films in Japan List of 2006 box office number-one films in South Korea List of 2006 box office number-one films in the United Kingdom List of American comedy films List of American films of 2006 List of awards and nominations received by Anne Hathaway List of awards and nominations received by Emily Blunt List of awards and nominations received by Meryl Streep List of comedy films of the 2000s List of fiction works made into feature films (D–J) List of film director and composer collaborations List of films set in New York City List of films set in Paris Notes References Book External links 2006 films 2006 comedy-drama films 2000s American films 2000s English-language films 20th Century Fox films American comedy-drama films Dune Entertainment films English-language comedy-drama films Films à clef Films about fashion in the United States Films about journalists Films based on American novels Films directed by David Frankel Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance Films scored by Theodore Shapiro Films set in New York City Films set in Paris Films shot in New York City Films shot in Paris Films with screenplays by Aline Brosh McKenna Vogue (magazine) Workplace comedy films Works about fashion magazine publishing Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Korean%20history
Timeline of Korean history
This is a timeline of the history of Korea. Some dates prior to the 5th century are speculative or approximate. For era names see Era names in Korean history. Early history 2333 BC: Legendary establishment of Gojoseon by Dangun. 1500 BC: Beginning of the Mumun pottery period. 700 BC: Beginning of the Liaoning bronze dagger culture. 323 BC: Estimated beginning of the Gojoseon-Yan War that eventually ends in Gojoseon's loss of the Liaodong penninsula to Yan. 300 BC: Beginning of the Iron Age. 300 BC: Establishment of Jin in southern Korean peninsula. Proto-Three Kingdoms 195 BC: Establishment of Wiman Joseon. 108 BC: Han dynasty destroys Wiman Joseon, establishing four commanderies in northern Korean Peninsula. 100 BC: Buyeo, which Goguryeo and Baekje claim descent from, is established sometime around the 1st century BC. 57 BC: Traditional date for the founding of Silla by Bak Hyeokgeose, who is elected leader. 37 BC: Traditional date for the founding of Goguryeo by Jumong, a Prince of Buyeo. 18 BC: Traditional date for the founding of Baekje by Onjo, a Buyeo Nobleman or the third son of Jumong according to different sources. Three Kingdoms 42: Traditional date for the founding of Gaya by Suro. 53: Goguryeo begins to become a centralized kingdom under Taejo's reign. 234: Baekje begins to become a centralized kingdom under Goi's reign. 244: Goguryeo is defeated by Cao Wei in the Goguryeo–Wei War, the defeat is so severe that Goguryeo is not mentioned again in Chinese historial record for decades. 313: Goguryeo destroys Lelang Commandery, ending the last of the four Han Chinese commanderies established by the Han Dynasty. 356: Silla becomes a centralized kingdom under Naemul's reign. 371: Baekje's King Geunchogo invades Goguryeo and kills King Gogugwon. 372: Under Sosurim, Goguryeo imports Buddhism from Former Qin of China and adopts it as state sponsored religion. 372: Sosurim also establishes Korea's first National Confucian Academy. 384: Chimnyu of Baekje officially adopts Buddhism. 392: Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo begins his reign, expanding Goguryeo into a major regional power. 413: Jangsu of Goguryeo erects the Gwanggaeto Stele. 433: Baekje and Silla form an alliance against Goguryeo's aggression. 475: Goguryeo attacks Baekje and captures Hanseong (modern day Seoul). Baekje moves its capital south to Ungjin (modern-day Gongju) due to Goguryeo's pressure. 494: Last remains of Buyeo absorbed by Goguryeo. 498: Baekje attacks Tamna (modern-day Jeju Province). 512: Silla vassalizes Usan (modern-day Ulleungdo). 527: Silla formally adopts Buddhism after Beopheung of Silla executes Ichadon, a Buddhist convert who had tried to persuade the king to adopt Buddhism. Before he was executed, Ichadon predicted that milk colored blood would spill from his body after his death. This supposed miracle allegedly occurred according to the Samguk Sagi and convinced Silla's royal court to adopt Buddhism as its state religion. 538: Baekje moves its capital to Sabi (modern-day Buyeo). 553: Silla attacks Baekje, breaking the alliance. 562: Silla completes annexation of Gaya. 598: First of a series of major Sui dynasty attacks in the Goguryeo–Sui War, which ends in 614 in a costly defeat for Sui. 612: Goguryeo repulses second Sui invasion at the Salsu. 631: Goguryeo builds the first Cheolli Jangseong following Tang incursions into Goguryeo's northwestern border. 645: First campaign in the Goguryeo–Tang War. 648: Silla establishes alliance with Tang. 660: Baekje falls to the Silla-Tang forces. 663: Battle of Baekgang, the remnants of Baekje allied with Japanese expeditionary forces are defeated by the Silla-Tang alliance, ending all hopes for the restoration of the kingdom. 668: Goguryeo falls to the Silla-Tang forces. North–South States Period and Later Three Kingdoms 676: Silla repels Chinese alliance forces from Korean peninsula, completes unification of much of the Three Kingdoms. 698: The founding of Balhae by former Goguryeo general Dae Joyeong. 751: Silla, at its cultural peak, constructs Seokguram and Bulguksa. 828: Jang Bogo establishes Cheonghaejin, a major center of trade with China, Japan, and Vietnam. 892: Silla begins to lose control of parts of the peninsula as the brief Later Three Kingdoms period begins. 897: Queen Jinseong of Silla dies. She was the third and last queen regnant in Korean history. 900: Hubaekje ("Later Baekje") established in the southwest of the peninsula. 901: Taebong ("Later Goguryeo") established in the northwest of the peninsula. 918: Founding of Goryeo by Taejo of Goryeo. 926: Balhae falls to Khitan forces. 935: Silla formally surrenders to Goryeo. 936: Hubaekje formally surrenders to Goryeo. Goryeo 936: Goryeo completes the reunification of the Later Three Kingdoms, absorbing the entirety of Hubaekje and parts of former Balhae territory. 956: Emperor Gwangjong forces major land and slavery reforms, and in 958 implements civil service examinations. 993: The first of three Goryeo–Khitan Wars. 1010: The second ravages the northern border. 1018: The third, Khitan successfully repelled. 1033: Goryeo builds the second Cheolli Jangseong (lit. "Thousand Li Wall"), also known as the Goryeo Jangseong, a massive wall running along the northern border. 1135: Buddhist monk and geomancer Myocheong rebels in a failed attempt to move the capital to Pyongyang and pursue aggressive expansion against the Jin Dynasty 1145: Kim Bu-sik compiles the Samguk Sagi, Korea's oldest extant history text. 1170: Yi Ui-bang overthrows Uijong of Goryeo, beginning a century of military rule known as the Goryeo military regime 1231: The Mongol invasions of Korea begin 1234: Choi Yun-ui's Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun is published, world's first metal-block printed text. 1251: Goryeo completes the Tripitaka Koreana, the most comprehensive and oldest intact version of the Buddhist canon in Chinese script 1268: Mongol peace treaty is signed which Mongols agree to protect them the best they can. 1270: Goryeo signs a peace treaty with the Mongols, beginning an 80-year period of Yuan overlordship. The Sambyeolcho Rebellion lasts for three more years. 1274: Goryeo helps the Mongol Empire during the Mongol invasions of Japan 1285: Il-yeon compiles the Samguk Yusa, record of history and legends 1356: Goryeo regains its independence under the reign of King Gongmin of Goryeo and momentarily conquers Liaoyang 1388: General Yi Seonggye, ordered to engage China in a border dispute, turns his troops against the Goryeo court. Joseon 1392: Yi Seonggye is crowned King Taejo, officially beginning the Joseon dynasty. 1394: Capital moved to Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) 1402: Paper currency initiated 1408: High military service examination system created 1412–1414: Namdaemun Market, the oldest extant market in Korea, is established. 1420: Hall of Worthies established 1424: History of Goryeo compiled 1446: The Hangul alphabet, created 3 years earlier, is promulgated by King Sejong the Great. 1592: The Japanese invasion of Korea begins under the command of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Admiral Yi Sun-sin employs the Turtle ship to repel Japanese naval forces. 1627: The Later Jin invasion of Joseon 1636: The Qing invasion of Joseon ends in Joseon's defeat, and Korea is made a tributary of the Qing Dynasty. 1653: Dutch mariner Hendrick Hamel crashes on Jeju Island. The isolationist Joseon government prevents him from leaving, although he is given relative freedom to live normally on the peninsula. 1666: Hamel and some of his crew sneak from the southern coast of Korea to Dejima, Japan. From there, they make their way back to the Netherlands. Hamel then publishes a written account of his travels in Korea: the first first-hand eyewitness description of Korea by a Westerner. 1762: Crown Prince Sado is ordered to committ suicide by his father Yeongjo of Joseon in one of the most popularized incidents in Korean history. 1791: Persecution of Catholicism begins. 1864: Gojong ascends the throne with his father, Daewongun, as Regent. 1866: French Campaign against Korea. 1871: United States expedition to Korea. 1876: Korean ports are formally opened under the Treaty of Ganghwa with Imperial Japan. 1881: 10 December. Chōsen shinpō, primarily a Japanese-language and Classical Chinese publication, became the first newspaper to be published in Korea. 1882: Imo Incident: Mutiny by Korean soldiers in Seoul against the modernization policies of emperor Gojong 1883: The first also gives rise to the first Koreans to set foot in North America, the first Korean to study abroad in the United States (Yu Kil-chun), and the first Korean to circumnavigate the globe (). In the following decades, hundreds of Korean students visit the United States to study. 1883: October. The first modern Korean-language newspaper, Hanseong sunbo, is established by the Joseon monarchy. 1884: Kim Ok-gyun leads the Gapsin Coup. In 3 days, Chinese forces are able to overwhelm the Progressives and their Japanese supporters. 1894: The beginning of the Donghak Peasant Rebellion prompts the Gabo Reforms in an attempt to prevent Korea's colonization, and China and Japan fight over sovereignty of Korea in the First Sino-Japanese War. 1895: After Japanese victory in the Sino–Japanese War, China recognizes Korean independence in the Treaty of Shimonoseki. 1895: Empress Myeongseong is assassinated by Japanese agents. 1895: Ae Kwan Theater, the first movie theater in Korea, is established in Incheon. 1896: 11 February. Gojong's internal exile to the Russian legation. Korean Empire 1897: 20 February. King Gojong returns to his palace after 1 year of refuge at the Russian legation. 1897: Gojong is proclaims the Korean Empire and is coronated at the religious shrine Hwangudan in Seoul. 1902: The first modern indoor theater in Korea, Hyŏpyul-sa, is established in Seoul. 1903: The first Korean immigrants to the United States arrive in Hawaii. 1905: Treaty of Portsmouth ends the Russo-Japanese War in Russian defeat and leads to uncontested Japanese dominance of Korean politics 1905: Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905. Korea became a protectorate of the Empire of Japan. 1907: Historic movie theater Dansungsa is founded in Seoul. 1907: June. The Hague Secret Emissary Affair occurs, in which emissaries from Gojong attempt to assert Korea's independence in Europe, but are rebuffed. 1907: 18 July. Gojong is forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Sunjong by Imperial Japan. 1908: 25 March. Durham Stevens, an American diplomat and Japanese sympathizer, is assassinated by Korean independence activists. 1909: 26 October. The Japanese Resident-General of Korea Itō Hirobumi is assassinated by Korean independence activist An Jung-geun 1910: 29 August. The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 started the annexation of the Korean Empire by Imperial Japan. Japanese colonial rule 1911: The 105-Man Incident occurs, in which the Japanese arrest over 700 Koreans in connection to alleged assassination attempts on the Governor-General of Korea, Terauchi Masatake. 1916: The final wave of Uibyeong rebels is defeated by Japanese forces. 1919: 21 January. Gojong suddenly dies, widely believed to have been poisoned. 1919: 8 February. Inspired by the promotion of self-determination laid out in the Fourteen Points statement, Korean independence activists in Japan publish a February 8 Declaration of Independence. This directly inspires a similar act in Korea three weeks later. 1919: March 1st Movement and the publication of the Korean Declaration of Independence. Nationwide non-violent demonstrations are crushed by Japanese military and police forces after two months. Governor-General Hasegawa resigns. 1919: 11 April. The Korean Provisional Government (KPG) is established in exile in Shanghai, and Syngman Rhee is elected its first leader. 1919: September. Saito Makoto appointed as third Governor-General of Korea. The period of "cultural policy" begins. 1919: October 27. The kino-drama, Righteous Revenge, widely considered the first Korean film, premieres at Dansungsa. This marks the anniversary of the modern Korean Film Day, although whether it is truly the first Korean film has been disputed. 1920: Kim Il Sung (then "Kim Song-ju") and his family flee to Manchuria. 1920: Battle of Qingshanli between the Imperial Japanese Army and the Korean Independence Army led by Kim Chwa-chin, both sides claim victory. 1923: The Koryo-saram newspaper Sŏnbong is established. It changed names to the Lenin Kichi in 1938 and Koryo Ilbo in 1991. , it is the oldest active Korean-language newspaper outside of the Korean peninsula. 1923: 1 September. In the immediate aftermath of the Great Kantō earthquake in Japan, the Kantō Massacre occurs. Rumors emerge that ethnic Koreans had poisoned wells or were planning to attack the Japanese. The Japanese military, police, and bands of armed vigilantes massacre thousands of Koreans, anyone they suspect of being Korean, and Japanese anarchists or left-wingers. The Japanese government then begins a campaign to minimize or downplay the scale of the massacre. 1926: The June 10th Movement pro-independence protests occur and are suppressed. 1931: The Korean Patriotic Organization (KPO) is founded. 1932: 9 January. The Sakuradamon incident occurs, in which KPO member Lee Bong-chang fails in his attempt to assassinate Emperor Hirohito in Tokyo. 1932: 29 April. The Hongkou Park Incident occurs, in which Yun Bong-gil sets off a bomb in a park in Shanghai (now Lu Xun Park), killing several Japanese colonial and military leadership. In the aftermath, the KPG is forced to flee Shanghai. 1932: Japan begins the "comfort women" program, in which civilian women were coerced or forced into prostitution for the Japanese military. By the end of World War II, an estimated 100,000–200,000 Korean women would be forced into sexual slavery by Imperial Japan. 1934: The Chinese Kuomintang assists in training 92 Korean guerrilla fighters in the 17th Army Officer Training Class of the 4th Battalion () in Luoyang. 1937: 4 June. Kim Il Sung leads 150–200 guerrillas in the Battle of Pochonbo. 1937: September. The deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union occurs, in which roughly 172,000 Koreans are forced to move from the Russian Far East to Central Asia. Conditions during the journey and at their destination are poor, and death toll ranges from 16,500 to 50,000. 1937: November/December. The KPG flees Nanjing just weeks before the Nanjing Massacre. 1938: 1 March. Samsung is established in Daegu. 1938: Governor-General of Korea begins Sōshi-kaimei (Order to Japanese-style name changes) policy. 1939: 24 March. The State General Mobilization Law is passed, and millions of Koreans are forcefully conscripted to work for Japan. Tens of thousands die due to poor work conditions. 1939: The KPG settles in Chongqing, where they would remain until the end of the war. 1940: 17 September. The KPG establishes the Korean Liberation Army, a guerrilla army that was intended to eventually fight to liberate the Korean peninsula. At its peak, it reached over 400 personnel. 1940: Kim Il Sung and a few survivors escape from China into the USSR. 1943: 27 November. The Cairo Declaration between China, the United States, and the United Kingdom announces the intention of the Allies to liberate Korea after World War II, but place it under a trusteeship. This both excites and angers Koreans. 1944: Starting in 1944, Japan started the conscription of Koreans into the armed forces. All Korean males were drafted to either join the Imperial Japanese Army, as of April 1944, or work in the military industrial sector, as of September 1944. 1945: 8 February. At the Yalta Conference, Roosevelt secretly proposes to Joseph Stalin that Korea be placed a three-way trusteeship, between China, the USSR, and the US for a period of 20–30 years, and that no troops be stationed on the peninsula. Stalin mostly agrees, but argues that the trusteeship should be as short as possible. 1945: May. The Eagle Project, a joint operation between the KPG and the United States Office of Strategic Services, occurs. Kim Gu and others are hopeful that it will facilitate the US's formal recognition of the KPG, but Truman rebuffs Kim's attempts at communication and the mission is halted after the atomic bombings of Japan. 1945: July. It is decided during the Potsdam Conference and announced via the Potsdam Declaration that the Cairo Declaration's terms on Korea would be affirmed. 1945: 11 August. The General Order No. 1, drafted by the United States, specified the division of Korea at the 38th parallel. Stalin did not object to the terms. 1945: 11 August. Soviet troops begin their first military operation in Korea, and land in Unggi County (later renamed Sonbong-guyok). 1945: 13–17 August. The Seishin Operation is fought between the Soviet Union and Japan. Despite being outnumbered, the Soviet troops win. Chong Sang-chin is the only ethnic Korean to fight on the Soviet side. 1945: 15 August. Japan surrenders to the Allies, marking the liberation of Korea. Division of Korea 1945: 15 August. The Korean peninsula is haphazardly divided along the 38th parallel into the Soviet Civil Administration (SCA) in the North and the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) in the South. 1945: 3 September. The head of the Pyongyang branch of the Communist Party of Korea, Hyŏn Chun-hyŏk, is assassinated, likely by the right-wing terrorist group Daedongdan. 1945: 6 September. Before both trusteeships are well-established, Lyuh Woon-hyung establishes an independent People's Republic of Korea that incorporates both left- and right-leaning politicians. However, its activities are quickly suppressed and it never gains recognition from either the USSR or US. 1945: 19 September. Kim Il Sung returns to the Korean peninsula with the Soviets. 1945: December. At the Moscow Conference, negotiations to reunify Korea fail. Instead, Korea is placed under a four-way trusteeship, by the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, and China for five years. This leads to protest and anger in the Korean peninsula. 1946: 4 January. Cho Man-sik, Kim's main rival for leadership in the North, is removed from office and placed under house arrest by the Soviets. 1946: 8 February. The Provisional People's Committee of North Korea is established, and Kim Il Sung is made its chairman. While it supposedly represents all political groups in the North, it is dominated by the Soviet-backed Communist Party. 1946: 1 July. North Korea creates its first film: Our Construction. 1946: December. A coalition is made in the North among all major political parties, including representatives of left-leaning parties in the South. This coalition is again dominated by the Communists. 1947: Hyundai is established, initially as a construction company. 1947: 19 July. Lyuh Woon-hyung, whom some Americans had been eyeing as a more moderate alternative candidate for leadership in the South, is assassinated by a member of the far-right terrorist group the White Shirts Society. 1947: 14 November. The United Nations passes General Assembly Resolution 112, which creates the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea. The commission was intended to monitor the integrity of elections throughout the peninsula. This resolution was the result of a September initiative by the United States, which was frustrated by the lack of Soviet cooperation in negotiations about the administration of Korea. The Soviets dispute the authority of the Commission and ignore it. 1948: April. Protests occur in Jeju that lead to the Jeju Uprising. The protests began in response to the news of separate elections occurring in North and South Korea. These are violently suppressed by 1949. The estimated death toll is uncertain, but a significant portion (up to 30%) of the population is killed. This event and its aftermath significantly threaten the Jeju language, which , is considered critically endangered. 1948: 10 May. Despite significant controversy, elections for the National Assembly are held in South Korea, and Syngman Rhee becomes its chair. 1948: 15 August. Establishment of the Republic of Korea with Syngman Rhee as President. 1948: 9 September. Establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea with Kim Il Sung as Premier. 1948: October. The Yeosu–Suncheon rebellion occurs. While being shipped off to Jeju to suppress the unrest, left-leaning soldiers launch a rebellion in South Jeolla Province. Thousands are killed. 1948: 20 November. The South Korean National Assembly passes the National Security Law. The law has been consistently criticized for its broad scope and historical use by South Korean dictatorships to quash political resistance. 1949: 26 June. Kim Gu is murdered in his home by Ahn Doo-hee. The exact motives behind the murder still remain unclear . 1950: 30 January. After months of negotiations, Stalin finally relents to Kim's requests to launch an invasion of the South, but makes it conditional on whether Kim can convince Mao to support the effort. 1950: April. Mao agrees to support Kim in the invasion. Korean War 1950: 25 June. The Korean War begins with a surprise attack from the North. While minor border skirmishes had happened prior to the war, they are not comparable in scale of the invasion the North launches. The First Battle of Seoul begins with the deaths of hundreds of civilians; Seoul falls within a few days. 1950: 7 July. The UN Security Council creates the United Nations Command under the United States to support the South. Over the following years, tens of thousands of soldiers from a number of countries fight for the South. 1950: 26 to 29 July. The No Gun Ri massacre occurs. Unarmed South Korean civilians near the village of Nogeun-ri are deliberately killed by the US Army; the death toll and cause of the massacre is disputed. 1950: August. UN forces are driven back to the south-east corner of the Korean Peninsula ("The Pusan Perimeter"). 1950: September. The Battle of Inchon occurs after UN Troops make a surprise amphibious landing on the west coast. Despite the death toll, the UN resolution's original goal of returning to the status quo borders, and the concerns of the US's allies that China or the USSR could enter the war, MacArthur and Rhee decide to push North and reunify the peninsula. The UN approves this on 7 October, and troops move North on 9 October. This prompts the Chinese to begin planning a counteroffensive. 1950: 19 October. Chinese forces as the People's Volunteer Army under Peng Dehuai secretly enter the North. 1950: 27 November. Chinese forces launch a massive offensive from the North, which puts the UN and ROK forces into a full retreat. 1950: 6 December. The Chinese retake Pyongyang. 1950: December. The National Defense Corps incident begins and lasts until February 1951. The Rhee government drafts hundreds of thousands of civilians into a militia, but fail to provide them adequate supplies. Tens of thousands die or disappear. 1951: 4 January. The North and China take Seoul. 1951: 15 March. Seoul is retaken by the ROK and UN Forces. 1951: July. Armistice talks begin. While the establishment of a demilitarized zone and the creation of an armistice commission are agreed on, the talks stall on the issue of prisoner exchanges. Over the following two years of more stalled talks, the US and UN Forces drop more bombs on North Korea than the Allies did on Germany and Japan in World War II. Both the North and the South commit atrocities against their own citizens and civilians on the other side. Over a million and up to two million Koreans die. 1953: 27 July. The Korean War is halted by the Korean Armistice Agreement that has remained in force until now. Modern period 1955: March 1955. Chongryon, an association for Koreans in Japan that are aligned with North Korea, is created. It has continued to draw controversy and criticism until today. 1956: April. Chongryon assists in establishing the North Korean-aligned Korea University in Tokyo. 1956: September. The August Faction Incident occurs, in which pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese North Koreans attempt to purge Kim Il Sung from power. Kim then conducts a counter-purge, which diplomatically distances North Korea from its Soviet allies. 1960: A student uprising begins the April Revolution which overthrows the autocratic First Republic of South Korea. Syngman Rhee resigns and goes into exile. 1961: 16 May. The May 16 coup occurs, in which General Park Chung Hee overthrows the Second Republic of Korea. 1961: 12 November. Summit conference for normalization of Korean-Japanese relations. 1962: January. Start of the first Five-Year Plan of South Korea. 1962: 12 October. Sino–Korean Border Agreement is signed, beginning the process of establishing the modern border between China and North Korea. The process finishes with the agreement's 1964 companion, the Protocols on the Sino–Korean Border. 1964: South Korea joined Vietnam War. 1965: 22 June. The signing of Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea. Earned both much controversy and procurement of budgets for later economic developments. 1966: The World Bank organizes the International Economic Consultative Organization for Korea 1967: start of the second Five-year plans of South Korea. 1968: January. The Blue House raid, an unsuccessful attempt of North Korean commandos to assassinate South Korean president Park Chung Hee occurs. 1968: April. In retaliation for the Blue House raid, a South Korean group is created (Unit 684) to assassinate Kim Il Sung, but the group eventually mutinies on 23 August. 1968: 1 April. Establishment of the Pohang Iron and Steel Company (now "POSCO"). 1968: 5 December. Proclamation of the National Education Charter. 1970: 22 April. Start of the government-operated New Community Movement. 1970: Gyeongbu Expressway is completed and opened to traffic. 1972: start of the third Five-year plans of South Korea. 1972: 12 August. The first Red Cross talks between North and South Korea are held. 1972: President Park Chung Hee declares Emergency martial law and changes Constitution in August, which may allow him to become the permanent ruler. This is similar to Gojong of the Korean Empire stating his country's governmental system as 'autocratic' in the constitution- for greater leadership and less opposition. 1974: 15 August. The assassination of first lady Yuk Young-soo by North Korean sympathizer Mun Se-gwang. 1976: 18 August. The Axe Murder Incident in Panmunjom, Joint Security Area. Triggers former North Korean leader Kim Il Sung's first official apology to the South. 1976: 12 October. Discontinuation of rice imports, the accomplishment of total self-sufficiency in rice by the 'Unification Rice'. 1977: start of the fourth Five-Year Plans of South Korea. 1977: 22 December. Celebration of achievement of 10 billion dollars gained by exports. 1978: 26 October. Detection of the 3rd tunnel. Made by North Korea to attack South Korea. 1978: 10 December. Achievement of 1,117 US dollars as GNP. 1979: American president Jimmy Carter visits Korea. Threatens Park by stating he would reduce the US forces in Korea if he does not stop the ongoing Nuclear Weapons Development project. 1979: 26 October. President Park Chung Hee is assassinated by the chief of KCIA, Kim Jae-gyu (Assassination of Park Chung Hee). 1979: Coup d'état of December Twelfth, Chun Doo-hwan gets military power 1980: Gwangju Uprising. Martial law is declared throughout the nation. The city of Gwangju becomes a battleground between dissenters and the Armed Forces (18–27 May). The official death toll was set at 200 people but some reports claim over 1000 casualties. 1981: 16 November. A South Korean expedition team marks the first time Koreans set foot in Antarctica. 1987: The June Democratic Struggle begins, which eventually overthrows the autocratic Fifth Republic of South Korea. The ruling party of Fifth Republic, Democratic Justice Party, then declares democratic elections. 1988: 24th Olympic Games are held in Seoul. 1990: 11 September. South Korea and the USSR established diplomatic relations. 1991: 17 September. North Korea (DPRK) and South Korea (ROK) join the United Nations (UN). 1991: 26 December. The end of the Cold War as the Soviet Union collapses and North Korea loses military and economic aid. 1992: 11 August. South Korea's first satellite, KITSAT-1, a.k.a. 우리별 (Uri Byol) is successfully launched from Guiana Space Centre. 1992: 24 August. South Korea and the People's Republic of China (PRC) establish diplomatic relations. 1993: Test of Rodong-1, a single-stage, mobile liquid propellant medium-range ballistic missile by the DPRK. 1994: Kim Jong-il takes control of North Korea upon the death of his father Kim Il Sung. 1994: Start of the North Korean famine. 1994: 21 October. The Seongsu Bridge disaster occurs in Seoul. 1995: 29 June. The Sampoong Department Store collapses in Seoul. 1997: Asian Financial Crisis (or "IMF Crisis" as it was called in Korea) shakes Korea 1998: Taepodong-1, a two-stage intermediate-range ballistic missile is developed and tested by the DPRK. End of the Arduous March. It is possible that up to 3.5 million people did not survive the 'march'. 1998: The Shimonoseki Trial, the first ever lawsuit against the Japanese government by comfort women or forced laborers by Koreans, ends with the denial of compensation for the three women. 1999: The DPRK promises to freeze long-range missile tests. 2002: The 2002 FIFA World Cup jointly held by Korea & Japan. South Korea national football team reaches the semi-finals for the first time in Korean football history. The DPRK pledges to extend moratorium on missile tests beyond 2003. 2004: The DPRK reaffirms moratorium. 2005: The DPRK fires short-range missile into the Sea of Japan (East Sea). 2006: Test of Taepodong-2 by DPRK, a successor of Taepodong-1.There is a nuclear test in the DPRK. US officials assert it might have been a misfire. 2007: The second summit between DPRK and ROK leaders is held, with Roh Moo-hyun representing the south and Kim Jong-il the north. The DPRK fires short-range missile into the Sea of Japan. 2008: 8 April. A Korean woman, Yi So-yeon, becomes the first Korean to fly to outer space. 2009: North Korea launches a rocket (Unha), supposedly for space exploration. This move affects relationships with Japan, the United States and South Korea. The DPRK conducts another nuclear test. 2010: North Korea launches missile and attacks Korean , ROKS Cheonan. 46 Korean soldiers die because of the attack. At November, North Korean army rains artillery fire on Yeon-Pyeong-Do island. 2011: Kim Jong-il dies, Kim Jong-un takes over as the Supreme Leader of North Korea. The National Intelligence Service accuses pro-unification lawmakers of being spies. One of the members was a former Democratic Party representative. In a move indicative of the heavy-handedness of the Park regime, the party is outlawed and key party members are imprisoned. 2012: 13 April. The Kim Regime of the DPRK tested a rocket, officially called "Unha-3", an expendable launch system developed from the Soviet Scud rockets. The rocket was to send a satellite, called "Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3", into orbit. The rocket failed to launch the satellite and fell into the Yellow Sea. The mission ultimately ended in complete failure. 2012: 12 December. DPRK has successful launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2 it was launched from the Sohae Satellite Launching Ground. A South Korean military official cited 3 stage success. DPRK confirmed. 2012: 19 December. Park Geun-hye, a daughter of Park Chung Hee, is elected as first female and the 11th president of South Korea. 2013: 8 December. Jang Song-thaek, uncle of North Korean Leader Kim Jong-un, was ousted from all powerful posts on various charges. The official Korean Central News Agency said the political bureau of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea stripped Jang of all posts, depriving him of all titles and expelling him and removing his name from the party. 2013: 12 December. North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un, executes his Uncle, Jang Song-thaek, as a "traitor for all ages." Jang Song-thaek's execution was said to be set up by his own wife, Kim Kyong-hui, Late Supreme Leader Kim Jong-il's sister. Jang Song-thaek was considered to be the most powerful official in the DPRK Regime. 2014: 16 April. Sinking of MV Sewol, more than 300 people, mostly students, die during the sinking of the ship. 2016: 9 December. The impeachment vote of President Park Geun-hye took place, whilst 234 members in the 300-member National Assembly voting in favor of the impeachment and temporary suspension of her presidential powers and duties. Hwang Kyo-ahn, then prime minister, became acting president while the Constitutional Court of Korea was due to determine whether to accept the impeachment. 2017: 10 March. The court upheld the impeachment in a unanimous 8–0 decision, removing Park from office. 2017: 10 May. Moon Jae-In is sworn into office immediately after official votes were counted on 10 May, replacing Acting President and Prime Minister Hwang Kyo-Ahn. 2022: 10 May. Yoon Suk Yeol is sworn into office, succeeding former President Moon Jae-in. 2022: 29 October. Seoul Halloween crowd crush, 159 people are killed and another 197 injured in the deadliest accident since the sinking of the Sewol. Gallery See also Korean monarchs' family trees: Silla; Goryeo; Joseon List of Korean monarchs History of Korea Military history of Korea Timeline of Seoul history References Sources Further reading + "Democratic People's Republic of Korea" External links Timeline of Korean history Comparative China-Korea-Japan arts timeline Korea-related lists Korea Years in Korea
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four%20causes
Four causes
The four causes or four explanations are, in Aristotelian thought, four fundamental types of answer to the question "why?", in analysis of change or movement in nature: the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final. Aristotle wrote that "we do not have knowledge of a thing until we have grasped its why, that is to say, its cause." While there are cases in which classifying a "cause" is difficult, or in which "causes" might merge, Aristotle held that his four "causes" provided an analytical scheme of general applicability. Aristotle's word aitia () has, in philosophical scholarly tradition, been translated as 'cause'. This peculiar, specialized, technical, usage of the word 'cause' is not that of everyday English language. Rather, the translation of Aristotle's that is nearest to current ordinary language is "explanation." In Physics II.3 and Metaphysics V.2, Aristotle holds that there are four kinds of answers to "why" questions: Matter The material cause of a change or movement. This is the aspect of the change or movement that is determined by the material that composes the moving or changing things. For a table, this might be wood; for a statue, it might be bronze or marble. Form The formal cause of a change or movement. This is a change or movement caused by the arrangement, shape, or appearance of the thing changing or moving. Aristotle says, for example, that the ratio 2:1, and number in general, is the formal cause of the octave. Efficient, or agent The efficient or moving cause of a change or movement. This consists of things apart from the thing being changed or moved, which interact so as to be an agency of the change or movement. For example, the efficient cause of a table is a carpenter, or a person working as one, and according to Aristotle the efficient cause of a child is a parent. Final, end, or purpose The final cause of a change or movement. This is a change or movement for the sake of a thing to be what it is. For a seed, it might be an adult plant; for a sailboat, it might be sailing; for a ball at the top of a ramp, it might be coming to rest at the bottom. The four "causes" are not mutually exclusive. For Aristotle, several, preferably four, answers to the question "why" have to be given to explain a phenomenon and especially the actual configuration of an object. For example, if asking why a table is such and such, an explanation in terms of the four causes would sound like this: This table is solid and brown because it is made of wood (matter); it does not collapse because it has four legs of equal length (form); it is as it is because a carpenter made it, starting from a tree (agent); it has these dimensions because it is to be used by humans (end). Aristotle distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic causes. Matter and form are intrinsic causes because they deal directly with the object, whereas efficient and finality causes are said to be extrinsic because they are external. Thomas Aquinas demonstrated that only those four types of causes can exist and no others. He also introduced a priority order according to which "matter is made perfect by the form, form is made perfect by the agent, and agent is made perfect by the finality." Hence, the finality is the cause of causes or, equivalently, the queen of causes. Definition of "cause" In his philosophical writings, Aristotle used the Greek word αἴτιον (aition), a neuter singular form of an adjective. The Greek word had meant, perhaps originally in a "legal" context, what or who is "responsible," mostly but not always in a bad sense of "guilt" or "blame." Alternatively, it could mean "to the credit of" someone or something. The appropriation of this word by Aristotle and other philosophers reflects how the Greek experience of legal practice influenced the concern in Greek thought to determine what is responsible. The word developed other meanings, including its use in philosophy in a more abstract sense. About a century before Aristotle, the anonymous author of the Hippocratic text On Ancient Medicine had described the essential characteristics of a cause as it is considered in medicine:We must, therefore, consider the causes of each [medical] condition to be those things which are such that, when they are present, the condition necessarily occurs, but when they change to another combination, it ceases.Along similar lines, Plato strives to discover the true causes of things in his own writings. For instance, in the Phaedo (99b), he says that "some people are not able to distinguish what is in fact a cause from that without which a cause would not be able to be a cause; most people seem to me to be groping in the dark when they call the latter a cause and thus give to it a name that does not belong to it." This leads Plato to develop his famous distinction between a cause (aitia) and an accessory to the cause (sunaition). These accessories to the cause are used by the true cause to produce its effect. Aristotle's "four causes" Aristotle used the four causes to provide different answers to the question, "because of what?" The four answers to this question illuminate different aspects of how a thing comes into being or of how an event takes place. Material Aristotle considers the material "cause" () of an object as equivalent to the nature of the raw material out of which the object is composed. (The word "nature" for Aristotle applies to both its potential in the raw material and its ultimate finished form. In a sense this form already existed in the material: see potentiality and actuality.) Whereas modern physics looks to simple bodies, Aristotle's physics took a more general viewpoint, and treated living things as exemplary. Nevertheless, he felt that simple natural bodies such as earth, fire, air, and water also showed signs of having their own innate sources of motion, change, and rest. Fire, for example, carries things upwards, unless stopped from doing so. Things formed by human artifice, such as beds and cloaks, have no innate tendency to become beds or cloaks. In traditional Aristotelian philosophical terminology, material is not the same as substance. Matter has parallels with substance in so far as primary matter serves as the substratum for simple bodies which are not substance: sand and rock (mostly earth), rivers and seas (mostly water), atmosphere and wind (mostly air and then mostly fire below the moon). In this traditional terminology, 'substance' is a term of ontology, referring to really existing things; only individuals are said to be substances (subjects) in the primary sense. Secondary substance, in a different sense, also applies to man-made artifacts. Formal Aristotle considers the formal "cause" () as describing the pattern or form which when present makes matter into a particular type of thing, which we recognize as being of that particular type. By Aristotle's own account, this is a difficult and controversial concept. It links with theories of forms such as those of Aristotle's teacher, Plato, but in Aristotle's own account (see his Metaphysics), he takes into account many previous writers who had expressed opinions about forms and ideas, but he shows how his own views differ from them. Efficient Aristotle defines the agent or efficient "cause" () of an object as that which causes change and drives transient motion (such as a painter painting a house) (see Aristotle, Physics II 3, 194b29). In many cases, this is simply the thing that brings something about. For example, in the case of a statue, it is the person chiseling away which transforms a block of marble into a statue. According to Lloyd, of the four causes, only this one is what is meant by the modern English word "cause" in ordinary speech. Final Aristotle defines the end, purpose, or final "cause" () as that for the sake of which a thing is done. Like the form, this is a controversial type of explanation in science; some have argued for its survival in evolutionary biology, while Ernst Mayr denied that it continued to play a role. It is commonly recognised that Aristotle's conception of nature is teleological in the sense that Nature exhibits functionality in a more general sense than is exemplified in the purposes that humans have. Aristotle observed that a telos does not necessarily involve deliberation, intention, consciousness, or intelligence: According to Aristotle, a seed has the eventual adult plant as its end (i.e., as its telos) if and only if the seed would become the adult plant under normal circumstances. In Physics II.9, Aristotle hazards a few arguments that a determination of the end (i.e., final cause) of a phenomenon is more important than the others. He argues that the end is that which brings it about, so for example "if one defines the operation of sawing as being a certain kind of dividing, then this cannot come about unless the saw has teeth of a certain kind; and these cannot be unless it is of iron." According to Aristotle, once a final "cause" is in place, the material, efficient and formal "causes" follow by necessity. However, he recommends that the student of nature determine the other "causes" as well, and notes that not all phenomena have an end, e.g., chance events. Aristotle saw that his biological investigations provided insights into the causes of things, especially into the final cause: George Holmes Howison highlights "final causation" in presenting his theory of metaphysics, which he terms "personal idealism", and to which he invites not only man, but all (ideal) life: However, Edward Feser argues, in line with the Aristotelian and Thomistic tradition, that finality has been greatly misunderstood. Indeed, without finality, efficient causality becomes inexplicable. Finality thus understood is not purpose but that end towards which a thing is ordered. When a match is rubbed against the side of a matchbox, the effect is not the appearance of an elephant or the sounding of a drum, but fire. The effect is not arbitrary because the match is ordered towards the end of fire which is realized through efficient causes. In their biosemiotic study, Stuart Kauffman, Robert K. Logan et al. (2007) remark: Scholasticism In the Scholasticism, the efficient causality was governed by two principles: omne agens agit simile sibi (every agent produces something similar to itself): stated frequently in the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, the principle establishes a relationship of similarity and analogy between cause and effect; nemo dat quod non habet (no one gives what he does not possess): partially similar to the legal principle of the same name, in Metaphysics it establishes that the cause cannot bestow on the effect the quantity of being (and thus of unity, truth, goodness, reality and perfection) that it does not already possess within itself. Otherwise, there would be creation out of nothingness of self and other-from-self In other words, the cause must possess a degree of reality greater than or equal to that of the effect. If it is greater, we speak of equivocal causation, in analogy to the three types of logical predication (univocal, equivocal, analogical); if it is equal, we speak of univocal predication. Thomas in this regard distinguished between causa fiendi (cause of occurring, of only beginning to be) and causa essendi (cause of being and also of beginning to be) When the being of the agent cause is in the effect in a lesser or equal degree, this is a causa fiendi. Furthermore, the second principle also establishes a qualitative link: the cause can only transmit its own essence to the effect. For example, a dog cannot transmit the essence of a feline to its young, but only that of a dog. The principle is equivalent to that of Causa aequat effectum (cause equals effect) in both a quantitative and qualitative sense. Modern science In his Advancement of Learning (1605), Francis Bacon wrote that natural science "doth make inquiry, and take consideration of the same natures : but how? Only as to the material and efficient causes of them, and not as to the forms." Using the terminology of Aristotle, Bacon demands that, apart from the "laws of nature" themselves, the causes relevant to natural science are only efficient causes and material causes, or, to use the formulation which became famous later, natural phenomena require scientific explanation in terms of matter and motion. In The New Organon, Bacon divides knowledge into physics and metaphysics: From the two kinds of axioms which have been spoken of arises a just division of philosophy and the sciences, taking the received terms (which come nearest to express the thing) in a sense agreeable to my own views. Thus, let the investigation of forms, which are (in the eye of reason at least, and in their essential law) eternal and immutable, constitute Metaphysics; and let the investigation of the efficient cause, and of matter, and of the latent process, and the latent configuration (all of which have reference to the common and ordinary course of nature, not to her eternal and fundamental laws) constitute Physics. And to these let there be subordinate two practical divisions: to Physics, Mechanics; to Metaphysics, what (in a purer sense of the word) I call Magic, on account of the broadness of the ways it moves in, and its greater command over nature. Biology Explanations in terms of final causes remain common in evolutionary biology. Francisco J. Ayala has claimed that teleology is indispensable to biology since the concept of adaptation is inherently teleological. In an appreciation of Charles Darwin published in Nature in 1874, Asa Gray noted "Darwin's great service to Natural Science" lies in bringing back teleology "so that, instead of Morphology versus Teleology, we shall have Morphology wedded to Teleology." Darwin quickly responded, "What you say about Teleology pleases me especially and I do not think anyone else has ever noticed the point." Francis Darwin and T. H. Huxley reiterate this sentiment. The latter wrote that "the most remarkable service to the philosophy of Biology rendered by Mr. Darwin is the reconciliation of Teleology and Morphology, and the explanation of the facts of both, which his view offers." James G. Lennox states that Darwin uses the term 'Final Cause' consistently in his Species Notebook, On the Origin of Species, and after. Contrary to the position described by Francisco J. Ayala, Ernst Mayr states that "adaptedness... is a posteriori result rather than an a priori goal-seeking." Various commentators view the teleological phrases used in modern evolutionary biology as a type of shorthand. For example, S. H. P. Madrell writes that "the proper but cumbersome way of describing change by evolutionary adaptation [may be] substituted by shorter overtly teleological statements" for the sake of saving space, but that this "should not be taken to imply that evolution proceeds by anything other than from mutations arising by chance, with those that impart an advantage being retained by natural selection." However, Lennox states that in evolution as conceived by Darwin, it is true both that evolution is the result of mutations arising by chance and that evolution is teleological in nature. Statements that a species does something "in order to" achieve survival are teleological. The validity or invalidity of such statements depends on the species and the intention of the writer as to the meaning of the phrase "in order to." Sometimes it is possible or useful to rewrite such sentences so as to avoid teleology. Some biology courses have incorporated exercises requiring students to rephrase such sentences so that they do not read teleologically. Nevertheless, biologists still frequently write in a way which can be read as implying teleology even if that is not the intention. Animal behaviour (Tinbergen's four questions) Tinbergen's four questions, named after the ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and based on Aristotle's four causes, are complementary categories of explanations for animal behaviour. They are also commonly referred to as levels of analysis. The four questions are on: function, what an adaptation does that is selected for in evolution; phylogeny, the evolutionary history of an organism, revealing its relationships to other species; mechanism, namely the proximate cause of a behaviour, such as the role of testosterone in aggression; and ontogeny, the development of an organism from egg to embryo to adult. Technology (Heidegger's four causes) In The Question Concerning Technology, echoing Aristotle, Martin Heidegger describes the four causes as follows: causa materialis: the material or matter causa formalis: the form or shape the material or matter enters causa finalis: the end causa efficiens: the effect that brings about the finished result. Heidegger explains that "[w]hoever builds a house or a ship or forges a sacrificial chalice reveals what is to be brought forth, according to the terms of the four modes of occasioning." The educationist David Waddington comments that although the efficient cause, which he identifies as "the craftsman," might be thought the most significant of the four, in his view each of Heidegger's four causes is "equally co-responsible" for producing a craft item, in Heidegger's terms "bringing forth" the thing into existence. Waddington cites Lovitt's description of this bringing forth as "a unified process." See also Anthropic principle Biosemiotics Causality Convergent evolution Five whys Four discourses, by Jacques Lacan Proximate and ultimate causation Socrates Teleology The purpose of a system is what it does Notes References Cohen, Marc S. "The Four Causes" (Lecture Notes) Accessed March 14, 2006. Falcon, Andrea. Aristotle on Causality (link to section labeled "Four Causes"). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2008. Hennig, Boris. "The Four Causes." Journal of Philosophy 106(3), 2009, 137–160. Moravcsik, J.M. "Aitia as generative factor in Aristotle's philosophy." Dialogue, 14 : pp 622–638, 1975. English translation of Study on Phideas, by Pía Figueroa written with theme of Final Cause as per Aristotle. External links The Consequences of Ideas: Understanding the Concepts that Shaped Our World, By R. C. Sproul Aristotle on definition. By Marguerite Deslauriers, p. 81 Philosophy in the ancient world: an introduction. By James A. Arieti. p. 201. Doctrine of Being in the Aristotelian Metaphysics. By Joseph Owens and Etienne Gilson. Aitia as generative factor in Aristotle's philosophy A Compass for the Imagination, by Harold C. Morris. Philosophy thesis elaborates on Aristotle's Theory of the Four Causes. Washington State University, 1981. Philosophy of Aristotle Causality Concepts in metaphysics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Meiktila%20and%20Mandalay
Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay
The concurrent Battle of Meiktila and Battle of Mandalay were decisive engagements near the end of the Burma campaign during World War II. Collectively, they are sometimes referred to as the Battle of Central Burma. Despite logistical difficulties, the Allies were able to deploy large armoured and mechanised forces in Central Burma, and also possessed air supremacy. Most of the Japanese forces in Burma were destroyed during the battles, allowing the Allies to later recapture the capital, Rangoon, and reoccupy most of the country with little organised opposition. Background Japanese situation In 1944, the Japanese had sustained several defeats in the mountainous frontier regions of Burma and India. In particular, at the Battle of Imphal and Battle of Kohima, the Japanese Fifteenth Army had suffered disastrous losses, mainly resulting from disease and starvation. The heavy Japanese defeat prompted them to make sweeping changes among their commanders and senior staff officers in Burma. On 1 September 1944, Lieutenant General Hyotaro Kimura was appointed commander of the Burma Area Army, succeeding Lieutenant General Masakazu Kawabe whose health had broken down. At this stage of the war, the Japanese were in retreat on most fronts and were concentrating their resources for the defence of the homeland. Kimura had formerly been Vice-Minister for War, and had held other posts with responsibility for mobilising Japanese industry for the war effort. It was hoped that he could use the rice fields, factories and oil wells of Burma to make the Japanese forces there logistically self-sufficient. Lieutenant General Shinichi Tanaka was appointed to be Kimura's Chief of Staff, with day-to-day responsibility for operations. He had formerly commanded the 18th Infantry Division in Northern Burma, and had a reputation for inflexible determination. (In a reversal of roles in the aftermath of the Imphal disaster, the former Chief of Staff of the Burma Area Army, Lieutenant General Eitaro Naka, was transferred to command the 18th Division.) Japanese losses in Burma and India in 1944 had been catastrophic. They were made up with drafts of conscripts, many of whom were not of the best physical categories. Kimura's staff decreed that their divisions in Burma should have a strength of 10,000 (compared with their paper establishment of nearer 25,000), but most divisions mustered barely half this reduced strength. Furthermore, they lacked anti-tank weapons. To face massed Allied armour, they would be forced to deploy their field artillery in the front line, which would affect their ability to give concentrated fire support to the infantry. Expedients such as lunge mines (an explosive charge on the end of a long pole), or suicide attacks by men wearing explosive charges, were not effective if the enemy tanks were closely supported by infantry. Other losses handicapped the Japanese. Their 5th Air Division, deployed in Burma, had been reduced to only a few dozen aircraft to face 1,200 Allied aircraft. Their 14th Tank Regiment possessed only 20 tanks. Kimura accepted that his forces stood little chance against the numerically and materially superior Allies in open terrain. He therefore intended that while the Twenty-Eighth Army defended the coastal Arakan Province, relying on the difficult terrain to slow the Allied advances, and the Thirty-Third Army continued to fight rearguard actions against the American and Chinese forces which were trying to open a land route from India to China, the Fifteenth Army would withdraw behind the Irrawaddy River. He hoped that the Allies would be overstretched trying to overcome this obstacle, perhaps to the point where the Japanese might even attempt a counteroffensive. Allied situation The Allied South East Asia Command had begun making plans to reconquer Burma as early as June 1944 (while the Battle of Imphal was still being fought, although its outcome was clear). Three main options were proposed. One was to reoccupy Northern Burma only, to allow the Ledo Road to be completed, thus linking India and China by land. This was rejected, as it could use only a fraction of the available forces and fulfilled only an out-of-date strategic aim. A second option was to capture Rangoon, the capital and main seaport, by a seaborne invasion. This was also impractical, as it would require landing craft and other resources which would not be available until the end of the War in Europe. By default, the plan adopted was for an offensive into Central Burma by the British Fourteenth Army under Lieutenant General William Slim, to reconquer Burma from the north. The operation, originally codenamed Operation Capital, which was intended to capture Mandalay in Central Burma, was renamed Operation Extended Capital to encompass a subsequent pursuit to Rangoon. In support of Fourteenth Army's offensive, the Indian XV Corps would advance in the coastal province of Arakan. The corps was also ordered to seize or construct airfields on the coast and on islands just offshore, which could be supplied by sea and which would be used as bases from which aircraft would supply Slim's troops. The American-led Northern Combat Area Command, consisting mainly of Chinese troops, would continue its advance to link up with Chinese armies attacking from Yunnan province in south-west China and thus complete the Ledo Road linking China and India. It was hoped that XV Corps and the NCAC would distract as many Japanese forces as possible from the decisive front in Central Burma. The chief problems which Fourteenth Army would face were logistical. The advancing troops would need to be supplied over crude roads stretching for far greater distances than were ever encountered in Europe. Although expedients such as locally constructed river transport and temporary all-weather coverings for roads (made from coarse hessian sacking material impregnated with bitumen and diesel oil) were to be used, transport aircraft were to be vital for supplying the forward units. Disaster threatened as early as 16 December 1944, when 75 American transport aircraft were abruptly transferred to China, where the Japanese Operation Ichi-Go was threatening American airfields. Although aircraft were hastily transferred from the Mediterranean theatre to replace those despatched to China, continuing threats to deprive Fourteenth Army of the support of American transport aircraft were to be a constant concern for Slim during the forthcoming battles. The Fourteenth Army was supported by 221 Group RAF, which operated B-25 Mitchell bombers, Hawker Hurricane and P-47 Thunderbolt fighters and long-range Bristol Beaufighter fighter-bombers. They could also call upon the B-24 Liberator heavy bombers of the Far Eastern Strategic Air Force. The most important aspect of air support was probably the Combat Cargo Task Force, which included both British and American squadrons of transport aircraft, in particular the ubiquitous C47. Fourteenth Army required 7,000 sorties by transport aircraft every day during the maximum intensity of the fighting. Most of Slim's divisions were on a mixed Animal and Mechanical Transport establishment, which allowed them to operate in difficult terrain but restricted their tactical speed of movement to that of marching men or mules. In anticipation of fighting in the open country of Central Burma, Slim reorganised two of his divisions (Indian 5th Division and Indian 17th Division) as partly Motorized infantry and partly Airportable infantry formations. At this stage of the war, few British infantry reinforcements were available. In spite of expedients such as drafting anti-aircraft gunners into infantry units, the strength of Fourteenth Army's British formations and of the British units in its Indian formations was dropping, and Indian and Gurkha units were increasingly to bear the brunt of the actions which followed. Intelligence In the coming campaign, both the Allies and Japanese were to suffer from lack of intelligence about the enemy, and make incorrect assumptions about their opponent's intentions. The Allies had undisputed air superiority. In addition to the results of aerial reconnaissance, they also received reports from behind enemy lines from the reconnaissance units V Force and Z Force and the resistance liaison organisation Force 136. However, they lacked the detailed information available to commanders in Europe through Ultra radio intercepts. Japanese radio security was good; rather than cipher machines such as the Enigma machine, which the Ultra operation was able to decipher on a large scale, they used "code books and then extremely tough enciphering methods to conceal the coded text..." Japanese formation headquarters also sent far less compromising radio traffic than their German (or Allied) counterparts. Only near the end of the battle, when the Japanese signal and staff arrangements largely collapsed, did the Allies gain significant signals intelligence. Also, the Allied armies in the field had too few Japanese linguists, to translate intercepted messages and captured documents. On the other hand, the Japanese were almost blind. They had very few aircraft with which to fly air reconnaissance missions, and they would receive little information from the Burmese population which was becoming disillusioned and restive under Japanese military control. Some formations had set up their own intelligence organisations; for example, Twenty-Eighth Army had created a branch of the Hikari Kikan, known as Hayate Tai, whose agents lived deep under cover in the frontier regions of Burma and in some of the remoter regions of Southern Burma. However, these agents could not acquire or report information quickly enough to be tactically useful in a fast-moving mechanised battle. Opening movements As the monsoon season ended in late 1944, the Fourteenth Army had established two bridgeheads across the Chindwin River, using prefabricated Bailey bridges. Based on past Japanese actions, Slim assumed that the Japanese would fight in the Shwebo Plain, as far forward as possible between the Chindwin and Irrawaddy Rivers. On 29 November, Indian 19th Division launched British IV Corps' attack from the northern bridgeheads at Sittaung and Mawlaik, and on 4 December, Indian 20th Division under Indian XXXIII Corps attacked out of the southern bridgehead at Kalewa. Both divisions made rapid progress, with little opposition. The 19th Division in particular, under Major General "Pete" Rees was approaching the vital rail centre of Indaw, east of Sittaung, after only five days. Slim realised at this point that his earlier assumption that the Japanese would fight forward of the Irrawaddy was incorrect. As only one of IV Corps' divisions had so far been committed, he was able to make major changes to his original plan. The 19th Division was transferred to XXXIII Corps, which was to continue to clear the Shwebo plain and attack towards Mandalay. The remainder of IV Corps, strengthened by Fourteenth Army's reserve divisions, was switched from the army's left flank to its right. Its task was now to advance down the Gangaw Valley west of the Chindwin, cross the Irrawaddy near Pakokku and seize the vital logistic and communication centre of Meiktila by a rapid armoured thrust. By seizing Meiktila he would strangle all supplies going north towards Mandalay and hasten the end of that battle and consequently the recapture of the whole of Burma. To persuade the Japanese that IV Corps was still advancing on Mandalay, a dummy corps HQ was set up near Sittaung. All radio traffic to 19th Division was relayed through this installation. To allow the main body of their divisions to retreat across the Irrawaddy, the Japanese had left rearguards in several towns in the Shwebo Plain. During January, the Indian 19th Division and British 2nd Division cleared Shwebo, while the Indian 20th Division had a hard battle to take Monywa, a major river port on the east bank of the Chindwin. The Japanese rearguards were largely destroyed. The Japanese also retained a foothold in the Sagaing hills, north of the Irrawaddy near Mandalay. Meanwhile, IV Corps began its advance down the Gangaw Valley. To conceal the presence of heavy units of IV Corps as long as possible, the advance of 7th Indian Infantry Division, which was intended to launch the assault across the Irrawaddy, was screened by the East African 28 Infantry Brigade and the improvised Lushai Brigade. Where these two lightly equipped formations met Japanese resistance at Pauk, the town was heavily bombed by Allied aircraft to soften up the defenders. The route used by IV Corps required upgrading in several places to allow heavy equipment to pass. At one point, the trail of vehicles stretched from Pauk to Kohima, to the north by road. Crossing the Irrawaddy The 19th Indian Division had slipped units across narrow stretches of the Irrawaddy at Thabeikkyin on 14 January 1945 and Kyaukmyaung south (and north of Mandalay) the next day. They faced a stiff fight for some weeks against attempts by the reinforced Japanese 15th Division to counter-attack their bridgeheads. The crossings downstream, where the river was much wider, would require more preparation. The assault boats, ferries and other equipment for the task were in short supply in Fourteenth Army, and much of this equipment was worn out, having already seen service in other theatres. Slim planned for 20th Division of XXXIII Corps and 7th Division of IV Corps to cross simultaneously on 13 February, so as to further mask his ultimate intentions. On XXXIII Corps' front, 20th Division crossed west of Mandalay. It successfully established small bridgeheads, but these were counter-attacked nightly for almost two weeks by the Japanese 31st Division. Orbiting patrols of fighter-bombers knocked out several Japanese tanks and guns. Eventually 20th Division expanded its footholds into a single firmly-held bridgehead. In IV Corps's sector, it was vital for Slim's overall plan for 7th Division to seize the area around Pakokku and establish a firm bridgehead quickly. The area was defended by the Japanese 72nd Mixed Brigade and units of the 2nd Division of the Indian National Army, under Shah Nawaz Khan. The 214th Regiment of the Japanese 33rd Division held a bridgehead at Pakokku. The crossing by Indian 7th Division (which was delayed for 24 hours to repair the assault boats), was made on a wide front. The 28th East African Brigade made a feint towards Yenangyaung to distract the Japanese 72nd Brigade while another brigade attacked Pakokku. However, both the main attack at Nyaungu and a secondary crossing at Pagan (the former capital, and the site of many Buddhist temples) were initially disastrous. Pagan and Nyaungu were defended by two battalions of the INA's 4th Guerrilla Regiment, with one held in reserve. At Nyaungu, 2/South Lancashire Regiment suffered heavy losses as their assault boats broke down under machine-gun fire which swept the river. Eventually, support from tanks of the 116 Regiment Royal Armoured Corps firing across the river and massed artillery suppressed the INA machine gun positions and allowed 4/15th Punjab Regiment to reinforce a company of the South Lancashire who had established a precarious foothold. The next day, the remaining defenders were sealed into a network of tunnels. At Pagan, 1/11th Sikh Regiment's crossing fell into disorder under machine gun fire from the INA's 9th battalion, but a boat carrying a white flag was seen leaving Pagan. The defenders wished to surrender, and the Sikhs occupied Pagan without resistance. Slim noted in his memoirs that this action was "the longest opposed river crossing attempted in any theatre of the Second World War." Unknown to the Allies, Pagan was the boundary between the Japanese Fifteenth and Twenty-Eighth Armies. This delayed the Japanese reaction to the crossing. Starting on 17 February, 255th Indian Tank Brigade and the motorised infantry brigades of 17th Division began crossing into 7th Division's bridgehead. To further distract Japanese attention from this area, the British 2nd Division began crossing the Irrawaddy only west of Mandalay on 23 February. This crossing also threatened to be a disaster due to leaky boats and faulty engines, but one brigade crossed successfully and the other brigades crossed into its bridgehead. Orders of battle At this point, the Japanese were hastily reinforcing their Central Front with units from the northern front (where the American-led Northern Combat Area Command had largely ceased its operations as its Chinese units were recalled to China) and with reserve units from Southern Burma. Capture of Meiktila The Indian 17th Division, under Major General David Tennant Cowan, sallied from the Nyaungu bridgehead on 20 February and reached Taungtha, halfway to Meiktila, by 24 February. The division consisted of the 48th Indian Infantry Brigade and 63rd Indian Infantry Brigades, both of which were fully motorised, with the 255th Indian Tank Brigade (less a regiment left with 7th Division) under command. Ironically, on 24 February, a Japanese high-level staff meeting was taking place in Meiktila, to discuss the possibility of a counter-attack north of the Irrawaddy. The Japanese command was undoubtedly surprised by the Allied attack. An agitated officer on Mount Popa signalled that 2,000 vehicles were moving on Meiktila. Staff at Fifteenth Army or Burma Area Army assumed this to be a mistake and deleted one of the zeroes, thinking that the attack was merely a raid. Burma Area Army had also ignored an earlier air reconnaissance report of a vast column of vehicles moving down the Gangaw Valley. On 26 February, the Japanese became aware of the true size of the threat, and began preparing Meiktila for defence. The town lay between lakes to the north and south, constricting any attackers' front. The defenders numbered about 4,000 and consisted of the bulk of Japanese 168th Regiment from the 49th Division, and anti-aircraft and line of communication troops. While they attempted to dig-in, the Indian 17th Division captured an airstrip to the northwest at Thabutkon. The air-portable Indian 99th Brigade were flown in to the captured airstrip, and fuel was dropped by parachute for the armoured brigade. Three days later, on 28 February, 17th Division attacked Meiktila from all sides, supported by massed artillery and air strikes. The 63rd Indian Brigade proceeded on foot to establish a roadblock southwest of the town to prevent Japanese reinforcements reaching the garrison, while the main body of the brigade attacked from the west. The 48th Indian Brigade attacked from the north down the main road from Thabutkon, although it was delayed by a strong position around a monastery on the edge of the town. The 255th Armoured Brigade, with two infantry battalions and a battery of Sexton self-propelled 25-pounder guns under command, left another roadblock to the northeast and made a wide sweep around the town to capture the airfields to the east and attack the town from the southeast. The bulk of the division's artillery (in a harbour northwest of the town, protected by units of the 99th Brigade) and air strikes were assigned to support 255th Brigade's attack. After the first day, Cowan pulled the tanks out of the town during the night, although he left patrols to defend the area already captured. The next day, 1 March, Cowan had the Corps commander (Lieutenant General Frank Messervy) and General Slim watching anxiously over his shoulder at his headquarters, both worried that the Japanese might hold out for weeks. In the event, in spite of desperate resistance, the town fell in less than four days. Although the Japanese had plenty of artillery, they were unable to concentrate their fire sufficiently to stop any single attacking brigade. Lack of anti-tank weapons gravely handicapped the defenders. Slim later described watching two platoons from 1/7th Gurkha Rifles supported by a single M4 Sherman tank overrun several Japanese bunkers and eliminate their defenders in a few minutes, with only a few casualties to themselves. In an attempt to improvise anti-tank defences, some Japanese soldiers crouched in trenches, clutching aircraft bombs, with orders to strike the detonator when an enemy tank loomed over the trench. Most were shot by an officer of 255 Brigade and Indian soldiers. Japanese siege of Meiktila The Japanese troops hastening to reinforce Meiktila were dismayed to find that they now had to recapture the town. The Japanese forces engaged were: 49th Division 106th Infantry Regiment 168th Infantry Regiment (remnants only) 49th Artillery Regiment 18th Division 55th Infantry Regiment 56th Infantry Regiment 18th Mountain Artillery Regiment 214th Infantry Regiment (attached from 33rd Division) 119th Infantry Regiment (attached from 53rd Division) "Naganuma Artillery Group" (attached) 4th Infantry Regiment (from 2nd Infantry Division) "Mori Special Force" (a battalion-sized long-range raiding force) Many of the Japanese regiments, especially those of the 18th Division, were already weak after heavy combat in the preceding weeks. They numbered perhaps 12,000 men in total, with 70 guns. The Japanese divisions had no contact with each other, and lacked information on the enemy and even proper maps. In Meiktila, the Indian 17th Division mustered 15,000 men, about 100 tanks and 70 guns, and were to be further reinforced during the battle. Even as the Japanese forces arrived, columns of motorised Indian infantry and tanks sallied out of Meiktila and attacked concentrations of Japanese troops, while attempting to clear a land route back to Nyaungu. There was hard fighting for several villages and other strong points. The attempt to clear the roads failed, and 17th Division withdrew into Meiktila. The first attacks by the Japanese 18th Division (commanded by Lieutenant General Eitaro Naka) from the north and west failed, with heavy losses. From 12 March onwards, they attacked the airfields east of the town, through which the defenders were supplied by aircraft. 9th Indian Infantry Brigade (from Indian 5th Division) were flown into the airfields from 15 March to reinforce the defenders of Meiktila. The landings were made under fire, but only two aircraft were destroyed, with 22 casualties. The Japanese fought their way steadily closer to the airfields and from 18 March, Cowan suspended air landings (although casualties could still be evacuated in light aircraft from a separate, smaller, landing strip) and supplies were dropped by parachute to his division. Meanwhile, on 12 March, Kimura had ordered Lieutenant General Masaki Honda, commanding the Japanese Thirty-third Army, to take command of the battle for Meiktila. Honda's HQ staff took control on 18 March, but without their signal units, they could not coordinate the attacking divisions properly. Attacks continued to be disjointed. They were further disjointed by the "attack-minded" defence; the defenders would sally out every day to attack any gathering concentration of Japanese in the surrounding villages, followed by an all round defence of the ground taken as this was then attacked in its turn by new concentrations of freshly arrived Japanese, before pulling back to the main town again. As this was happening all around the town, the defence of Meiktila soon resembled a Neapolitan Ice-cream with concentric circles of opposing forces with the result that nowhere could the Japanese form up in sufficient strength to mount a successful attack. The Japanese were using their artillery in the front line with their infantry, which accounted for several enemy tanks, but also resulted in the loss of many guns. During a major attack on 22 March, the Japanese attempted to use a captured British tank, but this was destroyed and the attack was repelled with heavy losses. The strategic goal was achieved with the Japanese forces fighting in the north of the country cut off from any supplies and quickly withering on the vine. Lieutenant Karamjeet Singh Judge of the 4th Battalion, 15th Punjab Regiment, British Indian Army was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross (VC) for his deeds on 18 March during the battle. Yenangyaung and Myingyan While Meiktila was besieged, the other major unit of British IV Corps, the Indian 7th Division, was engaged in several battles to maintain its own bridgehead, capture the important river port of Myingyan, and assist 28th (East African) Brigade against counter-attacks on the west bank of the Irrawaddy. As Major General Tsunoru Yamamoto's 72nd Independent Mixed Brigade (reinforced by some units from the Japanese 54th Division from the Arakan), tried to retake the British foothold at Nyaungu, the 2nd Infantry Regiment of the Indian National Army under Prem Sahgal, reinforced by the remaining troops of the 4th Guerrilla regiment which had opposed the initial crossings of the Irrawaddy, were now tasked with protecting the exposed flank of Kimura's forces, as well as pin down British forces around Nyaungyu and Popa. Lacking heavy arms or artillery support, Sahgal's forces used guerrilla tactics, working in conjunction with small units from the Kanjo Butai (a regiment detached from the Japanese 55th Division), and were successful for some time. The Indian 7th Division now faced the additional task of reopening the lines of communication to the besieged Indian 17th Division through the two roads that ran through the region and was forced to call off the attack on Myingyan. Around the middle of March, the leading motorised brigade of Indian 5th Division reinforced them, and began clearing the Japanese and the INA troops from their strongholds in and around Mount Popa to clear the land route to Meiktila. Once contact was established with the defenders of Meiktila, the Indian 7th Division resumed the attack on Myingyan, which was captured after four days' fighting from 18 to 22 March. As soon as it was captured, the port and the Myingyan-Meiktila railway were repaired and brought back into use for supply vessels using the Chindwin. Fall of Mandalay During late January, Indian 19th Division had cleared the west bank of the Irrawaddy, and transferred its entire strength into its bridgeheads on the east bank. By the middle of February, the Japanese 15th Division opposed to them was very weak and thinly spread, and General Rees launched an attack southwards from his division's bridgeheads in mid-February. By 7 March, his leading units were within sight of Mandalay Hill, crowned by its many pagodas and temples. Lieutenant General Seiei Yamamoto, commanding the Japanese 15th Division, was opposed to defending the city, but received uncompromising orders from higher headquarters to defend Mandalay to the death. Lieutenant General Kimura at Burma Area Army was concerned about the loss of prestige should the city be abandoned. Also, there were still large supply dumps south of the city, which could not be moved but which the Japanese could not afford to abandon. A Gurkha battalion (4/4th Gurkha Rifles), commanded by an officer who had served in Mandalay before the war, stormed Mandalay Hill on the night of 8 March. Several Japanese held out in tunnels and bunkers underneath the pagodas, and were slowly eliminated over the next few days, although most of the buildings survived substantially intact. Fighting its way further into the city, Rees's division was stopped by the thick walls of Fort Dufferin (as the ancient citadel was named by the British), surrounded by a moat. Medium artillery and bombs dropped from low altitude failed to make much impression on the walls and an assault via a railway tunnel near the angle of the north and west walls was driven back. An attempt was made to breach the walls by "skip bombing", using 2,000 lb bombs, but this created a breach only 15 feet wide. The 19th Division prepared to make another assault via the sewers on 21 March, but before the assault could be made, the Japanese abandoned the fort, also via the sewers. King Thibaw Min's teak palace inside the fort had burned down during the siege, only one of many historic buildings destroyed. Elsewhere on XXXIII Corps's front, 20th Indian Division launched an attack southwards from its bridgehead. The Japanese 31st Division (with part of the 33rd Division) facing them had been weakened by casualties and detachments to the fighting elsewhere and was thrown into disorder. A tank regiment and a reconnaissance regiment from the 20th Division, grouped as "Claudecol", drove almost as far south as the Meiktila fighting, before turning north against the rear of the Japanese facing the bridgeheads. The British 2nd Division also broke out of its bridgehead and attacked Mandalay from the west. By the end of March, the Japanese Fifteenth Army had been reduced to uncoordinated remnants trying to move southwards to regroup in the Shan States. End of the battle On 28 March, Lieutenant General Shinichi Tanaka, Kimura's Chief of Staff, conferred with Honda at Thirty-third Army HQ. Honda's staff told him that the army had destroyed about 50 British and Indian tanks, half the number of tanks in Meiktila. In doing so, the army had suffered 2,500 casualties and lost 50 guns, and had only 20 artillery pieces left. Tanaka accepted the responsibility of ordering Honda's army to break off the siege of Meiktila and prepare to resist further Allied advances to the south. It was already too late. The Japanese armies in Central Burma had lost most of their equipment, and their cohesion. They would be unable to stop the Fourteenth Army exploiting to within striking distance of Rangoon. Furthermore, with the loss of Mandalay, the Burmese population finally turned against the Japanese. Uprisings by guerilla forces and a revolt by the Burma National Army, which the Japanese had formed two years previously, would contribute to the eventual Japanese defeat. Footnotes Notes References Fraser, George MacDonald (2014) Quartered Safe Out Here: A Harrowing Tale of World War II. Skyhorse Publishing; reprint edition. . External links DCT Travel blog World War II operations and battles of the Southeast Asia Theatre Conflicts in 1945 1945 in Burma Military history of Burma during World War II Meiktila and Mandalay January 1945 events in Asia February 1945 events in Asia March 1945 events in Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20overpopulation
Human overpopulation
Human overpopulation (or human population overshoot) describes a concern that human populations may become too large to be sustained by their environment or resources in the long term. The topic is usually discussed in the context of world population, though it may concern individual nations, regions, and cities. Since 1804, the global human population has increased from 1 billion to 8 billion due to medical advancements and improved agricultural productivity. Annual world population growth peaked at 2.1% in 1968, and has since dropped to 1.1%. According to the most recent United Nations' projections, "[t]he global population is expected to reach 9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.4 billion in 2100." The UN's projections report predicts that the human population will peak at around 10.4 billion people, before decreasing, noting that fertility rates are falling worldwide. Other models agree that the population will stabilize before or after 2100. Early discussions of overpopulation in English were spurred by the work of Thomas Malthus. Discussions of overpopulation follow a similar line of inquiry as Malthusianism and its Malthusian catastrophe, a hypothetical event where population exceeds agricultural capacity, causing famine or war over resources, resulting in poverty and depopulation. More recent discussion of overpopulation was popularized by Paul Ehrlich in his 1968 book The Population Bomb and subsequent writings. Ehrlich described overpopulation as a function of overconsumption, arguing that overpopulation should be defined by a population being unable to sustain itself without depleting non-renewable resources. The belief that global population levels will become too large to sustain is a point of contentious debate. Those who believe global human overpopulation to be a valid concern, argue that increased levels of resource consumption and pollution exceed the environment's carrying capacity, leading to population overshoot. The population overshoot hypothesis is often discussed in relation to other population concerns such as population momentum, biodiversity loss, hunger and malnutrition, resource depletion, and the overall human impact on the environment. Critics of the belief note that human population growth is decreasing and the population will likely peak, and possibly even begin to decrease, before the end of the century. They argue the concerns surrounding population growth are overstated, noting that quickly declining birth rates and technological innovation make it possible to sustain projected population sizes. Other critics claim that the concept is too narrowly focused, ignores more pressing issues, like poverty, and places an undue burden on the global south. Overview Modern proponents of the concept have suggested that overpopulation, population growth and overconsumption are interdependent and collectively are the primary drivers of human-caused environmental problems such as climate change and biodiversity loss. Many scientists have expressed concern about population growth, and argue that creating sustainable societies will require decreasing the current global population. Advocates have suggested implementation of population planning strategies to reach a proposed sustainable population. Overpopulation hypotheses are controversial, with many demographers and environmentalists disputing the core premise that the world cannot sustain the current trajectory of human population. Additionally, many economists and historians have noted that sustained shortages and famines have historically been caused by war, price controls, political instability, and repressive political regimes (often employing central planning) rather than overpopulation, and that population growth historically has led to greater technological development and advancement of scientific knowledge that has enabled the engineering of substitute goods and technology that better conserves and more efficiently uses natural resources, produces greater agricultural output with less land and less water, and addresses human impacts on the environment due to there being greater numbers of scientists, engineers, and inventors and subsequent generations of scientists overturning scientific paradigms maintained by previous generations of scientists. Instead, social scientists argue that disputes between themselves and biologists about human overpopulation are over the appropriateness of definitions being used (and often devolve into social scientists and biologists simply talking past each other). Annual world population growth peaked at 2.1% in 1968, has since dropped to 1.1%, and could drop even further to 0.1% by 2100. Based on this, the United Nations projects the world population, which is 7.8 billion , to level out around 2100 at 10.9 billion with other models proposing similar stabilization before or after 2100. Some experts believe that a combination of factors (including technological and social change) would allow global resources to meet this increased demand, avoiding global overpopulation. Additionally, some critics dismiss the idea of human overpopulation as a science myth connected to attempts to blame environmental issues on overpopulation, oversimplify complex social or economic systems, or place blame on developing countries and poor populations—reinscribing colonial or racist assumptions and leading to discriminatory policy. These critics often suggest overconsumption should be treated as an issue separate from population growth. History of world population World population has been rising continuously since the end of the Black Death, around the year 1350. The fastest doubling of the world population happened between 1950 and 1986: a doubling from 2.5 to 5 billion people in 37 years, mainly due to medical advancements and increases in agricultural productivity. Due to its impact on the human ability to grow food, the Haber process enabled the global population to increase from 1.6 billion in 1900 to 7.7 billion by November 2018 and, according to the United Nations, eight billion as of November 2022. Some researchers have analyzed this growth in population like other animal populations, human populations predictably grow and shrink according to their available food supply as per the Lotka–Volterra equations, including agronomist and insect ecologist David Pimentel, behavioral scientist Russell Hopfenberg, and anthropologist Virginia Abernethy. World population has gone through a number of periods of growth since the dawn of civilization in the Holocene period, around 10,000 BCE. The beginning of civilization roughly coincides with the receding of glacial ice following the end of the Last Glacial Period. Farming allowed for the growth of populations in many parts of the world, including Europe, the Americas and China through the 1600s, occasionally disrupted by plagues or other crises. For example, the Black Death is thought to have reduced the world's population, then at an estimated 450 million in 1350, to between 350 and 375 million by 1400. After the start of the Industrial Revolution, during the 18th century, the rate of population growth began to increase. By the end of the century, the world's population was estimated at just under 1 billion. At the turn of the 20th century, the world's population was roughly 1.6 billion. By 1940, this figure had increased to 2.3 billion. Even more dramatic growth beginning in 1950 (above 1.8% per year) coincided with greatly increased food production as a result of the industrialization of agriculture brought about by the Green Revolution. The rate of human population growth peaked in 1964, at about 2.1% per year. Recent additions of a billion humans happened very quickly: 33 years to reach three billion in 1960, 14 years for four billion in 1974, 13 years for five billion in 1987, 12 years for six billion in 1999, 11 years for seven billion in 2010, and 12 years for 8 billion toward the end of 2022. Future projections Population projections are attempts to show how the human population might change in the future. These projections help to forecast the population's impact on this planet and humanity's future well-being. Models of population growth take trends in human development, and apply projections into the future to understand how they will affect fertility and mortality, and thus population growth. The most recent report from the United Nations Population Division issued in 2022 (see chart) projects that global population will peak around the year 2086 at about 10.4 billion, and then start a slow decline (the median line on the chart).  As with earlier projections, this version assumes that the global average fertility rate will continue to fall, but even further from 2.5 births per woman during the 2015–2020 period to 1.8 by the year 2100. However, other estimates predict additional downward pressure on fertility (such as more education and family planning) which could result in peak population during the 2060–2070 period rather than later. According to the UN, of the predicted growth in world population between 2020 and 2050, all of that change will come from less developed countries, and more than half will come from just 8 African countries. It is predicted that the population of sub-Saharan Africa will double by 2050. The Pew Research Center predicts that 50% of births in the year 2100 will be in Africa. As an example of uneven prospects, the UN projects that Nigeria will gain about 340 million people, about the present population of the US, to become the 3rd most populous country, and China will lose almost half of its population. History of overpopulation hypotheses Historical use Concerns about population size or density have a long history: Tertullian, a resident of the city of Carthage in the second century CE, criticized population at the time: "Our numbers are burdensome to the world, which can hardly support us... In very deed, pestilence, and famine, and wars, and earthquakes have to be regarded as a remedy for nations, as the means of pruning the luxuriance of the human race." Despite those concerns, scholars have not found historic societies that have collapsed because of overpopulation or overconsumption. By the early 19th century, intellectuals such as Thomas Malthus predicted that humankind would outgrow its available resources because a finite amount of land would be incapable of supporting a population with limitless potential for increase. During the 19th century, Malthus' work, particularly An Essay on the Principle of Population, was often interpreted in a way that blamed the poor alone for their condition and helping them was said to worsen conditions in the long run. This resulted, for example, in the English poor laws of 1834 and a hesitating response to the Irish Great Famine of 1845–52. The first World Population Conference was held in 1927 in Geneva, organized by the League of Nations and Margaret Sanger. Contemporary use Paul R. Ehrlich's book The Population Bomb became a bestseller upon its release in 1968 and created renewed interest in overpopulation. The book predicted population growth would lead to famine, societal collapse, and other social, environmental and economic strife in the coming decades, and advocated for policies to curb it. The Club of Rome published the influential report The Limits to Growth in 1972, which used computer modeling to similarly argue that continued population growth trends would lead to global system collapse. The idea of overpopulation was also a topic of some works of English-language science fiction and dystopian fiction during the latter part of the 1960s. The United Nations held the first of three World Population Conferences in 1974. Human population and family planning policies were adopted by some nations in the late 20th century in an effort to curb population growth, including in China and India. Albert Allen Bartlett gave more than 1,742 lectures on the threat of exponential population growth starting in 1969. However, many predictions of overpopulation during the 20th century did not materialize. In The Population Bomb, Ehrlich stated, "In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now," with later editions changing to "in the 1980s". Despite admitting some of his earlier predictions did not come to pass, Ehrlich continues to advocate that overpopulation is a major issue. As the profile of environmental issues facing humanity increased during the end of the 20th and the early 21st centuries, some have looked to population growth as a root cause. In the 2000s, E. O. Wilson and Ron Nielsen discussed overpopulation as a threat to the quality of human life. In 2011, Pentti Linkola argued that human overpopulation represents a threat to Earth's biosphere. A 2015 survey from Pew Research Center reports that 82% of scientists associated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science were concerned about population growth. In 2017, more than one-third of 50 Nobel prize-winning scientists surveyed by the Times Higher Education at the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings said that human overpopulation and environmental degradation are the two greatest threats facing mankind. In November that same year, the World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice, signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries, indicated that rapid human population growth is "a primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats." Ehlrich and other scientists at a conference in the Vatican on contemporary species extinction linked the issue to population growth in 2017, and advocated for human population control, which attracted controversy from the Catholic church. In 2019, a warning on climate change signed by 11,000 scientists from 153 nations said that human population growth adds 80 million humans annually, and "the world population must be stabilized—and, ideally, gradually reduced—within a framework that ensures social integrity" to reduce the impact of "population growth on GHG emissions and biodiversity loss." In 2020, a quote from David Attenborough about how humans have "overrun the planet" was shared widely online and became his most popular comment on the internet. Key arguments Overconsumption The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Global Footprint Network have argued that the annual biocapacity of Earth has exceeded, as measured using the ecological footprint. In 2006, WWF's Living Planet Report stated that in order for all humans to live with the current consumption patterns of Europeans, we would be spending three times more than what the planet can renew. According to these calculations, humanity as a whole was using by 2006 40% more than what Earth can regenerate. Another study by the WWF in 2014 found that it would take the equivalent of 1.5 Earths of bio-capacity to meet humanity's current levels of consumption. However, Roger Martin of Population Matters states the view: "the poor want to get rich, and I want them to get rich," with a later addition, "of course we have to change consumption habits,... but we've also got to stabilize our numbers". Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results—reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption. Carrying capacity Attempts have been made to estimate the world's carrying capacity for humans; the maximum population the world can host. A 2004 meta-analysis of 69 such studies from 1694 until 2001 found the average predicted maximum number of people the Earth would ever have was 7.7 billion people, with lower and upper meta-bounds at 0.65 and 98 billion people, respectively. They conclude: "recent predictions of stabilized world population levels for 2050 exceed several of our meta-estimates of a world population limit". A 2012 United Nations report summarized 65 different estimated maximum sustainable population sizes and the most common estimate was 8 billion. Advocates of reduced population often put forward much lower numbers. Paul R. Ehrlich stated in 2018 that the optimum population is between 1.5 and 2 billion. In 2022 Ehrlich and other contributors to the "Scientists' warning on population", including Eileen Crist, William J. Ripple, William E. Rees and Christopher Wolf, stated that environmental analysts put the sustainable level of human population at between 2 and 4 billion people. Geographer Chris Tucker estimates that 3 billion is a sustainable number. Critics of overpopulation criticize the basic assumptions associated with these estimates. For example, associate professor of gender and sexuality Jade Sasser believes that calculating a maximum of number of humanity is unethical claiming that only some, mostly European former colonial powers, are mostly responsible for unsustainably using up Earth's resources. Proposed impacts Poverty, and infant and child mortality Although proponents of human overpopulation have expressed concern that growing population will lead to an increase in global poverty and infant mortality, both indicators have declined over the last 200 years of population growth. Environmental impacts A number of scientists have argued that human impacts on the environment and accompanying increase in resource consumption threatens the world's ecosystems and the survival of human civilization. The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, states that "unprecedented" population growth aggravates many environmental problems, including rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution. Indeed, some analysts claim that overpopulation's most serious impact is its effect on the environment. Some scientists suggest that the overall human impact on the environment during the Great Acceleration, particularly due to human population size and growth, economic growth, overconsumption, pollution, and proliferation of technology, has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene. Some studies and commentary link population growth with climate change. Critics have stated that population growth alone may have less influence on climate change than other factors, such as greenhouse gas emissions per capita. The global consumption of meat is projected to rise by as much as 76% by 2050 as the global population increases, with this projected to have further environmental impacts such as biodiversity loss and increased greenhouse gas emissions. A July 2017 study published in Environmental Research Letters argued that the most significant way individuals could mitigate their own carbon footprint is to have fewer children, followed by living without a vehicle, forgoing air travel, and adopting a plant-based diet. However, even in countries which have both large population growth and major ecological problems, it is not necessarily true that curbing the population growth will make a major contribution towards resolving all environmental problems that can be solved simply with an environmentalist policy approach. Continued population growth and overconsumption, particularly by the wealthy, have been posited as key drivers of biodiversity loss and contemporary species extinction, with some researchers and environmentalists specifically suggesting this indicates a human overpopulation scenario. The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, released by IPBES in 2019, states that human population growth is a factor in biodiversity loss. IGI Global has uncovered the growth of the human population caused encroachment in wild habitats which have led to their destruction, "posing a potential threat to biodiversity components". Some scientists and environmentalists, including Jared Diamond, E. O. Wilson, Jane Goodall and David Attenborough, contend that population growth is devastating to biodiversity. Wilson for example, has expressed concern when Homo sapiens reached a population of six billion their biomass exceeded that of any other large land dwelling animal species that had ever existed by over 100 times. Inger Andersen, the executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme, stated in December 2022 as the human population reached a milestone of 8 billion and as delegates were meeting for the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference, that "we need to understand that the more people there are, the more we put the Earth under heavy pressure. As far as biodiversity is concerned, we are at war with nature." Human overpopulation and continued population growth are also considered by some, including animal rights attorney Doris Lin and philosopher Steven Best, to be an animal rights issue, as more human activity means the destruction of animal habitats and more direct killing of animals. Resource depletion Some commentary has attributed depletion of non-renewable resources, such as land, food and water, to overpopulation and suggested it could lead to a diminished quality of human life. Ecologist David Pimentel was one such proponent, saying "with the imbalance growing between population numbers and vital life sustaining resources, humans must actively conserve cropland, freshwater, energy, and biological resources. There is a need to develop renewable energy resources. Humans everywhere must understand that rapid population growth damages the Earth's resources and diminishes human well-being." Although food shortages have been warned as a consequence of overpopulation, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, global food production exceeds increasing demand from global population growth. Food insecurity in some regions is attributable to the globally unequal distribution of food supplies. The notion that space is limited has been decried by skeptics, who point out that the Earth's population of roughly 6.8 billion people could comfortably be housed an area comparable in size to the state of Texas in the United States (about ). Critics and agricultural experts suggest changes to policies relating to land use or agriculture to make them more efficient would be more likely to resolve land issues and pressures on the environment than focusing on reducing population alone. Water scarcity, which threatens agricultural productivity, represents a global issue that some have linked to population growth. Colin Butler wrote in The Lancet in 1994 that overpopulation also has economic consequences for certain countries due to resource use. Political systems and social conflict It was speculated by Aldous Huxley in 1958 that democracy is threatened by overpopulation, and could give rise to totalitarian style governments. Physics professor Albert Allen Bartlett at the University of Colorado Boulder warned in 2000 that overpopulation and the development of technology are the two major causes of the diminution of democracy. However, over the last 200 years of population growth, the actual level of personal freedom has increased rather than declined. John Harte has argued population growth is a factor in numerous social issues, including unemployment, overcrowding, bad governance and decaying infrastructure. Daron Acemoglu and others suggested in a 2017 paper that since the Second World War, countries with higher population growth rates experienced the most social conflict. Some advocates have suggested societal problems such as hunger and mass unemployment are linked to overpopulation. According to anthropologist Jason Hickel, the global capitalist system creates pressures for population growth: "more people means more labour, cheaper labour, and more consumers." He and his colleagues have also demonstrated that capitalist elites throughout recent history have "used pro-natalist state policies to prevent women from practicing family planning" in order to grow the size of their workforce. Hickel has however argued that the cause of negative environmental impacts is resource extraction by wealthy countries. He concludes that "we should not ignore the relationship between population growth and ecology, but we must not treat these as operating in a social and political vacuum." Epidemics and pandemics A 2021 article in Ethics, Medicine and Public Health argued in light of the COVID-19 pandemic that epidemics and pandemics were made more likely by overpopulation, globalization, urbanization and encroachment into natural habitats. They both play a significant role impact on human populations, including widespread illness, death, and social disruption. While they can leave to a temporarily loss of population but is followed by significant loss and suffering. These events is not the sole reason for overpopulation but lack of access to family planning and reproductive contraptions, poverty and resource depletion. Proposed solutions and mitigation measures Several strategies have been proposed to mitigate overpopulation. Population planning Several scientists (including Paul Ehrlich, Gretchen Daily and Tim Flannery) proposed that humanity should work at stabilizing its absolute numbers, as a starting point towards beginning the process of reducing the total numbers. They suggested several possible approaches, including: Improved access to contraception and sex education Reducing infant mortality, so that parents do not need to have many children to ensure at least some survive to adulthood. Improving the status of women in order to facilitate a departure from traditional sexual division of labour. Family planning Creating small family "role models" Secular cultures and societies. There is good evidence from many parts of the world that when women and couples have the freedom to choose how many children to have, they tend to have smaller families.   Some scientists, such as Corey Bradshaw and Barry Brook, suggest that, given the "inexorable demographic momentum of the global human population," sustainability can be achieved more rapidly with a short term focus on technological and social innovations, along with reducing consumption rates, while treating population planning as a long-term goal. However, most scientists believe that achieving genuine sustainability is a long-term project, and that addressing population and consumption levels are both essential to achieving it. In 1992, more than 1700 scientists from around the world signed onto a "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity," including a majority of the living Nobel prize-winners in the sciences. "The earth is finite," they wrote. "Its ability to absorb wastes and destructive effluent is finite. Its ability to provide food and energy is finite. Its ability to provide for growing numbers of people is finite. And we are fast approaching many of the earth's limits." The warning noted:Pressures resulting from unrestrained population growth put demands on the natural world that can overwhelm any efforts to achieve a sustainable future. If we are to halt the destruction of our environment, we must accept limits to that growth. Two of the five areas where the signatories requested immediate action were "stabilize population" and "ensure sexual equality, and guarantee women control over their own reproductive decisions." In a follow-up message 25 years later, William Ripple and colleagues issued the "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice." This time more than 15,000 scientists from around the world signed on. "We are jeopardizing our future by not reining in our intense but geographically and demographically uneven material consumption and by not perceiving continued rapid population growth as a primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats," they wrote. "By failing to adequately limit population growth, reassess the role of an economy rooted in growth, reduce greenhouse gases, incentivize renewable energy, protect habitat, restore ecosystems, curb pollution, halt defaunation, and constrain invasive alien species, humanity is not taking the urgent steps needed to safeguard our imperilled biosphere." This second scientists’ warning urged attention to both excessive consumption and continued population growth. Like its predecessor, it did not specify a definite global human carrying capacity. But its call to action included "estimating a scientifically defensible, sustainable human population size for the long term while rallying nations and leaders to support that vital goal."   Subsequent scientists' calls to action have also included calls for population planning. The 2020 "World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency" stated: "Economic and population growth are among the most important drivers of increases in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion." "Therefore," the study noted: "we need bold and drastic transformations regarding economic and population policies." "The world population must be stabilized—and, ideally, gradually reduced," it concluded, implying that humanity is overpopulated given current and expected levels of resource use and waste generation. A follow-up scientists’ warning on climate change in 2021 reiterated the need to plan and limit human numbers to achieve sustainability, proposing as a goal "stabilizing and gradually reducing the [global] population by providing voluntary family planning and supporting education and rights for all girls and young women, which has been proven to lower fertility rates." Family planning Education and empowerment of women and giving access to family planning and contraception have a demonstrated impact on reducing birthrates. Many studies conclude that educating girls reduces the number of children they have. One option according to some activists is to focus on education about family planning and birth control methods, and to make birth-control devices like condoms, contraceptive pills and intrauterine devices easily available. Worldwide, nearly 40% of pregnancies are unintended (some 80 million unintended pregnancies each year). An estimated 350 million women in the poorest countries of the world either did not want their last child, do not want another child or want to space their pregnancies, but they lack access to information, affordable means and services to determine the size and spacing of their families. In the developing world, some 514,000 women die annually of complications from pregnancy and abortion, with 86% of these deaths occurring in the sub-Saharan Africa region and South Asia. Additionally, 8 million infants die, many because of malnutrition or preventable diseases, especially from lack of access to clean drinking water. Women's rights and their reproductive rights in particular are issues regarded to have vital importance in the debate. Anthropologist Jason Hickel asserts that a nation's population growth rapidly declines - even within a single generation - when policies relating to women's health and reproductive rights, children's health (to ensure parents they will survive to adulthood), and expanding education and economic opportunities for girls and women are implemented. A 2020 paper by William J. Ripple and other scientists argued in favor of population policies that could advance social justice (such as by abolishing child marriage, expanding family planning services and reforms that improve education for women and girls) and at the same time mitigate the impact of population growth on climate change and biodiversity loss. In a 2022 warning on population published by Science of the Total Environment, Ripple, Ehrlich and other scientists appealed to families around the world to have no more than one child and also urged policy-makers to improve education for young females and provide high-quality family-planning services. Extraterrestrial settlement Urbanization Despite the increase in population density within cities (and the emergence of megacities), UN Habitat Data Corp. states in its reports that urbanization may be the best compromise in the face of global population growth. Cities concentrate human activity within limited areas, limiting the breadth of environmental damage. UN Habitat says this is only possible if urban planning is significantly improved. Paul R. Ehrlich proposed in The Population Bomb that rhetoric supporting the increase of city density is a means of avoiding dealing with what he views as the root problem of overpopulation and has been promoted by what he views as the same interests that have allegedly profited from population increase (such as property developers, the banking system which invests in property development, industry, and municipal councils). Subsequent authors point to growth economics as driving governments seek city growth and expansion at any cost, disregarding the impact it might have on the environment. Criticism The concept of human overpopulation, and its attribution as a cause of environmental issues, are controversial. Some critics, including Nicholas Eberstadt, Fred Pearce, Dominic Lawson and Betsy Hartmann, refer to overpopulation as a myth. Predicted exponential population growth or any "population explosion" did not materialise; instead, population growth slowed. Critics suggest that enough resources are available to support projected population growth, and that human impacts on the environment are not attributable to overpopulation. According to libertarian think tank the Fraser Institute, both the idea of overpopulation and the alleged depletion of resources are myths; most resources are now more abundant than a few decades ago, thanks to technological progress. The institute also questions the sincerity of advocates of population control in poor countries. Nicholas Eberstadt, a political economist, has criticised the idea of overpopulation, saying that "overpopulation is not really overpopulation. It is a question of poverty". A 2020 study in The Lancet concluded that "continued trends in female educational attainment and access to contraception will hasten declines in fertility and slow population growth", with projections suggesting world population would peak at 9.73 billion in 2064 and fall by 2100. Media commentary interpreted this as suggesting overconsumption represents a greater environmental threat as an overpopulation scenario may never occur. Some human population planning strategies advocated by proponents of overpopulation are controversial for ethical reasons. Those concerned with overpopulation, including Paul Ehrlich, have been accused of influencing human rights abuses including forced sterilisation policies in India and under China's one-child policy, as well as mandatory or coercive birth control measures taken in other countries. Women's rights Influential advocates such as Betsy Hartmann consider the "myth of overpopulation" to be destructive as it "prevents constructive thinking and action on reproductive rights," which acutely affects women and communities of women in poverty. The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) defines reproductive rights as "the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information to do so." This oversimplification of human overpopulation leads individuals to believe there are simple solutions and the creation of population policies that limit reproductive rights. In response, philosopher Tim Meijers asks the question: "To what extent is it fair to require people to refrain from procreating as part of a strategy to make the world more sustainable?" Meijers rejects the idea that the right to reproduce can be unlimited, since this would not be universalizable: "in a world in which everybody had many children, extreme scarcity would arise and stable institutions could prove unsustainable. This would lead to violation of (rather uncontroversial) rights such as the right to life and to health and subsistence." In the actual world today, excessive procreation could also undermine our descendants' right to have children, since people are likely to refrain (and perhaps should refrain) from bringing children into an insecure and dangerous world. Meijers, Sarah Conly, Diana Coole, and other ethicists conclude that people have a right to found a family, but not to unlimited numbers of children. Coercive population control policies Ehrlich advocated in The Population Bomb that "various forms of coercion", such as removing tax benefits for having additional children, be used in cases when voluntary population planning policies fail. Some nations, like China, have used strict or coercive measures such as the one-child policy to reduce birth rates. Compulsory or semi-compulsory sterilization, such as for token material compensation or easing of penalties, has also been implemented in many countries as a form of population control. Another choice-based approach is financial compensation or other benefits by the state offered to people who voluntarily undergo sterilization. Such policies have been introduced by the government of India. The Indian government of Narendra Modi introduced population policies in the 21st century, including offering incentives for sterilization by citing the risks of a "population explosion" although demographers have criticized that basis, with India thought to be undergoing demographic transition and its fertility rate falling. The policies have also received criticism from human and women's rights groups. Racism The concept of human overpopulation has been criticized by some scholars and environmentalists as being racist and having roots in colonialism and white supremacy, since control and reduction of human population is often focused on the global south, instead of on overconsumption and the global north, where it occurs. Paul Ehrlich's Population Bomb begins with him describing first knowing the "feel of overpopulation" from a visit to Delhi, which some critics have accused of having racial undertones. George Monbiot has said "when affluent white people wrongly transfer the blame for their environmental impacts on to the birthrate of much poorer brown and black people, their finger-pointing reinforces [Great Replacement and white genocide conspiracy] narratives. It is inherently racist." Overpopulation is a common component of ecofascist ideology. Scholar Heather Alberro rejects the overpopulation argument, stating that the human population growth is rapidly slowing down, the underlying problem is not the number of people, but how resources are distributed and that the idea of overpopulation could fuel a racist backlash against the population of poor countries. In response, population activists argue that overpopulation is a problem in both rich and poor countries, and arguably a worse problem in rich countries, where residents’ higher per capita consumption ratchets up the impacts of their excessive numbers. Feminist scholar Donna Haraway notes that a commitment to enlarging the moral community to include nonhuman beings logically entails people’s willingness to limit their numbers and make room for them. Ecological economists like Herman Daly and Joshua Farley believe that reducing populations will make it easier to achieve steady-state economies that decrease total consumption and pollution to manageable levels. Finally, as Karin Kuhlemann observes, "that a population's size is stable in no way entails sustainability. It may be sustainable, or it may be far too large." According to the writer and journalist Krithika Varagur, myths and misinformation about overpopulation of Rohingya people in Myanmar is thought to have driven their genocide in the 2010s. Advocacy organizations The following organizations advocate for a limit to human population growth, although their focus may be on related issues such as environmental protection: Global Footprint Network, a coalition of NGOs that calculates the annual Earth Overshoot Day Millennium Alliance for Humanity and the Biosphere (MAHB) Negative Population Growth Population Matters Voluntary Human Extinction Movement Population Media Center Church of Euthanasia Organization advocate against limits to human population growth. Population Research Institute (organization) See also Demographic trap Demographic transition The Limits to Growth Human population planning Malthusian catastrophe Overshoot (population) Planetary boundaries Antinatalism Overpopulation in domestic pets Documentary and art Overpopulation fiction (category) Fatal Misconception Don't Panic — The Truth about Population What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Planet of the Humans Ten Billion Notes References Bundled references Further reading Matthew Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population. Harvard University Press, 2010. David Foreman, Man Swarm: How Overpopulation is Killing the Wild World. Livetrue Books, 2015. Karen Shragg, Move Upstream: A Call to Solve Overpopulation. (published November 2015). Discussion of the book by the author, March 2017 (video, 91 minutes). Alan Weisman. Countdown: Our Last, Best Hope for a Future on Earth? Little, Brown and Company, (2013) Thomas Robertson, The Malthusian Moment: Global Population Growth and the Birth of American Environmentalism (2012), Rutgers University Press J.R. McNeill, Peter Engelke, The Great Acceleration: An Environmental History of the Anthropocene since 1945 (2016) Population ecology World population Demographic economic problems Environmental controversies Political controversies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration
Immigration
Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle as permanent residents or naturalized citizens. Commuters, tourists, and other short-term stays in a destination country do not fall under the definition of immigration or migration; seasonal labour immigration is sometimes included, however. As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Research, with few exceptions, finds that immigration on average has positive economic effects on the native population, but is mixed as to whether low-skilled immigration adversely affects underprivileged natives. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have profound effects on world GDP, with estimates of gains ranging between 67 and 147 percent for the scenarios in which 37 to 53 percent of the developing countries' workers migrate to the developed countries. Development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Positive net immigration can soften the demographic dilemma in the aging global North. The academic literature provides mixed findings for the relationship between immigration and crime worldwide, but finds for the United States that immigration either has no impact on the crime rate or that it reduces the crime rate. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, but that there is considerable assimilation overall for both first- and second-generation immigrants. Research has found extensive evidence of discrimination against foreign-born and minority populations in criminal justice, business, the economy, housing, health care, media, and politics in the United States and Europe. History The term immigration was coined in the 17th century, referring to non-warlike population movements between the emerging nation states. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants (from Latin: migrare, 'wanderer') from the perspective of the destination country. In contrast, from the perspective of the country from which they leave, they are called emigrants or outmigrants. Statistics , the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. One third of the world's international migrants are living in just 20 countries. The largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the world's total. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second and third place in countries with the most migrants worldwide. Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom (9 million) and the United Arab Emirates (8 million). In most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any other major area in the world, gaining 26 million. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million. In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with a median age of 29, followed by Asia (35 years), and Latin America/Caribbean (36 years), while migrants were older in Northern America (42 years), Europe (43 years), and Oceania (44 years). Nearly half (43%) of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants (25%), followed by Latin America (15%). India has the largest diaspora in the world (16 million people), followed by Mexico (12 million) and Russia (11 million). 2012 survey A 2012 survey by Gallup found that given the opportunity, 640 million adults would migrate to another country, with 23% of these would-be immigrant choosing the United States as their desired future residence, while 7% of respondents, representing 45 million people, would choose the United Kingdom. Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, Spain, Italy, and the United Arab Emirates made up the rest of the top ten desired destination countries. Push and pull factors of immigration One theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors, referring to the economic, political, and social influences by which people migrate from or to specific countries. Immigrants are motivated to leave their former countries of citizenship, or habitual residence, for a variety of reasons, including: a lack of local access to resources, a desire for economic prosperity, to find or engage in paid work, to better their standard of living, family reunification, retirement, climate or environmentally induced migration, exile, escape from prejudice, conflict or natural disaster, or simply the wish to change one's quality of life. Commuters, tourists, and other short-term stays in a destination country do not fall under the definition of immigration or migration; seasonal labour immigration is sometimes included, however. Push factors (or determinant factors) refer primarily to the motive for leaving one's country of origin (either voluntarily or involuntarily), whereas pull factors (or attraction factors) refer to one's motivations behind or the encouragement towards immigrating to a particular country. In the case of economic migration (usually labor migration), differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in one's native country, he or she may choose to migrate, as long as the costs are not too high. Particularly in the 19th century, economic expansion of the US increased immigrant flow, and nearly 15% of the population was foreign-born, thus making up a significant amount of the labor force. As transportation technology improved, travel time, and costs decreased dramatically between the 18th and early 20th century. Travel across the Atlantic used to take up to 5 weeks in the 18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days. When the opportunity cost is lower, the immigration rates tend to be higher. Escape from poverty (personal or for relatives staying behind) is a traditional push factor, and the availability of jobs is the related pull factor. Natural disasters can amplify poverty-driven migration flows. Research shows that for middle-income countries, higher temperatures increase emigration rates to urban areas and to other countries. For low-income countries, higher temperatures reduce emigration. Emigration and immigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment: religious missionaries and employees of transnational corporations, international non-governmental organizations, and the diplomatic service expect, by definition, to work "overseas". They are often referred to as "expatriates", and their conditions of employment are typically equal to or better than those applying in the host country (for similar work). Non-economic push factors include persecution (religious and otherwise), frequent abuse, bullying, oppression, ethnic cleansing, genocide, risks to civilians during war, and social marginalization. Political motives traditionally motivate refugee flows; for instance, people may emigrate in order to escape a dictatorship. Some migration is for personal reasons, based on a relationship (e.g. to be with family or a partner), such as in family reunification or transnational marriage (especially in the instance of a gender imbalance). Recent research has found gender, age, and cross-cultural differences in the ownership of the idea to immigrate. In a few cases, an individual may wish to immigrate to a new country in a form of transferred patriotism. Evasion of criminal justice (e.g., avoiding arrest) is a personal motivation. This type of emigration and immigration is not normally legal, if a crime is internationally recognized, although criminals may disguise their identities or find other loopholes to evade detection. For example, there have been reports of war criminals disguising themselves as victims of war or conflict and then pursuing asylum in a different country. Barriers to immigration come not only in legal form or political form; natural and social barriers to immigration can also be very powerful. Immigrants when leaving their country also leave everything familiar: their family, friends, support network, and culture. They also need to liquidate their assets, and they incur the expense of moving. When they arrive in a new country, this is often with many uncertainties including finding work, where to live, new laws, new cultural norms, language or accent issues, possible racism, and other exclusionary behavior towards them and their family. The politics of immigration have become increasingly associated with other issues, such as national security and terrorism, especially in western Europe, with the presence of Islam as a new major religion. Those with security concerns cite the 2005 French riots and point to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy as examples of the value conflicts arising from immigration of Muslims in Western Europe. Because of all these associations, immigration has become an emotional political issue in many European nations. Studies have suggested that some special interest groups lobby for less immigration for their own group and more immigration for other groups since they see effects of immigration, such as increased labor competition, as detrimental when affecting their own group but beneficial when impacting other groups. A 2010 European study suggested that "employers are more likely to be pro-immigration than employees, provided that immigrants are thought to compete with employees who are already in the country. Or else, when immigrants are thought to compete with employers rather than employees, employers are more likely to be anti-immigration than employees." A 2011 study examining the voting of US representatives on migration policy suggests that "representatives from more skilled labor abundant districts are more likely to support an open immigration policy towards the unskilled, whereas the opposite is true for representatives from more unskilled labor abundant districts." Another contributing factor may be lobbying by earlier immigrants. The chairman for the US Irish Lobby for Immigration Reform—which lobby for more permissive rules for immigrants, as well as special arrangements just for Irish people—has stated that "the Irish Lobby will push for any special arrangement it can get—'as will every other ethnic group in the country. Economic migrant The term economic migrant refers to someone who has travelled from one region to another region for the purposes of seeking employment and an improvement in quality of life and access to resources. An economic migrant is distinct from someone who is a refugee fleeing persecution. Many countries have immigration and visa restrictions that prohibit a person entering the country for the purposes of gaining work without a valid work visa. As a violation of a State's immigration laws a person who is declared to be an economic migrant can be refused entry into a country. The World Bank estimates that remittances totaled $420 billion in 2009, of which $317 billion went to developing countries. Laws and ethics Legislation regarding the protection of rights of immigrants and equal access to justice differs per nation. International law – the product of the United Nations and other multinational organizations – creates protocols governing immigrant rights. International law and the European Convention of Human Rights state that immigrants can only be detained for ‘legitimate aims’ of the state. It also notes that vulnerable people should be protected from unreasonable punishment and lengthy detention. International law outlines requirements for due process and suitable conditions. However, nations are sovereign, and the protocols of international law cannot be enforced upon them. Nations have the freedom to handle immigrants as they choose, and to structure how any legal aid is distributed. Human rights organizations strongly criticize individual nation-states for the limitations of their immigration policies and practices. Treatment of migrants in host countries, both by governments, employers, and original population, is a topic of continual debate and criticism, and the violation of migrant human rights is an ongoing crisis. The United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, has been ratified by 48 states, most of which are heavy exporters of cheap labor. Major migrant-receiving countries and regions—including Western Europe, North America, Pacific Asia, Australia, and the Gulf States—have not ratified the convention, even though they are host to the majority of international migrant workers. Although freedom of movement is often recognized as a civil right in many documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), the freedom only applies to movement within national borders and the ability to return to one's home state. Some proponents of immigration argue that the freedom of movement both within and between countries is a basic human right, and that the restrictive immigration policies, typical of nation-states, violate this human right of freedom of movement. Such arguments are common among ideologies like anarchism and libertarianism. As philosopher and open borders activist Jacob Appel has written, "Treating human beings differently, simply because they were born on the opposite side of a national boundary, is hard to justify under any mainstream philosophical, religious or ethical theory." Where immigration is permitted, it is typically selective. , family reunification accounted for approximately two-thirds of legal immigration to the US every year. Ethnic selection, such as the White Australia policy, has generally disappeared, but priority is usually given to the educated, skilled, and wealthy. Less privileged individuals, including the mass of poor people in low-income countries, cannot avail themselves of the legal and protected immigration opportunities offered by wealthy states. This inequality has also been criticized as conflicting with the principle of equal opportunities. The fact that the door is closed for the unskilled, while at the same time many developed countries have a huge demand for unskilled labor, is a major factor in illegal immigration. The contradictory nature of this policy—which specifically disadvantages the unskilled immigrants while exploiting their labor—has also been criticized on ethical grounds. Immigration policies which selectively grant freedom of movement to targeted individuals are intended to produce a net economic gain for the host country. They can also mean net loss for a poor donor country through the loss of the educated minority—a "brain drain". This can exacerbate the global inequality in standards of living that provided the motivation for the individual to migrate in the first place. One example of competition for skilled labour is active recruitment of health workers from developing countries by developed countries. There may however also be a "brain gain" to emigration, as migration opportunities lead to greater investments in education in developing countries. Overall, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Economic effects A survey of leading economists shows a consensus behind the view that high-skilled immigration makes the average American better off. A survey of the same economists also shows support behind the notion that low-skilled immigration makes the average American better off and makes many low-skilled American workers substantially worse off unless they are compensated by others. A survey of European economists shows a consensus that freer movement of people to live and work across borders within Europe makes the average European better off, and strong support behind the notion that it has not made low-skilled Europeans worse off. According to David Card, Christian Dustmann, and Ian Preston, "most existing studies of the economic impacts of immigration suggest these impacts are small, and on average benefit the native population". In a survey of the existing literature, Örn B Bodvarsson and Hendrik Van den Berg write, "a comparison of the evidence from all the studies... makes it clear that, with very few exceptions, there is no strong statistical support for the view held by many members of the public, mainly that immigration has an adverse effect on native-born workers in the destination country." Overall economic prosperity Whereas the impact on the average native tends to be small and positive, studies show more mixed results for low-skilled natives, but whether the effects are positive or negative, they tend to be small either way. Research indicates immigrants are more likely to work in risky jobs than U.S.-born workers, partly due to differences in average characteristics, such as immigrants' lower English language ability and educational attainment. According to a 2017 survey of the existing economic literature, studies on high-skilled migrants "rarely find adverse wage and employment consequences, and longer time horizons tend to show greater gains". Competition from immigrants in a particular profession may aggravate underemployment in that profession, but increase wages for other natives; for instance, a 2017 study in Science found that "the influx of foreign-born computer scientists since the early 1990s... increased the size of the US IT sector... benefited consumers via lower prices and more efficient products... raised overall worker incomes by 0.2 to 0.3% but decreased wages of U.S. computer scientists by 2.6 to 5.1%." A 2019 study found that foreign college workers in STEM occupations did not displace native college workers in STEM occupations, but instead had a positive impact on the latter group's wages. A 2021 study similarly found that highly educated immigrants to Switzerland caused wages to increase for highly educated Swiss natives. A 2019 study found that greater immigration led to less off-shoring by firms. Research also suggests that diversity and immigration have a net positive effect on productivity and economic prosperity. Immigration has also been associated with reductions in offshoring. A study found that the Age of Mass Migration (1850–1920) contributed to "higher incomes, higher productivity, more innovation, and more industrialization" in the short-run and "higher incomes, less poverty, less unemployment, higher rates of urbanization, and greater educational attainment" in the long-run for the United States. Research also shows that migration to Latin America during the Age of Mass Migration had a positive impact on long-run economic development. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have profound effects on world GDP, with estimates of gains ranging between 67 and 147.3%. Research also finds that migration leads to greater trade in goods and services, and increases in financial flows between the sending and receiving countries. Using 130 years of data on historical migrations to the United States, one study finds "that a doubling of the number of residents with ancestry from a given foreign country relative to the mean increases by 4.2 percentage points the probability that at least one local firm invests in that country, and increases by 31% the number of employees at domestic recipients of FDI from that country. The size of these effects increases with the ethnic diversity of the local population, the geographic distance to the origin country, and the ethno-linguistic fractionalization of the origin country." A 2017 study found that "immigrants' genetic diversity is significantly positively correlated with measures of U.S. counties' economic development [during the Age of Mass Migration]. There exists also a significant positive relationship between immigrants' genetic diversity in 1870 and contemporaneous measures of U.S. counties' average income." Some research suggests that immigration can offset some of the adverse effects of automation on native labor outcomes. By increasing overall demand, immigrants could push natives out of low-skilled manual labor into better paying occupations. A 2018 study in the American Economic Review found that the Bracero program (which allowed almost half a million Mexican workers to do seasonal farm labor in the United States) did not have any adverse impact on the labor market outcomes of American-born farm workers. A 2019 study by economic historians found that immigration restrictions implemented in the 1920s had an adverse impact on US-born workers' earnings. A 2016 paper by University of Southern Denmark and University of Copenhagen economists found that the 1924 immigration restrictions enacted in the United States impaired the economy. Inequality Overall immigration was found to account for a relatively small share of the rise of native wage inequality, but low-skill immigration has been linked to greater income inequality in the native population. Greater openness to low-skilled immigration in wealthy countries would drastically reduce global income inequality. Fiscal effects A 2011 literature review of the economic impacts of immigration found that the net fiscal impact of migrants varies across studies but that the most credible analyses typically find small and positive fiscal effects on average. According to the authors, "the net social impact of an immigrant over his or her lifetime depends substantially and in predictable ways on the immigrant's age at arrival, education, reason for migration, and similar". According to a 2007 literature review by the Congressional Budget Office, "Over the past two decades, most efforts to estimate the fiscal impact of immigration in the United States have concluded that, in aggregate and over the long term, tax revenues of all types generated by immigrants—both legal and unauthorized—exceed the cost of the services they use." A 2022 study found that the sharp reduction in refugee admissions adversely affected public coffers at all levels of government in the United States. A 2018 study found that inflows of asylum seekers into Western Europe from 1985 to 2015 had a net positive fiscal impact. Research has shown that EU immigrants made a net positive fiscal contribution to Denmark and the United Kingdom. A 2017 study found that when Romanian and Bulgarian immigrants to the United Kingdom gained permission to acquire welfare benefits in 2014 that it had no discernible impact on the immigrants' use of welfare benefits. A paper by a group of French economists found that over the period 1980–2015, "international migration had a positive impact on the economic and fiscal performance of OECD countries." Impact of refugees A 2017 survey of leading economists found that 34% of economists agreed with the statement "The influx of refugees into Germany beginning in the summer of 2015 will generate net economic benefits for German citizens over the succeeding decade", whereas 38% were uncertain and 6% disagreed. Studies of refugees' impact on native welfare are scant but the existing literature shows mixed results (negative, positive and no significant effects). According to economist Michael Clemens, "when economists have studied past influxes of refugees and migrants they have found the labor market effects, while varied, are very limited, and can in fact be positive." A 2018 study in the Economic Journal found that Vietnamese refugees to the United States had a positive impact on American exports, as exports to Vietnam grew most in US states with larger Vietnamese populations. A 2018 study in the journal Science Advances found that asylum seekers entering Western Europe in the period 1985–2015 had a positive macroeconomic and fiscal impact. A 2019 study found that the mass influx of 1.3 million Syrian refugees to Jordan (total population: 6.6 million) did not have harm the labor market outcomes of native Jordanians. A 2020 study found that Syrian refugees to Turkey improved the productivity of Turkish firms. A 2017 paper by Evans and Fitzgerald found that refugees to the United States pay "$21,000 more in taxes than they receive in benefits over their first 20 years in the U.S." An internal study by the Department of Health and Human Services under the Trump administration, which was suppressed and not shown to the public, found that refugees to the United States brought in $63 billion more in government revenues than they cost the government. According to University of California, Davis, labor economist Giovanni Peri, the existing literature suggests that there are no economic reasons why the American labor market could not easily absorb 100,000 Syrian refugees in a year. A 2017 paper looking at the long-term impact of refugees on the American labor market over the period 1980–2010 found "that there is no adverse long-run impact of refugees on the U.S. labor market." A 2022 study by economist Michael Clemens found that the sharp reduction in refugee admissions in the United States since 2017 had cost the U.S. economy over $9.1 billion per year and cost public coffers over $2 billion per year. Refugees integrate more slowly into host countries' labor markets than labor migrants, in part due to the loss and depreciation of human capital and credentials during the asylum procedure. Refugees tend to do worse in economic terms than natives, even when they have the same skills and language proficiencies of natives. For instance, a 2013 study of Germans in West-Germany who had been displaced from Eastern Europe during and after World War II showed that the forced German migrants did far worse economically than their native West-German counterparts decades later. Second-generation forced German migrants also did worse in economic terms than their native counterparts. A study of refugees to the United States found that "refugees that enter the U.S. before age 14 graduate high school and enter college at the same rate as natives. Refugees that enter as older teenagers have lower attainment with much of the difference attributable to language barriers and because many in this group are not accompanied by a parent to the U.S." Refugees that entered the U.S. at ages 18–45, have "much lower levels of education and poorer language skills than natives and outcomes are initially poor with low employment, high welfare use and low earnings." But the authors of the study find that "outcomes improve considerably as refugees age." A 2017 study found that the 0.5 million Portuguese who returned to Portugal from Mozambique and Angola in the mid-1970s lowered labor productivity and wages. A 2018 paper found that the areas in Greece that took on a larger share of Greek Orthodox refugees from the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 "have today higher earnings, higher levels of household wealth, greater educational attainment, as well as larger financial and manufacturing sectors." Impact of undocumented immigrants Research on the economic effects of undocumented immigrants is scant but existing studies suggests that the effects are positive for the native population, and public coffers. A 2015 study shows that "increasing deportation rates and tightening border control weakens low-skilled labor markets, increasing unemployment of native low-skilled workers. Legalization, instead, decreases the unemployment rate of low-skilled natives and increases income per native." Studies show that legalization of undocumented immigrants would boost the U.S. economy; a 2013 study found that granting legal status to undocumented immigrants would raise their incomes by a quarter (increasing U.S. GDP by approximately $1.4 trillion over a ten-year period), and a 2016 study found that "legalization would increase the economic contribution of the unauthorized population by about 20%, to 3.6% of private-sector GDP." A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that undocumented immigrants to the United States "generate higher surplus for US firms relative to natives, hence restricting their entry has a depressing effect on job creation and, in turn, on native labor markets." In the US the Immigration Reform and Control Act was passed to help remove the illegal aliens. They were trying to do this by granting legal status or by imposing penalties against the employers who would knowingly work illegal immigrants. However, IRCA did not address the reality or price which caused an issue in the accomplishing of the objectives. A 2017 study in the Journal of Public Economics found that more intense immigration enforcement increased the likelihood that US-born children with undocumented immigrant parents would live in poverty. A paper by Spanish economists found that upon legalizing the undocumented immigrant population in Spain, the fiscal revenues increased by around €4,189 per newly legalized immigrant. The paper found that the wages of the newly legalized immigrants increased after legalization, some low-skilled natives had worse labor market outcomes and high-skilled natives had improved labor market outcomes. A 2018 study found no evidence that apprehensions of undocumented immigrants in districts in the United States improved the labor market outcomes for American natives. A 2020 study found that immigration enforcement in the US leads to declining production in the US dairy industry and that dairy operators respond to immigration enforcement by automating their operations (rather than hire new labor). A 2021 study in the American Economic Journal found that undocumented immigrants had beneficial effects on the employment and wages of American natives. Stricter immigration enforcement adversely affected employment and wages of American natives. Impact on the sending countries Research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. According to one study, welfare increases in both types of countries: "welfare impact of observed levels of migration is substantial, at about 5% to 10% for the main receiving countries and about 10% in countries with large incoming remittances". According to Branko Milanović, country of residency is by far the most important determinant of global income inequality, which suggests that the reduction in labor barriers would significantly reduce global income inequality. A study of equivalent workers in the United States and 42 developing countries found that "median wage gap for a male, unskilled (9 years of schooling), 35-year-old, urban formal sector worker born and educated in a developing country is P$15,400 per year at purchasing power parity". A 2014 survey of the existing literature on emigration finds that a 10 percent emigrant supply shock would increase wages in the sending country by 2–5.5%. Remittances increase living standards in the country of origin. Remittances are a large share of the GDP of many developing countries. A study on remittances to Mexico found that remittances lead to a substantial increase in the availability of public services in Mexico, surpassing government spending in some localities. Research finds that emigration and low migration barriers has net positive effects on human capital formation in the sending countries. This means that there is a "brain gain" instead of a "brain drain" to emigration. Emigration has also been linked to innovation in cases where the migrants return to their home country after developing skills abroad. One study finds that sending countries benefit indirectly in the long-run on the emigration of skilled workers because those skilled workers are able to innovate more in developed countries, which the sending countries are able to benefit on as a positive externality. Greater emigration of skilled workers consequently leads to greater economic growth and welfare improvements in the long-run. The negative effects of high-skill emigration remain largely unfounded. According to economist Michael Clemens, it has not been shown that restrictions on high-skill emigration reduce shortages in the countries of origin. Research also suggests that emigration, remittances and return migration can have a positive impact on political institutions and democratization in the country of origin. According to Abel Escribà-Folch, Joseph Wright, and Covadonga Meseguer, remittances "provide resources that make political opposition possible, and they decrease government dependency, undermining the patronage strategies underpinning authoritarianism." Research also shows that remittances can lower the risk of civil war in the country of origin. Research suggests that emigration causes an increase in the wages of those who remain in the country of origin. A 2014 survey of the existing literature on emigration finds that a 10 percent emigrant supply shock would increase wages in the sending country by 2–5.5%. A study of emigration from Poland shows that it led to a slight increase in wages for high- and medium-skilled workers for remaining Poles. A 2013 study finds that emigration from Eastern Europe after the 2004 EU enlargement increased the wages of remaining young workers in the country of origin by 6%, while it had no effect on the wages of old workers. The wages of Lithuanian men increased as a result of post-EU enlargement emigration. Return migration is associated with greater household firm revenues. Emigration leads to boosts in foreign direct investment to their home country. Some research shows that the remittance effect is not strong enough to make the remaining natives in countries with high emigration flows better off. Impact on global poverty According to economists Michael Clemens and Lant Pritchett, "permitting people to move from low-productivity places to high-productivity places appears to be by far the most efficient generalized policy tool, at the margin, for poverty reduction". A successful two-year in situ anti-poverty program, for instance, helps poor people make in a year what is the equivalent of working one day in the developed world. A slight reduction in the barriers to labor mobility between the developing and developed world would do more to reduce poverty in the developing world than any remaining trade liberalization. Research on a migration lottery allowing Tongans to move to New Zealand found that the lottery winners saw a 263% increase in income from migrating (after only one year in New Zealand) relative to the unsuccessful lottery entrants. A longer-term study on the Tongan lottery winners finds that they "continue to earn almost 300 percent more than non-migrants, have better mental health, live in households with more than 250 percent higher expenditure, own more vehicles, and have more durable assets". A conservative estimate of their lifetime gain to migration is NZ$315,000 in net present value terms (approximately US$237,000). A 2017 study of Mexican immigrant households in the United States found that by virtue of moving to the United States, the households increase their incomes more than fivefold immediately. The study also found that the "average gains accruing to migrants surpass those of even the most successful current programs of economic development." A 2017 study of European migrant workers in the UK shows that upon accession to the EU, the migrant workers see a substantial positive impact on their earnings. The data indicate that acquiring EU status raises earnings for the workers by giving them the right to freely change jobs. A 2017 study in the Quarterly Journal of Economics found that immigrants from middle- and low-income countries to the United States increased their wages by a factor of two to three upon migration. Innovation and entrepreneurship A 2017 survey of the existing economic literature found that "high-skilled migrants boost innovation and productivity outcomes." According to a 2013 survey of the existing economic literature, "much of the existing research points towards positive net contributions by immigrant entrepreneurs." Areas where immigrant are more prevalent in the United States have substantially more innovation (as measured by patenting and citations). Immigrants to the United States create businesses at higher rates than natives. A 2010 study showed "that a 1 percentage point increase in immigrant college graduates' population share increases patents per capita by 9–18 percent." Mass migration can also boost innovation and growth, as shown by the Jewish, Huguenot and Bohemian diasporas in Berlin and Prussia, German Jewish Émigrés in the US, the Mariel boatlift, the exodus of Soviet Jews to Israel in the 1990s, European migration to Argentina during the Age of Mass Migration (1850–1914), west-east migration in the wake of German reunification, German migration to Russian Empire, and Polish immigration to Germany after joining the EU. A 2018 study in the Economic Journal found that "a 10% increase in immigration from exporters of a given product is associated with a 2% increase in the likelihood that the host country starts exporting that good 'from scratch' in the next decade." Immigrants have been linked to greater invention and innovation. According to one report, "immigrants have started more than half (44 of 87) of America's startup companies valued at $1 billion dollars or more and are key members of management or product development teams in over 70 percent (62 of 87) of these companies." One analysis found that immigrant-owned firms had a higher innovation rate (on most measures of innovation) than firms owned by U.S.-born entrepreneurs. Research also shows that labor migration increases human capital. Foreign doctoral students are a major source of innovation in the American economy. In the United States, immigrant workers hold a disproportionate share of jobs in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM): "In 2013, foreign-born workers accounted for 19.2 percent of STEM workers with a bachelor's degree, 40.7 percent of those with a master's degree, and more than half—54.5 percent—of those with a PhD" A number of countries across the globe offer Economic Citizenship Programs where in return for investing into the local economy, foreign investors are awarded citizenship. Such programs encourage innovation and entrepreneurship from foreign investors and high net worth individuals who as new citizens in the country can offer unique perspectives. St. Kitts and Nevis was the first country to offer economic citizenship back in 1984 creating a new market for citizenship and by the early 2000s other Caribbean countries joined them. Quality of institutions A 2015 study finds "some evidence that larger immigrant population shares (or inflows) yield positive impacts on institutional quality. At a minimum, our results indicate that no negative impact on economic freedom is associated with more immigration." Another study, looking at the increase in Israel's population in the 1990s due to the unrestricted immigration of Jews from the Soviet Union, finds that the mass immigration did not undermine political institutions, and substantially increased the quality of economic institutions. A 2017 study in the British Journal of Political Science argued that the British American colonies without slavery adopted better democratic institutions in order to attract migrant workers to their colonies. A 2018 study fails to find evidence that immigration to the United States weakens economic freedom. A 2019 study of Jordan found that the massive influx of refugees into Jordan during the Gulf War had long-lasting positive effects on Jordanian economic institutions. Welfare Some research has found that as immigration and ethnic heterogeneity increase, government funding of welfare and public support for welfare decrease. Ethnic nepotism may be an explanation for this phenomenon. Other possible explanations include theories regarding in-group and out-group effects and reciprocal altruism. Research however also challenges the notion that ethnic heterogeneity reduces public goods provision. Studies that find a negative relationship between ethnic diversity and public goods provision often fail to take into account that strong states were better at assimilating minorities, thus decreasing diversity in the long run. Ethnically diverse states today consequently tend to be weaker states. Because most of the evidence on fractionalization comes from sub-Saharan Africa and the United States, the generalizability of the findings is questionable. A 2018 study in the American Political Science Review cast doubts on findings that ethnoracial homogeneity led to greater public goods provision. Research finds that Americans' attitudes towards immigration influence their attitudes towards welfare spending. Education A 2016 study found that immigration in the period 1940–2010 in the United States increased the high school completion of natives: "An increase of one percentage point in the share of immigrants in the population aged 11–64 increases the probability that natives aged 11–17 eventually complete 12 years of schooling by 0.3 percentage point." A 2019 NBER paper found little evidence that exposure to foreign-born students had an impact on US-born students. Studies have found that non-native speakers of English in the UK have no causal impact on the performance of other pupils, immigrant children have no significant impact on the test scores of Dutch children, no effect on grade repetition among native students exposed to migrant students in Austrian schools, that the presence of Latin American children in schools had no significant negative effects on peers, but that students with limited English skills had slight negative effects on peers, and that the influx of Haitians to Florida public schools after the 2010 Haiti earthquake had no effects on the educational outcomes of incumbent students. A 2018 study found that the "presence of immigrant students who have been in the country for some time is found to have no effect on natives. However, a small negative effect of recent immigrants on natives' language scores is reported." Another 2018 study found that the presence of immigrant students to Italy was associated with "small negative average effects on maths test scores that are larger for low ability native students, strongly non-linear and only observable in classes with a high (top 20%) immigrant concentration. These outcomes are driven by classes with a high average linguistic distance between immigrants and natives, with no apparent additional role played by ethnic diversity." Social capital There is some research that suggests that immigration adversely affects social capital. One study, for instance, found that "larger increases in US states' Mexican population shares correspond to larger decreases in social capital over the period" 1986–2004. A 2017 study in the Journal of Comparative Economics found that "individuals whose ancestors migrated from countries with higher autocracy levels are less likely to trust others and to vote in presidential elections in the U.S. The impact of autocratic culture on trust can last for at least three generations while the impact on voting disappears after one generation. These impacts on trust and voting are also significant across Europe." A 2019 study found that "humans are inclined to react negatively to threats to homogeneity... in the short term. However, these negative outcomes are compensated in the long term by the beneficial influence of intergroup contact, which alleviates initial negative influences." Health Research suggests that immigration has positive effects on native workers' health. As immigration rises, native workers are pushed into less demanding jobs, which improves native workers' health outcomes. A 2018 study found that immigration to the United Kingdom "reduced waiting times for outpatient referrals and did not have significant effects on waiting times in accident and emergency departments (A&E) and elective care." The study also found "evidence that immigration increased waiting times for outpatient referrals in more deprived areas outside of London" but that this increase disappears after 3 to 4 years. A 2018 systemic review and meta-analysis in The Lancet found that migrants generally have better health than the general population. In the EU, the use of personal health records for migrants is being tested in the new REHEALTH 2 project. Housing A 2014 study of the United Kingdom found that immigration generally reduced local house prices in the areas they moved to, because natives at the top of the wage distribution respond to immigration by moving to other areas, reducing demand for housing. At the national level, an increase in the number of immigrants increases house prices. Crime Bogus recruitment agencies and rogue recruitment agencies make fake promises of better opportunities, education, income, some of the abuses and crimes experienced by immigrants are the followed: Employees are forced to work in activities that were not included in their contracts, where workplace harassment is openly allowed, tolerated and even promoted. Workers are forced to work more than 20 hours a day with low wages or no payment, Slavery, human trafficking, Sexual harassment, sexual abuse, sexual assault, sexual exploitation. Offering fake immigrant visas in order to make it impossible for employees to return to their countries. In many countries there is a lack of prosecution of this crimes, since these countries obtain benefits and taxes paid by these companies that benefit the economies and also because of the current shortage of workers. Impact on demographic tension Assimilation A 2019 review of existing research in the Annual Review of Sociology on immigrant assimilation in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain concluded "we find an overall pattern of intergenerational assimilation in terms of socioeconomic attainment, social relations, and cultural beliefs." Country of origin Return migration from countries with liberal gender norms has been associated with the transfer of liberal gender norms to the home country. United States A 2018 study in the American Sociological Review found that within racial groups, most immigrants to the United States had fully assimilated within a span of 20 years. Immigrants arriving in the United States after 1994 assimilate more rapidly than immigrants who arrived in previous periods. Measuring assimilation can be difficult due to "ethnic attrition", which refers to when descendants of migrants cease to self-identify with the nationality or ethnicity of their ancestors. This means that successful cases of assimilation will be underestimated. Research shows that ethnic attrition is sizable in Hispanic and Asian immigrant groups in the United States. By taking account of ethnic attrition, the assimilation rate of Hispanics in the United States improves significantly. A 2016 paper challenges the view that cultural differences are necessarily an obstacle to long-run economic performance of migrants. It finds that "first generation migrants seem to be less likely to success the more culturally distant they are, but this effect vanishes as time spent in the US increases." A 2018 study found that Chinese nationals in the United States who received permanent residency permits from the US government amid the Tiananmen Square protests (and subsequent Chinese government clampdown) experienced significant employment and earnings gains relative to similar immigrant groups who did not have the same residency rights. During the Age of Mass Migration, infant arrivals to the United States had greater economic success over their lifetime than teenage arrivals. Europe A 2015 report by the National Institute of Demographic Studies finds that an overwhelming majority of second-generation immigrants of all origins in France feel French, despite the persistent discrimination in education, housing and employment that many of the minorities face. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation but that there is considerable assimilation overall. Research finds that first generation immigrants from countries with less egalitarian gender cultures adopt gender values more similar to natives over time. According to one study, "this acculturation process is almost completed within one generational succession: The gender attitudes of second generation immigrants are difficult to distinguish from the attitudes of members of mainstream society. This holds also for children born to immigrants from very gender traditional cultures and for children born to less well integrated immigrant families." Similar results are found on a study of Turkish migrants to Western Europe. The assimilation on gender attitudes has been observed in education, as one study finds "that the female advantage in education observed among the majority population is usually present among second-generation immigrants." A 2017 study of Switzerland found that naturalization strongly improves long-term social integration of immigrants: "The integration returns to naturalization are larger for more marginalized immigrant groups and when naturalization occurs earlier, rather than later in the residency period." A separate study of Switzerland found that naturalization improved the economic integration of immigrants: "winning Swiss citizenship in the referendum increased annual earnings by an average of approximately 5,000 U.S. dollars over the subsequent 15 years. This effect is concentrated among more marginalized immigrants." First-generation immigrants tend to hold less accepting views of homosexuality but opposition weakens with longer stays. Second-generation immigrants are overall more accepting of homosexuality, but the acculturation effect is weaker for Muslims and to some extent, Eastern Orthodox migrants. A study of Bangladeshi migrants in East London found they shifted towards the thinking styles of the wider non-migrant population in just a single generation. A study on Germany found that foreign-born parents are more likely to integrate if their children are entitled to German citizenship at birth. A 2017 study found that "faster access to citizenship improves the economic situation of immigrant women, especially their labour market attachment with higher employment rates, longer working hours and more stable jobs. Immigrants also invest more in host country-specific skills like language and vocational training. Faster access to citizenship seems a powerful policy instrument to boost economic integration in countries with traditionally restrictive citizenship policies." Naturalization is associated with large and persistent wage gains for the naturalized citizens in most countries. One study of Denmark found that providing immigrants with voting rights reduced their crime rate. Studies on programs that randomly allocate refugee immigrants across municipalities find that the assignment of neighborhood impacts immigrant crime propensity, education and earnings. A 2019 study found that refugees who resettled in areas with many conationals were more likely to be economically integrated. Research suggests that bilingual schooling reduces barriers between speakers from two different communities. Research suggests that a vicious cycle of bigotry and isolation could reduce assimilation and increase bigotry towards immigrants in the long-term. For instance, University of California, San Diego political scientist Claire Adida, Stanford University political scientist David Laitin and Sorbonne University economist Marie-Anne Valfort argue "fear-based policies that target groups of people according to their religion or region of origin are counter-productive. Our own research, which explains the failed integration of Muslim immigrants in France, suggests that such policies can feed into a vicious cycle that damages national security. French Islamophobia—a response to cultural difference—has encouraged Muslim immigrants to withdraw from French society, which then feeds back into French Islamophobia, thus further exacerbating Muslims' alienation, and so on. Indeed, the failure of French security in 2015 was likely due to police tactics that intimidated rather than welcomed the children of immigrants—an approach that makes it hard to obtain crucial information from community members about potential threats." A study which examined Catalan nationalism examined the Catalan Government's policy towards the integration of immigrants during the start of the 1990s. At this time the Spanish region of Catalonia was experiencing a large influx in the number of immigrants from Northern Africa, Latin America and Asia. The Spanish government paid little attention to this influx of immigrants. However, Catalan politicians began discussing how the increase in immigrants would effect Catalan identity. Members of the Catalan parliament petitioned for a plan to integrate these immigrants into Catalan society. Crucially, the plan did not include policies regarding naturalisation, which were key immigration policies of the Spanish government. The plan of the Catalan parliament aimed to create a shared Catalan identity which included both the native Catalan population and immigrant communities. This meant that immigrants were encouraged to relate as part of the Catalan community but also encouraged to retain their own culture and traditions. In this way assimilation of immigrant cultures in Catalonia was avoided. A 2018 study in the British Journal of Political Science found that immigrants in Norway became more politically engaged the earlier that they were given voting rights. A 2019 study in the European Economic Review found that language training improved the economic assimilation of immigrants in France. A 2020 paper on reforms of refugee policy in Denmark found that language training boosted the economic and social integration of refugees, whereas cuts to refugees' welfare benefits had no impact, except to temporarily increase property crimes. Discrimination Europe Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in Sweden, Italy, and England and Wales. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France. A 2018 study found that the Dutch are less likely to reciprocate in games played with immigrants than the native Dutch. Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the North-American and European labor markets. A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North-America. Equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates. A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial and ethnic discrimination in the housing market of several European countries. United Kingdom Since 2010, the United Kingdom's policies surrounding immigrant detention have come under fire for insufficiently protecting vulnerable groups. In the early 2000s, the United Kingdom adopted the Detention Duty Advice (DDA) scheme in order to provide free, government-funded, legal aid to immigrants. The DDA scheme at face value granted liberty on administrative grounds by considering immigrant merits, nature of their work, their financial means, and other factors that would then determine how much free legal aid detainees were granted. Recent research by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), demonstrates that marginalized groups have been barred from legal assistance in detention centers. The barriers immigrants face in order to access justice through the DDA disproportionately impacted underrepresented groups of immigrants, and the language barrier and lack of interpreters led to further hurdles that detainees were unable to jump through. Canada In Canada immigrant detainees face barriers to justice due to a lack of international enforcement. Canada's immigration detention system has significant legal and normative problems, and the rubric of ‘access to justice’ that is presented by international law fails to identify these faults. There is a lack of access to legal aid for immigrants in detention, as well as inhumane treatment in detention centers. Research has demonstrated irreparable psychological, physical, and social damage to immigrants, and the international community ignores these injustices. United States Business A 2014 meta-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products. A 1995 study found that car dealers "quoted significantly lower prices to white males than to black or female test buyers using identical, scripted bargaining strategies." A 2013 study found that eBay sellers of iPods received 21 percent more offers if a white hand held the iPod in the photo than a black hand. Criminal justice system Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects. Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities. A 2012 study found that "(i) juries formed from all-white jury pools convict black defendants significantly (16 percentage points) more often than white defendants, and (ii) this gap in conviction rates is entirely eliminated when the jury pool includes at least one black member." Research has found evidence of in-group bias, where "black (white) juveniles who are randomly assigned to black (white) judges are more likely to get incarcerated (as opposed to being placed on probation), and they receive longer sentences." In-group bias has also been observed when it comes to traffic citations, as black and white cops are more likely to cite out-groups. Education A 2015 study using correspondence tests "found that when considering requests from prospective students seeking mentoring in the future, faculty were significantly more responsive to White males than to all other categories of students, collectively, particularly in higher-paying disciplines and private institutions." According to an analysis of the National Study of College Experience, elite colleges may favor minority applicants due to affirmative action policies. A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that math teachers discriminate against the children of immigrants. When the teachers were informed about negative stereotypes towards the children of immigrants, they gave higher grades to the children of immigrants. As of 2020, 2 percent of all students enrolled in U.S. higher education. That comes out to about 454,000 students. Fewer than half of the undocumented are eligible for the DACA program. DACA is formally known as Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals. Housing A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial discrimination in the American housing market. Minority applicants for housing needed to make many more enquiries to view properties. Geographical steering of African-Americans in US housing remained significant. A 2003 study finds "evidence that agents interpret an initial housing request as an indication of a customer's preferences, but also are more likely to withhold a house from all customers when it is in an integrated suburban neighborhood (redlining). Moreover, agents' marketing efforts increase with asking price for white, but not for black, customers; blacks are more likely than whites to see houses in suburban, integrated areas (steering); and the houses agents show are more likely to deviate from the initial request when the customer is black than when the customer is white. These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act upon the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination)." A report by the federal Department of Housing and Urban Development where the department sent African-Americans and whites to look at apartments found that African-Americans were shown fewer apartments to rent and houses for sale. Labor market Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the American labor market. A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests—tests where identical CVs for stereotypically black and white names were sent to employers—in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North-America. These correspondence tests showed that equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates. A study that examine the job applications of actual people provided with identical résumés and similar interview training showed that African-American applicants with no criminal record were offered jobs at a rate as low as white applicants who had criminal records. Iran Iranian companies faced a mass exodus of youth and skilled labor out of the country in recent years. In June 2023 Iranian parliament illegalized immigration ads online. See also References Further reading Borjas, George. "Increasing the Supply of Labor Through Immigration" . Center for Immigration Studies, May 2004. Esbenshade, Jill. Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Summer 2007. Ewing, Walter A. Border Insecurity: U.S. Border-Enforcement Policies and National Security, Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Spring 2006. Fell, Peter and Hayes, Debra. What are they Doing Here? A Critical Guide to Asylum and Immigration, Birmimgham, Venture Press, 2007. Immigration Policy Center. Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, November 2005. Massey, Douglas S. Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, September 2005. Passel, Jeffrey S. Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population. Pew Hispanic Center, March 2005. Passel, Jeffrey S. Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization. Pew Hispanic Center, March 2007. Passel, Jeffrey S. and Roberto Suro. Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration. Pew Hispanic Center, September 2005. Pearce, Susan C. Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Summer 2006. Rumbaut, Ruben and Walter Ewing. "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men." The Immigration Policy Center, Spring 2007. Sintès Pierre, La raison du mouvement : territoires et réseaux de migrants albanais en Grèce, Karthala, Maison Méditerranéenne des sciences de l'homme, Ecole française d'Athènes, Paris – Aix-en-Provence – Athens, 2010. External links Population Majority–minority relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayinnaung
Bayinnaung
Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta ( ; , ; 16 January 1516 – 10 October 1581) was king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Myanmar from 1550 to 1581. During his 31-year reign, which has been called the "greatest explosion of human energy ever seen in Burma", Bayinnaung assembled what was most likely the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia, which included much of modern-day Myanmar, the Chinese Shan states, Lan Na, Lan Xang, Manipur and Siam. Although he is best remembered for his empire building, Bayinnaung's greatest legacy was his integration of the Shan states into the Irrawaddy Valley-based kingdoms. After the conquest of the Shan states in 1557–1563, the king put in an administrative system that reduced the power of hereditary Shan saophas, and brought Shan customs in line with lowland norms. It eliminated the threat of Shan raids into Upper Burma, an overhanging concern since the late 13th century. His Shan policy was followed by Burmese kings right up to the final fall of the kingdom to the British in 1885. Bayinnaung could not replicate this administrative policy everywhere in his far-flung empire, however. His empire was a loose collection of formerly sovereign kingdoms, whose kings were loyal to him as the Cakkavatti ("Universal Ruler"), rather than to the Kingdom of Toungoo itself. Indeed, Ava and Siam revolted just over two years after his death. By 1599, all the vassal states had revolted, and the Toungoo Empire completely collapsed. Bayinnaung is considered one of the three greatest kings of Burma, along with Anawrahta and Alaungpaya. Some of the most prominent places in modern Myanmar are named after him. He is also well known in Thailand as the Phra Chao Chana Sip Thit (พระเจ้าชนะสิบทิศ, "Conqueror of the Ten Directions"). Early life Ancestry The future king Bayinnaung was born Ye Htut (ရဲထွတ်, ) on 16 January 1516 to Mingyi Swe and Shin Myo Myat. His exact ancestry is unclear. No extant contemporary records, including Hanthawaddy Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon, the extensive chronicle of the king's reign written two years before his death, mention his ancestry. It was only in 1724, some 143 years after the king's death, that Maha Yazawin, the official chronicle of the Toungoo Dynasty, first proclaimed his genealogy. According to Maha Yazawin, he was born to a gentry family in Toungoo (Taungoo), then a former vassal state of the Ava Kingdom. He was descended from viceroys of Toungoo Tarabya (r. 1440–1446) and Minkhaung I (r. 1446–1451) on his father's side; and from King Thihathu of Pinya (r. 1310–1325) and his chief queen Mi Saw U of the Pagan Dynasty on his mother's side. Furthermore, Ye Htut was distantly related to then presiding ruler of Toungoo Mingyi Nyo and his son Tabinshwehti through their common ancestor, Tarabya I of Pakhan. Later chronicles simply repeat Maha Yazawin account. In all, the chronicles (perhaps too) neatly tie his ancestry to all the previous main dynasties that existed in Upper Burma: the Ava, Sagaing, Myinsaing–Pinya and Pagan dynasties. Despite the official version of royal descent, oral traditions speak of a decidedly less grandiose genealogy: that his parents were commoners from Ngathayauk in Pagan district or Htihlaing village in Toungoo district, and that his father was a toddy palm tree climber, then one of the lowest professions in Burmese society. The commoner origin narrative first gained prominence in the early 20th century during the British colonial period as nationalist writers like Po Kya promoted it as proof that even a son of a toddy tree climber could rise to become the great emperor in Burmese society. To be sure, the chronicle and oral traditions need not be mutually exclusive, since being a toddy tree climber does not preclude his having royal ancestors. Childhood and education Whatever their origin and station in life may have been, both of his parents were chosen to be part of the seven-person staff to take care of the royal baby Tabinshwehti in April 1516. Ye Htut's mother was chosen to be the wet nurse of the prince and heir apparent. The family moved into the Toungoo Palace precincts, where the couple had three more sons, the last of whom died young. Ye Htut had an elder sister Khin Hpone Soe, and three younger brothers: Minye Sithu, Thado Dhamma Yaza II, and the youngest who died young. He also had two half-brothers, Minkhaung II and Thado Minsaw, who were born to his aunt (his mother's younger sister) and his father. Ye Htut grew up playing with the prince and the king's other children, including Princess Thakin Gyi, who would later become his chief queen. He was educated in the palace along with the prince and the other children. King Mingyi Nyo required his son to receive an education in military arts. Tabinshwehti along with Ye Htut and other young men at the palace received training in martial arts, horseback riding, elephant riding, and military strategy. Ye Htut became the prince's right-hand man. Deputy of Tabinshwehti Rise to power On 24 November 1530, Mingyi Nyo died and Tabinshwehti ascended the throne. The 14-year-old new king took Ye Htut's elder sister Khin Hpone Soe as one of his two principal queens, and rewarded his childhood staff and friends with royal titles and positions. Ye Htut, already a close confidant of the new king, instantly became a powerful figure in the kingdom which was surrounded by increasingly hostile states. In the north, the Confederation of Shan States had conquered the Ava Kingdom just three and a half years earlier. To the west was the Confederation's ally the Prome Kingdom. To the south lay the Hanthawaddy Kingdom, the wealthiest and most powerful of all post-Pagan kingdoms. The impending threat became more urgent after the Confederation defeated its former ally Prome in 1532–1533. Tabinshwehti and the Toungoo leadership concluded that their kingdom "had to act quickly if it wished to avoid being swallowed up" by the Confederation. It was during the kingdom's mobilizations that Ye Htut made his mark, and was noticed for "his deeds of valor and strength of character." Ye Htut was by the king's side in 1532 when the king and his 500 most skillful horsemen made an uninvited foray into the Shwemawdaw Pagoda at the outskirts of Pegu, the capital of Hanthawaddy, ostensibly for the king's ear-piercing ceremony. The audacious intrusion went unpunished by Hanthawaddy's weak ruler, King Takayutpi. Ye Htut became the constant companion and adviser to the young king. However, the close relationship between the two was severely tested in 1534, as they prepared for war against Hanthawaddy. Ye Htut had become romantically involved with Thakin Gyi, the king's younger half-sister, and the affair was discovered around April 1534. The commoner's affair with the king's sister under Burmese law constituted an act of treason. Ye Htut spurned suggestions of mutiny and submitted to arrest. Tabinshwehti deliberated at length with his ministers, and finally came to the conclusion that Ye Htut should be given his sister in marriage, and a princely title of Kyawhtin Nawrahta. With this decision, Tabinshwehti won the loyalty of his brother-in-law "without parallel in Burmese history". Military leadership Tabinshwehti's decision would pay enormous dividends in the following years. Between 1534 and 1549, Toungoo would bring war to all its neighbors and in the process found the largest polity in Burma since the fall of Pagan in 1287. Ye Htut would win many key battles for his king, and help administer the growing kingdom. In late 1534, Toungoo attacked Hanthawaddy, the larger, wealthier but disunited kingdom to their south. It was Toungoo's gambit to break out of its narrow landlocked realm before the Confederation's attention turned to the last remaining holdout in Upper Burma. While Toungoo did not yet have any foreign firearms, due to receiving a constant flow of refugees from elsewhere in Upper Burma for the last three decades, Toungoo did have more manpower than it normally could have enlisted. Tabinshwehti and Ye Htut (now styled as Kyawhtin Nawrahta) were to cut their teeth in failure however. Their maiden annual dry-season campaigns (1534–1537) all failed against Pegu's well armed, heavily fortified defenses. But their performance got better with each successive campaign, penetrating deeper and deeper into Hanthawaddy territory. They finally broke through in their 1538–1539 campaign, and captured Pegu. Kyawhtin Nawrahta made his name in the Battle of Naungyo in which his light forces decisively defeated numerically superior Hanthawaddy forces in the Irrawaddy delta. The battle, one of the most famous in Burmese military history, has been called "the first characteristic touch" of the great Bayinnaung. After the battle, a grateful Tabinshwehti bestowed upon his brother-in-law the title of Bayinnaung ("King's Elder Brother"), the name by which he would be remembered. Toungoo went on to conquer all of Hanthawaddy by mid-1541, gaining complete control of Lower Burma's manpower, access to foreign firearms and maritime wealth to pay for them. And Tabinshwehti would use these new assets for further expansions. By incorporating Portuguese mercenaries, firearms and military tactics into the Toungoo armed forces, Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung continued to grow as military leaders. The duo also benefited from having experienced former Hanthawaddy military commanders like Saw Lagun Ein and Smim Payu serve as their top military advisers and generals. With their help, Bayinnaung delivered key decisive victories at the Battle of Padaung Pass (1542) against Prome's ally Arakan and the Battle of Salin (1544) against the Confederation, enabling Toungoo to take over central Burma as far north as Pagan (Bagan). After Bayinnaung crushed the Arakanese forces in April 1542, Tabinshwehti was so pleased with the victory that he made Bayinnaung the heir-apparent of the kingdom. The duo's later campaigns against Arakan (1545–1547) and Siam (1547–1549), however, fell short. In both campaigns, Toungoo forces won all major open battles, and went on to lay siege to the capitals, Mrauk-U and Ayutthaya respectively. But they still had no answer to heavily fortified defenses equipped with Portuguese firearms, and had to retreat both times. Toungoo's own Portuguese supplied cannon had little impact on the walls of both capitals. Nor did they have enough manpower (19,000 and 12,000 troops respectively in the Arakanese and Siamese campaigns) for long-term sieges. Nonetheless, despite the setbacks, Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung had by 1549 built up the largest polity in Burma since the fall of the Pagan Empire in 1287, stretching from Pagan in the north to Tavoy in the south. Administrative duties Bayinnaung was also entrusted to administer the kingdom. Tabinshwehti appointed him chief minister in 1539. In the then prevailing administrative model, the role of the prime minister was limited to managing and coordinating semi-independent tributaries, autonomous viceroys, and governors who actually had control over day-to-day administration and manpower. Trusted local rulers like Smim Payu and Saw Lagun Ein were appointed by the king to assist Bayinnaung with central administration. In 1549, Tabinshwehti, who had developed a liking to wine, gave up all administrative duties to Bayinnaung, and spent much of his time on long hunting trips away from the capital. Concerned by the king's erratic behavior, ministers at the court urged Bayinnaung to take over the throne but he declined, saying he would try to "win back the king to his old sense of duty to his own kingdom". He was unsuccessful. Even when faced with a serious rebellion by Smim Htaw, the king asked Bayinnaung in January 1550 to suppress the rebellion, and went on another months-long hunting trip. Restoration of the Toungoo Empire Interregnum On 30 April 1550, Tabinshwehti was assassinated by his own bodyguards on the order of Smim Sawhtut, one of the king's close advisers. Smim Sawhtut naturally proclaimed himself king. But so did all other major governors and viceroys—including Bayinnaung's own brother Minkhaung II. Although Bayinnaung had been Tabinshwehti's chosen heir apparent since 1542, none of them acknowledged Bayinnaung as the rightful successor. When Bayinnaung received the news of the assassination, he was in Dala (modern Yangon) chasing after Smim Htaw's rebel forces. The Toungoo Empire, which he had helped found and expand for the last 16 years, lay in ruins. He, as a colonial era historian noted, was "a king without a kingdom". Bayinnaung would have to rebuild the kingdom all anew. At Dala, with "few but faithful" troops, he plotted his next moves. His two eldest younger brothers Minye Sithu and Thado Dhamma Yaza II were with him and remained loyal. Also in his service was an ethnic Mon commander named Binnya Dala who would become his most trusted adviser and "best commander". Because he did not yet have any foreign mercenaries who could handle firearms, he sent for his favorite Portuguese mercenary Diogo Soares de Mello who had greatly impressed him in the Siamese campaign. Soares, who was abroad, returned with his men (all 39 of them), and he was warmly received by Bayinnaung. Two months after the assassination, Bayinnaung was ready to start the restoration project. He faced the following adversaries: Central Burma (1550–1551) Toungoo (1550–1551) After much deliberation, Bayinnaung and his advisers decided that their war of restoration would begin at Toungoo, the original home of the dynasty. It was a calculated gamble since they would have to pass through the heart of Pegu-controlled territory. But they decided to take the gamble because they felt Bayinnaung would find the best support in his native Toungoo rather than deep in the Mon country they found themselves in. In late June, Bayinnaung and his small but cohesive unit of fighting men left Dala for Toungoo. They marched north to Hinthada, and then crossed over to the eastern side of Bago Yoma, north of Pegu. Smim Sawhtut, now "king" of Pegu, came out with his army to stop them. Bayinnaung, as recounted by the chronicles, paid "no more heed than a lion does to jackals", and marched on. Discovering that Bayinnaung's target was not Pegu, Sawhtut did not engage them. Bayinnaung set up camp at Zeyawaddy (), 50 km (31 miles) outside of Toungoo. Once there, Bayinnaung received many of the ministers and soldiers of Tabinshwehti's old court, who fled Pegu and Martaban. The new arrivals were of all ethnic backgrounds, Burmans, Shans and Mons, demonstrating that in 16th-century Burma, "vertical patron-client structures often preempted horizontal ones, even those as strong as ethnic identity and cultures". By late August, he had collected a serious fighting force (9600 men, 200 horses, 20 elephants, 200 war boats). His land and naval forces began the attack on 2 September 1550, and laid siege to the city. Minkhaung resisted for four months but finally surrendered on 11 January 1551. Remarkably, Bayinnaung forgave his brother. On the same day, he was crowned king at the temporary palace. He rewarded his men with upgraded titles and positions. His eldest son Nanda was made the heir apparent. Prome (1551) The Toungoo command selected Prome as their next target. In March 1551, Bayinnaung's army (9000 troops, 300 horses, 25 elephants) attacked the city. But the city's musket and artillery fire kept them at bay for over three months. He retreated on 19 June 1551, and regrouped with men from central Burma (up to Myede and Sagu) whose rulers now submitted to the new rising power. Another 9000-strong army resumed the siege on 21 August 1551, and took the city on 30 August 1551. Bayinnaung ordered the execution of Prome's ruler Thado Dhamma Yaza I but regretted the decision immediately afterwards. He appointed his second eldest younger brother as viceroy of Prome with the style of Thado Dhamma Yaza II. Pagan (1551) Bayinnaung then proceeded to complete the conquest of northernmost central Burma up to Pagan (Bagan) by mid-September 1551. He appointed his uncle Min Sithu governor. He then marched to Ava, hoping to take advantage of the civil war between King Mobye Narapati and Sithu Kyawhtin, governor of Sagaing. But he was forced to withdraw speedily as Pegu forces marched toward Toungoo. Lower Burma (1552) Pegu's forces withdrew from his territory but Bayinnaung now decided that Pegu must be eliminated first. Meanwhile, Mobye Narapati, who had been driven out of Ava, came to join Bayinnaung. After five months of preparation, Bayinnaung's army (11,000 men, 500 horses, 40 elephants) left Toungoo for Pegu on 28 February 1552 and arrived before the city on 12 March 1552. Smim Htaw, who had taken over Pegu in August 1550, came out and challenged Bayinnaung to single combat, which Bayinnaung accepted. The two men on their respective war elephants fought. Bayinnaung was victorious, driving Htaw and his elephant off the field. Htaw's men fled following their leader. Htaw and his small army fell back to the Irrawaddy delta. The Toungoo armies followed up, taking eastern delta towns by the end of March. Htaw's army briefly retook Dala in a daring attack but they were finally defeated near Bassein (Pathein) in mid-May. His entire army, including his chief queen and father-in-law, were captured. Htaw barely escaped. He would be on the run as a fugitive until he was captured and executed in March 1553. By mid-1552, Bayinnaung had gained control of all three Mon-speaking regions (Bassein, Pegu, and Martaban). He appointed his eldest younger brother Minye Sithu as viceroy of Martaban on 6 June 1552. Upper Burma (1553) Two years after Tabinshwehti's death, Bayinnaung had restored the late king's empire. But he considered his job unfinished because Siam, which according to him had been remiss in sending him, the rightful successor of Tabinshwehti, tribute. He seriously considered invading Siam but his advisers led by Binnya Law, governor of Bassein, recommended that he should attack Ava instead. Taking their advice, the king sent 14,000-strong combined land and naval forces led by his heir apparent Nanda on 14 June 1553. But Ava's new king Sithu Kyawhtin (of the House of Mohnyin) was ready. He had enlisted troops from five allied Shan states (Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeit, Onbaung, and Bhamo) and from his own vassal states throughout the Mu valley and Kyaukse districts. Arrayed against overwhelming defenses, Nanda called off the invasion. Coronation Bayinnaung decided to consolidate his gains instead. He commissioned a new palace, called Kanbawzathadi, in his capital Pegu on 17 November 1553. On 12 January 1554, he was formally crowned king with the reign name of Thiri Thudhamma Yaza (). His chief queen, Thakin Gyi, was crowned with the reign name of Agga Mahethi (). Expansion of the Toungoo Empire The reconquest of Lower Burma gave him complete control of much needed access to foreign firearms and maritime wealth to pay for them. In the next two decades, he would use these assets for further expansions, and by pyramiding manpower and resources from newly conquered lands, he would found the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. Upper Burma (1554–1555) By late 1554, Bayinnaung had assembled a large invasion force (18,000 men, 900 horses, 80 elephants, 140 war boats), the largest mobilization to date. Precautions were taken on the frontiers to guard against attacks from Lan Na, Siam and Arakan. In November 1554, Toungoo forces launched a two-pronged invasion, one up the Sittaung valley and the other up the Irrawaddy valley. Avan defenses, supported by nine Confederation armies (from Bhamo, Kale, Mogaung, Mohnyin, Momeik, Mone, Nyaungshwe, Theinni and Thibaw-Onbaung), could not stop the advance, and the capital Ava fell to the southern forces on 22 January 1555. King Sithu Kyawhtin was sent to Pegu. Bayinnaung appointed his younger brother Thado Minsaw viceroy of Ava. Toungoo forces then drove out the remaining Confederation armies from the Chindwin valley up to Monywa, the Mu valley up to Myedu and the Kyaukse valley up to Singu by late March. Bayinnaung now controlled both the Irrawaddy and Sittaung river valleys, the corridors to and from the "heartland" where most of the food of the country was produced and its population lived. Still, his hold on Upper Burma was small—his northernmost outpost Myedu was only about 160 km (100 miles) from Ava—and tenuous since he had not secured the allegiance of the surrounding Shan states, which had been the source of constant raids into the upcountry since the 14th century, and indeed dominated much of it since the early 16th century. He needed to bring the surrounding unruly states under control if his hold on Upper Burma was to last. Cis-Salween Shan states (1557) By 1556, the king and his court had decided that all the Shan states immediately surrounding the Irrawaddy valley needed to be reduced in one shot. They also recognized that they may need to take on Lan Na (Chiang Mai), which was an ally of the powerful state of Mone. The Toungoo command spent the year assembling the largest army yet (36,000 men, 1200 horses, 60 elephants, 180 war boats, and 100 cargo boats) for the invasion. The invasion of the Shan country began in January 1557. (The armies left their Ava base between 24 December 1556 and 8 January 1557.) The massive show of force worked. States submitted one after another with minimal resistance. By March 1557, Bayinnaung in one stroke controlled most of the cis-Salween Shan states from the Patkai range at the Assamese border in the northwest to Mohnyin (Mong Yang), Mogaung (Mong Kawng) in present-day Kachin State to Momeik (Mong Mit), and Thibaw (Hsipaw) in the northeast. But order broke down right after the army left. The powerful state of Mone (Mong Nai), which sent in tribute in 1556 and thus did not face the invasion, revolted with the support of Lan Na, which was ruled by Mekuti, a brother of Mone's ruler. Mone forces went on to occupy Thibaw, and executed the new saopha appointed by Bayinnaung. In November 1557, five Toungoo armies (33,000 men, 1800 horses, 170 elephants) led by the king himself invaded, and easily occupied Mone and Thibaw. By the end of 1557, of the cis-Salween states, only the Chinese vassals—Theinni (Hsenwi; present-day northern Shan State), Mowun, Kaingma, Sanda, and Latha (present-day Dehong and Baoshan prefectures in Yunnan, China)—remained outside Bayinnaung's grasp. The Toungoo command seriously considered attacking Theinni as Thado Minsaw's army was already in neighboring Thibaw. But they decided not to open another front while Lan Na remained a threat to the southern Shan states. Lan Na (1558) Bayinnaung now eyed the once powerful Kingdom of Lan Na, which had been involved in dynastic struggles between two branches of the Mengrai dynasty. The rule of King Mekuti of the House of Mone had been resisted by King Setthathirath of Lan Xang, grandson of King Ketklao of Lan Na. When Bayinnaung and his armies showed up at the gates of Chiang Mai on 31 March 1558, Mekuti surrendered without a fight on 2 April 1558. The Burmese king allowed Mekuti to remain ruler of Lan Na, and brought several artisans, many of whom were notable lacquerware workers, back to Pegu. He left a small garrison of 1000 men commanded by Binnya Dala and Binnya Set at Chiang Mai. Order broke down soon after the main armies left. Setthathirath occupied eastern provinces of Lan Na (Phrae, Nan, Chiang Rai and Chiang Saen). In November 1558, a 14,000-strong army led by Thado Minsaw reinforced Chiang Mai's defenses, and from there the combined armies then successfully drove out the Lan Xang forces from the territories. Cis-Salween Chinese Shan states (1558–1559) Lan Xang's defeat cemented Toungoo Burma's emergence as the premier power in the Shan country. The remaining cis-Salween Shan states fell in line even if they probably continued paying tribute to China. Theinni sent preemptive tribute, received on 26 July 1558. It was followed by tributary missions by the smaller Chinese vassal states of Mowun, Kaingma, Latha and Sanda in early 1559. Manipur (1560) Bayinnaung immediately put manpower from the newly acquired territories to acquire yet more territory. On 2 December 1559, he ordered an invasion of Manipur, ostensibly to address the small kingdom's alleged transgressions into Kale's territory. He had recalled Binnya Dala from Chiang Mai to lead the invasion. The three armies (10,000 men, 300 horses, 30 elephants), mostly made up of conscripts from Kale, Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik and Sanda, faced minimal resistance. The Manipuri raja surrendered around February 1560. Trans-Salween Chinese Shan states (1562–1563) The king spent the next two years preparing for war against Siam, which he considered his unfinished business. He set up a garrison at Tavoy (Dawei) on 17 June 1562. But he first wanted to bring the trans-Salween Shan states into his fold, probably to get more manpower as well as to secure the rear. The Burmese chronicles states that he was merely responding to a July 1562 rebellion by his cis-Salween Chinese Shan states with support from trans-Salween Shan states. However, as with Manipur, it may just have been a pretext. He sent four 12,000-strong armies, led respectively by Nanda, Thado Dhamma Yaza II, Minkhaung II and Thado Minsaw. The southernmost trans-Salween state of Kengtung submitted prior to the invasion on 16 December 1562. The armies launched a two-pronged invasion of the Taping valley in March/April 1563. The armies faced minimal resistance, and secured the allegiance of the local saophas. Bayinnaung now had at least nominal suzerainty over the Chinese Shan states from the cis-Salween states in the Taping valley to Kenghung (present-day Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan) in the east. Siam (1563–1564) With much of western mainland Southeast Asia under his control, Bayinnaung now felt ready to take on Siam. He needed an overwhelming advantage in manpower over Siam because unlike interior Shan states, Siam could not be overwhelmed by the strength of his Portuguese firearms alone. Siam was a prosperous coastal power in its own right, and its forces included Portuguese firearms, ships and mercenaries. On 16 July 1563, he sent an embassy to Siam, demanding one of the four white elephants in possession of the Siamese king as tribute. As expected, King Maha Chakkraphat duly refused. On 1 November 1563, five armies (60,000 men, 2400 horses and 360 elephants) left Pegu to start the campaign. Another army from Lan Na was supposed to come down but King Mekuti of Lan Na had revolted. The invasion route was via central Siam. The armies took the key central town of Kamphaeng Phet on 4 December 1563. Three of the armies then fanned out to acquire the key central Siam cities of Sukhothai, Phitsanulok, and Sawankhalok. Aside from a five-day battle at Phitsanulok, the armies faced minimal opposition. The rulers of the three cities as well as the ruler of Phichit submitted, and were reappointed to their positions. The armies then marched down to Ayutthaya. There, they were kept at bay for weeks by the Siamese fort, aided by three Portuguese warships and artillery batteries at the harbor. The invaders finally captured the Portuguese ships and batteries on 7 February 1564, after which the fort promptly fell. The Siamese king surrendered on 18 February 1564. Bayinnaung took all four white elephants, among other loot, and sent the fallen king to Pegu. He appointed Mahinthrathirat, a son of the fallen king, vassal king of Siam, and left a garrison of 3000. Thai sources state that Bayinnaung also took Prince Ramesuan (ราเมศวร), the eldest son of Maha Chakkraphat, back with him as well as Phraya Chakkri (พระยาจักรี), the chancellor of Ayutthaya, and Phra Sunthon Songkhram (พระสุนทรสงคราม), the military chief of Ayutthaya. Lan Na and Lan Xang (1564–1565) Although he had finally conquered Siam, he still needed to deal with the middle Tai country. King Mekuti of Lan Na had allied himself with his old rival Setthathirath of Lan Xang. On 23 October 1564, Bayinnaung himself led five massive armies (64,000 men, 3600 horses, 330 elephants) and began a two-pronged invasion of Lan Na. The levies hailed from all over the empire, including Siam whose troops were led by Ramesuan, the former crown prince of Siam. The massive show of force worked. When four southern armies showed up at Lamphun, 20 km south of Chiang Mai, on 25 November 1564, the commanders leading Chiang Mai's defenses simply fled the city. Mekuti now submitted, asking for forgiveness. Bayinnaung spared the broken king's life, and sent him to Pegu. The Burmese king then stayed in Lan Na for the next four months, administering the country. He appointed Queen Visuddhadevi, as the vassal ruler of Lan Na before leaving Chiang Mai on 10 April 1565 to deal with a serious rebellion in Pegu. Lan Xang proved a much more difficult project however. Three armies led by the crown prince himself invaded Lan Xang, and easily captured Vientiane on 2 January 1565. But King Setthathirath escaped. For the next several months, the Burmese troops fruitlessly chased him and his small band of men around the Laotian countryside. Many troops died of starvation and disease. The Burmese command finally gave up, and the armies left Vientiane on 1 August 1565. They had installed a son-in-law of Setthathirath as vassal king. They also brought back many members of the Lan Xang royalty, including Setthathirath's 18-year-old brother, Maha Ouparat. Lan Na was to be at peace for the rest of Bayinnaung's reign. At Vientiane, however, the vassal king's authority did not extend much beyond the capital, backed by the Burmese garrison. Setthathirath remained active in the countryside, and would return to Vientiane in late 1567. Maintaining the empire After the Lan Xang campaign, Bayinnaung had at least nominal control over the lands stretching from Manipur in the northwest to Lan Xang in the east; and from the Chinese Shan states in the north to the central Malay peninsula in the south. After a brief lull, he was to spend nearly a decade (1568–1576) keeping the empire intact. Interlude (1565–1567) After the 1565 rebellion by resettled Shans in Pegu, he faced no new rebellions for the next two years (1565–1567). Because the rebellion burned down major swaths of the capital, including the entire palace complex, he had the capital and the palace rebuilt. The new capital had 20 gates, each named after the vassal who built it. Each gate had a gilded two-tier pyatthat and gilded wooden doors. The newly rebuilt Kanbawzathadi Palace was officially opened on 16 March 1568, with every vassal ruler present. He even gave upgraded titles to four former kings living in Pegu: Mobye Narapati of Ava, Sithu Kyawhtin of Ava, Mekuti of Lan Na, and Maha Chakkraphat of Siam. Lan Xang and Siam (1568–1569) Even as he triumphantly entered the new palace as the universal ruler, or cakkavatti, trouble was already brewing in Lan Xang. About a month earlier, he had been informed that Setthathirath's forces not only had retaken Vientiane but were also raiding eastern districts of central Siam and Lan Na. In response, he had rushed down troops from the Shan states and Upper Burma to the border. But it was a rush job. The army could only muster 6000 troops on short notice, and was thoroughly routed at the border. More bad news piled up. He learned on 12 May 1568 that southern Siam (Ayutthaya) too had revolted, and entered into an alliance with Lan Xang. The rebellion was led by Maha Chakkraphat, the deposed king of Siam whom Bayinnaung had just showered with honors and permitted to return to Ayutthaya on pilgrimage as a monk. No sooner had the monk arrived at Ayutthaya than he flung off the robe, and declared independence. But all was not lost. The ruler of central Siam (Phitsanulok), Maha Thammarachathirat, remained loyal to him. On 29 May 1568, a dismayed Bayinnaung sent an army of 6000 to reinforce Phitsanulok. The war began in June. Desperate to consolidate the Chao Phraya valley before the expected dry-season invasion, combined Ayutthaya and Lan Xang forces braved unforgiving rainy season conditions and laid siege to Phitsanulok. But Phitsanulok's reinforced defenses held. In late October/early November, the besiegers retreated to their respective cities before the upcoming invasion. Bayinnaung's five armies (54,600 men, 5300 horses, 530 elephants) arrived at Phitsanulok on 27 November 1568. Reinforced at Phitsanulok, combined armies of 70,000 marched down along the Chao Phraya to Ayutthaya, and laid siege to the city in December 1568. But the Burmese armies, despite taking immense losses, could not break through for months. When Setthathirath and his army approached to relieve the city, Bayinnaung left Binnya Dala in command of the siege, and left with half his force to meet the enemy. On 8 May 1569, he decisively defeated Setthathirath northeast of the city, after which Lan Xang ceased to be of concern to the siege operations. Meanwhile, Maha Chakkraphat had died, and his son Mahinthrathirat made an offer of conditional surrender. It was refused. Bayinnaung demanded an unconditional surrender. Instead he sent one of his Siamese nobles to the city, pretending to be a deserter. King Mahinthrathirat promptly appointed him to a high command. Through the spy's treacherous machinations, one of the city's gates was opened. The city fell on that very night on 2 August 1569. Bayinnaung appointed Maha Thammarachathirat king of Siam on 29 September 1569. Remote regions While Bayinnaung had decisively defeated Siam, his most powerful rival in the region, his greatest challenge would turn out to be keeping remote, mountainous states in the farthest corners of his empire in check. Guerrilla warfare by small rebel armies combined with difficult terrain and starvation caused more problems for the king's armies than the armies of Siam ever did. Lan Xang (1569–1570) The remote hilly Lan Xang proved most troublesome. He personally led the two-pronged invasion of Lan Xang in October 1569. Setthathirath made a stand at Vientiane for a few months before retreating into the jungle in February 1570 to conduct his tried-and-true guerrilla warfare. Bayinnaung and his men spent the next two months combing the Lao countryside. Setthathirath was nowhere to be found but many Burmese troops died of starvation and from long marches. Bayinnaung finally called off the search in April 1570, and returned home. When the king arrived back at Pegu, very few men of the original army had survived to reach their own country. Northern Shan states (1571–1572) Lan Xang was not the only remote, mountainous region the Burmese king had trouble controlling. The northernmost Shan states of Mohnyin and Mogaung (and their vassals in present-day Kachin State and Sagaing Region) collectively revolted in July 1571. He sent two 12,000-strong armies led by Nanda and Thado Dhamma Yaza II. The armies easily recaptured the states. But, like in Lan Xang, the troops spent five punishing months fruitlessly chasing after the renegade saophas in the snow-clad foothills of the Himalayas. Lan Xang (1572–1573) Meanwhile, Setthathirath's forces sacked the Burmese garrison at Vientiane. Fortunately for the Burmese, so it seemed, the Lan Xang king was killed shortly after—sometime before mid-1572, and a senior minister and general named Sen Soulintha seized the throne. (In Laotian history, the events took place a year earlier. Setthathirath retook Vientiane in the dry season of 1570–1571, and died in 1571.) Much to his surprise, Soulintha refused Bayinnaung's ultimatum to submit. Incredulous, Bayinnaung sent Binnya Dala to lead an invasion with a small army of 6000, with the majority of troops coming from Lan Na and Siam. But he and the Toungoo court had underestimated the opposition. Lan Xang's strength was more than Setthathirath, and Soulintha proved no pushover. The small Burmese army suffered from guerrilla attacks, and had to retreat in early 1573. At Pegu, the king was furious at Binnya Dala, hitherto his most trusted adviser and favorite general, despite the fact that he had given the general little to work with. He sent Binnya Dala into exile "to a sickly place" in central Siam, where the general who had won him many a battle died from illness six months later. Lan Xang and northern Shan states (1574–1577) He immediately ordered the levy to be raised to invade Lan Xang in the following dry season of 1573–1574. But the kingdom had been in constant campaign mode, and his annual demands of more levies were pushing his vassals to the breaking point. Even his senior advisers murmured loudly, and the king reluctantly agreed to postpone the expedition for a year. The respite did little to restore the ranks of depleted vassals. When the conscription drive came in 1574, the northernmost states of Mohnyin and Mogaung refused, and revolted. The king was unfazed. He ordered Thado Minsaw, the ruler of Ava, to take care of the northern states while he personally led the Lan Xang campaign. On 1 October 1574, Thado Minsaw's army (6000 men, 800 horses, 80 elephants), made up of regiments from Upper Burma and the Shan states, marched north. Six days later, Bayinnaung's four armies (34,000 men, 1800 horses, 180 elephants), with regiments from Lower Burma, Lan Na and Siam, began the Lan Xang campaign. The armies arrived before Vientiane after 60 days marching. On 6 December 1574, the king and his massive armies faced no opposition entering Vientiane, as Soulintha had already evacuated to the countryside. Fortunately for the Burmese king, Soulintha was viewed as a usurper by his own officers, who arrested him and presented him to the conqueror. Burmese armies again fanned out to and received tribute from the Lao countryside, including easternmost Lan Xang, which is now part of present-day Vietnam. The Burmese king appointed a younger brother of Setthathirath, Maha Oupahat (Chao Tha Heua), king of Lan Xang with the regnal name Voravongsa I, and returned to Pegu on 16 April 1575. Since he was a true high Lan Xang royal he was accepted by the populace as the rightful successor to Setthathirath. Lan Xang was finally under control. The low-grade rebellion in Mohnyin and Mogaung remained a pesky thorn in Bayinnaung's side. The rebel chiefs simply retreated to the jungle when the army showed up, returning right after the army left. The king was particularly annoyed that the leader of the rebellion, the young saopha of Mogaung, had been raised at the Pegu palace, and that he himself had appointed him to the office in 1572. He personally marched north in late 1575, and sent several battalions to comb the jungles. One battalion ran into the rebels deep in the hills, and killed the saopha of Mohnyin. But the saopha of Mogaung escaped and remained at large for another year and a half. When the renegade saopha was finally captured, and brought before the king on 30 September 1577, the king ordered that the young chief be exhibited in fetters for a week at each of the twenty gates of Pegu, and that he and his followers be sold as slaves in India. Later years Ceylon By 1576, almost no one wanted to challenge Bayinnaung's rule, and the rest of his reign was to be relatively quiet. Other states in the region—in particular, rival Ceylonese kingdoms—were keen to receive his support. For his part, Bayinnaung viewed himself as the protector of Theravada Buddhism, and had long tried to promote and protect the religion in Ceylon. Two decades earlier, in November 1555, he sent rich presents to the Tooth of Kandy, and bought land there to keep lights continually burning at the shrine. His craftsmen beautified the temple and swept it with the broom made of his and his chief queen's hair. In 1560, upon hearing that the Portuguese had seized and taken the tooth relic to Goa, he sent envoys to secure the relic for 800,000 silver kyats (41,000 pounds sterling) and shiploads of rice, whenever needed, to provision the Portuguese garrison at Malacca. Viceroy Constantino de Bragança was interested but the Archbishop of Goa, Gaspar de Leão Pereira, overruled him by threatening the viceroy with an Inquisition style trial. In 1561, "while the Burmese envoys gazed in frozen horror, the archbishop placed the Tooth in a mortar, grounded it to powder, burned it in a brazier, and cast the ashes into the river." The Ceylonese however claimed that the destroyed relic had been a replica, and that the true Tooth had remained in Ceylon. Two teeth, claimed to be the real Tooth, appeared in Ceylon, one at Colombo and the other at Kandy. By the 1570s, both Kotte and Kandy were jockeying for Bayinnaung's support. King Dharmapala of Kotte was the most active. He presented who he said was his daughter to Bayinnaung. The princess was received with great fanfare at Bassein (Pathein) on 24 September 1573. According to G.E. Harvey, however, the Kotte king's action was not voluntary: the Burmese king had demanded a princess to fulfill a prophecy given by his astrologers, and Dharmapala, who had no daughters, complied by sending the daughter of a chamberlain, whom he had treated as his own. At any rate, Dharmapala, who had converted to Catholicism, continued to curry favor by sending what he claimed was the real Tooth relic, ostensibly to be safeguarded under the protection of the great Buddhist king. The main purpose of his mission was to seek military help against a rebellion. The Tooth was received on 14 July 1576. While it is unclear whether Bayinnaung actually believed in the authenticity of the relic, the possession of a holy Tooth, which many millions of subjects believed in, was of the highest importance. In return, Bayinnaung sent 2500 of his best "invulnerables" from all parts of the empire in five ships to Colombo. The king's best troops easily defeated the rebellion, which was noticed by the other three rulers on the island. Chronicles say that the Burmese generals then received the rulers of the four kingdoms of Ceylon in Colombo, and instructed them to safeguard the religion. King Karaliyadde Bandara of Kandy, offered a daughter and what he claimed was the real Tooth. But His Majesty, seeing no reason to reopen the case, would not enter into controversy with skeptics and dismissed them with thanks. Lan Na and Lan Xang (1579) No troubles arose when Queen Visuddhadevi of Lan Na, who had successfully kept the middle Tai country quiet for over 13 years, died on 2 January 1579. Bayinnaung's choice Nawrahta Minsaw, one of his sons, faced no problems taking over the Lan Na throne. When instabilities arose in Lan Xang, he took no chances. On 17 October 1579, he sent a sizable army (22,000 men, 1200 horses, 120 elephants), which faced no opposition. According to Laotian history, the vassal king of Lan Xang Maha Ouparat died in 1580, and Bayinnaung installed Sen Soulintha, the usurper whom he had kept in Pegu since 1574, as the successor. The Burmese chronicles make no mention of any change for the rest of the king's reign. The Chronicles' lone post-1579 entry on Lan Xang during his reign simply states that on 2 September 1581, the king commissioned a Buddhist pagoda in Lan Xang. The Chronicles say that the vassal king died in September/October 1588. Arakan (1580–1581) By 1580, not only had the "universal ruler" subdued all the countries which had occupied his attention for the last three decades but he also had the respect of neighboring states. He faced no internal or external threats (although Portuguese Goa considered itself technically at war with Burma for her interference in Ceylon). Instead of resting, he turned his gaze on Arakan, the kingdom he and Tabinshwehti unsuccessfully tried to conquer in 1545–1547. He determined that it was now time to reduce the western coastal kingdom to the vassal status it held under the Pagan kings once more. A year earlier, he had sent an embassy to Emperor Akbar of the Mughal Empire, which had just acquired Bengal in 1576, perhaps to ascertain whether his occupation of Arakan would be viewed as an act of hostility to the Mughals. At any rate, the king sent an 8000-strong naval invasion force on 15 October 1580. The fleet, which consisted of 200 ships, went on to occupy Sandoway in November 1580. The king had probably planned to lead the assault on the Arakanese capital Mrauk-U by himself but could not because of his failing health. The invasion force remained inactive at Sandoway for a year. The king sent additional land and naval forces (29,000 troops, 1600 horses, 120 elephants) on 28 August 1581 in preparation for the coming dry season campaign. But the king died six weeks later, and the invasion forces withdrew soon after. Administration Emperor without an empire Bayinnaung successfully assembled the largest empire in Burmese history. The empire spanned "from Manipur to Cambodian marches and the borders of Arakan to Yunnan," and likely received "propitiatory homage" from states as far east as Vietnam and Cambodia. Notwithstanding its fragility, his realm was certainly the largest empire in the history of mainland Southeast Asia and "probably the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia." The Portuguese called Pegu "the most powerful monarchy in Asia except that of China." But Bayinnaung, who began his reign as a "king without a kingdom", ended his reign as an "emperor without an empire." According to Than Tun, Bayinnaung conquered territories not to colonize them but to gain the loyalty of their rulers. He kept conquered kings and lords in their own positions so long as they remained loyal to him. Tun Aung Chain adds that "the extensive polity was held together not so much by formal institutions as personal relationships" based on the concepts of thissa (, 'allegiance') and kyezu (, 'obligation')." Lieberman writes: "...he presented himself as cakkavatti, or World Ruler, par excellence..." This was nothing new. The king was simply following the then prevailing Southeast Asian administrative model of solar polities in which the high king ruled the core while semi-independent tributaries, autonomous viceroys, and governors actually controlled day-to-day administration and manpower. As such, the "King of Kings" governed only Pegu and the Mon country himself, leaving the rest of the realm to vassal kings in Ava, Prome, Lan Na, Lan Xang, Martaban, Siam, and Toungoo. He regarded Lan Na as the most important of all the vassal states, and spent much time there. He administered Lower Burma with the help of ministers, the vast majority of whom were of ethnic Mon background. (The word used by European visitors to describe a court official was semini, Italian translation of smim, Mon for lord.) His chief minister was Binnya Dala, known for his military and administrative abilities, and literary talents. Administrative reforms He introduced administrative reforms only at the margins. By and large, he simply grafted the prevailing decentralized administration system, which barely worked for petty states like his native Toungoo, to the largest polity ever in the region. Indeed, it did not work for mid-size kingdoms like Ava, Hanthawaddy, Lan Na, and Siam. (Ava had always had to contend with Prome and Toungoo; Pegu with Martaban and Bassein; Chiang Mai with Chiang Saen and Nan; Ayutthaya with Phitsanulok; etc.) Now, because of the sheer size of the empire, the system was even more decentralized and stretched thinner still. At any rate, it was the only system the Toungoo kings knew, and they "had no choice but to retain it." He, perhaps inadvertently, did introduce a key reform, which turned out to be the most important and most enduring of his legacies. It was his policy to administer the Shan states, which had constantly raided Upper Burma since the late 13th century. The king permitted the saophas of the states to retain their royal regalia and ceremonies, and feudal rights over their subjects. The office of the saopha remained hereditary. But the incumbent saopha could now be removed by the king for gross misconduct although the king's choice of successor was limited to members of the saopha's own family. The key innovation was that he required sons of his vassal rulers to reside in his palace as pages, who served a dual purpose: they were hostages for good conduct of their fathers and they received valuable training in Burmese court life. His Shan policy was followed by all Burmese kings right up to the final fall of the kingdom to the British in 1885. Still, his reforms were ad hoc and experimental. Patron-client relationships still mattered much more than weak or non-existent institutions: his vassals were loyal to him, not Toungoo Burma. The reforms he started would ultimately be expanded by his 17th-century successors. But they had not sufficiently taken root by his death to prevent his "overheated" empire from rapidly collapsing in the next two decades. Legal and commercial standardizations His Majesty introduced a measure of legal uniformity by summoning learned monks and officials from all over his dominions to prescribe an official collection of law books. The scholars compiled Dhammathat Kyaw and Kosaungchok, based on King Wareru's dhammathat. The decisions given in his court were collected in Hanthawaddy Hsinbyumyashin Hpyat-hton. He promoted the new law throughout the empire so far as it was compatible with customs and practices of local society. The adoption of Burmese customary law and the Burmese calendar in Siam began in his reign. He also standardized the weights and measurements such as the cubit, tical, basket throughout the realm. Religious affairs Another enduring legacy of Bayinnaung was his introduction of a more orthodox Theravada Buddhism to Upper Burma and the Shan states. He propagated the religious reforms begun by King Dhammazedi in the late 1470s. Viewing himself as the "model Buddhist king," the king distributed copies of the scriptures, fed monks, and built pagodas at every new conquered state from Upper Burma and the Shan states to Lan Na and Siam. Some of the pagodas are still to be seen, and in later ages the Burmese would point to them as proof of their claim to rule those countries still. Following in the footsteps of Dhammazedi, he supervised mass ordinations at the Kalyani Ordination Hall at Pegu in his orthodox Theravada Buddhism in the name of purifying the religion. He prohibited all human and animal sacrifices throughout the kingdom. In particular, he forbade the Shan practice of killing the slaves and animals belonging to a saopha at his funeral. His attempts to rid of animist nat worship from Buddhism, however, failed. He donated jewels to adorn the crowns of many a pagoda, including the Shwedagon, the Shwemawdaw, the Kyaiktiyo, and many less famous ones. He added a new spire to the Shwedagon in 1564 after the death of his beloved queen Yaza Dewi. His main temple was the Mahazedi Pagoda at Pegu, which he built in 1561. He tried but failed to secure the release of the Tooth Relic of Kandy from the Portuguese invaders in 1560. He later interfered with the internal affairs of Ceylon in the 1570s, ostensibly to protect the Buddha Sasana there. Economy His kingdom was mainly an agrarian state with a few wealthy maritime trading ports. The main ports were Syriam (Thanlyin), Dala, and Martaban. The kingdom exported commodities such as rice and jewels. At Pegu, overseas trade was in the hands of eight brokers appointed by the king. Their fee was two percent. Their honesty and businesslike methods won the esteem of European merchants. The wealth was seen at the capital. Contemporary European travelers would "never tire of describing Pegu—the long moat full of crocodiles, the walls, the watch-towers, the gorgeous palace, the great processions with elephants and palanquins and grandees in shining robes, the shrines filled with images of massy gold and gems, the unending hosts of armed men, and the apparition of the great king himself." The king appointed officials to supervise merchant shipping and sent out ships to undertake commercial voyages. The prosperous life at the capital, however, was probably not replicated at the countryside. Annual mobilizations of men greatly reduced the manpower necessary to cultivate the rice fields. Harvests at times fell perilously low, causing severe rice shortages, such as in 1567. Military Bayinnaung built the largest empire in Southeast Asia on the back of "breathtaking" military conquests. His success has been attributed to a "more martial Toungoo tradition", Portuguese firearms, foreign mercenaries, and larger forces. First, he was a product of Toungoo, a rebellion-prone former vassal of Ava, where he as a young man at the palace received a military-style education since childhood. With their training, he and Tabinshwehti launched their first campaign against a larger, wealthier Hanthawaddy when they were both just 18. Secondly, the beginning of their military careers coincided with the arrival of Portuguese cannon and matchlocks in large quantities. Portuguese weaponry proved superior in accuracy, safety, ballistic weight, and rapidity of fire to Asian-made firearms. The duo arrived at the coast on the cusp of this transformation, and quickly turned it to their advantage, incorporating Portuguese firearms as well as Portuguese and Indian Ocean (mostly Muslim) mercenaries into their forces. Indigenous infantry and elephant units also began using guns, with 20–33% of the troops so equipped on some late 16th century campaigns. According to Lieberman, "had Toungoo attacked Pegu a generation later, it is conceivable that Portuguese guns could have given Pegu the victory, thus altering the course of history." But it was Toungoo that seized Hanthawaddy's advantages and leveraged them into an empire. Finally, Bayinnaung was able to marshal more manpower than any ruler in the region. He required every new conquered state to provide conscripts for his next campaign. Using both larger forces and superior firearms, he had no trouble reducing Manipur and the entire Shan world to tributary status. His larger forces and their greater fighting experience proved to make the difference against Siam, which too was a wealthy coastal power with a powerful well-equipped military. It turned out however that Siam was not his greatest adversary. It was the remote mountainous states like Lan Xang, Mohnyin and Mogaung whose guerrilla warfare gave him constant trouble. Many of his men died from starvation and disease while fruitlessly searching for elusive bands of rebels, year after year. (The death toll must have been significant since it made it to the chronicles.) He was fortunate that the charismatic guerrilla leader Setthathirath died. In the end, his military might alone could not bring lasting peace. He needed competent local rulers, who commanded the respect of the local populace, to rule the lands on his behalf. History shows that he used the political solution instead to maintain peace. To be sure, the individual ingredients alone cannot explain his success. The same ingredients were available to his successors. Yet no one (in Burma or elsewhere in the successor states of his empire) could put them together. For example, he raised upwards of 60,000 to 70,000 men for his major campaigns. His Toungoo successors raised a third at most. It was not until the early Konbaung kings that the army again raised nearly as many men. Harvey notes: "From his teens until his death, he was constantly in the field, leading every major campaign in person. The failure of other kings who attempted the same conquests is the measure of his ability." Death and succession The king died on 10 October 1581 after a long illness. His full reign name at death was "Thiri Tri Bawa Naditra Pawara Pandita Thudhamma Yaza Maha Dipadi." His eldest son and heir-apparent Nanda took over the throne without incident. But the empire, which Bayinnaung had built on military conquests and maintained by both military power and personal relationships with the vassal rulers, was to crumble soon after. The first crack appeared in the far north in September 1582 when the Chinese Shan states of Sanda and Thaungthut revolted. The rebellion was put down in March 1583. Much more serious cracks followed. Ava (Upper Burma) revolted in October 1583, and the rebellion was put down on 24 April 1584. Siam revolted on 3 May 1584. Nanda would spend the rest of his reign fighting Siam and other former vassals and would lose the entire empire in the process by 1599. Family The king had three principal queens consort and over 50 other junior queens. In all, he left 97 children. The following is a list of notable queens and their issue. A notable queen of Bayinnaung in Thai history is Suphankanlaya, daughter of King Maha Thammarachathirat of Siam. Legacy Bayinnaung is considered one of the three greatest Burmese kings, alongside Anawrahta and Alaungpaya, the founders of the First and Third Burmese Empires, respectively. The king is mostly remembered for his military conquests, not just in Myanmar but also in Thailand and Laos. His reign has been called "the greatest explosion of human energy ever seen in Burma." In Myanmar, the soldier-king is considered the favorite king of the present-day Burmese generals. According to Thant Myint-U, the generals often see themselves "as fighting the same enemies and in the same places... their soldiers slugging their way through the same thick jungle, preparing to torch a town or press-gang villagers. The past closer, more comparable, a way to justify present action. His statues are there because the ordeal of welding a nation together by force is not just history." In Thailand, he is well known as the "Conqueror of the Ten Directions" (พระเจ้าชนะสิบทิศ), from the 1931 novel Phu Chana Sip Thit (ผู้ชนะสิบทิศ, "Conqueror of the Ten Directions") by Chote Praepan (โชติ แพร่พันธุ์). He has thus far escaped the increasingly negative portrayals of Burmese kings in Thai history books. As the founder of an empire geographically centered in Siam, he is well known by the Thai people, and often still treated with respect. In Laos, King Setthathirath is lionized for his pesky resistance to the empire. Though he is best known for empire building, his greatest legacy was his integration of the Shan states, which eliminated the threat of Shan raids into Upper Burma, an overhanging concern to Upper Burma since the late 13th century. His Shan policy, greatly enhanced by later Toungoo kings, reduced the power of hereditary saophas, and brought hill customs in line with low-land norms. This policy was followed by Burmese kings right up to the final fall of the kingdom to the British in 1885. The adoption of Burmese customary law and the Burmese calendar in Siam began in his reign. Siam used the Burmese calendar until 1889. Commemorations Bayinnaung is commemorated in Myanmar in several ways. Bayinnaung Bridge, a suspension bridge in Yangon Bayinnaung Market, a major commodities market in Yangon Bayinnaung Road, a road in Yangon Bayinnaung Statue, one of the three statues of kings that tower over the main parade square in Naypyidaw. The other two are the statues of Anawrahta and Alaungpaya. Cape Bayinnaung, the southernmost point of mainland Myanmar Team Bayinnaung, one of the five student teams in Burmese primary and secondary schools UMS Bayinnaung, Myanmar Navy Anawrahta-class corvette In popular culture Bayinnaung is a main character in the 2016 video game Age of Empires II: The Rise of the Rajas published by Xbox Game Studios. In Part 1 of the 2007 King Naresuan film series, Bayinnaung is a Burmese conqueror and a father-figure for the young prince Naresuan. Notes References Citations Sources External links Voyage to Pegu, and Observations There, Circa 1583 , Gaspero Balbi Account of Pegu (1586–1587) , by Cesar Fedrici. The Flight of Lao War Captives from Burma back to Laos in 1596:A Comparison of Historical Sources Jon Fernquest, Mae Fa Luang University, SOAS bulletin, Spring 2005 The Changing Nature of Conflict between Burma and Siam as seen from the Growth and Development of Burmese States from the 16th to the 19th Centuries, by Pamaree Surakiat,Mar 2006, Asia Research Institute, Singapore. Burmese monarchs Burmese Buddhist monarchs Rulers of Toungoo 1516 births 1581 deaths First Toungoo Empire 16th-century Burmese monarchs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manish%20Malhotra
Manish Malhotra
Manish Malhotra (born 5 December 1966) is an Indian fashion designer, couturier, costume stylist, entrepreneur, filmmaker, revivalist based in Mumbai, India. The founder of the eponymous label, Manish Malhotra, he has been deeply entrenched in the twin worlds of fashion and film for the past three decades. He has styled and designed for more than thousands of movies and won numerous awards. He is known for redefining and modernizing how actors look in Indian films and reviving some of the country's forgotten crafts. The recipient of several awards, Malhotra rose to prominence for his elaborate work in cinema with Bollywood, Telugu, Tamil, Hollywood, Television, and the Fashion industry. Malhotra became famous for his outlook on the importance of costumes in films, often becoming a part of the narration and script reading process to develop costumes for films. Malhotra has been felicitated with Priyadarshini Memorial Award for his contribution to the fashion industry. Filmfare introduced the Filmfare Award for Best Costume Design in 1996 to acknowledge Malhotra for his styling and designing work in the film Rangeela (1995). Since 2018, Manish has launched four other new verticals - Manish Malhotra Beauty, Manish Malhotra Jewellery, a Film Production company, and Home decor. He is set to make his directorial debut with a musical love story, set against the backdrop of the partition, produced by Dharma Productions. Accoladed as a pioneer in the Indian design space, Malhotra's areas of creativity span the broad spheres of cinema, design, styling, diffusion, timeless bridal couture, jewelry, beauty, film direction, virtual store, and now tech with his recent launch of NFT's in the blockchain business. Early life Manish Malhotra was born to a Punjabi family in Mumbai, India. He studied at the Sacred Heart Boys High School, Mumbai. Growing up, he was heavily influenced by Bollywood films – the songs, the storytelling, the colors, the costumes, the actors who adorned them and made it a point to watch every film which released in cinemas. As he had a knack for sketching, he joined a painting class in the tenth grade as per his brother's suggestion. From watching films, painting, being surrounded by mother's clothes, recreating her sarees, being strongly opinionated about his family's sartorial choices, his love for fashion, styling, and cinema grew. While studying Arts at Elphinstone College in Mumbai, Manish was 19 when he forayed into modeling ad campaigns for brands like Fu's, Weekender, Frooti, and Goldspot. He managed to save Rs 90,000 through his modeling gigs and flew to Bangkok and Singapore in a quest to explore the world. On his return at the onset, he joined a boutique in Bandra called Equinox, where he spent his time sketching and draping the mannequins for a year, which paid him lower than 500 Indian rupees per month. In 1987, he decided to hire two tailors and started taking customized couture orders from his house. He wished to showcase his collection at Ensemble but didn't have the monetary means to create them at that point in time. In 1989, he was offered a chance to style the celebrated actress Divya Bharti in a song sequence for a film by David Dhawan. However, the film was later shelved. Though he did not have a formal education in fashion design, Malhotra's love for sketching, painting, and his passion for cinema and clothes saw him veer towards the world of films and styling. He debuted in the Hindi Film Industry as a costume stylist in 1990. Since then, Malhotra has dressed an entire generation of Bollywood actors and their progeny on-screen while also extending his aesthetics with his private label. He describes his Bollywood forte as "an entire, integrated look for a character throughout a film." Career Stylist and designer Malhotra made his costume designing debut with the film Swarg (1990), starring Rajesh Khanna, Govinda and Juhi Chawla. The same year, his gateway to the fashion industry opened when Rakesh Sreshtha, a photographer, introduced him to the late Sridevi to style her photoshoot looks. His creative process as a costume stylist began with script readings – an unheard-of practice in Hindi films then. He believed that costumes were an integral part of visual storytelling to make the characters more relatable to the audience. Malhotra was known to be the first costume stylist and designer to view the film as a whole. He advised the actresses and filmmakers on aspects where the character's look would just be a subset of the overall creative input, lending the costume looks their due credit. In 1993, he designed a complete look for the late Sridevi's character in Mahesh Bhatt's Gumrah. The designer said it was during the shooting of the Telugu thriller Govinda Govinda (1994) when Ram Gopal Varma first noticed his designs for Sridevi and reached out to him for Rangeela (1995). The film proved a career-changing experience for him as the success of the film and the popularity of the fashion trends the film established led Filmfare to introduce a new category for costume designing, the Filmfare Award for Best Costume Design, with Malhotra being its first recipient. Malhotra was credited for his modern and minimal yet impactful costume styling - be it the chiffon sarees in "Hai Rama”, the tangerine skater dress and the printed dress on a white base in "Tanha Tanha", the pleated skirts and boyfriend shorts in "Rangeela Re", or the Chaplinesque look in "Kya Kare Kya Na Kare". The casual style of Urmila Matondkar, who played the film's central protagonist - from co-ords, skater dresses, leotards with scarves to oversized shirts, high-waist jeans with figure-hugging tees, and wool berets - were noted to be one of the main talking points of the film. In 1997, Malhotra was offered a styling and designing project for Yash Raj Chopra's Dil To Pagal Hai. The film depicts the love lives of the cast and crew in a musical dance troupe while introducing stylish athleisure wear, sheer traditional outfits, and minimal styling to Hindi Cinema. From bicycle shorts, sports bras, wrist bands on Karisma Kapoor to Madhuri Dixit's sheer salwar suit sets in lace and chiffon symbolic of her coy nature; made most Indian women line up at the shops for copies. The costumes, looks and styling of Karan Johar's Kuch Kuch Hota Hai created an absolute frenzy back in 1998, courtesy of the man behind the fashion department, Malhotra, for which he won 7 individual category awards. The DKNY tracksuits, activewear, uber-casual sweatshirts, logo tees, and denim adorned by Kajol or the minimal dress to co-ords layered with oversized outerwear and the high-octane mini dress worn by Rani Mukerji, In the latter half of the film, Kajol was seen draped in sheer sarees with a hint of lace, or solid versions with an emphasis on the blouse; pastel hues and layering kurtas with sleek trousers which came to the forefront, bringing with them a timeless appeal. The off-route orange and beige lehenga as opposed to the go-to bridal red iteration. From athleisure, casual to bridal looks, Malhotra garnered recognition to create an array of fashion-forward looks now omnipresent and trendsetting. In 1999, Johar hired Malhotra to design for his multi-starrer family drama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001). Malhotra styled Kareena Kapoor's look in the film, which helped cement her position as a true style icon of Bollywood and set the entire tone for the film. The styling of the film earned Malhotra high acclaim - right from the red coordinated set of sequin top with bell-bottom pants from "You Are My Soniya", the pastel pink choli-pants paired with an asymmetrical cut bodice from "Bole Chudiyaan", to the yellow strapless top with the sunflower choker and ombre sunglasses, shimmer crop tops, mini-skirts, leather pants, jackets, scarves and fur collars. Malhotra's styling in the film is perceived to be timeless, relevant and inspirational for every generation. In 2001, Malhotra won his first IIFA Award for Best Costume Design for his work in Aditya Chopra's Mohabbatein. In 2003, Malhotra styled Johar's Kal Ho Naa Ho, a romantic comedy-drama based on NRI's living in New York City. Preity Zinta's statement pieces included scarves, trench coats, halter dresses (including the now-iconic red one from "Kuch Toh Hua Hai"), sweaters, slip dresses, flared pants, and one-shoulder dresses - all relevant to the era and character. Shah Rukh Khan and Saif Ali Khan's embroidered kurtas and Zinta's blue "Maahi Ve" lehenga, and Jaya Bachchan's makeover look, which including jeans, sweaters, sweatshirts and long trench and overcoats also received acclaim. The same year, he designed the wedding outfits for Karishma Kapoor subsequently leading to inquiries from high-profile clientele like the Raheja Builders and many more. In 2004, Malhotra generated quite a buzz after styling Sushmita Sen in Farah Khan's Main Hoon Na, in flowy chiffon sarees, vibrant colors, and prints Malhotra is known for making women feel sultry in sarees. In 2006, Johar once again reached out to Malhotra to style the entire cast of his ensemble musical romantic drama Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna. Malhotra received universal acclaim for his styling in the film - right from Shah Rukh Khan's preppy athleisure wear, Rani Mukherji's chiffon sarees, halter blouses and trench coats, Abhishek Bachchan's working guy formal wear, Preity Zinta's chic fashionista skirts, scarves, tops and dresses, Amitabh Bachchan's classic suits to Kirron Kher's homely long skirts, sweaters, stoles and kurtas - all of which received widespread praise from critics and the audience. In 2007, Malhotra styled Kareena Kapoor's character, Geet in the film Jab We Met. The film saw the rise of harem pants paired with long t-shirts, phulkari scarves, corset tops (with the popular red skirt), and hoop earrings with short kurtas. In 2008, Malhotra was widely praised for Priyanka Chopra's look in the film Dostana. Based in Miami. the vibe of the film was cool chic, and so were the costumes. It saw her in the iconic shimmering golden swimsuit, and her classic silver saree with a sensuous blouse from the song "Desi Girl" launched many versions of the same. In 2013, Malhotra styled and designed the look for Deepika Padukone's character, Naina Talwar, in Ayan Mukerji's Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani. The electric blue saree with a black shimmer blouse, her form-fitting kurtas with plunging necklines, low waist lehengas with short blouses, or floral dresses paired with sweaters and denim jackets, Malhotra's outfits received a lot of attention and praise. His body of work of over 1000 films and designing innumerable looks for actors including Rekha, Sridevi, Raveena Tandon, Kajol, Sushmita Sen to the generation of Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Priyanka Chopra, Kareena Kapoor Khan, Deepika Padukone, Katrina Kaif, Anushka Sharma, Alia Bhatt, Janhvi Kapoor, Sara Ali Khan, Ananya Pandey, and many others, Malhotra has been telling stories through all his creations for three decades now. The veteran was bestowed with the Filmfare Award for 30 years of outstanding contribution to Bollywood fashion. The visionary, revivalist, designer continues to accolade with many prestigious awards to date. Entrepreneur His label "Manish Malhotra" is synonymous with opulent, contemporary, and larger-than-life glamour Indian wear. In 1999, he collaborated with his friends, the industrialist Kajal Anand, Avanti, and Yash Birla for a brief period to design collections for their store, Reverie. Manish Malhotra tied up with Sheetal Design Studio and set up a workshop there. He virtually became a face of the Sheetal Design Studio, and exclusively retailed out of their store at Bombay's Grant Road for 4 years. After claiming his position as a costume director, stylist, and Hindi Film Industry fashion designer, he launched his couture label Manish Malhotra in 2005. It offers bridal, couture, diffusion, men's wear, and bespoke collections that now retail at four Mumbai, New Delhi, and Hyderabad stores. In 2006, Manish Malhotra teamed up with Saif Belhasa Group of Companies to open his first flagship store in Dubai that catered to Arab and Global customers. The collection portrayed a range of specially designed shelas, abhayas and jalabiyas, an amalgamation of traditional craft and modern design sensibilities to reflect the essence of his designs. The store later shut in 2017. In 2008, he opened his first two flagship stores in Khar West, Mumbai, India. In 2013, Manish Malhotra was the first Indian designer to have opened the largest, Indian stand-alone store sprawled over 6,000 sq.ft, located in a gorgeous haveli on Kalkadas Marg in Mehrauli, Delhi. The space reflects Malhotra's trademark opulent style with arched windows, high ceilings, and vintage chandeliers. (https://www.idiva.com/fashion/how-to/first-look-manish-malhotras-delhi-store/photogallery/25793) In 2017, Manish launched the Hyderabad store, which spreads over 15,000 sq. ft. It is located in the city's posh Jubilee Hills locality to meet the designer's grand visionary identity. Over the years, the label's aesthetic has aimed to bring together traditional Indian craftsmanship with contemporary silhouettes like gowns with intricate gold embroidery, cigarette pants paired with long jackets for women, voluminous lehengas worn with cropped blouses, or the use of non-traditional colors like royal blue, soft pink, maroon, etc., in bridal ensembles. The label's design language is claimed to exhibit glamour and is a reflection of modern India. In 2019, many actresses wore the signature "Manish Malhotra saree" that the designer introduced in a variety of colours. He launched his first-ever haute-couture make-up line, 'Manish Malhotra Beauty', in collaboration with My Glamm in December 2018. 2019, the celebrity couturier ventured into a new space, 'Manish Malhotra Jewellery' in partnership with heritage jeweler brand Raniwala 1881. The curation is a medley of heritage with a modern touch, much like his line of clothes, entailing an expansive range of chandbalis, danglers, studs, jhumkis, kadas, chokers, layered necklaces in a combination of uncut palkis, emeralds, diamonds, jadau, coloured stones and pearls. Reliance Brands Limited (RBL) - part of the retail arm of billionaire Mukesh Ambani-owned Reliance Industries acquired a 40 percent stake in brand 'Manish Malhotra' (within the lifestyle space domain) to accelerate the 16-year old couture house's growth in India and across the globe. On Friday, October 15, Reliance Brands and Manish Malhotra announced a strategic partnership as part of the deal. This is the first external investment for Manish Malhotra's brand, which has been privately held by the designer so far. The brand will continue to be led by Manish Malhotra, as Managing and Creative Director after the partnership with Reliance. Digital venture On January 14, 2021, Manish Malhotra was the first in the Indian design space to launch the first-ever virtual store. The designer's virtual store allows the customers to walk through the Delhi flagship store spanning over 15,000 sq. ft. The virtual tour's design house is built with online navigation systems and custom configurations, and customers can walk through the aisles, zoom in on the products, and get the item's details. In addition, guests traveling on Etihad Airways got the chance to watch the normal version of the movie as part of the flight’s inflight entertainment. The NFT collection had the sketches and GIFs of five couture pieces worn by famous artists like Lisa Ray, Deepika Padukone, Kareena Kapoor Khan, and Alia Bhatt. The auctioning was done in WRX—which is the native token of WazirX based on the Binance blockchain. The dropped collection made the sale within 12 seconds. Manish Malhotra has been a judge panellist on a reality show called Myntra Fashion Superstar, aimed at identifying India’s next big fashion influencer on the Myntra App.class.org.in Runway Manish Malhotra, the designer, started his Productions arm in 2018 with India's most elite and beau monde wedding of Isha Ambani and Anand Piramal. The entire Sangeet event was conceptualized, curated, and executed by Manish Malhotra Productions. Guests included global business tycoons, politicians, sports stars, Hollywood, Bollywood personalities, and International celebrities such as Hillary Clinton and Beyoncé. Cinema has defined, decorated, fired and fuelled Malhotra’s work—an aspect and quality he masterfully employed to present his recent collections. To conclude India Couture Week (ICW) 2020, Malhotra was the first in the Indian fashion space to stage the grand finale in a virtual format with ‘Ruhaniyat’ —a medium that gave him the chance to sit in the director’s chair and visualize clothes as characters. The couture film conjured a mood of mysticism laced by the Sufi notes of singer Abi Sampa and musician Rushil Ranjan. Malhotra’s inspiration is pivoted on the princely histories of Punjab and Awadh, with styling, music and the overall old-word opulence borrowed from the Mughal era bringing forth the real fraction of the Awadhi-Punjabi repertoire with voluminous silhouettes, deft embroidery, and layerings. Janhvi Kapoor, the young film star and daughter of the late Bollywood actor Sridevi, became the revered muse, invoking bridal emotions at different points in the fashion film. The multi-faceted designer introduced his timeless and seasonless 'Nooraniyat' collection through a couture film in April 2021, featuring the millennial actress Sara Ali Khan and Kriti Sanon for the bridal collection. The couture video hallmarks his three decades of designing for film and the runway. (https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/kriti-sanon-looks-royal-latest-snaps-manish-malhotras-nooraniyat-collection/) After reshaping Bollywood's fashion story, designer Manish Malhotra will go behind the camera and make his directorial debut with a musical love story set in the backdrop of the partition, produced by Dharma Productions. Digital Venture Manish Malhotra marked another first to add to his repertoire of accomplishments. He partnered with Etihad Airways to become the first Indian designer to create a virtual reality fashion show filmed using the pioneering technology at Lakme Fashion Week in Mumbai in August, 2016. All the goings-on, both onstage and backstage, were covered with 360-degree cameras for the world to see. In addition, guests traveling on Etihad Airways got the chance to watch the normal version of the movie as part of the inflight entertainment. On January 14, 2021, Manish Malhotra was the first in the Indian design space to launch the first-ever virtual store. The designer's virtual store allows the customers to walk through the Delhi flagship store spanning over 15,000 sq. ft. The virtual tour's design house is built with online navigation systems and custom configurations, and customers can walk through the aisles, zoom in on the products, and get the item's details. In 2021, Manish Malhotra was the first Indian designer forayed into the crypto world with his first-ever collection of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) — unique digital items that can be bought using cryptocurrencies. The NFT collection had the sketches and GIFs of five couture pieces worn by famous artists like Lisa Ray, Deepika Padukone, Kareena Kapoor Khan, and Alia Bhatt. The auctioning was done in WRX—which is the native token of WazirX based on the Binance blockchain. The dropped collection made the sale within 12 seconds. Manish Malhotra has been a significant judge panellist on a unique reality show called Myntra Fashion Superstar, aimed at identifying India’s next big fashion influencer on the Myntra App. Achint Setia, VP & Business Head, Social Commerce, Myntra, said : “As it enters its third edition, Myntra Fashion Superstar is a fashion, entertainment, and content space, creating a strong fan-following by driving relevant conversations around authenticity, inclusivity and challenging societal norms for the better. This edition will focus on shaping mindsets around celebrating unfiltered, and real conversations alongside the most relevant and credible voices. Social Sustainability First Shows London Malhotra has made contributions to India's largest education NGO, Pratham, once in 2013 and then in 2016. Manish Malhotra celebrated 100 years of Indian Cinema at the ARTiculate the Pratham Ball 2013, in London and raised 3,00,000 pounds for the Indian Education Charity. His collection was inspired by the three main eras of Indian Cinema, spanning from 1913 to 2013. It took the audience through the black and white era of "Mughal-E-Azam" and "Awara". Houston Again on 23 April 2016, at the Pratham's Annual Gala, held at Hilton America's, Manish Malhotra raised $1.8 million to eradicate illiteracy in India Angel! Foundation (London) Manish Malhotra debuted his exquisite collection at a spectacular gala evening in aid of The Angeli Foundation and in association with Rivaage Boutique that took place at the Grosvenor House Hotel on 23rd February 2013. Angel Foundation is a charity that works towards the empowerment of women in India and fights the cause of female foeticide and related crimes against women in India. Manish in support of the Angel! Foundation said, "I work in an industry where women are revered and respected. I have had the privilege of dressing some of the most beautiful and powerful women in the world, but when I step out of the door and into the stark reality of India, I see the injustice and inequality all around me. Muscat Fashion Show On 20 February 2014, Malhotra along with 20 models from Mumbai showcased his latest creations and couture in a binding show. The show was in association with Oman Cancer Association and Dar Al’ Atta’a to support cancer awareness. The show was held on 20 February 2014 at the lawns of the Intercontinental Muscat. The RO20,000 raised during the event were donated to the Oman Cancer Association. Manish, through this show, brought to life India's regal heritage with the royalty in chiffon saris, flowing anarkalis, kalidar lehengas and double-breasted bandhgalas.[citation needed] Save The Tiger Telethon (Aircel) NDTV in association with Aircel embarked upon a unique programming initiative to support its ongoing "Save our Tiger" campaign by telecasting a 12-hour nonstop program from 11 am to 11 pm, in March 2010. Malhotra was among the many generous donors like Amitabh Bachchan, Diya Mirza, Priya Dutt etc. the campaign raised about Rs. 10 crore and had a great impact on the policies. WEvolve Blue Runway Malhotra introduced a new dimension to his summer collection in 2015 with ‘The Blue Runway’ at the Jabong Lakme Fashion Week 2015. The show was in association with the WEvolve campaign and World Bank as the partner. WEvolve is a global campaign bringing men and women together to end inequality using the power of art and media to inspire action and change. The highlight of the show was the finale segment where the models were seen carrying messages of change and positivity on placards that read – gender, equality, society, empower and justice. The show derived its name, ‘The Blue Runway’ from the color palette it featured – different hues of blue from powder to midnight. Also the collection was designed to be worn in any part of the world with the women's line including flowy gowns, jacket-saris, off-shoulder and halter crop tops, and skirts as and long shirts in structured and easy styles. Honor Role By CRY America Malhotra also contributed to ensuring underprivileged children their basic rights. He made a generous donation of a Manish Malhotra garment at the CRY gala dinner 2017. Among the prominent personalities who walked the ramp for them were Shabana Azmi, Sophie Choudry, Huma Qureshi, Athiya Shetty, Tara Sharma, Kajol, Riya Sen, Tisca Chopra etc. Kashmir Manish Malhotra worked towards promoting the regional handicrafts of India in 2012. He associated with craftsmen of Kashmir who had been creating intricate embroideries for his label and created the Kashmiri Heritage Collection which was showcased on the third day of Wills Lifestyle India Fashion Week. His collection was Kashmir-inspired and it was a tribute to the craftsmen from Kashmir working for him for a year. Mijwan Malhotra has been involved with the Mijwan Welfare Society since its very first show. Mijwan Welfare Society was founded by Kaifi Azmi that promotes the village based small-scale industries and supporting it with marketing skills and strategies and it also facilitates viable self-employment. The women of the Mijwan village have sustained themselves by learning chikankari embroidery, which Malhotra has transformed into his signature Indian wear. Kaifi Azmi Embroidery and Sewing centre was set up in 1994 and Manish Malhotra adopted the school in 2012. He showcased his 2012 Mijwan collection at the India Fashion Week held at Grand Hyatt, Mumbai to promote Mijwan's female population and their craftsmanship. In 2015, having completed 4 years of working with Mijwan Welfare Society, he put up a show on 4 April 2015. The collection was called, The Legacy and the list of showstoppers included five parent-child duos: Amitabh Bachchan and Shweta Nanda, Anil and Sonam Kapoor, Shatrugan and Sonakshi Sinha, Jaya and Abhishek Bachchan, and Javed and Farhan Akhtar. The idea behind putting family on the forefront was simple: To represent the legacy the late Kaifi Azmi left for his daughter Shabana Azmi, who now heads the NGO of Mijwan Welfare Society along with her god daughter Namrata Goyal. In 2017, he put up his sixth Mijwan show at the Grand Hyatt, Mumbai. Shah Rukh Khan and Anushka Sharma walked the ramp for him, and the collection showcased an amalgamation of classic chikankari in modern silhouettes, renewing the vintage charm of elaborate jackets, cocktail dresses, saris, crop tops, fluid skirts and evening gowns—with rich zardozi, romantic sequins and fringes. Save The Girl Child 2012 To support the 'Save & Empower The Girl Child' campaign held at JW Marriott in Mumbai on 11 April 2012, Manish Malhotra put up a show where many celebrities walked the ramp with their daughters. The collection embraced traditional Indian crafts like Chikankari and Kashmiri embroidery. It traced the birth of the Indian Girl Child from soft shades to vibrant hues signaling her arrival into womanhood. 2014 At the Lilavati hospital, Manish Malhotra put up a show to support the ‘Save the Girl Child’ campaign where Bollywood divas Madhuri Dixit Nene, Malaika Arora Khan, Mandira Bedi, and Lara Dutta walked the ramp for him. Brand Collaborations Manish Malhotra x Hindware, 2017 Manish Malhotra created an eponymous collection of bathroom suites for Hindware and launched super-premium bathware brand ALCHYMI. Femina Miss India, 2017 Manish Malhotra recreated the romance of traditional and contemporary worlds through an exclusive range for 30 finale contestants gracing the Femina Miss India 2017 runway. For the very first time in Miss India’s history, all finalists walked the ramp wearing Indian Couture instead of western silhouettes for their final round. Manish Malhotra x VIVO, 2018 Smartphone maker Vivo has collaborated with Manish Malhotra and launched ‘Infinite Red’ Vivo V7+ limited edition smartphone, targeting millennials in India. Manish Malhotra – Mughal-e-Azam In 2016, Manish Malhotra was associated with Director Feroz Abbas Khan for his ambitious musical adaptation of ‘Mughal-e-Azam.’ He designed all the 550 costumes for the play. Manish Malhotra x INIFD, 2018 Manish Malhotra joined hands with the International Institute of Fashion Design (INIFD) and London School of Trends (LST). The program facilitates students through extensive video lectures by Manish Malhotra to learn from his experience from over 30 years in film and fashion. Manish Malhotra x Magnum, 2018 Manish and Magnum represented the melange of glamour and fashion at Cannes in 2018. Notable projects In August 2016, Malhotra's show for Lakme Fashion Week's Winter-Festive edition was shot for a Virtual Reality fashion experience by Etihad Airways. The Virtual Reality video was released earlier in January 2017 at Etihad’s Innovation Centre in Abu Dhabi. He also worked with Google on launch promotions for ‘G Suite’ – a set of intelligent apps designed for modern professionals. Manish Malhotra was invited to share his design journey at the 2017 edition of the India Conference at Harvard Business School In 2018, Manish Malhotra was invited by the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences to be a member. Apart from the star-studded clientele, he has also designed clothes for International names. Malhotra worked on a traditional outfit design for Michael Jackson, during his visit to India in the late 1990s. He has also worked for Jean-Claude Van Damme, Reese Witherspoon in Mira Nair’s Vanity Fair, Kylie Minogue, and Jermaine Jackson and wife Halima He also designed the wedding outfits for the Princess of Riyadh. Sundar Pichai and his wife Anjali Pichai wore Manish Malhotra outfits for a wedding ceremony in Mumbai, India. The designer has also dressed Hillary Clinton, Kylie Minogue, and supermodels Kate Moss and Naomi Campbell. Costume design filmography Awards Filmfare Awards 1995 - Filmfare Award for Costume Design - Rangeela Filmfare Glamour & Style Award Bollywood Movie Award 1999 Bollywood Award for Costume Design - Kuch Kuch Hota Hai 2002 Bollywood Awards Designer of Year - Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... 2005 Bollywood Awards Designer of Year - Veer-Zaara 2007 Bollywood Awards Designer of Year - Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna Zee Cine Award Zee Cine Award Zee Cine Award for Costume Design Zee Cine Award for Best Costume for Mohabbatein Zee Cine Award - Zenith 'London' for Best Costume in 2008 IIFA Awards 2001 IIFA Award for Best Costume - Mohabbatein 2002 IIFA Award for Best Costume for Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... 2004 IIFA Award for Best Costume for Kal Ho Naa Ho Wizcraft Samsung IIFA Award for Costume Designing 2017 IIFA Award for Best Costume Designing. Filmfare Awards South 2010 Filmfare Awards South for Costume Design - Enthiran Other awards Masala Awards for International Asian Designer of the year in 2010 Masa Awards for Fashion Personality in 2012 Bollywood Fashion Awards Designer of the year in 2002 Best costume designer in 2004 Designer of the year in 2004 Designer of the year in 2005 Best costume designer in 2005 Showtime Opinion Poll Award for Raja Hindustani Rok Glam Award Zoom for Contemporary Wear Design - Women in 2007 Siemen's Viewer's Choice Award for Dil To Pagal Hai Stylish Designer Of the Year at the Elle Style Awards in 1999 Indo American Society Award for contribution to Fashion Designing Indira Priyadarshini Memorial Award for his contribution to the fashion industry Manish was Felicitated by National Institute Of Fashion Technology Indian Affairs of Network 7 Media Group felicitated Manish at India Leadership Conclave 2013 as "Fashion Icon of the Decade 2013". SAIFTA in 2013 for Outstanding Contribution to Cinema & Fashion International Film Festival Of India - Goa for Excellence Award Rajiv Gandhi Awards for designing in 2002 Hall of Fame for HELLO in 2014 Rang Sadhana for Costume Designer in 2008 AICOG Achievers Award MOET & Chandon Champagne for tribute to Asian fashion designing in 2006 Power brands & Fame & Planman for Styling new India in 2012 Hindustan Times for Most Stylish - Delhi Season 6 in 2016 Pratham, USA for Excellence in fashion in 2016 The Antwerp medical team for noble cause in 2006 Lycra MTV Style Awards for Celebrity Style in 2006 Lyrca MTC Style Awards for Bollywood designer of the year FICCI - Speaker in 2014 for Changing facade of fashion industry in India Clariden LEU for appreciation for creativity Magzimise Awards 2016 for creative fashion & fashion accessories References External links 1966 births Living people Indian male fashion designers Indian costume designers Clothing brands of India Punjabi people British emigrants to India Filmfare Awards South winners Artists from Mumbai 20th-century Indian designers 21st-century Indian designers Filmfare Awards winners
4599622
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower%20Guinean%20forests
Lower Guinean forests
The Lower Guinean forests also known as the Lower Guinean-Congolian forests, are a region of coastal tropical moist broadleaf forest in West Africa, extending along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Guinea from eastern Benin through Nigeria and Cameroon. The Guinean forests encompass a diverse array of vegetation zones that range from humid coastal forests, freshwater swamp forests (such as those found around the Niger Delta), to arid, semi-deciduous forests further inland, characterized by extended periods of dry weather. The Guinean Forests Hotspot boasts a plethora of ecological characteristics that make it globally exceptional. Notably, the Niger Delta swamp forests rank as the second-largest swamp forest on the African continent, while the Central African Mangroves represent the largest mangrove expanse in Africa. Moreover, the offshore volcanic islands within the hotspot are remarkable for their substantial levels of unique species, particularly considering their size. Additionally, the hotspot contains the Volta River, one of West Africa's largest rivers, and the delta of the Niger River, the longest and most massive river in the region. Furthermore, the Western Equatorial Crater Lakes ecoregion is among those recognized as globally remarkable. The Dahomey Gap, a region of savanna and dry forest in Togo and Benin, divides the Lower Guinean forests from the Upper Guinean forests to the west, which extend along the western coast of the Gulf of Guinea from Togo to Liberia and north to Guinea. To the north and northeast, the Lower Guinean forests transition to the drier inland Guinean forest–savanna mosaic and Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic and to the southeast are bounded by the Congolian Coastal forests, whose boundary is the Sanaga River in Cameroon. The Lower Guinean forests share many biotic affinities with the Upper Guinean forests. They are collectively known as the Guinean Forests of West Africa, location is Sierra Leone. The Lower Guinean forests, represent a vital ecological region in West and Central Africa. Stretching along the Gulf of Guinea coastline, these forests encompass parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and smaller portions of neighboring countries. The Lower Guinean forests are globally recognized as a biodiversity hotspot, characterized by their exceptional ecological significance and remarkable species diversity. Ecoregions The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) divides the Lower Guinean forests into a number of distinct ecoregions: Nigerian lowland forests (Togo, Nigeria) Niger Delta swamp forests (Nigeria) Cross–Niger transition forests (Nigeria) Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests (Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea) Cameroonian Highlands forests (Nigeria, Cameroon) Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests (Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea) São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón moist lowland forests (Equatorial Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe) The WWF has designated two regions of the Lower Guinean forests as Global 200 priority regions for conservation. The WWF's "Coastal Congolian forests" region includes the Cross-Sanaga Bioko coastal forests, São Tomé and Príncipe moist lowland forests, and Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregions. The "Cameroon Highlands forests" Global 200 region includes the Cameroonian Highlands forests and the Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests ecoregions. Geographical Features Tropical Rainforests These forests primarily consist of tropical rainforests, characterized by high rainfall, lush vegetation, and a wide variety of plant life. The region's rainfall is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Flora and Fauna The Guinean Forests Hotspot is renowned for its abundant and distinctive collection of wildlife. A noteworthy characteristic of the fauna within this region is that numerous endemic species have particularly limited distributions within the hotspot, rendering them highly susceptible to the consequences of deforestation. To illustrate, the Upper Guinea Highlands harbor an exceptionally high concentration of endemic bats and amphibians with constrained habitats, all of which are classified as either Critically Endangered or Endangered. The Lower Guinean forests are recognized as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. They are home to a vast array of plant and animal species, many of which are endemic. Lower Guinean forests are known for their rich botanical diversity, including numerous tree species, epiphytes, orchids, and medicinal plants. The forests support diverse wildlife, including various primates (such as chimpanzees and gorillas), big cats (like leopards and forest elephants), numerous bird species, reptiles, amphibians, and insects. Around 63 out of the approximately 320 mammal species are unique to this area, and there are also seven exclusive genera, among them is the single-species genus like the Liberian mongoose (Libtnezctis kuhn~, EN). Another example of a one-species genus is the pygmy hippo (Hexaprotodon liberiensis, VU), a charming miniature version of its larger relative, which is found solely in the Guinean forests, with one subspecies residing in Upper Guinea and another in the Niger Delta. Ecological Significance Carbon Storage These forests play a critical role in sequestering carbon dioxide, helping to mitigate climate change. Their extensive vegetation stores significant amounts of carbon. One of the most pressing global environmental concerns is climate change, primarily driven by the accumulation of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. The Lower Guinean Forests emerged as a key player in mitigating this phenomenon. These forests boast a remarkable capacity for carbon storage. The extensive and diverse vegetation that thrives within this biome serves as a substantial carbon sink, effectively sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In fact, numerous studies and scientific reports have emphasized the importance of these forests in the fight against climate change. Research findings underscore that the Lower Guinean Forests store significant amounts of carbon, serving as a vital buffer against the rising levels of atmospheric CO2. This sequestration function underscores the invaluable role played by these forests in supporting global efforts to reduce the impacts of climate change. Water Regulation The forests regulate water flow, helping to prevent flooding during heavy rains and ensuring a steady supply of freshwater to rivers and streams. The water regulation function of the Lower Guinean Forests is another crucial aspect of their ecological significance. These forests act as natural sponges, absorbing and releasing water in a manner that benefits both the environment and human communities. During periods of heavy rainfall, they play a critical role in preventing flooding by absorbing excess water and regulating its flow. This not only safeguards the ecosystems within the forests but also safeguards human settlements downstream from potential deluges. However, the forests ensure a consistent supply of freshwater to the numerous rivers and streams that originate within or flow through their territory. This consistent water supply is vital for sustaining the aquatic life and vegetation that depend on these water bodies, ultimately contributing to the well-being of the entire region. Habitat for Endangered Species Several critically endangered species, including the Cross River gorilla and various species of monkeys and birds, inhabit the Lower Guinean forests. The Lower Guinean Forests serve as a refuge for a diverse range of wildlife. Among the most emblematic inhabitants of these forests is also the Cross River gorilla, an elusive and highly endangered primate species. These forests are also home to a plethora of other species, including various monkeys, birds, and numerous plants with unique ecological significance. The preservation of these forests is, therefore, paramount for the continued survival of these vulnerable species. Conservation efforts in the Lower Guinean Forests are crucial to maintaining the biodiversity of the region and ensuring the protection of these species. Cultural and Indigenous Importance These forests are often home to indigenous communities with rich cultural traditions. The forests provide resources and are central to the way of life of many local people. These forests have been the cradle of diverse cultural traditions, lifestyles, and worldviews that have thrived for generations. The Cultural and Indigenous Importance of the Lower Guinean Forests therefore extends beyond their ecological significance, reflecting a profound connection between the region's indigenous communities and the forest environment. Understanding and acknowledging this cultural dimension is integral to appreciating the holistic significance of these forests. Threats and Conservation The Guinean Forests Hotspot faces severe threats, being among the world's most endangered forest systems, marked by extensive habitat fragmentation and degradation across the majority of the area. Deforestation The Lower Guinean forests are under threat from deforestation due to logging, agriculture, mining, and infrastructure development. This threatens both biodiversity and carbon storage. While these causes may not be limited to this region, each contributes to the ongoing degradation of this vital ecosystem. Commercial Logging: Commercial logging is a major driver of deforestation in the Lower Guinean forests. Valuable timber species are harvested for export and domestic use, leading to a significant loss of forest cover. Documented instances of this include the extraction of valuable hardwoods like mahogany (Swietenia spp.) and sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum) for international markets. A study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) highlighted the impact of logging in this region, revealing that it accounts for a substantial portion of deforestation. Agricultural Expansion: The expansion of agriculture, including slash-and-burn farming, plays a substantial role in forest loss. Local communities clear forested areas to make way for crop cultivation, particularly in areas where subsistence farming is prevalent. Documented instances include cases of cocoa cultivation, oil palm plantations, and subsistence farming practices. A report from the Rainforest Foundation UK documented the expansion of cocoa farming in the Lower Guinean forests and its detrimental impact on the environment. Mining Activities: Mining for valuable minerals such as gold and bauxite results in deforestation in the Lower Guinean forests. The extraction of these minerals leads to the clearing of large areas of forest and generates pollution, disrupting local ecosystems. Documented instances include gold mining activities in Ghana and Guinea, which have been widely reported as contributing to deforestation. The Global Forest Watch platform provides data on mining-related deforestation in these regions. Infrastructure Development: The construction of roads, highways, and other infrastructure projects often necessitates clearing significant portions of forested land. As human populations continue to grow, there is a growing demand for improved transportation networks, leading to further deforestation. The fragmentation of forest habitats due to infrastructure development can also isolate populations of various species, making it harder for them to thrive and migrate. Habitat Fragmentation Habitat fragmentation is a pressing concern in the Lower Guinean forests, threatening the integrity of this vital ecosystem. The expansion of human activities, including infrastructure development and agricultural expansion, has led to the fragmentation of forest habitats, making it increasingly challenging for wildlife to thrive, disperse, and maintain genetic diversity. This phenomenon is especially relevant to the Lower Guinean forests and has far-reaching ecological consequences which include limiting the ability of wildlife to access necessary resources, find suitable mates, and maintain genetic diversity. Smaller, isolated populations of species face an increased risk of inbreeding and reduced adaptive capacity. Additionally, fragmented habitats are more vulnerable to edge effects, which can include increased predation, invasive species, and altered microclimates. These consequences of habitat fragmentation pose significant challenges to the conservation and long-term sustainability of the Lower Guinean forests. Illegal Wildlife Trade With the pervasive and destructive issue of Poaching and illegal wildlife trade, the Lower Guinean forests faces illicit activities that poses a substantial threat to the region's unique and diverse flora and fauna, including many endangered species. The trade encompasses the illegal capture, sale, and transportation of wildlife, and it primarily targets species for bushmeat and the exotic pet trade. Bushmeat Trade: The illegal trade in bushmeat, which involves the hunting and consumption of wild animals for food, is a significant concern in the Lower Guinean forests. It poses a severe threat to numerous species, including primates, duikers, and pangolins. Unsustainable hunting practices, driven by a growing demand for bushmeat, have led to declines in wildlife populations. Local communities often rely on bushmeat as a source of protein, but the commercial bushmeat trade, which caters to urban and international markets, exacerbates the problem. This trade results in overhunting and population decline of various species. Unfortunately, many of these activities remain clandestine and are difficult to monitor and control. Exotic Pet Trade: The illegal trade in exotic pets is another concerning facet of wildlife trafficking in the Lower Guinean forests. It targets a wide range of species, including parrots, reptiles, and small mammals, for the global pet trade. These animals are often captured in the wild, often causing harm to their populations. The process of capturing, transporting, and selling these creatures not only threatens their survival but can also introduce invasive species to new regions. The international demand for exotic pets contributes to the persistence of this trade. Traditional Medicine and Folklore: The use of wildlife in traditional medicine and cultural practices is a lesser-known but significant driver of illegal wildlife trade in the region. Various animal parts, such as bones, skins, and organs, are sought for their perceived medicinal or spiritual properties. These practices put additional pressure on wildlife populations and further fuel the illegal trade. Climate Change The Lower Guinean forests, like many other critical ecosystems around the world, are increasingly susceptible to the effects of climate change. These forests, known for their high levels of biodiversity and carbon storage, face a range of climate-related challenges that can disrupt their ecological balance and alter their vital functions. Changing rainfall patterns and temperature variations associated with climate change can impact the health and distribution of forest ecosystems. Changing Rainfall Patterns: Climate change has led to alterations in rainfall patterns across the Lower Guinean forests. This region typically experiences a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. However, global warming is contributing to shifts in precipitation patterns, with implications for both flora and fauna. Prolonged dry seasons and more intense rainfall events can disrupt the timing of flowering and fruiting of many plant species, affecting the availability of food resources for wildlife. Changes in rainfall patterns and their impact on local ecosystems emphasize the urgent need for adaptive strategies and conservation efforts. Temperature Variations: Rising temperatures are a growing concern in the Lower Guinean forests. Increased temperatures can lead to heat stress in many plant and animal species, particularly those adapted to the relatively stable climate of these forests. Some species may find it challenging to adjust to warmer conditions, and the thermal stress can alter local species composition. Research suggests that rising temperatures in the region may also increase the prevalence of diseases that affect both wildlife and humans, highlighting the interconnectedness of climate change and biodiversity. Drought and Forest Health: Drought events, which are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change, can weaken the resilience of the Lower Guinean forests. Prolonged droughts can result in reduced soil moisture, impacting tree health and potentially leading to increased tree mortality. Such changes can disrupt forest dynamics and the structure of these ecosystems. Additionally, drier conditions may make forests more susceptible to wildfires, which can be particularly destructive in tropical forests. Carbon Storage and Climate Mitigation: The Lower Guinean forests play a crucial role in global carbon storage and sequestration. The carbon stored in these forests helps mitigate climate change by reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. However, the impacts of climate change, including droughts and heat stress, can compromise the ability of these forests to continue serving as effective carbon sinks. Maintaining the health and resilience of these forests is essential for mitigating climate change at both local and global scales. Conservation Efforts Efforts are being made by conservation organizations, governments, and local communities to protect and conserve the Lower Guinean forests. Strategies include creating protected areas, promoting sustainable forestry practices, and raising awareness about the ecological and cultural value of these unique forests. Conservation initiatives aim to balance the need for economic development with the imperative to preserve this vital ecological region. Creating Protected Areas: One of the cornerstone strategies in the conservation of the Lower Guinean forests is the establishment of protected areas. These protected zones act as sanctuaries for the rich tapestry of life that resides within the forests. Notable examples include the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. These protected areas serve as vital refuges for endangered species like the Cross River gorilla and the pygmy hippopotamus. Additionally, they provide opportunities for scientific research and ecotourism, generating economic benefits for local communities while safeguarding the natural heritage of the region. Promoting Sustainable Forestry Practices: Recognizing that logging and forestry are essential for the economic development of the region, conservation efforts also focus on promoting sustainable forestry practices. Selective logging, reduced-impact logging, and other sustainable techniques are encouraged to minimize the ecological footprint of the timber industry. Local communities are involved in these initiatives, ensuring that their livelihoods are not compromised while protecting the forests. Forest certification programs, like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), are instrumental in verifying that forestry operations adhere to environmentally responsible practices. Raising Awareness: The battle for the conservation of the Lower Guinean forests is not limited to the forests themselves but extends into the hearts and minds of people worldwide. Conservation organizations, governmental agencies, and local communities are actively involved in raising awareness about the ecological and cultural significance of these forests. Educational campaigns, documentaries, and community engagement programs help convey the importance of these ecosystems and the need for their preservation. Through these efforts, the global community is made aware of the biodiversity, the critical role of these forests in mitigating climate change, and the cultural traditions of the communities living in and around these areas. Balancing Economic Development and Conservation: One of the most pressing challenges in conserving the Lower Guinean forests is the need to strike a balance between economic development and environmental conservation. The forests provide resources like timber, non-timber forest products, and agricultural land for local communities. However, unregulated exploitation can lead to deforestation and habitat loss. Conservation initiatives work in concert with local governments and businesses to develop sustainable land-use practices. By providing alternative livelihoods and supporting eco-friendly industries, such as ecotourism, conservationists aim to ensure that economic development does not come at the expense of the forests' integrity. See also Congolian forests References External links Guinean Forests of West Africa, at Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Coastal areas of Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone at World Wildlife Fund. Afrotropical realm Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Deforestation in Nigeria
4599637
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reveal%20system
Reveal system
A 20th-century system of plant taxonomy, the Reveal system (see also the Thorne & Reveal system) of plant classification was drawn up by the American botanist James Reveal (1941-2015). The system was published online in 1997 in ten parts as lecture notes comparing the major systems in use at that time. Subsequently, Reveal became an author with the consensus Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) on the APG II 2003 and APG III 2009 processes. Although this largely supplanted the earlier and competing systems, he collaborated with Robert Thorne on his system (2007), and subsequently continued to develop his own system. 1997 system division Magnoliophyta [= angiosperms] class Magnoliopsida subclass Magnoliidae class Piperopsida subclass Piperidae subclass Nymphaeidae subclass Nelumbonidae class Liliopsida [= monocots] subclass Triurididae subclass Aridae subclass Liliidae subclass Arecidae subclass Commelinidae subclass Zingiberidae class Ranunculopsida subclass Ranunculidae class Rosopsida subclass Caryophyllidae subclass Hamamelididae subclass Dilleniidae subclass Rosidae subclass Cornidae subclass Lamiidae subclass Asteridae In more detail: division 6. Magnoliophyta class 1. Magnoliopsida subclass 1. Magnoliidae superorder 1. Magnolianae order 1. Winterales family 1. Winteraceae order 2. Canellales family 1. Canellaceae order 3. Illiciales family 1. Illiciaceae family 2. Schisandraceae order 4. Magnoliales family 1. Degeneriaceae family 2. Himantandraceae family 3. Magnoliaceae order 5. Eupomatiales family 1. Eupomatiaceae order 6. Annonales family 1. Annonaceae order 7. Myristicales family 1. Myristicaceae order 8. Austrobaileyales family 1. Austrobaileyaceae superorder 2. Lauranae order 1. Laurales family 1. Amborellaceae family 2. Trimeniaceae family 3. Monimiaceae family 4. Gomortegaceae family 5. Hernandiaceae family 6. Lauraceae order 2. Calycanthales family 1. Calycanthaceae family 2. Idiospermaceae (now part of Calycantaceae) order 3. Chloranthales family 1. Chloranthaceae class 2. Piperopsida subclass 1. Piperidae superorder 1. Piperanae order 1. Piperales family 1. Saururaceae family 2. Piperaceae superorder 2. Lactoridanae order 1. Lactoridales family 1. Lactoridaceae order 2. Aristolochiales family 1. Aristolochiaceae superorder 3. Rafflesianae order 1. Hydnorales family 1. Hydnoraceae order 2. Rafflesiales family 1. Apodanthaceae family 2. Mitrastemonaceae family 3. Rafflesiaceae family 4. Cytinaceae superorder 4. Balanophoranae order 1. Cynomoriales family 1. Cynomoriaceae order 2. Balanophorales family 1. Mystropetalaceae family 2. Dactylanthaceae family 3. Lophophytaceae family 4. Sarcophytaceae family 5. Scybaliaceae family 6. Heloseaceae family 7. Langsdorffiaceae family 8. Balanophoraceae subclass 2. Nymphaeidae superorder 1. Nymphaeanae order 1. Nymphaeales family 1. Nymphaeaceae family 2. Barclayaceae subclass 3. Nelumbonidae superorder 1. Nelumbonanae order 1. Nelumbonales family 1. Nelumbonaceae order 2. Hydropeltidales family 1. Hydropeltidaceae family 2. Cabombaceae superorder 2. Ceratophyllanae order 1. Ceratophyllales family 1. Ceratophyllaceae class 3. Liliopsida subclass 1. Alismatidae superorder 1. Butomanae order 1. Butomales family 1. Butomaceae superorder 2. Alismatanae order 1. Alismatales family 1. Limnocharitaceae family 2. Alismataceae order 2. Hydrocharitales family 1. Hydrocharitaceae order 3. Aponogetonales family 1. Aponogetonaceae order 4. Najadales family 1. Najadaceae order 5. Juncaginales family 1. Scheuchzeriaceae family 2. Juncaginaceae order 6. Potamogetonales family 1. Potamogetonaceae family 2. Ruppiaceae family 3. Zannichelliaceae family 4. Zosteraceae family 5. Posidoniaceae family 6. Cymodoceaceae subclass 2. Triurididae superorder 1. Triuridanae order 1. Triuridales family 1. Triuridaceae subclass 3. Aridae superorder 1. Acoranae order 1. Acorales family 1. Acoraceae superorder 2. Aranae order 1. Arales family 1. Araceae superorder 3. Cyclanthanae order 1. Cyclanthales family 1. Cyclanthaceae superorder 4. Pandananae order 1. Pandanales family 1. Pandanaceae subclass 4. Liliidae order 1. Lilianae order 1. Tofieldiales family 1. Tofieldiaceae order 2. Dioscoreales family 1. Trichopodaceae family 2. Stenomeridaceae family 3. Avetraceae family 4. Dioscoreaceae family 5. Stemonaceae family 6. Croomiaceae family 7. Pentastemonaceae family 8. Taccaceae order 3. Smilacales family 1. Ripogonaceae family 2. Smilacaceae family 3. Petermanniaceae order 4. Nartheciales family 1. Nartheciaceae order 5. Petrosaviales family 1. Petrosaviaceae order 6. Melanthiales family 1. Chionographidaceae family 2. Heloniadaceae family 3. Xerophyllaceae family 4. Melanthiaceae family 5. Japonoliriaceae family 6. Campynemataceae order 7. Trilliales family 1. Trilliaceae order 8. Alstroemeriales family 1. Alstroemeriaceae order 9. Colchicales family 1. Burchardiaceae family 2. Colchicaceae family 3. Tricyrtidaceae family 4. Uvulariaceae family 5. Scoliopaceae family 6. Calochortaceae order 10. Liliales family 1. Liliaceae family 2. Medeolaceae order 11. Hypoxidales family 1. Hypoxidaceae order 12. Orchidales family 1. Orchidaceae order 13. Tecophilaeales family 1. Lanariaceae family 2. Ixioliriaceae family 3. Walleriaceae family 4. Tecophilaeaceae family 5. Cyanastraceae family 6. Eriospermaceae order 14. Iridales family 1. Iridaceae order 15. Burmanniales family 1. Burmanniaceae family 2. Corsiaceae order 16. Amaryllidales family 1. Hyacinthaceae family 2. Themidaceae family 3. Alliaceae family 4. Hesperocallidaceae family 5. Amaryllidaceae order 17. Asparagales family 2. Convallariaceae family 3. Ophiopogonaceae family 4. Asparagaceae order 18. Asteliales family 1. Dracaenaceae family 2. Ruscaceae family 3. Nolinaceae family 4. Asteliaceae family 6. Geitonoplesiaceae family 7. Luzuriagaceae family 8. Philesiaceae order 19. Hanguanales family 1. Hanguanaceae order 20. Agavales family 1. Dasypogonaceae family 2. Calectasiaceae family 3. Hemerocallidaceae family 4. Blandfordiaceae family 5. Xanthorrhoeaceae family 6. Agavaceae family 7. Anthericaceae family 8. Laxmanniaceae family 9. Herreriaceae family 10. Phormiaceae family 11. Johnsoniaceae family 12. Doryanthaceae family 13. Asphodelaceae family 14. Aloaceae family 15. Aphyllanthaceae family 16. Hostaceae subclass 5. Arecidae superorder 1. Arecanae order 1. Arecales family 1. Arecaceae subclass 6. Commelinidae superorder 1. Bromelianae order 1. Bromeliales family 1. Bromeliaceae order 2. Velloziales family 1. Velloziaceae superorder 2. Pontederianae order 1. Haemodorales family 1. Haemodoraceae order 2. Philydrales family 1. Philydraceae order 3. Pontederiales family 1. Pontederiaceae superorder 3. Commelinanae order 1. Xyridales family 1. Rapateaceae family 2. Xyridaceae family 3. Mayacaceae order 2. Commelinales family 1. Commelinaceae order 3. Eriocaulales family 1. Eriocaulaceae superorder 4. Hydatellanae order 1. Hydatellales family 1. Hydatellaceae superorder 5. Typhanae order 1. Typhales family 1. Typhaceae family 2. Sparganiaceae superorder 6. Juncanae order 1. Juncales family 1. Juncaceae family 2. Thurniaceae order 2. Cyperales family 1. Cyperaceae order 3. Flagellariales order 4. Restionales family 1. Flagellariaceae family 2. Joinvilleaceae family 3. Restionaceae family 4. Anarthriaceae family 5. Ecdeiocoleaceae family 6. Centrolepidaceae order 5. Poales family 1. Poaceae subclass 7. Zingiberidae superorder 1. Zingiberanae order 1. Zingiberales family 1. Strelitziaceae family 2. Heliconiaceae family 3. Musaceae family 4. Lowiaceae family 5. Zingiberaceae family 6. Costaceae family 7. Cannaceae family 8. Marantaceae class 4. Ranunculopsida subclass 1. Ranunculidae superorder 1. Ranunculanae order 1. Lardizabalales family 1. Lardizabalaceae family 2. Sargentodoxaceae family 3. Decaisneaceae order 2. Menispermales family 1. Menispermaceae order 3. Berberidales family 1. Nandinaceae family 2. Berberidaceae family 3. Ranzaniaceae family 4. Podophyllaceae family 5. Leonticaceae order 4. Ranunculales family 1. Hydrastidaceae family 2. Ranunculaceae order 5. Circaeasterales family 1. Kingdoniaceae family 2. Circaeasteraceae order 6. Glaucidiales family 1. Glaucidiaceae order 7. Paeoniales family 1. Paeoniaceae order 8. Papaverales family 1. Pteridophyllaceae family 2. Papaveraceae class 5. Rosopsida subclass 1. Caryophyllidae superorder 1. Caryophyllanae order 1. Caryophyllales family 1. Achatocarpaceae family 2. Portulacaceae family 3. Hectorellaceae family 4. Basellaceae family 5. Didiereaceae family 6. Cactaceae family 7. Stegnospermataceae family 8. Phytolaccaceae family 9. Petiveriaceae family 10. Gisekiaceae family 11. Agdestidaceae family 12. Barbeuiaceae family 13. Nyctaginaceae family 14. Sarcobataceae family 15. Aizoaceae family 16. Sesuviaceae family 17. Tetragoniaceae family 18. Halophytaceae family 19. Molluginaceae family 20. Chenopodiaceae family 21. Amaranthaceae family 22. Caryophyllaceae superorder 2. Polygonanae order 1. Polygonales family 1. Polygonaceae superorder 3. Plumbaginanae order 1. Plumbaginales family 1. Plumbaginaceae subclass 2. Hamamelididae superorder 1. Trochodendranae order 1. Trochodendrales family 1. Trochodendraceae family 2. Tetracentraceae order 2. Eupteleales family 1. Eupteleaceae order 3. Cercidiphyllales family 1. Cercidiphyllaceae superorder 2. Myrothamnanae order 1. Myrothamnales family 1. Myrothamnaceae superorder 3. Hamamelidanae order 1. Hamamelidales family 1. Hamamelidaceae family 2. Altingiaceae family 3. Platanaceae superorder 4. Casuarinanae order 1. Casuarinales family 1. Casuarinaceae superorder 5. Daphniphyllanae order 1. Barbeyales family 1. Barbeyaceae order 2. Daphniphyllales family 1. Daphniphyllaceae order 3. Balanopales family 1. Balanopaceae order 4. Didymelales family 1. Didymelaceae order 5. Buxales family 1. Buxaceae order 6. Simmondsiales family 1. Simmondsiaceae superorder 6. Juglandanae order 1. Fagales family 1. Nothofagaceae family 2. Fagaceae order 2. Corylales family 1. Betulaceae family 2. Corylaceae family 2. Stylocerataceae family 3. Ticodendraceae order 3. Myricales family 1. Myricaceae order 4. Rhoipteleales family 1. Rhoipteleaceae order 5. Juglandales family 1. Juglandaceae subclass 3. Dilleniidae superorder 1. Dillenianae order 1. Dilleniales family 1. Dilleniaceae superorder 2. Theanae order 1. Paracryphiales family 1. Paracryphiaceae order 2. Theales family 1. Stachyuraceae family 2. Theaceae family 3. Asteropeiaceae family 4. Pentaphylacaceae family 5. Tetrameristaceae family 6. Oncothecaceae family 7. Marcgraviaceae family 8. Caryocaraceae family 9. Pellicieraceae family 10. Clusiaceae order 3. Physenales family 1. Physenaceae order 4. Ochnales family 1. Medusagynaceae family 2. Strasburgeriaceae family 3. Scytopetalaceae family 4. Ochnaceae family 5. Quiinaceae order 5. Elatinales family 1. Elatinaceae order 6. Ancistrocladales family 1. Ancistrocladaceae order 7. Dioncophyllales family 1. Dioncophyllaceae superorder 3. Lecythidanae order 1. Lecythidales family 1. Lecythidaceae family 2. Asteranthaceae family 3. Napoleonaeaceae family 4. Foetidiaceae superorder 4. Sarracenianae order 1. Sarraceniales family 1. Sarraceniaceae superorder 5. Nepenthanae order 1. Nepenthales family 1. Nepenthaceae order 2. Droserales family 1. Droseraceae superorder 6. Ericanae order 1. Actinidiales family 1. Actinidiaceae order 2. Ericales family 1. Cyrillaceae family 2. Clethraceae family 3. Ericaceae order 3. Diapensiales family 1. Diapensiaceae order 4. Bruniales family 1. Bruniaceae family 2. Grubbiaceae order 5. Geissolomatales family 1. Geissolomataceae order 6. Fouquieriales family 1. Fouquieriaceae superorder 7. Primulanae order 1. Styracales family 1. Styracaceae family 2. Symplocaceae family 3. Ebenaceae family 4. Lissocarpaceae family 5. Sapotaceae order 2. Primulales family 1. Theophrastaceae family 2. Myrsinaceae family 3. Primulaceae superorder 8. Violanae order 1. Violales family 1. Berberidopsidaceae family 2. Aphloiaceae family 3. Bembiciaceae family 4. Flacourtiaceae family 5. Lacistemataceae family 6. Peridiscaceae family 7. Violaceae family 8. Dipentodontaceae family 9. Scyphostegiaceae order 2. Passiflorales family 1. Passifloraceae family 2. Turneriaceae family 3. Malesherbiaceae family 4. Achariaceae order 3. Caricales family 1. Caricaceae order 4. Salicales family 1. Salicaceae order 5. Elaeocarpales family 1. Elaeocarpaceae order 6. Tamaricales family 1. Tamaricaceae family 2. Frankeniaceae superorder 9. Capparanae order 1. Moringales family 1. Moringaceae order 2. Gyrostemonales family 1. Gyrostemonaceae order 3. Batales family 1. Bataceae order 4. Capparales family 1. Koeberliniaceae family 2. Pentadiplandraceae family 3. Capparaceae family 4. Brassicaceae family 5. Tovariaceae family 6. Resedaceae superorder 10. Malvanae order 1. Cistales family 1. Bixaceae family 2. Cochlospermaceae family 3. Cistaceae family 4. Diegodendraceae order 2. Malvales family 1. Tiliaceae family 2. Dirachmaceae family 3. Monotaceae family 4. Dipterocarpaceae family 5. Sarcolaenaceae family 6. Plagiopteraceae family 7. Huaceae family 8. Sterculiaceae family 9. Sphaerosepalaceae family 10. Bombacaceae family 11. Malvaceae order 3. Thymelaeales family 1. Gonystylaceae family 2. Thymelaeaceae superorder 11. Cucurbitanae order 1. Begoniales family 1. Datiscaceae family 2. Begoniaceae order 2. Cucurbitales family 1. Cucurbitaceae superorder 12. Urticanae order 1. Urticales family 1. Ulmaceae family 2. Celtidaceae family 3. Moraceae family 4. Cecropiaceae family 5. Urticaceae family 6. Cannabaceae superorder 13. Euphorbianae order 1. Euphorbiales family 1. Euphorbiaceae family 2. Pandaceae family 3. Dichapetalaceae subclass 4. Rosidae superorder 1. Saxifraganae order 1. Cunoniales family 1. Cunoniaceae family 2. Davidsoniaceae family 3. Eucryphiaceae family 4. Brunelliaceae order 2. Cephalotales family 1. Cephalotaceae order 3. Greyiales family 1. Greyiaceae order 4. Francoales family 1. Francoaceae order 5. Crossosomatales family 1. Crossosomataceae order 6. Saxifragales family 1. Tetracarpaeaceae family 2. Penthoraceae family 3. Crassulaceae family 4. Grossulariaceae family 5. Pterostemonaceae family 6. Iteaceae family 7. Saxifragaceae superorder 2. Podostemanae order 1. Gunnerales family 1. Gunneraceae order 2. Haloragales family 1. Haloragaceae order 3. Podostemales family 1. Podostemaceae superorder 3. Celastranae order 1. Brexiales family 1. Brexiaceae order 2. Parnassiales family 1. Parnassiaceae family 2. Lepuropetalaceae order 3. Celastrales family 1. Celastraceae family 2. Goupiaceae family 3. Lophopyxidaceae family 4. Stackhousiaceae order 4. Salvadorales family 1. Salvadoraceae order 5. Aquifoliales family 1. Aquifoliaceae family 2. Phellinaceae family 3. Sphenostemonaceae family 4. Icacinaceae family 5. Cardiopteridaceae family 6. Aextoxicaceae order 6. Corynocarpales family 1. Corynocarpaceae superorder 4. Santalanae order 1. Medusandrales family 1. Medusandraceae order 2. Santalales family 1. Olacaceae family 2. Opiliaceae family 3. Santalaceae family 4. Misodendraceae family 5. Loranthaceae family 6. Eremolepidaceae family 7. Viscaceae superorder 5. Rosanae order 1. Rosales family 1. Rosaceae family 2. Neuradaceae family 3. Chrysobalanaceae superorder 6. Geranianae order 1. Geraniales family 1. Oxalidaceae family 2. Geraniaceae order 2. Linales family 1. Hugoniaceae family 2. Linaceae family 3. Ctenolophonaceae family 4. Ixonanthaceae family 5. Humiriaceae family 6. Erythroxylaceae family 7. Zygophyllaceae order 3. Balsaminales family 1. Balsaminaceae order 4. Vochysiales family 1. Malpighiaceae family 2. Trigoniaceae family 3. Vochysiaceae family 4. Tremandraceae family 5. Krameriaceae order 5. Polygalales family 1. Polygalaceae family 2. Xanthophyllaceae family 3. Emblingiaceae superorder 7. Fabanae order 1. Fabales family 1. Mimosaceae family 2. Caesalpiniaceae family 3. Fabaceae superorder 8. Rutanae order 1. Sapindales family 1. Staphyleaceae family 2. Tapisciaceae family 3. Melianthaceae family 4. Sapindaceae family 5. Hippocastanaceae family 6. Aceraceae family 7. Bretschneideraceae family 8. Akaniaceae order 2. Tropaeolales family 1. Tropaeolaceae order 3. Limnanthales family 1. Limnanthaceae order 4. Sabiales family 1. Sabiaceae order 5. Connarales family 1. Connaraceae order 6. Rutales family 1. Rutaceae family 2. Rhabdodendraceae family 3. Cneoraceae family 4. Simaroubaceae family 5. Picramniaceae family 6. Leitneriaceae family 7. Surianaceae family 8. Irvingiaceae family 9. Kirkiaceae family 10. Ptaeroxylaceae family 11. Tepuianthaceae family 12. Meliaceae family 13. Lepidobotryaceae order 7. Coriariales family 1. Coriariaceae order 8. Burserales family 1. Burseraceae family 2. Anacardiaceae family 3. Podoaceae superorder 9. Rhamnanae order 1. Rhamnales family 1. Rhamnaceae order 2. Elaeagnales family 1. Elaeagnaceae superorder 10. Proteanae order 1. Proteales family 1. Proteaceae superorder 11. Vitanae order 1. Vitales family 1. Vitaceae family 2. Leeaceae superorder 12. Rhizophoranae order 1. Rhizophorales family 1. Anisophylleaceae family 2. Rhizophoraceae superorder 13. Myrtanae order 1. Myrtales family 1. Combretaceae family 2. Crypteroniaceae family 3. Melastomataceae family 4. Psiloxylaceae family 5. Heteropyxidaceae family 6. Myrtaceae family 7. Alzateaceae family 8. Rhynchocalycaceae family 9. Penaeaceae family 10. Oliniaceae family 11. Lythraceae family 12. Trapaceae family 13. Onagraceae subclass. 5 Cornidae superorder 1. Cornanae order 1. Hydrangeales family 1. Escalloniaceae family 2. Hydrangeaceae family 3. Abrophyllaceae family 4. Argophyllaceae family 5. Corokiaceae family 6. Alseuosmiaceae family 7. Carpodetaceae family 8. Phyllonomaceae family 9. Pottingeriaceae family 10. Tribelaceae family 11. Melanophyllaceae family 12. Montiniaceae family 13. Kaliphoraceae family 14. Eremosynaceae family 15. Vahliaceae family 16. Columelliaceae order 2. Roridulales family 1. Roridulaceae order 3. Garryales family 1. Aucubaceae family 2. Garryaceae order 4. Desfontainiales family 1. Desfontainiaceae order 5. Aralidiales family 1. Aralidiaceae order 6. Cornales family 1. Mastixiaceae family 2. Davidiaceae family 3. Nyssaceae family 4. Curtisiaceae family 5. Cornaceae family 6. Alangiaceae family 7. Griseliniaceae superorder 2. Eucommianae order 1. Eucommiales family 1. Eucommiaceae superorder 3. Aralianae order 1. Torricelliales family 1. Helwingiaceae family 2. Torricelliaceae order 2. Pittosporales family 1. Pittosporaceae order 3. Byblidales family 1. Byblidaceae order 4. Araliales family 1. Araliaceae family 2. Hydrocotylaceae family 3. Apiaceae superorder 4. Dipsacanae order 1. Dipsacales family 1. Viburnaceae family 2. Sambucaceae family 3. Adoxaceae family 4. Caprifoliaceae family 5. Valerianaceae family 6. Dipsacaceae family 7. Morinaceae subclass 6. Lamiidae superorder 1. Gentiananae order 1. Gentianales family 1. Gelsemiaceae family 2. Loganiaceae family 3. Strychnaceae family 4. Gentianaceae family 5. Saccifoliaceae family 6. Geniostomaceae family 7. Plocospermataceae order 2. Rubiales family 1. Dialypetalanthaceae family 2. Rubiaceae family 3. Carlemanniaceae order 3. Apocynales family 1. Apocynaceae superorder 2. Solananae order 1. Solanales family 1. Solanaceae family 2. Sclerophylacaceae family 3. Goetzeaceae family 4. Duckeodendraceae family 5. Convolvulaceae family 6. Cuscutaceae family 7. Polemoniaceae family 8. Hydrophyllaceae family 9. Boraginaceae family 10. Tetrachondraceae family 11. Hoplestigmataceae family 12. Lennoaceae superorder 3. Loasanae order 1. Loasales family 1. Loasaceae superorder 4. Oleanae order 1. Oleales family 1. Oleaceae superorder 5. Lamianae order 1. Lamiales family 1. Buddlejaceae family 2. Stilbaceae family 3. Bignoniaceae family 4. Paulowniaceae family 5. Schlegeliaceae family 6. Globulariaceae family 7. Scrophulariaceae family 8. Veronicaceae family 9. Orobanchaceae family 10. Oftiaceae family 11. Myoporaceae family 12. Callitrichaceae family 13. Gesneriaceae family 14. Plantaginaceae family 15. Pedaliaceae family 16. Martyniaceae family 17. Trapellaceae family 18. Acanthaceae family 19. Lentibulariaceae family 20. Verbenaceae family 21. Phrymaceae family 22. Cyclocheilaceae family 23. Avicenniaceae family 24. Lamiaceae order 2. Hydrostachyales family 1. Hydrostachyaceae order 3. Hippuridales family 1. Hippuridaceae subclass 7. Asteridae superorder Campanulanae order 1. Menyanthales family 1. Menyanthaceae order 2. Goodeniales family 1. Goodeniaceae order 3. Stylidiales family 1. Donatiaceae family 2. Stylidiaceae order 4. Campanulales family 1. Pentaphragmataceae family 2. Sphenocleaceae family 3. Campanulaceae superorder 2. Asteranae order 1. Calycerales family 1. Calyceraceae order 2. Asterales family 1. Asteraceae References Bibliography External links Plantsystematics.org system, Reveal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derbyshire%20and%20Staffordshire%20extension
Derbyshire and Staffordshire extension
The Derbyshire and Staffordshire extension of the Great Northern Railway was an English railway network built by the GNR to get access to coal resources in the area to the north and west of Nottingham. The Midland Railway had obstructed the GNR in its attempts to secure a share of the lucrative business of transporting coal from the area, and in frustration the GNR built the line. The line was forked: it reached Pinxton in 1875 and a junction with the North Staffordshire Railway at Egginton, approaching Burton on Trent in 1878. The line cut through Derby, resulting in considerable demolition of housing there. West of Derby the line was primarily agricultural; thoughts that a long-distance connection might build up using the line were over-optimistic, although a limited long-distance goods traffic did run. The GNR served holiday resorts on the East Coast of England, and a considerable excursion and holiday traffic from Derby and Nottingham was developed. After World War I a slow decline set in, affecting both passenger and goods traffic, and the passenger service west of Derby was discontinued in 1939. The Nottingham to Derby passenger service was withdrawn in 1964. Freight business had run down gradually, and that too ceased completely in 1968. After closure to revenue traffic, part of the line was later used as an experimental test track. Nottingham railways The first railway in Nottingham opened in 1839 when the Midland Counties Railway inaugurated a line from Derby. In 1844 the Midland Counties Railway amalgamated with others and formed the Midland Railway. The MR built a new station at Nottingham on the present-day site, opening it in 1848, and the company expanded considerably in the following years, and for some time was the dominant railway company in the general area. The mineral and commercial resources of Nottingham and its environs were attractive to other railways, and the Ambergate, Nottingham, Boston and Eastern Junction Railway opened an east–west line from Grantham to a junction at Colwick, east of Nottingham, in 1850. It made a junction with the Midland Railway at Colwick and relied on the MR for access to Nottingham. The Ambergate company had been conceived to connect the manufacturing districts of Manchester and Lancashire with the Eastern Counties and Boston docks, but the ambitious scheme never achieved the funding it would need, and it was cut back. In 1852 the Great Northern Railway reached Grantham and made a junction with the Ambergate company there. A contractor had worked the Ambergate line at first, but now the GNR took over the operation. The Midland Railway went to great lengths to be obstructive to the GNR use of its line, in order to protect its near-monopoly. In 1857 the GNR opened its own station, London Road, at Nottingham, together with an independent line to the station from Colwick. In 1860 the GNR leased the Ambergate company for a term of 999 years. Derby railways Derby had long been dominated by the Midland Railway, its predecessors having opened their lines in 1839 and 1840. However the Midland Railway's commercial methods had been aggressive: there was considerable resentment in Derby at the Midland Railway exploitation of its monopoly position. If another large company were to open a line to the town, this would be a highly satisfactory development. Haulage of coal to the south Conveying coal from northern coalfields to London to the southern counties was a huge operation, bringing in very considerable income. The GNR had access to collieries in South and West Yorkshire, but the Midland Railway and the GNR had a traffic sharing agreement in place, which required the GNR to pay significant toll for coal passing through Nottingham. Finding this oppressive, the GNR tried in 1862 to get a line from Colwick to Codnor Park, where there was a huge ironworks, already long established, coupled with coal and iron mines dominated by the Butterley Company. The line would have extended directly westward from the GNR terminus at Nottingham (London Road) through Lenton and Radford. However the Midland Railway offered a new traffic agreement which appeared to be equitable to the GNR, and was accepted by them. In fact it stored up trouble for the future. In 1868 the Midland Railway opened its independent line from Bedford to London; hitherto it had relied on running over the GNR main line between Hitchin and London. Now no longer beholden to the GNR, it took a tougher line than ever in the Nottingham area, ending the traffic-sharing agreement. Shortly a ruinous rates war followed, and on 2 April 1871 the GNR was barred from running its coal trains through the Midland lines at all. Faced with a massive loss of income, the GNR was spurred to making its own line into the Derbyshire coalfield. Authorisation of GNR line This scheme was to be much more ambitious than the 1862 plan, designed to reach as far as Burton on Trent. As the GNR prepared the necessary parliamentary bill, the Midland saw that its monopoly was now under threat, and offered to resume the previous arrangements at Nottingham, but this was too late: the GNR had had enough. Thus in 1872 the GNR proposed a line that would run north from Colwick, and then west to Kimberley. The northern route around Nottingham avoided crossing the inner area of Nottingham from east to west, and linked in with large, hitherto unexploited, coal reserves in the Bestwood estate of the Duke of St Albans. Nevertheless, the new route had engineering challenges of its own. Just west of Kimberley, the line was to divide, one arm running north to Codnor Park and Pinxton, paralleling the Midland Railway Erewash Valley line. The other arm would continue westward through Ilkeston to Derby and Burton on Trent. From Burton, GNR trains would be able to reach Stafford using running powers over the North Stafford Railway. This westward connection would enable a route for outward mineral flows as an alternative to running through Colwick. The terrain west of Ilkeston was agricultural rather than mineral-bearing. The planned route involved prodigious engineering challenges and steep gradients, as more convenient alignments were already occupied by the Midland Railway. The line was to cut directly through Derby, requiring the demolition of many slum properties. Politically and commercially influential people in the town were favourable to the GNR, but it is suggested that there was some naivety in the easy approval of the GNR's intentions. The project was authorised on 25 July 1872; in addition to the main goods depot off Friar Gate, a subsidiary yard was planned in Duke Street, giving access to a centre of industrial activity there. This was authorised in 1874, and involved a northward spur running down from the main line at Darley Lane Junction, some way north east from Friargate, to a shunting neck on the riverside. From here a southward reversal was necessary to reach the goods yard itself. Construction and first openings The first construction was concentrated on the route to Pinxton, the northern arm of the Y-shaped route, turning north at Awsworth Junction, just beyond Kimberley. The mineral resources of the area it would serve would be much more lucrative than the agriculture in the western areas. At Colwick a large triangle of lines was created, forming junctions with the Grantham line at Colwick West and East Junctions, coming together at North Junction. Colwick was planned to be the collection point for loaded and empty wagons in connection with the colliery traffic, and an engine shed and sidings for 650 full wagons and 500 empties were laid out there; cottages were erected for the staff. The line was difficult to construct; earthworks were heavy, especially between Bulwell and Kimberley. There was a tunnel 1,132 yards long at Mapperley, and Giltbrook Viaduct, 60 feet high with 43 arches crossing the Midland Railway west of Kimberley, a viaduct crossing another Midland branch at Bulwell, and Watnall tunnel, 268 yards, east of Kimberley. The line from Colwick junctions to Pinxton opened on 23 August 1875 for mineral traffic. The great rock cutting at Kimberley was still not completed when passenger trains began, and there was only a single track for a distance of miles. Single line working was set up temporarily, and blasting was stopped while trains were in the cutting. It was not until February 1877 that the second line was sanctioned for passenger traffic, making the route double throughout. The search for coal traffic was successful: 115,000 tons of coal were carried in the first six months. Passenger trains operated from Nottingham to New Basford from 1 February 1876, and passenger opening took place as far as Pinxton on 1 August 1876. There were seven passenger trains each way on weekdays, increased to nine each way on weekdays and three each way on Sundays. The company gave an undertaking to the Board of Trade inspecting officer that passenger trains would be worked by tank engines; this avoided the necessity of providing a turntable. Almost immediately after opening a man was struck and killed by a goods engine running tender-first, so a turntable was installed there and a small engine shed built. Derby and Burton branch The continuation of the Derby part of the line, from Awsworth Junction to Derby and Burton-on-Trent was started in 1875. Beyond Awsworth junction there were two tunnels, Morley (238 yards) between West Hallam and Breadsall, and Mickleover (464 yards). There were 11 viaducts including Derby Town viaduct, 310 yards long. Bennerley Viaduct at Ilkeston was an exceptional structure: Bennerley Viaduct was one of several wrought iron railway viaducts built in the short period when this material had largely superseded cast iron and before it was in turn superseded by steel. Now Bennerley is one of the only two remaining viaducts of this type (the other is at Meldon in Devon). It strides for a quarter of a mile across the flat floor of the Erewash valley on the Nottinghamshire-Derbyshire border, having 16 Warren girder spans of 77 feet mounted on tubular piers. The piers each comprise a group of 10 vertical wrought iron tubes, made up of quadrants with continuous longitudinal riveted flanges, with an additional raking tube at each side and with wrought-iron bolted cross-bracing, standing on concrete bases capped with bricks and gritstone. The piers support four lines of Warren girders, 8 feet deep. The decking is of corrugated troughs, which halved the quantity of ballast needed, at an almost constant height of 56 feet above the ground, surmounted by lattice parapets 26 feet apart. At the west end of the Warren spans are three iron girder spans, on brick piers... The GNR Chief Engineer at the time was Richard Johnson and the contractors Eastwood Swingler & Co. of Derby. On 24 January 1878 the GNR ran a special train throughout from Grantham to Egginton, distributing station equipment in readiness for opening. The line from Awsworth junction to Egginton East junction, 18 miles 55 chains, was brought into use for goods and mineral traffic on 28 January 1878. Passenger trains from Nottingham began on 1 April, with four trains each way on weekdays and two on Sundays running through to Tutbury on the North Staffordshire line, and another five each way on weekdays and one on Sundays terminating at Derby. Through running of goods trains to Stafford was possible from that date, as from 23 December 1867 the GNR had taken over the working the Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway, although passenger working did not begin until the GNR acquired that line in 1881. The western end of the line converged with the North Staffordshire Railway line at Egginton, but immediately beyond there the GNR line diverged southwards for 1 mile 23 chains to Dove junction on the North Staffordshire Railway branch line to Burton on Trent; this east curve opened in January 1878 for goods and minerals and on 1 July 1878 for passengers. The GNR had originally intended to build its own passenger station at Burton, but ultimately agreed to use the Midland station, due to the limited availability of land in the town. Until this arrangement was finalised, passengers for Burton changed to the NSR at Tutbury. Burton station was later rebuilt and enlarged as a result of the increased business, opening in 1883. The GNR goods sidings at Burton were not ready until 1 April, and until then it was allowed use of the Midland's sidings at Wetmore junction. The new GNR goods depot at Hawkins Lane was brought into use on 1 August. There was extensive trip working to breweries and the GNR worked over the Midland connecting lines. The NSR gave running powers to the GNR between Egginton Junction and Bromshall Junction, and also on to Stoke-on-Trent, and the NSR was granted running powers to Nottingham and Pinxton, which it exercised for coal traffic to Colwick, and excursions and other specials to Nottingham. Derby station and traffic Derby station was to be built as a lavish, first-class station. However the construction had already greatly overrun cost estimates, and the architectural features of the station were toned down to save money. Nevertheless, it had four platforms, in the hope that the North Staffordshire Railway and the London and North Western Railway would use the station; however these changes did not take place, and the outer platforms at Derby saw little use. The GNR's hopes that "a new route from Derby to London" would bring in significant volumes of passenger business were illusory. Goods traffic was buoyant, however, both long-distance and local. In the 1880s the Friargate goods yard had to be extended. The GNR used the line to reach the Staffordshire Potteries and using running powers agreed with the NSR, operated a goods train every Monday from Peterborough to Stoke-on-Trent from 1896, and a Boston to Stoke-on-Trent working Tuesday to Saturday from 1901. Extensions The point of convergence of the new line with the NSR line at Egginton was just beyond the existing NSR station, so that the station could not be used by GNR trains. It soon became clear that an exchange station was necessary, as was a new station at Colwick, and the decision to provide them was taken on 5 April 1878. Accordingly, a new Egginton Junction station, joint with the NSR, was opened on 1 July, and from that time the old NSR station was used only for goods. An island-platform station was built at Colwick, on the Nottingham side of Colwick West junction; it was first shown in the June 1878 timetable but had probably been brought into use in May. A refreshment room was later provided. Cost and benefit The parliamentary estimate for the Derbyshire and Staffordshire Extension Railway had been £1,295,525, but actual expenditure was £2,408,299. The excess was mainly accounted for by the colliery branches and sidings; the station, sidings, engine shed and other facilities at Colwick; the engine sheds at Pinxton, Egginton, Gedling and Newthorpe stations; cottages for staff; alterations to bridges as required by the Board of Trade; the additional length of the Ilkeston and Dove viaducts; Duke Street sidings at Derby; and the cost of acres of land at Derby, amounting to £207,861, or almost £1 per square yard. Nevertheless, the value of the Derbyshire lines was soon demonstrated for, whereas in 1875 the tonnage of coal carried by the GNR, from collieries served by the Midland Railway, (traffic handed over to the GNR by the MR for onward transit) amounted to 440,685 tons, the figure in 1879 was 373,807 tons plus 539,582 tons from the collieries served directly by the GNR. Later the GNR conceded running powers to Pinxton, Hawkins Lane, Heanor, and the Stanton branches to the London and North Western Railway. That company took full advantage of the facility, and in the years from 1885 was carrying more than a quarter of the mineral tonnage through Colwick. Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway The GNR was induced to acquire the moribund Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway in 1882 for £100,000. Running powers to Shrewsbury existed and the connectivity this offered must have seemed attractive to the GNR. However the acquisition was not a great commercial success. Stanton mineral branches In 1882 a number of short branches near Stanton, west of Ilkeston, were authorised. They connected the Trowell Iron Company and Ilkeston Colliery, as well as Hallam Field Iron Works. They opened in 1884 and 1885. Heanor branch In 1880 the GNR obtained an Act authorising a 71 chain branch from Ilkeston to Shipley Colliery, but this was altered to make a Heanor branch, authorised by an Act of 16 July 1885, and a short line from it to Nutbrook Colliery. The Nutbrook section was built first, and coal traffic began over a single line on 7 June 1886. For the time being, the continuation to Heanor was not started. In 1891 it was time to proceed with the Heanor branch construction; it was to be a passenger line with an intermediate station at Marlpool. The line was opened for passengers (six or seven trains each way on weekdays only) and coal, on 1 July 1891, and general goods on 1 January 1892. There were nine trains each way in 1910, but the service was withdrawn on 30 April 1928 except for a workmen's service which lasted until 4 December 1939, and goods traffic until 1963. Colwick extended The Nottingham to Grantham line was the GNR's primary outlet for the heavy mineral traffic, and the decision was taken to widen the section nearest Nottingham (from Saxondale Junction) to four tracks. The junction at Colwick was moved further towards Grantham and further siding accommodation was provided in the space newly enclosed by the relocated route. The new junction was called Rectory Junction. The work was finished on 23 November 1891, but in 1896–7, still more sidings were provided, together with a wagon shop and a new engine shed. In 1900, additional sorting sidings were provided, with 29 roads, and room for 1,100 vehicles. The total capacity of the yard was 6,000. All sorting was by gravity: there were 67 down roads, and 68 up. Holiday traffic In the closing years of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth, railway excursions, and trains to holiday destinations became increasingly important. Race meetings in quite distant locations were served from the Derby and Nottingham line. In July 1909, the GNR ran a daily through 'restaurant car express service' from Friargate to Sheringham, Cromer, Yarmouth and Lowestoft, departing at 11:40 and reaching Lowestoft at 17:08. From 1909, there was a through carriage between Nottingham, Derby and Llandudno in co-operation with the NSR and the LNWR. On Whit-Monday 1895 over 1,000 passengers booked from Friargate to Skegness, 165 to York and Scarborough, 150 to Bottesford (for Belvoir Castle), 95 to Mablethorpe, 65 to Ashbourne (for Dovedale), 40 to Sutton-on-Sea, 40 to Grantham and 30 to Boston. After 1923, and closure The railway had declined considerably during World War I, and following the Railways Act 1921 most of the main line railways of Great Britain were "grouped" into one or other of four new large companies. The Great Northern Railway was a constituent of the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). The industrial and colliery activity in the area served by the line declined, and road competition sharpened considerably, seriously reducing the viability of the line. The Midland Railway was a constituent of the new London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), so that the competition continued. In 1939 the wartime emergency was considered to require a drastic reduction of the passenger services between Derby and Burton. In fact bus competition had already resulted in reduction of the service to eight trains in each direction compared with eleven in 1922. From 4 December 1939 the passenger service west of Derby was discontinued when both services were completely withdrawn and Mickleover, Etwall, Egginton Junction (LNER platforms only), and the stations between Uttoxeter and Stafford closed to passengers. The service between Derby and Nottingham was also substantially reduced, comprising nine eastbound trains (10 on Saturdays) and 10 westbound (11 on Saturdays) in May 1941, with a Sunday service of three to Grantham and two return. During World War II a military ordnance depot was opened at West Hallam in 1941, with an extensive internal siding network. Burton and Stafford services finished on 4 December 1939 but holiday trains and excursions ran west of Derby until 7 September 1964. The railways were nationalised in 1948. Duke Street goods yard was closed in 1948, and the former Stafford and Uttoxeter Railway route closed in 1951. However through freight between Colwick and Burton on Trent was still buoyant. Meanwhile, passenger business sank further, and the passenger service between Derby and Nottingham was discontinued on 7 September 1964. On 6 May 1968 the Derbyshire Extension was closed to all commercial traffic between Ilkeston (Stanton Junction), Egginton Junction, and Burton (Hawkins Lane), and the remainder of the ex-GNR system north and west of Nottingham closed too within the following few weeks. The track from Derby to Egginton Junction was retained for experimental use by the British Railways Railway Technical Centre, based in Derby. This was cut back to the shorter section between Mickleover and Egginton after 26 November 1971. Locations Colwick; opened May 1878; renamed Netherfield & Colwick 1 May 1883; renamed Netherfield 6 May 1974; still open; Gedling & Carlton; opened 1 February 1876; closed 4 April 1960; Gedling Colliery Platform; miners' station; opened 8 January 1906; closed before 1940; Daybrook; opened 1 February 1876; closed 4 April 1960; Leen Valley Junction; New Basford; opened 1 February 1876; renamed Basford & Bulwell 1 August 1876; renamed Basford North 21 September 1953; closed 7 September 1964; Kimberley; opened 1 August 1876; renamed Kimberley East 1955; closed 7 September 1964; Awsworth Junction; Newthorpe, Greasley & Shipley Gate; opened 1 August 1876; closed 7 January 1963; Eastwood & Langley Mill; opened 1 August 1876; closed 7 January 1963; Codnor Park; opened 1 August 1876; renamed Codnor Park for Ironville and Jacksdale 22 May 1901; renamed Jacksdale in 1952 or 1953; closed 7 January 1963; Pye Hill; opened 24 March 1877; renamed Pye Hill & Somercotes 8 January 1906; closed 7 January 1963; Pinxton; opened 1 August 1876; renamed Pinxton South 1954; closed 7 January 1963. Awsworth Junction; above; Ilkeston; opened 1 April 1878; renamed Ilkeston North 1954; closed 7 September 1964; West Hallam; opened 1 April 1878; closed 7 September 1964; Breadsall; opened 1 April 1878; closed 6 April 1953; Derby Racecourse Siding; op 16 March 1885 for horses and attendants only; used to 1938 at least; Derby; opened 1 April 1878; renamed Derby Friargate 1881; closed 7 September 1964; Mickleover; opened 1 April 1878; closed 4 December 1939; excursions called later; Etwall; opened 1 April 1878; closed 4 October 1939; excursions called later until at least 11 August 1961; Egginton Junction; on North Staffordshire Railway; former GN platforms closed on 4 December 1939; former North Staffordshire Railway platforms closed 5 March 1962; Dove Junction; final convergence with North Staffordshire Railway towards Burton on Trent. Notes References Further reading Alfred Henshaw, The Great Northern Railway in the East Midlands, The Railway Correspondence and Travel Society, 2000, External links Information about the test track – This part of the line became British Rail's test track between 1965 and 1990. Interactive Route Map – follow the entire route of the former Friargate line using a modern interactive map. The route (marked with a blue transparent line) has been overlaid on top of a modern map with satellite imagery. This allows one to see the exact route from Egginton to Nottingham. Along the route various points of interest are marked with clickable markers to reveal more information on all the bridges, tunnels, and serving stations. Closed railway lines in the East Midlands Great Northern Railway (Great Britain) Rail transport in Derby Rail transport in Derbyshire Rail transport in Nottinghamshire Railway lines opened in 1878
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaither%20Homecoming
Gaither Homecoming
Gaither Homecoming is the name applied to a series of videos, music recordings and concerts, which are organized, promoted and usually presented by Christian music songwriter and impresario Bill Gaither. To date, the Gaither Homecoming title is applied to more than 145 videos (most of which are not listed in the Videography section), hundreds of music recordings, and an annual concert tour that drew more than half a million fans in 2004 (the most recent year for which statistics are available). Beginnings On February 19, 1992, the Gaither Vocal Band had just wrapped up a recording session in a Nashville, Tennessee, working on an album called Homecoming, which featured many of the great voices of southern gospel music: The Speers, the Gatlins, Jake Hess, The Cathedrals, Howard & Vestal Goodman, Buck Rambo, Eva Mae Lefevre, James Blackwood, Hovie Lister, Jim Hill, and J.D. Sumner & The Stamps. After the session, the artists stayed around to chat, swap stories and sing old standards around the piano. The impromptu session was recorded on video and later published. The recording was so well received that Gaither began a series of professionally produced videos with larger gatherings of gospel musicians. Format The format for almost all of the videos in the series is very similar. A studio set or concert stage is home to a group of several dozen singers, with the front row featuring artists with longstanding and legendary careers in Southern Gospel music. They would be joined by younger artists, some of them up-and-coming acts in the Gaither Music Group publishing stable. Gaither would lead the group in several songs, with soloists and groups featured in additional songs. Comments by veteran singers, who would reminisce about their careers, are a staple of the series. In later videos, the inevitability of death found its way into the videos, as segments remembering artists who had died since the previous taping were featured. Most videos also have accompanying CDs which can be purchased in a set or separately. The videos and CDs regularly top sales charts, even many years after the series' inception and after the death of many favorite artists. The most recent videos, Gaither Homecoming Tour: Live From Toronto and Canadian Homecoming, were first and third, respectively, on Billboard's music video chart, and the companion CDs also hit the CCM charts. More recently, the 2007 recording of "How Great Thou Art" was nominated for a Dove Award. Concert series In 1996, the video series gave birth to a concert tour, with a format similar to the videos but usually performed "in the round" in arenas. The concert dates are normally on Fridays and Saturdays, usually in separate cities. In 2004, the Gaither Homecoming concert tour ranked 16th in Pollstar rankings of all tours, beating out pop music heavyweights such as Elton John, Fleetwood Mac and Rod Stewart. Television series Many of the video series have been repackaged into a series of hour-long or half-hour-long television shows (similar to an infomercial). They can be found on the following Christian or family-oriented cable/satellite channels. (There is also an Internet TV channel – gaither.tv) In the U.S. Christian Television Network (CTN) PBS (titled Classic Gospel) RFD-TV TBN (titled Precious Memories) TCT Total Living Network (TLN) Heartland UplifTV In Canada CTS Grace TV Miracle Channel VisionTV Cruises The Gaither Homecoming series has branched out into twice-yearly cruises. One cruise normally sails to Alaska in September, and the other to tropical ports in February. It was on one of these cruises, in 2006, where regular pianist Anthony Burger, a longtime favorite of the Homecoming series, collapsed on-stage as a result of a heart attack while accompanying Gaither, his wife Gloria and the rest of the Homecoming Friends. In 2009, for the first time, a Homecoming cruise was recorded for DVD/CD releases. Alaskan Cruise Homecoming and Majesty were released in January 2011. Videography 1991: Homecoming 1992: A Praise Gathering 1992: Reunion 1993: Turn Your Radio On 1993: Old Friends 1994: A Christmas Homecoming 1994: Landmark 1994: Precious Memories 1995: All Day Singin' with Dinner on the Ground 1995: The Sweetest Song I Know 1995: Revival 1995: Holy Ground 1995: Ryman Gospel Reunion 1996: When All God's Singers Get Home 1996: Sunday Meetin' Time 1996: Sing Your Blues Away 1996: Moments To Remember 1996: Something Beautiful 1996: Homecoming Texas Style 1996: Joy To The World 1996: Joy in the Camp 1997: Back Home Again in Indiana 1997: This Is My Story 1997: Special Homecoming Moments (certified platinum) 1998: Gaither Homecoming Celebration (recorded live on New Year's; released in January 2012) 1998: Singin' With The Saints 1998: Down By The Tabernacle 1998: Rivers Of Joy 1998: Hawaiian Homecoming 1998: Marching To Zion 1998: Atlanta Homecoming (at the Georgia Dome) 1998: All Day Singin' At The Dome (Atlanta) 1999: Singin' In My Soul 1999: So Glad! 1999: Sweet, Sweet Spirit 1999: Kennedy Center Homecoming 1999: Mountain Homecoming (Blue Ridge Mountains) 1999: I'll Meet You on the Mountain 1999: The Cathedrals: A Farewell Celebration 2000: Good News 2000: Memphis Homecoming 2000: Oh, My Glory! 2000: Harmony in the Heartland 2000: Irish Homecoming (in Belfast) 2000: Whispering Hope 2000: Christmas in the Country 2001: Christmas... A Time for Joy 2001: What a Time! 2001: London Homecoming 2001: Old Friends Quartet: Encore 2001: Gaither Vocal Band: I Do Believe 2001: A Billy Graham Music Homecoming, Vol. 1 & 2 2001: Journey to the Sky (certified gold) 2001: Passin' the Faith Along (certified gold) 2002: Homecoming Bloopers 2002: Freedom Band 2002: I'll Fly Away 2002: New Orleans Homecoming 2002: God Bless America (at Carnegie Hall) 2002: Let Freedom Ring (at Carnegie Hall) 2003: Going Home (certified platinum) 2003: Heaven 2003: Australian Homecoming 2003: Red Rocks Homecoming 2003: Rocky Mountain Homecoming 2003: A Gospel Bluegrass Homecoming, Vol. 1 & 2 2004: Build a Bridge (at The Potter's House in Dallas, Texas) 2004: Dottie Rambo with Homecoming Friends 2004: We Will Stand (at The Potter's House) 2004: Tribute To Howard & Vestal Goodman 2004: Tribute to Jake Hess 2004: The Best of Mark Lowry and Bill Gaither, Vol. 1 & 2 2005: Church In The Wildwood (certified platinum) 2005: Hymns (certified platinum) 2005: Israel Homecoming (certified platinum) 2005: Jerusalem Homecoming (certified platinum) 2005: The Best of Guy Penrod 2005: A Tribute to George Younce 2005: Ernie Haase & Signature Sound 2006: Canadian Homecoming (certified gold) 2006: Live from Toronto (certified gold) 2006: Christmas in South Africa 2006: Homecoming Christmas – Live From South Africa 2007: South African Homecoming 2007: Love Can Turn The World – Live From South Africa 2007: Amazing Grace (certified gold) 2007: How Great Thou Art (certified gold) 2007: Ernie Haase & Signature Sound: Get Away, Jordan 2007: Gaither Vocal Band and Ernie Haase & Signature Sound...TOGETHER 2008: A Campfire Homecoming 2008: Homecoming Picnic 2008: Rock of Ages 2008: Country Bluegrass Homecoming, Vol. 1 & 2 2008: Ernie Haase & Signature Sound: Dream On (Live from Chicago) 2009: Nashville Homecoming (at the Grand Ole Opry stage) 2009: Joy in My Heart 2009: Gaither Vocal Band: Reunion, Vol. 1 & 2 2009: The Oak Ridge Boys: A Gospel Journey 2010: Ernie Haase & Signature Sound: A Tribute to the Cathedral Quartet 2010: Giving Thanks 2010: Count Your Blessings 2011: Alaskan Homecoming (cruise) 2011: Majesty (Alaskan cruise) 2011: Tent Revival Homecoming (at the Billy Graham Library) 2011: The Old Rugged Cross (at the Billy Graham Library) 2011: The Best of David Phelps 2012: Gaither Homecoming Celebration (filmed in 1998, never-before-seen material) 2013: Gaither Vocal Band: Pure and Simple, Vol. 1 & 2 2013: Women of Homecoming, Vol: 1 & 2 2014: Ernie Haase & Signature Sound: Oh, What A Savior 2014: Cathedrals Family Reunion 2016: Mark Lowry: Dogs Go to Heaven 2016: Circuit Rider 2017: Give the World a Smile 2017: Sweeter as the Days Go By 2020: The Longer I Serve Him 2020: Canton Junction: Great Is Thy Faithfulness 2021: Glorious Church (filmed in 2001, never-before-seen material) 2022: The Oak Ridge Boys: Rock of Ages 2022: Ernie Haase & Signature Sound: Something Beautiful 2023: Hallelujah Homecoming 2023: Power in the Blood Hall of Honor Series 1994: The Goodman Family: The Journey (Vol. 1) 1994: The Speers Family: A Love Story (Vol. 2) 1994: Hovie Lister & The Statesmen: An American Classic (Vol. 3) 1994: O Happy Day: Old-Time Southern Singing Convention (Vol. 4) 1994: The Cathedrals: Fifty Faithful Years (Vol. 5) 1994: The Best of the Gospel Singing Jubilee: Number. 1-4 (Vol. 6) 1995: Cynthia Clawson: Thank God for The Promise of Spring (Vol. 7) 1995: The Blackwood Brothers: Family Reunion (Vol. 8) 1995: Jus' Jake and a Few Close Friends (Vol. 9) 1995: The Sweetest Song I Know (Vol. 10) 1997: Feelin' At Home 'The Gatlin Brothers: Come Home (Vol. 11) 1997: J.D. Sumner & the Stamps: God Still Lives in This Old House (Vol. 12) 1997: The LeFevres: A Song in your Heart at Night (Vol. 13) 1998: The Best of Jessy Dixon: Sanctuary'' (Vol. 14) Featured Artists An asterisk (*) indicates that the artist is deceased. Numbers indicate how many videos the artist has appeared in as a featured performer. Aaron Wilburn (2001–2020*) 3 (died Nov. 27, 2020) Acoustix (2007–) 2 Albertina Walker (2004*) 2 (died October 8, 2010) Alicia Williamson (2000–) 10 Allen Asbury (2003–) 2 Allison Durham Speer (1999–) 9 Alvin Slaughter (2004) Amber Nelon Thompson (2003–) 6 Amy Gaither-Hayes (1999–) 3 Amy Grant (2013) 2 Amy Lambert (1998–) 9 Amy Rouse (2001–) 3 Andraé Crouch (1999–2015*) 4 (died Jan. 8, 2015) Angela Primm (2002–) 11 Ann Downing (1992–) 26 Anthony Burger (1994–2006*) 18 (died Feb. 22, 2006) Armond Morales (2002–*) 2 (died Dec. 5, 2022) Arnolds, The (2002) Avalon (2001–) 2 Babbie Mason (1995–) 11 Becky Isaacs Bowman (1999–) 10 Ben Isaacs (1998–) 5 Ben Speer (1992–2011*) 36 (died April 7, 2017) Benjy Gaither (2002–) 4 Beverly Crawford (2004) Billy Blackwood (1996) Bishops, The (1995–) 5 The Blackwood Brothers (2000–) 2 Bob Cain (1996–2000*) 10 (died August 30, 2000) Bonnie Keen (1999–) 7 The Booth Brothers (2002–) 14 Boots Randolph (2004*) (died July 3, 2007) Brenda Lee (2007) Brent Swanner (2000-2004) Brian Free & Assurance (2009) Brock Speer (1991-1999*) 5 (died March 19, 1999) Buck Rambo (1991, 2011*) 2 (died Feb. 21, 2016) Buddy Greene (1994–) 30 Buddy Mullins (1995–) 14 Calvin Newton (1994–2023*) 5 (died March 3, 2023) Carman (1998*) (died Feb. 21, 2021) Candy Hemphill Christmas (1995–) 17 The Cathedrals (1991–1999) 9 CeCe Winans (2001–) 2 Charles Johnson (1998) Charlotte Ritchie (1995–) 34 Cherryholmes (2008–) 3 Chonda Pierce (1998–) 2 Chuck Wagon Gang, The (2011–) 2 Cissy Houston (2004) Cliff Barrows (2001*) 3 (died Nov. 15, 2016) Colet Selwyn (2015) 2 Collingsworth Family, The (2008) 5 Connie Smith (2008) The Crabb Family (2001–) 7 Cynthia Clawson (1995–) 20 Dallas Holm (1995–) 3 Danny Funderburk (1999) Danny Gaither (1993–2000*) 4 (died April 6, 2001) Daryl Williams Trio (1993–) 2 Dave Ponder (2000) David Will (2008) David Phelps (1998–) 30 Dean Brown (1995) Debra Talley (1993–) 4 Delores Washington (2004) Destiny McGuire (2013) Dixie Melody Boys (1999) Don Francisco (2001) Donnie Sumner (1996–) 7 Dony McGuire (1994–) 2 Dorinda Clark-Cole (2004) Doris Akers (1994*) (died July 26, 1995) Dottie Rambo (1992–2008*) 5 (died May 11, 2008) Doug Oldham (1993–1999*) 6 (died July 21, 2010) Doug Young (1998) Dove Brothers (2000–) 2 Doyle Lawson and Quicksilver (1999–) 3 Earl Weatherford (1992*) (died June 17, 1992) Ed Enoch (1994–) 2 Eldridge Fox (1999*) (died Nov. 21, 2002) Ernie Haase (1996–) 9 Ernie Haase & Signature Sound (2005–) 15 Eva Mae LeFevre (1991–2009*) 11 (died May 18, 2009) Evie (2000–) 4 Fairfield Four (1993) Faye Speer (1995–*) 3 (died October 13, 2015) Florida Boys (1994–) 8 Franklin Graham (2005) Gaither Vocal Band (1991–) 57 Gary Koreiba (1999) Gary McSpadden (1993–2020*) 3 (died April 15, 2020) Gatlin Brothers (1991–) 7 Gayle Mayes West (2002–) 2 Gene McDonald (1998–) 23 George Beverly Shea (2001–2011*) 4 (died April 16, 2013) George Jones (2008*) 2 (died April 26, 2013) George Younce (1991–2005*) 25 (died April 11, 2005) Gerald Wolfe (1993–) 2 Geron Davis (1995–) Ginger Laxon (1998) Glen Payne (1991–1999*) 10 (died October 15, 1999) Glenn Dustin (2009) Gloria Gaither (1991–) 28 Gold City (1998–) 3 Gordon Mote (2007–) 12 Gordon Stoker (1993–2013*) 2 (died March 27, 2013) Grascals (2008–) 2 Greater Vision (2000–) 5 Greenes, The (2001–) 3 Guy Penrod (1995–) 38 Hayes Family, The (1996–) 9 Henry Slaughter (1996*) (died Nov. 13, 2020) Hoppers, The (1993–) 21 Hovie Lister (1991–2002*) 8 (died Dec. 28, 2001) Howard Goodman (1991–2002*) 17 (died Nov. 30, 2002) The Isaacs (1996–) 41 Ivan Parker (1995–) 31 J. D. Sumner (1991–1999*) 18 (died Nov. 16, 1998) Jack Toney (1996–2004*) 11 (died April 15, 2004) Jake Hess (1991–2004*) 39 (died Jan. 4, 2004) James Blackwood (1991–2002*) 10 (died Feb. 3, 2002) Jamie Grace (2013) 2 Jan Buckner (1998–) 2 Janet Paschal (1993–) 26 Jason Crabb (2004–) 8 Jeanne Johnson (1994–) 19 Jeff Allen (2000–) 4 Jeff & Sheri Easter (1994–) 33 Jeff Easter (1994–) 7 Jeff Gibson (1994) Jeff Silvey (1998) Jessy Dixon (1996–2008*) 46 (died Sept. 26, 2011) Jim Hamill (1996–*) 4 (died Nov. 29, 2007) Jim Hill (1991–*) 7 (died Jan. 9, 2018) Jim Murray (1991–) 7 Jimmy Blackwood (1995–) 5 Jimmy Dean (2009*) (died June 13, 2010) Jimmy Fortune (2008–) 2 Joel Hemphill (1995–) 4 John Hall (1995–2020*) 4 (died Sept. 29, 2020) John Starnes (1995–) 7 Johnny Cook (1993*) 2 (died May 14, 2000) Johnny Minick (1996–) 10 Jon Mohr (2009–) 2 Jonathan Martin (1996–) 2 Jonathan Pierce (1996–2020*) 3 (died May 10, 2020) Joni Eareckson Tada (2003) Joni Lamb (2008) Joy Gardner (1993–) 44 Joyce Martin Sanders (1994–) 7 Judy Martin Hess (2011, 2016) 2 Karen Apple (1993–) 2 Karen Peck (1995–) 10 Karen Peck and New River (1998–) 10 Karen Wheaton (1996–) 4 Katinas, The (1999–) 2 Kelly Bowling (2013) Kelly Nelon (1993–) 3 Ken Davis (1998–) 4 Ken Eubanks (1994) Kenny Bishop (1995) Kevin Spencer Family (1999) Kevin Williams (1999–) 7 Kim Collingsworth (2009) Kim Hopper (1998–) 25 Kingsmen Quartet (1998–) 2 Kirk Talley (1996–) 4 Kristyn Getty (2013) 2 Labreeska Hemphill (1993–2015*) 2 (died Dec. 9, 2015) Ladye Love Smith (1998–) 30 Lari White (1998*) (died Jan. 23, 2018) Larnelle Harris (1994–) 20 Larry Ford (1992–) 26 Larry Gatlin (1991–) 6 Larry Sparks (2008–) 2 Lauren Talley (2000–) 6 Lee Young (2009) Legacy Five (2001–) 6 Les Beasley (1993–2018*) 2 (died Nov. 18, 2018) Lewis Family (1999–) 4 Lillie Knauls (1993–) 26 Lily Fern Weatherford (1992–) 5 Lisa Daggs (1996–) 5 LordSong (2005–) 2 Lulu Roman (1998–) 4 Lynda Randle (1996–) 31 Mark Lowry (1991–) 39 Mark Trammell (1999) Marshall Hall (2000–) 13 The Martins (1995–) 25 Marty Stuart (2008–) 2 Mary Mary (2004) Mary Tom Speer Reid (1995–2014*) 11 (died Sept. 16, 2014) Meadowlark Lemon (1999–*) 2 (died Dec. 27, 2015) Mel Tunney (2002) Michael English (1991–) 19 Michael Sykes (2000–) 5 Michael Tait (2006–) 2 Michael W. Smith (2001) Mighty Clouds Of Joy (2004) Mike Allen (1998–) 22 Mike Bowling (2004) Mom Winans (2004) Mylon LeFevre (1992–2023*) 3 (died September 8, 2023) Nancy Harmon (1996) Naomi Sego (1993-2009*) (died Nov. 3, 2017) Natalie Grant (2002–) 3 Neil Pope (1998–) Nelons, The (1995–) 12 Nitty Gritty Dirt Band (2008) Oak Ridge Boys (2002–) 6 Old Time Gospel Hour Quartet (2004) The Peasall Sisters (2005) Perrys, The (2009) Pfeifers (2001) R. W. Blackwood Jr. (2000) Ralph Stanley (2003–2008*) 4 (died June 23, 2016) Randy Owen (2007–) 2 Randy Phillips (1996) Randy Travis (2001–) 3 Ray Dean Reese (1996–) 3 Reba Rambo-McGuire (1994–) 3 Reggie Saddler Family (1998–) 4 Reggie Smith (1998–) 33 Rex Nelon (1994–2000*) 16 (died Jan. 24, 2000) Rhonda Vincent & The Rage (2008–) 2 Rick Evans (2008) Ricky Skaggs (2001) Robbie Hiner (1996–) 4 Roger Bennett (1999*) (died March 17, 2007) Roger McDuff (1995–) 2 Roger Talley (1993-) Ronnie Milsap (2010) Rosa Nell Speer (1991–2008*) 3 (died May 16, 2016) Rosie Rozell (1995*) (died Feb. 28, 1995) Ruppes (1998–) 2 Russ Taff (1992–) 33 Sandi Patty (1999–) 6 Sarah DeLane (2001–) 4 Selah (2005) Shane McConnell (2007–) 10 Sheri Easter (1994–) 12 Sherman Andrus (2002–) 2 Shirley Murdock (2004) Smokie Norful (2004) Sonya Isaacs (1996–) 17 Speer Family (1991–) 6 Squire Parsons (1993–) 18 Stamps Quartet (1991–) 6 Stan Whitmire (2004–) 3 Statesmen Quartet (1996–) 2 Statler Brothers (1990) Stephen Hill (1998–2012*) 30 (died August 5, 2012) Steve Green (2009) Steve "Rabbit" Easter (2008) Steve Weatherford (1993) Suzanne Gaither–Jennings (1999) T.D. Jakes (2004–) 2 The Old Friends Quartet (2000-2002) 3 Talley Trio (2000–) 14 The Martin Family Circus (2016–) 2 Tanya Goodman Sykes (1992–) 26 TaRanda Greene (2001–) 10 Taylor Mason (2002–) 3 Terri Gibbs (1996) Terry Blackwood (1995–) 33 Terry Bradshaw (1996) Terry Franklin (1992) Terry McMillan (musician) (1998–*) 2 (died Feb. 2, 2007) Testify (Christian band) (2000 -2004) Three Bridges (2008–) 2 Tim Lovelace (1997) Tim Parton (1996–) 3 Tim Pettigo (1995) Tim Riley (2000) Tramaine Hawkins (2004–) 2 Triumphant Quartet (2011) Vestal Goodman (1991–2003*) 38 (died Dec. 27, 2003) Vince Gill (2008–) 2 Voices of Lee (2006) Wally Varner (1992–1993*) 2 (died Dec. 28, 2004) Walt Mills (1996-1997) Wanda Vick (1999) Wes Hampton (2007–) 7 Wesley Pritchard (1996–) 41 Willie Wynn (1997–) 2 Wintley Phipps (2001–) 6 Woody Wright (1998–) 20 Zig Ziglar (2001*) (died Nov. 28, 2012) References External links Gaither Homecoming's official web site Gospel music media Southern gospel Southern gospel performers
4600725
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20nationality%20law
Chinese nationality law
Chinese nationality law details the conditions by which a person holds nationality of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The primary law governing these requirements is the Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China, which came into force on September 10, 1980. Foreign nationals may naturalize if they are permanent residents in any part of China or they have immediate family members who are Chinese citizens. Residents of the Taiwan Area are also considered Chinese citizens, due to the PRC's extant claim over areas controlled by the Republic of China (ROC). Although mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau are all administered by the PRC, Chinese citizens do not have automatic residence rights in all three jurisdictions; each territory maintains a separate immigration policy. Voting rights and freedom of movement are tied to the region in which a Chinese citizen is domiciled, determined by hukou in mainland China and right of abode in the two special administrative regions. While Chinese law makes possessing multiple citizenships difficult, a large number of residents in Hong Kong and Macau have some form of British or Portuguese nationality due to the history of those regions as former European colonies. Chinese nationals who voluntarily acquire foreign citizenship automatically lose Chinese nationality. History Qing policy Before the mid-19th century, nationality issues involving China were extremely rare and could be handled on an individual basis. Customary law dictated that children born to Chinese subjects took the nationality of the father, but did not have clear rules for renunciation of citizenship or the naturalization of aliens. Imperial Chinese subjects were traditionally severely restricted from traveling overseas and international travel was only sanctioned for official business. Disputes arising from nationality questions became more common as the Qing dynasty was forced through a series of unequal treaties to open up trade with Western empires and allow its subjects to migrate overseas. The Qing government created the first Chinese nationality law in 1909, which defined a Chinese national as any person born to a Chinese father. Children born to a Chinese mother inherited her nationality only if the father was stateless or had unknown nationality status. Women who married foreigners lost Chinese nationality if they took the nationality of their husbands. Nationality could be inherited perpetually from Chinese fathers, making it difficult to lose for men. These regulations were enacted in response to a 1907 statute passed in the Netherlands that retroactively treated all Chinese born in the Dutch East Indies as Dutch citizens. Jus sanguinis was chosen to define Chinese nationality so that the Qing could counter foreign claims on overseas Chinese populations and maintain the perpetual allegiance of its subjects living abroad through paternal lineage. A Chinese word called xuètǒng (血统), which means "bloodline" as a literal translation, is used to explain the descent relationship that would characterize someone as being of Chinese descent, and therefore, eligible under the Qing laws and beyond, for Chinese citizenship. The 1909 law placed restrictions on Chinese subjects with dual nationality within China. At the time, foreign powers exercised extraterritoriality over their own nationals residing in China. Chinese subjects claiming another nationality by virtue of their birth in a foreign concession became exempt from Qing taxation and legal jurisdiction within Chinese borders. A strict policy against automatic expatriation was adopted to prevent this; a Chinese individual's foreign nationality was not recognized by Qing authorities unless specifically approved. Foreigners who acquired Chinese nationality were subject to restrictions as well; naturalized Qing subjects could not serve in high military or political office until 20 years after becoming a Chinese national, and only with imperial authorization. Modern China Nationality law remained largely unchanged in the Republican China, except for a major revision passed by the Kuomintang in 1929 that decoupled a woman's nationality from that of her husband and minimized circumstances in which children would be born stateless. After the Communist Revolution, the new government abolished all republican-era legislation but did not immediately create laws to replace them. Mainland China lacked formal nationality regulations until greater legal reform began in the late 1970s to 1980s. The government unofficially applied the 1929 statute during this time to resolve nationality issues, and also made a mother's nationality normally transferable to her children outside of cases where the father is stateless. The PRC does not recognize dual nationality and actively discouraged its occurrence in its treaties with Indonesia, Nepal, and Mongolia in the 1950s. When the National People's Congress adopted the current nationality law in 1980, a further stipulation was added that automatically revokes nationality from Chinese nationals who settle overseas and voluntarily acquire foreign citizenship. Special administrative regions Hong Kong was a British colony from 1842 until its transfer to China in 1997. It initially consisted only of Hong Kong Island and was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in 1860. These areas were ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom by the Qing dynasty after the Opium Wars. Britain negotiated a further expansion of the colony to include the New Territories in 1898, which were leased (rather than ceded) from China for a period of 99 years. Towards the end of this lease, the British and Chinese governments entered into negotiations over the future of Hong Kong and agreed on the Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984. The entire territory of Hong Kong would be transferred to China at the conclusion of the New Territories lease in 1997 and governed under Chinese sovereignty as a special administrative region. Macau was established as a trading post in 1557 permanently leased to the Kingdom of Portugal by the Ming dynasty. The territory was later fully ceded in the 1887 Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking, but returned to China in 1999. Following the 1974 Carnation Revolution, Portugal formally relinquished Macau as an overseas province in 1976 and acknowledged it as a "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration." After negotiations on Hong Kong's future had concluded, China and Portugal began deliberations on Macau in 1986 and agreed on the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration in 1987. Macau would be transferred to China in 1999 and governed largely under the same terms as Hong Kong. Although most Hongkongers at the time were British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs) and a substantial number of Macau residents held Portuguese citizenship, China treats all ethnic Chinese born in these territories before and after the handovers as Chinese nationals. Hong Kong BDTCs who did not have strong ties to another British Dependent Territory lost BDTC status on July 1, 1997. Former ethnic Chinese BDTCs could retain British nationality if they had voluntarily registered as British Nationals (Overseas) or acquired full British citizenship as part of the British Nationality Selection Scheme prior to the transfer of sovereignty, while Macau residents with Portuguese citizenship were permitted to continue that status in all cases. However, Chinese authorities treat these individuals solely as Chinese nationals and bar them from receiving British or Portuguese consular assistance while in Chinese territory. Given that a large number of Hongkongers and Macanese continue to hold dual nationality after the handover, Chinese nationality law as implemented in the special administrative regions does not remove citizenship from Hong Kong or Macau residents who acquire foreign nationality. Territory controlled by Taiwan The Republic of China (ROC) governed mainland China from 1912 to 1949. Near the end of the Chinese Civil War, the Nationalist government was forced to retreat to Taiwan by the Communist Party, which subsequently established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Since the conclusion of the war, the ROC has controlled only the Taiwan Area. Because both the PRC and ROC constitutionally claim areas under the other's control, the two governments treat each other's nationals as their own. Acquisition and loss of nationality Individuals born within the People's Republic of China automatically receive Chinese nationality at birth if at least one parent is a Chinese national. Children born overseas to at least one Chinese parent are also Chinese nationals, unless they are foreign citizens at birth and either parent with Chinese nationality has acquired permanent residency abroad or foreign citizenship. In Hong Kong and Macau, broader regulations apply; all individuals of ethnic Chinese origin who possess right of abode in either region and were born in a Chinese territory are considered Chinese nationals, regardless of the nationalities of their parents. Furthermore, because of China's continuing claims over Taiwan, ROC nationals from Taiwan are considered PRC nationals by the PRC. Foreigners may naturalize as Chinese nationals if they have immediate family with Chinese nationality, possess permanent residency in mainland China or a special administrative region, or have other "legitimate reasons". Applications for naturalization are normally considered by the National Immigration Administration in mainland China, while responsibility for this process is delegated to the Immigration Department in Hong Kong and the Identification Services Bureau in Macau. Successful applicants are required to renounce any foreign nationalities they have. Naturalization is exceptionally rare in mainland China; there were only 1,448 naturalized persons reported in the 2010 census out of the country's total population of 1.34 billion. Acquiring Chinese nationality is more common in Hong Kong; the Immigration Department naturalized over 10,000 people between the transfer of sovereignty and 2012, and continues to receive over 1,500 applications per year since 2016. Chinese nationality can be relinquished by making a declaration of renunciation. It is also automatically revoked when persons from mainland China who reside abroad voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality. Hong Kong and Macau residents who become foreign citizens continue to be Chinese nationals unless they make an explicit declaration of nationality change to their territorial immigration authorities. Macanese residents with mixed Chinese-Portuguese ancestry are specifically given a choice between Chinese and Portuguese nationalities. On submitting a formal declaration to select Portuguese nationality, these individuals would lose Chinese nationality. Former Chinese nationals may subsequently apply for nationality restoration, subject to discretionary approval. Similar to naturalizing candidates, successful applicants must renounce their foreign nationalities. In regards to the de facto practices of the Chinese government, Kris Cheng wrote in Foreign Policy that "Beijing presents nationality as an elaborate legal question, but in practice the answer is simple. Only one rule applies: If you have ever held or could have held Chinese citizenship, you are a Chinese national unless Beijing decides you are not. And even if you were born abroad but you're of Chinese descent, Beijing still feels as if it owns you." Yuan Yang of Financial Times cited the Chinese authorities treating Gui Minhai as a Chinese national despite his Swedish citizenship as evidence that the Chinese state "muddies" the distinction between ethnicity and citizenship. Cathryn H. Clayton, author of Sovereignty at the Edge: Macau & the Question of Chineseness, wrote that "the Chinese state has a penchant for overextending the principle of jus sanguinis—that is, for viewing everyone in the world who is of Chinese descent[...]as potential or actual national subjects[...]." While Chinese nationality law does not recognize multiple nationalities, the current legal framework and its practical implementation allow for certain situations where de facto dual nationality occurs: While children born to Chinese parents abroad in general would not acquire Chinese nationality if they acquired foreign nationality by birth, those children who are born to Chinese parents living abroad only temporarily, such as diplomatic staff, humanitarian workers or overseas students, will still be regarded as Chinese nationals and hence be de facto nationals of both the Chinese and the foreign state. Chinese officials who naturalize in another country cannot renounce their Chinese nationality and hence will continue to be treated as Chinese nationals by the Chinese state. Rights and restrictions Although mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau constitute a single country, Chinese citizens do not have freedom of movement in all three jurisdictions. Each region maintains a separate immigration policy and can deny entry to or deport non-resident Chinese citizens visiting from outside that territory. When traveling to other countries, visa-free access varies greatly depending on where a Chinese citizen is permanently resident. As of 2020, mainland Chinese residents can travel to 74 countries without a visa, Macau residents to 144, and Hong Kong residents to 170. Mainland China Hukou is a household registration system that regulates internal migration within mainland China. Citizens are assigned a hukou classification (rural or urban) at birth based on their family's registration. The type of social welfare a person receives from the state is tied to hukou; individuals with rural hukou are allocated a housing plot with land for farming, while urban residents are provided with a variety of government services in their locale including healthcare, public education, unemployment benefits, and subsidized housing. Changing from a rural hukou to an urban one was tightly controlled and very rare until the 1980s. While reforms have relaxed these regulations in recent years, requirements for changing registration vary by location and can be very stringent in the largest cities. Likewise, urban-to-rural conversion is extremely difficult due to the land use rights associated with rural hukou. Chinese nationals who acquire a foreign nationality are obliged to renounce their Chinese nationality, which also implies that their hukou is cancelled. However, high numbers of former Chinese citizens were reported who are reluctant to cancel their hukou due to the social benefits bound to it. Due to insufficient communication between the relevant authorities, such practice even allows these individuals to illegally reacquire Chinese nationality by applying for a Chinese passport on the basis of their hukou they did not cancel as required. Chinese nationals of mainland China are required to register for Resident Identity Cards, eligible to hold People's Republic of China passports, and able to vote in direct elections for local People's Congresses or village committees. When temporarily visiting Hong Kong or Macau, mainland Chinese residents must obtain Two-way Permits from their local public security bureau authorities. If permanently settling in either special administrative region, they must be approved for One-way Permits. Despite nominal constitutional protections against arbitrary arrest and detention, law enforcement in mainland China may either detain any citizen or ban any citizen from leaving the country, even without the issuance of any formal arrest warrants or explicit authorization from judicial authorities. Political dissidents and their families are often subject to house arrest within the country. Invasive personal surveillance on the political dissidents, by the Chinese Communist Party, is conducted within the country and even abroad in foreign jurisdictions (with the assistance of foreign nationals). Mainland authorities will occasionally perform extraordinary rendition on Chinese citizens, abducting individuals of interest who are overseas and forcibly returning them to China. Hong Kong and Macau Hong Kong and Macau permanent residents have the unrestricted right to live and work in their territories, but do not have automatic residence or employment rights in mainland China. The central government issues Home Return Permits to residents who are Chinese citizens for travel purposes and Residence Permits if they intend to reside or work in the mainland for longer than six months. Chinese nationals with right of abode in these regions are eligible for Hong Kong or Macau Resident Identity Cards, able to hold Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passports or Macau Special Administrative Region passports, and may vote in elections for the Legislative Council of Hong Kong or Legislative Assembly of Macau. Taiwan Similar to Hong Kong and Macau residents, Taiwanese residents are issued Mainland Travel Permits for short-term travel and Residence Permits if they intend to reside or work in the mainland for longer than six months. While they are also eligible to hold PRC passports, Taiwanese law automatically strips household registration from ROC nationals who are issued mainland passports without specific authorization from Taiwanese authorities. References Citations Sources Publications Legislation News articles
4600915
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins%20%28surname%29
Collins (surname)
The surname Collins has a variety of likely origins in Britain and Ireland: English and Scottish: A patronymic surname based on the English and Scottish name Colin, an English diminutive form of Nicholas. Norse: From the Old Norse personal name "Kollungr", a form of "koli" which in Old English became 'Cola', meaning swarthy or dark. Irish: The medieval surname was Ua Cuiléin, which has usually become Ó Coileáin today. Welsh: Collen; "hazel, hazel grove". Alternative spellings or related surnames include Collin, Colling, Coling, Collings, Colings, Collis, Coliss, Collen, and Collens. A great number of Welsh-origin surnames share a similar etymology to English ones – where in English names the forename of the patriarch is suffixed with 'SON' (as in Peterson, Richardson, Johnson) in Welsh names the 'SON' is simply the letter "S" (Phillips, Davies, Davis, Williams) and Collins may have been one of the surnames to have originated in this way. The Domesday Book (compiled in 1086) was the first to document names in England and Wales and at this time only the upper classes were literate. During the time between this and the first census of 1801 names continually changed due to the illiterate nature of the British population. Indeed, the need to be able to complete such documents may be a key factor in the change to fixed spellings. The earliest documented evidence of the name in England dates back as far as the twelfth and thirteenth centuries where several instances have been recorded. One Colinus de Andresia appears in the pipe rolls of Berkshire in 1191, while a Colinus is mentioned in Hartopp's Register of the Freeman of Leicester recorded in 1196. The name Colinc is also mentioned several times in the Domesday Book. The personal name Colin from which the surname derives has an even older history; Ceawlin, the king of the West Saxons, Caelin, a brother of St Chad, and the early Welsh saint, Kollen, all have names related to Colin. In Ireland, Collins is a genuinely indigenous Irish name; in fact, it is one of the most numerous surnames, ranked number 30. Collins (baseball) (first name unknown) (fl. 1892), American baseball player A Aaron Collins (1930–1997), American singer/songwriter Aaron Collins (born 1997), Welsh footballer A. E. J. Collins (1885–1914), English cricketer and army officer Aidan Collins (born 1986), English footballer Alan Collins (sculptor) (1928–2016), English-born sculptor Alan Collins (writer) (1928–2008), Australian-Jewish author Al and Albert Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Al "Jazzbo" Collins (1919–1997), American disc jockey, radio personality and recording artist Albert Collins (politician) (1868–1956), New South Wales politician Albert Collins (painter) (1883–1951), Australian painter, teacher and actor Albert Collins (footballer) (1899–1969), English footballer Albert Collins (1932–1993), American blues musician Albin Collins (1927–2006), American National Football League player Alex Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Alex Collins (politician) (1876–1949), mayor Alex Collins (American football) (1994–2023), American football player Alexander L. Collins (1812–1901), American judge, lawyer, and politician Alfred Collins (1915–2007), London's longest-serving taxi driver Allan Collins (Australian rules footballer) (1919–2006) Allan M. Collins, cognitive and education scientist Allegra Collins (born 1972), American attorney, educator and judge Allen Collins (1952–1990), American guitarist Amelia Collins (1873–1962), prominent American Bahá'i An Collins, 17th century English poet Andrew and Andy Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Andrew Collins (judge) (born 1942), English barrister and judge Andrew Collins (footballer, born 1965), former Australian rules player for Hawthorn Andrew Collins (broadcaster) (born 1965), British journalist, scriptwriter and broadcaster Andrew Collins (cricketer) (1972–1999), English cricketer Andrew Collins (actor) (born 1973), British actor Andrew Collins (footballer, born 1988), current Australian rules player for Carlton Andy Collins (TV presenter) (born 1970), British television personality Andy Collins (artist) (born 1971), American artist Andy Collins (game designer), role-playing game developer and "Sage" for Wizards of the Coast Ann, Anne and Annie Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Ann Collins (1916–1999), American painter Anne Fraser née Collins (born 1951), New Zealand politician Anne Collins (author) (born 1952), Canadian writer, editor and publishing executive Anne Collins (contralto) (1943–2009), English opera singer Annie Collins (born 19??), New Zealand film editor Anthony Collins (American football) (born 1985), American football player Anthony Collins (1676–1729), English philosopher Anthony Collins (composer) (1893–1963), British film score composer and conductor Anthony G. Collins (born 1949), Australian-American university president Art and Arthur Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Art Collins (basketball) (born 1954), retired American basketball player Arthur Collins (antiquarian) (1682–1760), English genealogist and historian Arthur Collins (politician) (1832–1921), New Zealand politician Arthur Collins (courtier) (1845–1911), English equerry in the courts of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII Arthur Collins (theatre manager) (1864–1932), manager of Drury Lane Theatre Arthur Collins (singer) (1864–1933), American singer Arthur L. Collins (1868–1902), British metallurgist, mining engineer and mine manager Arthur Collins (cricketer) (1871–1945), English cricketer Arthur Greville Collins (1896–1980), American film director Arthur Collins (rugby union) (1906–1988), New Zealand rugby union player Arthur A. Collins (1909–1987), founder of Collins Radio Arthur D. Collins Jr. (born 1947), chairman of Medtronic Arthur R. Collins (born 1960), American political consultant Ashley Collins (born 1967), American artist Audrey Collins (1915–2010), English cricketer and sports administrator Audrey B. Collins (born 1945), American District Judge B Barbara-Rose Collins (1939–2021), American politician Barrie Collins, writer on the Rwandan genocide Becky Collins (born 1944), American swimmer Ben and Benjamin Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Ben Collins (American football) ( – 2014), American football player and coach Ben Collins (soccer) (born 1961), retired Liberian soccer midfielder Ben Collins (racing driver) (born 1975), British racing driver Ben Collins (programmer), Debian Project Leader from January 1999 to March 2001 Ben Collins, American screenwriter Benjamin Collins (cricketer, born 1820) (1820–1903), English cricketer Bernadette Collins, British strategy engineer from Northern Ireland Bernie Collins (1935–2018), Canadian politician Bianca Collins (born 1988), American actress Bill and Billy Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Bill Collins (catcher) (1863–1893), American baseball player on Cleveland Spiders' all-time roster Bill Collins (outfielder) (1882–1962), American baseball outfielder Bill Collins (footballer, born 1920) (1920–2010), aka Buster Collins, Northern Irish footballer Bill Collins (racecaller) (1928–1997), Australian racecaller Bill Collins (golfer) (1928–2006), American professional golfer Bill Collins (television presenter) (1934–2019), Australian film critic and television presenter Bill Collins (ice hockey) (born 1943), Canadian former ice hockey player Bill Collins (athlete) (born 1950), Masters athletics world record sprinter Billy Collins (Australian footballer) (1909–1987), Australian footballer for Melbourne Billy Collins (born 1941), American poet Bob and Bobby Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Bob Collins (footballer, born 1934), Australian rules footballer for Footscray Bob Collins (broadcaster) (1942–2000), American broadcaster Bob Collins (politician) (1946–2007), Australian politician Bobby Collins (footballer) (1931–2014), Scottish footballer Bobby Collins (American football coach) (1933–2021), former American football coach Bobby Collins (comedian) (born 1951), American stand-up comedian and film actor Bobby Collins (basketball) (born 1966), American college basketball coach Bobby Collins (tight end) (born 1976), former tight end in the National Football League Bootsy Collins (born 1951), American funk bassist, singer and songwriter Brent Collins (1941–1988), American actor Brian Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Brian Collins (cricketer) (born 1941), former English cricketer Brian Collins (speedway rider) (born 1948), Scottish former motorcycle speedway rider Brian Collins (1970s singer) (born 1950), American country music artist Brian Collins (2010s singer), American country music artist Brian Todd Collins (born 1986), American rapper known as Kid Ink Brian Collins (designer), American designer and creative director Bridget Jean Collins, maiden name of American playwright Jean Kerr Bud Collins (1929–2016), American journalist C Cal Collins (1933–2001), American jazz guitarist Calvin Collins (born 1974), American football guard Cardiss Collins (1931–2013), American politician Careena Collins (born 1967), American porn actress and director Carla Collins (born 1965), Canadian comedian, actress, TV host and writer Carr Collins Sr. (1892–1980), American businessman and philanthropist Catfish Collins (1943–2010), American guitarist, brother of Bootsy Collins Cecil Collins (artist) (1908–1989), British artist Cecil L. Collins (1926–2007), American politician Cecil Collins (football) (born 1976), American footballer and convicted burglar Charles and Charlie Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Charles Collins (painter) ( – 1744), Irish painter Charles James Collins (1820–1864), English journalist and novelist Charles Allston Collins (1828–1873), British Pre-Raphaelite artist Charles Collins (New South Wales politician) (1850–1898), New South Wales politician Charles Collins (ice hockey) (1882–1920), Canadian ice hockey player Charles Collins (actor) (1904–1999), American actor Charles E. Collins (politician) (1929–2012), independent candidate for president of the United States in 1996 and 2000 Charles E. Collins (American football), American football coach Charlie Collins (politician) (born 1962), Arkansas politician Charlie Collins (footballer) (born 1991), English footballer Chris Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Chris Collins (New York politician) (born 1950), former U.S. Representative for New York's 27th congressional district Chris Collins (Virginia politician) (born 1971), member of the Virginia House of Delegates Chris Collins (soccer) (born 1956), American soccer player Chris Collins (Canadian politician) (born 1962), Canadian politician from New Brunswick Chris Collins (musician) (born 1967), American musician, recording engineer/producer and technologist Chris Collins (basketball) (born 1974), American basketball player and coach, son of Doug Collins Chris Collins (lacrosse) (born 1982), American lacrosse player Chris Collins (ice hockey) (born 1984), American ice hockey player Chris Collins (singer), American musician and former vocalist for the band now known as Dream Theater Chris Collins (writer), American television writer Christine Collins (rower) (born 1969), American rower Christopher Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Christopher Collins (cricketer) (1859–1919), English cricketer Christopher Collins (1949–1994), American actor, voice artist and comedian also known as Chris Latta Christopher Graham Collins (born 1957), birth name of the British comedian Frank Skinner Chuck Collins (American football) (1903–1977), American football player and coach Chuck Collins (born 1959), American author on economic matters Clara Stone Fields Collins (1908–1981), Alabama legislator Clarence Collins (born 1942), American musician, vocalist. Founder of R&B vocal group Little Anthony and the Imperials Clifton Collins Jr. (born 1970), American actor Coi Leray Collins (born 1997), birth name of American rapper and singer Coi Leray Colm Collins, Gaelic football manager Con Collins (1881–1937), Irish politician D Dal Collins (1907–2001), South African cricket umpire Damian Collins (born 1974), British Conservative Party politician Dan, Daniel, Danielle and Danny Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Dan Collins (baseball) (1854–1883), baseball player Dan Collins (journalist), senior producer for CBS News.com Daniel Collins (priest) (died 1648) Canon of Windsor Daniel Collins (canoeist) (born 1970), Australian Olympic canoeist Danielle Collins (born 1993), American tennis player Danny Collins (footballer) (born 1980), Welsh footballer Danny Boy Collins (born 1967), English wrestler Darnell Collins (1961–1995), American spree killer Darren Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Darren Collins (Australian footballer) (born 1967), Australian rules footballer Darren Collins (English footballer) (born 1967), English footballer Darren Collins (athlete), Australian Paralympic athlete Darron Collins (born 1970), American human ecologist Daryl Collins (born 1956), Australian rules footballer David Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Dave Collins (born 1952), American baseball player David Collins (lieutenant governor) (1754–1810), first Lieutenant Governor of Van Diemens Land (later Tasmania) David Collins (New Zealand cricketer) (1887–1967), played for Wellington and Cambridge University David Collins (judge) (born 1954), Justice of the High Court of New Zealand David Collins (interior designer) (1955–2013), designer of interiors of bars and restaurants in London David Collins (rower) (born 1969), American rower David Collins (hurler) (born 1984), Irish hurler Dean Collins (dancer) (1917–1984), American dancer Dean Collins (actor) (born 1990), American actor Derek Collins (born 1969), Scottish footballer Derek Collins (born 1970), Irish Tenor and Poet Des Collins (1923–2017), English footballer Desmond H. Collins, Canadian paleontologist Diana Collins (1917–2003), English social activist Dobson Collins (born 1987), American and Canadian football player from Georgia, USA Dolly Collins (1933–1995), British folk singer Dominic Collins (1566–1602), Irish Jesuit lay brother, soldier and Roman Catholic martyr Dominic Collins (swimmer) (born 1977), Australian Paralympic swimmer Don Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Don Collins (baseball) (1952–2022), American baseball player Don Collins (born 1958), American basketball player Don Collins, alleged rapist and murderer of Robbie Middleton Donal Collins (19??–2010), Irish priest and teacher convicted of sexual abuse of pupils in his charge Donald Collins (Maine politician) (1925–2018), American politician in Maine Donald Collins (Vermont politician) (born 1942), American politician in Vermont Dorothy Collins (1926–1994), American actress and recording artist (born Marjorie Chandler) Dottie Wiltse Collins (1923–2008), American professional baseball player Doug Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Doug Collins (journalist) (1920–2001), Canadian journalist, alleged Holocaust denier Doug Collins (footballer) (born 1945), English footballer Doug Collins (Canadian football) (born 1948), Canadian football player Doug Collins (basketball) (born 1951), NBA player, current coach Doug Collins (politician) (born 1966), American politician E Eamon Collins (1954–1999), IRA paramilitary and author Eamonn Collins (footballer) (born 1965), Irish footballer Earl Collins (1895–1958), Canadian politician Eddie, Edmund, Edward and Edwyn Collins (disambiguation) Eddie Collins (actor) (1883–1940), American comedian, actor and singer Eddie Collins (1887–1951), American baseball player and manager Eddie Collins Jr. (1916–2000), American baseball player Eddie Collins (born 1981), American rapper known as Greydon Square Edmund John Patrick Collins (1931–2014), Australian Roman Catholic bishop Edward Knight Collins (1802–1878), American shipping magnate Edward Treacher Collins (1862–1932), British surgeon and ophthalmologist Edward Joseph Collins (1886–1951), American composer and pianist Edward Collins (figure skater) (fl. 1957–1959) Canadian Edward Collins (Irish politician) (1941–2019), Irish Fine Gael politician Edward J. Collins Jr. ( – 2007), Massachusetts civil servant and public manager Edwyn Collins, Scottish musician Eileen Collins (born 1956), American astronaut, first female Space Shuttle pilot (STS-63) and commander (STS-93) Elisabeth Collins (1904–2000), British artist Elizabeth Collins (born 1982), Canadian swimmer Emily Parmely Collins (1814–1909), American suffragist, activist, writer Eoin Collins (born 1968), Irish tennis player Eric Dwayne Collins (born 1968), American rapper known as RBX Eric Collins (born 1969), American sports announcer F Felicia Collins (born 1964), American musician Florestine Perrault Collins (1895–1988), American photographer Floyd Collins (1887–1925), American cave explorer Francis Dolan Collins (1841–1891), American politician Francis Collins (born 1950), American geneticist Frank Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, several people Frank Collins (footballer) (1893–19??), Irish footballer Frank Collins (musician) (born 1947), British composer, singer and arranger Frank Collins (British Army soldier) (1956–1998), SAS Soldier and Church of England Minister G G. Pat Collins (1895–1959), American actor Gail Collins (born 1945), American journalist and author Gary Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Gary Collins (ice hockey) (1935–2022), Canadian player for the Toronto Maple Leafs Gary Collins (actor) (1938–2012), American film and television actor Gary Collins (American football) (born 1940), American football end and punter for the Cleveland Browns Gary Collins (Idaho politician) (born 1942), Republican Idaho State Representative Gary Collins (racing driver) (born 1960), American stock car driver Gary Collins (Canadian politician) (born 1963), Canadian politician Gavin Collins, British Anglican bishop Gavin Collins (baseball), American baseball player Gemma Collins (born 1981), English media personality and businesswoman Geoff and Geoffrey Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Geoff Collins (1926–2005), Australian rules footballer Geoffrey Collins (cricketer, born 1909) (1909–1968), English cricketer Geoffrey Collins (cricketer, born 1918) (1918–2008), English cricketer George Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people George Collins (Nova Scotia politician) (1771–1813), mariner, merchant and political figure in Nova Scotia George Collins (Australian politician) (1839–1926), Tasmanian politician George Collins (cricketer, born 1889) (1889–1949), English cricketer George R. Collins (1917–1993), American historian George W. Collins (1925–1972), U.S. Representative from Illinois George E. Collins (1928–2017), American mathematician George Collins (footballer), English football manager Gerard Collins (canoeist) (born 1952), Irish slalom canoeist Gerry Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Gerry Collins (politician) (born 1938), Irish Fianna Fáil politician Gerry Collins (footballer) (born 1955), Scottish footballer and coach Gerry Collins (broadcaster), Australian broadcaster Glen Collins (American football) (born 1959), American football player Glen Collins (footballer) (born 1977), New Zealand association football player Glenda Collins (born 1943), British pop singer Godfrey Collins (1875–1936), British politician Goldie Collins (1901–1982), Australian rules footballer Gordon Collins (1914–1986), English cricketer Grant Collins (born 19??), Australian drummer Gregor Collins (born 1976), American writer, actor, and producer Guy N. Collins (1872–1938), American botanist and geneticist H Hal Collins, American football coach Harlan Collins (born 19??), American composer Harold and Harry Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Harold Collins (Australian politician) (1887–1962), Australian politician in Queensland Harold Collins (strongman), (born 1957), American strongman and powerlifter Harry Collins (footballer) (1892–1918), Australian rules footballer Harry J. Collins (1895–1963), US Army general Harry Warren Collins (1896–1968), American baseball pitcher known as Rip Collins Harry Collins (born 1943), British academic Heidi Collins (born 1967), American news broadcaster Henry Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Henry Collins (politician) (1844–1904), Canadian mayor of Vancouver Henry Collins (official) (1905–1961), U.S. government employee and Soviet spy Henry Collins (boxer) (born 1977), Australian boxer Herbert and Herbie Collins, multiple people Herbert A. Collins (1865–1937), Canadian-born American landscape and portrait painter Herbert Collins (1885–1975), British architect Herbie Collins (1888–1959), Australian cricketer Hercules Collins (died 1702), English Baptist minister and author Hub Collins (1864–1892), American baseball player Hubert Collins (born 1936), American politician in Kentucky Hugh Collins (born 1953), British legal academic I Ian Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Ian Collins (tennis) (1903–1975), British tennis player from the 1920s and 1930s Ian Collins (footballer) (born 1942), Australian businessman and former Australian rules footballer Ian Collins (radio presenter) (born 1956), UK radio presenter Ian Collins (soccer) (born 1963), American soccer coach at the University of Kentucky Isaac J. Collins (1874–1975), American businessman, founder of the Anchor Hocking J Jacinta Collins (born 1962), Australian politician Jack Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Jack Collins (footballer, born 1904) (1904–1968), Australian rules footballer for Melbourne Jack Collins (footballer, born 1910) (1910–1972), Australian rules footballer for Geelong Jack Collins (actor) (1918–2005), American stage actor Jack Collins (footballer, born 1925) (1925–1998), Australian rules footballer for Fitzroy and Essendon Jack Collins (footballer, born 1930) (1930–2008), Australian rules footballer for Footscray and football administrator Jack Collins (umpire) (1932–2021), Australian Test cricket umpire Jack Collins (politician) (born 1943), American college basketball coach and politician in New Jersey Jackie Collins (1937–2015), British novelist Jacqueline Y. Collins (born 1949), American politician Jalen Collins (born 1993), American football player James Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: James Collins (public servant) (1869–1934), Australian Secretary of the Department of the Treasury James Lawton Collins (1882–1963), U.S. Army general James L. Collins (1883–1953), Texas oil man and community philanthropist James Collins (Irish politician) (1900–1967), Irish politician and father of Gerard Collins James Francis Collins (1905–1989), U.S. Army general James M. Collins (1916–1989), American politician James Franklin Collins (born 1939), U.S. diplomat and Ambassador to Russia James C. Collins (born 1958), American business theorist James Collins (bioengineer) (born 1965), American bioengineer James Collins (basketball) (born 1973), American basketball player James Collins (footballer) (born 1983), Welsh footballer playing for West Ham James Collins (rugby union) (born 1986), English rugby union player James Collins (footballer, born 1990), Irish footballer (Shrewsbury Town, Swindon Town, Hibernian) James Collins (songwriter), Canadian songwriter, actor and singer Jamie Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Jamie Collins (footballer born 1978), English footballer Jamie Collins (footballer born 1984), English footballer Jamie Collins (American football) (born 1989), American football player Jane Collins (born 1962), British Ukip Member of the European Parliament Jarron Collins (born 1978), American basketball player and coach Jason Collins (surfer) (born 1974), American surfer Jason Collins (born 1978), American basketball player Javiar Collins (born 1978), American football player Jed Collins (born 1986), American football player Jennie Collins (1828–1887), labor reformer, humanitarian, and suffragist Jerry Collins (1980–2015), Samoan-born New Zealand rugby player Jess Collins (1923–2004), American artist Jessica Collins (born 1971), American actress Jessie Collins (born 1983), American actress Jim Collins (curler), (—1982), Canadian curler Jim Collins (footballer, born 1923) (1923–1996), footballer for Barrow and Chester City Jim Collins (ice hockey) (born 1951), Canadian ice hockey player Jim Collins (linebacker) (born 1958), American football linebacker and NFL Pro Bowler Jim Collins (singer) (born 1959), American country music singer-songwriter Jim Collins (American football coach) (born 1966), head football coach at Saginaw Valley State University Jimmy Collins (1870–1943), American baseball player Jimmy Collins (footballer, born 1903) (1903–1977), English footballer who played for West Ham United Jimmy Collins (footballer, born 1911) (1911–1983), English footballer Jimmy Collins (footballer, born 1923), Irish goalkeeper during the 1940s and 1950s Jimmy Collins (footballer, born 1937), Scottish footballer Jimmy Collins (basketball) (1946–2020), American basketball player and coach J. Lawton Collins (1896–1987), American general and army Chief of Staff Jo Collins (born 1945), American model Joan Collins (born 1933), British actress Joe Collins (American football), American football player for the University of Notre Dame, 1908–1909 Joe Collins (1922–1989), American baseball player Joely Collins (born 1972), Canadian actress and producer John Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: John Collins (Andover MP) (1624–1711), English academic and politician John Collins (mathematician) (1625–1683), English mathematician John Collins (Independent minister) ( – 1687) John Collins (delegate) (1717–1795), Rhode Island delegate to Continental Congress John Collins (poet) (1742–1808), English orator, singer, and poet John Baptist Collins (died 1794), would-be French pirate John Collins (governor), (1776–1822), American manufacturer and Governor of Delaware John Collins Covell (1823–1887), American educator and school administrator John S. Collins (1837–1928), American Quaker farmer who moved to southern Florida John Churton Collins (1848–1908), English literary critic John J. Collins (bishop) (1856–1934), American-born Catholic bishop in Jamaica John Collins (New Zealand cricketer) (1868–1943) John Collins (Fijian cricketer) (fl. 1895), Fijian cricketer John F. Collins (1872–1962), Mayor of Providence, Rhode Island, 1939–1941 John Collins (VC) (1880–1951), English soldier awarded the Victoria Cross John Augustine Collins (1899–1989), Royal Australian Navy John H. Collins (academic) (1902–1981), American classical scholar John Collins (priest), (1905–1982), UK radical Anglican cleric John W. Collins (1912–2001), chess instructor John Collins (jazz guitarist) (1913–2001), American John F. Collins (1919–1995), Mayor of Boston, Massachusetts (1960–1968) John A. Collins (chaplain) (1931–2003), Chief of Chaplains of the U.S. Air Force John Collins (UK businessman) (born 1941), former head of National Power John D. Collins (born 1942), British actor, best known for his role in 'Allo 'Allo John Collins (footballer, born 1942), former English professional footballer John Joseph Collins (born 1944), Irish barrister John J. Collins (born 1946), Irish biblical studies scholar John C. Collins (born 1949), American theoretical particle physicist John Collins (footballer, born 1949), former Welsh professional footballer John Collins (sports executive) (born 1961), American sports executive John Collins (footballer born 1968), Scottish football player and manager John Collins (theater) (born c. 1969), American experimental theater director John Collins (Australian musician) (born 1971), Australian bass player for Powderfinger John Collins (musician/researcher) (born 19??), British Johnny Collins (1938–2009), British folk singer Johnson Collins (1847–1906), African-American politician Jon Collins (born 1960s), American basketball player Jonathan Collins (born 1961), Australian rules footballer Jose Collins (1887–1958), English actress and singer Joseph Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Joseph Henry Collins (1841–1916), mining engineer and geologist Joseph Collins (1866–1950), American neurologist Joseph Lawton Collins (1896–1987), American soldier Joseph T. Collins (1939–2012), American herpetologist Joyce Collins (1930–2010), American jazz pianist and singer Judith Collins (born 1959), New Zealand politician Judson Dwight Collins (1823–1852), Methodist missionary to China Judy Collins (born 1939), American singer and songwriter Julia C. Collins (c. 1842 – 65), African-American writer Julia Collins (Jeopardy! contestant) (born 1982), contestant on the American game show Jeopardy! Julie Collins (born 1971), Australian politician Justin Lee Collins (born 1974), British comedian K Karl Collins (born 1971), English actor Kate and Katherine Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Kate Collins (actress) (born 1959), American actress Kate Collins (journalist) (born 1983), South Australian television presenter Kate Collins (author), American author Katherine Collins (born 1947), Canadian cartoonist and writer Ken Collins (born 1939), Scottish MEP and environmentalist Keri Collins (born 1978), Welsh director and writer for film and TV Kerry Collins, American football quarterback in the National Football League Kevin Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Kevin Collins (baseball) (1946–2016), American Major League Baseball player Kevin Collins (ice hockey) (born 1950), retired National Hockey League linesman Kevin J. Collins (born 1970), American political consultant Kevin Collins (American actor) (born 1972), American actor in theatre, film, television and radio drama Kevin Andrew Collins (born 1974), child abducted from San Francisco in 1984 Kim Collins (born 1976), runner from St Kitts and Nevis Kip Collins (1969–2006), American record producer and composer Kreigh Collins (tennis) (1875–1909), American tennis player L Landon Collins (born 1994), American football safety Larry Collins (writer) (1929–2005), American writer Lauren Collins (born 1986), Canadian actress Lawrence Collins, Baron Collins of Mapesbury (born 1941), British judge J. Lawton Collins (1896–1987), American General and Army Chief of Staff Lee Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people Lee Collins (musician) (1901–1960), American jazz musician Lee Collins (Scottish footballer) (born 1974), midfielder Lee Collins (footballer born 1977), English non-league defender Lee Collins (footballer) (1988–2021), English defender Lee Collins (Unicode), one of the creators of Unicode Leigh Collins (1901–1975), English footballer Leon Collins (1922–1985), American dancer LeRoy Collins (1909–1991), American politician: 33rd Governor of Florida Les Collins (born 1958), British speedway rider Lester Collins (landscape architect) (1914–1993), American landscape architect Lewis Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Lewis Collins (RAF officer) (1894–1971), British World War I flying ace Lewis Preston Collins II (1896–1952), Lieutenant Governor of Virginia Lewis D. Collins (1899–1954), American film director Lewis Collins (1946–2013), British actor Lily Collins (born 1989), British-American actress, model, and television personality Linda Collins-Smith (1962–2019), American politician Linton McGee Collins (1902–1972), American judge Lisa Collins (actress) (born 1968), Australian actress Lorence G. Collins (born 1931), American petrologist Loren W. Collins (1838–1912), American jurist and politician Lorenzo D. Collins (1821–1898), New York politician Lorenzo Collins ( – 1997), American shot dead by police in Cincinnati Lorrie Collins (1942–2018), American country, rockabilly and rock 'n' roll singer Lottie Collins (1865–1910), English singer and dancer Louis L. Collins (1882–1950) 23rd Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota Lucinda Collins, Australian pianist Lui Collins (born 1950), American folk singer Lyn Collins (1948–2005), American singer M Mabel Collins (1851–1927), writer on theosophy Mac Collins (1944–2018), American politician Maggie Collins, Australian band manager and radio announcer Manny Collins (born 1984), American footballer Marco Collins (born 1965), American radio personality Marcus Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Marcus Evelyn Collins (1861–1944), British architect Marcus Collins (singer) (born 1988), British singer, contestant in UK's The X Factor Marcus Collins (entertainer), American actor and singer Mardy Collins, American basketball player María Antonieta Collins (born 1952), Mexican journalist Marilyn Collins, British sculptor Mark Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Mark Collins (American football) (born 1964), American football player Mark Collins (musician) (born 1965), English musician (The Charlatans) Mark Collins (Director of the Commonwealth Foundation) (born 1952), English Martha Layne Collins (born 1936), Democratic Governor of Kentucky from 1983 to 1987 Martha Collins (poet) (born 1940), American poet Martin Collins, British radio broadcaster Marva Collins (1936–2015), American teacher Mary Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Mary Collins (missionary) (1846–1920), American who worked among the Sioux Mary Call Darby Collins (1911–2009), First Lady of Florida from 1955 to 1961 Mary Collins (politician) (born 1940), Canadian politician Mary Cathleen Collins (born 1956), American actress known as Bo Derek Matthew Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Matthew Collins (Australian footballer) (born 1977) from Victoria Matthew Collins (Welsh footballer) (born 1986), Welsh footballer Matthew Collins (academic), professor of biomedical archaeology at York University Maude Collins, sheriff in Ohio Maurice Collins, one of several people including: Maurice Collins (politician) (1878–1945), Australian politician Maurice Collins (judge), Irish judge Max Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Max Allan Collins (born 1948), American mystery writer Max Collins (musician) (born 1978), American musician Max Collins (actress) (born 1992), Filipino American actress and model May Collins (1903–1955), American actress Mel Collins (born 1947), British musician Melissa Collins (born 1976), Canadian water polo player Michael Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Michael Collins (bishop) (1771–1832), Roman Catholic Bishop of Cloyne and Ross Michael F. Collins (1854–1928), American newspaper publisher and politician Michael Collins (Irish leader) (1890–1922), Irish Republican leader Michael Collins (American author), pseudonym of American author Dennis Lynds (1924–2005) Michael Collins (astronaut) (1930–2021), American astronaut, a member of the historic Apollo 11 crew Michael Collins (Limerick politician) (1940–2022), Irish politician Michael Collins (hurler) (1941–2009), Irish hurler D. Michael Collins (1944–2015), Mayor of Toledo, Ohio, from 2014 to 2015 Michael Collins (soccer) (born 1961), American professional soccer midfielder Michael Collins (writer and broadcaster) (born 1961), British author, journalist and television presenter Michael Collins (Irish author) (born 1964) Michael Collins (computational linguist) (born 1971), British-born researcher in computer science Michael Collins (footballer born 1977), retired footballer Michael Collins (baseball) (born 1984), Australian baseball player Michael Collins (footballer, born 1986), Irish and Oxford United professional footballer Michael Collins (rugby union, born 1986) (born 1986), Welsh rugby union player Michael Collins (New Zealand rugby player) (born 1993), rugby union player Michael Collins (Dublin politician), Lord Mayor of Dublin 1977–1978 Michael P. Collins, Canadian structural engineer Michelle Collins (born 1962), British actress Michelle Collins (athlete) (born 1971), American sprinter Michelle Collins (comedian) (born 1981), comedian Mick and Mike Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Mick Collins (born 1965), American musician Mike Collins (Australian footballer born 1939), former 1960s VFL footballer Mike Collins (Australian footballer born 1953), former 1970s VFL footballer Mike Collins (American football) (born 1960), head football coach at the University of Louisiana Mike Collins (comics) (born 1961), British-born American comic book artist Mike Collins (ice hockey) (born 1990), American ice hockey player Misha Collins (born 1974), American actor Mo Collins (born 1965), a comedian from the Fox television variety show MADtv Mo Collins (1976–2014), American football player Mortimer Collins (1827–1876), British novelist Muirhead Collins (1852–1927), English-born Royal Navy officer and Australian diplomat N Nancy Adams Collins (born 1947), politician in Mississippi Nancy A. Collins (born 1959), American writer Nancy W. Collins (born 1973), professor at Columbia University Napoleon Collins (1814–1875), American naval officer Nathaniel Collins (born 1996), Scottish boxer Natasha Collins (1976–2008), English actress and model Nate Collins (born 1987), American football defensive tackle Neil and Neill Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Neil Collins (speedway rider) (born 1961), English former speedway rider Neil Collins (broadcaster), New Zealand broadcaster and local body politician Neill Collins (born 1983), Scottish footballer Newton Collins (1819–1903), American businessman Nick Collins (English footballer) (1911–1990), English Association footballer Nick Collins (born 1983), American football player Nick Collins (composer) (born 1975), British composer Nick Collins (politician), American politician in Massachusetts Nico Collins (born 1999), American football player Nicolas Collins (born 1954), American composer Nicole Collins, Canadian artist Nigel Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Noel Collins (1936–2011), British actor Norm Collins (1904–1933), Australian rules footballer from Victoria Norman Collins (1907–1982), British writer and broadcasting executive O Otis G. Collins (1917–1992), American businessman and politician P Paddy Collins (1903–1995), Irish hurler Pat, Patricia and Patrick Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Pat Collins (showman) (1859–1943), British politician and fairground industry member Pat Collins (baseball) (1896–1960), American baseball catcher Pat Collins (American football) (born 1941), American football coach Pat Collins (lighting designer), American Pat Collins (film critic) American reporter for WWOR-TV Patricia Hill Collins (born 1948), American sociologist and author Patrick Collins (mayor) (1844–1905), Irish-born American politician Patrick Collins (painter) (1911–1994), Irish painter Patrick M. Collins (born 1964), American lawyer Patrick Collins (American football) (born 1966), American football player Patrick K. Collins (born 1977) rugby union Coach Patrick Collins (footballer) (born 1985), player from England Patrick Collins (director), American pornographic film producer and director Paul Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Paul Collins (end) (1907–1988), American football player Paul Collins (athlete) (1926–1995), Canadian long-distance runner Paul Collins (artist) (born 1936), American realist painter Paul Collins (actor) (born 1937), English actor Paul Collins (Australian religious writer) (born 1940), Australian historian, broadcaster and writer Paul Collins (fantasy writer) (born 1954), Australian writer Paul Collins (musician) (born 1956), American drummer Paul Collins (rugby union) (born 1959), Irish international rugby union footballer Paul Collins (English footballer) (born 1966), English association football player Paul Collins (American writer) (born 1969), American writer Pauline Collins (born 1940), British actress Pedro Collins, West Indian cricketer from Barbados Perry Collins (1815–1900), American explorer and entrepreneur Peter Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Peter Collins (racing driver) (1931–1958), British racing driver Peter Collins (academic) (born 1945), British academic Peter Collins (New South Wales politician) (born 1947), Leader of the Opposition of New South Wales, 1995–1998 Peter Collins (footballer) (born 1948), English footballer Peter Collins (record producer) (born 1951), English record producer Peter Collins (speedway rider) (born 1954), English speedway rider Peter B. Collins (born ), American broadcaster Peter Collins (broadcaster), Irish sportscaster Peter Collins (organ builder), English pipe organ builder Petra Collins (born 1992), Canadian photographer and fashion designer Phil and Philip Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Phil Collins (baseball) (1901–1948), Major League pitcher Phil Collins (born 1951), English drummer, singer, songwriter, record producer and actor. Phil Collins (speedway rider) (born 1960), international motorcycle racer Phil Collins (artist) (born 1970), UK photographic and video award nominee Philip Collins (journalist) (born 1967), British journalist Porter Collins (born 1975), American rower Q R Rachel Collins (born 1976), American wrestler known as MsChif Ralph Collins (1924–2007), Scottish footballer and manager Randall Collins (born 1941), American sociologist Randy Collins (born 19??), Canadian politician and fraudster Ray and Raymond Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Ray Collins (baseball) (1887–1970), American baseball player Ray Collins (actor) (1889–1965), actor Ray Collins (American football) (1927–1991), American football defensive tackle Ray Collins (rock musician) (1936–2012) Ray Collins, Baron Collins of Highbury (born ), British trade unionist Raymond J. Collins (1897–1965), New Zealand philatelist Raymond Collins (priest) (born 1935), priest Richard and Richie Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Richard Collins (artist) (1755–1831), British miniature portrait painter Richard Collins, Baron Collins (1842–1911), British law lord Richard Collins (bishop) (1857–1924), British Roman Catholic bishop of Hexham and Newcastle Richard J. Collins (1914–2013), American screenwriter and producer Richard L. Collins (1933–2018), aviation writer Richard A. Collins (born 1966), British scientist and author Richie Collins (born 1962), Welsh rugby union international and coach Rip Collins (pitcher) (1896–1968), American Major League Baseball player Rip Collins (catcher) (1909–1969), American Major League Baseball backup catcher Ripper Collins (baseball) (1904–1970), American baseball player Ripper Collins (wrestler) (1933-1991), American professional wrestler Rob and Robert Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Rob Collins (musician) (1963–1996), English musician Rob Collins (ice hockey) (born 1978), Canadian ice hockey player Rob Collins (actor) (born 1979), Australian actor Robert Martin Collins (1843–1913), Queensland politician and grazier Robert A. Collins (1924–2003), American politician Robert Frederick Collins (born 1931), U.S. federal judge Roberta Collins (1944–2008), American actress Robin Collins (born 19??), American philosopher Roddy Collins (born 1961), Irish football player and manager Roger Collins (born 1949), English medievalist Ronald Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Ronald K. L. Collins (born 1949), American scholar and lawyer Ronald F. Collins (born 19??), American politician in Maine Ronald W. Collins (born 1949), American scientist, businessman, historian, genealogist and author Roosevelt Collins (born 1968), American football player Rory Collins (born 19??), British epidemiologist Rose Collins (born 19??), Irish camogie player Ross A. Collins (1880–1968), American Congressman from Mississippi Roy Collins (1934–2009), English cricketer Rubin Collins (born 1953), American basketball player Rudy Collins (1934–1988), American jazz drummer Russell Collins (1897–1965), American actor Ryan Collins (born 1982), Early Dubstep Producer and Guitarist S Sam, Sammy and Samuel Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people Sam Collins (musician) (1887–1949), American blues singer and guitarist Sam L. Collins (1895–1965), American politician Sam Collins (Australian footballer) (born 1994), Australian rules footballer for Fremantle Sam Collins (English footballer) (born 1977), English footballer Sammy Collins (1923–1998), English footballer Samuel Collins (theologian) (1576–1651), English clergyman and academic Samuel Collins (physician) (1619–1670), British doctor Samuel Collins (artist) (1735–1768), British artist Samuel W. Collins (1802–1870), American axe manufacturer Samuel Collins (physicist) (1898–1984), physicist at MIT Sandra Collins (born 19??), American DJ Sandy Collins (tennis) (born 1958), American tennis player Sandy Collins (politician) (born 1978), member of the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly Sara Collins, British novelist winning award in 2019 Sarah Collins, American woman who enlisted in the Unionist army in the American Civil War Sean Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Seán Collins (politician) (1918–1975), Irish Fine Gael politician from Cork, TD 1948–1957 and 1961–1969 Sean Collins (surf forecaster) (1952–2011), founder of Surfline Sean Collins (ice hockey defenceman) (born 1983), American ice hockey defenceman Sean Collins (ice hockey forward b. 1983), American minor pro ice hockey forward Sean Collins (ice hockey b. 1988), Canadian ice hockey player drafted by the Columbus Blue Jackets Seth Collins (born 1996), American football player Seward Collins (1899–1952), American publisher and self-declared fascist Shane Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people Shane Collins (field hockey) (born 1963), field hockey player from New Zealand Shane Collins (American football) (born 1969), American football defensive end Shano Collins (1885–1955), American baseball player Shawn Collins (born 1967), American football player Sherron Collins (born 1987), American basketball player Shirley Collins (born 1935), British folk singer Shirley Collins (politician) (born 1952), Canadian politician Sid Collins (1922–1977), American broadcaster Simon Collins (footballer) (born 1973), English football player and manager Simon Collins (born 1976), Canadian musician Sonny Collins (born 1953), American football running back Stanley Collins (1909–1993), South African cricket umpire Stef Collins (born 1982), British international basketball player Stephen, Steve and Steven Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Stephen Collins (politician) (1847–1925), British Liberal politician, MP for Kennington Stephen Collins (born 1947), American actor Stephen Collins (speedway rider) (born 1966), English motorcyclist Stephen Collins (journalist) (born 19??), Irish journalist Steven Collins (archaeologist) Albuquerque, New Mexico. Steve Collins (baseball) (1918–?), minor league player-manager Steve Collins (footballer) (born 1962), defender with Peterborough United and Southend Steve Collins (born 1964), Irish boxer Steve Collins (ski jumper) (born 1964), from Canada Steve Collins (American football) (born 1970), Oklahoma Sooners quarterback Steven Collins (born 19??), lecturer in the Department of Computer Science in Trinity College, Dublin Stuart Collins (born 19??), Australian rugby league footballer Susan Collins (born 1952), American politician Susan Collins (artist) (born 1964), English artist and academic Suzanne Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Suzanne Collins (born 1962), American writer (The Hunger Games) Suzanne Collins (actress) (born 1978), English actress Suzanne Marie Collins (1966–1985), American Marine Corps Lance Corporal and murder victim T Tai Collins (born 1962), American model, actress and screenwriter Tank Collins (born 1969), American basketball player Ted Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people Ted Collins (Australian footballer) (1893–1974), Australian rules footballer for St Kilda Ted Collins (Canadian football) (born ), Canadian football player Ted Collins (manager) (1900–1964), Show-biz manager and owner of American football team franchises Terry Collins (born 1949), American baseball manager Tess Collins (born 19??), American novelist and theatre manager Thomas Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Thomas Collins (governor) (1732–1789), American lawyer and Governor of Delaware Thomas Collins (UK politician) (died 1884), Member of Parliament for Knaresborough and Boston Thomas Collins (cricketer, born 1841) (1841–1934), English cricketer Thomas D. Collins (1847–1935), American soldier who fought in the American Civil War Thomas Collins (bishop of Meath) (1873–1927), Irish Anglican bishop Thomas Collins (Australian politician) (1884–1945), Australian MP and Postmaster-General Thomas Collins (cricketer, born 1895) (1895–1964), English cricketer Thomas LeRoy Collins (1909–1991), governor of Florida Thomas Patrick Collins (1915–1973), American-born Catholic bishop in Bolivia Thomas H. Collins (born 1946), Commandant of the United States Coast Guard Thomas Christopher Collins (born 1947), Canadian Roman Catholic Cardinal Tim Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Tim Collins (footballer) (1889–?), Australian rules footballer Tim Collins (financier) (born 1956), American businessman and financier Tim Collins (British Army officer) (born 1960), British army officer Tim Collins (politician) (born 1964), British politician Tim Collins (baseball) (born 1989), American Major League Baseball pitcher Tim Collins (manager), former manager for the band Aerosmith Tod and Todd Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Tod Collins (1876–1942), Australian rules footballer Todd Collins (linebacker) (born 1970), American football linebacker Todd Collins (quarterback) (born 1971), American football quarterback Tom and Tommy Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Tom Collins, pseudonym of Joseph Furphy (1843–1912), Australian author Tom Collins (footballer) (1882–1929), Scottish international footballer Tom Francis Collins (1886–1907), English drifter convicted of murder in New Brunswick Tom Collins (athlete), Irish athlete who held the 5-mile world record Tom Collins (rugby, born 1895) (1895–1957), rugby union international and rugby league footballer of the 1920s Tom Collins (dual player) (died 2008), hurler and Gaelic footballer from County Kerry, Ireland Tom Collins (boxer) (born 1955), British boxer Tommy Collins (singer) (1930–2000), stage name of Leonard Sipes, American country music singer-songwriter Tommy Collins (filmmaker), Irish film director and producer Tony Collins (disambiguation), multiple people, one of several people including: Tony Collins (footballer) (1926–2021), first black manager in the English Football League Tony Collins (American football) (born 1959), American football player Tony Collins (historian), British social historian Tory Collins (born 19??), American footballer Tru Collins (born 1986), American actress and indie-pop singer Tyler Collins (singer) (born 1965), American singer Tyler Collins (baseball) (born 1990), American baseball player V Valentine Collins (1894–1918), British World War I flying ace Victor Collins, Baron Stonham (1903–1971), British politician Vinson Allen Collins (1867–1966), Texas politician Vivianne Collins (born 1973), American TV host W Warwick Collins (1948–2013), British novelist Wayne M. Collins (1900–1974), American civil rights attorney Wilkie Collins (1824–1889), British writer William Collins, one of several people including: William Collins (Roundhead), English politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1654 to 1659 William Collins (poet) (1721–1759), English poet William Collins (colonist), (1760–1819) English naval officer and early settler in Tasmania, Australia William Collins (painter) (1788–1847), English landscape artist William Collins (publisher) (1789–1853), Scottish publisher; founder of Collins publishing house William Lucas Collins (1815–1887), English author and clergyman of the Church of England William Collins (Lord Provost) (1817–1895), Scottish temperance movement activist William Collins (New York politician) (1818–1878), U.S. congressman from New York William Collins (cricketer, born 1837) (1837–1876), Australian cricketer William Whitehouse Collins (1853–1923), New Zealand Member of Parliament for Christchurch William Collins (New Zealand surgeon) (1853–1934), surgeon, politician, played rugby for England and cricket in New Zealand William Collins (surgeon) (1859–1946), British surgeon and Liberal Party politician William Wiehe Collins (1862–1951), English architectural and landscape genre painter William Collins (bishop) (1867–1911), Bishop of Gibraltar in the Church of England William Collins (cricketer, born 1868) (1868–1942), English cricketer William Henry Collins (1878–1937), Canadian geologist William Floyd Collins (1887–1925), American cave explorer William J. Collins (1896–1981), president of St. Ambrose University William Collins (canoeist) (1932–1993), Canadian canoeist who competed in the 1956 Summer Olympics William A. Collins (1935–2022), American politician, state representative and mayor Wilson Collins (1889–1941), American baseball outfielder Winifred Collins (1911–1999), Chief of Naval Personnel for Women, US Navy Z Zach Collins (born 1997), American basketball player Zack Collins (born 1995), American baseball player Zaven Collins (born 1999), American football player Fictional characters Barnabas Collins, fictional vampire from Dark Shadows Chris Collins, a character in the 1990 American natural horror comedy movie Arachnophobia David Collins (Dark Shadows), fictional character from Dark Shadows David Collins (EastEnders), fictional character from EastEnders Gordon Collins (Brookside), fictional character from British soap opera Brookside Molly Collins, fictional character from The Amazing World of Gumball Jeremiah Collins, fictional character from Dark Shadows Quentin Collins, fictional werewolf from Dark Shadows Rusty Collins, fictional character from X-Factor comics Tom Collins (Rent character), character in the rock musical Rent Victor Collins (General Hospital), a fictional character in the U.S. TV soap opera General Hospital Wesley Collins, fictional character from Power Rangers Time Force Mr William Collins, character in the Jane Austen novel Pride and Prejudice Mr Emery Collins (Mr Collins), the mean Manager in Ghost Dad played by Barry Corbin See also Collins (given name) Collins (disambiguation), multiple people Collins-class submarine, six Australian-built diesel-electric submarines used in the Royal Australian Navy Collins English Dictionary, printed and online English Dictionary The Collins Bird Guide, field guide to the birds of the Western Palearctic The Collins College of Hospitality Management, part of the California State Polytechnic University, Pomona The Collins Companies, American forest products company The Collins Kids, American rockabilly duo Sam Collins Day, local holiday in parts of Connecticut Tom Collins, cocktail William Collins, Sons, Scottish printing company William Collins (imprint), a nonfiction publishing brand launched by HarperCollins in 2014 References English-language surnames Surnames of Old English origin Surnames of Irish origin Surnames of Welsh origin Patronymic surnames
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Intel%20Core%20processors
List of Intel Core processors
The following is a list of Intel Core microprocessors. Desktop processors Core 2 "Allendale" (65 nm, 800 MT/s) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2) Die size: 111 mm2 Steppings: L2, M0, G0 Note: The M0 and G0 Steppings have better optimizations to lower idle power consumption from 12W to 8W. Note: The E4700 uses G0 Stepping which makes it a Conroe CPU. "Conroe" (65 nm, 1066 MT/s) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2) All models support: Intel VT-x Die size: 143 mm2 Steppings: B2, G0 Note: of the E6000 series processors, only models E6550, E6750, and E6850 support Intel's Trusted Execution Technology (TXT). Note: The L2 Stepping, and models with sSpec SL9ZL, SL9ZF, SLA4U, SLA4T, have better optimizations to lower idle power consumption from 22W to 12W. Note: The M0 and G0 Steppings have better optimizations to lower idle power consumption from 12W to 8W. "Conroe" (65 nm, 1333 MT/s) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2) All models support: Intel VT-x All E6x50 models support: Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Die size: 143 mm2 Transistor count: 291 million Steppings: B2, G0 Note: of the E6000 series processors, only models E6550, E6750, and E6850 support Intel's Trusted Execution Technology (TXT). Note: The L2 Stepping, and models with sSpec SL9ZL, SL9ZF, SLA4U, SLA4T, have better optimizations to lower idle power consumption from 22W to 12W. Note: The M0 and G0 Steppings have better optimizations to lower idle power consumption from 12W to 8W. "Conroe-CL" (65 nm, 1066 MT/s) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Die size: 111 mm2 (Conroe) Steppings: ? "Conroe XE" (65 nm) These models feature an unlocked clock multiplier All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Die size: 143 mm2 Steppings: B1, B2 The X6900 was never publicly released. "Kentsfield" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x Die size: 2 ×143 mm2 Steppings: B3, G0 "Kentsfield XE" (65 nm) These models feature an unlocked clock multiplier All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x Die size: 2 ×143 mm2 Steppings: B3, G0 "Wolfdale-3M" (45 nm, 1066 MT/s) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2) Die size: 82 mm2 Transistor Count: 230 million Steppings: M0, R0 Models with a part number ending in "ML" instead of "M" support Intel VT-x "Wolfdale" (45 nm, 1333 MT/s) All models(except E8190) support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), iAMT2 (Intel Active Management Technology), Intel VT-x , Intel VT-d , Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Die size: 107 mm2 Transistor Count: 410 million Steppings: C0, E0 Note: The E8190 and E8290 do not support Intel VT-d. See also: Versions of the same Wolfdale core in an LGA 771 are available under the Dual-Core Xeon brand. "Yorkfield-6M" (45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x , Intel VT-d , Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Die size: 2 × 82 mm2 Steppings: M0, M1, R0 All Q8xxx models are Yorkfield-6M MCMs with only 2 × 2 MB L2 cache enabled. Note: Q8200, Q8200S, Q8300 SLB5W does not support Intel VT-x. Note: Q8200, Q8200S, Q8300, Q8400, Q8400S, Q9500 does not support Intel VT-d. Note: Q8200, Q8200S, Q8300, Q8400, Q8400S does not support TXT. Yorkfield (45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Die size: 2 × 107 mm2 Steppings: C0, C1, E0 "Yorkfield XE" (45 nm) These models feature an unlocked clock multiplier All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x I/O Acceleration Technology (Intel I/OAT) supported by: QX9775 Intel VT-d supported by: QX9650 Die size: 2 × 107 mm2 Steppings: C0, C1, E0 The QX9750 was never publicly released. Engineering samples have surfaced along with claims that Intel gave them away to employees sometime in 2009. Core i (1st gen) "Lynnfield" (45 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: LGA 1156 All CPUs feature a DMI 1.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. No integrated graphics. K processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. "Bloomfield" (45 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support triple-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: LGA 1366 All CPUs feature a QPI bus to the chipset (northbridge). Bus speed is 4.8 GT/s on all the processors except for the Extreme Edition models, which run at 6.4 GT/s. L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. No integrated graphics. Extreme Edition processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. "Clarkdale" (MCP, 32 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: LGA 1156 All CPUs feature a DMI 1.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. K processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. "Gulftown" (32 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support triple-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: LGA 1366 All CPUs feature a QPI bus to the chipset (northbridge). Bus speed is 4.8 GT/s on all the processors except for the X-suffix models, which run at 6.4 GT/s. L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. No integrated graphics. X-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (2nd gen) "Sandy Bridge" (32 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: LGA 1155 All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. S processors feature lower-than-normal TDP (65W on 4-core models). T processors feature an even lower TDP (45W on 4-core models or 35W on 2-core models). K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. Other processors will have limited overclocking due to chipset limitations. K models also do not support Intel TXT, Intel VT-d and vPro. P processors disable the integrated graphics processor. i3-2120, i5-2400, and i7-2600 are available as embedded processors. The Core i3-2102, once upgraded via Intel Upgrade Service, operates at 3.6 GHz, has 3 MB L3 cache and is recognized as Core i3-2153. Core i (3rd gen) "Ivy Bridge" (22 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: LGA 1155 All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. S processors feature lower-than-normal TDP (65W on 4-core models). T processors feature an even lower TDP (45W on 4-core models or 35W on 2-core models). K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. P processors disable the integrated graphics processor. i3-3220, i5-3550S and i7-3770 are available as embedded processors. "Sandy Bridge-E" (32 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR3-1600 RAM. Socket: LGA 2011 All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. No integrated graphics. K-suffix and X-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (4th gen) "Haswell-DT" (22 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: LGA 1150 All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. S processors feature lower-than-normal TDP (65W on 4-core models). T processors feature an even lower TDP (45W on 4-core models or 35W on 2-core models). K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. The following models are available as embedded processors: i3- 4330, 4350T, 4360, i5- 4570S, 4590T, 4590S, i7- 4770S, 4790S. "Haswell-H" (MCP, quad-core, 22 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. Socket: BGA 1364 (soldered) All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. In addition to the Smart Cache (L3 cache), Haswell-H CPUs also contain 128 MB of eDRAM acting as L4 cache. "Ivy Bridge-E" (22 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR3-1866 RAM. Socket: LGA 2011 All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. No integrated graphics. K-suffix and X-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (5th gen) "Broadwell-H" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. C-suffix processors support it at speeds up to 1600 MT/s, while R-suffix support it at 1866 MT/s. Socket: LGA 1150 for C-suffix processors, BGA 1364 soldered for R-suffix. All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. In addition to the Smart Cache (L3 cache), Broadwell-H CPUs also contain 128 MB of eDRAM acting as L4 cache. "Haswell-E" (22 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR4-2133 RAM. Socket: LGA 2011-3 All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. i7-5820K provides 28 lanes of PCIe 3.0; i7-5930K and 5960X provide 40 lanes. No integrated graphics. K-suffix and X-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (6th gen) "Skylake-S" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4 or DDR3L RAM. Socket: LGA 1151 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. "Skylake-H" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4 or DDR3L RAM. Socket: BGA 1440 (soldered) All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. In addition to the Smart Cache (L3 cache), Skylake-H CPUs also contain 128 MB of eDRAM acting as L4 cache. "Broadwell-E" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR4-2400 RAM. Socket: LGA 2011-3 All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. i7-6800K provides 28 lanes of PCIe 3.0; all other models provide 40 lanes. No integrated graphics. K-suffix and X-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (7th gen) "Kaby Lake-S" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4 or DDR3L RAM. Socket: LGA 1151 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. "Skylake-X" (7xxx) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR4-2400 RAM. Models i7-7820X and above support it up to 2666 MT/s speeds. Socket: LGA 2066 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. i7 models provide 28 lanes of PCIe 3.0; i9 models provide 44 lanes. No integrated graphics. X-suffix, and XE-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. "Kaby Lake-X" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR4-2666 RAM. Socket: LGA 2066 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. All CPUs provide 16 lanes of PCIe 3.0. No integrated graphics. X-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (8th gen) "Coffee Lake-S" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4 RAM. Socket: LGA 1151-2 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. Core i (9th gen) "Coffee Lake-R" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4 RAM. Socket: LGA 1151-2 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. i9-9900KS has all-core boost clock of 5.0 GHz. "Skylake-X" (9xxx) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR4-2666 RAM. Socket: LGA 2066 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. All CPU models provide 44 lanes of PCIe 3.0. No integrated graphics. X-suffix, and XE-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. "Coffee Lake-H" (14 nm) Core i (10th gen) "Comet Lake-S" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4 RAM. Socket: LGA 1200 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 4-lane bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. i9 and i7 models support Turbo Boost 3.0, while i5 and i3 only support Turbo Boost 2.0. The turbo clock speeds shown are of the highest turbo boost version supported by the processor. "Comet Lake-S" (refresh) Released on the same day as the 11th gen Rocket Lake-S desktop processors. Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4 RAM. Socket: LGA 1200 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 4-lane bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. All models support Turbo Boost 2.0. "Cascade Lake-X" (10xxx) Common features: All the CPUs support quad-channel DDR4-2933 RAM. Socket: LGA 2066 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. All CPU models provide 48 lanes of PCIe 3.0. No integrated graphics. X-suffix, and XE-suffix processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (11th gen) "Rocket Lake-S" (14 nm) Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4-3200 RAM. The Core i9 K/KF processors enable a 1:1 ratio of DRAM to memory controller by default at DDR4-3200, whereas the Core i9 non K/KF and all other CPUs listed below enable a 2:1 ratio of DRAM to memory controller by default at DDR4-3200 and a 1:1 ratio by default at DDR4-2933. Socket: LGA 1200 All CPUs feature a DMI 3.0 8-lane bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 80 KB (48 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 512 KB per core. K processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. i9 and i7 models support Turbo Boost 3.0, while i5 only support Turbo Boost 2.0. The turbo clock speeds shown are of the highest turbo boost version supported by the processor. Core i (12th gen) "Alder Lake-S" (Intel 7) All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4-3200 RAM and DDR5-4800 RAM Socket: LGA 1700 All CPUs feature a DMI 4.0 8-lane bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: P-cores: 80 KB (48 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. E-cores: 96 KB (64 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: P-cores: 1.25 MB per core. E-cores: 2 MB per E-core cluster (each "cluster" contains four cores) All the CPUs provide 16 PCIe 5.0 lanes and 4 PCIe 4.0 lanes, but support may vary depending on motherboard and chipsets. K-suffix processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. i9 and i7 models support Turbo Boost 3.0 on the P-cores, while i5 only support Turbo Boost 2.0. The turbo clock speeds shown are of the highest turbo boost version supported by the processor. Core i (13th gen) "Raptor Lake-S" (Intel 7) All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4-3200 RAM and DDR5-5600 RAM Socket: LGA 1700 All CPUs feature a DMI 4.0 8-lane bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: P-cores: 80 KB (48 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. E-cores: 96 KB (64 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: P-cores: 2 MB per core on i5-13600K/KF and above models, 1.25 MB per core on 13600 and below models. E-cores: 4 MB per E-core cluster on i5-13600K/KF and above models, 2 MB per cluster on 13600 and below models (each "cluster" contains four cores). All the CPUs provide 16 PCIe 5.0 lanes and 4 PCIe 4.0 lanes, but support may vary depending on motherboard and chipsets. K-suffix processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. i9 and i7 models support Turbo Boost 3.0 on the P-cores, while i5 only support Turbo Boost 2.0. The turbo clock speeds shown are of the highest turbo boost version supported by the processor. Core i (14th gen) Raptor Lake-S Refresh All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR4-3200 RAM and DDR5-5600 RAM Socket: LGA 1700 All CPUs feature a DMI 4.0 8-lane bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: P-cores: 80 KB (48 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. E-cores: 96 KB (64 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: P-cores: 2 MB per core. E-cores: 4 MB per E-core cluster. All the CPUs provide 16 PCIe 5.0 lanes and 4 PCIe 4.0 lanes, but support may vary depending on motherboard and chipsets. K-suffix processors are unlockable and designed for overclocking. i9 and i7 models support Turbo Boost 3.0 on the P-cores, while i5 only support Turbo Boost 2.0. The turbo clock speeds shown are of the highest turbo boost version supported by the processor. Mobile processors Core "Yonah" Core 2 "Merom-L" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Die size: 81 mm2 Steppings: A1 "Merom", "Merom-2M" (standard-voltage, 65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2) Model T7600G features an unlocked clock multiplier. Only sold OEM in the Dell XPS M1710. Intel VT-x: Supported by T5500 (L2), T5600 and all T7xxx Intel Dynamic Front Side Bus Frequency Switching: Supported by E1, G0, G2, M0 Steppings Socket P processors can throttle the front-side bus (FSB) anywhere between 400 and 800 MT/s as needed. Die size: 143 mm2 (Merom), 111 mm2 (Merom-2M) Steppings: B2, E1, G0, G2 (Merom), L2, M0 (Merom-2M) All models of stepping B2 released in July 2006, stepping L2 released in January 2007. See also: Versions of the same Merom-2M core with half the L2 cache disabled are available under the Pentium Dual-Core brand. "Merom" (low-voltage, 65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Intel Dynamic Front Side Bus Frequency Switching: Supported by E1, G0, G2 Steppings Die size: 143 mm2 Steppings: B2, E1, G0, G2 "Merom-2M" (ultra-low-voltage, 65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x Die size: 111 mm2 Steppings: L2, M0 "Merom XE" (65 nm) These models feature an unlocked clock multiplier All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), Intel Dynamic Front Side Bus Frequency Switching Merom XE processors support Dynamic Front Side Bus Throttling between 400 and 800 MT/s. Die size: 143 mm2 Steppings: E1, G0 "Penryn-L" (45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), Intel Dynamic Acceleration (IDA) Socket P processors can throttle the front-side bus (FSB) anywhere between 400 and 800 MT/s as needed. Die size: 82 mm2 228 million transistors Package size: 22 mm × 22 mm Steppings: M0, R0 "Penryn" (Apple iMac specific, 45 nm) Die size: 107 mm2 The 2008 20" iMac used the E8135 and E8335 CPUs at a lower than specified clock frequency, explaining why the same model is used at different frequencies. This list shows the frequencies used by Apple. Steppings: C0, E0 "Penryn", "Penryn-3M" (standard-voltage, 45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel Dynamic Acceleration (IDA) T6570, T6670, all T8xxx and T9xxx models support Intel VT-x All T9xxx models support Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) T6xxx models are Penryn-3M processors with 1 MB L2 cache disabled. Note that models T8100, T8300, T9300, T9500 are Penryn processors designed for Santa Rosa Refresh platforms with maximum FSB of 800 MT/s, whereas the rest of the Penryn processors are designed for Montevina platforms that can go up to maximum FSB of 1066 MT/s. Penryn processors support Dynamic Front Side Bus Throttling between 400–800MT/s. Die size: 107 mm2 (Penryn), 82 mm2 (Penryn-3M) Steppings: C0, E0 (Penryn) M0, R0 (Penryn-3M) "Penryn", "Penryn-3M" (medium-voltage, 45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x (except the non-Mac P7350, P7450), Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), Intel Dynamic Acceleration (IDA) Select Apple subsets of P7000 series processors support Intel VT-x. Penryn and Penryn-3M processors support Dynamic Front Side Bus Throttling between 533–1066MT/s. Die size: 107 mm2 (Penryn), 82 mm2 (Penryn-3M) Package size: 35 mm × 35 mm Transistors: 410 million Steppings: (Core microarchitecture 45nm steppings) C0, E0 (Penryn) M0, R0 (Penryn-3M) stepping C0/M0 is only used in the Intel Mobile 965 Express (Santa Rosa refresh) platform stepping E0/R0 adds two new instructions (XSAVE/XRSTOR) and supports the later Intel Mobile 4 Express (Montevina) platform "Penryn" (medium-voltage, 45 nm, Small Form Factor) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), Intel Dynamic Acceleration (IDA) Die size: 107 mm2 Package size: 22 mm × 22 mm Steppings: C0, E0 "Penryn" (low-voltage, 45 nm, Small Form Factor) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), Intel Dynamic Acceleration (IDA) Die size: 107 mm2 Package size: 22 mm × 22 mm Steppings: C0, E0 "Penryn-3M" (ultra-low-voltage, 45 nm, Small Form Factor) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) (except SU7300), Intel Dynamic Acceleration (IDA) Die size: 107 mm2 Package size: 22 mm × 22 mm Steppings: M0, R0 "Penryn XE" (45 nm) These models feature an unlocked clock multiplier All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Penryn XE processors support Dynamic Front Side Bus Throttling between 400 and 800 MT/s and 533–1066 MT/s. Die size: 107 mm2 Steppings: C0, E0 "Penryn QC" (45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Can throttle the front-side bus (FSB) anywhere between 533 and 1066 MT/s as needed. Die size: 2 × 107 mm2 Steppings: E0 "Penryn QC XE" (45 nm) This model features an unlocked clock multiplier usually manipulated through the systems BIOS however some manufacturers (such as HP) do not have this feature enabled on their laptops that use this processor. All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel Active Management Technology (iAMT2), Intel VT-x, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) Can throttle the front-side bus (FSB) anywhere between 533 and 1066 MT/s as needed. Package size: 35 mm × 35 mm Die size: 2 × 107 mm2 Steppings: E0 Core i (1st gen) "Clarksfield" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3-1333 RAM. Socket: G1 All CPUs feature a DMI 1.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. No integrated graphics. XM processors have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. "Arrandale" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. All models support it at 800 MT/s speeds while M- and LM-suffix models support up to 1066 MT/s speeds. Socket: All models (except i3-380M) are available in BGA-1288; M-suffix (excluding UM- and LM-suffix) models are also available as Socket G1. All CPUs feature a DMI 1.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. Core i (2nd gen) "Sandy Bridge" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 RAM. All models support it at 1333 MT/s speeds while i7-2720QM and above support up to 1600 MT/s speeds. Socket: G2, BGA 1023 (dual-core models), BGA 1224 (quad-core models). All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. XM-suffix models have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (3rd gen) "Ivy Bridge" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3 or DDR3L RAM, at up to 1600 MT/s speed. Socket: G2, BGA 1023 (dual-core models), BGA 1224 (quad-core models). All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. XM-suffix models have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. Core i (4th gen) "Haswell-MB" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3L RAM, at up to 1600 MT/s speed. Socket: G3. All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. MX-suffix models have an unlocked multiplier and can be overclocked. "Haswell-ULT" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3L or LPDDR3 RAM, at up to 1600 MT/s speed. Socket: BGA 1168. All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. "Haswell-ULX" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3L or LPDDR3 RAM, at up to 1600 MT/s speed. Socket: BGA 1168. All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. "Haswell-H" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3L RAM, at up to 1600 MT/s speed. Socket: BGA 1364. All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. Models with Iris Pro 5200 iGPU also feature 128 MB of eDRAM, acting as L4 cache. i7-4950HQ comes with an unlocked multiplier, allowing for users to overclock it beyond the factory set clock speed. Core i (5th gen) "Broadwell-U" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3L or LPDDR3 RAM, at up to 1600 MT/s speed. Models i5-5350U or above, along with all ix-5xx7 models, support LPDDR3 up to 1866 MT/s speed. Socket: BGA 1168. All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. "Broadwell-H" Common features: All the CPUs support dual-channel DDR3L or LPDDR3 RAM, at up to 1866 MT/s speed. Socket: BGA 1364. All CPUs feature a DMI 2.0 bus to the chipset (PCH). L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instructions) per core. L2 cache: 256 KB per core. Models with Iris Pro 6200 iGPU also feature 128 MB of eDRAM, acting as L4 cache. Core i (6th gen) "Skylake-U" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down (except 6006U) i5s and up support Turbo Boost All i7s support Intel TSX-NI Core i5 models 6300U and higher also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT, and Intel TSX-NI. Core i7 models 6600U and higher also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. "Skylake-H" (MCP, 14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache. i3s and i7s have Hyper-threading, Intel TSX-NI i5s and up have Turbo Boost and configurable TDP (cTDP) down (45W→35W). Die size: 122 mm (i7s) Embedded models support ECC memory Non-embedded i5 models also support . Core i5-6440HQ also supports Intel TXT. Embedded models also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. Core i5-6440EQ supports ECC memory. Core i7-6820HQ, Core i7-6920HQ, and embedded models also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. Core i7-6820HK, Core i7-6820HQ, Core i7-6920HQ, and embedded models also support Intel TSX-NI. Core i7-6820HK features an unlocked multiplier, allowing it to be overclocked. Core i (7th gen) "Kaby Lake-U" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, SGX, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down (except 7020U). i5s and up support Turbo Boost Low power models i5-7300U and i5-7360U also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. "Kaby Lake-H" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, SGX, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache. i3s and i7s support Hyper-threading. i5s and up support Turbo Boost, Intel TSX-NI, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down. i5-7400 and up also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. i7-7800 and up also support Intel TSX-NI i7-7820HQ, i7-7920HQ and embedded models also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. i7-7820HK features an unlocked multiplier, allowing it to be overclocked. "Kaby Lake-Y" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, SGX, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, Intel TSX-NI, and configurable TDP (cTDP). i5-7Y57, and all i7 models also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. Core i (8th gen) "Coffee Lake-U" (14 nm) "Coffee Lake-H" (14 nm) No support for AVX-512 Overclocking: unlocked multiplier on HK models; locked multiplier on H models. Thermal Velocity Boost available on i7 and up. "Coffee Lake-B" (14 nm) "Kaby Lake Refresh" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, SGX, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down. "Kaby Lake-G" (14 nm) "Amber Lake-Y" (14 nm) "Whiskey Lake-U" (14 nm) "Cannon Lake-U" (10 nm) Core i (9th gen) "Coffee Lake-H" No support for AVX-512 Overclocking: unlocked multiplier on HK models; locked multiplier on H models. Thermal Velocity Boost available on i7 and up. Core i (10th gen) "Comet Lake-U" (14 nm) i5-10310U also supports Intel vPro, Intel TXT. i7-10610U, 10810U also support Intel vPro. "Comet Lake-H" (14 nm) No support for AVX-512 i9-10885H also supports Intel vPro, Intel TXT. i9-10885H supports cTDP down to 35 W; 19-10980HK supports cTDP up to 65 W. "Ice Lake-U" (10 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, AVX-512, FMA3, SGX, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, and configurable TDP (cTDP). SHA supported on i5s "Ice Lake-Y" (10 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, AVX-512, FMA3, SGX, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, and configurable TDP (cTDP) (except 1000NG4). SHA supported on i5s. "Amber Lake-Y" (10xxx) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, and configurable TDP (cTDP) up and down. Core i (11th gen) "Tiger Lake-UP3" (10 nm SuperFin) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX2, AVX-512, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, Optane memory, GNA 2.0, IPU6 (except SRK08, SRK02), TB4, and configurable TDP (cTDP). SHA supported on i5 and up. 1145 also supports Intel vPro, Intel TXT. 1185G7, 1185G7E and 1185GRE also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. -RE models support ECC memory. "Tiger Lake-UP4" (10 nm SuperFin) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX2, AVX-512, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, Optane memory, GNA 2.0, IPU6, TB4, and configurable TDP (cTDP). SHA supported on i5s. 1140 and 1180 also supports Intel vPro, Intel TXT. "Tiger Lake-H" (10 nm SuperFin) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX2, AVX-512, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, Optane memory, GNA 2.0, IPU6, TB4, and configurable TDP (cTDP). SHA supported on i5s. 11850H also supports Intel vPro, Intel TXT. "Tiger Lake-H35" (10 nm SuperFin) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX2, AVX-512, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, Hyper-threading, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, Optane memory, GNA 2.0, IPU6, TB4, and configurable TDP (cTDP). SHA supported on i5s "Tiger Lake-B" (10 nm SuperFin) |} Core i (12th gen) "Alder Lake-U" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost, AES-NI, IPU6 (except SRLFU, SRLFR), TB4, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i5 model numbers 1240 and higher also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT, and XD bit. All i7s support XD bit (an NX bit implementation), model numbers 1260 and higher also support Intel vPro and Intel TXT. Support 20 lanes (UP3) or 14 lanes (UP4) of PCI Express 4.0/3.0. All models support up to LPDDR5-5200 or LPDDR4X-4266 memory. Standard power models also support up to DDR5-4800 or DDR4-3200 memory. "Alder Lake-P" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost, AES-NI, IPU6, TB4, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i5s support SHA. 1250 also supports Intel vPro, Intel TXT, and XD bit. i7s support XD bit (an NX bit implementation). Model numbers 1270 and higher also support Intel vPro and Intel TXT. All models support up to DDR5-4800, LPDDR5-5200, DDR4-3200, or LPDDR4X-4266 memory, and 20 lanes of PCI Express 4.0/3.0. "Alder Lake-PS" (Intel 7) While sharing the same socket as Alder Lake-S and Raptor Lake-S, this revision of LGA 1700 is electrically incompatible with other 12th and 13th generation Intel Core desktop processors. "Alder Lake-H" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost, AES-NI, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i5s support Turbo Boost at 2.0, i7s and i9s at 3.0. i5s support SHA All models support up to DDR5-4800, LPDDR5-5200, DDR4-3200, or LPDDR4X-4266 memory, and 28 lanes of PCI Express 5.0/4.0. Embedded models also support configurable TDP (cTDP) down. Overclocking: unlocked multiplier on HK models; locked multiplier on H models. "Alder Lake-HX" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost 3.0, AES-NI, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i5s support SHA All models support up to DDR5-4800 or DDR4-3200 memory, and 20 lanes of PCI Express 5.0/4.0. 12600HX, 12850HX and 12950HX also support Intel vPro, Intel TXT. 12950HX supports ECC memory. Overclocking: partial on i9-12950HX, full on i9-12900HX. "Alder Lake-N" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Turbo Boost, AES-NI, IPU6, and GNA 3.0. All models support up to DDR5-4800, LPDDR5-4800, or DDR4-3200, and 9 lanes of PCI Express 3.0. Core i (13th gen) "Raptor Lake-U" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost, AES-NI, IPU6 (except SRLFU), TB4, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i7s support XD bit (an NX bit implementation) 1365U, 1365UE and 1355U also support Intel vPro and Intel TXT. Intel Thermal Velocity Boost is not supported on Raptor Lake-U mobile processors. Support 20 lanes (UP3) of PCI Express 4.0/3.0. 1315U and 1305U support up to LPDDR5-5200 memory, while 1315UE support up to LPDDR5-5200 memory. All models support up to LPDDR4X-4266 memory. Standard power models also support up to DDR5-5200 or DDR4-3200 memory. All i7 models support up to DDR5-5200, LPDDR5-6400, DDR4-3200, or LPDDR4X-4266 memory, and 20 lanes of PCI Express 4.0/3.0. "Raptor Lake-P" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost, AES-NI, IPU6, TB4, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i7s support XD bit (an NX bit implementation) 1370P, 1360P and 1370PE also support Intel vPro and Intel TXT. All models support up to DDR5-5200, LPDDR5-5200, DDR4-3200, or LPDDR4X-4266 memory, and 20 lanes of PCI Express 4.0/3.0. "Raptor Lake-H" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost, AES-NI, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i7s support Turbo Boost at 3.0, and IPU6. i9s support Turbo Boost at 3.0, and Intel TXT. All models support up to DDR5-5200, LPDDR5-6400, DDR4-3200, or LPDDR4X-4266 memory, and 28 lanes of PCI Express 5.0/4.0. Overclocking: unlocked multiplier on HK models; locked multiplier on H models. 13900H/HK also support Intel vPro. "Raptor Lake-PX" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost 3.0, AES-NI, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. i7s support IPU6 i9s support Intel TXT All models support up to DDR5-5200, LPDDR5-6400, DDR4-3200, or LPDDR4X-4266 memory, and up to 28 lanes of PCI Express 5.0/4.0. "Raptor Lake-HX" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Hyper-threading, Turbo Boost 3.0, AES-NI, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. All models support up to DDR5-4800 or DDR4-3200 memory, up to 16 lanes of PCI Express 5.0, and up to 4 lanes of PCI Express 4.0. i9s support DDR5 speeds at 5600 MT/s. All models support CPU, GPU, and memory overclocking. i7-13850HX and i9-13950HX also support Intel vPro and ECC memory. Embedded processors Core i (2nd gen) "Gladden" (32 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, EPT, Hyper-threading, Smart Cache, ECC memory. Transistors: Die size: Core i (3rd gen) "Gladden" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, EPT, Hyper-threading, Smart Cache, ECC memory. Transistors: Die size: See also List of Intel Pentium M microprocessors List of Intel Celeron microprocessors List of Intel Pentium processors Intel Core Intel Core 2 Comparison of Intel processors Enhanced Pentium M (microarchitecture) Intel Core (microarchitecture) Penryn (microarchitecture) Alder Lake (microprocessor) Notes References ATI provides pointer to Intel's 'Allendale', May 23, 2006 Rumoured prices and specifications for Intel Core 2, May 30, 2006 TGDaily indicates leaked release dates, July 24, 2006 Intel to unveil five Merom CPUs in July, paper says as re-reported by DigiTimes, July 17, 2006 Intel Unveils World's Best Processor, July 27, 2006 Intel Takes Popular Laptops to 'Extreme' with First-Ever Extreme Edition Mobile Processor; Adds New Desktop Chip, July 16, 2007 CORE 2 DUO 1333 MHZ STEPPING, July 18, 2007 External links Search MDDS Database Intel ARK Database SSPEC/QDF Reference (Intel) Intel® Processor Names, Numbers and Generation List Intel CPU Transition Roadmap 2008-2013 Intel Desktop CPU Roadmap 2004-2011 Intel Core Solo mobile processor product order code table Intel Core Duo mobile processor product order code table Intel Core Duo Processor and Core Solo Processor on 65 nm Process Datasheet Intel Core Duo Processor and Core Solo Processor on 65 nm Process Specification Update Intel Core 2 Duo Processors Technical Documents Intel Core i3 desktop processor product order code table Intel Core i3 mobile processor product order code table Intel Core i5 desktop processor product order code table Intel Core i5 mobile processor product order code table Intel Core i7 desktop processor product order code table Intel Core i7 mobile processor product order code table Intel Core i7 desktop processor Extreme Edition product order code table Intel Core i7 mobile processor Extreme Edition product order code table Intel's Core i7 web page Intel's Core i7 Extreme Edition web page Intel's Core i7 Processor Numbers Intel's Core i7 Extreme Edition Processor Numbers Intel Corporation – Processor Price List Intel Corporation – Processor Price List Intel Core X-series processors Core Core 2 Core i3 Core i5 Core i7 Core i9 Intel Core Intel Core 2 Intel Core i3 Intel Core i5 Intel Core i7 Intel Core i9
4601090
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20M.%20Price
Robert M. Price
Robert McNair Price (born July 7, 1954) is an American New Testament scholar who argues in favor of the Christ myth theorythe claim that a historical Jesus did not exist. Price is the author of a number of books on biblical studies and the historicity of Jesus. A former Baptist minister, Price was a fellow of the Jesus Project, a group of 150 individuals who studied the historicity of Jesus and the Gospels, the organizer of a Web community for those interested in the history of Christianity, and a member of the advisory board of the Secular Student Alliance. He is a religious skeptic, especially of orthodox Christian beliefs, occasionally describing himself as a Christian atheist. Price eventually moved to a maximalist (or rather minimalist, by analogy with biblical minimalism) position in favor of the Christ myth theory, believing Jesus did not exist in Roman Galilee. Price is also a writer, editor, and critic in the field of speculative fiction. He has written about the Cthulhu Mythos, a shared universe created by the writer H. P. Lovecraft. Price was appointed executor of Lin Carter's literary estate. In 2020, an inflammatory introduction he wrote to Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! 6 anthology caused multiple authors to withdraw their work in protest. He co-wrote a book on the rock band Rush with his wife, Carol Selby Price, Mystic Rhythms: The Philosophical Vision of Rush (1999). Price is currently the editor of the Journal of Higher Criticism. Background Price was born in Jackson, Mississippi, in 1954 and moved to New Jersey in 1964. He received a Master of Theological Studies in New Testament from Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary in 1978. At Drew University, he was awarded one Ph.D. in Systematic Theology in 1981 and another in New Testament in 1991. Price was pastor of the First Baptist Church in Montclair, New Jersey. He has served as Professor of Religion at Mount Olive College. He additionally did some work at minor institutions, including professorships at nonaccredited schools Johnnie Colemon Theological Seminary and the Center for Inquiry Institute. Christ myth theory Price challenges biblical literalism and argues for a more skeptical and humanistic approach to Christianity. Price questioned the historicity of Jesus in a series of books, including Deconstructing Jesus (2000), The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man (2003), Jesus Is Dead (2007), and The Christ-Myth Theory and Its Problems (2012), as well as in Jesus at the Vanishing Point, a contribution to The Historical Jesus: Five Views (2009). Methodology Price uses critical-historical methods, but also uses "history-of-religions parallel[s]," or the "Principle of Analogy," to show similarities between Gospel narratives and non-Christian Middle Eastern myths. Price criticizes some of the criteria of critical Bible research, such as the criterion of dissimilarity and the criterion of embarrassment. Price further notes that "consensus is no criterion" for the historicity of Jesus. In Jesus at the Vanishing Point, Price acknowledges that he stands against the majority view of scholars, but cautions against attempting to settle the issue by appeal to the majority. Key arguments for the Christ myth theory In Jesus at the Vanishing Point (2010), Price gives three key points for the traditional Christ myth theory, which originated with Bruno Bauer and the Dutch Radical School: There is no mention of a miracle-working Jesus in secular sources; Price asserts that Eusebius fabricated the Testimonium Flavianum. The epistles, written earlier than the gospels, provide no evidence of a recent historical Jesus; all that can be taken from the epistles, Price argues, is that a Jesus Christ, son of God, lived in a heavenly realm, there died as a sacrifice for human sin, was raised by God, and enthroned in heaven. The Jesus narrative is paralleled in Middle Eastern myths about dying and rising gods; Price names Baal, Osiris, Attis, Adonis, and Dumuzi/Tammuz as examples, all of which, he writes, survived into the Hellenistic and Roman periods and thereby influenced Early Christianity. Price alleges that Christian apologists have tried to downplay these parallels. In The Christ-Myth Theory and Its Problems (2011), Price maintains that the Christ myth theory is the most likely explanation for the origin of Christianity, giving another overview of arguments: "almost every story in the Gospels (and Acts) can be plausibly argued to be borrowed from the Greek Old Testament, Homer, or Euripides." "every detail of the narrated life of Jesus fits the outlines of the Mythic Hero archetype present in all cultures." "the epistles, regardless of their dates as earlier or later than the gospels, seem to enshrine a different vein of early Christian faith which lacked an earthly Jesus, a Christianity that understood "Jesus" as an honorific throne-name bestowed on a spiritual savior who had been ambushed and killed by the Archons who rule the universe before he rose triumphant over them [...] Christianity eventually rewrote Jesus into an historical incarnation who suffered at the hands of earthly institutions of religion and government." Jesus-agnosticism Price argues that if critical methodology is applied with ruthless consistency, one is left in complete agnosticism regarding Jesus's historicity. Price is quoted saying, "There might have been a historical Jesus, but unless someone discovers his diary or his skeleton, we'll never know." He also similarly declared in a 1997 public debate: Price notes that historians of classical antiquity approached mythical figures such as Heracles by rejecting supernatural tales while doggedly assuming that "a genuine historical figure" could be identified at the root of the legend. He describes this general approach as Euhemerism, and argues that most historical Jesus research today is also Euhemerist. Price argues that Jesus is like other ancient mythic figures, in that no mundane, secular information seems to have survived. Accordingly, Jesus also should be regarded as a mythic figure, but Price admits to some uncertainty in this regard. He writes at the conclusion of his 2000 book Deconstructing Jesus: "There may have been a real figure there, but there is simply no longer any way of being sure." Mythological origins Price believes that Christianity is a historicized synthesis of mainly Egyptian, Jewish, and Greek mythologies, viewing Jesus of Nazareth as an invented figure conforming to the Rank-Raglan mythotype. Price argues that the early Christians adopted the model for the figure of Jesus from the popular Mediterranean dying-rising saviour myths of the time, such as that of Dionysus. He argues that the comparisons were known at the time, as early church father Justin Martyr had admitted the similarities. Price suggests that Christianity simply adopted themes from the dying-rising god stories of the day and supplemented them with themes (escaping crosses, empty tombs, children being persecuted by tyrants, etc.) from contemporaneous popular stories in order to come up with the narratives about Christ. Gospels as midrash Price asserts that there was an almost complete fleshing out of the details of the gospels by a midrashic rewriting of the Septuagint, Josephus, Homer, and Euripides' The Bacchae. According to Price, "virtually every story in the gospels and Acts can be shown to be very likely a Christian rewrite of material" from those sources and "virtually every case of New Testament narrative" can be traced back to a literary prototype, so that there is "virtually nothing left." Influences of Greek Cynicism Price does not see in the Q document a reliable source for the historical Jesus, simply because Q shows everywhere a Cynic flavor, representing a school of thought rather than necessarily the teaching of a single person. Price acknowledges that outside the New Testament there are a small number of ancient sources (Tacitus, for example) who would testify that Jesus was a person who really lived. However, Price points out that, even assuming the authenticity of these references, they relate more to the claims of the Christians who lived at that time on Jesus, and do not prove that Jesus was a contemporary of the writers of antiquity. Historicising the myth Citing accounts that have Jesus being crucified under Alexander Jannaeus (83 BCE) or in his 50s by Herod Agrippa I under the rule of Claudius Caesar (41–54 CE), Price argues that these "varying dates are the residue of various attempts to anchor an originally mythic or legendary Jesus in more or less recent history." Price also propounds the belief that the town of Nazareth did not exist during the first half of the first century CE, and is a pseudo-historical invention. Price and Bart Ehrman disputed this issue in the dueling works Did Jesus Exist? and Price's Bart Ehrman and the Quest of Historical Jesus of Nazareth: An Evaluation of Ehrman's Did Jesus Exist? H. P. Lovecraft scholarship Price has been a figure in H. P. Lovecraft scholarship and fandom for many years. He is the editor of the journal Crypt of Cthulhu. (published by Necronomicon Press) and of a series of Cthulhu Mythos anthologies. In essays that introduce the anthologies and the individual stories, Price traces the origins of Lovecraft's entities, motifs, and literary style. The Cthulhu Cycle, for example, saw the origins of Cthulhu the octopoid entity in Alfred, Lord Tennyson's "The Kraken" (1830) and particular passages from Lord Dunsany, while The Dunwich Cycle points to the influence of Arthur Machen on Lovecraft's "The Dunwich Horror." Price's religious background often informs his Mythos criticism, seeing gnostic themes in Lovecraft's fictional god Azathoth and interpreting "The Shadow Over Innsmouth" as a kind of initiation ritual. Price was in charge of the majority of the early Cthulhu anthologies by Chaosium; his first book published by Chaosium was The Hastur Cycle (1993), a short story anthology about a single element of Lovecraftian stories, and following this was Mysteries of the Worm (1993), a collection Cthulhu Mythos fiction by Robert Bloch. Other works In 2010 Price became one of three new hosts on Point of Inquiry (the Center for Inquiry's podcast), following the retirement of host D. J. Grothe from the show. Having appeared on the show twice before as a guest (see external links below), he hosted until 2012. Price hosted The Bible Geek, a podcast where Price answered listeners' questions. The most recent show was in June 2019. Price was a regular guest on an interview podcast about religion, "MythVision Podcast." In 2005, Price appeared in Brian Flemming's documentary film The God Who Wasn't There, is the subject of the documentary "The Gospel According to Price" by writer/director Joseph Nanni, and appears in the films of Jozef K. Richards in the documentary, Batman & Jesus, and comedy series, Holy Shit. In 2020, Price was in the process of bringing back a fantasy adventure anthology series called Flashing Swords!, which was popular in the late 1970s. In the introduction to the sixth volume, he had made several statements that readers and other collaborating authors felt were transphobic, misogynistic, and racist. Several authors, in response, had their names and works retracted from the volume. Debates In 1999, Price debated William Lane Craig, arguing against the historicity of Jesus' resurrection. In 2010, he debated James White, arguing against the reliability of the Bible. In 2010, Price debated Douglas Jacoby, on Jesus: Man, Myth, or Messiah? In 2016, he debated New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman on the historicity of Jesus. Although they disagreed, Ehrman considered Price one of the more esteemed proponents of mythicism as Price had the relevant credentials and study, compared to other mythicists whose expertise stemmed from other disciplines. Publications Books on religion The Widow Traditions in Luke-Acts: A Feminist-Critical Scrutiny Society of Biblical Literature. (1997). Mystic Rhythms: The Philosophical Vision of Rush Borgo Press. . with Carol Selby Price (1998) Deconstructing Jesus Prometheus Books. . (2000). The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable is the Gospel Tradition? Prometheus Books. . (2003) The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond The Grave Prometheus Books. edited with Jeffery Jay Lowder (2005) with the following articles: "Introduction: The Second Life of Jesus," "Apocryphal Apparitions: 1 Corinthians 15:3–11 as a Post Pauline Interpretation" and "By This Time He Stinketh: The Attempts of William Lane Craig to Exhume Jesus." The Da Vinci Fraud: Why the Truth Is Stranger than Fiction Prometheus Books. . (2005). The Reason Driven Life: What Am I Here on Earth For? Prometheus Books. . (2006). The Pre-Nicene New Testament: Fifty-four Formative Texts Signature Books . (2006) The Paperback Apocalypse: How the Christian Church was Left Behind Prometheus Books. . (2007). Jesus is Dead American Atheist Press . (2007). Top Secret: The Truth Behind Today's Pop Mysticisms Prometheus Books. (2008) Beyond Born Again: Towards Evangelical Maturity Wildside Press. (2008). Inerrant the Wind: The Evangelical Crisis of Biblical Authority Prometheus Books. (2008). The Case Against The Case For Christ: A New Testament Scholar Refutes the Reverend Lee Strobel, American Atheist Press. (2010) Jesus Christ Superstar: The Making of a Modern Gospel. eBookIt (2011) Paul: The Lost Epistles eBookIt.com (2011) The Christ-Myth Theory and Its Problems American Atheist Press. (2011) The Amazing Colossal Apostle: The Search for the Historical Paul Signature Books (2012) Bart Ehrman and the Quest of Historical Jesus of Nazareth: An Evaluation of Ehrman's Did Jesus Exist? edited with Frank R. Zindler the following articles, "Introduction: Surprised by Myth" and "Bart Ehrman: Paradigm Policeman." American Atheist Press 2013 (2013) The Needletoe Letters, eBookIt (2012) Killing History: Jesus In The No-Spin Zone, Prometheus Books, (2014) When Gospels Collide, GCRR Press, (2021) (With John W. Loftus) Varieties of Jesus Mythicism: Did He Even Exist?, Hypatia Press, (2021) Judaizing Jesus: How New Testament Scholars Created the Ecumenical Golem, Pitchstone Publishing, , (2021) Merely Christianity: A Systemic Critique of Theology, Pitchstone Publishing, , (2022) Chapters and articles on religion "The Evolution of the Pauline Canon", in Hervormde Teologiese Studies, Number 1&2 June 1997, 36–67 Chapter: "Jesus: Myth and Method" in The Christian delusion edited by John W. Loftus, Amherst, NY Prometheus Books 2010 Foreword to Beyond the Crusades, American Atheist Press (2016) by Michael B. Paulkovich Apocryphal Apparitions: 1 Corinthians 15:3–11 as a Post-Pauline Interpolation, Journal of Higher Criticism 2/2 (Fall 1995), 69–99 Robert Eisenman's James the Brother of Jesus: A Higher-Critical Evaluation, Journal of Higher Criticism 4/2 (Fall 1997) Cthulhu Mythos (as editor or author) Acolytes of Cthulhu The Antarktos Cycle: Horror and Wonder at the Ends of the Earth The Azathoth Cycle: The Blind Idiot God Beyond the Mountains of Madness (featuring short stories inspired by Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness, plus one Weird Tales story that probably inspired Lovecraft) Black Forbidden Things Blasphemies & Revelations Mythos Books. . (2008). The Book of Eibon The Book of Iod (stories by Henry Kuttner) The Cthulhu Cycle: Thirteen Tentacles of Terror Dark Wisdom: New Tales of the Old Ones (stories by Gary Myers) The Dunwich Cycle: Where the Old Gods Wait The Exham Cycle The Hastur Cycle The Horror of It All: Encrusted Gems from the "Crypt of Cthulhu" H.P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos The Innsmouth Cycle: The Taint of the Deep Ones The Ithaqua Cycle: The Wind-Walker of the Icy Wastes Lin Carter: A Look Behind His Imaginary Worlds Lin Carter's Anton Zarnak, Supernatural Sleuth Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! 6 Lin Carter's Flashing Swords! 7 Lovecraft: A Look Behind the Cthulhu Mythos (with Lin Carter) Borgo Pr; Rev Sub edition (1997) The Mighty Warriors (2018) Mysteries of the Worm (stories by Robert Bloch) Nameless Cults: The Cthulhu Mythos Fiction of Robert E. Howard The Necronomicon The New Lovecraft Circle The Nyarlathotep Cycle: The God of a Thousand Forms Secret Asia's Blackest Heart: A Horror Anthology Shards of Darkness (stories by Edward P. Berglund) The Shub-Niggurath Cycle: Tales of the Black Goat with a Thousand Young The Sword of Thongor The Taint of Lovecraft (stories by Stanley Sargeant) Tales of the Lovecraft Mythos Tales Out of Dunwich Tales Out of Innsmouth: New Stories of the Children of Dagon Thongor Conquers the Underground World Tindalos Cycle The Tsathoggua Cycle: Terror Tales of the Toad God Worlds of Cthulhu The Xothic Legend Cycle: The Complete Mythos Fiction of Lin Carter The Yig Cycle The Yith Cycle: Lovecraftian Tales of the Great Race and Time Travel The Yog Sothoth Cycle Magazines Editor of Midnight Shambler, Eldritch Tales, and Crypt of Cthulhu Notes References Sources External links The Human Bible podcast The Amazing Colossal Apostle at archive.org 1954 births Living people 20th-century Baptist ministers from the United States 20th-century American theologians 21st-century American theologians Academic journal editors American atheists American podcasters American skeptics Atheist theologians Christ myth theory proponents Cthulhu Mythos writers Drew University alumni Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary alumni Members of the Jesus Seminar Montclair State University alumni Writers from Jackson, Mississippi 20th-century atheists 21st-century atheists American male non-fiction writers Baptists from Mississippi American biblical scholars H. P. Lovecraft scholars
4601133
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrba%E2%80%93Wetzler%20report
Vrba–Wetzler report
The Vrba–Wetzler report is one of three documents that comprise what is known as the Auschwitz Protocols, otherwise known as the Auschwitz Report or the Auschwitz notebook. It is a 33-page eye-witness account of the Auschwitz concentration camp in German-occupied Poland during the Holocaust. Rudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler, two Slovak Jews who escaped from Auschwitz on 10 April 1944, wrote the report by hand or dictated it, in Slovak, between 25 and 27 April, in Žilina, Slovakia. Oscar Krasniansky of the Slovak Jewish Council typed up the report and simultaneously translated it into German. The Allies had known since November 1942 that Jews were being killed en masse in Auschwitz. The Vrba–Wetzler report was an early attempt to estimate the numbers and the most detailed description of the gas chambers to that point. The publication of parts of the report in June 1944 is credited with helping to persuade the Hungarian regent, Miklós Horthy, to halt the deportation of Hungary's Jews to Auschwitz, which had been proceeding at a rate of 12,000 a day since May 1944. The first full English translation of the report was published in November 1944 by the United States War Refugee Board. Auschwitz Protocols The Vrba–Wetzler report is sometimes referred to as the Auschwitz Protocols, although in fact the Protocols incorporated information from three reports, including Vrba–Wetzler. Under the title "German Extermination Camps—Auschwitz and Birkenau", the Auschwitz Protocols was first published in full in English on 25 November 1944 by the Executive Office of the United States War Refugee Board. Miroslav Kárný writes it was published on the same day the last 13 prisoners, all women, were gassed or shot in crematorium II in Auschwitz-Birkenau. The document combined the material from the Vrba–Wetzler report and two others, which were submitted together in evidence at the Nuremberg Trials as document no. 022-L, exhibit no. 294-USA. The Protocols included a seven-page report from Arnost Rosin and Czesław Mordowicz as chapter III to the Vrba–Wetzler report and an earlier report, known as the "Polish Major's report", written by Jerzy Tabeau. Tabeau escaped from Auschwitz on 19 November 1943 and compiled his report between December 1943 and January 1944. This was presented in the Protocols as the 19-page "Transport (The Polish Major's Report)". Rosin and Mordowicz escaped from Auschwitz on 27 May 1944, using the demotion they received after Vrba and Wetzler's escape a month earlier, and met up with those escapees in Slovakia to contribute to the Protocols. The full text of the English translation of the Protocols is in the archives of the War Refugee Board at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum in New York. Contents How it was written According to the report's first post-war Slovak edition, Oswiecim, hrobka štyroch miliónov ľudí ("Auschwitz, the tomb of four million"), published in Bratislava in 1946, the report was first written in Slovak by Vrba and Wetzler, beginning on 25 April 1944, and simultaneously translated into German by Oscar Krasniansky of the Slovakian Jewish Council in Žilina. It was written and re-written several times. Wetzler wrote the first part, Vrba the third, and they wrote the second part together. They then worked on the whole thing together. Wetzler confirmed this version of how the report was written in a letter to Miroslav Kárný, dated 14 April 1982. Oscar Krasniansky, an engineer and stenographer, translated it from Slovak into German with the help of Gisela Steiner. They produced a 40-page report in German, which was completed by Thursday, 27 April. Vrba wrote that the report was also translated into Hungarian. The original Slovak version of the report was not preserved. Historians studying the Holocaust today usually base their research on the German translation, which Allied forces also used when translating the report into English shortly after the end of the war. The Vrba–Wetzler report contains a detailed description of the geography and management of the camps, and of how the prisoners lived and died. It lists the transports that had arrived at Auschwitz since 1942, their place of origin, and the numbers "selected" for work or the gas chambers. Kárný writes that the report is an invaluable document because it provides details that were known only to prisoners, including, for example, that discharge forms were filled out for prisoners who had been gassed, indicating that death rates in the camp were actively falsified. Crematoria The report contains sketches and information about the layout of the gas chambers, describing the large room where victims were made to undress before being pushed into the gas chambers, as well as the attached crematoriums. In a deposition for the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961, and in his book I Cannot Forgive (1964), Vrba said that he and Wetzler obtained the information about the gas chambers and crematoria from the Sonderkommando Filip Müller and his colleagues, who worked there. Müller confirmed Vrba's story in his Eyewitness Auschwitz (1979). The report offered a description of the camp's four crematoria. Jean-Claude Pressac, a French specialist on the gas chambers, concluded in 1989 that, while the report was wrong on certain issues, it "has the merit of describing exactly the gassing process in type II/III Krematorien as from mid-March 1943. It made the mistake of generalizing internal and external descriptions and the operating method to Krematorien IV and V. Far from invalidating it, the discrepancies confirm its authenticity, as the descriptions are clearly based on what the witnesses could actually have seen and heard." Auschwitz scholar Robert Jan van Pelt agreed, writing in 2002: "The description of the crematoria in the War Refugee Board report contains errors, but given the conditions under which information was obtained, the lack of architectural training of Vrba and Wetzlar [sic], and the situation in which the report was compiled, one would become suspicious if it did not contain errors. ... Given the circumstances, the composite 'crematorium' reconstructed by two escapees without any architectural training is as good as one could expect." Impact Background The dates on which the report was distributed became a matter of importance within Holocaust historiography. Vrba alleged that lives were lost in Hungary because it was not distributed quickly enough by Jewish leaders, particularly Rudolf Kastner of the Budapest Aid and Rescue Committee. The Allies had been told on 12 November 1942 that Jews were being killed en masse in Auschwitz; the New York Times published a report to that effect on 25 November 1942. From March 1943, the Polish government-in-exile forwarded intelligence about what was happening inside the camp. But it remained an "inside story", according to historian Michael Fleming, unpublished or not published prominently, as a result of anti-Semitism and the British Foreign Office's refusal to confirm the reports as genuine. A document named Aneks 58 from the Polish underground (which named its report Aneks) was received by Britain's Special Operations Executive in November 1942 and noted that, by the end of 1942, 468,000 Jews had been killed at Auschwitz. Fleming writes: "[N]ews of the true function of Auschwitz was effectively embargoed by British government policy." By issuing advice to newspaper owners and editors, by refusing to confirm Polish intelligence, and by insisting that Jews were simply citizens of the country in which they lived like any other citizen, the British government "was able to choreograph news of the Holocaust". Distribution Oscar Krasniansky of the Jewish Council, who translated the report into German as Vrba and Wetzler were writing and dictating it, made conflicting statements about the report after the war, according to Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer. In his first statement he said he had handed the report to Rudolf Kastner on 26 April 1944 during the latter's visit to Bratislava, but Bauer writes that the report was not finished until 27 April. In another statement, Krasniansky said he had passed it to Kastner on 28 April in Bratislava, but Hansi Brand, Kastner's lover and the wife of Joel Brand, said that Kastner was not in Bratislava until August. It is clear from Kastner's post-war statements that he did have early access to the report, Bauer writes, but perhaps not in April. According to Randolph L. Braham, Kastner had a copy by 3 May, when he paid a visit to Kolozsvár (Cluj), his home town. Kastner's reasons for not making the document public are unknown. Vrba believed until the end of his life that Kastner withheld it in order not to jeopardize negotiations between the Aid and Rescue Committee and Adolf Eichmann, the SS officer in charge of the transport of Jews out of Hungary. Shortly after Vrba arrived in Slovakia from Auschwitz in April 1944, Eichmann proposed—to Kastner, Joel Brand and Hansi Brand in Budapest—that the Nazis trade up to one million Hungarian Jews for 10,000 trucks and other goods from the Western Allies. The proposal came to nothing, but Kastner did obtain safe passage to Switzerland for 1,684 Jews on what became known as the Kastner train. Vrba believed that Kastner suppressed the Vrba–Wetzler report in order not to damage these negotiations. Kastner copied the German translation of the report to Géza Soós, a Hungarian Foreign Ministry official who ran a resistance group, writes Bauer. Soós gave it to József Éliás, head of the Good Shepherd Mission, and Éliás's secretary, Mária Székely, translated it into Hungarian and prepared six copies. These copies made their way to several Hungarian and church officials, including Miklós Horthy's daughter-in-law. Braham writes that this distribution occurred before 15 May. According to Bauer, Ernő Pető, a member of the Budapest Jewish Council, said he gave copies to Horthy's son; the papal nuntius Angelo Rotta; and the finance minister Lajos Reményi-Schneller. The Jewish Council in Budapest did hand the report out to individuals. The Hungarian biologist George Klein, as a teenager in Budapest, was working for the Jewish Council as a junior secretary at the time. One day in late May or early June, his boss, Dr. Zoltán Kohn, gave him a carbon copy of the report, and told him that he should tell only his closest family and friends about it. Klein told his uncle, a well-known physician, who "became so angry that he nearly hit me", and asked how he could believe such nonsense. It was the same with other relatives and friends. The older ones refused to believe it, while the younger ones believed it and wanted to act. When it came time for Klein to get on the train, he chose to run instead, and that saved his life. According to Gábor Havas, a member of the Hungarian resistance, Soos had also prepared English translations. In December, Soos made a daring escape in a stolen German airplane to help the report reach Allied lines, not knowing that it already happened. Curiously, OSS records of Soos's interrogation that have been made public do not mention the report. According to Soos's wife, Raoul Wallenberg was also trying to transport a copy to the interim Hungarian government in Debrecen when he disappeared. According to the USHMM (United States Holocaust Museum) the US War Refugee Board released the report after an unusually long delay. "In November 1944, the WRB released a report written by escapees from the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp, alerting Americans to the details of Nazi mass murder using gas chambers." Deportations to Auschwitz continue On 6 June 1944, the day of the Normandy landings, Arnošt Rosin and Czesław Mordowicz arrived in Slovakia, having escaped from Auschwitz on 27 May. Hearing about the Battle of Normandy and believing the war was over, they got drunk using dollars they had smuggled out of Auschwitz. As a result they were arrested for violating the currency laws, and spent time in jail before the Jewish Council paid their fines. On 15 June, the men were interviewed by Oscar Krasniansky. They told him that, between 15 and 27 May, 100,000 Hungarian Jews had arrived at Birkenau, and that most were killed on arrival, apparently with no knowledge of what was about to happen to them. John Conway writes that Vrba and Wetzler concluded that their report had been suppressed. Report's arrival in Switzerland, press coverage Braham writes that the report was taken to Switzerland by Florian Manoliu of the Romanian Legation in Bern, and given to George Mantello, a Jewish businessman from Transylvania who was working as the first secretary of the El Salvador consulate in Geneva. It was thanks to Mantello, according to Braham, that the report received, in the Swiss press, its first wide coverage. According to David Kranzler, Mantello asked for the help of the Swiss-Hungarian Students' League to make around 50 mimeographed copies of the Vrba–Wetzler and other Auschwitz reports (the Auschwitz Protocols), which by 23 June he had distributed to the Swiss government and Jewish groups. The students went on to make thousands of other copies, which were passed to other students and MPs. As a result of the Swiss press coverage, details appeared in the New York Times on 4 June, the BBC World Service on 15 June, and the New York Times again on 20 June, which carried a 22-line story that 7,000 Jews had been "dragged to gas chambers in the notorious German concentration camps at Birkenau and Oświęcim [Auschwitz]". On 19 June, Richard Lichtheim of the Jewish Agency in Geneva, who had received a copy of the report from Mantello, wrote to the Jewish Agency in Jerusalem to say that they knew "what has happened and where it has happened", and reported the Vrba–Wetzler figure that 90 percent of Jews arriving at Birkenau were being killed. Vrba and Oscar Krasniansky met Vatican Swiss legate Monsignor Mario Martilotti at the Svätý Jur monastery in Bratislava on 20 June. Martilotti had seen the report and questioned Vrba about it for six hours. According to Bauer, Martilotti said he was travelling to Switzerland the next day. On 25 June Pope Pius sent a public cable to Horthy, asking that he "do everything in ...[his] power to save as many unfortunate people from further pain and sorrow". Other world leaders followed suit. Daniel Brigham, New York Times correspondent in Geneva, published a longer story on 3 July, "Inquiry Confirms Nazi Death Camps", and on 6 July a second, "Two Death Camps Places of Horror; German Establishments for Mass Killings of Jews Described by Swiss". Deportations halted On 26 June, Richard Lichtheim of the Jewish Agency in Geneva sent a telegram to England calling on the Allies to hold members of the Hungarian government personally responsible for the killings. The cable was intercepted by the Hungarian government and shown to Prime Minister Döme Sztójay, who passed it to Horthy. Horthy ordered an end to the deportations on 7 July, and they stopped two days later. Hitler instructed the Nazi representative to Hungary, Edmund Veesenmayer, to relay an angry message to Horthy. Horthy resisted Hitler's threats, and Budapest's 200,000–260,000 Jews were temporarily spared from deportation, until the pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party seized power in Hungary in a coup on 15 October 1944. Henceforth, the deportations resumed, but by then, the diplomatic involvement of the Swedish, Swiss, Spanish, and Portuguese embassies in Budapest, as well as that of the papal nuncio, Angelo Rotta, saved tens of thousands until the arrival of the Red Army in Budapest in January 1945. Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz rescued tens of thousands of Jews (according to the Yad Vashem museum display, in the order of 50,000) with help of Moshe Krausz (then Director of the Jewish Agency’s Palestine Office in Budapest) and the Zionist Youth Underground. Raoul Wallenberg and others in the Swedish delegation also saved tens of thousands of Jews (according to some, between 70,000 and 100,000). As can be expected, there are varying estimates of the number of Jews rescued. See also Karski's reports Witold's Report Raczyński's Note The Auschwitz Report - 2021 drama film about the escape Notes References Works cited Bauer, Yehuda (1994). Jews for Sale? Nazi–Jewish Negotiations 1933–1945. New Haven: Yale University Press. _ (2002). Rethinking the Holocaust. Yale University Press. Braham, Randolph L. (2000). The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary. Wayne State University Press; first published in 1981 in two volumes. _ (2011). "Hungary: The Controversial Chapter of the Holocaust", in Randolph L. Braham and William vanden Heuvel (ed.). The Auschwitz Reports and the Holocaust in Hungary. New York: Columbia University Press. Conway, John (2002). "The Significance of the Vrba-Wetzler Report on Auschwitz-Birkenau", in Vrba, Rudolf. I escaped from Auschwitz. Barricade Books. _ (1997). "The First Report about Auschwitz", Museum of Tolerance, Simon Wiesenthal Center, Annual 1, Chapter 7. Dwork, Debórah and Van Pelt, Robert Jan (2002). Holocaust: A History. W.W. Norton & Company. Fleming, Michael. (2014a). "Allied Knowledge of Auschwitz: A (Further) Challenge to the 'Elusiveness' Narrative". Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 28 (1), 1 April, 31–57. Fleming, Michael (2014b). Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gilbert, Martin (1989). "The Question of Bombing Auschwitz", in Michael Robert Marrus (ed.). The Nazi Holocaust: The End of the Holocaust. Part 9. Walter de Gruyter. Hilberg, Raul (2003). The Destruction of the European Jews. Yale University Press; first published 1961. Kárný, Miroslav (1998). "The Vrba and Wetzler report", in Berenbaum and Gutman, op. cit. Klein, George (2011). "Confronting the Holocaust: An Eyewitness Account", in Braham and vanden Heuvel, op. cit. Kranzler, David (2000). The Man Who Stopped the Trains to Auschwitz: George Mantello, El Salvador, and Switzerland's Finest Hour. Syracuse University Press. Lévai, Jenö (1987). Eichmann in Hungary: Documents. Howard Fertig. Phayer, Michael (2000). The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930-1965, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Pressac, Jean-Claude (1989). Auschwitz: Technique and operation of the gas chambers. The Beate Klarsfeld Foundation. Rees, Laurence (2006). Auschwitz: A New History. PublicAffairs. Świebocki, Henryk (ed.) (1997). London has been informed. Reports by Auschwitz Escapees. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. Szabó, Zoltán Tibori (2011). "The Auschwitz Reports: Who Got Them, and When?" in Randolph L. Braham and William vanden Heuvel. The Auschwitz Reports and the Holocaust in Hungary. Columbia University Press. van Pelt, Robert Jan (2002). The Case for Auschwitz: Evidence from the Irving Trial. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. _ (2011). "When the Veil was Rent in Twain", in Randolph L. Braham and William vanden Heuvel op. cit. Vrba, Rudolf (2002). I Escaped from Auschwitz. Barricade Books, 2002. First published as I Cannot Forgive by Sidgwick and Jackson, Grove Press, 1963 (also published as Escape from Auschwitz). Further reading "Vrba–Wetzler report", German Historical Institute. Wetzler, Alfred (2007). Escape from Hell: The True Story of the Auschwitz Protocol. Berghahn Books. Auschwitz concentration camp Blood for goods 1944 in Hungary Holocaust historical documents Holocaust historiography Poland in World War II 1944 documents
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rivers%20of%20Korea
List of rivers of Korea
The Korean peninsula is mainly mountainous along its east coast, so most of its river water flows west, emptying into the Yellow Sea. Some of these rivers flow through lakes en route to the coast, but these are all artificial reservoirs, as there are no natural lakes on the Korean mainland. A few rivers head south, emptying into the Korea Strait and some more minor rivers flow east to the East Korea Bay, though these are usually little more than streams in comparison. In the list below, tributaries are listed under the river into which they flow and then in upstream order. They are listed counterclockwise, from the Amnok to the Duman. Main rivers of South Korea Main rivers of North Korea Bukhan River Chaeryong River Changja River Chongchon River Han River Hantan River Hochon River Imjin River Kumya River Nam River Orang River Piryu River Pothong River Ryesong River Taedong River Taeryong River Tumen River Yalu River Rivers flowing into the Yellow Sea (West Sea) North of the Han River Yalu River, known in Korean as the "Amnok River" (압록강) Aihe River (Joins Yalu River from Chinese side) Anping River (Joins Yalu River from Chinese side) Pushi River (Joins Yalu River from Chinese side) Hunjiang River (渾江) (Joins Yalu River from Chinese side) Yushulin River (Joins Yalu River from Chinese side) Taeryong River (대령강) Ch'ongch'on River (청천강) Taedong River (대동강) Chaeryong River (재령강) Ryesong River (예성강) Handarinae (한다리내) Jeongjacheon (정자천) Rucheon (루천) Ojocheon (오조천) The Han River System Han River (한강) Imjin River (임진강) Munsancheon (문산천) Seolmacheon (설마천) Samicheon (사미천) Jigocheon (지거천) Sincheon (신천) Ganghwacheon (강화천) Sannaecheon (산내천) Hantan River (한탄강) Yeongpyeongcheon (영평천) Pocheoncheon (포천천) Guntangaeul (군탄개울) Yeokgokcheon (역곡천) Gongneungcheon (곡릉천) Cheongnyongducheon (청룡두천) Sapogyocheon (사포교천) Gosancheon (고산천) Wondangcheon (원당천) Daejacheon (대자천) Byeokjecheon (벽제천) Seokhyeoncheon (석현천) Seoamcheon (서암천) Suchamcheon (수참천) Bongseongpocheon (봉성포천) Gamajicheon (가마지천) Geomuldaecheon (거물대천) Geolpohacheon (걸포하천) Najinpocheon (나진포천) Daebohacheon (대보하천) Gyeyangcheon (계양천) Hallyucheon (한류천) Daebocheon (대보천) Dochoncheon (도촌천) Daejangcheon (대장천) Haengsincheon (행신천) Seobuganseoncheon (서부간선천) Gulpocheon (굴포천) Cheongcheoncheon (청천천) Daedudukcheon (대두둑천) Changneungcheon (창릉천) Bukhancheon (북한천) Anyangcheon (안양천) Dorimcheon (도림천) Mokgamcheon (목감천) Samseongcheon (삼성천) Hakuicheon (학의천) Sanboncheon (산본천) Dangjeongcheon (당정천) Wanggokcheon (왕곡천) Jungnangcheon (중랑천) Cheonggyecheon (청계천) Banghakcheon (방학천) Hoeryongcheon (회룡천) Baekseokcheon (백석천) Buyongcheon (부용천) Millakcheon (민락천) Eoduncheon (어둔천) Gwangsacheon (광사천) Yuyangcheon (유양천) Tancheon (탄천) Yangjaecheon (양재천) Yeouicheon (여의천) Makgyecheon (막계천) Changgokcheon (창곡천) Segokcheon (세곡천) Sangjeokcheon (상적천) Yeosucheon (여수천) Yatapcheon (야탑천) Bundangcheon (분당천) Dongmakcheon (동막천) Songokcheon (손곡천) Seongbokcheon (성복천) Pungdeokcheon (풍덕천) Seongnaecheon (성내천) Godeokcheon (고덕천) Wangsukcheon (왕숙천) Yongamcheon (용암천) Eumhyeoncheon (음현천) Jinmokcheon (진목천) Hongneuncheon (홍릉천) Deoksocheon (덕소천) Gyeongancheon (경안천) Gonjiamcheon (곤지암천) Nogokcheon (노곡천) Mokhyeoncheon (목현천) Jingnicheon (직리천) Gosancheon (고산천) Neungwoncheon (능원천) Chohacneon (초하천) Sindaecheon (신대천) Geumeocheon (금어천) Daedaecheon (대대천) Yangjicheon (양지천) Geumhakcheon (금학천) Bukhan River (북한강) Byeokgyecheon (벽계천) Guuncheon (구운천) Oebangcheon (외방천) Buldanggolcheon (불당골천) Jojongcheon (조종천)***Yangguseocheon (양구서천) Munhocheon (문호천) Hongcheon River (홍천강) Jungbangdaecheon (중방대천) Myeongseongcheon (명성천) Dumicheon (두미천) Yangdeokwoncheon (양덕원천) Goijicheon (골지천) Seongdongcheon (성동천) Deokchicheon (덕치천) Guneopcheon (군업천) Seongsancheon (성산천) Hwayang River (화양강) Naechoncheon (내촌천) Dumilcheon (두밀천) Gapyeongcheon (가평천) Seungancheon (승안천) Hwaakcheon (화악천) Gangchoncheon (강촌천) Palmicheon (팔미천) Gongjicheon (공지천) Soyang River (소양강) Mancheoncheon (만천천) Yulmuncheon (율문천) Mujigolcheon (무지골천) Jinaecheon (지내천) Naerincheon (내린천) Garisancheon (가리산천) Deoksancheon (덕산천) Bukcheon (북천) Inbukcheon (인북천) Wolsongcheon (월송천) Jiamcheon (지암천) Jichoncheon (지촌천) Gyeseongcheon (계성천) Hwacheoncheon (화천천) Yangguseocheon (양구서천) Hanjeoncheon (한전천) Cheongnicheon (청리천) Namhan River (남한강) Gajeongcheon (가정천) Bokpocheon (복포천) Satancheon (사탄천) Yanggeuncheon (양근천) Dogokcheon (도곡천) Heukcheon (흑천) Yeonsucheon (연수천) Yongmuncheon (용문천) Buancheon (부안천) Yongdamcheon (용담천) Bokhacheon (복하천) Sinduncheon (신둔천) Jungnicheon (중리천) Jangamcheon (장암천) Wonducheon (원두천) Dongsancheon (동산천) Gwanricheon (관리천) Yanghwacheon (양화천) Maeyucheon (매유천) Yanghwacheon (West) Chojicheon (초지천) Doricheon (도리천) Yanghwacheon (East) Ganam Bonducheon (가남본두천) Angeumcheon (안금천) Hancheon (한천) Soyangcheon (소양천) Geumdangcheon (금당천) Yeonyangcheon (연양천) Jeombongcheon (점봉천) Cheongmicheon (청미천) Geumgokcheon (금곡천) Gwanhancheon (관한천) Naraecheon (나래천) Chapyeongcheon (차평천) Seokwoncheon (석원천) Juksancheon (죽산천) Yongseolcheon (용설천) Bangchocheon (방초천) Seom River (섬강) Bupyeongcheon (부평천) Gungchoncheon (궁촌천) Seogokcheon (서곡천) Maejicheon (매지천) Wonjucheon (원주천) Oksancheon (옥산천) Jeoncheon (전천) Hasunamcheon (하수남천) Gyecheon (계천) Daegwandaecheon (대관대천) Mokmicheon (복미천) Hwangsancheon (환산천) Angseongcheon (앙성천) Hanpocheon (한포천) Yeongdeokcheon (영덕천) Wongokcheon (원곡천) Songgangcheon (송강천) Daejeoncheon (대전천) Dalcheon (달천) Chungjucheon (충주천) Yodocheon (요도천) Bisancheon (비산천) Seongmundongcheon (석문동천) Eumseongcheon (음성천) Dongjincheon (동진천) Seonghwangcheon (성황천) Ssangcheon (쌍천) Jecheoncheon (제천천) (also known as Jupocheon 주포천) Wonseocheon (원서천) Palsongcheon (팔송천) Danyangcheon (단양천) Jungnyeongcheon (죽령천) Namjocheon (남조천) Olsancheon (올산천) Daegacheon (대가천) Eosangcheon (어상천) Saiwoncheon (사이원천) Sajiwoncheon (사지원천) Namcheon (남천) Okdongcheon (옥동천) Pyeongchang River (평창강) (western fork of Namhan River) Seo River (서강) SSangyongcheon (쌍용청) Mudochdon (무도천) Jucheon River (주천강) Songhancheon (송한천) Hwangduncheon (황둔천) Unhakcheon (운학천) Gangnimcheon (강림천) Gyechoncheon (계촌천)) Dong River (동강) (eastern fork of Namhan River) Seokhangchon (석항천) Jijangcheon (지장천) Changnicheon (창리천) Joyang River (조양강) (name of upper section of Dong River) Yongtancheon (용탄천) Eocheon (어천) Odaecheon (오대천) Goljicheon (골지천) (name of upper section of Joyang River) Songcheon (송천) Imgyecheon (임계천) Imgyecheon (north) (임계천(북)) Imgyecheon (south) (임계천(남)) Between the Han River and the Geum River Seokjeongcheon (석정천) Geomdancheon (검단천) Gyeonginarabaetgil (경인아라뱃길) (canal - connects to Han River) Gongchoncheon (공촌천) Simgokcheon (심곡천) Jangsucheon (장수천) Unyeoncheon (운연천) Botongcheon (보통천) Donghwacheon (동화천) Ansancheon (안산천) Hwajeongcheon (화정천) Banwolcheon (반월천) Jaancheon (자안천) Barancheon (발안천) Suchoncheon (수촌천) Hwadangcheon (화당천) Anseongcheon (안성천) Chodaecheon (초대천) Sapgyocheon (삽교천) Namwoncheon (남원천) Gokgyocheon (곡교천) Bonggangcheon (봉강천) (name for upper section of Gokgyocheon) Muhancheon (무한천) Sinyangcheon (신양천) Hwasancheon (화산천) Geummacheon (금마천) Jinwicheon (진위천) Jwagyocheon (좌교천) Gwanlicheon (관리천) Hwanggujicheon (황구지천) Sujikcheon (수직천) Seorangcheon (서랑천) Anyeongcheon (안영천) Yangjeongcheon (양정천) Sammicheon (삼미천) Banjeongcheon (반정천) Woncheollicheon (원천리천) Jangdaricheon (장다리천) Usijangcheon (우시장천) Yeocheon (여천) (also known as Uisangcheon 의상천) Sanuisilcheon (상의실천) Seongjukcheon (성죽천) Jeolgolcheon (절골천) Sanuicheon (산의천) Araesoejukgolcheon (아래쇠죽골천) Soejukgolcheon (쇠죽골천) Dongnyeoksoejukgolcheon (동녁쇠죽골천) Gasancheon (가산천) Suwoncheon (수원천) Munamgolcheon (문암골천) Gwanggyocheon (광교천) Mukgolcheon (묵골천) Changsacheon (창사천) Changsahacheon (창사하천) Seohocheon (서호천) Maesancheon (매산천) Jeongjacheon (정자천) (also known as Yeonghwacheon 영화천) Songjukcheon (송죽찬) Jowoncheon (조원천) Imokcheon (이목천) Homaesilcheon (호매실천) Geumgokcheon (금곡천) Ilwolcheon (일월천) Yulcheoncheon (율천천) Dangsucheon (당수천) Omanggolcheon (오망골천) Bugokcheon (부곡천) Geumcheon (금천) Osancheon (오산천) Doeolcheon (도얼천) Ipjangcheon (입장천) Hancheon (한천) Yongjangcheon (용장천) Sapgyocheon (삽교천) Namwoncheon (남원천) Gokgyocheon (곡교천) Eumbongcheon (음봉천) Omokcheon (오목천) Onyangcheon (온양천) Geumgokcheon (금곡천) Cheonancheon (천안천) Maegokcheon (매곡천) Bonggangcheon (봉강천) Yongcheon (river) (용천) Pungsecheon (풍세천) Dogocheon (도고천) Muhancheon (무한천) Seogucheon (석우천) Hyogyocheon (효교천) Daechicheon (대치천) Geummacheon (금마천) Chodaecheon (초대천) Janggeomcheon (장검천) Daegyocheon (대교천) Cheongjicheon (청지천) Gumnicheon (굼리천) Sangjicheon (상지천) Jinjukcheon (진죽천) Gwancheoncheon (관천천) Gyoseongcheon (교성천) Bongdamcheon (봉담천) Daecheoncheon (대천천) Hwangnyongcheon (황룡천) Nampocheon (남포천) Ungcheoncheon (웅천천) Singucheon (신구천) Chongcheoncheon (총천천) Pangyocheon (판교천) The Geum River system Geum River (금강) Gilsancheon (길산천) Hwasancheon (화산천) Wonsacheon (원사천) Chilsancheon (칠산천) Sanbukcheon (산북천) Hamilcheon (함일천) Sadongcheon (사동천) Nonsancheon (논산천) Ganggyeongcheon (강경천) Eoryangcheon (어량천) Masancheon (마산천) Bangchukcheon (방축천) Noseongcheon (노성천) Yeonsancheon (연산천) Seokseongcheon (석성천) Yeonhwacheon (연화천) Geumcheon (금천) Guryongcheon (구룡천) Eunsancheon (은산천) Sumokcheon (수목천) Ilgwangcheon (일광천) Jicheon (지천) Janggokcheon (장곡천) Guryongcheon (구룡천) Bongamcheon (봉암천) Daechicheon (대치천) Inghwadalcheon (잉화달천) Jungpyeongcheon (중평천) Chicheon (치천) Gayacheon (가야천) Eocheon (어천) Yugucheon (유구천) Daeryongcheon (대룡천) Jemincheon (제민천) Jeongancheon (정안천) Hyeoljeocheon (혈저천) Wangchoncheon (왕촌천) Daegyocheon (대교천) Miho River (미호강) Wolhacheon (월하천) Jocheon (조천) Byeongcheoncheon (병천천) Yongducheon (용두천) Sanbangcheon (산방천) Seongnamcheon (석남천) Musimcheon (무심천) Yulcheon (율천) Sokhwacheon (석화천) Seongamcheon (성암천) Bogangcheon (보강천) Chopyeongcheon (초평천) Gunjacheon (군자천) Baekgokcheon (백곡천) Hancheon (한천) Jangyangcheon (장양천) Guamcheon (구암천) Gapcheon (갑천) Gwanpyeongcheon (관평천) Yudeungcheon (유등천) Yuseongcheon (유성천) Banseokcheon (반석천) Jinjamcheon (진잠천) Hwasancheon (화산천) Maenocheon (매노천) Geumgokcheon (금곡천) Dugyecheon (두계천) Juwoncheon (주원천) Hoeincheon (회인천) Sookcheon (소옥천) (also known as Seohwacheon [서화천]) Bocheongcheon (보청천) Samgacheon (삼가천) Hanggeoncheon (항건천) Geohyeoncheon (거현천) Chogangcheon (초강천) Yeongdongcheon (영동천) Cheonnae River (천내강) Bonghwangcheon (봉황천) Namdaecheon (남대천) Jeoksangcheon (적상천) Jujacheon (주자천) Jeongjacheon (정자천) Daeyangcheon (대양천) South of the Geum River Mangyeong River (만경강) Tapcheon (탑천) Yongamcheon (용암천) Jeonjucheon (전주천) Samcheon (삼천) Soyangcheon (소양천) Gosancheon (고산천) Sinpyeongcheon (신평천) Wonpyeongcheon (원평천) Duwolcheon (두원천) Geumgucheon (금구천) Dongjin River (동진강) Gobucheon (고부천) Jeongeupcheon (정읍천) Cheonwoncheon (천원천) Jusangcheon (주상천) Jiksocheon (직소천) Sinchangcheon (신창천) Galgokcheon (갈곡천) Jujincheon (주진천) Seonuncheon (선운천) Yongsancheon (용산천) Sasincheon (사신천) Gochangcheon (고찬천) Gosucheon (고수천) Wachoncheon (와촌천) Gangnamcheon (강남천) Juksncheon (죽산천) Goracheon (고라천) Pyeongjicheon (평지천) Sagokcheon (사곡천) Watancheon (와탄천) Guamcheon (구암천) Bulgapcheon (불갑천) Gunnamcheon (군남천) Dorimcheon (도림천) Jisancheon (지산천) Cheonggyecheon (청계천) Yeongsan River (영산강) Mangwolcheon (망월천) Yeongamcheon (영암천) Haksancheon (학산천) Hodongcheon (호동천) Manghocheon (망호천) Sampo River (삼포강) Hampyeongcheon (함평천) Hakgyocheon (학교천) Gomakwoncheon (고막원천) Munpyeongcheon (문평천) Manbongcheon (만봉천) Geumcheon (금천) Annocheon (안노천) Bonghwangcheon (봉황천) Yeongsancheon (영산천) Najucheon (나주천) Jangseongcheon (장성천) Gamjeongcheon (감정천) Jiseokcheon (지석천) Sanpocheon (산포천) Daechoncheon (대촌천) Nodongcheon (노동천) Daechocheon (대초천) Jeongcheon (정천) Hwasuncheon (화순천) Hancheoncheon (한천천) Songseokcheon (송석천) Pyeongdongcheon (평동천) Hwangnyong River (황룡강) Pyeongnimcheon (평림천) Gaecheon (개천) Gwangjucheon (광주천) Jungsimsacheon (중심사천) Pungyeongjeongcheon (풍영정천) Jeungamcheon (증암천) Changpyeongcheon (창평천) Samcheoncheon (삼천천) Seokgokcheon (석곡천) Jungangcheon (중앙천) Oryecheon (오례천) Subukcheon (수북천) Yongcheon (용천) Wolsancheon (월산천) Jungwolcheon (중월천) Geumseongcheon (금성천) Okcheoncheon (옥천천) Gahakcheon (가학천) Gyegokcheon (계곡천) Wolpyeongcheon (월평천) Geumjacheon (금자천) Gocheonamcheon (고천암천) Samsancheon (삼산천) Gusancheon (구산천) Hyeonsancheon (현산천) Gohyeoncheon (고현천) Wolsongcheon (월송천) Songjicheon (송지천) Sanjeongcheon (산정천) Rivers flowing into the Korea Strait (South Sea) Ddang-ggeut to the Seomjin River Donghaecheon (동해천) Wolseongcheon (월성천) Hongchoncheon (홍촌천) Yeongsucheon (영수천) Unjeoncheon (운전천) Doamcheon (도암천) Sanincheon (산인천) Gangjincheon (강진천) Chunjeoncheon (춘전천) Tamjin River (탐진강) Geumsacheon (금사천) Pasancheon (파산천) Gundongcheon (군동천) Dangsancheon (당산천) Geumgangcheon (금강천) Byeongyeongcheon (병영천) Hakdongcheon (학동천) Seongjeoncheon (성전천) Wolsancheon (월산천) Budongcheon (부동천) Naeancheon (내안천) Busancheon (부산천) Geumjacheon (금자천) Hogyecheon (호계천) Wolgokcheon (월곡천) Omcheoncheon (옴천천) Sinwolcheon (신월천) Wolamcheon (월암천) Hwanggokcheon (황곡천) Sindeokcheon (신덕천) Yuchicheon (유치천) Hancheoncheon (한천천) Sangchoncheon (상촌천) Banwolcheon (반월천) Gwandongcheon (관동천) Yongmuncheon (용문천) Tamjincheon (탐진천) (the upper reaches of the Tamjin River) Bongdeokcheon (봉덕천) Unwolcheon (운월천) Chillyangcheon (칠량천) Janggyecheon (장계천) Myeongjucheon (명주천) Daegucheon (대구천) Maryangcheon (마량천) Sangheungcheon (상흥천) Daedeokcheon (대덕천) Yeonjeongcheon (연정천) Pyeongchoncheon (평촌천) Goeupcheon (고읍천) Sinpyeongcheon (신평천) Seongnamcheon (석남천) Namsangcheon (남상천) Mosancheon (모산천) Seokdongcheon (석동천) Sinheungcheon (신흥천) Wolsongcheon (월송천) Sumuncheon (수문천) Sinchoncheon (신촌천) Bonggangcheon (봉강천) Hoecheoncheon (회천천) Hwajukcheon (화죽천) Deungnyangcheon (득량천) Songgokcheon (송곡천) Yedangcheon (예당천) Joseongcheon (조성천) Inaecheon (이내천) Duwoncheon (두원천) Sajeongcheon (사정천) Hoeryongcheon (회룡천) Undaecheon (운대천) Bansancheon (반산천) Yongsancheon (용산천) Goeupcheon (고읍천) Dohwacheon (도화천) Goheungcheon (고흥천) Sinheungcheon (신흥천) Songsancheon (송산천) Gangsancheon (강산천) Daegangcheon (대강천) Waucheon (와우천) Cheongsongcheon (청송천) Pandeokcheon (판덕천) Danggokcheon (당곡천) Ssangamcheon (쌍암천) Jangwolcheon (장월천) Beolgyocheon (벙교천) Childongcheon (칠동천) Nakancheon (낙안천) Gyochoncheon (교촌천) Undongcheon (운동천) Dongnyongcheon (동룡천) Suncheondongcheon (순천동천) Haeryongcheon (해룡천) Isacheon (이사천) Sangsacheon (상사천) Jogokcheon (조곡천) Seokhongcheon (석홍천) Mokchoncheon (목촌천) Geumsancheon (금산천) Namjeongcheon (남정천) Seonamsacheon (선암사천) Sinseongcheon (신성천) Ssangamcheon (쌍암천) Wolnaecheon (월내천) Okcheon (옥천) Seokhyeoncheon (석현천) Suncheonseocheon (순천서천) Unpyeongcheon (운평천) Pyeonggokcheon (평곡천) Pyeongchoncheon (평촌천) Yeonhwacheon (연화천) Hwayangcheon (화양천) Yeondeungcheon (연등천) Sangamcheon (상암천) Ssangbongcheon (쌍봉천) Soracheon (소라천) Jusamcheon (주삼천) Indeokcheon (인덕천) Gwangyangseocheon (곽양서천) Eongmancheon (억만천) Gwangyangdongcheon (광양동천) Chusancheon (추산천) Donggokcheon (동곡천) Gusangcheon (구상천) Sinnyongcheon (신룡천) Sueocheon (수어천) Okgokcheon (옥곡천) Jeongtocheon (정토천) Supyeongcheon (수평천) Ungdongcheon (웅동천) The Seomjin River to the East Coast Seomjin River (섬진강) Boseong River (보성강) Nakdong River (낙동강) Miryang River (밀양강) Nam River (남강) Gyeongho River (경호강) Hwang River (황강) Geumho River (금호강) Sincheon (신천) Yeong River (영강) Rivers flowing into the Sea of Japan (East Sea) Jangancheon (장안천) Yongsocheon (용소천) Hyoamcheon (효암천) Hwasancheon (화산천) Hoeya River (회야강) Namchangcheon (남창천) Daebukcheon (대북천) Cheongokcheon (천곡천) Junamcheon (주남천) Oehang River (외항강) Cheongnyangcheon (청량천) Duwangcheon (두왕천) Namcheon (남천) Taehwa River (태화강) Yeocheoncheon (여천천) Myeongchoncheon (명촌천) Yangjeongcheon (양정천) Jinjangcheon (진장천) Dongcheon River (동천강) Songjeongcheon (송정천) Dongcheon (동천) (Upper part of the Dongcheon River) Cheokdongcheon (척동천) Mubeopcheon (무법천) Guksucheon (국수천) Daegokcheon (대곡천) Guryangcheon (구량천) Mihocheon (미호천) Sangcheoncheon (상천천) Jakcheoncheon (작천천) Gacheoncheon (가천천) Eomulcheon (어물천) Bangbangcheon (방방천) Jeongjacheon (정자천) Muryongcheon (무룡천) Sinmyeongcheon (신명천) Gwanseongcheon (관성천) Haseocheon (하서천) Hyeongsan River (형산강) Gigyecheon (기계천) Bukcheon (북천) Wangpicheon (왕피천) Nam River (남강) Geumya River (금야강) Seongcheon River (성천강) Namdaecheon (남대천) Bukdaecheon (북대천) Eorangcheon (어랑천) Suseongcheon (수성천) Tumen River, known in Korean as the "Duman River" (두만강) Rivers flowing into the Songhua River Samdobaekha (삼도백하) Paekduchon (백두천) Rivers of Jeju-do (Clockwise from Jeju City Hall) Sanjicheon (산지천) Hwabukcheon (화북천) Burokcheon (부록천) Bangcheon (방천) Samsucheon (삼수천) Cheonmicheon (천미천) Gasicheon (가시천) Anjwacheon (안좌천) Songcheon (송천) Sinheungcheon (신흥천) Uigwicheon (의귀천) Seojungcheon (서중천) Jinpocheon (진포천) Jongnamcheon (종남천) Sillyecheon (신례천) Hyodoncheon (효돈천) Yeongcheon (영천) Donghongcheon (동홍천) Sanghyocheon (상효천) Bomokcheon (보목천) Donghongcheon (동홍천) Seohongcheon (서홍천) Hogeuncheon (호근천) Akgeuncheon (악근천) Sechocheon (세초천) Gangjeongcheon (강정천) Gungsancheon (궁산천) Dosuncheon (도순천) Hoesucheon (회수천) Donghoesucheon (동회수천) Jungmuncheon (중문천) Saekdalcheon (색달천) Yeraecheon (예래천) Changgocheon (창고천) Hallimcheon (한림천) Gwideokcheon (귀덕천) Geumseongcheon (금성천) Susancheon (수산천) Sowangcheon (소완천) Goseongcheon (고성천) Musucheon (무수천) Dogeuncheon (도근천) Eosicheon (어시천) Gwangryeongcheon (광령천) Wonjangcheon (원장천) Ihocheon (이호천) Hancheon (한천) Byeongmuncheon (병문천) Sanjicheon (산지천) Tocheon (토천) See also List of rivers Geography of South Korea Geography of North Korea Korea Rivers
4601439
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quan%20Cong
Quan Cong
Quan Cong (196–247 or 198–249), courtesy name Zihuang, was a Chinese military general of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in present-day Hangzhou towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Quan Cong became famous at a young age when he performed acts of charity by giving grain to people suffering from famine and providing shelter to refugees from central China. He started his career under the warlord Sun Quan as a military officer and achieved success in his early career by pacifying the restive Shanyue tribes in the Jiangdong territories. After Sun Quan became an independent ruler of Wu in 222, Quan Cong rose to the rank of General and participated in battles against Wu's rival state Wei. He also pacified rebellions by local tribes in Danyang, Wu and Kuaiji commanderies. After Sun Quan became emperor in 229, Quan Cong married his daughter Sun Luban and became one of his most trusted generals. During this time, although he was less active in battles, he became more outspoken on state affairs. He strongly objected to Sun Quan's decision to let his heir apparent Sun Deng lead troops into battle because it was against traditions, and attempted to dissuade Sun Quan from launching an invasion of Zhuya (present-day Hainan) and Yizhou (believed to be present-day Taiwan). Towards the end of his life, he became embroiled in a power struggle between Sun Quan's sons Sun He and Sun Ba over the succession to their father's throne. Although he supported Sun Ba, he died before he could see the power struggle end in 250 with neither Sun He nor Sun Ba becoming the new heir apparent. Throughout his life, Quan Cong was known for being a respectful and agreeable man who remained humble despite his high social status and prestige. As a military commander, he was known for being courageous and decisive, and for conducting himself with dignity and often taking the bigger picture into consideration. Early life Quan Cong was born in Qiantang County (錢唐縣), Wu Commandery (吳郡), which is in present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang, towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. His father, Quan Rou (全柔), served as the Administrator of Guiyang Commandery (桂陽郡; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) under the warlord Sun Quan. Sometime in the 210s, Quan Cong received instructions from his father to sell a shipment of a few thousand hu of grain in Wu Commandery. However, he distributed the grain for free in Wu Commandery instead of selling it, and returned to Guiyang Commandery with nothing. When his angry father demanded an explanation, Quan Cong knelt down, kowtowed and said: "Selling the grain wasn't the most important issue. Many county officials were facing a desperate crisis as their people didn’t have enough food, so I decided to use the grain to help those needy people. As it was very urgent, I didn't have enough time to inform you and seek your permission." After hearing his son's explanation, Quan Rou felt very impressed with his charitable actions. At the time, there were many refugees who fled their homes in war-ravaged central China and crossed the Yangtze to take shelter in the south. Quan Cong took in hundreds of these refugees and spent his entire family fortune on providing them with necessities. He became famous for his kind deeds. Career in the Eastern Han dynasty Sun Quan later commissioned Quan Cong as Colonel of Vehement Might (奮威校尉), put him in command of a few thousand troops, and ordered him to attack the restive Shanyue tribes, who started rebellions from time to time. Quan Cong also managed to recruit over 10,000 elite soldiers to serve in his army and stationed them at Niuzhu (牛渚; in present-day Ma'anshan, Anhui). He was then promoted to Lieutenant-General (偏將軍) for his achievements. Invasion of Jing Province Between August and December 219, Guan Yu, a general serving under Sun Quan's ally Liu Bei, led his troops to attack Fancheng (樊城; in present-day Xiangyang, Hubei), a stronghold guarded by Cao Ren, a general serving under Sun Quan and Liu Bei's rival Cao Cao. During this time, Quan Cong wrote a letter to Sun Quan to urge him to take advantage of the opportunity to break his alliance with Liu Bei and seize control of Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province, which were guarded by Guan Yu. Around the same time, Sun Quan had already secretly ordered his general Lü Meng to lead a stealth invasion of Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. He was worried that his plan would be leaked out so he did not respond to Quan Cong's letter and kept it hidden. By early February 220, Lü Meng had successfully conquered all of Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. Guan Yu was captured in an ambush and subsequently executed on Sun Quan's order after he refused to surrender. After the victory, Sun Quan threw a feast in Gong'an County to honour Lü Meng for his achievement and celebrate their success. During the feast, he told Quan Cong: "Although I didn't respond to the letter you sent me earlier, I still want to give you credit for today's victory." He then enfeoffed Quan Cong as the Marquis of Yanghua Village (陽華亭侯). Career in Eastern Wu In December 220, Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and established the state of Wei with himself as the new emperor. This event marked the end of the Eastern Han dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in China. On 23 September 221, Cao Pi awarded Sun Quan the title "King of Wu" (吳王) after the latter pledged allegiance to him and agreed to become a vassal of Wei. However, in November 222, Sun Quan broke ties with Cao Pi and proclaim himself an independent ruler of his Wu state. He continued to rule under the title "King of Wu" and did not declare himself emperor until 229. Battle of Dongkou In October 222, the Wei emperor Cao Pi sent a naval fleet to attack the Wu position at Dongkou (洞口; along the Yangtze near present-day Liyang, Jiangsu). In response, Sun Quan ordered Lü Fan, Quan Cong and others to lead the Wu forces to resist the invaders. During the battle, Quan Cong led armoured soldiers to patrol the riverbank round the clock, and repel frequent raids by small groups of Wei marines. Some time later, a Wei general Yin Lu (尹盧) led a few thousand troops to cross the river and launch an attack. Quan Cong led his men to engage the enemy and succeeded in driving them back and killing Yin Lu in battle. As a reward for his achievement, Quan Cong was promoted to General Who Pacifies the South (綏南將軍). He was also elevated from the status of a village marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Qiantang" (錢唐侯). In 225, Sun Quan granted Quan Cong acting imperial authority and appointed him as the Administrator of Jiujiang Commandery (九江郡; around present-day Quanjiao County, Anhui). Battle of Shiting In 228, Sun Quan moved to Wan County (皖縣; present-day Qianshan County, Anhui), where he ordered Quan Cong to join Lu Xun in launching an attack on Wei forces led by Cao Xiu. They succeeded in their mission and defeated Cao Xiu at the Battle of Shiting. As the Administrator of Dong'an Around the time, the local tribes in Danyang, Wu and Kuaiji commanderies frequently rebelled against Wu imperial rule and attacked counties in the region. Sun Quan identified the more restive areas within the three commanderies and created a new commandery, Dong'an Commandery (東安郡), to administer these areas. He then appointed Quan Cong as the Administrator of this commandery, whose headquarters were at Fuchun County (富春縣; in present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang). After arriving in Fuchun County, Quan Cong took careful measures to reestablish law and order by ensuring that rewards and punishments were given out fairly. He also managed to persuade and induce the local tribes to surrender to him. Throughout the many years he held office, Quan Cong succeeded in getting over 10,000 people to submit to Wu imperial rule. Visiting his hometown Following Quan Cong's success in pacifying the local tribes, Sun Quan abolished Dong'an Commandery and reassigned Quan Cong back to his previous post at Niuzhu (牛渚; in present-day Ma'anshan, Anhui). On his journey to Niuzhu, Quan Cong passed by Qiantang County (錢唐縣; in present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang) and decided to visit his hometown. He paid his respects at his ancestors' tombs and had them repaired and cleaned up. When he travelled around, he had a ceremonial procession to accompany him. Before leaving, he hosted a party for all his relatives, friends and fellow townsfolk, and generously gave out gifts and presents to them. He was the pride of his hometown. Marriage to Sun Luban After Sun Quan formally declared himself emperor on 23 May 229, he promoted Quan Cong to the position of General of the Guards (衞將軍) with the concurrent appointments of Left Protector of the Army (左護軍) and nominal Governor of Xu Province (徐州牧). In the same year, Quan Cong married Sun Luban, the elder daughter of Sun Quan and his concubine Bu Lianshi. Objection to sending Sun Deng into battle On one occasion, Sun Quan ordered his eldest son and crown prince, Sun Deng, to lead troops into battle. None of his subjects dared to object to his decision. Quan Cong wrote a secret memorial to the emperor as follows: "Since ancient times, there has never been an instance of a crown prince independently leading troops into battle. A crown prince either plays a supporting role if he accompanies the ruler into battle or serves as regent if he guards the state during the ruler's absence. I am deeply concerned and worried because now the Crown Prince is not acting in accordance with established customs by leading troops into battle." Sun Quan heeded Quan Cong's advice and ordered Sun Deng to turn back immediately. When it was revealed later that Quan Cong was the one who convinced Sun Quan to change his mind, the former earned much praise for possessing the dignity of a respectable subject of a ruler. Refusing to capture civilians In 233, when Quan Cong led 50,000 infantry and cavalry to attack the Wei-controlled Lu'an County, the people in Lu'an County were so terrified that they fled and scattered in all directions. When his officers suggested sending their men to capture and bring back the civilians, Quan Cong said: "It doesn't reflect well on our State if we exploit the people's plight for such small gains, and make such a risky move without considering the bigger picture. If we send our troops to capture civilians, our potential gains and losses will balance out each other. Is this a well-conceived move then? Even if we manage to capture some civilians, we will neither deal significant damage to the enemy nor fulfil the hopes of our State. If our troops encounter enemy forces along the way, they will sustain heavy casualties. I would rather be held responsible for making no gains in this battle than be blamed for making an ill-calculated and risky move. I won't seek personal glory at the expense of letting down my State." Sometime between 28 September and 26 October 246, Quan Cong was appointed concurrently as Right Grand Marshal (右大司馬) and Left Military Adviser (左軍師). Objection to the Zhuya and Yizhou campaign When Sun Quan wanted to send troops to conquer Zhuya (珠崖; present-day Hainan) and Yizhou (夷州; possibly present-day Taiwan), he asked Quan Cong for his opinion. Quan Cong replied: "Given the imperial might of our State, there is no territory that we can't conquer. However, these are distant and remote lands separated from the mainland by the sea. The local climate and geography may have been quite dangerous for mainlanders since ancient times. When soldiers and civilians live together, they are more likely to fall sick and contagious diseases will spread more easily. When that happens, our soldiers will never be able to come home. What gains would we have made then? I feel very unsettled by the thought of sending our troops, who are supposed to be guarding our borders, on such a risky mission with only a very small chance of success." Sun Quan did not heed Quan Cong's advice and proceeded with sending forces to invade Zhuya and Yizhou. After 80 to 90 percent of his troops died from illness and disease within the first year of the campaign, Sun Quan started to deeply regret his decision. When he spoke to Quan Cong again, the latter told him: "I think that those who didn't attempt to dissuade Your Majesty from launching this campaign aren't loyal towards Your Majesty." Battle of Quebei In the summer of 241, Quan Cong led Wu forces into battle at Quebei (芍陂; south of present-day Shou County, Anhui) against Wei forces led by Wang Ling. The battle did not go well for the Wu side initially, and they lost five units to the Wei forces. Two Wu officers, Zhang Xiu and Gu Cheng, led their units to resist the Wei forces and managed to halt their advance. Quan Cong's eldest son Quan Xu (全緒) and relative Quan Duan (全端), who were also serving in the Wu army, led their troops to attack the Wei forces after they stopped advancing, and succeeded in driving them back. After the battle, when Sun Quan was giving rewards to the officers who participated in the battle, he deemed Zhang Xiu and Gu Cheng's contributions greater than those of Quan Xu and Quan Duan because he believed that it was more difficult to halt the enemy advance than to drive back the enemy. As a result, he promoted Zhang Xiu and Gu Cheng to the rank of General, while Quan Xu and Quan Duan were respectively promoted to Lieutenant-General and Major-General only. Due to this incident, the Quans bore a grudge against Gu Cheng and Zhang Xiu and, by extension, against Gu Cheng's brother Gu Tan as well. Role in the succession struggle In the 240s, a power struggle broke out between two of Sun Quan's sons, Sun He and Sun Ba, over the succession to their father's throne. Although Sun Quan had already designated Sun He as crown prince in 242 after his eldest son Sun Deng died in the previous year, he also treated Sun Ba exceptionally well at the same time. Many Wu officials strongly urged Sun Quan to uphold Confucian rules of propriety and ensure that Sun He, as the crown prince, received greater honours and privileges compared to Sun Ba and the other princes. However, Sun Quan failed to clearly distinguish between the relative statuses of the two princes, so a succession struggle broke out between them as Sun Ba started vying for their father's attention and favour while Sun He saw Sun Ba as a threat and tried to counter him. The succession struggle led to the emergence of two opposing factions from among Sun Quan's subjects. On one side, Lu Xun, Zhuge Ke, Gu Tan, Zhu Ju, Teng Yin, Shi Ji, Ding Mi (丁密) and Wu Can believed that Sun He was the rightful heir apparent so they supported him. On the other side, Bu Zhi, Lü Dai, Quan Cong and his second son Quan Jì, Lü Ju, Sun Hong (孫弘), Yang Zhu (楊笁), Wu An (吳安) and Sun Qi (孫奇) supported Sun Ba. During the succession struggle, the Quans found an opportunity to take revenge against Gu Cheng and Zhang Xiu. They accused Gu Cheng and Zhang Xiu of secretly collaborating with a staff officer to make false submissions about their contributions during the Battle of Quebei. As a result, Gu Cheng and Zhang Xiu were arrested and thrown into prison, while Gu Cheng's brother Gu Tan, a key supporter of Sun He, was implicated in the case because of his relationship with them. Sun Quan was reluctant to convict Zhang Xiu and the Gu brothers so he asked Gu Tan to publicly apologise for the mistake on behalf of his brother and Zhang Xiu, in the hope that his apology would appease the Quans. However, Gu Tan refused to apologise and insisted that they were innocent. When some officials called for Gu Tan's execution on the grounds of being disrespectful towards the emperor, Sun Quan refused to execute Gu Tan and instead exiled him, Gu Cheng and Zhang Xiu to the remote Jiao Province. Sun Quan eventually grew tired of the succession struggle and ended it in 250 by deposing Sun He and replacing him with Sun Liang, as well as forcing Sun Ba to commit suicide. A number of the officials involved in the succession struggle, including Quan Cong's second son Quan Jì, were executed, forced to commit suicide, demoted, removed from office, or exiled to distant commanderies. Death Before the succession struggle ended in 250, Quan Cong had already died either sometime between 22 February and 23 March 247 (according to Sun Quan's biography in the Sanguozhi) or in the winter of 249 (according to the Jiankang Shilu and his biography in the Sanguozhi) at the age of 52 (by East Asian age reckoning). In Rafe de Crespigny's A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23-220 AD, Quan Cong's name is romanised as Quan Zong and his year of death is recorded as 247. Family and relatives In 229, Quan Cong married Sun Luban, the elder daughter of Sun Quan and his concubine Bu Lianshi. They had two sons: Quan Yì (全懌) and Quan Wu (全吳). Quan Xu Quan Cong's eldest son, Quan Xu (全緒), was already famous since he was an adolescent. Through an invitation from the Wu government, he was commissioned as a military officer upon reaching the age of adulthood. He gradually rose through the ranks to the position of General Who Spreads Martial Might (揚武將軍), and served as the area commander of the Wu garrison at Niuzhu (牛渚; in present-day Ma'anshan, Anhui). He was further promoted to General Who Guards the North (鎮北將軍) after Sun Liang came to the throne. During the Battle of Dongxing in 253, Quan Xu and Ding Feng led a head-on assault on the Wei positions and scored a tactical victory over the enemy. As a reward for his achievement, one of Quan Xu's sons was enfeoffed as a village marquis. Quan Xu died in an unknown year at the age of 43. Quan Xu had at least two sons: Quan Yī (全禕) and Quan Yí (全儀). Quan Jì Quan Cong's second son, Quan Jì (全寄), did not get along well with Gu Tan, a grandson of the second Wu chancellor Gu Yong, because Gu Tan deemed his behaviour immoral. Quan Jì was involved in the succession struggle between Sun Quan's sons Sun He, and Sun Ba, in the 240s. After the power struggle ended in 250, Quan Jì, who supported Sun Ba, was forced to commit suicide. Quan Yì Quan Yì (全懌), the elder son of Quan Cong and Sun Luban, succeeded his father as the next Marquis of Qiantang (錢塘侯) and inherited control over the military units that used to be under his father's command. Between 257 and 258, the Wu regent Sun Chen ordered Quan Yì to lead Wu forces to Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County, Anhui) to assist the Wei general Zhuge Dan in his rebellion against Wei. The rebellion was ultimately suppressed by Wei forces under the leadership of their regent Sima Zhao. Quan Yì surrendered to Wei after falling for a ruse by Sima Zhao. The Wei government appointed him as General Who Pacifies the East (平東將軍) and enfeoffed him as the Marquis of Linxiang (臨湘侯). Quan Wu Quan Wu (全吳), the younger son of Quan Cong and Sun Luban, was also the youngest among Quan Cong's sons. He was enfeoffed as a Marquis of a Chief District (都鄉侯) by the Wu government. Other relatives Apart from Quan Yì (全懌), the Wu regent Sun Chen had also ordered other members of the Quan clan to lead Wu forces to Shouchun to assist Zhuge Dan in his rebellion against Wei between 257 and 258. They included Quan Jing (全靜), a grandson of Quan Cong; Quan Duan (全端), Quan Pian (全翩) and Quan Jī (全緝), the sons of Quan Cong's cousin(s). Three of Quan Cong's grandsons, Quan Hui (全輝) and Quan Xu's sons Quan Yí (全儀) and Quan Yī (全禕), remained behind in the Wu imperial capital Jianye (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). After an internal conflict broke out within the Quan clan, Quan Hui, Quan Yí and Quan Yī brought along their mother and followers, and defected to Wei. Zhong Hui, a close aide to the Wei regent Sima Zhao, instructed Quan Hui and Quan Yí to write a letter to their uncle Quan Yì (全懌), who was in Shouchun with Zhuge Dan. In the letter, Quan Hui and Quan Yí lied that the Wu regent Sun Chen was unhappy with Quan Yì's performance in battle and wanted to execute his entire clan, so they decided to bring along their mother and followers and defect to Wei. Quan Yì believed his nephews and managed to persuade Quan Jing, Quan Duan, Quan Pian and Quan Jī to join him in surrendering to Wei. The Wei regent Sima Zhao was so pleased with the Quans' defection to Wei that he appointed them as commandery-level military officers and awarded each of them a marquis title. Quan Huijie, the daughter of Quan Cong's relative Quan Shang (全尚), married Sun Liang, the second emperor of Wu, and became his empress consort on 16 February 253. Because of his status as the emperor's father-in-law, Quan Shang was made a marquis and he held high positions in the Wu government. In 258, with Sun Liang's tacit support, Quan Shang and his son Quan Ji (全紀) and the general Liu Cheng (劉承) attempted to launch a coup d'état against the Wu regent Sun Chen. However, Sun Chen caught wind of the plot because Quan Shang had unsuspectingly revealed it to his wife, who was Sun Chen's cousin. Sun Chen had Quan Shang arrested and exiled to Lingling Commandery (零陵郡; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan), and then sent assassins to kill Quan Shang while he was en route to Lingling. Sun Chen also deposed Sun Liang, replaced him with Sun Xiu, and forced Sun Liang and Quan Huijie to relocate to Houguan County (候官縣; in present-day Fuzhou, Fujian). Family tree 1 Quan Jing and Quan Hui were Quan Cong's grandsons. It is not known who their father(s) was/were. 2 Quan Duan, Quan Pian, Quan Jī and Quan Shang were Quan Cong's relatives and they were one generation younger than him. Their exact relationships with him are not known. Appraisal Quan Cong was known for being a respectful and agreeable person who was good at reading people's emotions and reacting positively to others' advice. He was mindful of his speech and words, and was never known to have been disrespectful towards anyone before. After he became Sun Quan's son-in-law and one of the emperor's most trusted generals, his family members and relatives also benefited as Sun Quan favoured them, appointed them to high positions, and often bestowed them with wealth and riches. Despite his fame and prestige, Quan Cong remained humble when he interacted with people and never showed any signs of arrogance. As a soldier, Quan Cong was known for being courageous and decisive, and was always prepared to sacrifice his life when he encountered critical situations in battle. After he became a commander, he conducted himself with dignity and showed good awareness of his responsibilities. When it came to making plans in battle, he often took the bigger picture into consideration and tended to avoid actions that would yield only petty gains. Chen Shou, the third-century historian who wrote Quan Cong's biography in the Sanguozhi, praised Quan Cong and other notable Wu generals such as Lü Dai, Zhou Fang and Zhongli Mu for their success in helping Sun Quan pacify the restive Shanyue tribes in the Jiangdong territories. He commented on Quan Cong as follows: "Quan Cong was a talented individual of his time. He was one of the most favoured and one of those who held the most prestigious positions (among Sun Quan's subjects). However, his failure to rein in his villainous sons cost him his good reputation. See also Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms Notes References Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu). Xu, Song ( 8th century). Jiankang Shilu (建康實錄). 190s births 240s deaths Eastern Wu generals Eastern Wu government officials Generals under Sun Quan Politicians from Hangzhou Political office-holders in Jiangxi Political office-holders in Zhejiang
4601653
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%20Fry
Maxwell Fry
Edwin Maxwell Fry, CBE, RA, FRIBA, FRTPI, known as Maxwell Fry (2 August 1899 – 3 September 1987), was an English modernist architect, writer and painter. Originally trained in the neo-classical style of architecture, Fry grew to favour the new modernist style, and practised with eminent colleagues including Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Fry was a major influence on a generation of young architects. Among the younger colleagues with whom he worked was Denys Lasdun. In the 1940s, Fry designed buildings for West African countries that were then part of the British Empire, including Ghana and Nigeria. In the 1950s, he and his wife, the architect Jane Drew, worked for three years with Le Corbusier on an ambitious development to create the new capital city of Punjab at Chandigarh. Fry's works in Britain range from railway stations to private houses to large corporate headquarters. Among his best known works in the UK is the Kensal House flats in Ladbroke Grove, London, designed with Walter Gropius, which was aimed at providing high quality low cost housing, on which Fry and Gropius also collaborated with Elizabeth Denby to set new standards. Fry's writings include critical and descriptive books on town planning and architecture, notably his Art in a Machine Age. His last book was the Autobiographical Sketches of his life from boyhood up to the time of his marriage to Jane Drew. Biography Early years Fry was born in Liscard, Cheshire (now Merseyside). He describes his father, Canadian-born Ambrose Fry, as a "business man with all sorts of irons in the fire – chemicals, electricals, old property..."; he mentions living in a terrace house converted by his father overlooking the cathedral; and his first job was working in his father's factory, the Liverpool Borax Co. in Edge Street. His mother was Lydia (Lily) Thompson. He had two older sisters, Muriel and Nora, and a younger brother Sydney. To his family and friends he was known as Maxi or Max. Fry was educated at the Liverpool Institute High School. He served in the King's Liverpool regiment at the end of the First World War. After the war he received an ex-serviceman's grant that enabled him to enter Liverpool University school of architecture in 1920, where he was trained in "the suave neo-Georgian classicism" of Professor Charles Reilly. The curriculum of the course included town planning as an important component, and Fry retained an interest in planning throughout his career. He gained his diploma with distinction in 1923. The next year he worked for a short time in New York before returning to England to join the office of Thomas Adams and F. Longstreth Thompson, specialists in town planning. His next post was as an assistant in the architect's department of the Southern Railway, where in 1924-6 he worked on three neo-classically styled railway stations, at Margate, Ramsgate and Dumpton Park, the first two (both in Kent) being Grade II Listed. In 1926, he married his first wife Ethel Leese (née Speakman). She was a divorcee, previously married to Lancashire cricketer Charles Leese (1889–1947), and aged 38 when they married. The marriage was not happy: Max described her as "a too well-bred wife without a frolic in her nature ... with the same determination [as her mother] to be well thought of without trying", and he also noted that she was a chain smoker. They had one daughter, Ann Fry. He returned to Adams and Thompson in 1930 as a partner. Modernism In a 2006 study of Fry in the Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, R. W. Liscombe writes that Fry, frustrated at the prevailing conservatism of British architecture and society, renounced Reilly's neo-classicism in favour of "an independent functionalist design idiom modified from the main German and French progenitors of the modern movement". Liscombe adds that the "austere formalism and social idealism" of continental modernism appealed to Fry's moral outlook and his desire for social change. Fry's biographer Alan Powers writes that the change in Fry's aesthetic views came gradually; he continued to design in the neo-classical style for some years: "As a partner in Adams, Thompson and Fry, he designed a garden village at Kemsley near Sittingbourne in 1929, and a house at Wentworth, Surrey, in 1932, in the refined neo-Georgian style typical of the Liverpool school." Wells Coates, a colleague at Adams, Thompson and Fry tried to enthuse Fry with the example of Le Corbusier, but his conversion to modernism, in Powers's words, "came principally through his membership of the Design and Industries Association, which introduced him to modern German housing. ... [Fry] was also influenced by the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne, and was closely involved in its English branch, the Modern Architectural Research (MARS) Group, following its establishment in 1933." Even after his espousal of modernism, Fry remained fond of neo-classical architecture, lending his support to a campaign to preserve Nash's Carlton House Terrace in the 1930s. Fry was one of the few modernist architects working in Britain in the thirties who were British; most were immigrants from continental Europe, where modernism originated. Among them was Walter Gropius, former director of the Bauhaus, who fled from Nazi Germany in 1934 and with whom Fry set up a practice in London in the same year. The partnership lasted until 1936, when Gropius, receiving offers of work from Harvard University, decided to emigrate to the US. Gropius wanted Fry to go with him, saying "your country will be at war", but though Fry agreed, he "could not face the prospect of being a refugee, however honourably accompanied". Among their joint works was Impington Village College, Cambridgeshire: Gropius created the original design, and Fry revised it and supervised construction after Gropius's departure. Fry first met pioneering social reformer Elizabeth Denby in 1934, whom he described as "a small dynamic woman", at a party in Henry Moore's studio. Denby had a sponsor, Lady Mozelle Sassoon, for the flats – R. E. Sassoon House – they had designed as part of a working-class estate around the Pioneer Health Centre in Peckham, London. As pleasant social housing at minimum cost, Sassoon House became his first collaboration with Denby. He worked again with Denby to create Kensal House, in Ladbroke Grove, London, on a disused corner of land belonging to the Gas Light and Coke Company between the Grand Union Canal and the railway. The project, completed in 1937, was for property developer Charles Kearley. Fry opportunistically planned the blocks of flats to curve in front of the site of a disused gasholder which then included a nursery school, and his simple design won the competition for this project. The result was a spacious estate for working-class people with modern shared amenities, which set new standards for its time. Fry admitted in his Autobiographical Sketches that during their work together his enthusiasm for their work on the project was for some time indistinguishable from his enthusiasm for her, distracted by the "sad inadequacies" of his own marriage: but he broke up the relationship because he admitted "... I failed publicly to acknowledge her and injured us both irreparably." Among Fry's well-known buildings of the 1930s are the Sun House, Frognal Lane, Hampstead (1936), and Miramonte in New Malden, Kingston, Surrey (1937). His obituarist for The Times wrote of this period that "places in Fry's office were much sought after by the eager young men of the profession. Many who later distinguished themselves passed through it and have never forgotten Fry's early influence on them." From 1937 to 1942, Fry worked as secretary, with Arthur Korn as chairman, on the governing committee of the MARS group plan for the redevelopment of postwar London, the results of which were outlined in his 1944 work Fine Building. The plan was described by Dennis Sharp, one of Fry's collaborators, as "frankly Utopian and Socialistic in concept." In 1939, Fry became a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. During the Second World War, he served with the Royal Engineers, ending the war with the rank of major. 1940s and postwar In 1942, recently divorced from his first wife, Fry married the architect Jane Drew, whom he had met during his work on the MARS plan. She shared Fry's zeal for architectural and social modernisation, and they became professional as well as personal partners, establishing Fry, Drew and Partners, which existed from 1946 to 1973. Their first work together was for the British government in its West African colonies. In 1944, Fry was appointed town planning adviser to Lord Swinton, the resident minister of British West Africa; Drew was engaged as Fry's assistant. Their official postings continued until 1946, when Fry and Drew set up in private practice. Although based in London, most of their work for the next few years continued to be in west Africa for the British colonial authorities. The Frys opened an office in Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast) and worked there and in Nigeria, primarily on educational establishments, and often in temporary partnership with other British architects. The Times considered Fry's most notable work in West Africa to be the University of Ibadan. In 1951, Fry and Drew joined an ambitious project to plan and create a new city, Chandigarh. With the partition of India, the Indian part of Punjab needed a new capital. Fry and his wife were responsible for securing Le Corbusier's participation in the project. He had previously declined invitations, but Fry and Drew visited him in Paris and secured his agreement to join them. He took on the designs of the new capital's major governmental and legal buildings and advised on the master plan for the city. Together with Pierre Jeanneret and a team of local architects, the Frys worked within Le Corbusier's plan to create Chandigarh; they spent three years there, designing housing, a hospital, colleges, a health centre, swimming pools and shops. Both Fry and Drew often collaborated with and were close friends of Ove Arup, the founder of the engineering firm Arup. As Fry, Drew and Partners, the pair's major British commission was the headquarters of Pilkington Glass in St. Helens, Lancashire. The building includes a number of modernist art commissions with works by Victor Pasmore. Fry and Drew took on a number of younger partners, and the practice eventually grew to a considerable size. However, in the view of The Times's obituarist, "in these new circumstances his personal talent somehow became submerged, and the work of the firm that bore his name, though of acceptable quality, was not easy to distinguish from the competent modern work done by many other firms. Fry's originality, and his sparkle as a designer, were far less evident than in his pre-war buildings." Later years Fry was also a painter, writer and a poet. In the 1950s, he frequented the community of Surrealist artists gathered at the villa of William and Noma Copley in Longpont-sur-Orge in the outskirts of Paris. Fry and Drew had among their friends contemporary artists such as Henry Moore, Barbara Hepworth, Ben and Winifred Nicholson, Victor Pasmore and Eduardo Paolozzi; and the author Richard Hughes. Fry was elected ARA in 1966 and advanced to RA in 1972. He exhibited at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, had a one-man show in 1974 at the Drian Gallery in London, and continued painting in his retirement. He served on the council of the Royal Institute of British Architects, of which he was vice-president in 1961–2. He was awarded the institute's Royal Gold Medal in 1964. He also served on the Royal Fine Arts Commission and on the council of the Royal Society of Arts. He was appointed CBE in 1955, was elected a corresponding member of the Acádemie Flamande in 1956, and an honorary Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 1963. He was an honorary LLD of Ibadan University, and towards the end of his life he became Professor of Architecture at the Royal Academy. On his retirement in 1973, Fry and his wife moved from London to a cottage in Cotherstone, County Durham, where he died in 1987 at the age of 88. List of works 1923–40 many houses and flats including Ridge End at Wentworth, Surrey and Club House at Sittingbourne, Kent 1933–34 R. E. Sassoon House (workers' flats), St. Mary's Road, Peckham, South-East London, Fry's first building in reinforced concrete, in collaboration with Elizabeth Denby – Grade II Listed 1935 Flats on St. Leonard's Hill, Windsor (with Walter Gropius) – never built, owing to lack of funding. 1935 The Sun House, 9 Frognal Way, Frognal, Hampstead, London – Grade II* Listed 1936 Shop front to 115 Cannon Street, City of London (with Walter Gropius) – Grade II Listed 1936 Levy House, 66 Old Church Street, Chelsea, London (with Gropius) – Grade II Listed 1936 Little Winch, House at Chipperfield Common, Hertfordshire – Grade II* Listed 1936 Miramonte, house in Coombe, New Malden, Kingston, Surrey – Grade II Listed 1937 Kensal House, Ladbroke Grove, Kensington, London, in collaboration with Elizabeth Denby – Grade II* Listed 1938 Showrooms for Central London Electricity, Regent Street, London 1938 Flats at 65 Ladbroke Grove, London – Grade II Listed 1939 Impington Village College, Cambridge (with Gropius) – Grade I Listed 1949–60 University of Ibadan, Nigeria 1950 St. Francis College, Ho Hoe, Togoland 1951 Work for the Festival of Britain 1951 Adisadel College, Ghana 1951–54 Housing in Chandigarh, India 1951–54 Ramsay Hall, London 1952 Passfield House and other flats in Lewisham, south-east London 1953 School at Mawuli, Ghana 1954 School and College at Aburi, Ghana 1955–58 Design of the Usk Street Housing Estate at Bethnal Green, London (with Denys Lasdun) – Grade II Listed 1956 Co-operative Bank at Ibadan, Nigeria 1958 Teacher Training College in Wudil, Nigeria 1958 Oriental Insurance Building, Calcutta, India 1959 Schools in Lagos, Nigeria 1960 Pilkington Bros. (Glass), office and social housing, St. Helens, Lancashire 1960 BP office in Lagos, Nigeria 1960 Office building for Dow Agrochemicals Ltd., King's Lynn, Norfolk 1965-7, Kingston House, Kingston upon Hull 1970 Crematorium at Coychurch, Mid-Glamorgan Bibliography Books (with Thomas Adams, Francis Longstreth Thompson and James W. R. Adams) Recent Advances in Town Planning. London: J. & A. Churchill, 1932. OCLC 4377060 Fine Building. London: Faber & Faber, 1944. OCLC 1984391 (with Jane Drew) Architecture for Children. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1944. OCLC 559791804 (Republished 1976 as Architecture and the Environment) (with Jane Drew and Harry L. Ford) Village Housing in the Tropics: with special reference to West Africa. London: Lund Humphries, 1947. OCLC 53579274 (with Jane Drew) Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone. London: Batsford, 1956. OCLC 718056727 (with Jane Drew) Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones. London: Batsford, 1964. OCLC 155707318 Art in a Machine Age: A Critique of Contemporary Life through the Medium of Architecture. London: Methuen, 1969. Tapestry and Architecture: An Address Given at the Opening of an Exhibition of Tapestries by Miriam Sacks at the Ben Uri Gallery 22 October 1969. London: Keepsake P., 1970. Autobiographical Sketches, London: Elek, 1975. (with Jane Drew) Architecture and the Environment, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1976. (Republication of 1944 Architecture for Children) Articles "African experiment – building for an educational programme in the Gold Coast". London: The Architectural Review, No. 677 Vol. CXIII, May 1953, pp. 299–310. OCLC 638313897 (with Jane Drew) "Chandigarh and Planning Development in India." I. The Plan, by E. Maxwell Fry, II. Housing, by Jane B. Drew. London: Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, No.4948, 1 April 1955, Vol.CIII, pp. 315–333. OCLC 34739832 Notes References Fry, Maxwell (1975). Autobiographical Sketches. London: Elek. Further reading From Here to Modernity: Maxwell Fry Kiran Joshi, Documenting Chandigarh: The Indian Architecture of Pierre Jeanneret, Edwin Maxwell Fry, Jane Beverly Drew, Grantha Corporation, 1999 External links (Edwin) Maxwell Fry (1899–1978), Architect, painter and writer – bronze head and photographs 1899 births 1987 deaths 20th-century English architects 20th-century English writers English urban planners British expatriates in Ghana British expatriates in Nigeria Modernist architects from England Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal People educated at Liverpool Institute High School for Boys Commanders of the Order of the British Empire English painters Royal Academicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Intel%20Celeron%20processors
List of Intel Celeron processors
The Celeron was a family of microprocessors from Intel targeted at the low-end consumer market. CPUs in the Celeron brand have used designs from sixth- to eighth-generation CPU microarchitectures. It was replaced by the Intel Processor brand in 2023. Desktop processors P6 based Celerons Celeron (single-core) "Covington" (250 nm) All models support: MMX Steppings: A0, A1, B0 "Mendocino" (250 nm) All models support: MMX L2 cache is on-die, running at full CPU speed "Coppermine-128" (180 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE "Tualatin-256" (130 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE Family 6 model 11 Netburst based Celerons Celeron (single-core) "Willamette-128" (180 nm) Family 15 model 1 All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2 Steppings: E0 "Northwood-128" (130 nm) Family 15 model 2 All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2 Steppings: C0, C1, D0, D1, D4, DD Celeron D (single core) "Prescott-256" (90 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3 Intel 64: supported by 3x1, 3x6, 355 XD bit (an NX bit implementation): supported by 3x0J, 3x5J, and all Intel64-compatible models Steppings: C0, D0, E0, G0 & G1 "Cedar Mill-512" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: C1, D0 Core based Celerons Celeron (single-core) "Conroe-L" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: A1 "Conroe-CL" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x Steppings: ? Celeron (dual-core) "Allendale" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: M0 "Wolfdale-3M" (45 nm) Based on Core microarchitecture All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x Steppings: R0 Die size: 82 mm2 Westmere based Celerons Celeron (dual-core) "Clarkdale" (MCP, 32 nm) Based on Westmere microarchitecture All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. Contains 45 nm "Ironlake" GPU. Sandy Bridge based Celerons "Sandy Bridge" (32 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. Celeron G440 does not support Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), this is a special case as the processor uses the minimum available multiplier (16x). The Celeron G440 also does not support Hyper-threading. Celeron G460, G465 and G470 support Hyper-threading. HD Graphics (Sandy Bridge) contain 6 EUs like the HD Graphics 2000, but does not support the following technologies: Intel Quick Sync Video, InTru 3D, Clear Video HD, Wireless Display, and it does not support 3D Video. Transistors: 624 or 504 million Die size: 149 or 131 mm2 "Ivy Bridge" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache, ECC Memory. HD Graphics (Ivy Bridge) contain 6 EUs as well as HD Graphics 2500, but does not support the following technologies: Intel Quick Sync Video, InTru 3D, Clear Video HD, Wireless Display, Intel Insider. Silvermont based Celerons "Bay Trail-D" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Ivy Bridge Intel HD Graphics, with 4 execution units, and supports DirectX 11, OpenGL 4.0, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 1.1 (on Windows). J1800 and J1900 support Intel Quick Sync Video. Package size: 25 mm × 27 mm Airmont based Celerons "Braswell" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, AES-NI. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Broadwell Intel HD Graphics, with 12 execution units, and supports DirectX 11.2, OpenGL 4.4, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 2.0 (on Windows). Package size: 25 mm × 27 mm Haswell based Celerons "Haswell-DT" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. Haswell Celerons support Quick Sync. Haswell-R Celerons G1840, G1850, and G1840T also support Intel Wireless Display. Transistors: 1.4 billion Die size: 177 mm2 All models support ECC memory. Skylake based Celerons "Skylake-S" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache. All models support up to DDR3-1600 or DDR4-2133 memory. All models support ECC memory. Transistors: TBD Die size: TBD Goldmont based Celerons "Apollo Lake" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, TXT/TXE Package size: 24 mm × 31 mm DDR3L/LPDDR3/LPDDR4 dual-channel memory controller supporting up to 8 GB Display controller with 1 MIPI DSI port and 2 DDI ports (eDP 1.3, DP 1.1a, or HDMI 1.4b) Integrated Intel HD Graphics (Gen9) GPU PCI Express 2.0 controller supporting 6 lanes (3 dedicated and 3 multiplexed with USB 3.0); 4 lanes available externally Two USB 3.0 ports (1 dual role, 1 dedicated, 3 multiplexed with PCI Express 2.0 and 1 multiplexed with one SATA-300 port) Two USB 2.0 ports Two SATA-600 ports (one multiplexed with USB 3.0) Integrated HD audio controller Integrated image signal processor supporting four MIPI CSI ports and 13 MP sensors Integrated memory card reader supporting SDIO 3.01 and eMMC 5.0 Serial I/O supporting SPI, HSUART (serial port) and I2C Goldmont Plus based Celerons "Gemini Lake" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel SGX, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Kaby Lake Intel HD Graphics, with 12 execution units, and supports DirectX 12, OpenGL 4.5, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 2.0 (on Windows). Package size: 25 mm × 24 mm "Gemini Lake Refresh" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel SGX, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Kaby Lake Intel HD Graphics, with 12 execution units, and supports DirectX 12, OpenGL 4.5, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 2.0 (on Windows). Package size: 25 mm × 24 mm Kaby Lake based Celerons "Kaby Lake-S" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache. All models support up to DDR3-1600 or DDR4-2400 memory (DDR4-2133 for embedded models). All models support ECC memory. Transistors: TBD Die size: TBD Coffee Lake based Celerons "Coffee Lake-S" (14 nm) "Coffee Lake-H" (14 nm) Comet Lake based Celerons "Comet Lake-S" (14 nm) Tremont based Celerons "Jasper Lake" (10 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Intel SHA Extensions, Intel SGX, SMAP/SMEP Package size: 35 mm x 24 mm DDR4/LPDDR4 dual-channel memory controller supporting up to 16 GB Display controller with 1 MIPI DSI 1.2 port and 3 DDI ports (eDP 1.4b, MIPI DSI 1.2, DP 1.4a, or HDMI 2.0b) Integrated Intel HD Graphics (Gen11) GPU PCI Express 3.0 controller supporting 8 lanes (multiplexed); 4 lanes available externally Two USB 3.2 2x1 ports (a.k.a. USB 3.1) Four USB 3.2 1x1 ports (a.k.a. USB 3.0) Eight USB 2.0 ports Two SATA-600 ports Integrated HD audio controller Integrated image signal processor supporting four cameras (three concurrent) Integrated memory card reader supporting SDIO 3.0 and eMMC 5.1 Serial I/O supporting SPI, HSUART (serial port) and I2C Integrated CNVi with Wi-Fi 6 (IEEE 802.11ax 1x1 and 2x2) and Bluetooth 5.x (using UART/I2S/USB2) Golden Cove based Celerons "Alder Lake" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, GNA 3.0, and Optane memory. All models support up to DDR5-4800 or DDR4-3200 memory, and 16 lanes of PCI Express 5.0 + 4 lanes of PCIe 4.0. Mobile processors P6 based Celerons Mobile Celeron (single-core) "Mendocino" (250 nm) All models support: MMX "Coppermine-128" (180 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE "Coppermine T" (180 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE "Tualatin-256" (130 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE Netburst based Celerons Mobile Celeron (single-core) "Northwood-256" (130 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2 Pentium-M based Celerons Celeron M (single-core) "Banias-512" (130 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2 "Dothan-1024" (90 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2 XD bit (an NX bit implementation): supported by 360J, 370, 380, 390, 383 "Dothan-512" (90 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) "Yonah-512" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: C0 "Yonah-1024" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: C0, D0 "Sossaman" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x Die size: 90.3 mm2 Steppings: D0 Core based Celerons Celeron M/Celeron (single-core) "Merom", "Merom-L" (standard-voltage, 65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: B2, E1, G0, G2, A1 "Merom-2M" (standard-voltage, 65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: M0 "Merom-L" (ultra-low-voltage, 65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: A1, M1 Celeron (single-core) "Penryn-3M" (45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Package size: 35 mm2 (standard voltage), 22 mm2 (low voltage) Steppings: R0 Die size: 107 mm2 Note that 900 has also been used for three earlier models of Intel Celeron microprocessors with different microarchitectures. Intel initially listed the Celeron 900 as Dual-Core and with Virtualization Technology in its Processorfinder and ARK databases, which caused confusion among customers. ULV 723 possibly supports EIST, but Intel's web site is inconsistent about this. Celeron (dual-core) "Merom-2M" (65 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: M0 Note that Intel has also released Core Solo microprocessors with the model numbers T1400, T1500, and T1600. T1700 possibly supports EIST, but Intel's web site is inconsistent about this. "Penryn-3M" (45 nm) Based on Core microarchitecture All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation) Steppings: R0 Note that the Pentium T3x00 processors have a similar number but are based on the older Merom-2M chips. Note that the Pentium SU2xxx processors have a similar number but are single-core processors. Westmere based Celerons Celeron (dual-core) "Arrandale" (MCP, 32 nm) Based on Westmere microarchitecture All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache P4505 and U3405 support memory ECC RAM and PCIe bifurcation. FSB has been replaced with DMI. Contains 45 nm "Ironlake" GPU. Die size: 81 mm2 Graphics and Integrated Memory Controller die size: 114 mm2 Steppings: C2, K0 Sandy Bridge based Celerons "Sandy Bridge" (32 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. (Embedded) Celeron B810E, Celeron B847E does not support XD bit(Execute Disable Bit), nor SSE4.1 and SSE4.2 instructions. (Embedded) Celeron B810E, Celeron B847E has support for ECC memory. HD Graphics (Sandy Bridge) contain 6 EUs as well as HD Graphics 2000, but does not support the following technologies: Intel Quick Sync Video, InTru 3D, Clear Video HD, Wireless Display, and it doesn't support 3D Video. Transistors: 624 or 504 million Die size: 149 or 131 mm2 "Ivy Bridge" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. HD Graphics (Ivy Bridge) contain 6 EUs as well as HD Graphics 2500, but does not support the following technologies: Intel Quick Sync Video, InTru 3D, Clear Video HD, Wireless Display, Intel Insider. Embedded models have support for ECC memory. Haswell based Celerons "Haswell-MB" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. 2970M supports Intel Quick Sync Video. "Haswell-ULT" (SiP, 22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. 2957U and 2981U also support Intel Wireless Display and Intel Quick Sync Video. Transistors: 1.3 billion Die size: 181 mm2 "Haswell-ULX" (SiP, 22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. Transistors: 1.3 billion Die size: 181 mm2 GPU supports Intel Quick Sync Video. "Haswell-H" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Smart Cache. Transistors: 1.3 billion Die size: 181 mm2 Embedded models support ECC memory GPU doesn't support Intel Quick Sync Video. "Broadwell-U" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, Smart Cache, Intel Wireless Display, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down Silvermont based Celerons "Bay Trail-M" (22 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Ivy Bridge Intel HD Graphics, with 4 execution units, and supports DirectX 11, OpenGL 4.0, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 1.1. N2807, N2808, N2830, N2840, N2930 and N2940 support Intel Quick Sync Video. Package size: 25 mm × 27 mm Airmont based Celerons "Braswell" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, AES-NI. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Broadwell Intel HD Graphics, with 12 execution units, and supports DirectX 11.2, OpenGL 4.3, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 1.2 (on Windows). Package size: 25 mm × 27 mm Skylake based Celerons "Skylake-U" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache, Intel Wireless Display, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down Goldmont based Celerons "Apollo Lake" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Skylake Intel HD Graphics, with 12 execution units, and supports DirectX 12, OpenGL 4.5, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 1.2 (on Windows). Package size: 24 mm × 31 mm Goldmont Plus based Celerons "Gemini Lake" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel SGX, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Kaby Lake Intel HD Graphics, with 12 execution units, and supports DirectX 12, OpenGL 4.5, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 1.2 (on Windows). Package size: 25 mm × 24 mm "Gemini Lake Refresh" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel SGX, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI. GPU and memory controller are integrated onto the processor die GPU is based on Kaby Lake Intel HD Graphics, with 12 execution units, and supports DirectX 12, OpenGL 4.5, OpenGL ES 3.0 and OpenCL 1.2 (on Windows). Package size: 25 mm × 24 mm Kaby Lake based Celerons "Kaby Lake-U" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, SGX, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down "Kaby Lake-Y" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, SGX, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down "Kaby Lake Refresh" (14 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, SGX, MPX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache, and configurable TDP (cTDP) down. Coffee Lake based Celerons "Whiskey Lake-U" (14 nm) Comet Lake based Celerons "Comet Lake-U" (14 nm) Tiger Lake based Celerons "Tiger Lake-UP3" (10 nm SuperFin) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, Optane memory, GNA 2.0, IPU6, TB4. Tremont based Celerons "Jasper Lake" (10 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Intel SHA Extensions, Intel SGX, SMAP/SMEP Package size: 35 mm x 24 mm DDR4/LPDDR4 dual-channel memory controller supporting up to 16 GB Display controller with 1 MIPI DSI 1.2 port and 3 DDI ports (eDP 1.4b, MIPI DSI 1.2, DP 1.4a, or HDMI 2.0b) Integrated Intel HD Graphics (Gen11) GPU PCI Express 3.0 controller supporting 8 lanes (multiplexed); 4 lanes available externally Two USB 3.2 2x1 ports (a.k.a. USB 3.1) Four USB 3.2 1x1 ports (a.k.a. USB 3.0) Eight USB 2.0 ports Two SATA-600 ports Integrated HD audio controller Integrated image signal processor supporting four cameras (three concurrent) Integrated memory card reader supporting SDIO 3.0 and eMMC 5.1 Serial I/O supporting SPI, HSUART (serial port) and I2C Integrated CNVi with Wi-Fi 6 (IEEE 802.11ax 1x1 and 2x2) and Bluetooth 5.x (using UART/I2S/USB2) Alder Lake based Celerons "Alder Lake-U" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, IPU6, TB4, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. Support 20 lanes (UP3) or 14 lanes (UP4) of PCI Express 4.0/3.0. All models support up to LPDDR5-5200 or LPDDR4X-4266 memory Standard power models also support up to DDR5-4800 or DDR4-3200 memory. Embedded processors Nehalem based Celerons Celeron (single-core) "Jasper Forest" (45 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, HyperThreading, Smart Cache, ECC memory. Single-Core version of Xeon C3500-Series Sandy Bridge based Celerons Celeron (single-core) "Gladden" (32 nm) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST), Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, EPT, Hyper-threading, Smart Cache, ECC memory. Transistors: Die size: Tremont based Celerons "Elkhart Lake" (10 nm SuperFin) All models support: MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, Intel 64, XD bit (an NX bit implementation), Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI. GPU is based on Gen11 Intel HD Graphics, with up to 32 execution units, and supports up to 3 displays (4K @ 60 Hz) through HDMI, DP, eDP, or DSI. SoC peripherals include 4 × USB 2.0/3.0/3.1, 2 × SATA, 3 × 2.5GbE LAN, UART, and up to 8 lanes of PCI Express 3.0 in x4, x2, and x1 configurations. Package size: 35 mm × 24 mm Tiger Lake based Celerons "Tiger Lake-H" (10 nm SuperFin) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX2, AVX-512, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, Smart Cache, DL Boost, Optane memory, GNA 2.0, IPU6, TB4. Alder Lake based Celerons "Alder Lake-U" (Intel 7) All models support: SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, FMA3, Speed Shift Technology (SST), Intel 64, Intel VT-x, Intel VT-d, AES-NI, IPU6, TB4, Smart Cache, Thread Director, DL Boost, and GNA 3.0. Support 20 lanes (UP3) of PCI Express 4.0/3.0. All models support up to LPDDR5-5200 or LPDDR4X-4266 memory Standard power models also support up to DDR5-4800 or DDR4-3200 memory. See also Intel Celeron List of Intel Pentium processors List of Intel Core i3 processors List of Intel Core i5 processors List of Intel Core i7 processors List of Intel Core i9 processors Notes References New Celeron 220, Xtreview 15 October 2007 External links Search MDDS Database Intel ARK Database 'Yonah' Celeron M 420, 430 ship in Japan Intel CPU Transition Roadmap 2008-2013 Intel Desktop CPU Roadmap 2004-2011 Intel Celeron desktop processor product order code table Intel Celeron mobile processor product order code table Celeron Intel Celeron
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20history%20of%20the%20Netherlands
Military history of the Netherlands
The Netherlands, as a nation state, dates to 1568, when the Dutch Revolt created the Dutch Empire. Previously, the Germanic tribes had no written language during the ancient and early medieval periods, so what we know about their early military history comes from accounts written in Latin and from archaeology. This causes significant gaps in the historic timeline. Germanic wars against the Romans are fairly well documented from the Roman perspective; however, Germanic wars against the early Celts remain mysterious because neither side recorded the events. Wars between the Germanic tribes in Northern Belgium and the present day Netherlands, and various Celtic tribes that bordered their lands, are likely due to their geographical proximity. Belgium, a country with a Dutch-speaking majority, became an independent state in 1830 when it seceded from the Netherlands. Despite the contemporary political boundaries, they share much of the same military history. Ancient times Germanic tribes are thought to have originated during the Nordic Bronze Age in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia. The tribes spread south, possibly motivated by the deteriorating climate of that area. They crossed the River Elbe, most likely overrunning territories formerly occupied by Celtic people. In the East, other tribes, such as Goths, Rugians and Vandals, settled along the shores of the Baltic Sea pushing southward and eventually settling as far away as Ukraine. The Angles and Saxons migrated to England. The Germanic peoples often had unsettled relationships with their neighbours and each other, leading to a period of over two millennia of military conflict over various territorial, religious, ideological and economic issues. Germanic tribes often fought both against and for the Roman Empire. On Christmas Day 406, with the freezing of the Rhine, Franks, Allemanni, Burgundians, Suebi and Vandals crossed the Rhine from present day Germany into Gaul. The Franks later expelled the Goths from Aquitaine and absorbed the Burgundians. They were later to give their name to modern France. In 455, under the leadership of their King Gaiseric, the Vandals seized Rome, plundering it for 15 days (and henceforth giving their name to wanton destruction). From 772 to 814, the Frankish King Charlemagne held the Carolingian Empire, an empire which contained nearly all of the following modern day countries: the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France (except Brittany), Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy north from below Rome, Slovenia, Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco and parts of Spain (northeast), Czech Republic (west), Hungary (west) and Croatia (northwest). The Batavi The Batavi (Batavians) were a Germanic tribe, originally part of the Chatti, reported by Tacitus to have lived around the Rhine delta, in the area which is currently the Netherlands, "an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the ocean in front, and by the river Rhine in the rear and on either side" (Tacitus, Histories iv). This led to the Latin name of Batavia for the area. The same name is used for several military units, originally raised among the Batavi. They were mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentary Gallic Wars as living on an island formed by the Meuse River after it is joined by the Waal, 80 Roman miles from the mouth of the river. He said there were many other islands formed by branches of the Rhine, inhabited by a "savage, barbarous nation", some of whom were supposed to live on fish and the eggs of sea-fowl. Tacitus named the Mattiaci as a similar tribe under homage, but on the other side of the Rhine. The areas inhabited by the Batavians were never occupied by the Romans, as the Batavians were allies. The Batavians incorrectly became regarded as the sole and eponymous ancestors of the Dutch people. The Netherlands were briefly known as the Batavian Republic. Moreover, during the time Indonesia was a Dutch colony (the Dutch East Indies), the capital (now Jakarta) was named Batavia. If the ancestry of most native Dutch people were traced back to Germanic tribes, most would lead to the Franks, Frisians and Saxons. Dutch is in fact a Low Frankish language, and is the only language (together with Afrikaans, which descends from Dutch itself) to be a direct descendant of Old Frankish, the language of the Franks. Military units of the Batavi Later, Tacitus described the Batavians as the bravest of the tribes of the area, hardened in the Germanic border wars, with cohorts under their own noble commanders transferred to Britannia. He said they retained the honour of the ancient association with the Romans, not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the Romans only for war: "They furnished to the Empire nothing but men and arms", Tacitus remarked. They were well regarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimming, for their men and horses could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus. Dio Cassius describes this surprise tactic employed by Aulus Plautius against the "barbarians" — the British Celts — at the battle of the River Medway, 43: The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Batavians, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. [...] Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the Batavians swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them. (Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20) The Batavians also provided a contingent for the Emperor's Imperial Horse Guard. The Batavian legacy Numerous altars and tombstones of the Batavi, dating to the 2nd century and 3rd century, have been found along Hadrian's Wall (notably at Castlecary and Carrawburgh), and in Germany, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and Austria. After the 3rd century, however, the Batavians are no longer mentioned, and they are assumed to have merged with the neighbouring Frisian and Frankish people. The Romans Until the Franks defeated and pushed them back the Romans established two provinces in the area of the present-day Belgium and a part of the Netherlands. Both were outposts, especially above the Meuse and apart from a few Roman legions sent there to protect the Empires borders, the Roman presence was limited. The provinces were called Gallia Belgica named after the Belgae, a group of Celtic tribes conquered by the Romans, and Germania Inferior (inferior meaning 'low' in Latin, and Germania referring to the area occupied by the Germanic tribes). During the Revolt of the Batavi, which took place in the Roman province of Germania Inferior between 69 and 70 AD, the rebels led by Civilis managed to destroy four legions and inflict humiliating defeats on the Roman army. After their initial successes, a massive Roman army led by Quintus Petillius Cerialis eventually defeated them. Following peace talks, the situation was normalized, but Batavia had to cope with humiliating conditions and a legion stationed permanently within her lands. The Franks The Franks or the Frankish people were one of several west Germanic federations. The confederation was formed out of Germanic tribes: Salians, Sugambri, Chamavi, Tencteri, Chattuarii, Bructeri, Usipetes, Ampsivarii, Chatti. They entered the late Roman Empire from the present day Netherlands and northern Germany and conquered northern Gaul where they were accepted as a foederati and established a lasting realm (sometimes referred to as Francia) in an area that covers most of modern-day France and the western regions of Germany (Franconia, Rhineland, Hesse) and the whole of the Low Countries, forming the historic kernel of the two modern countries. The conversion to Christianity of the pagan Frankish king Clovis was a crucial event in the history of Europe. Like the French and Germans, the Dutch also claim the military history of the Franks as their own. Battle of Soissons (486) The Franks under Clovis I defeat the last Roman army in Gaul. Battle of Tolbiac (496) The Franks under Clovis I defeat the Alamanni tribe. Battle of Vouillé (507) The Franks under Clovis I defeat the Visigoths under Alaric II, the conqueror of Spain. (As a result of these victories, the domains of Clovis quadruple) Battle of Tours (732) One of the most celebrated victories in Western history, the Franks under Charles 'the Hammer' Martel defeated a large Islamic invading force. Historians have debated whether it had the enormous significance that is often claimed, but it was nonetheless a huge symbolic victory . Battle of Pavia (773) The Franks under Charlemagne defeat the Lombards, led by the Frankish king Desiderius, in Italy. Saxon Campaigns (773-804) The Franks under Charlemagne repeatedly subdue over three decades of Saxon insurrections. Siege of Paris (885-886) With 200 men defending Paris, the Western Franks manage to halt and, when outside help arrived, defeat a Viking invasion force of 30,000. The Frankish Empire (481–843) The Frankish Empire was the territory of the Franks, from the 5th to the 10th centuries, from 481 ruled by Clovis I of the Merovingian dynasty, the first king of all the Franks. From 751, under the Carolingian dynasty, it is known as the Carolingian Empire. After the Treaty of Verdun of 843 it was split into East, West and Middle Francia. East Francia gave rise to the Holy Roman Empire with Otto I the Great in 962. Since the term "Empire" properly applies only to times after the coronation of Charlemagne in 800, and since the unified kingdom was repeatedly split and re-united, most historians prefer to use the term Frankish Kingdoms or Frankish Realm to refer to the entirety of Frankish rule from the 5th to the 9th century. The Holy Roman Empire (843–1648) The Frankish realm underwent many partitions and repartitions, since the Franks divided their property among surviving sons, and lacking a broad sense of a res publica, they conceived of the realm as a large extent of private property. This practice explains in part the difficulty of describing precisely the dates and physical boundaries of any of the Frankish kingdoms and who ruled the various sections. The contraction of literacy while the Franks ruled compounds the problem: they produced few written records. In essence, however, two dynasties of leaders succeeded each other; first the Merovingians and then the Carolingians. The Holy Roman Empire was a political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe and Western Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Emerging from the eastern part of the Frankish Empire after its division in the Treaty of Verdun (843), it lasted almost a millennium until its dissolution in 1806. By the 18th century, it still consisted of the larger part of modern Germany, Bohemia (now Czech Republic), Austria, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, Belgium, and Luxembourg, as well as large parts of modern Poland and small parts of the Netherlands and Croatia. Previously, it had included all of the Netherlands and Switzerland, parts of modern France and Italy. By the middle of the 18th century the Empire had been greatly reduced in power. Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) The Eighty Years' War, or Dutch Revolt, was the war of secession between the Netherlands and the Spanish king, that lasted from 1568 to 1648. The war resulted in the Seven United Provinces being recognized as an independent state. The region now known as Belgium and Luxembourg also became established as the Southern Netherlands, part of the Seventeen Provinces that remained under royal Habsburg rule. The United Provinces of the Netherlands, or the Dutch Republic, became a world power, through its merchant shipping and huge naval power, and experienced a period of economic, scientific and cultural growth. In the late 16th century military reform by Maurice of Orange laid the foundation for early modern battlefield tactics. The Dutch States Army between 1600 and 1648 was one of the most powerful in Europe, together with the Spanish, English and French. The main battles of the Eighty Years' War April 23, 1568 Battle of Rheindalen (Often regarded as a mere skirmish) The Dutch geuzen under the command of the Lord of Villers, Joost de Soete, are defeated by a Spanish Garrison. May 23, 1568 Battle of Heiligerlee First Dutch victory. After a successful ambush the Dutch killed about 700 Spanish troops, while losing 50 men (Including one of its commanders, Adolf of Nassau) of its own. July 21, 1568 Battle of Jemmingen Decisive Spanish victory. December 11, 1572 – July 13, 1573 Siege of Haarlem Spanish victory. More than 10,000 Haarlemers were killed on the ramparts, nearly 2,000 burned or tortured, and double that number drowned in the river. June 1574 – October 3, 1574 Siege of Leiden Dutch victory. During the siege 8,000 of the 18,000 inhabitants of Leiden died. The siege ended because geuzen opened the dikes surrounding the city causing the Spanish troops to flee. April 14, 1574 Battle of Mookerheyde Decisive Spanish victory. Both Dutch commanders, Louis of Nassau and Henry of Nassau were killed. January 31, 1578 Battle of Gembloux Decisive Spanish victory. March 12, 1579 – July 1, 1579 Siege of Maastricht Spanish victory. Spanish troops who breached the city walls first raped the women, then massacred the population, reputedly tearing people limb from limb. Of the city's 30,000 population, only 400 survived. July 1584 – August 17, 1585 Siege of Antwerp Spanish victory. The siege lasted over a year despite 60,000 of the 100,000 inhabitants leaving the city before the Spanish troops arrived. September 22, 1586 Battle of Zutphen Spanish victory. March 4, 1590 Siege of Breda Dutch victory. The Dutch entered Breda on a peatship filled with 70 Dutch soldiers led by Maurice of Nassau, taking the city with minimal casualties. January 24, 1597 Battle of Turnhout Dutch victory. Fifteen cavalry units and several hundred Dutch infantry soldiers defeated a Spanish army of over 5000 men. July 2, 1600 Battle of Nieuwpoort Dutch victory. The Dutch army originally was on a mission to capture the raider port of Dunkirk but was intercepted en route by a Spanish army, resulting in the battle. July 5, 1601 – September 16, 1604 Siege of Ostend Spanish victory. Although eventually victorious, around 55,000 Spanish soldiers died during the siege and this was an important factor during the negotiations for the twelve-year truce (1609–1621) between Spain and the Netherlands. The siege was one of the longest in the entire Eighty Years' War. April 25, 1607 Battle of Gibraltar Decisive Dutch victory. A Dutch fleet attacked and destroyed the Spanish fleet anchored in the Bay of Gibraltar. At a cost of 100 men, including the commanding admiral Jacob van Heemskerck, the Dutch killed 4,000 Spanish sailors and their commanding officer. August 28, 1624 – June 5, 1625 Siege of Breda Spanish victory after a siege of 11 months. 1629 Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch Dutch victory. October 31, 1639 Battle of the Downs Decisive Dutch victory. Dutch ships led by Maarten Tromp attacked the Spanish fleet; 60 of the 77 Spanish warships are destroyed and 15,200 Spanish sailors are reportedly killed (a figure modern historians find dubious), at a cost of 1,000 men killed and several ships torched. The Dutch in the East Indies The Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC), chartered in 1602, concentrated Dutch trade efforts under one directorate with a unified policy. In 1605 armed Dutch merchantmen captured the Portuguese fort at Amboyna in the Moluccas, which was developed into the first secure base of the VOC. The Twelve Years' Truce signed in Antwerp in 1609 called a halt to formal hostilities between Spain (which controlled Portugal and its territories at the time) and the United Provinces. In the Indies, the foundation of Batavia formed the permanent center from which Dutch enterprises, more mercantile than colonial, could be coordinated. From it "the Dutch wove the immense web of traffic and exchange which would eventually make up their empire, a fragile and flexible one built, like the Portuguese empire, 'on the Phoenician model'." (Braudel 1984, p. 215) Over the next decades the Dutch captured the major trading ports of the East Indies: Malacca in 1641; Achem (Aceh) in the native kingdom of Sumatra, 1667; Macassar, 1669; and Bantam itself, in 1682. At the same time connections in the ports of India provided the printed cottons that the Dutch traded for pepper, the staple of the spice trade. The greatest source of wealth in the East Indies, Fernand Braudel has noted, was the trade within the archipelago, what the Dutch called inlandse handel ('native trade'), where one commodity was exchanged for another, with profit at each turn, as silver from the Americas was more desirable in the East than in Europe. By concentrating on monopolies in the fine spices, Dutch policy encouraged monoculture: Amboyna for cloves, Timor for sandalwood, the Bandas for mace and nutmeg, Ceylon for cinnamon. Monoculture linked island economies to the mercantile system to provide the missing necessities of life. Sino–Dutch conflicts The Dutch East India Company was defeated by Ming dynasty China in the Sino–Dutch conflicts during a war over Penghu (the Pescadores) from 1622 to 1624. The Dutch were defeated again by the Chinese at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633. In 1662, the Dutch East India company's army was defeated by a Chinese Ming dynasty army led by Koxinga at the Siege of Fort Zeelandia on Taiwan. The Chinese used ships and naval bombardment with cannon to force a surrender. The expulsion of the Dutch ended their colonial rule over Taiwan. Cambodian–Dutch War The Cambodians defeated the Dutch East India Company in a war from 1643 to 1644 on the Mekong River. Trịnh–Nguyễn War The Vietnamese Nguyen Lords defeated the Dutch East India Company in a 1643 battle during the Trịnh–Nguyễn War, blowing up a Dutch ship. Wars of the Dutch Republic The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën; also Dutch Republic or United Provinces in short) was a European republic between 1581 (but was formally recognised in 1648) and 1795, which is now known as the Netherlands. From an economic and military perspective, the Republic of the United Provinces was extremely successful. This time period is known in the Netherlands as the Golden Age. The free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern stock market in the Low Countries. At first the Dutch had a very strong standing field army and large garrisons in their numerous fortified cities. From 1648 on however the Army was neglected; and for a few years even the Navy fell into neglect— until rivalry with England forced a large extension of naval forces. The Anglo-Dutch Wars () were fought in the 17th and 18th centuries between Britain and the United Provinces for control over the seas and trade routes. They are known as the Dutch Wars in England and as the English Wars in the Netherlands. Scilly "War" (1651-1986) In 1651, one of the last possessions held by the English Royalists (partisans of Charles II of England against the Commonwealth of England declared by the Rump Parliament) was the Isles of Scilly, off Cornwall. From these islands, governed by Sir John Grenville, and from other friendly ports, a section of the Royal Navy that had mutinied to Charles' side operated in a piratical way against shipping in the English channel. The Dutch declared war against the Scillies as a legal fiction which would cover a hostile response to the Royalist fleet. In July 1651, soon after the declaration of war, the Parliamentarian forces under Admiral Robert Blake forced the Royalist fleet to surrender. The Netherlands fleet, no longer under threat, left without firing a shot. However, due to the obscurity of one nation's declaration of war against a small part of another, the Dutch forgot to officially declare peace. In 1985, the historian and Chairman of the Isles of Scilly Council Roy Duncan, wrote to the Dutch Embassy in London to dispose of the "myth" that the islands were still at war. But embassy staff found the myth to be accurate and Duncan invited Ambassador Jonkheer Rein Huydecoper to visit the islands and sign a peace treaty. Peace was declared on April 17, 1986, a stunning 335 years after the war began. The first Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654) The collapse of Spanish power at the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 meant that the colonial possessions of the Portuguese and Spanish Empires were effectively up for grabs. This brought the Commonwealth of England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, former allies in the Thirty Years' War, into conflict. The Dutch had the largest mercantile fleet of Europe, and a dominant position in European trade. They had annexed most of Portugal's territory in the East Indies giving them control over the enormously profitable trade in spices. They were even gaining significant influence over England's maritime trade with her North American colonies, profiting from the turmoil that resulted from the English Civil War. However, the Dutch navy had been neglected during this time period, while Cromwell had built a strong fleet. In order to protect its position in North America and damage Dutch trade, in 1651 the Parliament of the Commonwealth of England passed the first of the Navigation Acts, which mandated that all goods from her American colonies must be carried by English ships. In a period of growing mercantilism this was the spark that ignited the first Anglo-Dutch war, the British seeking a pretext to start a war which led to sporadic naval engagements across the globe. The English were initially successful, Admiral Robert Blake defeating the Dutch Admiral Witte de With in the Battle of the Kentish Knock in 1652. Believing that the war was all but over, the English divided their forces and in 1653 were routed by the fleet of Dutch Admiral Maarten Tromp at the Battle of Dungeness in the English Channel. The Dutch were also victorious at the Battle of Leghorn and had effective control of both the Mediterranean and the English Channel. Blake, recovering from an injury, rethought, together with George Monck, the whole system of naval tactics, and in mid-1653 used the Dutch line of battle method to drive the Dutch navy back to its ports in the battles of Portland and the Gabbard. In the final Battle of Scheveningen on August 10, 1653, Tromp was killed, a blow to Dutch morale, but the British were forced to end their blockade of the Dutch coast. As both nations were by now exhausted, peace negotiations were started. The war ended on 1654-04-05 with the signing of the Treaty of Westminster, but the commercial rivalry was not resolved, the British having failed to replace the Dutch as the world's dominant trade nation. Battles May 29, 1652 Battle of Dover Draw, moral English victory August 26, 1652 Battle of Plymouth Minor Dutch victory October 8, 1652 Battle of the Kentish Knock English victory December 10, 1652 Battle of Dungeness Dutch victory March 14, 1653 Battle of Leghorn Dutch victory February 28 until March 2, 1653 Battle of Portland English victory, but moral victory for the Dutch as their fleet escaped certain destruction. June 13, 1653 Battle of the Gabbard English victory August 8–10, 1653 Battle of Scheveningen English tactical victory, strategic Dutch victory Dutch-Swedish War (1657–1660) The Dutch-Swedish War, 1657–1660, was a Dutch intervention in the Northern Wars. When Charles X of Sweden had been unable to continue his hold on Poland — partly because the Dutch fleet relieved the besieged city of Danzig in 1656 — he turned his attention on Denmark, invading that country from what is now Germany. He broke a new agreement with Frederick III of Denmark and laid siege to Copenhagen. To the Dutch the Baltic trade was vital, both in quantity and quality. The Dutch had been able to convince Denmark, by threat of force, to keep the Sound tolls at a low level but they feared a strong Swedish empire would not be so complying. In 1658 they sent an expedition fleet of 75 ships, 3,000 cannon and 15000 troops; in the Battle of the Sound it defeated the Swedish fleet and relieved Copenhagen. In 1659 the Dutch liberated the other Danish Isles and the essential supply of grain, wood and iron from the Baltic was guaranteed once more. The second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) After the English Restoration, Charles II tried to serve his dynastic interests by attempting to make Prince William III of Orange, his nephew, stadtholder of The Republic, using military pressure. This led to a surge of patriotism in England, the country being, as Samuel Pepys put it, "mad for war". This war, deliberately provoked by the English in 1664, witnessed several significant English victories in battle, (but also some Dutch ones such as the capture of HMS Prince Royal during the Four Days Battle in 1666 which was the subject of a famous painting by Willem van de Velde). However, the Raid on the Medway (entailing the burning of part of the English fleet whilst docked at Chatham in June 1667 when a flotilla of ships led by Admiral de Ruyter broke through the defensive chains guarding the Medway and wrought havoc on the English ships as well as the capture of the Royal Navy's flagship ) saw the war ended with a Dutch victory. For several years the greatly expanded Dutch Navy was the most powerful navy in the world. The Republic was at the zenith of its power. Battles June 13, 1665 Battle of Lowestoft Dutch catastrophic defeat, arguably the worst defeat in Dutch naval history. June 1 until June 4, 1666 Four Days Battle Dutch victory. August 4 and 5, 1666 St James' Day Battle English victory, but the main body of the Dutch fleet escaped, while the Dutch rear beat its counterpart. June 1667 Raid on the Medway Decisive Dutch victory, the worst defeat in the Royal Navy's history. The Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678) and the third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674) Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678) was a war fought between France and a quadruple alliance consisting of Brandenburg, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and the United Provinces. The war ended with the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678); this granted France control of the Franche-Comté (from Spain). France led a coalition including Münster and Great Britain. Louis XIV was annoyed by the Dutch refusal to cooperate in the destruction and division of the Spanish Netherlands. As the Dutch army had been neglected, the French had no trouble by-passing the fortress of Maastricht and then marching to the heart of the Republic, taking Utrecht. Prince William III of Orange is assumed to have had the leading Dutch politician Johan de Witt deposed and murdered, and was acclaimed stadtholder. The French were halted by inundations, the Dutch Water Line, after Louis tarried too much in conquering the whole of the Republic. He had promised the major Dutch cities to the British and tried to extort huge sums from the Dutch in exchange for a separate peace. The bishop of Münster laid siege to Groningen but failed. 1672 is known as the rampjaar ("disaster year") in Dutch history, in which the country only nearly survived the combined English-French-German assault. Soon after the second Anglo-Dutch War, the English navy was rebuilt. After the embarrassing events in the previous war, English public opinion was unenthusiastic about starting a new one. Bound by the Secret Treaty of Dover Charles II was however obliged to assist Louis XIV in his attack on The Republic in the Franco-Dutch War. This he did willingly, having manipulated the French and Dutch into war. The French army being halted by inundations, and an attempt was made to invade The Republic by sea. Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, gaining four strategic victories against the Anglo-French fleet, prevented invasion. After these failures the English parliament forced Charles to sign a peace in 1674. Already, allies had joined the Dutch — the Elector of Brandenburg, the Emperor, and Charles II of Spain. Louis, despite the successful Siege of Maastricht in 1673, was forced to abandon his plans of conquering the Dutch and revert to a slow, cautious war of attrition around the French frontiers. By 1678, he had managed to break apart his opponents' coalition, and managed to gain considerable territories by the terms of the Treaty of Nijmegen. Most notably, the French acquired the Franche-Comté and various territories in the Netherlands from the Spanish. Nevertheless, the Dutch had thwarted the ambitions of two of the major royal dynasties of the time: the Stuarts and the Bourbons. Battles June 7, 1672 Battle of Solebay Tactical draw, Dutch strategic victory. June 2, 1673 First Battle of Schooneveld Dutch minor victory. June 14, 1673 Second Battle of Schooneveld Dutch minor victory. August 11, 1673 Battle of Texel Tactical draw, huge Dutch strategic victory. March 14, 1674 Battle of Ronas Voe Minor battle, English victory Action of March 1677 The action of March 1677 was a maritime battle that took place in March 1677 in the West Indies when a Dutch fleet under Jacob Binckes repulsed a French force attempting to recapture the island of Tobago. Heavy losses were suffered on both sides: one of the Dutch supply ships caught fire and exploded. The fire then quickly spread in the narrow bay causing several ships, among them the French flagship 'Glorieux', to catch fire and explode in turn which resulted in great loss of life on both sides. The French under d'Estrees retreated. Nine Years' War (1688–1697) The Nine Years' War was a major war fought in Europe and America from 1688 to 1697, between France and the League of Augsburg — which, by 1689, was known as the "Grand Alliance". The war was fought to resist French expansionism along the Rhine, as well as, on the part of England, to safeguard the results of the Glorious Revolution from a possible French-backed restoration of James II. In North America the war was known as King William's War. The League of Augsburg The League of Augsburg was formed in 1686 between the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I, and various of the German princes (including the Palatinate, Bavaria, and Brandenburg) to resist French expansionism in Germany. The alliance was joined by Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Provinces. France had expected a benevolent neutrality on the part of James II's England, but after James's deposition and replacement by his son-in-law William of Orange, Louis's inveterate enemy, England declared war on France in May 1689, and the League of Augsburg became known as the "Grand Alliance", with England, Portugal, Spain, the United Provinces, and most of the German states joined to fight France. Campaign in the Netherlands In the war's principal theatre, in continental Europe, the early military campaigns, which mostly occurred in the Spanish Netherlands, were generally successful for France. After a setback at the Battle of Walcourt in August 1689, in which the French were defeated by an allied army under Prince Georg Friedrich of Waldeck, the French under Marshal Luxembourg were successful at the Battle of Fleurus in 1690, but Louis prevented Luxembourg from following up on his victory. The French were also successful in the Alps in 1690, with Marshal Catinat defeating the Duke of Savoy at the Battle of Staffarda and occupying Savoy. The Turkish recapture of Belgrade in October of the same year proved a boon to the French, preventing the Emperor from making peace with the Turks and sending his full forces west. The French were also successful at sea, defeating the Anglo-Dutch fleet at Beachy Head, but failed to follow up on the victory by sending aid to the Jacobite forces in Ireland or pursuing control of the Channel. The French followed up on their success in 1691 with Luxembourg's capture of Mons and Halle and his defeat of Waldeck at the Battle of Leuze, while Marshal Catinat continued his advance into Italy, and another French army advanced into Catalonia, and in 1692 Namur was captured by a French army under the direct command of the King, and the French beat back an allied offensive under William of Orange at the Battle of Steenkerque. Early French dominance When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still suffering from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II, which had been only in part corrected during the short reign of James II. The first squadrons were sent out late and in insufficient strength. The Dutch, crushed by the obligation to maintain a great army, found an increasing difficulty in preparing their fleet for action early. Louis XIV, with as yet inexhausted resources, had it within his power to strike first. English and Dutch resurgence A large French fleet entered the English Channel, and gained a success over the combined British and Dutch fleets on July 10, 1690, in the Battle of Beachy Head, which was not followed up by vigorous action. During the following year, while James's cause was finally ruined in Ireland, the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of Biscay, principally for the purpose of avoiding battle. During the whole of 1689, 1690 and 1691, British squadrons were active on the Irish coast -helping to win the Williamite war in Ireland for the allies. One raised the siege of Derry in July 1689, and another convoyed the first British and Dutch forces sent over under the Duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition under the Earl of Marlborough, which took Cork and reduced a large part of the south of the island. William of Orange himself arrived in Ireland in 1690 with veteran Dutch and allied troops, defeating the James II at the Battle of the Boyne-an engagement largely decided by Dutch infantry. The war was ended in Anglo-Dutch favour in 1691, when Dutch general Ginkel destroyed the Franco-Irish army at the Battle of Aughrim. In 1691, the French did little more than help to carry away the wreckage of their allies and their own detachments. In 1692 a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to employ their fleet to cover an invasion of England at the Battle of La Hougue. It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel. The defeat of La Hougue did not do so much harm to Louis's naval power, and in the next year, 1693, he was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies. In this instance, the arrangements of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps to discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port. The convoy was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet. But as the French admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits of Gibraltar with a powerful force and had been joined by a squadron from Toulon, the whole convoy was scattered or taken by him, in the latter days of June, near Lagos Bay. Although this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat at La Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis XIV in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his fleet up. The allies were now free to make full use of their own, to harass the French coast, to intercept French commerce, and to cooperate with the armies acting against France. Some of the operations undertaken by them were more remarkable for the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of the results. The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the attempts to destroy Saint-Malo, the great nursery of the active French privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A British attack on Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy loss, the scheme having been betrayed by Jacobite correspondents. Yet the inability of the French king to avert these enterprises showed the weakness of his navy and the limitations of his power. The protection of British and Dutch commerce was never complete, for the French privateers were active to the end, but French commerce was wholly ruined. The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780–1784) The Glorious Revolution of 1688 was the last successful invasion of England and ended the conflict by placing Prince William III of Orange on the English throne as co-ruler with his wife Mary. Though this was in fact a military conflict between Great Britain and The Republic, William invading the British Isles with a Dutch fleet and army, in English histories it is never described as such because he had strong support in England and was partly serving the dynastic interests of his wife. The regime change was a major contributing factor in the economic decline of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch merchant elite immediately began to use London as a new operational base. Dutch economic growth slowed. William ordered that any Anglo-Dutch fleet be under British command, with the Dutch navy having 60% of the strength of the British. From about 1720 Dutch wealth declined. Between 1740 and 1770 the Dutch Navy was neglected. Around 1780 the per capita gross national product of the Kingdom of Great Britain surpassed that of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch Republic, nominally neutral, had been trading with the Americans during the American Revolutionary War, exchanging Dutch arms and munitions for American colonial wares (in contravention of the British Navigation Acts), primarily through activity based in St. Eustatius, before the French formally entered the war. The British considered this trade to include contraband military supplies and had attempted to stop it, at first diplomatically by appealing to previous treaty obligations, interpretation of whose terms the two nations disagreed on, and then by searching and seizing Dutch merchant ships. The situation escalated when the British seized a Dutch merchant convoy sailing under Dutch naval escort in December 1779, prompting the Dutch to join the League of Armed Neutrality. Britain responded to this decision by declaring war on the Dutch in December 1780, sparking the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War. The Dutch navy was by now only a shadow of its former self, having only about twenty ships of the line, so there were no large fleet battles. The English tried to reduce the Republic to the status of a British protectorate, using Prussian military pressure and gaining factual control over most of the Dutch colonies, those conquered during the war given back at war's end. The Dutch then still held some key positions in the European trade with Asia, such as the Cape, Ceylon and Malacca. The war sparked a new round of Dutch ship building (95 warships in the last quarter of the 18th century), but the British kept their absolute numerical superiority by doubling their fleet in the same time. Battles August 5, 1781 Battle of Dogger Bank Indecisive outcome. No ships were lost on either side; this alone meant a moral victory for the Dutch. Batavian Republic and French rule Against this background it is less surprising that, after the French Revolution, when Republican troops invaded and occupied the Netherlands in 1795, the French encountered so little united resistance. William V of Orange fled to England. The Patriots proclaimed the short-lived Batavian Republic, but government was soon returned to stabler and more experienced hands. In 1806 Napoleon restyled the Netherlands (along with a small part of what is now Germany) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother Louis (Lodewijk) Bonaparte as king. This too was short-lived, however. Napoleon incorporated the Netherlands into the French empire after his brother put Dutch interests ahead of those of the French. The French occupation of the Netherlands ended in 1813 after Napoleon was defeated, a defeat in which William V of Orange played a prominent role. Batavian Republic (1795–1806) From 1795 to 1806, the Batavian Republic (Bataafse Republiek in Dutch) designated the Netherlands as a republic modeled after the French Republic, to which it was a vassal state. The Batavian Republic was proclaimed on January 19, 1795, a day after stadtholder William V of Orange fled to England. The invading French revolutionary army, however, found quite a few allies in the Netherlands. Eight years before, the Orange faction had won the upper hand in a small, but nasty civil war only thanks to the military intervention of the King of Prussia, brother-in-law of the stadtholder. Many of the revolutionaries (see: Patriottentijd) had fled to France and now returned eager to realize their ideals. In contrast to events in France, revolutionary changes in the Netherlands occurred comparatively peacefully. The country had been a republic for two centuries and had a limited nobility. The guillotine proved unnecessary to the new state. The old Republic had been a very archaic and ineffective political construction, still largely based on old feudal institutions. Decision-making had proceeded very slowly and sometimes did not happen at all. The individual provinces had possessed so much power that they blocked many sensible innovations. The Batavian Republic marked the transition to a more centralised and functional government, from a loose confederation of (at least nominally) independent provinces to a true unitary state. Many of its innovations were retained in later times, such as the first official spelling standard of the Dutch language by Siegenbeek (1804). Jews, Lutherans and Roman Catholics were given equal rights. A Bill of Rights was drafted. The new Republic took its name from the Batavi, a Germanic tribe who had lived in the area of the Netherlands in Roman times and who were then romantically regarded as the ancestors of the Dutch nation. Again in contrast to France, the new Republic did not experience a reign of terror or become a dictatorship. Changes were imposed from outside after Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power. In 1805 Napoleon installed the shrewd politician Schimmelpenninck as raadspensionaris ("Grand Pensionary", i.e. president of the republic) to strengthen the executive branch. In 1806 Napoleon forced Schimmelpenninck to resign and declared his brother Louis Bonaparte king of the new Kingdom of Holland. The only signs of political instability were three coups d'état. The first occurred in 1798, when the unitarian democrats were annoyed by the slow pace of democratic reforms. A few months later a second coup put an end to the dictatorship of the unitarians. The National Assembly, which had been convened in 1796, was divided by a struggle among the factions. The third coup occurred in 1801, when a French commander, backed by Napoleon, staged a conservative coup reversing the changes made after the 1798 coup. The Batavian government was more popular among the Dutch population than was the prince of Orange. This was apparent during the British-Russian invasion of 1799. As a French vassal state, the Batavian Republic was an ally of France in its wars against Great Britain. This led to the loss of most of the Dutch colonial empire and a defeat of the Dutch fleet in the Battle of Camperdown (Camperduin) in 1797. The collapse of Dutch trade caused a series of economic crises. Only in the second half of the 19th century would Dutch wealth be restored to its previous level. Occupation of the Netherlands/French Revolutionary campaign of 1795 The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1794 between France and the First Coalition. The year opened with French forces in the process of attacking the Netherlands in the middle of winter. The Dutch people were rather indifferent to the French call for revolution, as they had already been a republic for two centuries, nevertheless city after city was occupied by the French. The Dutch fleet was captured, and the stadtholder fled to be replaced by the Batavian Republic, and, as a vassal state of France, supported the French cause and signed the treaty of Paris, ceding the territories of Brabant and Maastricht to France on May 16. With the Netherlands falling, Prussia also decided to leave the coalition, signing the Peace of Basle on April 6, ceding the left bank of the Rhine to France. This freed Prussia to finish the occupation of Poland. The Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) The Kingdom of Holland 1806-1810 (Koninkrijk Holland in Dutch, Royaume de Hollande in French) was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom for his third brother, Louis Bonaparte, in order to better control the Kingdom of the Holland. The name of the leading province, Holland, was now taken for the whole country. Louis did not perform to Napoleon's expectations – he tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's – and the kingdom was dissolved in 1810 after which the Netherlands were annexed by France until 1813 when the French were defeated. During Louis' reign an expeditionary force took part in the French campaigns in Germany during the War of the Fourth Coalition and the War of the Fifth Coalition, and a Dutch brigade was involved in the Peninsular War. Anglo-Dutch Java War (1810–1811) The Anglo-Dutch Java War in 1810-1811 was a war between Great Britain and the Netherlands fought entirely on the Island of Java in colonial Indonesia. The governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, Herman Willem Daendels (1762–1818), fortified the island of Java against possible British attack. In 1810 a strong British East India Company expedition under Gilbert Elliot, first earl of Minto, governor-general of India, conquered the French islands of Bourbon (Réunion) and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean and the Dutch East Indian possessions of Ambon and the Molucca Islands. Afterward it moved against Java, captured the port city of Batavia (Jakarta) in August 1811, and forced the Dutch to surrender at Semarang on September 17, 1811. Java, Palembang (in Sumatra), Macassar (Makasar, Celebes), and Timor were ceded to the British. Appointed lieutenant governor of Java, Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781–1826) ended Dutch administrative methods, liberalized the system of land tenure, and extended trade. In 1816, the British returned Java and other East Indian possessions to the Dutch as part of the accord ending the Napoleonic Wars. Battle of Waterloo The Battle of Waterloo was to involve 73,000 French soldiers; while the Allied army from Britain, Hanover, Brunswick, and the Netherlands and Nassau were about 67,000 men strong. (Of the 26 infantry brigades in Wellington's army, nine were British; of the 12 cavalry brigades, 7 were British. Half the 29 batteries of guns were Hanoverian or Dutch). The battle At Waterloo, Wellington had the reinforced Hougomont farm, anchoring his right flank, and several other farms on his left. Napoleon faced his first major problem even before the battle began. Unsure of the Prussian Army's position since its flight from Ligny two days previously, Napoleon was all too aware of the need to begin the assault on Wellington's positions. The battle commenced at about 10:00 with an attack upon Hougoumont, but the main attack, with the most feared weapon of the era, the French field artillery, was delayed for hours until the sodden ground from the previous night's downpour had dried out sufficiently to take the weight of the French ordnance. The mud also hindered infantry and cavalry as they trudged into position. When the French artillery eventually opened fire on Wellington's ridge at around 11:35, the expected impact on the Allied troops was diminished by the soft terrain that absorbed the impact of many of the cannonballs. A crucial element of the French plan of battle was the expectation that Wellington would move his reserve to his right flank in defense of Hougomont. At one point, the French succeeded in breaking into the farm's courtyard before being repulsed, but their attacks on the farm were eventually unsuccessful, and Wellington did not need to use his reserve. Hougomont became a battle within a battle and, throughout that day, its defence continued to draw thousands of valuable French troops, under the command of Jérôme Bonaparte, into a fruitless attack while all but a few of Wellington's reserves remained in his centre. At about 13:30, after receiving news of the Prussian advance to his right, Napoleon ordered Marshal Ney to send d'Erlon's infantry forward against the allied flank near La Haye Sainte. The attack centred on the Dutch 1st Brigade commanded by Major-General Willem Frederik van Bylandt, which was one of the few units placed on the forward slope of the ridge. After suffering an intense artillery bombardment and exchanging volleys with d'Erlon's leading elements for some nine minutes, van Bylandt's outnumbered soldiers were forced to retreat over the ridge and through the lines of General Thomas Picton's division. Picton's division moved forward over the ridgeline to engage d'Erlon. The British and Dutchmen were likewise mauled by volley-fire and close-quarter attacks, but Picton's soldiers stood firm, eventually breaking up the attack by charging the French columns. Meanwhile, the Prussians began to appear on the field. Napoleon sent his reserve, Lobau's VI corps and 2 cavalry divisions, some 15,000 troops, to hold them back. With this, Napoleon had committed all of his infantry reserves, except the Guard. Lacking an infantry reserve, as Napoleon was unwilling to commit the Guard at this stage of the battle, all that Ney could do was to try to break Wellington's centre with his cavalry. It struggled up the slope to the fore of Wellington's centre, where squares of Allied infantry awaited them. The cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the solid Allied infantry squares (four ranks deep with fixed bayonets – vulnerable to artillery or infantry, but deadly to cavalry), the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup, and the decisive counter-charges of the Allied Light Cavalry regiments and the Dutch Heavy Cavalry Brigade. After numerous fruitless attacks on the Allied ridge, the French cavalry was exhausted. The Prussians were already engaging the Imperial Army's right flank when La Haye Sainte fell to French combined arms (infantry, artillery and cavalry), because the defending King's German Legion had run out of ammunition in the early evening. The Prussians had driven Lobau out of Plancenoit, which was on the extreme (Allied) left of the battle field. Therefore, Napoleon sent his 10 battalion strong Young Guard to beat the Prussians back. But after very hard fighting the Young Guard was beaten back. Napoleon sent 2 battalions of Old Guard and after ferocious fighting they beat the Prussians out. But the Prussians had not been forced away far enough. Approximately 30,000 Prussians attacked Plancenoit again. The place was defended by 20,000 Frenchmen in and around the village. The Old Guard and other supporting troops were able to hold on for about one hour before a massive Prussian counter-attack kicked them out after some bloody street fighting lasting more than a half hour. The last to flee was the Old Guard who defended the church and cemetery. The French casualties at the end of the day were horrible. With Wellington's centre exposed by the French taking La Haye Sainte, Napoleon committed his last reserve, the undefeated Imperial Guard. After marching through a blizzard of shell and shrapnel, the already outnumbered 5 battalions of middle guard defeated the allied first line, including British, Brunswick and Nassau troops. Meanwhile, to the west, 1,500 British Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. They rose as one, and devastated the shocked Imperial Guard with volleys of fire at point-blank range. The French chasseurs deployed to answer the fire. After 10 minutes of exchanging musketry the outnumbered French began wavering. This was the sign for a bayonet charge. But then a fresh French chasseur battalion appeared on the scene. The British guard retired with the French in pursuit – though the French in their turn were attacked by fresh British troops of Adam's brigade. The Imperial Guard fell back in disarray and chaos. A ripple of panic passed through the French lines – "La garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard retreats. Save yourself if you can!"). Wellington, judging that the retreat by the Imperial Guard had unnerved all the French soldiers who saw it, stood up in the stirrups of Copenhagen (his favourite horse), and waved his hat in the air, signalling a general advance. The long-suffering Anglo-Dutch infantry rushed forward from the lines where they had been shelled all day, and threw themselves upon the retreating French. Padri War (1821–1837) The Padri War also called Minangkabau War is the name given to the skirmishes fought by the Dutch troops from 1821 to 1837 in West Sumatra, Indonesia. In the 1820s, the Dutch were yet to consolidate their possessions in some parts of the Dutch East Indies (later Indonesia) after re-acquiring it from the British. At the same time, a conflict broke out in West Sumatra between the so-called adat and padri factions. Although both Minangkabaus and Muslims, they differ in values: the Adats were Minangkabau traditionalists while the Padris were Islamist-Wahhabist. The Padris sought to reform un-Islamic traditions, such as cockfighting and gambling. Java War (1825–1830) The Java War was fought in Java between 1825 and 1830. It started as a rebellion led by the illustrious Prince Diponegoro. The trigger was the Dutch decision to build a road across a piece of his property that contained his own parent's tomb. Among its causes was a sense of betrayal by the Dutch felt by members of the Javanese aristocratic families, as they were no longer able to rent land at high prices. There were also some problems with the succession of the throne in Yogyakarta: Diponegoro was the oldest son, but as his mother was not the queen, he did not have any right to succeed his father. The troops of Prince Diponegoro were very successful in the beginning, controlling the middle of Java and besieging Yogyakarta. Furthermore, the Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoro's cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially very indecisive. However, as the Java war prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops. The Dutch colonial army however was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi and later on with troops from the Netherlands. The Dutch commander, general De Cock, was able to end the siege of Yogyakarta on September 25, 1825. Prince Diponegoro started a fierce guerrilla war and it was not until 1827 that the Dutch army gained the upper hand. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict, 8,000 being Dutch. The rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch custody near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire, and exiled to Manado on the island of Sulawesi. Belgian revolution (1830–1839) The Belgian Revolution was a conflict in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands that began with a riot in Brussels in August 1830 and eventually led to the establishment of an independent, Catholic and neutral Belgium (William I, king of the Netherlands, would refuse to recognize a Belgian state until 1839, when he had to yield under pressure by the Treaty of London). August 2 to August 12, 1831, the Dutch army, headed by the Dutch princes, invaded Belgium, in the so-called "Ten Days' Campaign", and defeated Belgian forces near Hasselt and Leuven. Only the appearance of a French army under Marshal Gérard caused the Dutch to retreat. The victorious initial campaign gave the Dutch an advantageous position in subsequent negotiations. William stubbornly pursued the war, bungled, ineffectual and expensive as its desultory campaigns were, until 1839. Aceh War (1873–1903) The Dutch colonial government declared war on Aceh on March 26, 1873; the apparent immediate trigger for their invasion was discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United States in Singapore during early 1873. An expedition under Major General Köhler was sent out in 1874, which was able to occupy most of the coastal areas. It was the intention of the Dutch to attack and take the Sultan's palace, which would also lead to the occupation of the entire country. The Sultan requested and possibly received military aid from Italy and the United Kingdom in Singapore: in any case the Aceh army was rapidly modernized, and Aceh soldiers managed to kill Köhler (a monument of this achievement has been built inside Grand Mosque of Banda Aceh). Köhler made some grave tactical errors and the reputation of the Dutch was severely harmed. A second expedition led by General Van Swieten managed to capture the kraton (sultan's palace): the Sultan had however been warned, and had escaped capture. Intermittent guerrilla warfare continued in the region for ten years, with many victims on both sides. Around 1880 the Dutch strategy changed, and rather than continuing the war, they now concentrated on defending areas they already controlled, which were mostly limited to the capital city (modern Banda Aceh), and the harbour town of Ulee Lheue. On October 13, 1880, the colonial government declared the war as over, but continued spending heavily to maintain control over the areas it occupied. War began again in 1883, when the British ship Nisero was stranded in Aceh, in an area where the Dutch had little influence. A local leader asked for ransom from both the Dutch and the British, and under British pressure the Dutch were forced to attempt to liberate the sailors. After a failed Dutch attempt to rescue the hostages, where the local leader Teuku Umar was asked for help but he refused, the Dutch together with the British invaded the territory. The Sultan gave up the hostages, and received a large amount in cash in exchange. The Dutch Minister of Warfare Weitzel now again declared open war on Aceh, and warfare continued, with little success, as before. The Dutch now also tried to enlist local leaders: the aforementioned Umar was bought with cash, opium, and weapons. Umar received the title panglima prang besar (upper warlord of the government). Umar called himself rather Teuku Djohan Pahlawan (Johan the heroic). On January 1, 1894, Umar even received Dutch aid to build an army. However, two years later Umar attacked the Dutch with his new army, rather than aiding the Dutch in subjugating inner Aceh. This is recorded in Dutch history as "Het verraad van Teukoe Oemar" (the treason of Teuku Umar). In 1892 and 1893, Aceh remained independent, despite the Dutch efforts. Major J.B. van Heutsz, a colonial military leader, then wrote a series of articles on Aceh. He was supported by Dr Snouck Hurgronje of the University of Leiden, then the leading Dutch expert on Islam. Hurgronje managed to get the confidence of many Aceh leaders and gathered valuable intelligence for the Dutch government. His works remained an official secret for many years. In Hurgronje's analysis of Acehnese society, he minimised the role of the Sultan and argued that attention should be paid to the hereditary chiefs, the Ulee Balang, who he felt could be trusted as local administrators. However, he argued, Aceh's religious leaders, the ulema, could not be trusted or persuaded to cooperate, and must be destroyed. This advice was followed: in 1898 Van Heutsz was proclaimed governor of Aceh, and with his lieutenant, later Dutch Prime Minister Hendrikus Colijn, would finally conquer most of Aceh. They followed Hurgronje's suggestions, finding cooperative uleebelang that would support them in the countryside. Van Heutsz charged Colonel Van Daalen with breaking remaining resistance. Van Daalen destroyed several villages, killing at least 2,900 Acehnese, among which were 1,150 women and children. Dutch losses numbered just 26, and Van Daalen was replaced by Colonel Swart. By 1904 most of Aceh was under Dutch control, and had an indigenous government that cooperated with the colonial state. Estimated total casualties on the Aceh side range from 50,000 to 100,000 dead, and over a million wounded. World War I (1914–1918) During World War I the Netherlands remained neutral. A large army was mobilised to defend this neutrality, but it was not equipped by the new standards of the day, causing a structural equipment inferiority that would last until the middle of the century. After the war most of the defence budget was spent on the fleet to protect the East Indies. This however didn't allow the navy to be expanded, merely to be modernised. World War II (1939–1945) Whereas it often said of the allies, with much exaggeration, that they during the Battle of France were more prepared for the previous than the present war, for the Dutch not even that was true. Of all the major participants they were by far the most poorly equipped, not even attaining World War I standards, largely due to the Dutch belief that their neutrality would (again) be respected. However, the German invaders in May 1940 adjusted their forces accordingly, and the Dutch army in the Battle of the Netherlands was largely intact when it surrendered on May 14 — after just five days of fighting — to save the major Dutch cities from further bombardment. The Dutch empire continued the fight, but the Netherlands East Indies (later Indonesia) was invaded by Japan in 1942. In the climactic Battle of the Java Sea, the larger part of the Dutch navy was destroyed. The Dutch contribution to the war effort was then limited to the merchant fleet (providing the bulk of allied merchant shipping in the Pacific war), several aircraft squadrons, some naval vessels and a motorised infantry brigade raised by enlisting Dutch emigrants. Cold War After the Second World War, the Dutch were first involved in a colonial war against the nationalists in Indonesia. As a result, the home forces were much neglected and had to rearm by begging for (or simply taking) surplus allied equipment, such as the RAM tank. In 1949 Bernard Montgomery judged the Royal Netherlands Army as simply "unfit for battle". In the early fifties however, the Dutch fully participated in the NATO build-up of conventional forces. US financial support paying half of the equipment budget made it possible to create a modern defence force. Afraid that the USA might give up Europe immediately after a Soviet attack, the Dutch strongly reinforced the Rhine position by means of the traditional Dutch defensive weapon: water. Preparations were made to completely dam the major Rhine effluent rivers, forcing the water into the northern IJssel branch and thereby creating an impassable mudbarrier between Lake IJssel and the Ruhr Area. The Dutch navy was also expanded with an aircraft carrier, two cruisers, twelve destroyers and eight submarines. In the sixties, the Navy again began to produce modern vessels of its own design and expanded slowly, however nuclear propulsion was refused by the United States. The Army replaced most of its motorised units by mechanised ones, introducing thousands of AFVs into the Infantry and the Artillery. Conventional firepower was neglected however as it was intended to engage in nuclear war immediately. In the seventies, it was hoped that the strategy of flexible response would allow for a purely conventional defence. Digital modelling by the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research showed that successful conventional defence was feasible and indeed likely, provided that conventional firepower would be improved. Whereas the British, French, Belgians and Canadians reduced their forces in this decade, the Dutch government therefore decided to go along with the German and American policy of force enlargement. As a result, in the mid-eighties the Dutch heavy units equalled the British in number and the Dutch Corps sector at the Elbe was the only one to have its own reserve division; it was conceived as to be able to hold an attack by nine reinforced Soviet divisions, or about 10,000 AFVs including materiel reserves. These facts were obscured somewhat by international press attention to the relaxation of discipline, part of a deliberate policy to better integrate the forces into the larger society. At the same time the Navy had over thirty capital vessels and the Air Force about 200 tactical planes. When the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union itself collapsed, the Dutch reduced their forces considerably and integrated their army with the German while also creating a new airborne brigade. The conscript army was replaced by a fully professional one and hundreds of light AFVs bought for use in peace missions. Modernising of naval and air forces, less drastically reduced, continues. Korean War The Korean War, from June 25, 1950, until the Korean Armistice Agreement took effect on July 27, 1953, started as a war between North Korea and South Korea. When it began, North and South Korea existed as provisional governments competing for control over the Korean peninsula, due to the division of Korea. The war was one of the first major armed clashes of the Cold War. The principal combatants were North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China, and later combat advisors, aircraft pilots, and weapons from the Soviet Union; against South Korea, supported principally by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, the Philippines and many other nations sent troops under the aegis of the United Nations (UN), including the Netherlands, who sent over 3,000 troops. The Netherlands Detachment United Nations was established on October 15, 1950, and out of a total number of 16,225 volunteers, 3,418 men were accepted and sent to Korea. Most Dutch army troops were assigned to the "Netherlands Battalion", attached to the 38th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division. Dutch casualties included 116 men killed in action, 3 missing in action and 1 who died as a prisoner of war. The casualties were eventually buried at the United Nations Memorial Cemetery in Busan, South Korea. Several vessels of the Royal Netherlands Navy were deployed to Korean waters including the destroyers , and and the frigates , and (not all at the same time). Their duties included patrolling Korean waters, escorting other ships and supporting ground troops with naval artillery fire. War against Indonesian Independence (1945–1949) After the collapse of Japan at the end of World War II, Indonesian nationalists under Sukarno recognized the opportunity presenting itself and declared independence from Dutch colonial rule. With the assistance of indigenous army units created by the Japanese, an independent Republic of Indonesia with Sukarno as its president was proclaimed on August 17, 1945. The Netherlands, only very recently freed from German occupation itself, initially lacked the means to respond, allowing Republican forces to establish de facto control over parts of the huge archipelago, particularly in Java and Sumatra. On the other, in the less densely populated outer islands, no effective control was established by either party, leading at times to chaotic conditions. British involvement In the weeks following the Japanese, the United Kingdom sent in troops to take over from the Japanese and soon found itself in conflict with the fledgling government. British forces brought in a small Dutch military contingent which it termed the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA). The British were worried about the increasing boldness and apparent strength of the Indonesian nationalists, who seemed to be armed with the weapons of defeated Japanese garrisons across the archipelago. A British Brigadier, A.W.S Mallaby, was killed as he pushed for an ultimatum stipulating that the Indonesians surrender their weapons or face a major assault. In retaliation, 10 November 1945, Surabaya was attacked by British forces, leading to a bloody street-to-street battle. Lasting three weeks, the battle of Surabaya was the bloodiest single engagement in the war and demonstrated the determination of the Indonesian nationalist forces. It made the British reluctant to be drawn into another when their resources in southeast Asia were stretched following the Japanese surrender. Dutch reaction As a consequence, the Dutch were asked to take back control, and the number of NICA forces soon increased dramatically. Initially the Netherlands negotiated with the Republic and came to an agreement at Linggadjati, in which the 'United States of Indonesia' were proclaimed, a semi-autonomous federal state keeping as its head the Queen of the Netherlands. Both sides increasingly accused each other of violating the agreement, and as consequence the hawkish forces soon won out on both sides. A major point of concern for the Dutch side was the fate of members of the Dutch minority in Indonesia, most of whom had been held under deplorable conditions in concentration camps by the Japanese. The Indonesians were accused (and guilty) of not cooperating in liberating these prisoners. Police actions and guerilla war The Netherlands government then mounted a large military force to regain what it believed was rightfully its territory. The two major military campaigns that followed were declared as mere 'police actions' to downplay the extent of the operations. There were atrocities and violations of human rights in many forms by both sides in the conflict. Some 6,000 Dutch and 150,000 Indonesians are estimated to have been killed. Although the Dutch and their indigenous allies managed to defeat the Republican Army in almost all major engagements and during the second campaign even to arrest Sukarno himself, Indonesian forces continued to wage a major guerrilla war under the leadership of General Sudirman who had escaped the Dutch onslaught. A few months before the second Dutch offensive, communist elements within the independence movement had staged a failed coup, known as Madiun Affair, with the goal of seizing control of the republican forces. Recognition of Indonesian independence The continuing existence of Republican resistance following the second 'Police action', paired with active diplomacy, soon thereafter led to the end of colonial rule. Journalistic opinion in much of the rest of the world, notably in the United States, was against the Dutch. In January 1949, the US government suspended Marshall Plan aid to the Netherlands Indies. Although the threat to Marshall Plan aid to the Netherlands was only implicit, the possibility of the threat to American funds vital to Dutch economic recovery after the Second World War, was one of the reasons why the Netherlands government resumed negotiations. Following the Round Table conference in The Hague, the Dutch finally recognised Indonesian independence on December 27, 1949. An exception was made for Netherlands New Guinea (currently known as West Irian Jaya), which remained under Dutch control. In 1962, in an attempt to increase pressure on the Dutch, Indonesia launched a campaign of infiltration by commandos coming in by sea and air, which were all beaten back by the Dutch forces, although these were not serious invasions. After large pressure from mainly the United States (again about the Marshall Plan) the Dutch finally gave custody over New Guinea to the UN, which in 1963 gave New Guinea to Indonesia. In the following decades, a diplomatic row between the governments of Indonesia and the Netherlands persisted over the officially recognized date of Indonesian independence. Indonesians commemorate the anniversary of Sukarno's proclamation (August 17, 1945) as their official holiday. The Netherlands, having taken in a number of loyalist exiles who (for various reasons) viewed Sukarno's government as illegitimate, would only recognize the date of the final Dutch capitulation to Indonesia on December 27, 1949. This changed in 2005 when the Dutch Foreign Minister, Bernard Bot, made several well-publicized goodwill gestures: officially accepting Indonesian independence as beginning on August 17, 1945; expressing regret for suffering caused by the fighting during the war; and attending the 60th anniversary commemoration of Sukarno's independence proclamation, part of the first Dutch delegation to do so. Contemporary wars Bosnian War The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina was an armed conflict that took place between March 1992 and November 1995. The war involved several ethnically defined factions within Bosnia and Herzegovina, each of which claimed to represent one of the country's constitutive peoples. The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was the primary UN peacekeeping force in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars. They served between February 1992 and March 1995. The Dutch Army contribution was known as ‘Dutchbat’. UNPROFOR was replaced by a NATO-led multinational force, IFOR in December 1995. The Royal Netherlands Air Force deployed 12 F-16s as part of Operation Deny Flight, NATO's enforcement of the Bosnian no-fly zone between April 1993 and December 1995 . The Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed 18 F-16s as part of Operation Deliberate Force, a NATO air campaign conducted to undermine the military capability of Bosnian Serbs who threatened or attacked UN-designated "safe areas" in Bosnia . One of the most controversial chapters of the Bosnian war and the Netherlands's involvement in the conflict was the Srebrenica massacre that took place in July 1995, where at least 7,000 Muslim men and boys were murdered after the town of Srebrenica fell to Bosnian Serb forces. Srebrenica was supposed to be a UN-designated safe area, and Dutch troops under the command of Colonel Thom Karremans were tasked to protect Srebrenica's safe haven status. From the outset, both parties to the conflict violated the 'safe area' agreement. Dutchbat troops had arrived in January 1995 and watched the situation deteriorate rapidly in the months after their arrival. The already meagre resources of the civilian population dwindled further and even the UN forces started running dangerously low on food, medicine, fuel and ammunition. Eventually, the UN peacekeepers had so little fuel that they were forced to start patrolling the enclave on foot; Dutchbat soldiers who went out of the area on leave were not allowed to return and their number dropped from 600 to 400 men. With only machinegun-equipped, light armor (Dutch parliament refused to deploy tanks), UNHQ's refusal to commit air support when it was needed, a passive, politically motivated Dutch high command and malfunctioning US supplied anti tank weapons (they would kill the operator on launch), the Dutchbat soldiers present could only wait and watch. Bosnian Serb forces soon took over the town and the massacre soon followed. One Dutch soldier was killed by a grenade lobbed from a column of a retreating Bosniak soldiers; he was the only fatal Dutch casualty in Srebrenica. Thom Karremans, the UN, the Netherlands army and the Dutch government soon came under fierce criticism for their handling of the crisis. In 2002, a report by the Nederlands Instituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie concluded that the "humanitarian motivation and political ambitions drove the Netherlands to undertake an ill-conceived and virtually impossible peace mission" and that Dutchbat was ill-equipped to carry out such a mission. The report led to the resignation of the Second cabinet of Wim Kok. The report did not satisfy those that believed the Netherlands bore greater responsibility in not preventing the massacre. Kosovo War The Kosovo conflict was between Yugoslavia and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization between March 24 and June 10, 1999, as a result of the breakdown of security and deteriorating human rights situation in Kosovo. The Netherlands contributed several ships and aircraft to the NATO force in the region. On March 26, 1999, a Yugoslav MiG-29 was shot down by a Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16. At its height in 1999, the Netherlands provided 2,000 troops for KFOR, that entered Kosovo to establish and maintain a secure environment. War on terrorism The ‘War on Terrorism’ is a campaign by the United States, supported by several NATO members and other allies, including the Netherlands, with the stated goal of ending international terrorism. The ‘War on Terrorism’ (in its current context) is the name given by the George W. Bush administration to the efforts launched in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on New York and Washington, D.C. by al-Qaeda. Multinational force in Iraq The Multinational force in Iraq, also known as the 'Coalition' or 'US-led coalition', refers to the nations whose governments have military personnel in Iraq. The first Balkenende cabinet supported the US and the UK in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. An independent contingent of 1,345 troops (including 650 Dutch Marines, CH-47 Chinook helicopters, military police, a logistics team, a commando squad, and a field hospital and Royal Netherlands Air Force AH-64 attack helicopters in support) based in Samawah (Southern Iraq), that started deploying in 2003 after the initial invasion, left Iraq in June 2005. Netherlands lost two soldiers in separate insurgent attacks. In January 2010, PM Balkenende found himself in dire straits after the publication of the final report of the 10 months inquiry by the Davids Commission. Willibrord Davids was the chairman of this special committee of inquiry, charged by the Dutch government in 2009 with investigating the decision-making by the Dutch government in 2003 on the political support for the war in Iraq, which was supported then by the Dutch government following intelligence from Britain and the US. This was the first ever independent legal assessment of the invasion decision. The commissioners included the former president of the Hoge Raad (Dutch supreme court), a former judge of the European Court of Justice, and two legal academics. Balkenende had so far resisted calls for a formal parliamentary inquiry into the decision to back the war. According to the report, the Dutch cabinet had failed to fully inform the Dutch House of Representatives about its support that the military action of the allies against Iraq "had no sound mandate under international law" and that the United Kingdom was instrumental in influencing the Dutch decision to back the war. It also emerged that the British government had refused to disclose a key document requested by the Dutch panel, a letter to Balkenende from Tony Blair in which was asked for the support. This letter was said to be handed over in a "breach of diplomatic protocol" and on the basis that it was for Balkenende's eyes only. The letter was not sent as a note verbale as is the normal procedure – instead it was a personal message from Blair to Balkenende, and had to be returned and not stored in the Dutch archives. The details of the Dutch inquiry's findings and the refusal of the British government to disclose the letter were likely to increase international scrutiny on the Chilcot inquiry. Balkenende reacted that he had fully informed of the lower house of parliament with regard to support for the invasion and that the repeated refusal by Saddam Hussain to respect UN resolutions and to co-operate with UN weapons inspectors had justified the invasion. The Partij van de Arbeid (Dutch Labour Party), part of Balkenende's ruling coalition, demanded a new statement from the PM.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/12/iraq-war-illegal-dutch-tribunal "Iraq war was illegal, Dutch panel rules - Inquiry says conflict had no sound mandate in international law as it emerges UK denied key letter to seven-judge tribunal"]</ref> Afghanistan As part of Operation Enduring Freedom, the Netherlands deployed aircraft as part of the European Participating Air Force (EPAF) in support of ground operations in Afghanistan as well as Dutch naval frigates to police the waters of the Middle East/Indian Ocean. Starting in 2006, the Netherlands deployed further troops and helicopters to Afghanistan as part of a new security operation in the south of the country. Dutch ground and air forces totalled almost 2,000 personnel during 2006, taking part in combat operations alongside British and Canadian forces as part of NATO's ISAF force in the south. Most of the troops operated in the Uruzgan Province as part of a 3-D strategy (defense, development, diplomacy). On November 1, 2006, Dutch Major-General Ton Van Loon took over NATO Regional Command South in Afghanistan for a six months period from the Canadians. See the Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006 and Battle of Chora articles for further details.'' The Royal Netherlands Army Commando Captain Marco Kroon was the first individual recipient of the Military William Order (the highest Dutch award for valour under fire, comparable to the Victoria Cross and the Medal of Honor) since 1955 for actions in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Domestically, the participation was unpopular and controversial leading the government in 2007 to announce their withdrawal set for 2010. In response to requests of the American government to continue to stay in Afghanistan in 2009, the Dutch government was reported to explore new missions in Afghanistan, however, this action led to disagreements within the government culminating in its collapse in February 2010. On August 1, 2010, the Dutch military formally declared its withdrawal from its four-year mission in Afghanistan; all 1,950 soldiers are expected to be back in the Netherlands by September. References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testament%20of%20Abraham
Testament of Abraham
The Testament of Abraham is a pseudepigraphic text of the Old Testament. Probably composed in the 1st or 2nd century AD, it is of Jewish origin and is usually considered to be part of the apocalyptic literature. It is regarded as scripture by Beta Israel Ethiopian Jews, but not by any other Jewish or Christian groups. It is often treated as one of a trio of very similar works, the other two of which are the Testament of Isaac and Testament of Jacob, though there is no reason to assume that they were originally a single work. All three works are based on the Blessing of Jacob, found in the Bible, in their style. The Arabic Quran also contains a reference to the Suhuf Ibrahim (Scrolls of Abraham) in Sura 87, which has no apparent relation to anything in this text. The Testament of Abraham was likely written originally in Koine Greek, by someone living in Roman Egypt. Its vocabulary is similar to that used in the later books of the Septuagint and in 3 Maccabees, which were written in Egypt. Manuscript tradition The Greek text of the Testament of Abraham is preserved in two quite different recensions: the long recension, which has a more developed, detailed and linear story, survives in about thirty manuscripts, among which the more important are A, E and B. the short recension, where the episodes are sometime abrupt and not logically connected but with probably an earlier wording, has survived in about nine manuscripts, among which the more important are A and E (manuscript E of the short recension is notable because of the presence of many semitisms). There is no consensus among scholars as to which recension is nearer the original, or whether we shall suppose one or more original texts. The early scholars, as James, but also recently Ludlow, working mainly on the narrative viewpoint, support the priority of the long recension. This view has been challenged for example by Turner, who studied the text from a linguistic point of view, and mainly by Schmidt, who worked deeply on manuscript E of the short recension, which was not available to the early editors. The text is preserved also in Slavonic, Romanian,<ref>Moses Gaster, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 1887, 1X. 195-226. Also, Nicolae Roddy, Romanian Version of the Testament of Abraham: Text, Translation, and Cultural Context, Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2001.</ref> Ethiopic (Falasha), Coptic Bohairic and Arabic. These versions, apart one Romanian recension, follow the content of the Greek short recension. The Greek Text was first edited, with an English translation and introduction, by M. R. James in 1892. The Greek text was also early edited by Vassiliev in 1893. Origin and date As regards its origin James writes: "The Testament was originally put together in the second century by a Jewish Christian, who for the narrative portions employed existing Jewish legends, and for the apocalyptic, he drew largely on his imagination". James holds that the book is referred to by Origen, Horn.in Luc. xxxv. With the exception of x.xi. the work is really a legend and not an apocalypse. To the above conclusions Schürer, takes objection, and denies the reference in Origen, asserting that there are no grounds for the assumption of a partial Jewish origin. Kohler on the other hand has given adequate grounds for regarding this apocryph as in the main an independent work of Jewish origin subsequently enlarged by a few Christian additions, and it is Kohler's stance that most scholars follow today. The Testament of Abraham was likely written originally in Greek, by someone living in Egypt at the time. This is due to the fact that the vocabulary found in the text is quite similar to the vocabulary used in the later books of the Septuagint, which were being written at that time, in addition to other books, such as 3 Maccabees, that we know were written around that time in Egypt. In addition, there are aspects of the story that seem to reflect aspects of Egyptian life, such as the three judgments which mirror the three levels of Egyptian government. Unfortunately these reasons for the place of origin being Egypt are only supported by the long recension of the Testament of Abraham. The short recension therefore has no definite place or date of origin. While it would be logical to assume that it had its origins in the same place and time as the long recension, as there is no concrete evidence, any Jewish cultural center could therefore be a possibility for its origin. Content This testament deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and the means by which his death was brought about. Overall, the long recension is about twice as long as the short recension, though both relate the same overall plot. Chapter 1 (long recension/short recension): God tells the angel Michael to "Go down … to my friend Abraham and speak to him concerning death, so that he might put his affairs in order." This exact phrasing comes from the long recension, though the short recension has a similar wording. The long recension also includes a list of Abraham's virtues, particularly highlighting his hospitality, and it mentions that he was at the "Oak of Mamre". The conversation between God and Michael is also longer than in the short recension. Chapter 2 (long recension/short recension): Michael comes down to earth and finds Abraham in a field. They greet each other, and Michael dodges a few questions about his origins, causing Abraham to treat Michael as an ordinary man. Then Abraham invites Michael to his home and offers Michael the use of a horse to get there, which Michael refuses. The precise phrasing and order of the conversation changes between the recensions, but the overall effect of the conversations is very similar between the two recensions. Perhaps the biggest difference is that in the short recension, Abraham speaks about how he was named, while in the long recension, the question dodging is longer. Additionally, the long recension mentions again that Abraham is near the Oak of Mamre. Chapter 3 (long recension/short recension): On the way back to the house, a tree (specified as a cypress tree in the long recension) speaks to Abraham, though Abraham does not draw attention to the tree. When they get to the house, Abraham tells Isaac to wash Michael's feet. This causes Michael to cry, and his tears become precious stones. In the long recension, Isaac recognizes that Michael is not human. Additionally, Abraham takes Michael's tears (that were turned into precious stones). They appear again in the long recension, but are forgotten in the short recension. In the short recension, Abraham starts the preparations for dinner. Chapter 4 (long recension/short recension): Michael returns to Heaven and tells God that Abraham is too nice—Michael is unable to tell Abraham of his death. God promises to send a dream to Isaac that will show Abraham's death. In the long recension, the dinner preparations start in this chapter, and God says that Michael will have to interpret the dream. The short recension mentions that all angels worship God at sunset (which explains how Michael went back to heaven), while the long recension leaves this unexplained. Chapter 5 (long recension)/Chapter 5-6:6 (short recension): Michael comes back down to Earth and eats dinner with Abraham. Isaac then goes to sleep and dreams of Abraham's death, though the contents of the dream are not discussed yet. This causes Isaac to run over to Abraham and hug him while crying, which in turn causes Abraham and Michael to start crying as well. Sarah then enters and asks whether all of the weeping is because Michael said that Lot died. There is little difference between the two recensions in this section. Chapter 6 (long recension)/Chapter 6:6-6:13 (short recension): Sarah recognizes Michael as one of the angels in Genesis 18, and Abraham confirms this by remembering that Michael has the same feet (Abraham washed Michael's feet and those of the three visitors in Genesis 18). In the long recension, Michael's tears (which turned into precious stones) are mentioned as further proof of Michael's identity. Chapter 7 (long recension)/Chapter 7:1-18 (short recension): Isaac explains his dream. In it, a "glorious man" took the sun and the moon from Isaac. Michael reveals his full identity and states that the sun is Abraham, the moon is Sarah, and the glorious man taking away both the sun and the moon represents Abraham and Sarah dying. Michael then orders Abraham to put his affairs in order. In the long recension, Abraham refuses to come. Chapter 8 (long recension): In the long recension, Michael runs back to heaven and relates Abraham's refusal. God gives a speech (that Michael is supposed to relate to Abraham later on) about how He blessed Abraham, so Abraham should not refuse His will. There is no analogue of this scene in the short recension (Abraham does not directly refuse to go with Michael). Chapter 9 (long recension)/Chapter 7:19-8:2 (short recension): Abraham requests that he be shown the entire world before he dies, Michael relays that request to God, and God accepts it. The long recension also includes Michael relaying God's speech and Abraham repenting his earlier words before making his request. Chapter 10 (long recension)/Chapter 12 (short recension): In the long recension, the next event is when Michael takes Abraham on the "Chariot of the Cherubim". Abraham sees the entire world, including several sinners (murderers, people committing adultery, and thieves). When he sees the sinners, he requests that they be killed in various ways, and the request is granted. Analogues of the long recension's chapters 10-13 appear in the short recension, but the order is changed. Chapter 11 (long recension)/Chapter 8:3-16, 11:9-12 (short recension): In the long recension, Michael then takes Abraham to Heaven, where he sees a small gate and a large gate, with a man on a gold throne seated between them. The man spends most of his time weeping. A massive crowd travels through the large gate, while a few souls go in the small gate. Eventually, Abraham finds out that the large gate is where the souls of sinners go to damnation, the small gate is where the souls of the righteous go to paradise, and the man is Adam, who rejoices when souls are saved and weeps when souls are damned. Chapter 12 (long recension)/Chapter 9-10 (short recension): Abraham then goes to the place where souls are judged. He also finds a soul that is perfectly balanced between good and evil. In the long recension, a man on a throne judges souls. There are four angels below him, two angels that act as scribes, one fiery angel, and one angel with scales to weigh the soul. The balanced soul is being judged when Abraham shows up. In the short recension, Abraham finds the balanced soul before going to the place of judgement, the judge himself has only one helper, and when Abraham shows up, a woman who committed adultery with her daughter's husband, killed her daughter, and then forgot the entire episode is being judged. For obvious reasons, she is damned. Chapter 13 (long recension)/Chapter 11:1-11, 13:8-14 (short recension): Abraham asks about the identity of the judge and his helpers. Michael responds that Abel is the judge. In the short recension, Abel's helper is Enoch. In the long recension, Michael explains that once final judgement comes, Abel will be supplemented by two additional judges: after Abel, everyone will be judged by the 12 tribes of Israel and finally by God. At this point, Michael explains the purpose of the various angel helpers: one of the scribe angels records every soul's good deeds, the other scribe angel records every soul's sins, the scale angel is Dokiel, who weighs the sins and righteous deeds of each soul, and the fiery angel is Puriel, who tests every soul with fire. Chapter 14 (long recension): Abraham prays for the balanced soul in Chapter 12, which convinces God to save the soul. Abraham then decides that his damning of the sinners in Chapter 10 was a mistake, and prays to God that they be saved. God agrees. There is no analogue to this scene in the short recension. Chapter 15 (long recension)/Chapter 12:14-16 (short recension): Abraham and Michael return to earth. In the short recension, Sarah dies. In the long recension, Abraham again states that he will not go with Michael, which causes Michael to run back to Heaven and tell God about what happened. Chapter 16 (long recension)/Chapter 13:1-8 (short recension): God sends Death, in a pretty guise, to take Abraham away. In the long recension, Death is capable of disguising himself. Also, Death tells Abraham who he is, and Abraham professes not to believe him. In the short recension, Michael disguises Death, and Abraham simply does not realize who Death is. Chapter 17 (long recension)/Chapter 13:9-14:5 (short recension): Abraham argues with Death, and continues to refuse to believe that the figure in front of him is Death, because the figure is too beautiful. Eventually, Abraham convinces Death to reveal himself in all his ugliness. At this point, many servants die. In the long recension, 7,000 servants die, while in the short recension, only 7 servants die. Chapter 18 (long recension)/Chapter 14:5 (short recension): Abraham prays to God in order to revive the servants. In the long recension, this is preceded by Death becoming beautiful again and some discussion about whether the servants were supposed to die. Additionally, Abraham manages to convince Death to join him in prayer for the servants in the long recension. Chapter 19 (long recension): Abraham tries to convince Death to leave him again and send Michael back down, though Death does not immediately comply. Abraham also convinces Death to describe the reasons behind his monstrous form. There is no analogue to this scene in the short recension. Chapter 20 (long recension)/Chapter 14:6-7 (short recension): Death finally kills Abraham. In the short recension, this is described as "in a dream". In the long recension, Death entreats Abraham to go with him now, but Abraham claims to be feeling weak in order to convince Death to leave for a time. In response, Death convinces Abraham to kiss his hand so that Abraham will feel better. In fact, this kiss kills Abraham. Abraham's body is buried, and Abraham's soul is taken up to heaven. Significance When viewed as a religious text, the Testament of Abraham gives a unique message. Beyond the presence of angels and God and Death, the lesson demonstrated is simply being a good person, performing good acts, and avoiding bad ones. In the scenes of judgment, there is no distinction made between whether people are Jewish or Gentile, only whether they have performed good deeds or bad. The reader is then left with an idea of universally fair treatment, not influenced by lineage or any other traits, when it comes to judgment, where a person whose sins outweigh their good deeds will be sentenced to eternal punishment, while one whose good deeds outweigh their sins will move on to paradise. Humor While this text does have its theological significance, it can also be simply viewed as a story meant to entertain. Throughout the entire text, the ever pious Abraham attempts to dodge and avoid God's will; rather than this portrayal painting Abraham in a non-pious light, Abraham instead recognizes how good and devout he has been throughout his entire life, and uses that to his advantage. He is so good at avoiding God's decree that the only way he finally has his soul taken away is when Death tricks him. Another humorous character is the Archangel Michael. God's "Commander-in-Chief" is an angel who would seem to be able to make decisions on his own and handle the refusals of Abraham, but he cannot. Every time that Abraham does something that Michael does not expect, he comes up with some reason to excuse himself then rushes up to heaven to consult God and find out what he is to do with stubborn Abraham. See also Testaments of the Three Patriarchs Notes Resources Allison, Dale C., Testament of Abraham, (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003). . Charlesworth, James H., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments, Volume 1, (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1983), 869–902. . Delcor, Matthias, Le Testament d'Abraham: Introduction, traduction du texte grec et commentaire de la recension grecque longue, (Leiden: Brill, 1973). Gruen, Erich S., Diaspora: Jews amidst Greeks and Romans, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002). . Ludlow, Jared W., Abraham Meets Death: Narrative Humor in the Testament of Abraham, Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series 41 (London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002). . Nickelsburg, Jr., George W.E., "Studies on the Testament of Abraham" (Missoula: Scholar's Press, 1976). Rosso, L., Testamento di Abramo in ed. P.Sacchi Apocrifi dell'Antico Testamento Vol 4 (2000). Sanders, E. P., Testament of Abraham, a new Translation and Introduction in ed. James Charlesworth The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol 1 (1983) p. 871-902 Sparks, H. F. D., The Apocryphal Old Testament (1984). Stone, Michael E., The Testament of Abraham'', (Missoula: Scholar's Press, 1972). External links Text of Testament of Abraham Text of Testament of Abraham Jewish Encyclopedia 1906 Testament of Abraham page on EarlyJewishWritings.com 1st-century books 2nd-century books Old Testament pseudepigrapha Abraham Jewish apocrypha Apocalyptic literature Texts in Koine Greek Roman Egypt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moro%20conflict
Moro conflict
The Moro conflict was an insurgency in the Mindanao region of the Philippines, which involved multiple armed groups. Peace deals have been signed between the Philippine government and two major armed groups, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), but other smaller armed groups continue to exist. In 2017, the peace council settled around 138 clan conflicts. The root cause of the Moro conflict is associated in a long history of resistance by the Bangsamoro people against foreign rule, including the American annexation of the Philippines in 1898; Moro resistance against the Philippine government has persisted ever since. During the administration of Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos, political tensions and open hostilities developed between the Philippine government and Moro Muslim rebel groups. The Moro insurgency was triggered by the Jabidah massacre on March 18, 1968, during which 60 Filipino Muslim commandos on a planned operation to reclaim the eastern part of the Malaysian state of Sabah were killed. As retaliation against the Philippine government's failed attempt at reclaiming Sabah, the Malaysian government supported and funded the Moro conflict which devastated the southern Philippines, until support ceased during the year 2001. Various organizations pushing for Moro self rule, either through autonomy or independence, were almost immediately formed in response, although these generally did not last long until University of the Philippines professor Nur Misuari established the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), an armed insurgent group committed to establishing an independent Mindanao, in 1972. In the following years, the MNLF splintered into several different groups including the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), which sought to establish an Islamic state within the Philippines. When the MILF modified its demands from independence to autonomy in the late 2008, a faction led by Ameril Umbra Kato disagreed, eventually forming the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF) in 2010. Casualty statistics vary for the conflict, though the conservative estimates of the Uppsala Conflict Data Program indicate that at least 6,015 people were killed in armed conflict between the government of the Philippines and the Abu Sayyaf (ASG), BIFF, MILF, and MNLF factions between 1989 and 2012. Origins The Moro people have had a history of resistance against foreign rule for more than 400 years. During the Spanish–Moro conflict, Spain repeatedly tried to conquer the Moro Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Maguindanao, and the Confederation of sultanates in Lanao like what it did with the former Muslim Rajahnate of Maynila (As the Rajah of Manila, Rajah Matanda was a grandson of the Sultan of Brunei, "Sultan Bolkiah" and a Princess of Sulu "Dayang-dayang Laila Machanai"). Although Spain succeeded in supplanting Islam in Manila and Mindoro, they failed against the Muslims in the South. The armed struggle against the Spanish, Americans, Japanese, and Christian Filipinos is considered by current Moro Muslim leaders to be part of a four-century-long "national liberation movement" of the Bangsamoro (Moro Nation). The foundations of the modern conflict can be traced to the Spanish and American wars against the Moros. Following the Spanish–American War in 1898, another conflict sparked in the southern Philippines between the revolutionary Muslims in the Philippines and the United States military that took place between 1899 and 1913. On August 14, 1898, after defeating Spanish forces, the United States claimed the Philippines as its territory under the Treaty of Paris of 1898, establishing a military government under General Wesley Merritt as Military Governor. Filipinos immediately opposed foreign rule by the United States. American forces took control from the Spanish government in Jolo on May 18, 1899, and at Zamboanga in December 1899. Brigadier General John C. Bates was sent to negotiate a treaty with the Sultan of Sulu, Jamalul Kiram II. Kiram was disappointed by the American takeover, as he expected to regain sovereignty after the defeat of Spanish forces in the archipelago. Bates' main goal was to guarantee Moro neutrality in the Philippine–American War, and to establish order in the southern Philippines. After some negotiation, the Bates Treaty was signed, which was based on an earlier Spanish treaty. The Bates Treaty did ensure the neutrality of the Muslims in the south, but it was actually set up to buy time for the Americans until the war in the north ended. On March 20, 1900, Bates was replaced by Brigadier General William August Kobbé and the District of Mindanao-Jolo was upgraded to a full department. American forces in Mindanao were reinforced and hostilities with the Moro people lessened, although there are accounts of Americans and other civilians being attacked and slain by Moros. The American invasion began in 1904 and ended at the term of Major General John J. Pershing, the third and final military governor of Moro Province, although major resistance continued in Mount Bagsak and Bud Dajo in Jolo; in the latter, the United States military killed hundreds of Moro in the Moro Crater massacre. After the war, in 1915, the Americans imposed the Carpenter Treaty on Sulu. Repeated rebellions by the Moros against American rule continued to break out even after the main Moro Rebellion ended, right up to the Japanese occupation of the Philippines during World War II. During the Japanese invasion, the Moros waged an insurgency against the Japanese on Mindanao and Sulu until Japan surrendered in 1945. Moro Juramentados attacked the Spanish, Americans, Philippine Constabulary, and the Japanese. History The American colonial government and subsequently the Philippine government pursued a policy of intra-ethnic migration by resettling significant numbers of Christian Filipino settlers from the Visayas and Luzon onto tracts of land in Mindanao, beginning in the 1920s. This policy allowed Christian Filipinos to outnumber both the Moro and Lumad populations by the 1970s, which was a contributing factor in aggravating grievances between the Moro and Filipino Christian settlers as disputes over land increased. Another grievance by the Moro people is the extraction of Mindanao's natural resources by the central government whilst many Moros continued to live in poverty. Moro Muslims and Lumads were largely supplanted during the Spanish and American colonization programs, with Christian Filipino settlers eventually taking control of key areas along newly built roads and disrupting traditional Moro administrative structures and control over resources. The Americans preferred Christians to become administrators of newly defined townships instead of Lumad and Moro, with environmental degradation resulting from unsustainable population growth (due to the influx of settler migrants) and timber logging. Marcos (1965–1986) Jabidah massacre The active phase of the Moro conflict is attributed to news about the Jabidah massacre in March 1968 – towards the end of the first term of President Ferdinand Marcos. A senate exposé based on the testimony of an alleged survivor claimed that at least 11 Filipino Muslim military trainees had been killed in Corregidor by soldiers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. The trainees had been brought to the island of Corregidor to form a secret commando unit called "Jabidah," which would infiltrate, destabilize, and take over Sabah for the Sulu Sultan who previously owned it. The trainees eventually rejected their mission, for reasons that are still debated by historians today. A survivor, Jibin Arula, said that whatever the reasons behind their objections, all of the recruits aside from him were killed, and he escaped only by pretending to be dead. The news created unrest among Filipino Muslims, especially among students. Both Muslim intellectuals and common people suddenly became politicized, discrediting the idea of finding integration and accommodation with the rest of the country, and creating a sense of marginalization. Formation of early separatist movements and the MNLF Various organizations pushing for Moro self rule, either through autonomy or independence, were soon formed. Lanao del Sur congressman Haroun al-Rashid Lucman called for Congress to begin proceedings to impeach President Marcos, and ended up establishing the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization (BMLO) in frustration after the impeachment effort couldn't gather enough congressional support. Cotabato Governor Datu Udtog Matalam established the Muslim Independence Movement (MIM), which openly called for the secession of the region to create a Muslim state, although it only lasted until Matalam negotiated with Marcos and accepted a post in the administration cabinet. On October 21, 1972, University of the Philippines professor Nur Misuari formed the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) which sought the establishment of a Moro republic through the force of arms, attracting many members who broke away from the MIM. Battles and massacres During one of the fiercest battles of the insurgency in 1974, Jolo was extensively damaged and news of the tragedy galvanized other Muslims around the world to pay greater attention to the conflict. Many civilians were supposedly killed when the Armed Forces razed much of Jolo municipality to the ground in a scorched-earth tactic. On September 24, 1974, the Philippine Army killed at least 1,000 Moro civilians who were praying in a mosque in what is known as the Malisbong massacre. Two years later, the Philippine government and the MNLF signed the Tripoli Agreement, declaring a ceasefire on both sides. The agreement provided that Mindanao would remain a part of the Philippines, but that 13 of its provinces would be governed by an autonomous government for the Bangsamoro people. President Marcos later reneged on the agreement, and violence ensued. The Communist Party of the Philippines maintained a liaison officer in Tripoli with the MNLF. Formation of the Ilaga The Philippine government allegedly encouraged Christian settlers in Mindanao to form a militia called the Ilaga to fight the Moros. The Ilaga engaged in killings and human rights abuses and were responsible for the Manili massacre of 65 Moro Muslim civilians in a mosque in June 1971, including women and children. The Ilaga allegedly also engaged in cannibalism, cutting off the body parts of their victims to eat in rituals. Formation of the MILF In 1978, Sheikh Salamat Hashim established the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a splinter group of the MNLF seeking to establish an Islamic state. Conflicts between these rebel groups and the Armed Forces of the Philippines continued until the end of President Marcos' regime. From 1972 to 1980, at least 50,000 people were killed in the conflict, one million people were internally displaced, and more than 100,000 Philippine Muslims fled by boat to Malaysia. Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos (1986–1998) Creation of the ARMM Early in her term, President Corazon Aquino arranged a meeting with the MNLF chairman Nur Misuari and several MNLF rebel groups in Sulu, which paved the way for a series of negotiations. In 1989, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) was created under Republic Act No. 6734 or the ARMM Organic Act, pursuant to the 1987 Constitution. Under the Presidency of Fidel V. Ramos, several negotiations and peace talks were held and the ARMM solidified and was to have its own geopolitical system. On 9-11 December 1997 the MNLF brought the pagan indigenous Lumad leader Mai Tuan to Tehran to attend the eight OIC Islamic Summit Conference. Formation of the Abu Sayyaf Group In 1991, Abdurajak Janjalani, a former teacher who had studied Islam in the Middle East, formed the Abu Sayyaf Group after reportedly meeting Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan in the 1980s. Janjalani recruited former members of the MNLF for the more radical and theocratic Abu Sayyaf. Estrada (1998–2001) Estrada's "All Out War" policy During his term, President Joseph Ejercito Estrada declared an "all-out war" against the MILF on March 21, 2000, although a series of negotiations for cessation of hostilities were held. Apparently, several conflicts in and around Mindanao erupted and clashes between the Philippine military and the rebel groups resulted in substantial loss of life. During Estrada's term, the rebel groups kidnapped three Italian priests, two of whom were later released and one shot dead; seized the municipal hall of Talayan, Maguindanao, and Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte; bombed the RORO ferry M/V Our Lady of Mediatrix at Ozamiz; and took over Narciso Ramos Highway. All these incidents resulted in massive loss of investments abroad, especially in the area of Mindanao. As a result, the Armed Forces of the Philippines launched a successful campaign against the rebel groups; 43 minor camps, 13 major camps including the MILF headquarters, and Camp Abubakar fell. The MILF suffered heavy losses and the head of the MILF, Sheikh Salamat Hashim, fled the country and sought refuge in Malaysia. On October 5, 2000, 609 rebels surrendered in Cagayan de Oro, along with renegade town mayor Mulapandi Cosain Sarip. This was followed by another surrender of 855 rebels on December 29, 2000. President Estrada then ordered that the Philippine flag be raised in Mindanao, which symbolized victory. It was raised on July 9, 2000, near a Madh'hab and again the next day for President Estrada, who held a feast inside a classroom just meters away from a mosque. Retaliatory attacks As a result, several Islamic rebel groups retaliated, bombing several key locations within the National Capital Region on December 30, 2000, resulting in 22 deaths and hundreds of people injured. Saifullah Yunos, one of the perpetrators, was arrested in Cagayan de Oro as he was about to board a plane bound for Manila in May 2003. In 2004, two members of the Jemaah Islamiyah were arrested, namely Mamasao Naga and Abdul Pata, as they were identified by Fathur Rahman al-Ghozi as responsible for the train bombing. Al-Ghozi was also arrested, but was later killed in a firefight when he tried to escape from prison on October 13, 2003. Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010) On May 27, 2001, the Abu Sayyaf seized twenty hostages from an upscale resort in Palawan. Four of the hostages managed to escape. The kidnapping group composed of 40 gunmen then seized the Dr. Jose Torres Memorial Hospital and St. Peter's Church compound in the town of Lamitan in Basilan and claimed to have taken captive 200 people, although 20 people were confirmed to be taken captive inside the hospital, including the staff and the patients. There was a crossfire between the Philippine Army and Abu Sayyaf rebels in Lamitan following the hospital takeover which resulted in the deaths of 12 soldiers, including the army captain. Up to 22 soldiers were reportedly killed in an effort to rescue the hostages. Five more captives escaped during the battle at Lamitan. Two of the captives were killed prior to the siege in Lamitan, including one beheading. The Abu Sayyaf then conducted a series of raids, including one at a coconut plantation where the rebel groups hacked the heads of two men using bolo knives. The owners and a security guard were also held captive and the rebel groups burned down two buildings, including a chapel, a week after the battle in Lamitan. Another raid was conducted on August 2, 2001, on Barangay Balobo in Lamitan, Basilan. After three days, the Philippine Army rescued numerous hostages after they overtook the hideout of the militants, where 11 bodies were found beheaded. Other hostages were either released or had escaped. On June 13, 2001, the number of hostages was calculated at around 28, as three more people were found beheaded in Basilan, including Guillermo Sobero. They were beheaded since the Philippine Army would not halt the rescue operation. The Burnhams were still in the group of 14 still held captive, according to three hostages who escaped in October 2001. On June 7, 2002, after a year of the hostages being held captive, a rescue mission was conducted resulting in the deaths of Martin Burnham and a nurse named Ediborah Yap after they were caught in the crossfire. Martin was killed by three gunshots to the chest while Gracia Burnham was wounded in her right leg. By this time Nur Misuari ordered his supporters to attack government targets to prevent the holding of elections on ARMM in November 2001, ushering his exit as the governor of the region. Misuari would be later arrested in 2007 in Malaysia and was deported back to the Philippines for trial. In July 2004, Gracia Burnham testified at a trial of eight Abu Sayyaf members, identifying six of the suspects as being her former captors, including Alhamzer Limbong, Abdul Azan Diamla, Abu Khari Moctar, Bas Ishmael, Alzen Jandul and Dazid Baize. Fourteen Abu Sayyaf members were sentenced to life imprisonment while four were acquitted. Alhamzer Limbong was later killed in a prison uprising. These rebel groups, especially the Abu Sayyaf, conducted several terror attacks, namely the bombings at Zamboanga in October 2002; the bombing of SuperFerry 14 in February 2004; the simultaneous bombings in Central Mindanao in October 2006; the beheadings of several Philippine Marines in July 2007; the Batasang Pambansa bombing in November 2007; and the 2009 bombings in Mindanao. One thousand MILF rebels under the command of Umbra Kato have seized control of thirty-five villages in the North Cotabato province. Two thousand Philippine troops with helicopters and artillery were sent into the seized area on August 9 to liberate it from the rebels. The MILF had wanted North Cotabato to be included in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. The government and MILF had been negotiating for the inclusion of the province in the Muslim Autonomous Region but the Supreme Court had struck down the proposal after hearing concerns from local Christian leaders in the region. The rebel troops were ordered to leave the area by their commanders, but the contingents under Kato refused to leave the villages they had occupied and instead dug in. The Philippine Army responded on August 9 by bombarding them. The next day, the government forces moved to retake the villages, recapturing two of them from the rebels. Numerous clashes erupted between the Philippine Army and rebel groups, such as the clash on June 14, 2009, that killed 10 rebels. Between 2002 and 2015, the Philippines and the United States were part of a joint military campaign against Islamist terrorism known as Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines. This was part of the War on Terror. Benigno Aquino (2010–2016) Peace talks and Aquino-Murad meeting During the term of President Benigno Aquino III, a series of peace talks for the cessation of hostilities was held, including the meeting of MILF Chair Al Haj Murad Ibrahim in Tokyo, Japan which was lauded on both sides. Norway also joined the International Monitoring Team (IMT) in January 2011, overseeing the ceasefire agreement between the government and MILF on Mindanao. Despite the peace talks, a series of conflicts erupted. On September 10, 2011, Jal Idris, a hardcore member of Abu Sayyaf, was arrested by government forces after a crossfire between the Philippine Army and the rebel group The Armed Forces of the Philippines also killed three Abu Sayyaf militants in a stand-off the day after the arrest of Jal Idris. Terrorism continued throughout President Aquino's term. Notable cases include when four merchants and a guide were killed by Abu Sayyaf bandits in January 2011. Later a soldier was killed in a clash against the rebels. In August 2011, rebel factions attacked a village in Sulu, killing seven Marines and taking seven civilians captive. They later freed two of the hostages after a ransom was paid. Also, several areas of Mindanao were bombed in August by the government, and a Filipino businesswoman was abducted in September 2011, who was later freed after the three gunmen were gunned down by the Armed Forces of the Philippines. On October 20, 2011, the MILF was blamed for an attack on 40 government soldiers in the province of Basilan, which led to the deaths of 19 soldiers and six MILF fighters. This violated the ceasefire agreement between the government and MILF, which caused outrage in the government and led to the continuation of the war against terrorism in the country. In February 2013, two main camps of the Abu Sayyaf group were overrun by forces of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in its latest offensive in Patikul. According to MNLF leader Nur Misuari, the MNLF offensive against the Abu Sayyaf is because of the MNLF opposition to the Abu Sayyaf's human rights abuses, which go against Islam. Zamboanga City crisis The Zamboanga City crisis erupted on September 9, 2013, when a MNLF faction known by other groups as the Rogue MNLF Elements (RME), under the Sulu State Revolutionary Command (SSRC), led by Ustadz Habier Malik and Khaid Ajibon attempted to raise the flag of the self-proclaimed Bangsamoro Republik at Zamboanga City Hall (which had earlier declared its independence on August 12, 2013, in Talipao, Sulu), and took civilians hostage. This armed incursion was met by the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and the Philippine National Police (PNP), which sought to free the hostages and expel the MNLF from the city. The standoff degenerated into urban warfare, and had brought parts of the city under a standstill for days. On September 28, the government declared the end of military operations in Zamboanga City after successfully defeating the MNLF and rescuing all the hostages. Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro On January 24, 2014, the Philippines government chief negotiator Miriam Coronel-Ferrer and MILF chief negotiator Murad Ebrahim signed a peace agreement in Kuala Lumpur. The agreement would pave the way for the creation of the new Muslim autonomous entity called "Bangsamoro" under a law to be approved by the Philippine Congress. The government aims to set up the region by 2016. The agreement calls for Muslim self-rule in parts of the southern Philippines in exchange for a deactivation of rebel forces by the MILF. MILF forces would turn over their firearms to a third party to be selected by the MILF and the Philippine government. A regional police force would be established, and the Philippine military would reduce the presence of troops and help disband private armies in the area. On March 27, 2014, the peace process concluded with the signing of the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro between the Government of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. The New York Times claimed that the peace deal between the Philippines and MILF "seeks to bring prosperity to the restive south and weaken the appeal of the extremist groups", and linked the winding down of an American military counterterrorism operation to increased American military cooperation with the Philippines against China. The New York Times hailed Mr Aquino's peace agreement as an "accomplishment" as it reported on Aquino raising the alarm on China in the South China Sea. The New York Times editorial board published an article siding with the Philippines against China in the South China Sea dispute and supporting the Philippines' actions against China. The New York Times editorial board endorsed aggressive American military action against China in the South China Sea. Abu Sayyaf association with ISIL On July 23, 2014, Abu Sayyaf leader Isnilon Hapilon swore loyalty to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi in a video, along with the rest of the organization, giving ISIL a presence in the Philippines. In September 2014, the group began kidnapping people to ransom, in the name of ISIL. Mamasapano clash On January 25, 2015, the Philippine National Police's Special Action Force (SAF) conducted an operation to capture Abdul Basit Usman and the Malaysian terrorist leader Marwan in Mamasapano, Maguindanao. They were trapped between the MILF's 105th Base Command, the BIFF, and several armed groups. Forty four SAF members were killed on what is known as the Mamasapano clash, but they were able to eliminate Marwan. Alleged United States involvement in the botched operation would likely be a setback for a so-called Asian "pivot" by the United States Armed Forces. In February 2015, the BIFF unsuccessfully fought for territory in the boundary of Maguindanao and North Cotabato provinces. Subsequently, the Philippine Army, along with the Philippine Marines, declared a state of all-out-war against the BIFF. MILF forces were pulled out to prevent them from falling victim to the fighting. Rodrigo Duterte (2016–2022) The MILF and MNLF have expressed their commitment to peace and in finally ending the 47-year-old insurgency while the offensive against Abu Sayyaf and other splinter groups have continued, with skirmishes in Jolo, Basilan and other parts of Mindanao. A bombing in Davao City in September 2016 killed 15 people. Elsewhere, on May 23, 2017, the Maute group attacked Marawi, they were led by the Malaysian terrorists. President Rodrigo Duterte declared Proclamation No. 216, which placed the whole of Mindanao under a state of martial law and suspended the writ of habeas corpus. Clashes continued until October 2017 as the battle for Marawi City pitted Islamic militants against the Philippine government forces. Violence was severe. The government used heavy artillery and air strikes to shell Abu Sayyaf and Maute positions while the militant groups resorted to executing captured Christians. In 2018, two bombing incidents involving Abu Sayyaf and the BIFF occurred, one in Lamitan, Basilan and two separate incidents in Isulan, Sultan Kudarat. On July 26, 2018, Duterte signed the Bangsamoro Organic Law, which abolished the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao and provided for the basic structure of government for the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region, following the agreements set forth in the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro peace agreement signed between the Government of the Philippines under President Benigno Aquino III and the MILF in 2014. From June 2019 to May 2022, as part of the "normalization process" of the Bangsamoro's war-to-peace transition, a total of about 19,200 former MILF combatants and 2,100 weapons were decommissioned. Bongbong Marcos (2022–present) In August 2022, two armed Moro group clashed in Cotabato City, forcing hundreds of locals out of the area. In 2023, the government declared that Sulu province was free of Abu Sayyaf militants. In Basilan province, the government announced that it would build 39 houses for former Abu Sayyaf members. See also Communist rebellion in the Philippines Cross border attacks in Sabah Demographics of the Philippines Freedom of religion in the Philippines History of the Philippines Islam in Asia Islam in the Philippines Manili massacre Moro people Moro Rebellion Peace process with the Bangsamoro in the Philippines Refugees of the Philippines Religion in the Philippines Rohingya conflict Rohingya genocide South Thailand insurgency Spanish–Moro Wars Terrorism in the Philippines Uyghur genocide Xinjiang conflict References External links Moro National Liberation Front Moro Bloggers 20th century in the Philippines 21st century in the Philippines Military history of the Philippines Military history of Malaysia History of the Philippines (1965–1986) History of the Philippines (1986–present) Moro people Rebellions in the Philippines Wars involving the Philippines Insurgencies in Asia Violence against indigenous peoples
4602513
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgency%20in%20Laos
Insurgency in Laos
The insurgency in Laos was a low-intensity conflict between the Laotian government on one side and former members of the "Secret Army", Laotian royalists, and rebels from the Hmong and lowland Lao ethnic minorities on the other. These groups have faced reprisals from the Lao People's Army and Vietnam People's Army for their support of the United States-led, anti-communist military campaigns in Laos during the Laotian Civil War, which the insurgency is an extension of itself. The North Vietnamese invaded Laos in 1958 and supported the communist Pathet Lao. The Vietnamese communists continued to support the Pathet Lao after the end of the Laotian Civil War and the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. While severely depleted, the remnants of an early 1980s-era, and 1990s-era, Royalist insurgency has been kept alive by an occasionally active guerrilla force of several thousand or so successors to that force. In June 2007 Vang Pao was arrested in the United States for an alleged plot to overthrow the Laotian communist government. His arrest led to an end of various attempts to overthrow the Laotian Government by the Hmong people, the royalists, and right-wing rebellions. Insurgent history Background Vietnam and Laos have a complicated past. After Vietnam invaded and destroyed Laos during the Vietnamese–Laotian War, the Vietnamese didn't interfere in Laos for more than 200 years. However, Vietnamese influence had grown radically since the conquest, and played a major role in absorbing Laos into Vietnamese foreign policy. The Hmongs at the time had yet to be touched, owing to their neutrality to the Vietnamese and Laotians. The Hmongs maintained a degree of autonomy from the Imperial Vietnamese Government, and at the same time demonstrated their role in developing Laos in the aftermath of the disastrous war of 1470s with Vietnam. So while Vietnam kept interfering on Laotian affairs, the Hmongs were mostly left alone until the French conquest. Under French rule the Hmong mostly converted to Christianity, though large segments remained Buddhist, and allied with the French while maintaining their tie with Laos. This would put up the future conflict between Vietnam, the Laotian communists and Laotian insurgents. Lao Hmong insurgency The conflict stems from three events prior to Laos independence: a failed coup attempt by the Red Prince Souphanouvong, Hmong aiding the French in Xieng Khoung against Lao and Vietnamese forces, and the French giving Hmong rights in Laos equal to the Lao. In 1946, with the end of the Japanese occupation, Prince Souphanouvong and his half-brothers Prince Souvanna Phouma and Prince Phetsarath formed two separate independence governments, briefly overthrowing the Laos King Sisavang Vong, who wanted to hand the country back to the rule of imperial France. The Hmong people had, for over half a century, been closely allied with the French, who treated them as equals of the Lao people. Touby Lyfoung, an important Hmong leader, was decorated by the French administration for leading a combined French, Lao, and Hmong force to relieve the village of Xieng Khoung from a combined Communist force of Laotians and Vietnamese and saving the French representatives in the village. This action was part of the larger First Indochina War. When the French withdrew from Indochina shortly after their defeat in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the Americans became increasingly involved in Laos due to the threat of Communist insurgents in Indochina. They saw Laos as one of dominoes in their Domino Theory. Under the leadership of the General Vang Pao, Hmong forces with US support prevented the Pathet Lao and their Vietnamese backers from toppling the Kingdom of Laos. They also rescued downed American pilots, and helped the US, from their base in the "secret city" of Long Tieng, to coordinate bombing missions over Vietnam and Laos. By 1975, with the collapse of the South in the Vietnam War and loss of American support, the Pathet Lao was able to take control of the government. Hmong people, especially those who had participated in the military conflict were singled out for retribution. Of the Hmong who remained in Laos, over 30,000 were sent to re-education camps as political prisoners where they served indeterminate, sometimes life, sentences. Enduring hard physical labor and difficult conditions, many people died. Thousands more Hmong people, mainly former soldiers and their families, escaped to remote mountain regions – particularly Phou Bia, the highest and least accessible mountain peak in Laos. At first, these loosely organized groups staged attacks against Pathet Lao and Vietnamese troops. Others remained in hiding to avoid conflict. Initial military successes by these small bands led to military counter-attacks by government forces, including aerial bombing and heavy artillery, as well as the use of defoliants and chemical weapons. Today, most Hmong people in Laos live peacefully in villages and cities, but small groups of Hmong people, many of them second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. As recently as 2003, there were reports of sporadic attacks by these groups, but journalists who have visited their secret camps in recent times have described them as hungry, sick, and lacking weapons beyond Vietnam War-era rifles. Although they pose no military threat, the Lao government continues to characterize these people as "bandits" and attack their positions, using rape as a weapon and often killing and injuring women and children. Most casualties occur while people are gathering food from the jungle, since any permanent settlement is impossible. Faced with continuing military operations against them by the government and a scarcity of food, some groups have begun coming out of hiding, while others have sought asylum in Thailand and other countries. In December 2009 a group of 4,500 refugees were forcibly repatriated to Laos from camps in Thailand despite the objections of, amongst others, the United Nations and the USA. Some Hmong fled to California after the U.S. military withdrew from Vietnam and Laos, ending its wars in Indochina. In June 2005 as part of "Operation Tarnished Eagle" U.S. FBI and anti-terrorism officials allegedly uncovered a "conspiracy to murder thousands and thousands of people at one time" and violently overthrow the government of Laos. The alleged plot included ex-U.S. Army Rangers, former Green Berets and other guns for hire. The plotters were accused of attempting to use rifles, FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, anti-tank rockets and other arms and munitions smuggled from the U.S. via Thailand to "reduce government buildings in Vientiane to rubble", said Bob Twiss, an assistant U.S. attorney. Lieutenant-Colonel Harrison Ulrich Jack, a retired California National Guard officer who reportedly served in covert operations during the Vietnam War (in Laos in co-ordination with the Hmong and other tribal groups) and former General Vang Pao were named as the probable ringleaders of the purported coup plot. Vang Pao had reportedly built up a strong network of contacts within the U.S. government and corporate circles sympathetic to his cause. Some speculated that the proposed new government would be much more accepting of large foreign business and may also lead to an explosion of the drugs trade as has been the case in Afghanistan. The defendants' lawyers argued that the case against all of their clients was spurious at best. "The case cannot proceed [because] the process has been so corrupted by the government's misconduct that there can never be any confidence in the validity of the charge," said Mark Reichel, one of the defense attorneys involved in the case. "[W]hile the [prosecution] tries to portray the 'conspiracy' as a dangerous and sophisticated military plan, it cannot refute the extensive evidence demonstrating otherwise – from the agent's informing the so-called conspirators that they would need an operational plan; to his providing a map of the region when they couldn't procure a useful one; to his explanation of what GPS was (including that it requires batteries); to the so-called conspirators' inability to finance the operation." In 2008, according to a military official, the government ordered Laos troops to shoot to kill ethnic Hmong insurgents, including Hmong villagers hiding in the jungles. A cash reward is said to be given for every Hmong fighter killed. However, the government in Laos denied the authenticity of the order. On 18 September 2009, the Federal Government dropped all charges against Vang Pao, announcing in a release that the "continued prosecution of this defendant is no longer warranted," and that the federal government was permitted to consider "the probable sentence or other consequences if the person is convicted.” That same year, Chong Lor Her became the leader of the ChaoFa party, which he still serves as today. On 2 October 2013, he claimed that the Laos military was using dogs to hunt down the Hmong. After Xaisomboun became a province in December 2013, the military in Laos continued to increase their presence in the area by creating more military bases and bringing more soldiers into the region. The increased density of military installations and bases in the region has made it more difficult for the Hmong to go out and search for food without encountering soldiers. This has greatly threatened their survival and so has led to clashes between Hmong and the Lao military, leaving hundreds of Hmong dead or injured. ChaoFa President Her urged the international community to send his people immediate humanitarian aid, but without any luck. On 8 April 2016, the Laos military launched a military incursion into the territory of Hmong communities in the Phou Bia area, reportedly with the help of Vietnamese forces. On 23 April, the military used a civilian helicopter to spray poison over Hmong territory. On 4 May, government forces attacked a Hmong village in Xaysomboun, killing two civilians. On 14 September, two Hmong men were taken away by Laos police from their village of Lat Houang. Later, they were found beaten to death on 23 September by a Laotian fisherman. On 21 September 2016, the Laos military fired rockets loaded with toxic gas into Hmong areas killing a Hmong baby. On 6 October, another Hmong baby died from chemical poisoning. In November 2017, the Laos government intensified its shelling of Hmong areas. On 20 June 2020, a government soldier was shot and killed while on patrol inspecting for illegal poppy cultivation. On 9 March 2021, one militant was killed in a clash with Laos soldiers in Thathom district, Xaysomboun. After the clash, the government sent troops to hunt down the escaped gunmen. Royalist-in-exile insurgency Beginning in 1980, the anti-Communist, pro-Royalist forces organized under the so-called Lao National Liberation Front (LNLF) carried out their own insurgency in southern Laos; such of which had been initiated by a series of reasonably successful guerrilla warfare attacks upon its seizure of weapons from the militaries of Laos and Vietnam. In 1982, the LNLF succeeded in briefly establishing the Royal Lao Democratic Government (proclaimed in exile in Bangkok on 18 August 1982 earlier that year) in a collection of southern Lao provinces largely due to support and aid from the People's Republic of China, which despite being a communist state like Laos, maintained rather hostile relations with Laos (largely due to Laos' staunch alignment with and unequivocal support for Vietnam.). During this time, Laos was allied with the Soviet-backed communist Vietnamese government. The Lao government had referred to China's ruling clique as "the direct enemy of the Lao people" and further stated that relations could potentially be improved between itself and Thailand as well as with the United States, but gave no mention of a possibility for diplomatic amends with China. Despite allying itself formally in writing with Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge; also communist) during the Third Congress of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, allegations would surface that the Khmer Rouge (closely allied to China, and vehemently anti-Vietnamese and anti-Soviet) had also been funding and allotting supplies to the anti-communist Royalist insurgents for use in their insurgency against the government of Laos, while the majority of purported support would be divulged during the forever displaced regime's exile along the Thai border and perhaps to a lesser degree, in Thailand itself during the 1980s. The Royalists had also cooperated and were involved to a limited degree in the attempts to overthrow the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea alongside the Khmer Rouge. During the early 1980s, the Khmer Rouge had largely abandoned (or perhaps halted) communist ideals and were instead focused primarily on exuding Cambodian nationalist fervor and an increase in anti-Vietnamese rhetoric. The Royalist insurgency gradually fell into disrepair and in terms of its 1970s and 1980s-era form, it has almost entirely vanished militarily as well as ideologically. A correlated movement of sporadic insurgents succeeded the LNLF and while divided into the congruent style of multiple minimally-proportioned bands of insurgents, have been estimated to contain a strength nearing 2,000 to 3,000 men as of the early 1990s. Right-wing insurgency An insurgency politically correlative to the Royalist insurgency led by the United Front for the Liberation of Laos (LPNLUF) and minor allied similar groups had also transpired around the same time period, and reportedly was equipped with a strength of 40,000, Chinese and Khmer Rouge funded and trained right-wing insurgents who placed their desire to expel Vietnamese political and military standing in Laos above any other goal. While the movement managed to proclaimed their own provisional or "liberation" government (speedily disbanded by the Lao military), this insurgency proved to be as by chance less effective than the lesser-trained Royalist-focused insurgency. This insurgency has no reported standing in terms of force within Laos today. While its claims have never been verified nor widely accepted, the LPNLUF claims to have put some one-third of Laotian territory under its provisional jurisdiction before it was put down by the Lao government. The insurgents of the LNLF were largely former Royalist government officials who had fled into exile after the Kingdom of Laos' demise in 1975 in the conclusion of the Laotian Civil War and Vietnam War. The LNLF proved successful in recruiting fair numbers of rural militiamen from Champassak and Savannaket provinces. Individual units varied from as few as ten men to as many as 50, and all of these operated with little coordination. Human rights and refugee situation In Laos there exists a large population of CIA-trained Hmong veteran soldiers who fought as American allies against Communist forces, which, during the insurgency were persecuted for their political beliefs. Fearing reprisals, retribution, retaliation and persecution, around half of the 300,000 Hmong in Laos were forced to flee, becoming refugees and settling in countries such as the United States. See also United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races FULRO insurgency against Vietnam 2007 Laotian coup d'état attempt Royal Lao Government in Exile Laotian Civil War The Center for Public Policy Analysis References External links FactFinding.org – information about the Hmong veterans of the Secret War remaining in the jungles of Laos (requires Adobe Flash) "Acts of Betrayal", by Michael Johns, National Review, 23 October 1995. Clips from "Hunted like animals" – a documentary by Rebecca Sommer on the plight of the Hmong in Laos and problems faced by those facing repatriation from Thai refugee camps The Hmong Crisis: The Secret Tragedy of Laos 20th-century conflicts 20th century in Laos 21st-century conflicts 21st century in Laos History of Laos (1945–present) Hmong Hmong-American culture and history Indochina Wars Insurgencies in Asia Politics of Laos Proxy wars Third Indochina War Violence against indigenous peoples Wars involving Laos Wars involving Vietnam
4603458
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Gloucestershire%20Hussars
Royal Gloucestershire Hussars
The Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was a volunteer yeomanry regiment which, in the 20th century, became part of the British Army Reserve. It traced its origins to the First or Cheltenham Troop of Gloucestershire Gentleman and Yeomanry raised in 1795, although a break in the lineage means that its formation is dated to the Marshfield and Dodington Troop raised in 1830. Six further troops – officered by nobility and gentry, and recruited largely from among landholders and tenant farmers – were subsequently raised in Gloucestershire, and in 1834 they came together to form the Gloucestershire Yeomanry Cavalry. In 1847, the regiment adopted a hussar uniform and the name Royal Gloucestershire Hussars. Originally intended to counter insurrection and a French invasion that never materialised, the yeomanry's first deployments were ceremonial and as mounted police during times of civil unrest. Three Gloucestershire troops were deployed to Bristol on two separate occasions in the 1830s in support of the civil authorities. From the mid-19th century, the yeomanry's policing role diminished with the establishment of a civilian police force, and renewed fears of invasion turned its focus to national defence. The Royal Gloucestershire Hussars' first battle honour was won in South Africa during the Second Boer War, when a contingent of Gloucestershire yeomanry served as mounted infantry in the Imperial Yeomanry. Before the First World War, all volunteer forces, including the yeomanry, were brought into the Territorial Force. On the outbreak of the war the regiment raised a second-line unit, which remained in the UK and became a cyclist unit in 1916, and a third-line unit, which served as a reserve. The first-line unit saw action as infantry at Gallipoli and as cavalry in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign; in the latter it fought both mounted and dismounted from the Suez Canal to Aleppo in modern-day Syria. Following the war, the regiment was downsized and converted to the 21st (Royal Gloucestershire Hussars) Armoured Car Company. When the United Kingdom began mobilising again in the late 1930s, the company converted to an armoured regiment and was restored to its former name. On the outbreak of the Second World War, the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars once again raised second- and third-line units. The first-line regiment remained in the UK as a training unit, seeing service overseas only after the war as part of the army of occupation in Austria, and the third-line regiment was actually a troop-sized unit acting mainly as a deception designed to disguise British armour strength and disposition. The 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars fought in North Africa, initially attached to the 7th Armoured Division (the Desert Rats). The regiment suffered heavy losses during Operation Crusader and the subsequent Battle of Gazala, twice being taken out of the line for refit, and was variously equipped with Crusader, M3 Stuart and M3 Grant tanks. When it lost two commanders killed in action in quick succession, the regiment's individual squadrons were used to reinforce other units, and the 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was disbanded in 1943. Reduced back to a single regiment after the war, the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was equipped with armoured cars and given a reconnaissance role. Repeated reorganisation of the Territorial Army in the 1960s reduced the regiment to a squadron assigned to an infantry role. In the 1990s, the squadron returned to an armour role in the Royal Wessex Yeomanry, tasked with training replacement crews for the regular army's Challenger 2 tanks. Origins In 1794, fearing insurrection and faced with the threat of invasion during the French Revolutionary Wars, British Prime Minister William Pitt made the first ever recorded mention of yeoman cavalry when he called for an augmentation of the cavalry for internal defence. The government subsequently proposed a plan to all Lord-Lieutenants – the monarch's personal representative in each county – to increase the forces at the nation's disposal. This included the raising of volunteer troops of cavalry consisting of gentlemen and yeomanry. Each troop comprised 50 to 80 men, commanded by the person raising it. Commanders received a temporary rank ranging from Captain to Colonel, depending on the number of troops raised. Officers were generally appointed from among the nobility and gentry, and troops were largely recruited from landholders and tenant farmers. Members provided their own horses and were not paid except when called out. Uniforms were provided by the commanders, and weapons by the government. The yeomanry could only be called out by the Lord-Lieutenant or royal warrant to suppress civil unrest in home or neighbouring counties, or by royal warrant in the event of foreign invasion. The individual troops of the Corps of Gentlemen and Yeomanry, as the force was first called, were initially independent, and only later would they combine to form regiments. Each troop was required to conduct exercises, or 'permanent duty', initially for twelve days each year, reduced to six in 1816. The first yeomanry troop raised in Gloucestershire was the 60-strong First or Cheltenham Troop of Gloucestershire Gentlemen and Yeomanry, formed in 1795 by Powell Snell, a gentleman of means and good position. In total, eight troops had been raised by 1798. Following the 1802 Peace of Amiens, all except the Cheltenham Troop were disbanded, but the following year Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom prompted the re-establishment of several old troops and the formation of new troops; by the end of 1803 there were thirteen troops in Gloucestershire, and in 1813 the county's yeomanry had a strength of 582 men. As well as permanent duty, the yeomanry assembled as required for ceremonial and peace-keeping purposes; the Gloucester Troop provided an escort during the visit of the Prince of Wales to the city in 1807, and in 1810 it was called out to an affray between Irish militia and citizens in a local pub. A general reduction in volunteer forces followed the defeat of Napoleon, and by 1815 all yeomanry troops in Gloucestershire except one were disbanded. Only the Gloucester Troop was retained, as a mounted police force, until it too was disbanded in 1827. Formation and early history New troops of yeomanry were raised in the 1830s in response to the Swing Riots. The first such troop established in Gloucestershire was the Marshfield and Dodington Troop, raised in 1830 by William Codrington, from which the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars dated its formation. The troop comprised three officers, a quartermaster, four non-commissioned officers, a trumpeter and fifty troopers, and was recruited from the tenants of Codrington's estate and those of his neighbours, including that of the Duke of Beaufort. In 1831, six more troops were raised by members of the Gloucestershire gentry in Fairford and Cirencester, Stroudwater, Tetbury, Gloucester, Winterbourne and Stapleton, and Alveston. That same year, the Dodington and Tetbury Troops were sent to Bristol in response to civil unrest following the defeat of the Second Reform Bill in the House of Lords. In 1834, all of the Gloucestershire yeomanry captains met in the hamlet of Petty France in south Gloucestershire and agreed to combine their troops into a single regiment, to be named the Gloucestershire Yeomanry Cavalry. Its first commanding officer was the Marquis of Worcester, who became the 7th Duke of Beaufort in 1835, thus beginning the regiment's long association with the Beaufort family. The new regiment was ranked 24th in the yeomanry order of precedence and comprised seven troops with a total strength of 26 officers and 382 other ranks. Adopting the uniform of light dragoons, each man was armed with sword and pistol, and twelve skirmishers in each troop were armed with muzzle-loading carbines. The regiment's first deployment came in 1838, when the Dodington and Winterbourne Troops helped police a Chartist rally in Bristol. The 'Royal' prefix was granted in 1841, and in 1847 the regiment adopted a blue hussar uniform and the name Royal Gloucestershire Hussars. The authority of the Duke of Beaufort is evident in his order, in 1846, that all members should grow moustaches "in the form of a carving knife", an instruction that was derided in the pages of Punch magazine at the time, and his insistence the next year that the regiment wear the second jacket over the back, Hungarian style, instead of the usual English-style over the shoulder. The influence of the social order on the composition of the regiment at this time can be observed from an incident in 1847. It involved a disagreement between Lord FitzHardinge, Lord-Lieutenant of Gloucestershire, and his brother, Grantley Berkeley, a member of parliament and captain of the Berkeley Troop, which had joined the regiment in 1840. In pursuing his grievance against his brother, FitzHardinge pressured his tenants into resigning from the troop and threatened some with the loss of their farms if they did not. Further insight into the regiment's strong ties to the farming community can be found in the records of the annual exercises. In 1865, the permanent duty was deferred until the autumn due to an early harvest, and participation in a major 14-day exercise in 1871 was cancelled due to a late harvest. Attendance at the annual assemblies dropped below 300 men in the late 1870s and early 1880s, compared to 445 in 1875, due to a succession of bad harvests. In 1890, the regiment boasted four Masters of Hounds and a large number of fox hunters in its membership, both officers and other ranks, and that year it adopted an old hunting song, D'ye ken John Peel, as its regimental march. The establishment of a civilian police force and renewed fears of invasion in the mid-19th century turned the yeomanry's focus to national defence. In 1871, Westley Richards breech-loading carbines replaced the muzzle-loading carbines and were issued to all troopers rather than just the skirmishers, and three years later responsibility for the yeomanry was transferred from the Lord-Lieutenants to district military commanders of the War Office. In 1867, the regiment's annual inspection had involved drill, but from 1875 the regiment was practising outpost duties, reconnaissance, and rear-guard exercises in the local hills. As the years passed, old troops were disbanded, renamed or amalgamated and new troops raised, and in 1893 the troops then existing were formally organised by order of the army into squadrons: A Squadron – Gloucester and Berkeley Troops B Squadron – Cheltenham and Tewkesbury Troops C Squadron – Monmouth and Chepstow Troops D Squadron – Badminton and Dodington Troops The order also allocated the yeomanry regiments to brigades and required them to train at brigade level every three years. Accordingly, the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars joined the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry in the 3rd Yeomanry Brigade, and the two regiments conducted their first joint permanent duty in 1895. In 1899, the British government created the Imperial Yeomanry to reinforce the regular army during the Second Boer War, and the existing Yeomanry Cavalry regiments were asked to provide volunteers. The Royal Gloucestershire Hussars contributed a contingent of 125 men, around half of whom were existing members, the remainder being recruited into the regiment when they enlisted for service in South Africa. They were folded into the Imperial Yeomanry as 3rd Company, 1st Battalion, which arrived in South Africa in 1900 and saw its first action on 5 May at Thaba 'Nchu. It served for 18 months, as mounted rifles rather than cavalry, and came under fire 65 times, though more men were lost to sickness than enemy action. On their return to the UK in July 1901, the men of the 1st Battalion were absorbed back into their parent regiments, and the veterans of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars endowed the regiment with its first battle honour, "South Africa 1900–01". In April 1901, the domestic Yeomanry Cavalry was renamed to the Imperial Yeomanry. The reorganisation set an established regimental strength of 593 (later reduced to 476) all ranks – organised as before into four squadrons, but with the addition of a machine-gun section – replaced carbines and swords with Lee–Enfield rifles and bayonets, and introduced a standard khaki uniform. The Imperial Yeomanry's mounted rifles role in South Africa and the reorganisation, along with the new uniforms and equipment, led to fears that the yeomanry was being relegated from cavalry to infantry. The regiment petitioned the King for permission to retain the sword on parade, and by 1913 the weapon had been re-introduced in place of the bayonet for general use. The Imperial Yeomanry as an organisation lasted only until 1908, when the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 came into effect and brought all volunteer forces, including the yeomanry, together into the Territorial Force. The Royal Gloucestershire Hussars conducted its first annual training under the new scheme between 19 May and 2 June 1909, when the 1st South Midland Mounted Brigade, of which the regiment was now part, assembled with the 1st South Western Mounted Brigade for exercises on Salisbury Plain. First World War Following the outbreak of the First World War, the regiment mobilised on 4 August 1914 and joined the rest of the 1st South Midland Mounted Brigade at Warwick eight days later. By the end of the month, the brigade had assembled on the Berkshire Downs with the rest of the 2nd Mounted Division, which was subsequently stationed on home defence duties on the east coast of England. As a territorial regiment, the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was not obliged to serve overseas but could volunteer to do so, and when it did, a second-line regiment was formed in September 1914 to take its place on home defence duties. A third regiment was raised in 1915 as a reserve and to provide replacements for the first two. The regiments were numbered the 1/1st, 2/1st and 3/1st Royal Gloucestershire Hussars. The second-line regiment spent most of the war stationed at various locations in England, initially as part of the 2/1st South Midland Mounted Brigade (subsequently renamed the 10th Mounted Brigade) in the 2/2nd Mounted Division (subsequently renamed the 3rd Mounted Division). In July 1916, the regiment swapped horses for bicycles and joined the 8th Cyclist Brigade in the 2nd Cyclist Division. In November, the regiment was merged with the 2/1st Queen's Own Worcestershire Hussars to form the 12th (Gloucestershire and Worcestershire) Yeomanry Cyclist Regiment in the 4th Cyclist Brigade, but resumed its original identity as the 2/1st Royal Gloucestershire Hussars in March 1917. Around April 1918, the regiment moved to Ireland and was stationed at Dublin, where it remained, still in the 4th Cyclist Brigade, until the end of the war. The third-line regiment became part of the Cavalry Reserve at Tidworth, initially affiliated to the 4th Reserve Cavalry Regiment and subsequently to the 5th Reserve Cavalry Regiment. Gallipoli In April 1915, the 2nd Mounted Division sailed to Egypt, and the 1/1st Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, less C Squadron, disembarked at Alexandria on 24 April. On 14 August, the regiment embarked without its horses for Gallipoli and arrived at Suvla Bay three days later. It fought as infantry at Chocolate Hill on 21 August, supporting the attack of the 29th Division in the Battle of Scimitar Hill, during which the regiment suffered 61 casualties. It remained in the area until the end of October, serving periods of duty in reserve and in the support and front-line trenches. During this time it continued to lose men to sickness and enemy shelling, and of the original contingent of 361 all ranks that had landed over two months previously, only some 100 men were still fit for duty when the regiment departed Gallipoli on 31 October. Egypt After a short spell on Lemnos, the regiment arrived back in Egypt in November 1915. It returned to the cavalry role and was brought back up to strength, numbering 370 all ranks in January 1916. The same month, the 2nd Mounted Division was disbanded, and the 1st South Midland Mounted Brigade – renamed the 5th Mounted Brigade in April – became corps troops for the XV Corps, stationed in the Suez Canal area. In late March, the regiment was patrolling the Sinai, and at the end of the month it assembled at Romani (modern day Rommana), some east of the canal. Early on 23 April, A Squadron was stationed at Qatia (or Katia), some south-east of Romani. At 09:15 it came under attack by a Turkish force of between 1,000 and 1,500 infantry, supported by cavalry and a battery of mountain guns, which had already overwhelmed two squadrons of the Queen's Own Worcestershire Hussars and a party of Royal Engineers further east at Oghratina. The squadron was reinforced by a squadron of Worcesters, and the regiment's own B and D Squadrons moved out of Romani in support. The defenders at Qatia held out until mid-afternoon before being overwhelmed, and B and D Squadrons, which had been heavily engaged in the attempt to reach Qatia, retired back to Romani. The Battle of Katia cost the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars 98 casualties, most of them being taken prisoner, and only nine men of A Squadron evaded death or captivity. The squadron was criticised for advancing too far, and an Australian soldier who visited Qatia labelled the yeomen "country bumpkins led by privileged toffs". When Lieutenant-General Sir Philip Chetwode unveiled the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars war memorial in 1922, he countered the "very wrong criticism", saying that "there was nothing to be ashamed of, but everything to make them proud of their regiment". While A Squadron was being rebuilt, B and D Squadrons joined a squadron from the Worcestershire Hussars to form a composite regiment within the 5th Mounted Brigade. On 4 August, D Squadron, detached to the 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division, played a conspicuous role in the Battle of Romani when it plugged and held for three hours a dangerous gap on the initiative of its commander, Major Charles Turner, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). The squadron rejoined the composite regiment after the 5th Mounted Brigade arrived in support, and when the Anzac and British mounted brigades counter-attacked in the afternoon, the regiment took a ridge at the gallop and subsequently captured 500 prisoners, a battery of four guns and two machine guns. For the rest of the battle, the 5th Mounted Brigade came under command of the ANZAC Mounted Division and took part in the capture of Qatia and the pursuit of the enemy to Bir el Abd. British Empire forces continued to advance across the Sinai, and the regiment was next in action on 9 January 1917, in the Battle of Rafa, during which it fought dismounted, suffering 46 casualties. Palestine Following the Battle of Rafa, the 5th Mounted Brigade transferred from corps troops to the Imperial Mounted Division (renamed in June to the Australian Mounted Division) in the Desert Column (reorganised in August as the Desert Mounted Corps). On 26 March, the mounted divisions, less the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, invested Gaza from the east and north in the First Battle of Gaza. The regiment, attached to the 53rd (Welsh) Infantry Division, was deployed along the coast, covering the division's left flank as it attacked Gaza from the south. The attempt to capture Gaza suffered from delays caused by fog, and the attack was called off in the late afternoon. The Second Battle of Gaza in April, during which the regiment fought with the rest of the cavalry as mounted infantry on the right flank of the main infantry attack, fared no better, and the opposing sides settled into a period of inaction. In June, General Edmund Allenby was appointed commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, and at the end of October he resumed the British Empire offensive in southern Palestine. The regiment was in corps reserve during the Battle of Beersheba, but saw action on 4 November in the Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe, during which it suffered 14 casualties. The regiment supported, but did not participate in, the Charge at Huj, and fought a defensive action on 12 November, immediately before the Battle of Mughar Ridge, when a Turkish counter-attack pushed the 5th Mounted Brigade back from Balin at a cost to the regiment of 21 casualties. In the early hours of 1 December, the regiment helped defeat a Turkish counter-attack against the high ground north and north-east of Jaffa, and for the rest of the month it was employed in guard duties, reconnaissance, fortification works and as divisional reserve. The regiment remained in reserve while Allenby secured his right flank with the occupation of the Jordan valley in early 1918, and when not on duty the men entertained themselves with fox hunts, a steeplechase, and periods of leave in Jaffa and Jerusalem. At the end of April, the regiment travelled a biblical route through Jerusalem, Calvary, the Mount of Olives, Gethsemane, Jericho, Mount Nebo, the alleged site of the inn of the Good Samaritan and across the Jordan valley. It fought dismounted in the Second Action of Es Salt at the beginning of May, and when that operation ended in defeat, it retired with the British Empire forces back into the valley. The regiment remained until August in the "valley of death", where temperatures peaked above and malaria was a constant problem, with only brief periods of relief. It suffered more from sickness in the inhospitable environment than from enemy action; in May alone the regiment suffered 16 casualties in battle, while 116 men were hospitalised due to illness. In August, the 5th Mounted Brigade became the 13th Cavalry Brigade and was transferred to the 5th Cavalry Division, which moved to the coastal sector in preparation for the next phase of the offensive. On 19 September, the division led the exploitation of a breach made in the enemy lines by the infantry in the Battle of Sharon, and after an advance of over the regiment, acting in the traditional cavalry role, entered Nazareth with swords drawn early the next day. Although it was ordered to withdraw later that morning, it returned and completed the capture of the town on 21 September. By the end of September the regiment had reached Damascus, and on 27 October, shortly before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities, it entered Aleppo. During the march, the regiment recovered the sword of Captain Lloyd-Baker, commander of A Squadron, over two years after it was taken by the Turks following his death at Qatia, and on 21 November the regiment entertained nine of its own recently released prisoners of war who had been captured at Qatia. Between the wars The regiment remained in Palestine immediately after the war and was demobilised in stages. The first party returned to the UK in January 1919, only two squadrons remained by March, and those not yet eligible for demobilisation were transferred to the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry in June. The remaining cadre of 28 men began their journey home at the end of June and arrived in Gloucester on 15 August. The names of the 28 officers and 200 other ranks of the regiment killed in the war are recorded on the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars war memorial, unveiled on 29 April 1922 in the grounds of Gloucester Cathedral. The Territorial Force was reconstituted in 1920 and renamed the Territorial Army (TA) shortly afterwards, and the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars began to recruit new members. On 21 October, its strength was 10 officers and 37 other ranks, rising to 16 officers and 208 other ranks by August 1921. The same year, the War Office ruled that only the fourteen most senior yeomanry regiments would be retained as cavalry, and offered the remainder the choice of converting to units of the Royal Field Artillery or reducing in size and converting to armoured car companies. On 25 November, the regiment chose the latter to become the 21st (Royal Gloucestershire Hussars) Armoured Car Company (TA) in the Royal Tank Corps (renamed in 1939 to the Royal Tank Regiment). The company comprised a headquarters (HQ) and four sections, each section equipped with four Peerless armoured cars, replaced in 1928–1929 by Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars. As war loomed again in Europe, the UK expanded its armed forces. The 21st (Royal Gloucestershire Hussars) Armoured Car Company was converted to a full armoured regiment and, on 30 April 1939, regained its original title as the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars. The TA was doubled in size, with each regiment creating a duplicate, and in the summer of 1939 the 1st Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was recruiting in Gloucester, Cirencester and Bristol, while the 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was recruiting in Gloucester, Cheltenham, Stroud and Tetbury. Attendance at the annual camp in July 1939 was about 1,000 yeomen, compared to some 300 the previous year. Second World War On the outbreak of Second World War, the 1st Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was equipped with Vickers Mk. IV and Mk. VI light tanks and initially served in home defence as part of the 20th Light Armoured Brigade. It was later re-equipped with Valentine tanks and earmarked for service in North Africa as part of the 6th Armoured Division, but a last minute change resulted in the unit remaining in the UK as a training regiment which, by the war's end, had trained over 5,000 officers and men. As the war was nearing its conclusion the regiment was equipped with Churchill tanks and prepared for service in the Far East, but following VJ Day it was re-equipped with Sherman tanks and Greyhound armoured cars and sent instead to Austria as part of the army of occupation in December 1945. The 3rd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was actually a troop of one officer and 30 men. It served variously as a training regiment, trials unit and decoy, constructing dummy tanks to deceive the enemy about the disposition and strength of British armour. After completing its training in the UK, the 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars deployed to Egypt in October 1941. By the middle of November it had assembled south-west of Mersa Matruh, close to the Libyan border, as part of the 22nd Armoured Brigade attached to the 7th Armoured Division, the Desert Rats. At this stage the regiment comprised 43 officers and 585 other ranks organised into three tank squadrons – F, G and H – with a regimental HQ and a rear echelon component responsible for supply. It was equipped with 52 Crusader tanks, 10 scout vehicles and 112 wheeled vehicles. Operation Crusader In Operation Crusader, the 7th Armoured Division was tasked with locating and destroying the Axis armour, and the 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was the lead element of the 22nd Armoured Brigade's advance. On 19 November, the brigade encountered the Italian Ariete Division, and in the ensuing action at Bir el Gubi it lost 40 tanks. Of the brigade's three regiments, the 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars fared the worst. The regiment overran some Italian anti-tank positions, but without infantry support it could not take their surrender. The Italians subsequently returned to their guns and caught the regiment's tanks in a crossfire. The Crusader's armour could be defeated at ranges of while its gun was ineffective at ranges greater than , and at one stage the regiment was outnumbered five or six to one. The day's fighting cost the regiment 30 tanks and some 50 casualties. Among the wounded was the regiment's commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Birley, who, after suffering a broken arm when his tank was disabled, sat exposed on another and directed the regiment until it withdrew at the end of the day, for which action he was awarded the DSO. The regiment, down to a single composite squadron of 19 tanks, was in action again on 22 and 23 November at Sidi Rezegh. The 7th Armoured Division was badly mauled by the German 15th and 21st Panzer Divisions before the German armour broke contact and pushed on towards the Egyptian border. In the respite, the regiment, which at one stage had been reduced to just four Crusaders, was reinforced with five M3 Stuarts – named Honey by the British – five Crusaders, and a squadron of Cruiser Mk IVs from the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment. The regiment fought next in the Sidi Rezegh area on 27 and 28 November, finding itself once again outgunned by enemy armour returning from its raid on the Egyptian border. After the battle, the regiment was withdrawn and re-equipped with 52 Honies which had already seen battle with the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars. As well as materiel losses, the fighting to date had cost the regiment 16 officers and 70 other ranks. Major W. A. B. Trevor, who had assumed command of the regiment after Birley was wounded, was awarded the DSO for his handling of the regiment. In December, the regiment fought at various times under command of the 7th Armoured Division's Support Group and the 4th Armoured Brigade. It rejoined the 22nd Armoured Brigade in the last week of December and completed a long march across the desert as the British and Commonwealth forces pushed the Axis forces out of Cyrenaica. As Operation Crusader drew to a close, the regiment saw action around Chor es Sufan on 28 and 30 December, after which the 7th Armoured Division was relieved by the 1st Armoured Division. In total, the regiment had suffered 169 casualties. Battle of Gazala Birley, his arm in a sling, resumed command of the regiment on 13 January 1942, and when a German Africa Corps counter-attack pushed the British and Commonwealth forces back to Gazala later that month, he commanded Birley Force, a composite regiment to which the 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars contributed the HQ and a squadron of tanks. The regiment was re-equipped in the first week of February; F Squadron with the new M3 Grant tanks, and G and H Squadrons with Crusaders, and in May its strength was 36 officers, 563 other ranks and 48 tanks. At the end of May, with the 22nd Armoured Brigade now returned to its parent unit, the 1st Armoured Division, the regiment saw action in the Battle of Gazala. It fought in the areas of Bir el Harmat and 'Knightsbridge', a defensive box held by the 201st Guards Motor Brigade some south-west of Tobruk. At the start of the battle, F Squadron lost all but one of its Grants, and the regiment was quickly reduced to 16 Crusaders and two Honies. These were formed into a composite squadron under command of the 3rd County of London Yeomanry. On 1 June the regiment handed over its remaining Crusaders to the 4th County of London Yeomanry and was taken out of the line for a refit the next day. The regiment returned to the line on 4 June with Honies and Grants taken over from the 4th Queen's Own Hussars; 14 tanks each in G and H Squadrons, 4 in the regimental HQ and 12 Grants in F Squadron. The next day it participated in a failed attack at Bir el Aslagh in the 'Cauldron', a German salient behind the original British and Commonwealth lines. It then retired east to Knightsbridge where, on 6 June, the command tank was hit, killing Birley and the regiment's adjutant. The regiment was by this stage down to a strength of 17 Honies and two Grants, and for the next two days, with Trevor once again in command, it acted as a patrol squadron for 22nd Armoured Brigade. On 10 June, H Squadron was attached to the 7th Motor Brigade (the former Support Group) fighting around Bir Hacheim. It remained with that brigade until the end of the month, while the remainder of the regiment was withdrawn from the line. In addition to the losses in materiel, the Battle of Gazala had cost the regiment 82 casualties, and on 12 June another was added to the list when Trevor was killed in an airstrike. Over the next few days the remaining senior officers appealed to brigade, division and corps commanders to prevent the regiment from being split up and used as replacements. Dispersal and disbandment Following defeat in the Battle of Gazala, the British and Commonwealth forces halted the Axis advance in the First Battle of El Alamein, in which G Squadron fought while attached at various times to the 1st Armoured Division Tank Delivery Regiment, the 4th County of London Yeomanry and the 9th Queen's Royal Lancers. Meanwhile, F and H Squadrons became infantry in the 10th Armoured Division and, armed with Italian anti-tank rifles, grenades and molotov cocktails, manned defences in the Delta. At the end of July, H Squadron took over the Crusaders of A Squadron, 5th Royal Tank Regiment (RTR), and relieved them in the El Alamein line, and F Squadron similarly replaced 5RTR's C Squadron on 17 August. The same month, G Squadron was given Crusaders and allocated to Army reserve at El Amiriya, serving at various times under the command of the 8th Hussars, an Indian brigade, the 9th Australian Division and finally the 10th Royal Hussars. The regiment's rear echelon and some of its HQ troops guarded bridges over the Nile in the Delta. During the Battle of Alam el Halfa, the regiment's F and H Squadrons fought as units of the 5th Royal Tank Regiment, and G Squadron was part of an abortive 9th Australian Division attack along the coast. The three squadrons were reunited in Alexandria on 20 September, but any hopes that the regiment would fight again under its own command were dashed when F, G and H Squadrons were transferred to the 4th Hussars, the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry and the 8th Hussars respectively. HQ Squadron was divided between the 5th Royal Tank Regiment and the 3rd The King's Own Hussars, and the 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars was disbanded on 15 January 1943. During its brief career the regiment had lost 72 men killed, 100 wounded and 85 taken prisoner of war, and was awarded two DSOs, seven Military Crosses, a Distinguished Conduct Medal and fourteen Military Medals. Post war The regiment was reconstituted in the reconnaissance role in 1947, equipped initially with Daimler Armoured Cars which were later replaced by Ferret scout vehicles. On 27 May 1962, a new Guidon was presented on behalf of the Queen by Colonel the Duke of Beaufort at Badminton House, and in 1963 the regiment was granted the Freedom of Gloucester. In 1967, following a reorganisation of the TA, the regiment was reduced to a squadron and combined with elements of the North Somerset and Bristol Yeomanry, the 5th Battalion Gloucestershire Regiment and the Gloucestershire Volunteer Artillery to form the Wessex Volunteers. A further reorganisation in 1969 reduced the squadron to a cadre of eight men, but it was expanded two years later to provide the regimental HQ and two squadrons in the infantry-roled Wessex Yeomanry, which in 1979 became the Royal Wessex Yeomanry. In 1983, the new yeomanry regiment was equipped with stripped-down Land Rovers and took on the reconnaissance role. It was further reorganised and re-purposed as an armoured reserve regiment in the 1990s, tasked with the provision of replacement crews for the regular army's Challenger 2 tanks. The Gloucestershire yeomanry lineage is maintained in the Royal Wessex Yeomanry by C (Royal Gloucestershire Hussars) Squadron. Battle honours The battle honours earned by the regiment were: Honorary Regimental Colonels Honorary colonels were: Royal Gloucestershire Hussars 1904– Col. Henry Somerset, 9th Duke of Beaufort, TD, DL, JP, ADC 1926– Col. Henry Somerset, 10th Duke of Beaufort, KG, GCVO, PC 1967– Col. Henry Somerset, 10th Duke of Beaufort, KG, GCVO, PC [reappointed] 1969– Col. Henry Somerset, 10th Duke of Beaufort, KG, GCVO, PC [reappointed] C (Royal Gloucestershire Hussars) Squadron, Royal Wessex Yeomanry (1971) 1972– Col. Henry Somerset, 10th Duke of Beaufort, KG, GCVO, PC [reappointed] 1984– Lt. (Hon. Col.) David Somerset, 11th Duke of Beaufort 1994– Col. John Evelyn Baring Hills, TD, DL 1999– Lt-Col. David R. Ayshford-Sanford, TD See also List of Yeomanry Regiments 1908 British yeomanry during the First World War Second line yeomanry regiments of the British Army Footnotes References Bibliography External links Royal Gloucestershire Hussars Yeomanry Association Soldiers of Gloucestershire Museum Yeomanry regiments of the British Army Yeomanry regiments of the British Army in World War I Regiments of the British Army in World War II Military units and formations established in 1795 1795 establishments in Great Britain Military units and formations in Gloucestershire Military units and formations in Gloucester
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Shapiro
Ian Shapiro
Ian Shapiro (born September 29, 1956) is an American legal scholar and political scientist who serves as the Sterling Professor of Political Science at Yale University. He served as the Henry R. Luce Director of the MacMillan Center at Yale University from 2004 to 2019. He is known primarily for interventions in debates on democracy and on methods of conducting social science research. In democratic theory, Shapiro has argued that democracy's value comes primarily from its potential to limit domination rather than, as is conventionally assumed, from its operation as a system of participation, representation, or preference aggregation. In debates about social scientific methods, he is chiefly known for rejecting prevalent theory-driven and method-driven approaches in favor of starting with a problem and then devising suitable methods to study it. His most recent work, coauthored with Michael J. Graetz, Wolf at the Door: The Menace of Economic Insecurity and How to Fight It, proposes achievable policies and strategies to mitigate economic insecurity in the United States. Life and career Born in Johannesburg, South Africa on September 29, 1956, Shapiro is the youngest of four children. He was educated at St. Stithians School in Johannesburg (1963–68); St. Albans School in Pretoria (1969); and South Africa's first multiracial high school, Woodmead School in Rivonia (1970–72). At the age of 16, he left for the United Kingdom where he completed "O" and "A" levels at Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire (1972–75). This was during South Africa's Border War and South Africa required compulsory military service, which would mean complicity in the enforcement of Apartheid. Shapiro chose to remain in Britain to read Philosophy and Politics at the University of Bristol, receiving his B.Sc. (Hons) in 1978. Then he left for the United States and enrolled in Yale University's Ph.D. program in Political Science, where he obtained an M.Phil. in 1980 and a Ph.D., with distinction, in 1983 for his dissertation entitled “The Evolution of Rights in Liberal Political Thought: A Realist Account," which won the Leo Strauss Prize awarded by the American Political Science Association in 1985. At Yale, Shapiro was a student of the important theorist of pluralism and democracy, Robert Dahl, though his work also shows the influence of Douglas Rae and Michael Walzer, who served as an external adviser of his thesis. Shapiro went on to the Yale Law School, earning the J.D. in 1987. Appointed to the department of Political Science as Assistant Professor thereafter, Shapiro was promoted to Full Professor in 1992, named William R. Kenan Jr. Professor in 2000, and Sterling Professor of Political Science in 2005. Shapiro served as the Henry R. Luce Director of the MacMillan Center at Yale University from 2004 to 2019. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000, the American Philosophical Society in 2008, and the Council on Foreign Relations in 2009. He is a past fellow of the Carnegie Corporation, the Guggenheim Foundation, and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has held visiting appointments at the University of Cape Town, Nuffield College, Oxford and Keio University in Tokyo. Scholarly work Early work Shapiro's early work explores existing theoretical frameworks for the study of politics. In books such as The Evolution of Rights in Liberal Theory (1986), Political Criticism (1990) and Democracy’s Place (1996), Shapiro engaged with the liberal, communitarian, and democratic theories which dominated political theory at that time. The Evolution of Rights in Liberal Theory (1986) examined the changing place of individual rights in liberal political thinking from the seventeenth century on. The book poses the questions: why did particular modes of talking about rights take hold around the English Civil War; how and why have they changed in the ways that they have; and how do they animate and constrain contemporary politics? Shapiro traces liberal political ideology through four major moments, bound to larger economic and social transformations, which he dubs transitional, classical, neo-classical, and Keynesian. Each is explored by reference to an emblematic theorist: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Robert Nozick, and John Rawls. Skeptical of the claims of postmodernists, like Richard Rorty, that our intellectual commitments are contingent and, hence, subject to voluntary endorsement and revision, Shapiro argues that “[m]any of our most fundamental philosophical beliefs are integral to social practices in which we engage unreflectively every day. Those beliefs are required, in nontrivial ways, by those social practices, thus generating an important limitation on how we might reasonably expect beliefs to change.... We need to take much better account of our actual circumstances, how they have come to be what they are, and how they influence our own values and actions, if we are seriously to argue for the pursuit of significantly different values in the contemporary political world.” Shapiro argues that “the liberal view of rights evolved via processes of adaptive change importantly conditioned by and functional to the evolution of capitalist markets”. Shifts in epistemological frameworks from the 17th to the 20th centuries demonstrate how this kind of adaptation functions. For example, because their epistemologies are not yet plagued by Humean skeptical worries, Hobbes and Locke were able to assume that each of us, as autonomous agents, would opt for a set of rights coextensive with an ‘objectively right’ set of rights, our universal moral ends. After Hume, this assumption is no longer tenable. Shapiro argued that attempts to adapt the way we talk about rights to these new conditions of post-Humean skepticism sometimes resulted in incoherence. Later theorists of rights like Nozick and Rawls try to make up for this by means of a resort to economic assumptions (for Nozick, neo-classical in origin; for Rawls, Keynesian). These provide an apparently objective anchor for subjective aims. Shapiro concludes “The principal reasons for the tenacity of the liberal conception of individual rights, its negative libertarian view of the substance of rights, its view of individual consent as the legitimate basis of rights, and its essentially pluralist and utilitarian conception of the purposes of rights have, in their various formulations, combined to express a view of politics that is required by and legitimates capitalist market practices” In Political Criticism, Shapiro continues to explore the theme of managing modernity’s loosened objectivity. Here, Shapiro engages political frameworks articulated in opposition to Rawls’s neo-Kantian foundationalism, including the anti-foundationalist work of Richard Rorty, J.G.A. Pocock, Michael Walzer, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Allan Bloom. These thinkers attempted to ground morality in varieties of convention, tradition, and intersubjectivity. Essentially, they hoped to justify ethical and political claims through context, borrowing the insights of W.V.O. Quine’s epistemological holism. Ultimately, Shapiro criticizes these attempts because they “commit the fallacy of identifying one bad kind of foundational argument with all attempts to provide adequate foundations for our beliefs.” In lieu of these flawed alternatives (foundationalism and contextualism), Shapiro recommends a third way, termed “critical naturalism,” which rests on a commitment to pragmatic realism. Drawing on a modified Aristotelianism, Shapiro constructs a notion of an authentic and integrated life as the goal of politics. In Democracy’s Place, Shapiro collects a number of essays, which together complete the critique and groundwork for his theory of democracy. Here, he explores the question of how “democratic ways of doing things can be made to fit well with other human values, better to shape the ways in which people pursue their collective goals.” To this end, Shapiro engages a variety of approaches to the study of democratic politics. These include public choice theory, contract theories, neo-Kantian foundationalism, and neo-Schumpeterian interest-based approaches (here, in particular, with respect to South Africa's transition to inclusive democracy). Shapiro's concern is to develop a pragmatic political ethics which takes people and institutions as they are, in imagining what they might become. With that in view, it is in this book that he begins to sketch the outlines of his theory of democratic justice. Taking a cue from Michael Walzer's 'Spheres of Justice' Shapiro argues for a “semi-contextualized” approach to the study and pursuit of justice. It varies over time and over the different realms of human social interaction. In these early, primarily critical, books, Shapiro explores the relationship between justice and democracy and with the realities of politics and pragmatic means of overcoming injustice. In his next book, Democratic Justice (1999), which some scholars rank among the four or five most important books since Rawls's A Theory of Justice, Shapiro begins the systematic articulation of his mature constructive theory. Justice and democratic theory In Democratic Justice, Shapiro argues that democracy and justice are often mutually antagonistic ideas, but are nonetheless best pursued together. This is partly for pragmatic political reasons. Justice must be sought democratically to be legitimate in the modern world, he argues, and democracy must be justice-promoting if it is to hold our allegiance over time. But, in addition to these political considerations, Shapiro contends that there is a philosophical link between justice and democracy, rooted in the fact that the most plausible accounts of both ideals involve commitments to the idea of non-domination. Power and hierarchy are endemic to human interaction. This means domination is an ever-present possibility. The challenge is to find ways to limit domination while minimizing interference with legitimate hierarchies and power relations. This leads Shapiro to his claim that democracy is a subordinate or conditioning good: one that shapes the terms of human interaction without thereby determining its course. Pursuing democratic justice involves deferring, where possible, to what Shapiro describes as insider's wisdom. By this he means encouraging people to democratize - for themselves - the collective pursuit of the things they value. Imposed solutions are unlikely to be as effective as those designed by insiders, and their legitimacy will always be in question. They are solutions of last resort. When adopted, they are best pursued indirectly and designed to minimize interference with peoples’ pursuit of other human goods. In the applied chapters of Democratic Justice, Shapiro shows how this can be done in different phases of the human life cycle, from childhood through the adult worlds of work and domestic life, retirement, old age, and approaching death. Shapiro spells out the implications of his account for debates about authority over children, the law of marriage and divorce, abortion and population control, the workplace, basic incomes guarantees, health insurance, retirement policies, and decisions made by and for the infirm elderly. His arguments about democracy have been developed further in The State of Democratic Theory (2003) and The Real World of Democratic Theory (2011). The latter includes a response to critics of the theory of democratic justice and a sketch of additional projected volumes on public institutions and democracy and distribution. An elaboration of the argument's philosophical underpinnings is set out in “On Non-Domination.” In "On Non-Domination," Shapiro works through the alternative positions of Rawls, Walzer, Foucault, Habermas, Pettit, and Skinner, in addition to making his own substantive arguments about justice as nondomination, in order to "defend a view of non-domination as providing a better basis for justice than the going alternatives." Shapiro builds on this work on nondomination in "Against Impartiality," in which he argues that political theorists should focus on ways to identify and alleviate domination rather than unequivocally defending impartiality. Shapiro further expands upon these arguments and more in his major work of applied political theory Politics Against Domination, in which he makes a compelling case that the overriding purpose of politics should be to combat domination. In addition to taking a more theoretical approach to the topic, Shapiro discusses the implications of this work for ongoing debates electoral systems, independent courts, money in politics, minimum wages, and the vulnerabilities of minorities. Utilizing evidence from the battle against slavery, the creation of modern welfare states, the civil rights movement, Occupy Wall Street, the Tea Party, and the worldwide campaign against sweatshops, among other sources, Shapiro delves into the making of effective coalitions for political change and how best to press them into the service of resisting domination - culminating in the motivating argument that individuals may reasonably hope to devise ways to combat domination. Shapiro has also worked on issues related to transitions from authoritarianism to democracy. In several papers written with Courtney Jung and others, he has developed an account of the conditions that make negotiated transitions to democracy more and less likely to occur, addressing also the question of how they can be made sustainable when they do occur. This work has generated substantial scholarly debate. Turning to the matter of leadership in "Transforming Power Relationships: Leadership, Risk, and Hope," Shapiro and coauthor James H. Read identify three major characteristics of successful, risk-embracing leadership. Shapiro and Read state that such leadership is exemplified by Nelson Mandela and F. W. de Klerk during South Africa's transition to democracy, and further discuss leadership successes and failures in the cases of Northern Ireland and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In his more recent work on democratic politics, "Collusion in Restraint of Democracy: Against Political Deliberation," Shapiro highlights that rather than improving political outcomes, deliberation instead undermines competition over proposed political programs. He therefore asserts that political outcomes may instead be improved by "restoring meaningful competition between representatives of two strong political parties over the policies that, if elected, they will implement." Additionally, Shapiro has written on the negative consequences of devolving political power to the grassroots level in modern democracies. In his work coauthored with Frances McCall Rosenbluth, Responsible Parties: Saving Democracy from Itself, Shapiro and Rosenbluth explore how popular democracies have eroded trust in political systems worldwide. This devolution of power to the grassroots is reflected in changing methods of candidate selection and increased amounts of ballot initiatives and referendums, as well as the increased use of proportional representation across democracies. Although these reforms are intended to bring politics closer to the people, they instead produce diminished trust in politicians, parties, and democratic institutions - culminating most recently in major populist victories democracies, including the United States and the United Kingdom. Highlighting that transferring power to the grass roots is part of the problem rather than a solution, Shapiro and Rosenbluth argue that decentralize political decision-making effectively weakens political parties, thereby making governments less effective and less able to adequately address the long-term interests of their constituents. This subject also represents an ongoing joint project conducted by Shapiro and Rosenbluth, among others, at the Jackson Institute for Global Affairs at Yale University. Methods and the human sciences In several articles and books Shapiro has defended distinctive accounts of the nature of social scientific knowledge, the best means of acquiring it, and its implications for political philosophy. In Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory, Shapiro and co-author Donald Green took on the reigning method in the social sciences: the use of rational choice models derived from neoclassical economics to explain, predict, and interpret political action. They argued that, if rational choice theorists are going to claim to provide compelling explanations, they should also have solid predictive value — or at least they should do better than the going alternatives. By reviewing the results of rational choice models in several key areas of political science, including voting behavior, collective action, legislative behavior, and spatial theories of elections, Green and Shapiro concluded that rational choice theory has achieved a great deal less than it claims. Indeed, they claim that it cannot achieve what it set out to, because, like all universalist theories, it treats all objects of study as though they were of the same type. Universalism inevitably results in what Shapiro calls ‘method driven’ rather than ‘problem driven’ social science. “Hypotheses are formulated in empirically intractable ways: evidence is selected and tested in a biased fashion; conclusions are drawn without serious attention to competing explanations; empirical anomalies and discordant facts are often either ignored or circumvented by way of post hoc alterations to deductive arguments...” These issues “generate and reinforce a debilitating syndrome in which theories are elaborated and modified in order to save their universal character, rather than by reference to the requirements of viable empirical testing. When this syndrome is at work, data no longer test theories: instead, theories continually impeach and elude data. In short, empirical research becomes theory driven rather than problem driven, designed more to save or vindicate some variant of rational choice theory rather than to account for any specific set of political phenomena.” In effect Green and Shapiro argue that rational choice methodology, which had become dominant in political science by the 1980s, was driven to “...[save]... universalist theory from discordant encounters with reality.” Rational choice theory, they argued, rests on unsubstantiated assumptions about political reality. When these assumptions are scrutinized and tested empirically, they are all too often been found to be false. And when rational choice theory generates explanations that are true and predictive, typically such explanations turn out to be banal, obvious, and hence of little merit on that count. Pathologies generated considerable critical attention from all quarters in the political science discipline, some of which spilled over into the realm of public debate. This work has been credited with fostering the reinvigoration of systematic empirical research in the political science discipline. In The Flight from Reality in the Human Sciences, Shapiro takes a systematic look at the many ways in which the human sciences have lost sight of their objects of study, confusing apparent methodological rigor with accuracy. This matters, he argues, because the conclusions that result, even while resting on assumptions divorced from reality, can profoundly impact real outcomes. Through inefficacy, for example, this kind of social science can neuter social criticism. Along with a critique of the method-driven strategies embraced by rational choice theorists, interpretivists, and others, Shapiro offers a defense of epistemological realism. He defines realism as resting on a twofold conviction: “that the world is causal mechanisms that exist independently of our study — or sometimes even awareness — of them, and that the methods of science hold out the best possibility of our grasping their true character.” He explores its implications both for explanation in the human sciences and for normative debates which, he argues, should be conducted in closer proximity to one another than is typically the case. For instance, if we are concerned with reducing injustice in the world, we should investigate both the philosophical character of justice as well as the conditions in the world that shape people's ideas about it. Policy issues In Democracy's Place, Shapiro said “...I think inquiry most likely to be fruitful if we start with first-order problems and engage higher-order commitments only to the degree necessary to tackle them.” Shapiro has engaged concrete policy issues in three works of applied political theory. Abortion: The Supreme Court Decisions, provides an extended analysis and annotation of the political and legal debate on abortion in the United States since the 1960s. Death by A Thousand Cuts: The Fight Over Taxing Inherited Wealth (coauthored with Michael Graetz) and Containment: Rebuilding a Strategy Against Global Terror. In Death by A Thousand Cuts, Graetz and Shapiro explore new evidence that bears on the old question: In democracies, why don't the poor soak the rich? The prospect that, if given the vote, the poor would use it to do just that dominated nineteenth-century debates about expanding the franchise. It is also predicted by the median voter theorem in political science. In fact, majorities in democracies sometimes support regressive changes in distribution, which is to say the poor sometimes vote for measures that will increase the wealth of the richest members of society at their own expense. This was the case with the broad bipartisan support for repealing the estate tax, which had been on the books since 1916, as part of President Bush's 2001 tax cut. This tax was paid by the wealthiest two percent of taxpayers; half by the wealthiest half of one percent. Yet polls revealed large majorities consistently favored getting rid of it, and the legislation to repeal the tax won strong bipartisan backing in both houses of Congress. Finding few useful insights in the political science or economics literatures to account for this, Graetz and Shapiro undertook a micro-study of the estate-tax repeal's legislative success. Based on 150 interviews with congressmen, senators, staffers, civil servants, lobbyists, activists, think tank researchers, and pollsters involved on both sides of the repeal effort, they distilled a picture of “how power and politics actually operate in Washington today.” The book develops a number of insights about what makes redistributive coalitions more and less effective in American politics, underscoring the complex pluralism of power in America and the role of moral commitments in animating lived political experience. It also provides insights into the ways in which Americans understand and make decisions about their interests. They argue that interest groups can radically change politicians behavior without substantively changing public opinion. In the case of the estate tax, interest groups were able to recast public opinion by employing priming and non-neutral wording in opinion polls. While public opinion did not change, the politicians’ perceptions of public opinion radically shifted and with it, their understanding of which actions were politically safe. This provides a partial explanation for the way that democracies can generate upward redistribution, contrary to what we might have assumed were the “objective” interests of the majority. Graetz and Shapiro were to have received the 2006 Sidney Hillman award for the book, but the award was revoked at the last minute due to allegations that Shapiro had intimidated graduate student assistants during a union campaign at Yale in 1995, which an administrative court later found to be an illegal partial strike. The Hillman award is sponsored by a labor union, UNITE-HERE, which represents clerical and technical workers at Yale and serves as the parent organization of the Graduate Employees and Students Organization (GESO). Shapiro expressed regret over the withdrawal of the award and noted that the administrative law judge dismissed claims against Yale stemming from the 1995 strike, so the allegations against him were never adjudicated. In the wake of America's foreign policy decisions in the first decade of the 21st century and their consequences, Shapiro wrote Containment. This was a critique both of the neoconservative Bush doctrine, which gained ascendency following the 9/11 attacks, and of the Democrats for their failure to articulate an alternative. Beginning from the claim that, “in electoral politics, you can’t beat something with nothing”, Shapiro spelled out an approach to foreign affairs in the post 9/11 age based on an adaptation of George Kennan's cold-war containment strategy. Containment, rather than aggressive regime change, is preferable from a principled perspective because it is more democratic to leave countries to choose (or refuse) democracy on their own, consistent with Shapiro's insistence on the importance of ‘insider wisdom’ in achieving just outcomes. But furthermore, aggressive foreign wars are expensive in terms of monetary and political capital, and have costs in terms of foreign reputation also. Even a trans-border threat like organized terror, he argues, can be most effectively contained by pressuring host countries. Kennan's defense of containment had been strategic all the way down, but Shapiro argues that the doctrine's imperative to ratchet up only enough coercive force to stop the bully, without yourself becoming a bully, embodies the central commitment to resisting domination that gives the democratic ideal its normative appeal. In a more recent work coauthored with Michael Graetz,The Wolf at the Door: The Menace of Economic Insecurity and How to Fight It, Shapiro argues that Americans are more concerned with their own economic insecurity than they are about inequality - calling attention to the fact that Americans are most afraid losing what they already have, whether it be jobs, status, or safe communities. Therefore, Shapiro and Graetz posit that the solution to economic insecurity is a return to the hard work of building coalitions around realistic goals and pursuing them doggedly through the political system - providing evidence of the success of this tactic in earlier reforms, such as in the cases of the abolition of the slave trade and the pursuit of civil rights legislation. Additionally, Shapiro and Graetz offer concrete, achievable reforms that would make Americans more secure, and offer substantial recommendations for how to increase employment, improve wages, protect families suffering from unemployment, and provide better social services such as health insurance and child care. Other work Shapiro edited NOMOS, the yearbook of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy, for eight years, as well as a number of other collections of scholarly work. Shapiro has also contributed to the “Arts and Ideas” section of the New York Times, and journals like Dissent and Critical Review. He produces occasional op-ed pieces, too. In addition, Shapiro has published The Moral Foundations of Politics (2003). This book grew from a popular undergraduate course which Shapiro has taught at Yale University for decades. It explores three common kinds of answers to the question: “Who is to judge, and by what criteria, whether the laws and actions of states that claim our allegiance measure up?” Through examining the utilitarian, Marxist, and social contract traditions, Shapiro aims to demonstrate both the common roots of the 20th century's dominant modes of thinking about political legitimacy and the pragmatic consequences of the operationalization of these traditions. In the final chapters, he engages with contemporary critiques of the Enlightenment, arguing that even if we could reject the ideas and principles that commonly animated the political thought of that time, it would be to our detriment to do so. Shapiro offers a defense of what he describes as the mature Enlightenment. Its core commitments are to a fallibilist view of science and the political importance of individual freedom as realized through representative institutions. Shapiro also served as the instructor for Moral Foundations of Politics, an introductory course on political philosophy offered on Coursera by Yale University since January 2015. It is "a survey of the major political theories of the Enlightenment" and also deals with contemporary issues in modern-day politics. The course aims to answer the central question: "When do governments deserve our allegiance, and when should they be denied it?". As of 23 January 2022, 173,901 learners have enrolled for the same. Shapiro is co-chair of the executive committee of the Future of American Democracy Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan foundation in partnership with Yale University Press and the MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies, "dedicated to research and education aimed at renewing and sustaining the historic vision of American democracy." Notes Works External links Introduction to The State of Democratic Theory by Ian Shapiro Response by Ian Shapiro to critics of Democratic Justice "Democracy at Home," an interview with Ian Shapiro Ian Shapiro:: The MacMillan Center:: Department of Political Science:: Yale University Ian Shapiro | Political Science | Yale University 1956 births Living people American political philosophers Academic staff of the University of Cape Town Yale Sterling Professors People educated at Abbotsholme School Yale University alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhombe
Zhombe
Zhombe, originally known as Jombe, is a rural communal area in Kwekwe District, Midlands Province, Zimbabwe. It is an area of mixed Shona and Northern Ndebele People. It lies along the Mnyathi border line between Midlands and Mashonaland Provinces. There are a few commercial farms within its borders and a handful of resettlement areas. Most of it is within the Zhombe Constituency. Its administrative centre is the Zhombe Joel Growth Point, and it is under the Zibagwe Rural District Council. There are fourteen business centres in Zhombe. Ten of the business centres are electrified. There are also two rural service centres: Empress and Zhombe Joel. As of 2011, there were 53 primary schools and 18 secondary schools. There are ten clinics (and one mission hospital) and several health centers in Zhombe. The area is primarily rangeland supporting over 48,000 cattle, with 13 animal health centers and 26 dip tanks. Jombe Zhombe is the current spelling of "Jombe", a former spelling which came about as a result of Portuguese orthography. It is not uncommon for "Jo" to continue to be pronounced "Zho" in these Central African names. Geographic features named Jombe There are both a hill and a river named Zhombe, sometimes spelled Jombe or Jombi. Coordinates: The location of Zhombe Hill is just less than east of Bhamala Township and the local people like to call it Zungunde the name of an infidel man who used to live up there. The geographic location of Zhombe Hill is in Mashonaland West Province because the provincial boundary is on the Zhombe side of Munyati River well off the banks, and at this place the boundary is about 700m west of the river bank. Local people like to think that the provincial boundary is right at the middle of the river but the truth on any map is that Munyati River is wholly in Mashonaland West Province almost throughout the eastern boundary of Zhombe and the Midlands Province. Origins of Jombe Jombe possibly originated from migrant workers who worked with the German gold miners, who had numerous small scale mines in Zhombe and elsewhere in Zimbabwe. They brought Jombe to this part of the world from elsewhere. Jombe is also the name of a type of deep purple chrysanthemum. "Jombe" is also a surname. However, there must have been Jombe and Zhombe in the 1930s as Esme Newfield put down in her family biography, or there was a market place called Jombe and the other one Zhombe such as Jombe Store and Zhombe Store. Jombe elsewhere In Zimbabwe Jombe is not a vernacular name, even as most names here are foreign and most names were imported from elsewhere. There is Jombe Clinic in Jombe village, Mutasa District. The French and the Portuguese would pronounce as Zho the Jo and it becomes Zhombe clinic. There is also a mountain in Mashonaland East called Zhombwe, sometimes mispronounced as Zhombe. So Zhombe was only the pronunciation of Jombe and someone at the native registrar's office misspelled it because of the pronunciation. There is also not far from Zhombe a school called Zhombe SDA Primary School in Bombah, Gokwe. There are also Jombe Primary and Secondary Schools in Manicaland. Zhombe profile by ward Wards 1 and 2 have since been scratched from Zhombe Constituency to Chirumanzu-Zivagwe Constituency, but still part of Zhombe Communal Lands. Ward 5 and 26 are now under Silobela Constituency but still in Zhombe Communal land. Zhombe Constituency has since been trimmed to 12 wards. but Zhombe Communal Land remains the same. Ward 31 This was Ward 1 of Zhombe Constituency. It is now Ward 31 under Chirumanzu-Zibagwe Constituency, but is still in Zhombe geographically. Primary schools Bonwei, established 1984 Munyati Zesa, established 1956 Sherwood Park, established 1980 Secondary schools Munyati Zesa, established 1987 Health centers Sherwood Clinic has two nurses and two general beds. Munyati Clinic has four nurses and two general beds. Ward 2 Politically Ward 2 is now under Chirumanzu–Zibagwe Constituency but in Zhombe geographically. Primary schools Chimwaoga, established 1982 Sebakwe, established 1968 Health centers Sebakwe Clinic is manned by one nurse and has two general beds. Ward 5 Politically Ward 5 is now under Silobela Constituency, but geographically is in Zhombe Communal Land. This ward was where Sungura musician Tongai Dhewa Moyo grew up. Primary schools Mariyangu Primary School, established 1999 - Maliyami Zivagwe Primary School, established 1985 Kotamai Primary School Secondary schools Njeremoto Secondary School Mabura (Ward 6) Business and service centers Columbina Rural Service Center Machipisa Bee Mine Township Samambwa Shopping Center Samambwa Villa was the rural home of one of Zimbabwe's young politicians, the late Learnmore Judah Jongwe. Primary schools Bee Mine Primary School Established 1969 Samambwa Primary School Established 1964 Somapani Primary School Established 1966 Secondary schools Bee Mine Secondary School, established 1981 Samambwa Secondary School, established 1984 Health centers Samambwa Clinic has one nurse, one helper, and eight beds. Other facilities Commoner houses Ngondoma Irrigation Scheme Mabura Caves Sidakeni (Ward 7) Sidakeni is where the rural home of the Sungura songster Somandla Ndebele is. He started singing as a member of the Sidakeni Secondary School choir. That choir won first prize in the provincial choral competition, and from then Somandla pursued a career in Music. Business and service centers Sidakeni Township Coordinates: Latitude 18° 26' 51"S | 18.4475 S Longitude 29° 28' 39"E | 29.4775 E Sidakeni used to be Zhombe East's mother center with Samambwa Council offices and the Samambwa Police Base at the center. For the fact that it is only 3 km east of Empress Sidakeni has lost its potential of becoming the talk of Zhombe East. However, one of the clinics that serves Empress is at Sidakeni, with the other being at Rio Tinto Agricultural College. There are two school of the same name at this center, a primary one and a secondary one. St Peter's Munyati Township This is the first township as one enters Midlands from Kadoma, which is in Mashonaland West. It is also the first township after Munyati River Bridge on the same route. The township is also known as KwaHove after the pioneer businessman the late Mr Hove. St Peter's Munyati is a primary school some 700 meters from the center. This place has grown and now beats Sidakeni in business. This place was the first rural home area of the chief Gospel music pioneer in Zimbabwe, Baba Mechanic Manyeruke in the mid-70s. He resided in Mubereki Village just behind Tagwirei Grindill Mill. Kasawi Township Mangwarangwara Township -KwaChiroro Primary schools Kasawe Primary School, established 1965 Mangwarangwara Primary School, established 1965 Sidakeni Primary School, established 1966 St Peters Munyati Primary School, established 1963 Secondary schools Sidakeni Secondary School, established 1981 Health centers Sidakeni Rural Health Center Animal health centers Sidakeni Veterinary Clinic Dip tanks Sundukazi Empress Mine (Ward 8) Empress Mine Ward, in which Empress Mine Growth Point is situated, got its name from the now defunct Empress Nickel Mine which operated at this location for nearly two decades. The mine came into operation in late 1968 and closed in 1985 (1982 to 1985). For public convenience the Registrar General has set up the Empress Mine Sub Office at the Old Empress Mine Offices, next to the ZRP Samambwa Base, where people can register IDs, births and deaths. Business and service centers Kamukuze Township, Navata Mavende Store, Mugqunyelwa Village Kaseke Shops, Empress Mine Navhata Shopping Center, KwaGweru Totororo Township Totororo Township is one of the oldest townships in Zhombe east. Totororo had conventional telephones in the 1960s while most centers had not even seen a telephone. After the independence of Zimbabwe, Totororo produced a businessman who made sure the center was electrified from his own coffers. Unfortunately Mapolisa did not live long enough to see his efforts over-spill to other areas like Bhamala and St George. Presently Totororo is second in business activities from Empress-Machipisa and statistically St George's comes third in all Zhombe East. This is the village where author Morgan Mahanya lives. Bhamala Township Bhamala or Bamala township used to be the biggest and most prominent township in all Zhombe East. The catchment area of Bhamala is not so big and business growth at this place is limited. One could get anything at this shopping center in past years, but for a much higher price, of course because only one omnibus serviced the route and it also served as a delivery vehicle for retail shops at the center. The place is surrounded by "Makorokoza" gold panners so the people there are not worried about spending. Bhamala or Bamala is a headman and chief villager of this area. There are Bhamala Primary School and Bhamhara Secondary School at this center. There is also a very active and ongoing co-operative society called Karigamombe at the center. Karigamombe has been functional since the early 1980s. It is one of the few ongoing co-operative societies of the early eighties in all Zimbabwe. Bhamala school relocated to this area from about 2 km south-east of where it stands now in the sixties. Elderly locals know about this very well but only a handful of the younger generations have come about this piece of history. The late Abet Dube, Headman Bamala's son-in-law, was head of the Old Bamala School. The names Bamala and Bhamala both have the Indian-Pakistan origins since both are not for any Bantu clan. During colonial days the white bosses would give their servants whatever name they saw fit and eventually register them with the registrar general's office. Primary schools Commoner Primary School, established 1954 as Salakuhle School, misspelled as Salagushle Mopani Primary School, established 1975 Navata Primary School, established 1963 Totororo Primary School, established 1964 Bhamala Primary School, established 1964 Ward 8 and 9 wrestle for this school. However in general elections the Gwesela West Ward polling station is always at the school, on side, while the Empress Mine Ward polling station is a tent pitched away from the school, on the off-side off the boundary road. Secondary schools Bhamhara Secondary, established 1983 Nyaradzo Secondary School, established 1981, formerly Mbuya Nehanda Totororo Secondary School, established 1986 Higher education There is Rio Tinto College of Agriculture at Empress Mine Township, Zimbabwe 3.5 km south of Columbina Rural Service Center. The college trains agricultural extension officers, but some students opt for other fields soon after completion of the three year Diploma in Agricultural Science and Practice. It is also known as RioZim Foundation Zhombe Agricultural College. Health centers Rio Tinto College of Agriculture Clinic is manned by one nurse, usually with the help of student nurses from Kwekwe General Hospital. It has two general beds. Dip tanks Totororo Gwesela West (Ward 9) The current Member of Parliament for Zombe Constituency, Hon. Daniel Mackenzie Ncube, comes from Gwesela West. Primary schools Manzamunyama St Faith Primary School, established 1964 SENGEZI Primary School, established 1965 Senkwasi St Paul's Primary School, established 1961 Secondary schools Manzimunyama St Faith Secondary School, established 1982 Health centers Senkwasi Clinic is manned by one nurse, and has eight general beds. Agriculture Zhombe's second irrigation scheme, Senkwasi Irrigation Scheme, is in this ward, near Senkwasi Clinic and Senkwasi Dam. Zhombe Central (Ward 10) The eastern half of Zhombe Central is now Ward 32 Donjane. Business and service centers Zhombe Joel, Zhombe Center Joel is named after the famous businessman Joel Tessa. This is Zhombe Center. Zhombe Joel is the current mother center of all Zhombe. Zhombe Police Station, Zhombe Grain Marketing Board Depot, Zhombe Cattle Sale Pens, Rio Tinto Zhombe High School, Zibabgwe Rural District Council Zhombe Offices, Zhombe Constituency Information Center, Zhombe Post Office and Chief Gwesela's Homestead are all at Zhombe Joel. It is also a favourite refreshment spot for motorists along the Kwekwe-Gokwe Highway. St Andrew's best shops were the Nyaningwes that were owned by veteran businessman, Mr Choga, also known as "Skondai," in the 90s. The center was formerly known as Mukolwane after one Zhombe east's historical headman Muzondeki Mukolwane. St Andrew's is a nearby primary school. Some like to call this place Majaqaba. Primary schools Gwesela St Andrews Primary School, established 1963. The school produced the best 2013 girls' soccer team in the Midlands Region. Secondary schools Somalala Secondary School, established 1984 Rio Tinto Zhombe High School, established 1977, formally an F.2 secondary school Donjane (Ward 32) Donjane was created from the eastern part of Zhombe Central Ward prior to the 2013 general elections. Business Centers Mushangi Business Center is the principal center in Ward 32. St Georges Township is the largest business center in Ward 32. Schools Donjane Primary School, established 1965, formerly St Peter's School Donjuan St George Primary School, established 1962, relocated in the mid-1980s Donjane Secondary School, established 1984 Health centers Donjuan Clinic, Donjane Rural Health Center is manned by two nurses and has eight general beds. Ward 11 Business and service centers Zhombe Mission, formerly KwaMashazhike Zororo Zhombe East Turnoff Zhombe Store Primary schools St Martin de Porres Primary School, established 1964, Zhombe Mission School GOMOLA Primary School, established 1966 Gwenzimukulu Primary School, established 1963 SOMALALA Primary School, established 1930 Secondary schools Gwenzunkulu Secondary School, established 1993 Health centers Gomola Rural Health Centre is manned by one nurse and has eight general beds. Ward 12 Primary schools Champeni Primary School, established 1981 FAFI Primary School, established 1954 Vulamatsheni Primary School, established 1980, Mvuramachena Secondary schools Fafi Secondary School Health centers Malisa Zhombe Clinic is manned by one nurse and has eight general beds. Ward 13 Primary schools MAVHULE Primary School, established 1963, Mavule Mugandani Primary School, established 1982 Sikabela Primary School, established 1981 ST JUDE'S Mhazhe Primary School, established 1960 Secondary schools Mhazhe St Judes Secondary School, established 1982 Ward 14 Primary schools Nduku Primary School, established 1946, St Theresa Ntabeni Primary School, established 1964 Secondary schools Nduku Secondary School, established 1981, St Theresa Health centers Ntabeni Clinic is manned by one nurse and has eight general beds. Ward 15 This ward is now under Silobela Constituency. However it is still in Zhombe Communal Land. Ward 19 of Silobela Ward where Exchange Irrigation Scheme is situated is in Zhombe Communal Land also, yet in Silobela Constituency. See the old map of QueQue District (Kwekwe District). Primary schools Batanayi Sessombe Primary School, established 1982 Mutimutema Primary School, established 1993 Rusununguko Primary School, established 1987 Somoza Primary School, established 1983 Sunganayi Primary School, established 1985 All schools in this ward were established after the independence of Zimbabwe. Health centers Nyoni Rural Health Centre is manned by two nurses and has eight general beds. Ward 16 Primary schools Mangwizi Primary School, established 1981 Nhengure Primary School, established 1963 Nkiwane Santa Maria Primary School, established 1962 Tombankala Primary School, established 1999 Secondary schools Tombankala Secondary School, established 1986 Health centers Dendera RuralHealth Center is manned by two nurses and has eight general beds Ward 17 Politically Ward 17 is now under Silobela Constituency, but geographically is in Zhombe Communal Land. This and two other wards benefitted from a piped water project by ZIMWA, facilitated by Plan International. For many years water was a problem in this area. For years villagers in Dendera in Zhombe and their livestock walked long distances of about 15 kilometres to the nearest water source. The problem has, however, come to an end after ZINWA with help from Plan International successfully completed a piped water project. Primary schools DENDERA Primary School, established 1968 Mabhidhli Primary School, established 1981 Mawolokohlo Primary School, established 1982 Mkobogwe Primary School, established 1981 Tshapewa Primary School, established 1945 Secondary schools Dendera Secondary School, established 1986 Ward 26 Politically. Ward 26 is now under Silobela Constituency, but geographically in Zhombe Communal Land. Primary schools Muchape Primary School, established 1986 Batanai Zisco Primary School, established 1985 Secondary schools Mutimutema Secondary School, established 1987 Major rivers Munyati River is visually the boundary between Mashonaland West Province and Midlands Province though on the map the river is wholly in Mashonaland. The following are major tributaries of the Munyati River as in Zhombe. Ngondoma River Ngondoma River is the main boundary between Gokwe South District and Zhombe Communal Land. It has two bridges, one on the Kwekwe-Gokwe Highway and the other on Gokwe-Empress Road. It is dammed with Ngondoma Dam which supplies Empress Mine, Columbina Township and Ngondoma Irrigation Scheme with water. Zhombe River Zhombe River is one of the three main rivers in Zhombe Communal Land that are tributaries to Munyati River. The other two are the Sesombe River (Zvuuzvumbe River) to south and Ngondoma River to the north. Its source is in Chief Ntabeni's area in the south-west region of Zhombe, the western foot of a kopje in Jamela village which has a spot height of 1236 metres. Sedombe River starts also at the southern heel of the same kopje. It has two main bridges across it: one on the Kwekwe-Gokwe Highway (R847 Road) and the newer one on the Somalala-Sidakeni Road south of Bhamala School. Its tributaries are: Senkwasi River which impounds into Senkwasi Dam upstream that supplies Senkwasi Irrigation Scheme Manzamunyama River after which Manzamunyama School is nama Ngwenzi River which is dammed upstream by Gwenzi dam which supplies water to Zhombe Mission and Zhombe Joel Somkaya River dammed with Somkaya Dam The river flows generally north-east and it passes west of Semhakasa Kopje whose spot height is 1146 metres. About 500 metres before it enters Munyati River the river turns just less than a right angle east towards on-coming current of the Munyati River. This is caused by the southern end of Zhombe Hill which stretches from here northwards. When the major river is flooded the current of Zhombe River slows down causing the water depths to be so deep for 2 to 3 km towards Zhombe River mouth. Villagers here do not temper with this section of Zhombe River when Munyati River is flooded. The river itself has no dam. Sesombe River Sesombe River (Zvuuzvumbe River) has its source south of Jamela Kopje in Zhombe south-west, in Chief Ntabeni's area. It flows generally north-east torwards Munyati River. It passes the Kwekwe-Gokwe Highway south of Rusununguko School and north of Jombe. Further downstream Sesombe River passes west of Rugugwe Kopje whose spot height is 1117 metres. Its tributaries are: Somalala River. This and Ngazimbi River impound into Somalala Dam. There was an experimental irrigation near Somalala Dan in the early 1990s which failed outright. Somalala River has another dam east of Donjane Primary School which the school uses for garden projects. Mandombe River Chimwamombe River Maliyami River is the only major tributary from the eastern side of Sesombe River. It is dammed with Mayorca Dam and there is a small irrigation scheme near the dam. Sesombe has another bridge on the Donjane-Kwekwe via Mayorca Road. It enters Munyati River about 3 km upstream from Zhombe River mouth. Other Mangwararangwara River that is bridged east of Sidakeni Primary School on the Gokwe-Empress is not a very big river but popular in Zhombe east. Totororo River which Totororo Secondary School was named after is not a big river but has a lot of legends and local history upon it. Summary Traditional leaders There are four chiefs in Zhombe: two in Zhombe-east and two in Zhombe-west. Chief Gwesela, Zhombe-east Chief Samambwa, Zhombe-east Chief Malisa, Zhombe-west Chief Ntabeni, Zhombe-west The most popular headmen in all Zhombe are Nduku in Zhombe-west and S Samambwa in Zhombe-east. The two are usually mistaken for chiefs. Historical events Zhombe is known to have been the home of one of the most wanted men in the mid-1980s, the dissident leader, Richard Gwesela. The late Chief Gwesela, however, thought Richard was not one of them let alone his surname. Zhombe, particularly Zhombwe East, is where the late Chief Samambwa used to reside. He died in 2009. His jurisdiction extends as far as Empress, Sidakeni and Mangwarangwara. Zhombe East is rich in gold, which has saved the lives of the majority of Zhombe residents who had resorted to gold panning for the past five years of drought. Installation of the new chief has not yet been officially made but the eldest son of the late chief Willard Sonny Samambwa is currently chief in an acting capacity. Any changes will be published in the Government publication List of Traditional Leaders in Zimbabwe. In 2018 Samuel Samambwa was placed as Chief soon after the November 2017 resignation of R.G Mugabe. He is the current Chief Samambwa Main village centers in Zhombe East KUdamu(dam) Somalala Donjane Bhamala Totororo Sidakeni Kasawe Bee Mine Mangwarangwara Samambwa Somapani Food security Food crops that are popularly grown in Zhombe include maize, groundnuts, roundnuts, sorghum, millet and cotton. The two irrigation schemes in Zhombe east also farm beans and okra seasonally. Water reticulation The constituency has a total of 352 boreholes and 72 deep wells from which residents draw water. Of that figure, 257 boreholes and 57 deep wells were functioning as of 2011. Developments Empress Mine Township has since been ear-marked for the newest town in Zimbabwe, and developments are already taking place, although slowly. A new mine venture has sprung up at the Old Commoner mine dumps, and is doing very well, employing over a hundred people from the surrounding villages. Totororo, a township between Empress and Bhamala is growing fast due to the opening of a new mine in the vicinity. There are also three Cotton Marketing Board depots in the constituency. There are three irrigation schemes at Senkwasi, Ngondoma 1 and Ngondoma 2 respectively. The two schemes are supplied by Ngondoma Dam via gradient carnal water system; no electricity or any fuel used to pump water along the +3 km carnal route. Social In Donjane area during the early 1990s, the entertainment industry emerged through the likes of one of the Kerere sons who used to sing the song"Kufamba kwake Miriyemu kunobuda mapepa" which was often played in "Ndari" (i.e. in households where local home brewed beer was sold). Politics The political atmosphere has substantially changed in Zhombe East. This area has been known for years for being politically stable and violence free, and since the days of the Government of National Unity (GNU), Zhombe residents have witnessed free expression of political views. The elders have urged the youngsters not to be used by politicians, to murder, torture and harass people for the politicians' political self-interest. The peace-loving people of Zhombe detest political violence and people who come to inflict violent mentality in the minds of Zhombe people have been greatly criticized by Zhombe residents. History Former council offices In the days when Zimbabwe was Rhodesia the local government ministry established local council offices in chieftains. Gwesela Council There were council offices across Gwenzi River, directly opposite Zhombe Mission, on the other side of Gwenzi Dam. These were the Gwesela Council offices and a council run beer-hall called Important. Makuva Store was the store of the days then at this township. Samambwa Council Samambwa Council office and beer-hall were at Sidakeni Township. The beer-hall at Sidakeni is still there though not so active in recent years. F.2 secondary schools The present day Rio Tinto Zhombe High School was formally an F.2 school. F.2 school students would complete Form Four (Ordinary level) after five years of secondary education with practice on subjects like building, metal work, dress-making and the like. F.2s sat for N.C.E (National Certificate of Education) examinations (at J.C., Junior Certificate), unlike their counterparts the F.1s who sat for GCE Junior then Senior Certificate (Cambridge University) exams. There was no formal secondary school in Zhombe before independence, let alone this F2 school built by Rio Tinto in the mid-1970s. The nearest mission secondary school was Loreto in Silobela. Kasisi Lower Primary School There was a primary school at Kasisi Village, between Bhamala and St Peters Munyati School. It was a lower primary school called Kasisi. The school was closed because not many pupils were in its location, and the road network and terrain are poor even up to today. Old loop roads There was a bus road that linked Zhombe-Joel with Donjane. The road branched off the Zhombe Joel-Sidakeni road at Xaba Shops just north of where the Tel-One booster is now, and it went all the way through Manzimunyama to Mutohwe in Donjane near St Mukasa’s Roman Catholic Church. It was serviced by a United Bus Service bus six days a week, making one non-returning trip per day. Another road also branched from the Zhombe Joel-Sidakeni road at Sengezi Cross and went east to join the Bhamala-Totororo road. Actually the original road was the Bhamala-Sengezi one, and the one from Totororo was secondary. This explains why the road from Totororo to Bhamala seem to have been misplaced; it runs from the direction of either center into no-man's land only to make a sharp turn much later, to the right direction. At that sharp turn, the road to Sengezi Cross branched. The two chiefs' school days St Andrew's (Gwesela) School used to be the best upper primary school in Zhombe East. It had Sub A and Sub B (sub-standard), then Standard 1 to Standard 6. This meant one had to complete primary school in eight years. The late Chief Nobody Gwesela and the current acting Chief Willard Samambwa did primary school at St Andrews in the same years when the head teacher was Nyakura Sibanda. St Andrew's was then strictly an Anglican school, with Father Sototombe being the responsible priest. Father Sototombe, however, came for mass once a week from town. The first mission school St Martin de Porres School, Zhombe Mission was also a notable school in those days. In the greater part of the sixties and seventies C E Mapfumo was Headmaster with Mr Tsikira of Zhombe East deputizing. Lower primary schools' final exams were held at Zhombe Mission. All grade 5 or Std. 3 exams were held at one place for all schools that were not upper primary. Upper primary schools were those that had Std. 6 and later grade 7, and lower primary were those schools that had up to grade 5 only. This explains why Chief Willard Samambwa and the late Chief Nobody Gwesela ended up at St Andrew's School. Chief Chakaipa Gwesela, the father of Nobody Gwesela, resided near Semakazi Kpje then, before he shifted to Zhombe Joel. Chief Chakaipa Gwesela under-studied Sub-chief Muzondeki Mukolwane who resided near where Majaqaba Shops (St Andrew's) are situated now. Zhombe Store Zhombe Store, near Zhombe Bridge (Old Somalala-Zhombe Mission dust road) was the best shop in the area. Fountain pens, nibs, pen-holders and ink were always available there. In the sixties schools did not use today's pens but fountain pens or pen-holders fitted with a nib for dipping in ink for writing. Buses and delivery vans passed right at the front of Zhombe Store, so supplies were never short at this store. United Bus Service (now ZUPCO) and Kambasha Bus Service were the only buses that serviced the Que-Que (Kwekwe)-Gokwe road. First Black school inspector Today's Sabhuku Kadzunge (Village Head) was a school inspector well before independence. He was a high-ranking official in the education sector, the equivalent of today's education officer. See also Columbina Rural Service Center Zhombe Shona version References Ministry of Health and Child Care Health Information and Surveillance Unit - healthcare facilities in selected district Populated places in Midlands Province Kwekwe District
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbaro%20family
Barbaro family
The Barbaro family was a patrician family of Venice. They were wealthy and influential and owned large estates in the Veneto above Treviso. Various members were noted as church leaders, diplomats, patrons of the arts, military commanders, philosophers, scholars, and scientists. History Barbaro family tradition claims they were descended the Roman gens Catellia and more distantly from the Fabii. Like other Venetian patrician families, they also claimed descent from Roman families with similar names, in this case Ahenobarbus. Tradition also says they fled to Istria to avoid persecution during the reign of Emperor Diocletian. The family's wealth came from the salt trade. Records show the family moved from Pula to Trieste in 706 and then to Venice in 868.< At this time the family's surname was Magadesi. (Alternate spellings were Magadezzi and Maghadesi.) The first recorded member of the family was Paolo Magadesi, who was Procurator of San Marco. Charles Yriarte says this occurred when Pietro Tradonico was Doge of Venice (836–864), though most sources say the family did not live in Venice until later. An Antonio Magadesi was also Procurator of San Marco in 968. and Johannes Magadesi was a presbyter of the Church of San Zorzi in 982 and has also been cited as the first member of the Barbaro family that we have a historical record of. Recorded genealogy of the Barbaro family begins in 1121 with Marco, naval commander and creator of the modern coat of arms, who changed his surname name from Magadesi to Barbaro. The Barbaro family was recognized as one of the leading families (Ottomati) of the Republic of Venice in the year 992. In 1297, the Maggior Consiglio (Senate of Venice) recognized the family as patricians The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia confirmed the family status as Patricians as part of a series of resolutions issued from 1818–1821. This status was officially recorded again in Venice in 1891 for all members of the family. In the sixteenth century there was a division between those Venetian families who opposed or favored the influence of the Holy See. The latter opposed the law that barred holders of church offices from also holding political appointments in Venice. The Barbaro family was part of this "papalist" group, along with the Badoer, Corner, Emo, Foscari, Grimani, and Pisani families. These families also acted as patrons of Battista Franco, Palladio, Francesco Salviati, Michele Sanmicheli, Giovanni da Udine, and Federico Zuccari. The Barbaro family fortunes diminished after Napoleon's defeat of Venice and they had to turn most of the Palazzi Barbaro into apartments. By the time art critic John Ruskin visited Venice in 1851 all that was left of the once powerful Barbaro family were a pair of elderly brothers living in poverty in the garret of the Palazzo Barbaro. Ruskin wrote that the poverty of these last members of the Barbaro family was justice for the family having rebuilt the Church of Santa Maria Zobenigo as a monument to themselves, which Ruskin called “a manifestation of insolent atheism”. The last of the family died in the mid-nineteenth century. Some branches of the family survived outside Venice. The most prominent was in Malta, but there were also branches in Galatia and other parts of Italy. Family arms There is disagreement over the form of the ancient Barbaro coat of arms. Johannes Rietstap and others identify it as “'D'or, à deux bandes d'azur, accompagne de deux roses du même”, a gold field with two bands of blue between two roses of the same color. d'Eschavannes identifies it as “D'azur, à trois roses d'or”', a blue field with three gold roses. Sources agree that the modern Barbaro coat of arms is ’'D'argent, au cyclamore de gueules, a red ring on a white field. The modern Barbaro family arms were officially recognized by the Venetian Senate in 1125 in remembrance of Marco Barbaro cutting off the hand of a Moor during a naval action near Ascalon and using the bleeding stump to draw a circle onto a turban, which he flew as a pennant from his masthead.Delle inscrizioni veneziane, Volume 4, Emmanuele Antonio Cicogna, Fonni, 1969, pg. 520Guida per la città di Venezia all'amico delle belle arti, Volume 1, Giannantonio Moschini, Giovanni Antonio Moschini, Tip. di Alvisopoli, 1815, pg. 468 Until this incident, he was known as Marco Magadesi. Saracens boarded the galley he commanded and tore down the ship's flag, which bore the family coat of arms. Marco Magadesi used the bloody turban as an improvised flag to let the rest of the fleet know his ship had not been captured. After the action, he changed his family name from Magadesi to Barbaro< in recognition of the incident and to honor the heroism of his fallen enemies, who he considered barbarians. The Barbaro coat of arms are depicted on the façade of the church of Santa Maria Zobenigo. It is also displayed on the pediment of the Villa Barbaro and the family crypt in the San Francesco della Vigna. In 1432, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor granted Ambassador Francesco Barbaro the title of Knight of the Holy Roman Empire and the right to quarter his arms with the Imperial Eagles. In 1560, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted Ambassador Daniele Barbaro right to use the Tudor Rose in his personal arms. Notable members The brothers Daniele Barbaro and Marcantonio Barbaro, were patrons of the architect Andrea Palladio and the painter Paolo Veronese. Barbaro-family members acted as deans and professors of the University of Padua. Several members were also Patriarchs of Aquileia. Paolo Magadesi (c.836?) The first recorded member of the family and Procurator of San Marco. Antonio Magadesi (c.968) Procurator of San Marco. Johannes Magadesi (c.982) Presbyter at the Church of San Zorzi. Marco Barbaro née Magadezzi/Maghadesi (c.1121) Provveditore d'Armata, Naval victor against the forces of the Sultan of Egypt, creator of the modern Barbaro coat of arms. The Barbaro family arms were officially recognized in 1123 by the Venetian Senate. A painting of the victory by Sante Peranda hung in the Palazzo Ducale of Venice. Marco Barbaro (c.1229) Son of Pietro, cavalry captain in forces that defeated Ezzelino III da Romano tyrant of Padua Donato Barbaro (c.1259) Son of Pietro, captain of 40 galleys, defeated the Genoese and the forces of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel at the Island of Seven Wells (Isola dei Sette Pozzi). Pietro Barbaro (c.1270) Son of Jacopo. Served in the cavalry of Charles of Anjou in the conquest of Naples. Recognized by Charles for his actions in the Battle of Benevento; appointed Signore of the Castle of Pietramala. Nicolo Barbaro (c.1361) Son of Bertucci. Provveditore d'Armata, defeated the Genoese at Rhodes. Donato Barbaro (c.1364) Son of Giovanni. Distinguished himself in the suppression of a rebellion in Candia Marco Barbaro was Auditor of Grado in 1366 and Podestà of Oderzo in 1367. Bernardo Barbaro (c.1370) Son of Donato. Ambassador for the Doge to the Sultan of Egypt. Giovanni Barbaro (c.1380) Son of Adamo. Provveditore of the army that fought against Padua. Francesco Barbaro (c.1398) Son of Marco. One of the founders of the Congregazione dei Canonici Secolari (Secular Canons) of San Giorgio in Alga. Francesco Barbaro (1398–1454) Son of Candiano, uncle to Ermolao Barbaro Author, diplomat, politician, and military commander. Honored for his defense of Brescia from 1432 to 1435 against the Milanese under Niccolò Piccinino. A painting on this subject by Tintoretto, La difesa di Brescia, hung in the Palazzo Ducale of Venice. . Ambassador to Emperor Sigismund of the Holy Roman Empire. Made Knight of the Holy Roman Empire in 1448. Elected Procurator of San Marco. Noted scholar with many works. Subject of a 1932 biography by Percy Gothein. Almoro Barbaro (c.1403) Son of Adamo. Captain of a galley in the victory of Carlo Zeno against the Genoese. Ermolao Barbaro (1410-1471/1474), Son of Zaccaria and nephew to Francesco Barbaro. Bishop of Treviso(1443–1453). Bishop of Verona(1453-?). Governor of Perugia. Pietro Barbaro (c.1413) Son of Donato. Ambassador to the Duke of Savoy. Nicolo Barbaro was Auditor of Pola from 1413 to 1414. Marco Barbaro, son of Jacopo, was Podestà of Pirano from 1419 to 1421, and Ambassador to Byzantium in 1423, Podestà of Pirano from 1430 to 1431, and Captain of Grisignana from 1431 to 1437. Giosafat Barbaro (1413–1494) Son of Antonio. Traveled to Tana in 1436. In 1473, he was one of several Venetian ambassadors to Persia. Barbaro also served as Provveditore of the Army in Albania fighting with Skanderbeg against the Turks. Barbaro served as Captain of Rovigo and Provveditore of all Polesine from 1482 to 1483. Barbaro wrote about his travels Nicolo Barbaro (1420–1494) Son of Marco. Wrote an eyewitness account of the Fall of Constantinople. Andréa Barbaro was Castellan of Modon and Corone from 1421 to 1423. Zaccaria Barbaro. (1422–1492) He was the only son of Francesco BarbaroVenice: A Documentary History, 1450–1630, Brian Pullan, 2001, University of Toronto Press and the father of Ermolao Barbaro. and Alvise Barbaro, Cavalier, Procurator, and Provveditore al Sal Zaccaria served as ambassador to the Courts of Naples and Milan, and served as Procurator of San Marco.Bibliothèque curieuse historique et critique ou catalogue raisonné des livres difficiles a` trouver : Tome 1–9, David Clément, Hannover, 1751, pg. 409 In 1465, Zaccaria purchased the Palazzo Barbaro in San Vitale on the Grand Canal which remained in the family's possession until 1864. In 1480, Zaccaria served as ambassador to the Papal court of Pope Sixtus I. During the War of Ferrara Zaccaria served as an army commander. Benedetto Barbaro was Captain of Grisignana in 1423. and Auditor of Pola from 1433 to 1435. Matteo Barbaro was Auditor of Pola from 1423 to 1424. Vittore Barbaro, son of Maffeo, was Provveditore of the Army against Milan in 1426 and Captain of Rovigo and Polesine in 1428. Matteo Barbaro, son of Antonio was Rector of Nauplia and Argos from 1438 to 1441 and Bailo and Captain of Negroponte (the Greek island of Euboea, from 1444 to 1446. Dona Barbaro was Auditor of Trau from 1440 to 1443. Bernabo Barbaro was Auditor of Grado in 1446. Ermolao Barbaro (c.1448) Son of Candiano. Ambassador to the Duke of Burgundy. Donato Barbaro, son of Andréa, was Captain of Zara from 1450 to 1451, and Castellan and Provveditore of Modon in 1455, and Captain of Zara from 1462 to 1465. Ermolao Barbaro (1455–1497) Son of Zaccaria Barbaro, and the grandson of Francesco Barbaro. He was also the uncle of Daniele Barbaro and Marcantonio Barbaro Ambassador to Maximillian, King of the Romans. Patriarch of Aquileia 1491–1493 Marco Barbaro was Auditor of Pola in 1458. Francesco Barbaro was Luogotenente of Friuli from 1458 to 1459. Leonardo Barbaro was Auditor of Grado in 1464. Bartolommeo Barbaro, son of Stefano, was Rector of Stalimene (Lemnos) from 1467 to 1471. Zaccaria Barbaro was Podestà and Captain of Ravenna from 1468 to 1470. Jacopo Barbaro, son of Maffio was Provveditore of Lepanto.from 1468 to 1472. Antonio Barbaro. (c.1470) Son of Matteo. Governor of Scutari. Sustained a long siege against the Turks. Alvise Barbaro. (c.1470) Son of Zaccaria. Provveditore of the Army, died in the War of Ferrara. Pietro Barbaro was Rector of Belluno from 1472 to 1473. and Podestà and Captain of Ravenna in 1475. Zaccaria Barbaro, son of Matteo was Rector of Nauplia and Argos from 1473 to 1477 and Provveditore General of Cyprus in 1479. Captain against the Turks. Andrea Barbaro was Auditor of Grado in 1487. Francesco Barbaro (1488–1568) Grandson of Francesco Barbaro, son of Daniele Barbaro and Elena Pisani, father of Daniele Barbaro, Marcantonio Barbaro, and Alvise Barbaro. He was a Senator by 1530, Provveditore alle biave in 1533, Savio di Terraferma in 1539, Provveditore al Sal in 1541, and Provveditore general of Corfu in 1555, and Provveditore general of Cyprus in 1566. Established the family chapel at the Church of San Francesco della Vigna. Matteo Barbaro was Captain of Cyprus from 1488 to 1489. Giacomo Barbaro was Massaro all’oro at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1489. Paolo Barbaro was Podestà of Brescia in 1485 and Luogotenente of Friuli from 1490 to 1492. Ermolao Barbaro (1493–1556) Son of Alvise Barbaro and nephew of Ermolao Barbaro. After holding a series of junior naval and diplomatic posts, he became Governor of Verona from 1544–55 and governor of Padua from 1548–50. Daniele Barbaro was Auditor of Grado in 1499. Lunardo Barbaro was Massaro all’oro at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1504. Girolamo Barbaro was Auditor of Zara from 1504 to 1507. Giorgio Barbaro, son of Stefano, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1506 to 1508. Giovanni Barbaro (c.1508) Ambassador to Pope Julius II. Giovanni Antonio Barbaro, son of Giosafat Barbaro was Captain and Provveditore of Piove di Sacco in 1509 and Rector of Nauplia and Argos from 1512 to 1514. He also served as Provveditore General in Dalmatia and Albania. Francesco Barbaro, son of Antonio, was Auditor of Grado in 1511, Rector of Nauplia and Argos from 1516 to 1519, Podestà of Monselice in 1527, Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1528 to 1529, and Bailo at Constantinople in 1530, Alvise Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1511 and Provveditore alle biave in 1512. Jacopo Barbaro (d.1511) Naval commander against the Turks. Buried in the Church of Frari. Marco Barbaro. (1511–1570) Son of Marco. Genealogist of the families of Venice. His work is preserved in the British Museum in London. Daniele Barbaro (1514–1574) Son of Francesco. Historian, humanist, and diplomat. Mathematician, philosopher, and theologian. Owner of Villa Barbaro. Founded the Botanical Gardens of Padua. Served on the Council of Trent. Created Cardinal in pectore in 1561, revealed as Cardinal in 1571, Patriarch of Aquileia 1550–1570.Renaissance education between religion and politics, Paul F. Grendler, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006, Ambassador to England. Allowed by Queen Elizabeth to quarter the red and white Tudor roses in his arms. Historian of Venice. Patron of Paolo Veronese. A portrait of him by Veronese hangs in the Pitti Gallery of Florence, another in the Dresden Gallery, and one by Titian in the National Gallery of Canada. Marcantonio Barbaro (1518–1595) Son of Francesco, Brother of Patriarch Daniele. Co-owner of Villa Barbaro Diplomat, ambassador to Charles IX of France. Bailo of Constantinople, imprisoned during the Battle of Lepanto. Procurator of San Marco. Inquisitor in Corfu. Regent of the University of Padua. President of the construction of the Rialto Bridge. A portrait by Paolo Veronese hung in the Belvedere Gallery in Vienna, but was returned to Italy after World War I. With his brother Daniele, built the Villa Barbaro in Maser (Treviso), with work by Palladio and Vittoria and frescoes by Veronese. Subject of the work ’'La vie d'un patricien de Venise au XVI siècle " by French academic Charles Yriarte in 1874 in Paris. Pietro Barbaro was Podestà of Pirano from 1516 to 1518, Podestà of Portole from 1523 to 1528, and Podestà of Pirano again from 1530 to 1532. Matteo Barbaro was Rector of Belluno from 1518 to 1520. Cornelio Barbaro was Podestà of Asolo in 1527. Alvise Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1528. Luigi Barbaro was Lieutenant of Udine in 1530. Bernardo Barbaro. (c.1532) Son of Galzerando. Condotierre in the army of Charles V in Italy. Zuanne Barbaro. (c.1534) Uncle of Daniele Barbaro and Marcantonio Barbaro. Supervised the rebuilding of the San Francesco della Vigna. Francesco Barbaro, son of Luigi, was Podestà of Castelfranco in 1532 and Rector of Nauplia and Argos in 1539 and Provveditore of Zante from 1552 to 1554. Bortolomio Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1535. Bernardo Barbaro, son of Girolamo, was Podestà of Oderzo from 1540 to 1541. Zaccaria Barbaro was Auditor of Trau in 1537. Marco Vincenzo Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1541 to 1542. Cornelio Barbaro, son of Luigi, was Podestà of Bergamo in 1543, Provveditore of Zante from 1547 to 1549, and Captain of Cyprus from 1554 to 1556. Ermolao Barbaro was Podestà of Verona in 1545. Francesco Barbaro (1546–1616) Son of Marcantonio Barbaro. Bishop of Aquileia(1585–1593), Patriarch of Aquileia(1593–1616). Ambassador to the Court of Savoy. Archbishop of Tyre. Shown celebrating a Provincial Synod in the choir of the Udine Cathedral. Ermolao Barbaro (1548–1622) son of Marc'Antonio. Bishop of Aquileia (1596–1616), Patriarch of Aquileia(1616–1622) Ambassador to Pope Paul V, Archbishop of Tarsus. Zaccaria Barbaro, son of Daniele, was Provveditore of Cefalonia from 1554 to 1556. Giovanni Barbaro was Luogotenente of Cyprus from 1559 to 1561. Giovanni Battista Barbaro. (c.1560) Son of Francesco. Fought against the pirates of the Adriatic. Giovanni Nicolo Barbaro, son of Francesco, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1564 to 1567. Nicolo Barbaro (c.1569) Son of Bertucci. Captain in Lake Garda, defended the Castle of Lazise against the troops of Georg von Frundsberg during the Sack of Rome. His arms are visible in the Palace dei Capitani de Malcesine. Francesco Barbaro. (c.1569) Son of Alvise. Provveditore general in Dalmatia. Zaccaria Barbaro was Rector of Belluno in 1571. Alvise Barbaro was Auditor of Zara from 1580 to 1581 and Auditor of Trau from 1585 to 1587. Francesco Barbaro was Ambassador to Savoy from 1581 to 1582. Giacomo Barbaro was Rector of Belluno from 1589 to 1590. Cornelio Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1591. Zaccaria Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1593. Marco Barbaro, son of Francesco, was Captain of Rovigo and Provveditore of all Polesine from 1598 to 1599 and Provveditore of Cefalonia from 1606 to 1609. Luigi Barbaro, son of Giovanni, was Captain and Provveditore of Corfu from 1598 to 1600. Aurelio Barbaro was Rector of Fiume in 1602, 1612, and 1624. Cornelio Barbaro, son of Giovanni, was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1606 and Castellan and Provveditore of Cerigo from 1612 to 1614. Pietro Alvise Barbaro was Podestà of Albona and Fianona from 1612 to 1614. Almoro Barbaro, son of Luigi, was Provveditore of Zante from 1615 to 1617. Plague struck Zante in 1617. Antonio Barbaro was Provedditore General in Istria during the War of Gradisca. He was relieved on the grounds of illness in 1616, but reappointed in 1617. Marin Barbaro was Podestà of Capodistria from 1618 to 1621. Piero Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1618. Cornelio Barbaro, son of Zaccaria, was Provveditore of Zante from 1619 to 1620. Antonio Barbaro was Provveditore general of Zara from 1620 to 1623. Giovanni Barbaro, son of Jacopo, was Provveditore of Zante in 1624. Bartolomeo Barbaro, son of Giuseppe, was Podestà of Oderzo from 1624 to 1626. Alvise Barbaro was Podestà of Capodistria from 1626 to 1627. Antonio Barbaro (1627–1678) Son of Marc'Antonio. Provveditore general of the army against the Uscocchi. Captain of the Gulf in 1654. Provveditore d'Armata from 1658–1661. Provveditore general of Crete in 1667. Captain in the Battle of the Dardanelles. Provveditore general of Dalmatia. Conquered Zara. There are statues of him and his brothers in the Church of Santa Maria Zobenigo. Praised by Gabriele d'Annunzio during his declaration in Zara in 1918. Francesco Barbaro (c.1632) Son of Orazio. Knight of Malta. Giacomo Barbaro, son of Pietro Alvise, was Podestà of Oderzo in 1634 . Marcantonio Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1636 to 1638. Francesco Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1642 to 1643 and Podestà of Portole from 1643 to 1646. Alvise Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1644 to 1645 and Podestà of Portole in 1648. Daniele Barbaro, son of Alvise was Provveditore alle biave in 1646. Giacomo Barbaro, son of Angelo, was Doge of Crete in 1648, Rector of Belluno in 1654, Podestà of Oderzo from 1661 to 1662, and Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1665 to 1667. Antonio Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1648 to 1649. Lorenzo Barbaro, son of Angelo, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1648 to 1652. Luca Francesco Barbaro was Doge of Crete in 1649 and Captain of the Navy in 1651. Angelo Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1651 to 1653. Zambattista Barbaro, son of Zuanne was Provveditore alle biave in 1655. Leonardo Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1656 to 1657. Almoro Barbaro, son of Daniele, was Auditor of Pola from 1658 to 1659. and Bailo of Corfu from 1666 to 1667. Bernardo Barbaro, son of Angelo, was Podestà of Oderzo in 1663. Lorenzo Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1664 to 1665. Sante Barbaro (c.1668) Son of Alberto. Died victorious at Candia. Death is depicted in an album by Gatteri. Pietro Alvise Barbaro, son of Giaco, was Podestà of Oderzo from 1669 to 1670. Almoro Barbaro, son of Piero was Provveditore alle biave in 1670. Giuseppe Barbaro was Podestà of Portole from 1670 to 1674. Luigi Barbaro, son of Pietro, was Provveditore of Zante from 1671 to 1674. Valentino Barbaro, son of Marc’Antonio, was Podestà of Oderzo from in 1675. Stefano Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1677. Bernardo Barbaro was Auditor of Trau in 1676. Almoro Barbaro. (1681–1758) Son of Alvise. Savio di Terraferma. Procurator of San Marco. Elected Doge of Venice, but refused the position. Giorgio Barbaro, son of Alberto, was Rector of Tinos and Mykonos from 1684 to 1689 and again from 1696 to 1700. Alvise Barbaro, son of Piero was Provveditore alle biave in 1686 and Podestà of Albona and Fianona from 1690 until his death in 1691. Giacomo Barbaro, son of Angelo, was Podestà of Oderzo from 1688 to 1689. Angelo Maria Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1692 to 1693. Alessandro Barbaro, son of Antonio, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1692 to 1694. Alberto Barbaro was Podestà of Portole from 1697 to 1700. Girolamo Barbaro was Auditor of Pola from 1698 to 1699 and Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1699. Giacomo Barbaro was Podestà of Pirano from 1703 to 1704 and Auditor of Pola from 1704 to 1706. Camillo Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1705 to 1707. Lorenzo Barbaro, son of Antonio, was Auditor of Grado from 1706 to 1707 and Provveditore of Zarnata from 1711 to 1713. Giuseppe Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1708 to 1709 and Rector of Belluno from 1710 to 1711. Lorenzo Barbaro established a school in 1711 for the education of poor women in the San Andrea district, which was run by the Sisters of San Dorotea. Pietro Barbaro, son of Alberto, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1712 to 1714 and Podestà of Oderzo in 1721. Iseppo Barbaro, son of Antonio, was Bailo of Corfu from 1713 to 1716. Marino Barbaro son of Gianfrancesco, was Captain of Zara from 1718 to 1720, and Provveditore of Vonizza from 1728 to 1730. Marco Barbaro was Massaro all’oro at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1719. Angelo Barbaro, son of Giuseppe, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1721 to 1724 and Auditor of Zara from 1726 to 1728. Alessandro Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1725 to 1726. Marco Barbaro, son of Angelo, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1727 to 1729. Bernardo Barbaro, son of Angelo Maria, was Podestà of Oderzo from 1729 to 1730 and Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1733 to 1735. Francesco Barbaro was Captain of Grisignana from 1731 to 1732. Agostino Barbaro was Rector of Belluno from 1732 to 1733. Giorgio Barbaro, son of Giuseppe, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1732 to 1735 and from 1745 to 1748. Triffon Barbaro was Captain of Grisignana from 1735 to 1736. Giuseppe Barbaro, son of Alessandro was Castellan and Provveditore of Cerigo from 1737 to 1739. Girolamo Bernardo Barbaro, son of Nicolo, was Provveditore of Vonizza from 1738 to 1740. Francesco Barbaro was Podestà of Pirano in 1740. Antonio Barbaro was Auditor of Zara from 1740 to 1742. Marchio Barbaro, son of Alessandro, was Provveditore of Asso and Cefalonia from 1743 to 1745. Bernardo Barbaro was Podestà of Albona and Fianona from 1744 to 1747. Giuseppe Barbaro was Auditor of Zara from 1746 to 1748. and Captain of Zara from 1749 to 1752. Vicenzo Barbaro was Massaro all’oro at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1748. Andrea Lauro Barbaro was Captain of Grisignana from 1748 to 1750. Zuanne Alvise Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1751. Stefano Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1753. Antonio Barbaro was Rector of Belluno from 1752 to 1754, Auditor of Grado from 1754 to 1755, and Auditor of Zara from 1756 to 1758. Giuseppe Maria Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1755 to 1756. Zorzi Barbaro was Podestà of Pirano from 1755 to 1756. Francesco Antonio Barbaro, son of Marino, was Bailo of Corfu from 1755 to 1758. Simeone Barbaro was Podestà of Pirano from 1758 to 1759. Triffon Barbaro was Auditor of Trau from 1759 to 1760. Agostino Barbaro, son of Angelo, was Podestà and Provveditore of Romano di Lombardia from 1759 to 1762. Pietro Girolamo Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1762 to 1763. Bernardo Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1763 to 1765. Giacomo Antonio Barbaro was Rector of Belluno from 1765 to 1766. Piero Alvise Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1766. Girolamo Alberto Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1766 to 1767. Marco Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1766 to 1767. Giuseppe Maria Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1767 to 1769. Federico Barbaro, son of Giacomo, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1775 to 1777 and Podestà of Oderzo in 1778. Giovanni Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1777 to 1778. Giovanni Barbaro, was Podestà of Piove di Sacco from 1777 to 1778. Antonio Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1778 to 1780. Angelo Barbaro, son of Agostino, was Provveditore of Santa Maura from 1784 to 1786. Agostino Barbaro, son of Angelo, was Podestà of Oderzo in 1786. Antonio Barbaro was Massaro all’oro at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1792 and Rector of Belluno from 1795 to 1796. Giorgio Barbaro was Auditor of Grado from 1793 to 1794. Marco Barbaro was Massaro all’oro at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1794. Francesco Barbaro was Massaro all’argento at the Zecca (the Venetian Mint) in 1796. Patronage The Barbaro family commissioned works from and actively supported the careers of several men. This list includes: Flavio Biondo Josse Le Court Andrea Palladio Giuseppe Sardi Vincenzo Scamozzi Giovanni Battista Tiepolo Tintoretto Titian George of Trebizond Paolo Veronese Alessandro Vittoria Architecture The Barbaro family was connected to several buildings in and near Venice, some of which include: The Palazzi Barbaro, located near the Ponte dell'Accademia, was the family's principal residence in Venice. until 1864."The buildings are also known as the Palazzo Barbaro-Curtis. It is one of the least altered of the Gothic palaces of Venice. Another Palazzo Barbaro owned by a Daniele Barbaro and in 1797 by a Marco Barbaro. Yet another Palazzo Barbaro, near the Palazzo Barbarigo. It was owned in 1661 by a Lorenzo Barbaro and in 1712 by a Francesco Antonio Barbaro, but by 1740 it belonged to the Barbarigo family. The Palazzo Dario was built about 1450 by Zuanne Dario. After the death of diplomat Giovanni Dario in 1494, his daughter inherited. She was married to Vincenzo Barbaro, the son of Giacomo Barbaro and owner of the neighboring Palazzo Barbaro. Another Palazzo Barbaro, now known as the Palazzo Barbaro-Volkoff or Barbaro-Wolkoff. This 14th-century Gothic palace was owned by an Antonio Barbaro in 1797. Eleonora Duse later lived there. Marcantonio Barbaro supported Vincenzo Scamozzi’s design for a triple-arched Rialto Bridge, though Antonio da Ponte’s design for a single-arched bridge was chosen instead, and was one of three Venetian noblemen appointed to oversee the rebuilding of the bridge. Starting in 1534, Fra Zuanne Barbaro was one of two friars who were responsible for rebuilding the Church of San Francesco della Vigna according to the design of Jacopo Sansovino. Zuanne's brother Francisco was the first Venetian noble to purchase a family chapel there. Daniele Barbaro commissioned the church's altarpiece of' '''The Baptism of Christ (c.1555) by Battista Franco and was buried in an unmarked grave in behind the church instead of in the family chapel. The church of Santa Maria Zobenigo, also known as the Santa Maria de Giglio was built around 900 by the Zubenigo family, who died out in 1124. It was rebuilt between 1680 and 1700 by Giuseppe Sardi. The Barbaro family funded the rebuilding and the church contains statues of four members of the family. The façade shows plans for Rome, Corfu, Padua, Candia, Spalatro, and Pavia. Villa Barbaro at Maser. One of the best known of Andrea Palladio's villas, which he built for Daniele and Marcantonio Barbaro. The family also owned a property in the San Giovanni district. Ermolao Barbaro established an academy of philosophy there in 1484. In 1593-4 Marcantonio Barbaro was one of the Venetian nobles in charge of the building of the star-shaped fortress town of Palmanova in Friuli. Marcantonio headed the group, Marcantonio Martinego was in charge of construction, and Giulio Savorgnan acted as an adviser. Daniele Barbaro may have designed the Palazzo Trevisan in Murano, alone or in collaboration with Palladio. Like the Villa Barbaro, Paolo Veronese and Alessandro Vittoria probably also worked on the project, which was completed in 1557. References Italian noble families Roman Catholic families Republic of Venice families
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Schism
National Schism
The National Schism (), also sometimes called The Great Division, was a series of disagreements between King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos regarding the foreign policy of Greece in the period of 1910–1922 of which the tipping point was whether Greece should enter World War I. Venizelos was in support of the Allies and wanted Greece to join the war on their side, while the pro-German King wanted Greece to remain neutral, which would favor the plans of the Central Powers. The disagreement had wider implications, since it would also affect the character and role of the king in the state. The dismissal of Venizelos by the King resulted in a deep personal rift between the two and in subsequent events their followers divided into two radically opposed political camps affecting the wider Greek society. After Bulgaria had entered the war against Serbia (already in a siege under Germany's and Austria-Hungary's combined attack), in September 1915, Venizelos achieved a vote on October 4 in the parliament for a call to conscription, honoring the alliance treaty between Greece and Serbia. The next day he was implicated in the invasion of Allied forces in Thessaloniki which would establish the Macedonian front to help Serbia, but the King refused to sign the conscription, accused him of treason for the invasion in Salonika, and forced him to resign for a 2nd time within that year (1915). 8 months later, On May and June 1916 the palace counterweighted the grip of the Entente in Salonika with the unconditional surrender of a strong military fort along with half of the eastern part of Macedonia to the German-Bulgarian forces – the disagreements of the two men had now escalated towards a covert civil war. In August 1916, followers of Venizelos set up the provisional government of "National Defence" which included northern Greece, Aegean Islands and Crete, and sided with Entente. This act, which effectively split Greece into two entities, had the aim to reclaim the trust of Entente along with the lost regions of Macedonia, and to regain control on northern Greece, gradually lost after the growing Army of the Orient had landed, one year earlier. After intense diplomatic negotiations, an armed confrontation in Athens between Allied and royalist forces with dozens of casualties, some due to lynching by a royalist paramilitary organization, and a subsequent five-month naval blockade upon the (southern part of the) Greek kingdom, King Constantine abdicated on 11 June 1917 (his eldest son George bypassed, for also being anti-Entente), and was succeeded by his second son Alexander as king. Venizelos returned to Athens on 29 May 1917, and Greece, re-unified but under French armistice, officially joined the war on the side of the Allies. Although Greece emerged victorious and secured new territory by the Treaty of Sèvres, the bitter effects of this division were the main features of Greek political life until the 1940s, and contributed to Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War, the collapse of the Second Hellenic Republic, the 1925 Coup d'etat by Pangalos and the dictatorial Metaxas Regime. The National Schism reflected the differences between the "New Greece" gained after the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 consisting of Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus, Crete, and the North Aegean islands vs. the "old Greece" that consisted of the pre-1912 territories. In general, people in "New Greece" were more Venizelist while people in "old Greece" were much more royalist. Source of the conflict The main cause of the conflict was the dispute between Venizelos and King Constantine over power in Greece, in which the development of true representation had been slow since the creation of the state. Up until the 1870s and the King's acceptance of the principle that the leader of the majority party in Parliament should be given the mandate to form a government, the formation of political groupings around a leader who could govern if this pleased the King meant that the supposedly parliamentary government was actually at the monarch's discretion. Many reformists and liberals viewed meddling by the monarchy in politics as deleterious. The negative public attitude towards the monarchy was strengthened by the defeat of the Greek army, headed by Constantine (then the Crown Prince), in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. Many of these hopes for reform were also shared by young officers in the Hellenic Army, who felt humiliated by the defeat, and who were influenced by republicanism. A "Military League" was formed, and on 15 August 1909, they issued a pronunciamiento at the Goudi barracks in Athens. The movement, which demanded reforms in government and military affairs, was widely supported by the public; King George was forced to give in to the military's demands. He appointed Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis as Prime Minister and accepted the dismissal of the Princes from the military. However, it soon became apparent that the leadership of the League was not able to govern the country, and they looked for an experienced political leader, who would also preferably be anti-monarchist and not tainted by the "old-partyism" of the old system. The officers found such a man in the person of Eleftherios Venizelos, a prominent Cretan politician, whose clashes with Prince George, the island's regent, seemed to confirm his anti-monarchist and republican credentials. With Venizelos' arrival, the League was sidelined, and the energetic and relatively young politician soon dominated Greek political life. His government carried out a large number of overdue reforms, including the creation of a revised constitution. However, he also established a close relationship with the King, resisted calls to transform the revisionary assembly into a constitutional one, and even reinstated the Princes in their positions in the army, with Crown Prince Constantine as its Inspector-General. The reestablishment of the Princes in the Army, such as of royalist officers like Metaxas (whom Venizelos appointed as his adjutant) and Dousmanis, caused protests by officers of the Military League (like Zorbas and Zymvrakakis), while the coming of the French military mission to Greece (1911–1914), was not welcomed by the Crown Prince and his German trained cycle. Venizelos's reforms had broken the influence of the House of Glücksburg over the civil service and created a patronage machine loyal to himself. In a society where traditional clan and family loyalties often determined political loyalties, the creation of a patronage machine loyal to the Liberal Party polarized Greek society between those who benefited from the patronage and who did not. Furthermore, those who felt excluded naturally looked towards the traditional dispenser of patronage, the royal family, to counterbalance the Liberals. Balkan Wars (1912–14) With the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, Constantine was immediately appointed again as commander-in-chief, and the successes of the army in the field, especially in the Second Balkan War against the Bulgarians, helped many forget his record in 1897. Constantine, now king, was being hailed as "laurel-crowned" and "Bulgar-slayer". It was however during this war that the first tension between Constantine and Venizelos surfaced, in a dispute over the army's course following the victory at Sarantaporo. Constantine wanted to march due north, towards Monastir, fearing otherwise that the Greek army could be encircled, while Venizelos was anxious that the army should turn east and capture the strategically important city and harbor of Thessaloniki. The anxiety of Venizelos was doubled by the fact that the Bulgarians had also set their eyes on the city, the most important in Macedonia, and were sending their own troops towards it. Eventually Venizelos prevailed, and the Greeks captured the city only a few hours before the arrival of the Bulgarians. This episode was not publicised at the time, and in the aftermath of the Wars, the two men, King and Prime Minister, both wildly popular, were seen as making up a formidable partnership at the helm of the Greek state. However, the antivenizelist opposition in the parliament gradually began rallying around the King. After the Second Balkan War and during the negotiations of the Treaty of Bucharest, Venizelos was heavily criticised for being too compliant against Bulgaria. Bulgaria finally took the lands of Western Thrace, even though it had been captured by the Greek army during the war. As for the port city of Kavala, the intervention of Kaiser Wilhelm II in favour of Greece was crucial for keeping it. Venizelos in the parliament supported that it wasn't against the Greek interests if Bulgaria secured Thrace, because Greece would gain a "stable spine". Enver Pasha, the Ottoman Minister of War and a member of the triumvirate that ruled the Ottoman Empire decided in January 1914 to "cleanse" the Ionia area of Anatolia of its Greek inhabitants, and in May 1914 unleashed the dreaded "Special Organization" of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) against the Ionian Greeks. The "cleansing" operation caused the deaths of least 300,000 Ionian Greeks and as intended caused thousands more terrified refugees to flee across the Aegean Sea to Greece. In July 1914, the "cleansing operation" was stopped following very strong protests from the Russian, French and British ambassadors to the Sublime Porte with the French ambassador Maurice Bompard speaking especially strongly in defense of the Ionian Greeks. The increasing intolerance of the CUP regime towards minorities in Anatolia with a new emphasis upon Turkish nationalism in place of Ottomanism, as reflected in the slogan "Turkey for the Turks!" brought the subject of the Anatolian Greeks to the fore in Greece, with two options being available, namely to bring Greece to the Anatolian Greeks by annexing parts of Anatolia or bring the Anatolian Greeks to Greece with a population exchange. Beginning of the conflict As the Great War began, the Greek authorities had to choose between neutrality and aligning themselves with the Allied forces. Outright participation in the war on the side of the Central Powers was not an option, both because of Greece's vulnerability to the Royal Navy and because, from early on (October 1914), Greece's traditional enemy, the Ottoman Empire, had joined in on Germany's side. Hence, neutrality was the course favored by most pro-German Greeks, including the senior, German-educated, leadership of the General Staff, who had great influence over the King. For the first two months of the war, the Ottoman Empire maintained a pro-German neutrality, and the British, French and Russian governments waged a campaign of appeasement to try keep the Ottomans neutral. On 18 August 1914, Venizelos told the British minister in Athens Sir Francis Elliot that he wanted Greece to enter the war on the Allied state, but was curtly refused, saying the Allies preferred to keep the Ottoman Empire neutral. On 29 October 1914, the Ottomans attacked Russia in the Black Sea Raid and on 4 November 1914, Britain, France and Russia all declared war on the Ottomans. After the Ottoman decision to enter the war, the Allies were more open to making promises to Greece about fulfilling the Megali Idea. However, the Allies still wanted to keep Bulgaria neutral, and through King Ferdinand of Bulgaria was an Austrian, he was also known as "Foxy Ferdinand" due to his opportunistic and cunning qualities, leading to hopes that he might be bribed into remaining neutral. Venizelos was greatly disappointed that the Allies preferred to have Bulgaria neutral rather than having Greece fight on their side. King Constantine's German affiliations were exaggerated in the Entente's propaganda during the war. It is true that Queen Sofia was the sister of the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II, and Constantine himself had been educated in Germany and admired German culture. On the other hand, he was descended on his father's side from the Glucksburgs of Denmark and on his mother's side from the Romanovs of Russia, spoke perfect English, was a frequent visitor to England and had relatives there. Greece had an ongoing mutual defense pact with Serbia, a member of the Allied forces, who were asking for support after they were invaded by Austria-Hungary (see Serbian Campaign (World War I)). However, Constantine believed it was in the greater interests of Greece to remain neutral. His considerable military experience and knowledge made him especially conscious of the threat to Greece from Bulgaria's powerful military in the event that the Hellenic Army was engaged in a war with Austria-Hungary. Beyond military considerations, there were personal reasons for the split between the king and the prime minister. Constantine had a basically autocratic personality and strongly disliked Venizelos as a person. Moreover, the king was a militaristic Germanophile who admired Prussian militarism and believed that the Reich would not be defeated in the present war. The king had little respect for parliamentary government and preferred to deal with soldiers rather than politicians. Constantine, whose political style was fundamentally authoritarian, had been looking for an occasion to undo the "revolution" of 1909 for some time. His favorite adviser on both political and military affairs was the Germanophile General Ioannis Metaxas. Knowing of the strong anti-Slavic racism held by the Emperor Wilhelm II, Metaxas argued that Germany was the natural defender of "Hellenism against Slavism", and Germany would not permit Bulgaria to gain territory at the expense of Greece as long as the government in Athens was friendly towards the Reich. Metaxas argued against a war against the Ottoman Empire under the grounds that Greece did not have the logistical capability to support an army in Anatolia nor the economic resources to win such a war. Only the fear of a British naval blockade led Metaxas to advocate neutrality, and otherwise he was for Greece entering the war on the side of the Central Powers. Additionally, the King was bribed by the Auswaertiges Amt into remaining neutral, secretly taking in 1915 a "loan" of 40 million gold Reichsmark that went into his Swiss bank account. The Greek-Canadian journalist Philippe Gigantès argued that it was royal corruption with the "vast sums [of money] from Germany" that the king took was the most powerful reason for Constantine favoring neutrality, instead of the more altruistic reasons given by his admirers. According to Skouloudis and monarchist writers, the loan of 40 million Reichsmark from Germany was to the Greek government without any term of neutrality, with better interest than the Allied offers. The Prime Minister, Venizelos, was strongly in favor of joining the Entente, as he believed that Greece would gain new lands and fulfill the Megali Idea. On 17 November 1914, Venizelos in a speech before Parliament stated that Greece would remain neutral in the war, but would also stand by its alliance with Serbia. He also warned that Bulgaria under the leadership of the Austrian-born King Ferdinand would inevitably at some point along the line attack Serbia together with the Austrian Empire to annex Serbian Macedonia. Venizelos predicted that Ferdinand, who just attacked Serbia and Greece in May 1913 in order to take all of Macedonia for Bulgaria, would after taking Serbian Macedonia then turn south to invade Greece with the aim of annexing Greek Macedonia. Venizelos also warned that the Ottoman Empire which had joined the war on Germany's side earlier that month "would destroy Hellenism in Asia Minor" if Germany won. Venzelos was alluding to the savage campaign of persecution launched by the Turkish nationalist Committee of Union and Progress against the Ottoman Greek minority in May 1914. He further warned that even if the Ottomans were defeated, then "Hellenism in Asia Minor would still fall under alien domination". Metaxas's opposition to a campaign in Anatolia poisoned his relationship with Venizelos, starting one of the most famous feuds in Greek history as the two men came to completely detest one another, to the point that if one was for something, the other was almost automatically against it. An important factor turned out to be the friendship between David Lloyd George and Venizelos. Lloyd George, the Chancellor of the Exchequer (the British equivalent to a finance minister), was the leader of the "Radical" (left-wing) of the British Liberal Party and was world famous as the most charismatic man in British politics. Owing to the precarious nature of the British Liberal government under Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, badly divided between the Radicals on the left vs. the Liberal Imperialists on the right, Lloyd George had far more power than a normal Chancellor of the Exchequer. Lloyd George had first met Venizelos in December 1912, and the budding friendship between the two men was encouraged by Domini Crosfield, the Greek wife of the Liberal MP Arthur Crosfield and the extremely wealthy arms dealer Basil Zaharoff. Zaharoff, an ethnic Greek from Anatolia who hated the Ottoman Empire, was the principal financier behind Venizelos's Liberal Party. Lloyd George was a Welshman while Venizelos was a Cretan, making both men into outsiders in their respective nations, providing a bond between the two men. By 1914, Lloyd George emerged as the most powerful voice for Greece within the British cabinet. Lloyd George's advocacy of Britain ceding Cyprus to Greece in exchange for leasing the naval base at Arostoli endeared him to Venizelos. Furthermore, Lloyd George's support for the Megali Idea persuaded Venizelos that if Greece entered the war, then it would have the support of the mighty British Empire. Venizelos was alarmed when he learned that the British and French had agreed that after the war, Russia would have Constantinople (modern Istanbul) together with the land around the Turkish Straits. Traditionally, the advocates of Megali Idea had seen Constantinople as the future capital of a new Roman empire. Italy was allied to Germany and Austria, but neutral; in an attempt to persuade the Italians to enter the war on their side, the Allies promised the Italians parts of Anatolia where the population was Greek, which was another reason for Venizelos to advocate entering the war to secure Greek-speaking territories of Asia Minor before the Allies took them all for themselves. In January 1915, in an attempt to convince the Greeks to side with them, Britain offered Greece post-war concessions in Asia Minor (currently part of Turkey). Venizelos felt this was very much in Greece's interests and attempted to force a bill through the Greek parliament to join the Allies. Venizelos had agreed that the Greek lands of eastern Macedonia to be given to Bulgaria (so to join also the Allies) hoping for the post-war concessions in Asia Minor. In a memo to the king on 17 January 1915, Venizelos recommended ceding Kavala to Bulgaria as the British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey had recommended, stating that this was a most painful sacrifice, but was necessary to protect the Greeks of Anatolia because if Greece did not enter the war "Hellenism in Asia Minor would be lost forever". Venizelos also planned a compulsory population exchange with Bulgaria with the Greeks living in Kavala to be expelled and resettled in Smyrna (modern Izmir, Turkey). Venizelos' proposals were made known by the Press and caused a shock to the public, such as among ex-soldiers that had recently fought in the Balkan wars. Demonstrations took place in Kavala (with the presence also of the Muslim and Jewish communities), and elsewhere, against these proposals. Venizelos advised King Constantine to convene the Crown Council, which he did. It met twice, on February 18 and on February 20. In these meetings, Venizelos presented his case for joining the Entente, a course of action which was opposed by opposition leader Theotokis, but Rallis supported. However, staunch opposition by the King, Army generals (including the General Staff and Ioannis Metaxas) forced Venizelos to draw back. Metaxas said during the council: "Nobody has the right to give Greek land." The Gallipoli campaign On 19 February, British and French warships entered the Dardanelles with the aim of taking Constantinople (Gallipoli campaign). Venizelos argued that the end of the Ottoman Empire was imminent, and after receiving a message from Lloyd George that Britain would not allow Russia to dispose of Anatolia as she wished (the British had promised Constantinople with the straits to the Russians who rejected the Greek participation in the operation), argued that now was the time to enter the war. With the exceptions of Theotokis and Metaxas, all of the members of the Crown Council supported Venizelos at the second meeting of 20 February 1915, but the king remained opposed. Metaxas, the actual leader then of the General Staff, and advisor of Venizelos, didn't agree with the Greek Prime Minister in the participation in the operation, believing it would fail because the Germans had already fortified the straits and Greece would be vulnerable to a Bulgarian attack, and decided to resign. Venizelos resigned also shortly afterwards (on March, 6), when the King decided Greece to not participate in the operation, and was replaced with Dimitrios Gounaris. The new PM made statements to the Press about the proposals of Venizelos regarding Kavala increasing the social confusion and displeasure. The conflict between the Venizelos and the king in large part represented a conflict between a vision of Greece was expanding under a reformist government allied to Britain vs. another vision of Greece was "narrow, suspicious and defensive". For the King, everything that had happened since the 1909 Goudi coup had been a diminution of his power, and he was determined to use the intervention debate as a way of restoring the pre-1909 status quo. The Greek historian John Mavrogorado wrote that Venizelos had "to face a strong opposition, composed of jealous party leaders, great provincial families, party bosses, majors and lawyers, the whole network of party jobbery whose power had been endangered by the reforms of 1910–11; and this opposition of personal hostility to Venizelos was cleverly utilized by the German propaganda, which had only to identify the policy of loyalty to Serbia and to the Protecting Powers with the figure of Venizelos in order to make this mixed opposition into a compact body of opinion working in effect if not intention for Germany". Lloyd George sent a Venizelos a message via Zaharoff proposing that British and French troops land in Thessaloniki to march north to aid Serbia, which would hopefully also deter Bulgaria from joining the Central Powers. The failure of the Anglo-French attempt to take Constantinople, which ended with the stalemate of the Battle of Gallipoli was used by the king as a justification for his belief that Germany would win the war. At a dinner with the wealthy Delta family in April 1915, Venizelos stated that Lloyd George had promised him that Greece could have all the Greek-speaking parts of Anatolia if she entered the war, leading him to say that Greece would enter the war on the Allied side regardless of Constantine's wishes. And if the king continued to block him, then Venizelos stated that he would push him aside just as he pushed his brother Prince George out as he was governor of Crete. The clash and schism of Greece Venizelos's resignation caused political dissension in Greece. A political battle between the conservatives and Venizelos' supporters forced a general election in June 1915. These elections were won by Venizelos' Liberal Party and he resumed his post as Prime Minister, however Constantine delayed to ratify the appointment of the new government until August due to health reasons (he barely escaped death). He had been ill with pleurisy since the Balkan wars and his health would never be the same. In the 1915 election, the royalist parties did best in "Old Greece" while the liberals did best in "New Greece". The newly returned prime minister forced the king to promise him that Greece would honor its alliance with Serbia if Bulgaria attacked, a promise the king had no intention of keeping. Venizelos stated that his win was the proof that the Greek people agreed with his pro-Entente policy. By the fall of 1915, a propaganda war was being conducted in the Greek newspapers between Zaharoff, who used his vast wealth to start buying up newspapers to campaign for Venizelos vs. Baron von Schneck, the press attache at the German legation who purchased newspapers to campaign for the king. At the time, Schneck was described by one British journalist as "a great and mysterious power for evil who was leading the Greek nation astray and seducing it from the right path-from Venizelos and from the Entente". The head of Allied propaganda in Greece, a French naval officer, Captain de Roquefeil, was inept, leading Zaharoff to intervene as he argued that as a Greek he knew Greek mentalities far better than any Frenchman could. Antiwar and pro-German propaganda were made by newspapers Embros of Kalapothakis, Script and later Kathimerini and pro-Allied by Ethnos, Eleftheros Typos, Estia and Makedonia among others. Many documents and papers were falsified also during this period and the propaganda war reached its peak. By this point, Constantine had secretly promised both the German and Bulgarian ministers that Greece would not go to war against them. Germany had also promised to Constantine secretly that if Greece remained neutral, she would have Northern Epirus and Dodecanese after the war, such as the protection of the Greek population in Turkey. In fall of 1915, Ferdinand after receiving promises from German and Austrian diplomats that he could have the parts of Serbia he coveted, decided to enter the war. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, which posed an immediate threat to the newly gained province of Macedonia, including the strategically important port of Thessaloniki. On 22 September, Bulgaria mobilized and began to mass troops on the border with Serbia. Since under the Serbian-Greek alliance committed each other to the defense of the other if attacked, Greece appeared to be on the brink of war. Venizelos asked Constantine for mobilization of the Army. Constantine agreed for defensive posture against Bulgaria, but insisted on the condition that Greece would not attack first. Constantine now announced that he wished to disregard the alliance with Serbia, stating that it not apply if other powers (non-Balkan) also attacked Serbia. Plus, according to the treaty of alliance, Serbia had to provide 150,000 soldiers against Bulgaria. Since a large German-Austrian army under Field Marshal August von Mackensen was poised to invade Serbia at the same time as Bulgaria, the king announced that Greece would not be aiding Serbia. Venizelos told Constantine that: "We should not allow Bulgaria to crush Serbia and expand overmuch so as to crush us tomorrow. At this point therefore you cannot depart from this policy: unless of course you are determined to set aside the Constitution, and assuming full responsibility by a Royal degree". Constantine replied: "You know, I recognize that I am bound to obey the popular verdict when it is a question of the internal affairs of the country; but when it is a question of foreign affairs, great international questions, I think that so long as I believe a thing is right or not right, I must insist upon its being done or not done, because I am responsible before God". In a desperate attempt to persuade Constantine to help Serbia, Grey sent him a letter reading: "If Greece prepared to give support as an ally to Serbia, now that she has been attacked by Bulgaria, His Majesty's Government will be prepared to give Cyprus to Greece. Should Greece join the Allies for all purposes, she would naturally have a share with them in advantages secured at end of war, but the offer of Cyprus is made by H.M. Government independently on condition that Greece gives immediate and full support with her army to Serbia". Both the King and his prime minister Alexandros Zaimis turned the offer down. Establishment of the Macedonian front After his inability to sway Constantine to act against Bulgaria, Venizelos took a new route by allowing British and French troops to land in Thessaloniki, Macedonia in aid of Serbia, following their failed operation at Gallipoli, and after asking them if they could offer the 150,000 soldiers at the front. Venizelos took advantage of this by forcing through a parliamentary motion (with a 37-vote margin) to declare war on Bulgaria. The invitation to the Allies by Venizelos enraged the King. The dispute between the Greek Prime Minister and the King reached its height shortly after and the King invoked the Greek constitutional right that gave the monarch the right to dismiss a government. In December 1915 Constantine forced Venizelos to resign for a second time, after an anti-German speech of the later in the parliament, and dissolved the Liberal-dominated parliament, calling a new election. In his speech, Venizelos warned that a German victory would be disaster for Greece. Venizelos warned that in the event of a German victory, then the Ottomans would wage genocide against the Greeks of Anatolia while allowing the Bulgarians to annex Serbian Macedonia would inevitably be followed up by demands for Greek Macedonia. After his speech, Venizelos was summoned to the royal palace, where the king told him that he was in disagreement with every point of his speech, and predicted that Germany would win the war. The king also made the claim that he was accountable only to God, not the people, leading Venizelos to say that Greece was not an absolute monarchy. Venizelos left Athens and moved back to his native Crete. The Liberals boycotted the new elections, which undermined the new Royalist government's position, as it was seen as a government directly appointed by the King, disregarding popular opinion. Venizelos complained that the Crown had intervened directly to interfere with election campaign, and as a result of Venizelos's call for a boycott, only a quarter of Greek men voted in the election. The decision not to aid Serbia despite the alliance disillusioned certain Army officers led by General Panagiotis Danglis who felt that it is dishonorable to break treaties, and it was dangerous to allow Serbia to be occupied as now the Bulgarians could throw all their forces against Greece. A Liberal politician George Kafandaris in a speech charged that the royalists were promoting anachronistic "divine right of kings" theory that had no place in a democracy. Kafandaris stated: "Such theories lead us to think that ideas once believed to have disappeared in the deep darkness of past human history are resurfacing again to influence contemporary life...Our system of government was modeled after that of Great Britain and is known as constitutional monarchy. In a constitutional monarchy the King is a passive instrument of the state in managing public affairs. All political authority is vested in the people and the members of parliament and government elected by the people". The tension between the two parties grew gradually over the course of the following year (1916) with both sides taking a more radical and divisive approach to the situation. When French and British forces landed in Thessaloniki (as invited by Venizelos earlier), against Constantine's wishes, the Greek people supported the King's view that the Allies had violated the country's sovereignty. By the end of January 1916, there were 125, 000 French and 100, 000 British troops in Thessaloniki, having established so the Macedonian front. Constantine made diplomatic attempts to drive them out, but in December 1915, in a meeting in Paris, the Allies had decided to keep the front at all costs. Rupel surrender and Allied reaction However, later on, when the Central Powers took control of eastern Macedonia in May 1916, the public took similar outrage at the King's inability to defend Greek territory. Count Wilhelm von Mirbach, the German minister in Athens requested of the king the surrender of Fort Roupel, and the king duly ordered the garrison of the fort to surrender to a German-Bulgarian force. Without opposition, on 25 May 1916 8,000 Greek soldiers at Fort Roupel surrendered and transferred to Germany, while the Bulgarians occupied the eastern half of Greek Macedonia including the port of Kavala. In 1915, the king's supporters such as Metaxas had assailed Venizelos for his willingness to cede Kavala and the eastern half of Greek Macedonia to Bulgaria, and now the situation was reversed with the Venizelists attacking the king for surrendering the same lands to the Bulgarians. The surrender of Fort Roupel marked the point of no return in relations between Venizelos and Constantine as the former was now convinced that the king was a traitor. The decision to surrender Fort Roupel was announced by the government as a counterbalance to the Allied presence in Thessaloniki, but there were other factors at play as well. By 1916, Constantine was willing to consider giving up parts of Macedonia to Bulgaria as the best way of weakening Venizelism. From the king's perspective, the loss of Macedonia, which was a stronghold of Venizelism, would be more than counter-balanced by the weakening of the Venizelist movement. According to the royal chronicler Zavitzianos, Constantine since 1915 (and especially after the failed operation in Gallipoli), had concluded that the victory of the Central powers was militarily certain, and he in no way wanted to bring Greece against Germany. He only asked by the German military authorities to not allow Bulgarian troops enter in Greek territory, but he was ignored. After these events, General Sarrail imposed martial law in Thessaloniki and on 21 June 1916, an Anglo-French ultimatum (considering themselves "protector powers" of the Greek state, since its establishment in 1832) was submitted to Constantine, demanding the dismissal of Zaimis, new elections and the demobilisation of the military. They instituted also a partial naval blockade to the Greek Kingdom. Italian forces also took the approval of the Triple Entente, entered Argyrokastro and took over most of Northern Epirus (which was under Greek administration since 1914), while the French captured Korçë. On 19 August 1916, Constantine informed his royal chronicler Constantine Zavitzianos that he intended to keep control of military matters and the foreign policy, which were royal prerogatives as far as he was concerned, and that it did not matter how many people supported Venizelos. In a speech in Athens on 27 August 1916, Venizelos for the first time publicly attacked the king, saying: "King of the Hellenes!You have been a victim of men who, in order to undo the work of the Revolution (of which tomorrow is the seventh anniversary) and to restore the old regime of corruption, have not hesitated to traffic the people's reverence for the Crown and their devotion to your person...You have been the victim of your military advisers, with the narrowness of the military understanding, and with the desire to establish an absolutism which should make them substantially masters of the situation, have persuaded you that Germany would emerge victorious from the European War.You have been the victim finally of your own quite human and not unnatural weakness. Accustomed to admire everything German, bewildered by the unrivalled German organization of military and other affairs of every sort, you not only expected a German victory, but you came to desire it, hoping that it would enable you to concentrate in your own hands all the authority of the government, and substantially to set aside our free Constitution." By August 1916, the Bulgarians had control of all of East Macedonia and part of West Macedonia, and had begun a process of ethnic cleansing, expelling all of the Greeks. Only the presence of the Armées alliées en Orient prevented the Bulgarians from taking all of Macedonia. The Bulgarian occupation and the ethnic cleansing of Macedonia was considered to be intolerable, and finally certain Greek Army officers started to consider breaking their oaths to serve the king under the grounds if Constantine was unwilling to defend Greece, then they had a higher loyalty to defend Greece. Breakout of the National Defence government August 30, 1916, saw a coup against the Royalist government by the "National Defence" (Εθνική Άμυνα), a secret pro-Venizelist military organization based in Thessaloniki by Venizelist officers, aiming to defend the Macedonian territory. The principal reason given for the coup was the desire to defend Greek Macedonia from the Bulgarians, and since the king was unwilling to do that, they had decided to take matters into their own hands. The coup succeeded to the extent that a second provisional government of Greece was formed by the group in Thessaloniki. The coup had taken place without Venizelos's knowledge, and he initially disapproved of a course of action that set Greece for a civil war. Venizelos, having worked hard to achieve an enosis of Crete with Greece, was not keen on breaking up Greece. Only after much thought and deliberation did he decide to join the movement in Thessaloniki. With the backing of the Entente, Venizelos returned to the Greek mainland from Crete to lead the new provisional government at the head of a triumvirate on 9 October 1916. He declared: "We are not against the King, but against the Bulgarians". Joining Venizelos in leading the new government were General Panagiotis Danglis and Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis. The people on the islands of Crete, Samos, Mytilini and Chios promptly declared their support for Venizelos and soon the revolutionary government had control of all the islands in the Aegean Sea except for the Cyclades (which were part of "old Greece", and therefore royalist). Gendarmes from Crete played a significant role in providing manpower for the revolutionary government, leading them to be hailed in Thessaloniki as the "Antigone of Greece". The first declaration of the revolutionary government reads: "A policy, that we won't examine its motives, during the last one and a half year brought so many disasters, that everybody wonders if Greece today is the same state as before. The Palace listening to bad advisers and applying a personal policy, Greece to step away from her traditional allies and to approach her traditional enemies". Upon his arrival in Thessaloniki, Venizelos in a speech argued the war was a struggle for freedom and for the right of small nations to exist peacefully. Venizelos found himself having to organise and create a government with only the resources of the islands and part of Macedonia to pay for it all. Despite expectations, Britain and France were slow to support the new government, and only on 20 October 1916 was it announced that Britain and France would subsidise the Thessaloniki government. Despite Venizelos's best effort to appear moderate, many people, especially in "Old Greece", saw the revolutionary government as the beginning of social breakdown. The King in Athens saw the National Defence as an anti-monarchist coup with "the support of Republican France". By 1916 Greek had polarized to such an extent that neutrality was not longer possible, and everyone had to take a stand. Because the Orthodox church supported the king, the Venizelist movement took on an anti-clerical character. Opposition to Greece joining the war led the socialist movement to support Constantine. National Defence Army Corps were created to support the Allies at the Macedonian front. This army consisted mostly of volunteers, but in many cases the Venizelist officers of the Defence used violence in their territory against deserters or royalists, or even clergy who supported Constantine, leading to bloody events (Naxos, Chalkidiki etc.). The royalist governments in Athens, meanwhile, continued to negotiate with the Allies a possible entry in the war, with Constantine asking from them to not recognize the Venizelist government, while the Venizelists from Thessaloniki insisted that Constantine was deluding them and had no intention to join the war. November events In retaliation against the "National Defence" coup, a royalist paramilitary unit called the "Reservists" (Epistratoi-Επίστρατοι) was formed, in a number of Greek cities, led by Colonel Ioannis Metaxas (one of Constantine's closest aides and a future dictator of Greece). The Reservists, whose men were largely of lower-middle class origin, was an ultra-nationalist group which displayed proto-fascist tendencies. The uniformed Pan-Hellenic Reservists were the first mass movement in modern Greek history, and also marked the beginning of an embrace of violence as part of the political process. The Greek historian Kostas Kostis wrote the legacy of violence caused by the Balkan Wars "...helps explain with which they resorted to violence, even against their own compatriots: the Venizelists were merely enemies, much like the Bulgarians and the Turks. The fact that these opponents were unarmed citizens was of little importance." The group targeted Venizelist people in Athens and nearby areas, culminating in the Noemvriana, the "November events", which were ignited by an armed confrontation between Greek reservists and French marines. The Noemvriana left about 60 dead on the Allied side and 40 dead on the Greek side. Afterwards, a reign of terror was launched by the Reservists against the Venizelists in Athens. During the Noemvriana, refugees from Anatolia (who had escaped persecution by the Turks) living in Athens, were attacked by the Reservists as Venizelists. The attacks and murders against the refugees contributed to the identification of the refugees with Venizelism, and in the 1920s the refugees were one of the strongest Venizelist voting blocs. Royalist demonstrations broke out in "Old Greece" and the Orthodox Church at the orders of the king anathematised Venizelos as a traitor. The anathema by the Orthodox bishop of Patras against Venizelos read:"Cursed, Anathema to your family who soiled Greece with you. Anathema to your father who helped give you birth. Anathema to your mother who held such a snake in her womb...and to forever remain in the darkness of our religion, which you did not respect...to not find someone to close your eyes, even dead, to have your eyes open, so that you continue watching the country you betrayed. Anathema to your soul. Anathema to the chaos it [soul] will fall. Anathema to its memory. Anathema to you". The anathemas such as these reflected the very intense feelings that divided Greece by 1916. On the other side, feelings were just as intense. Lambros Koromilas, the Greek ambassador in Rome sent a public letter to the King stating: "The obscure and ambiguous policy which Your Governments have pursued for over a year has led us to hostilities with our natural friends, the Powers of the Entente, whom we have so frequently assures of our good friendship, whilst—the most amazing thing—this same policy has driven us to non-resistance against the Bulgarians, our hereditary enemies, when they came and captured our forts, our Macedonian towns, half our war supplies and our soldiers". At the same time (November 1916), the National Defence Army attacked the Royalist Army at Katerini aiming to capture Thessaly. This was the only battle between the armies of the two governments. After the "Noemvriana", towards the end of 1916, France and Britain, after failing to persuade the royalist government to enter the war, officially recognized the "National Defence" government as the lawful government of Greece. Ιn retaliation, the "National Defence" government and the Entente instituted a naval blockade, seized the royalist fleet and demanded the partial disarmament of the royalist forces and their withdrawal to the Peloponnese. The monarchists blamed Venizelos as the one behind the idea of the blockade. It lasted 106 days in total, during which time no goods were allowed to enter or leave royalist-controlled ports that were under the control of the Athens government (Peloponnese, Cyclades and Central Greece), leading the population to suffer much hunger. This was to set a precedent for much of the future conflict in Greece. Official Greek entry in the war The Venizelist-Entente blockade eventually succeeded in its aim. In June 1917 the French captured Thessaly, and after threats to bombard Athens if the King remained, Constantine left Greece on 14 June 1917 leaving the Crown to his second son Alexander. Constantine was a popular king, at least in "old Greece", and his departure was the scene of much sorrow in Athens. The royal chronicler Zavitzianos wrote: "Never was dethroned a more popular King". Venizelos took control of the government and pledged Greek support to the Entente. On 29 June 1917, Greece broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, the Austrian empire, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire. In July the country officially declared war on the Central Powers. Most of the political opponents of Venizelos were exiled to Corsica (Metaxas, Gounaris, Dousmanis and others), were put in internal exile or put under house arrest. To the protests by the new King against the prosecutions, Venizelos replied: "These people are not politicians. They are criminals". Venizelos reestablished the parliament of May 1915, considering the existing one as unconstitutional. This was followed by a purging of the state bureaucracy, military and clergy of antivenizelists. The Venizelists quickly proved to be just as willing to persecute their opponents as the royalists had been before. During the remaining 18 months of the war 10 divisions of the Greek army fought alongside the Allied forces against Bulgarian and German forces in Macedonia and Bulgaria. During the conflict Greek forces participated in many victorious battles losing approximately 5,000 troops. Consequences The act of entering the war and the preceding events resulted in a deep political and social division in post-World War I Greece. The country's foremost political formations, the Venizelist Liberals and the Royalists, already involved in a long and bitter rivalry over pre-war politics, reached a state of outright hatred towards each other. Both parties viewed the other's actions during the First World War as politically illegitimate and treasonous. Constantine I, while in exile in Switzerland, continued to oppose the Greek participation in the war and to influence his supporters. After the end of the war, the Venizelists published a "White Bible" (Λευκή Βίβλος), an album with all the treasonous, according to their opinion, actions of the royalists. In 1919 took place the trial of the General Staff ("trial of the officers of GES"), regarding the surrender of Fort Rupel, the Noemvriana events, and the loan of 1915 from Germany. Many officers were convicted (including Dousmanis and Metaxas in absentia) together with as former prime minister Stefanos Skouloudis. On the other side, the royalists opposed the Venizelist governance since 1917 as "dictatorial". An assassination attempt on Venizelos took place in Paris by two royalist ex-officers after the signing of the Treaty of Sevres, in August 1920. The next day a Venizelist crowd in Athens, believing Venizelos was killed, attacked offices and enterprises of antivenizelists, while Ion Dragoumis was murdered. Venizelos testified during the trial of the officers in France. During the November elections of 1920, Penelope Delta described the shouts of the pro-royalist crowd in Athens: "We don't want them!" (the new lands gained by the Treaty of Sevres) and "Long live the Koumparos!" (a nickname of Constantine). With the return of Constantine, most of the officers that had participated in the National Defence were dismissed from the army, or left by own (Kondylis etc.) and fled to Constantinople, where formed the "Democratic Defence", a military organization which criticized the actions of Constantine and the new royalist governments. This enmity inevitably spread throughout the Greek society, inside the Army and creating so a deep rift that contributed decisively to the Asia Minor Disaster, the 1922 Revolution and the Trial of the Six, and resulted in continued political and military unrest in the interwar years during the troubled Second Hellenic Republic. A new assassination attempt of Venizelos took place in 1933, while the Venizelists attempted a coup in 1935. The National Schism was also one of the principal causes that led to the collapse of the Republic and the institution of the dictatorial 4th of August Regime in 1936. As the nation polarized, the political fortunes of the great families were destroyed with each turn of the wheel. Particularly damaging was the existence of duplicate civil services and militaries, which increased the competition for government jobs. Additionally, the National Schism had encouraged the politicization of the military that had begun with the 1909 coup, and from 1916 onward the military was divided between Venizelists and royalists, settling the stage for the frequent coups and attempted coups of the interwar period. The politicization of the Army led many officers to see themselves as the final arbiters of politics. More importantly, the National Schism had "legitimised the use of violence", and throughout the interwar period political violence frequently marred the scene. The increasing breakdown of social norms alongside the acceptance of violence as legitimate also led to calls for a fascist style dictatorship, and Kostis noted that Benito Mussolini was a much admired figure in the 1920s–30s Greece. The popularity of Mussolini occurred despite his irredentist policies as claimed parts of Greece such as the Ionian islands because they had once belonged to Venice. The division between Royalists and Venizelists even came to the United States and elsewhere with the Greek immigrants of that generation: immigrants favouring the two political camps would settle in nearby but carefully separated communities in American cities, often centred on competing Greek Orthodox parishes. In some cases, the animosity and mistrust between such parishes has survived into the 21st century, long after the original political disagreement was forgotten. Books and articles {{cite book|last=Gigantes|first=Philippe|title=I Should Have Died|location=London|publisher=Atheneum|date=1977|isbn=0689107668}}. Notes Further reading Leontaritis, George B. Greece and the First World War (1990) 587 pp Driault, Edouard. Greece and the First World War (1908–1923) Heinz A. Richter. Greece, 1915–1917, in the Russian archives Mazower, Mark. "The Messiah and the Bourgeoisie: Venizelos and Politics in Greece, 1909–1912," Historical Journal'' (1992) 35#4 pp. 885–904 in JSTOR External links The Great War – Romanian & Greek Weapons of World War 1 feat. C&Rsenal The Great War – Greek Rifles and Pistols of World War 1 feat. C&Rsenal The Great War – A Crucial Test For Unity – Greece in WW1 I THE GREAT WAR Special The Great War – King Constantine I of Greece Serbia Is Invaded Once Again – The Entente Lands in Greece I THE GREAT WAR Week 63 Nivelle's Spring Offensive – Royal Conspiracy In Greece I THE GREAT WAR Week 131 The Merchant of Death – Basil Zaharoff I WHO DID WHAT IN WW1? – The Great War Russia's New Offensive – The Russian Women's Battalion of Death I THE GREAT WAR Week 153 – The Great War 1910s in Greece Eleftherios Venizelos Constantine I of Greece Ioannis Metaxas Greece in World War I History of Greece (1909–1924) Political schisms Constitutional crises Civil wars in Greece Subsidiary conflicts of World War I
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee%20preparation
Coffee preparation
Coffee preparation is the process of turning coffee beans into liquid coffee. While the particular steps vary with the type of coffee and with the raw materials, the process includes four basic steps: raw coffee beans must be roasted, the roasted coffee beans must then be ground, and the ground coffee must then be mixed with hot or cold water (depending on the method of brewing) for a specific time (brewed), the liquid coffee extraction must be separated from the used grounds, and finally, if desired, the extracted coffee is combined with other elements of the desired beverage, such as sweeteners, dairy products, dairy alternatives, or toppings (such as shaved chocolate). Coffee is usually brewed hot, at close to the boiling point of water, immediately before drinking, yielding a hot beverage capable of scalding if splashed or spilled; if not consumed promptly, coffee is often sealed into a vacuum flask or insulated bottle to maintain its temperature. In most areas, coffee may be purchased unprocessed, or already roasted, or already roasted and ground. Whole roast coffee or ground coffee is often vacuum-packed to prevent oxidation and lengthen its shelf life. Especially in hot climates, some find cold or iced coffee more refreshing. This can be prepared well in advance as it maintains its character when stored cold better than as a hot beverage. Even with the same roast, the character of the extraction is highly dependent on distribution of particle sizes produced by the grinding process, temperature of the grounds after grinding, freshness of the roast and grind, brewing process and equipment, temperature of the water, character of the water itself, contact time with hot water (less sensitive with cold water), and the brew ratio employed. Preferred brew ratios of water to coffee often fall into the range of 15–18:1 by mass; even within this fairly small range, differences are easily perceived by an experienced coffee drinker. Processes can range from extremely manual (e.g. hand grinding with manual pour-over in steady increments) to totally automated by a single appliance with a reservoir of roast beans which it automatically measures and grinds, and water, which it automatically heats and doses. Another common style of automated coffee maker is fed a single-serving "pod" of pre-measured coffee grounds for each beverage. Characteristics which may be emphasized or deemphasized by different preparation methods include: acidity (brightness), aroma (especially more delicate floral and citrus notes), mouthfeel (body), astringency, bitterness (both positive and negative), and the duration and intensity of flavour perception in the mouth (finish). The addition of sweeteners, dairy products (e.g. milk or cream), or dairy alternatives (e.g. almond milk) also changes the perceived character of the brewed coffee. Principally, dairy products mute delicate aromas and thicken mouthfeel (particularly when frothed), while sweeteners mask astringency and bitterness. Roasting Roasting coffee transforms the chemical and physical properties of green coffee beans. When roasted, the green coffee bean expands to nearly double its original size, changing in color and density. As the bean absorbs heat, its color shifts to yellow, then to a light "cinnamon" brown, and then to a rich dark brown color. During roasting, oils appear on the surface of the bean. The roast will continue to darken until it is removed from the heat source. Coffee can be roasted with ordinary kitchen equipment (frying pan, grill, oven, popcorn popper) or by specialized appliances. A coffee roaster is a special pan or apparatus suitable to heat up and roast green coffee beans. Grinding The whole coffee beans are ground, also known as milling, to facilitate the brewing process. The fineness of the grind strongly affects brewing. Brewing methods that expose coffee grounds to heated water for longer require a coarser grind than faster brewing methods. Beans that are too finely ground for the brewing method in which they are used will expose too much surface area to the heated water and produce a bitter, harsh, "over-extracted" taste. At the other extreme, an overly coarse grind will produce weak coffee unless more is used. Due to the importance of a grind's fineness, a uniform grind is highly desirable. If a brewing method is used in which the time of exposure of the ground coffee to the heated water is adjustable, then a short brewing time can be used for finely ground coffee. This produces coffee of equal flavor yet uses less ground coffee. A blade grinder does not cause frictional heat buildup in the ground coffee unless used to grind very large amounts as in a commercial operation. A fine grind allows the most efficient extraction but coffee ground too finely will slow down filtration or screening. Ground coffee deteriorates faster than roasted beans because of the greater surface area exposed to oxygen. Many coffee drinkers grind the beans themselves immediately before brewing. Used coffee grounds can be reused for hair care or skin care as well as in the garden. These can also be used as biodiesel fuel. There are four methods of grinding coffee for brewing: burr-grinding, chopping, pounding, and roller grinding. Burr-grinding Burr mills use two revolving abrasive elements, such as wheels or conical grinding elements, between which the coffee beans are crushed or "torn" with little frictional heating. The process of squeezing and crushing of the beans releases the coffee's oils, which are then more easily extracted during the infusion process with hot water, making the coffee taste richer and smoother. Both manually and electrically powered mills are available. These mills grind the coffee to a fairly uniform size determined by the separation of the two abrasive surfaces between which the coffee is ground; the uniform grind produces a more even extraction when brewed, without excessively fine particles that clog filters. These mills offer a wide range of grind settings, making them suitable to grind coffee for various brewing systems such as espresso, drip, percolators, French press, and others. Many burr grinders, including almost all domestic versions, are unable to achieve the extremely fine grind required for the preparation of Turkish coffee; traditional Turkish hand grinders are an exception. There are two types of burr grinders - conical burr grinders and flat burr grinders. Conical burr grinders use a rotating cone-shaped inner burr inside of a static ring-shaped outer burr to grind coffee, while flat burr grinders use two identical disk-shaped burrs, with one fixed and the other spinning against it. The majority of manual grinders use conical burrs. Generally, conical burrs produce grounds with a wider particle size distribution, which results in coffee with more pronounced texture and body, while flat burrs will grind more uniformly, resulting in more clarity and separation of flavor notes. While electric coffee grinders were traditionally equipped with hoppers that could hold large amounts of beans, beginning in the late 2010s, single-dose grinders — grinders with only enough capacity to grind single batches of coffee at a time — became more common in the home as specialty coffee gained popularity and greater emphasis was placed on keeping beans as fresh as possible; beans left in a hopper went stale quicker than beans sealed in a bag or other container if not consumed fast enough. Chopping Coffee beans can be chopped by using blades rotating at high speed (20,000 to 30,000 rpm), either in a blade grinder designed specifically for coffee and spices, or in a general use home blender. Devices of this sort are cheaper than burr grinders, but the grind is not uniform and will produce particles of widely varying sizes, while ideally all particles should have the same size, appropriate for the method of brewing. Moreover, the particles get smaller and smaller during the grinding process, which makes it difficult to achieve a consistent grind from batch to batch. Blade grinders create "coffee dust" that can clog up sieves in espresso machines and French presses, and are best suited for drip coffee makers. They are not recommended for grinding coffee for use with pump espresso machines. Pounding Arabic coffee and Turkish coffee require that the grounds be almost powdery in fineness, finer than can be achieved by most burr grinders. Pounding the beans with a mortar and pestle can pulverise the coffee finely enough. Roller grinding In a roller grinder, the beans are ground between pairs of corrugated rollers. A roller grinder produces a more even grind size distribution and heats the ground coffee less than other grinding methods. However, due to their size and cost, roller grinders are used exclusively by commercial and industrial scale coffee producers. Water-cooled roller grinders are used for high production rates as well as for fine grinds such as Turkish and espresso. Brewing Coffee can be brewed in several different ways, but these methods fall into four main groups depending on how the water is introduced to the coffee grounds: decoction (through boiling), infusion (through steeping), gravitational feed (used with percolators and in drip brewing), or pressurised percolation (as with espresso). Brewed coffee, if kept hot, will deteriorate rapidly in flavor, and reheating such coffee tends to give it a "muddy" flavour, as some compounds that impart flavor to coffee are destroyed if this is done. Even at room temperature, deterioration will occur; however, if kept in an oxygen-free environment it can last almost indefinitely at room temperature, and sealed containers of brewed coffee are sometimes commercially available in food stores in America or Europe, with refrigerated bottled coffee drinks being commonly available at convenience stores and grocery stores in the United States. Canned coffee is particularly popular in Japan and South Korea. Electronic coffee makers boil the water and brew the infusion with little human assistance and sometimes according to a timer. Some such devices also grind the beans automatically before brewing. The French press is considered one of the oldest and simplest methods to brew coffee. Despite its simplicity, it can be a little tricky. The most important part of the process is to not leave the coffee in the French press for too long after pressing. Boiling Boiling, or decoction, was the main method used for brewing coffee until the 1930s and is still used in some Nordic and Middle Eastern countries. The aromatic oils in coffee are released at 96 °C (205 °F), which is just below boiling, while the bitter acids are released when the water has reached boiling point. The simplest method is to put the ground coffee in a cup, pour hot water over it and let cool while the grounds sink to the bottom. This is a traditional method for making a cup of coffee that is still used in parts of Indonesia. This method, known as "mud coffee" in the Middle East owing to an extremely fine grind that results in a mud-like sludge at the bottom of the cup, allows for extremely simple preparation, but drinkers then have to be careful if they want to avoid drinking grounds either from this layer or floating at the surface of the coffee, which can be avoided by dribbling cold water onto the "floaters" from the back of a spoon. If the coffee beans are not ground finely enough, the grounds do not sink. "Cowboy coffee" is made by heating coarse grounds with water in a pot, letting the grounds settle and pouring off the liquid to drink, sometimes filtering it to remove fine grounds. While the name suggests that this method was used by cowboys, presumably on the trail around a campfire, it is used by others; some people prefer this method. The above methods are sometimes used with hot milk instead of water. Turkish coffee (aka Arabic coffee, etc.), a very early method of making coffee, is used in the Middle East, North Africa, East Africa, Turkey, Greece, the Balkans, and Russia. Very finely ground coffee, optionally sugar, and water are placed in a narrow-topped pot, called a cezve (Turkish), kanaka (Egyptian), briki (Greek), džezva (Štokavian) or turka (Russian) and brought to the boil then immediately removed from the heat. It may be very briefly brought to the boil two or three times. Turkish coffee is sometimes flavored with cardamom, particularly in Arab countries. The resulting strong coffee, with foam on the top and a thick layer of grounds at the bottom, is drunk from small cups. Steeping A cafetière, or French press, is a tall, narrow cylinder with a plunger that includes a metal or nylon fine mesh filter. The grounds are placed in the cylinder, and off-the-boil water is then poured into it. The coffee and hot water are left in the cylinder for a few minutes (typically 4–7 minutes) and then the plunger is gently pushed down, leaving the filter immediately above the grounds, allowing the coffee to be poured out while the filter retains the grounds. Depending on the type of filter, it is important to pay attention to the grind of the coffee beans, though a rather coarse grind is almost always called for. A plain glass cylinder may be used, or a vacuum flask arrangement to keep the coffee hot; this is not to be confused with a vacuum brewer—see below. Coffee bags are used less often than tea bags. They are simply disposable bags containing coffee; the grounds do not exit the bag as it mixes with the water, so no extra filtering is required. Malaysian and some Caribbean and South American styles of coffee are often brewed using a "sock," which is actually a simple muslin bag, shaped like a filter, into which coffee is loaded, then steeped in hot water. This method is especially suitable for use with local-brew coffees in Malaysia, primarily of the varieties Robusta and Liberica which are often strong-flavored, allowing the ground coffee in the sock to be reused. A vacuum brewer consists of two chambers: a pot below, atop which is set a bowl or funnel with its siphon descending nearly to the bottom of the pot. The bottom of the bowl is blocked by a filter of glass, cloth or plastic, and the bowl and pot are joined by a gasket that forms a tight seal. Water is placed in the pot, the coffee grounds are placed in the bowl, and the whole apparatus is set over a burner. As the water heats, it is forced by the increasing vapor pressure up the siphon and into the bowl where it mixes with the grounds. When all the water possible has been forced into the bowl the infusion is allowed to sit for some time before the brewer is removed from the heat. As the water vapor in the lower pot cools, it contracts, forming a partial vacuum and drawing the coffee down through the filter. Filtration methods Drip brew coffee, also known as filtered coffee, is made by letting hot water drip onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter surrounded by a filter holder or brew basket. Drip brew makers can be simple filter holder types manually filled with hot water, or they can use automated systems as found in the popular electric drip coffee-maker. Strength varies according to the ratio of water to coffee and the fineness of the grind, but is typically weaker in taste and contains a lower concentration of caffeine than espresso, though often (due to size) more total caffeine. By convention, regular coffee brewed by this method is served by some restaurants in a brown or black pot (or a pot with a brown or black handle), while decaffeinated coffee is served in an orange pot (or a pot with an orange handle). A variation is the traditional Neapolitan flip coffee pot, or Napoletana, a drip brew coffee maker for the stovetop. It consists of a bottom section filled with water, a middle filter section, and an upside-down pot placed on the top. When the water boils, the coffee maker is flipped over to let the water filter through the coffee grounds. The common electric percolator, which was in almost universal use in the United States prior to the 1970s, and is still popular in some households today, differs from the pressure percolator described above. It uses the pressure of the boiling water to force it to a chamber above the grounds, but relies on gravity to pass the water down through the grounds, where it then repeats the process until shut off by an internal timer. Some coffee aficionados hold the coffee produced in low esteem because of this multiple-pass process. Others prefer gravity percolation and claim it delivers a richer cup of coffee in comparison to drip brewing. Indian filter coffee uses an apparatus typically made of stainless steel. There are two cylindrical compartments, one sitting on top of the other. The upper compartment has tiny holes (less than ~0.5 mm). And then there is the pierced pressing disc with a stem handle, and a covering lid. The finely ground coffee with 15–20% chicory is placed in the upper compartment, the pierced pressing disc is used to cover the ground coffee, and hot water is poured on top of this disk. Unlike the regular drip brew, the coffee does not start pouring down immediately. This is because of the chicory, which holds on to the water longer than just the ground coffee beans can. This causes the beverage to be much more potent than the American drip variety. 2–3 teaspoonfuls of this decoction is added to a 100–150 ml milk. Sugar is then sometimes added by individual preference. Another variation is cold brew coffee, sometimes known as "cold press." Cold water is poured over coffee grounds and allowed to steep for eight to twenty-four hours. The coffee is then filtered, usually through a very thick filter, removing all particles. This process produces a very strong concentrate which can be stored in a refrigerated, airtight container for up to eight weeks. The coffee can then be prepared for drinking by adding hot water to the concentrate at a water-to-concentrate ratio of approximately 3:1, but can be adjusted to the drinker's preference. The coffee prepared by this method is very low in acidity with a smooth taste, and is often preferred by those with sensitive stomachs. Others, however, feel this method strips coffee of its bold flavor and character. Thus, this method is not common, and there are few appliances designed for it. The amount of coffee used affects both the strength and the flavor of the brew in a typical drip-brewing filtration-based coffee maker. The softer flavors come out of the coffee first and the more bitter flavors only after some time, so a large brew will tend to be both stronger and more bitter. This can be modified by stopping the filtration after a planned time and then adding hot water to the brew instead of waiting for all the water to pass through the grounds. In addition to the "cold press", there is a method called "Cold Drip Coffee". Also known as "Dutch Ice Coffee" (and very popular in Japan), instead of steeping, this method very slowly drips cold water into the grounds, which then very slowly pass through a filter. Unlike the cold press (which functions similar to a French Press) which takes eight to twenty-four hours, a Cold Drip process only takes about two hours, with taste and consistency results similar to that of a cold press. Pressure Espresso is made by forcing hot water at 91–95 °C (195–204 °F) under a pressure of between eight and eighteen bars (800–1800 kPa, 116–261 psi), through a lightly packed matrix, called a "puck," of finely ground coffee. The 30–60 ml (1–2 oz) beverage is served in demitasse cups; sugar is often added. It is consumed during the day at cafes and from street vendors, or after an evening meal. It is the basis for many coffee drinks. It is one of the most concentrated forms of coffee regularly consumed, with a distinctive flavor provided by crema, a layer of flavorful emulsified oils in the form of a colloidal foam floating on the surface, which is produced by the high pressure. Espresso is more viscous than other forms of brewed coffee. The moka pot, also known as the "Italian coffeepot" or the "caffettiera," is a three-chamber design which boils water in the lower section. The generated steam pressure, about one bar (100 kPa, 14.5 psi), forces the boiling water up through coffee grounds held in the middle section, separated by a filter mesh from the top section. The resultant coffee (almost espresso strength, but without the crema) is collected in the top section. Moka pots usually sit directly on a stovetop heater or burner. Some models have a transparent glass or plastic top. Single-serving coffee machines force hot water under low pressure through a coffee pod composed of finely ground coffee sealed between two layers of filter paper or through a proprietary capsule containing ground coffee. Examples include the pod-based Senseo and Home Café systems and the proprietary Tassimo and Keurig K-Cup systems. The AeroPress is another recent invention, which is a mechanical, non-electronic device where pressure is simply exerted by the user manually pressing a piston down with their hand, forcing medium-temperature water through coffee grounds in about 30 seconds (into a single cup.) This method produces a smoother beverage than espresso, falling somewhere between the flavor of a moka pot and a French Press. Extraction Proper brewing of coffee requires using the correct amount of coffee grounds, extracted to the correct degree (largely determined by the correct time), at the correct temperature using the water of balanced mineral composition. SCAA defines a precise composition of water for the barista championships. More technically, coffee brewing consists of dissolving (solvation) soluble flavors from the coffee grounds in water. Specialized vocabulary and guidelines exist to discuss this, primarily various ratios, which are used to optimally brew coffee. The key concepts are: Extraction Also known as "solubles yield" – what percentage (by weight) of the grounds are dissolved in the water. Strength Also known as "solubles concentration", as measured by Total Dissolved Solids – how concentrated or watery the coffee is. Brew ratio The ratio of coffee grounds (mass, in grams or ounces) to water (volume, in liters or half-gallons): how much coffee is used for a given quantity of water. These are related as follows: Strength ∝ Brew ratio × Extraction which can be analyzed as the following formula: dissolved solids/water = grounds/water × dissolved solids/grounds A subtler issue is which solubles are dissolved – this depends both on solubility of different substances at different temperatures, and changes over the course of extraction. Different substances are extracted during the first 1% of brewing time than in the period from 19% extraction to 20% extraction. This is primarily affected by temperature. Brewing guidelines are summarised by Brewing Control Charts which graph these elements, and center around an "ideal" rectangle indicating the target brewing range. The yield in the horizontal (x-axis), the strength is the vertical (y-axis), and a given brewing ratio determines a radial line, since for a giving brewing ratio the strength is directly proportional to the yield. Ideal yield is widely agreed to be 20±2% (18–22%), while ideal strength for brewed coffee varies. American standards for "ideal strength" are generally considered to be between 1.25±0.10% (1.15–1.35%), while Norwegian standards are about 1.40±0.10% (1.30–1.50%). European standards fall in the middle range at 1.20–1.45%. These are most easily achieved with a brewing ratio of 55 g/L (55 grams of coffee per litre of water) for American standards, to 63 g/L in Norwegian standards, yielding approximately 14–16 grams of coffee for a standard cup. These guidelines apply regardless of brewing method, with the following exceptions: Espresso is significantly different – it is much stronger, and has more varied extraction. Seven grams of grounds are used to make a 25-ml shot of espresso (this comes to 280 g/L, but the amount of water used is actually more than 25 ml because some stays with the grounds). Espresso has about 212 mg caffeine per 100 g as compare to around 40 mg per 100 g of normal coffee. Dark roast coffee tastes subjectively stronger than medium roasts. Standards are based on medium roasts, and the equivalent strength for a dark roast requires using a lower brewing ratio. Separation Coffee in all these forms is made with roasted and ground coffee and hot water, the used grounds either remaining behind or being filtered out of the cup or jug after the main soluble compounds have been extracted. The fineness of grind required differs for the various brewing methods. Gallery of common brewing methods Pressure: Gravity and steeping: Instant coffee Instant coffee is made commercially by drying prepared coffee; the resulting soluble powder is dissolved in hot water by the user, and sugar/sweeteners and milk or creamers are added as desired. Presentation Also see the article Coffee culture. Hot drinks Espresso-based, without milk Espresso: see above under heading Pressure. Ristretto is an espresso drink where the weight of the ground coffee is equal to the weight of the brewed shots. The result is a "shorter" shot that is sweeter and more flavorful. Bica is a Portuguese espresso, longer than its Italian counterpart, but a little bit softer in taste. This is due to the fact that Portuguese roasting is slightly lighter than the Italian one. "Bica" is thus similar to "Lungo" in Italy. Lungo is different from an Americano. It is a "longer" espresso run through the machine; all the water runs through the beans, as opposed to adding water. With Italian roasting it extracts more bitter flavours. Americano style coffee is made with espresso (one or several shots), with hot water then added to give a similar strength (but different flavor) to drip-brewed coffee. Long black is similar to Americano, but prepared in different order (a double shot of espresso is added to water instead of vice versa); most common in Australia and New Zealand. Espresso-based, with milk Caffè breve is an American variation of a latte: a milk-based espresso drink using steamed half-and-half (light - 10 per cent - cream) instead of milk. Caffè latte or caffè e latte is often called simply latte, which is Italian for "milk", in English-speaking countries; it is espresso with steamed milk, traditionally topped with froth created from steaming the milk. A latte is made of one-third espresso and two-thirds steamed milk. More frothed milk makes it weaker than a cappuccino. A latte is also commonly served in a tall glass; if the espresso is slowly poured into the frothed milk from the rim of the glass, three layers of different shades will form, with the milk at the bottom, the froth on top and the espresso in between. A latte may be sweetened with sugar or flavored syrup. Caramel and vanilla and other flavors are used. Caffè macchiato, sometimes Espresso macchiato or "short" macchiato — macchiato meaning "marked" — is an espresso with a little steamed milk added to the top, usually , sometimes sweetened with sugar or flavored syrup. A "long" macchiato is a double espresso with a little steamed milk. This differs from a latte macchiato which is milk "marked" with espresso. A macchiato may be 'traditional' or 'topped up' (extra milk added) depending on strength preferences. Cappuccino is equal parts of espresso coffee and milk and froth, sometimes sprinkled with cinnamon or powdered cocoa. Flat white is one part espresso with two parts steamed milk, usually served in a cappuccino cup with the foam decorated with a motif (e.g., fern or heart). This is a speciality of Australia and New Zealand. Galão is a Bica (Portuguese espresso) to which is added hot milk, tapped from a canister and sprayed into the glass in which it is served. Latte macchiato is the inverse of a caffè macchiato, being a tall glass of steamed milk spotted with a small amount of espresso, sometimes sweetened with sugar or syrup. Mocha is a latte with chocolate added. Café con leche is espresso with steamed milk ("leche" is Spanish for "milk"), usually half coffee and half milk, similar to latte but less frothy. Cortado is espresso with a small amount of very lightly foamed milk added, in contrast to a macchiato's more frothy texture. In Spain when served with condensed milk, this is called "cafe con leche condensada", or "Bombon". Brewed or boiled, non espresso-based Black coffee is drip-brewed, percolated, vacuum brewed, or French-press-style coffee served without cream or sugar. White coffee is black coffee with unheated milk or creamer added to it; this is the most popular way of drinking coffee in the United States. Some persons who drink coffee this way add sugar to it. (Note: though having a similar term, this is not to be confused with the Beirut herbal tea from Lebanon or the Malaysian Ipoh white coffee.) Café au lait is similar to latte except that drip-brewed or French press coffee is used instead of espresso, with an equal amount of milk (in France, this term refers to a milk coffee that is generally made using espresso coffee that is not dissimilar to a café con leche). Kopi tubruk is an Indonesian-style coffee similar in presentation to Turkish coffee. However, kopi tubruk is made from coarse coffee grounds, and is boiled together with a solid lump of sugar. It is popular on the islands of Java and Bali and their surroundings. Indian filter coffee, particularly common in southern India, is prepared with rough-ground dark roasted coffee beans (e.g., Arabica, PeaBerry), and chicory. The coffee is drip-brewed for a few hours in a traditional metal coffee filter before being served with milk and sugar. The ratio is usually 1/4 decoction, 3/4 milk. Greek coffee is prepared similarly to Turkish coffee. The main difference is that the coffee beans are ground into a finer powder and sugar is added during the process. It does not contain other flavors, and is usually served without milk. Greek coffee is served in a small cup with a handle, sometimes accompanied by a small cookie, and always with a glass of water. A similar method to the Greek preparation is used in Colombia to make "tinto," strong black coffee that is often brewed with panela, a sugarcane juice concentrate in cake form. A muslin or fine-cloth bag is used to strain the grounds. Indochinese-style coffee is another form of drip brew. In this form, hot water is allowed to drip though a metal mesh into a cup, and the resulting strong brew is poured into a glass containing sweetened condensed milk which may contain ice. Due to the high volume of coffee grounds required to make strong coffee in this fashion, the brewing process is quite slow. It is highly popular in Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. Fortified coffee Red Eye is one espresso shot added to a cup of coffee (typically 210–480 ml, 7–16 oz). Some add milk or sugar. Black Eye is two espresso shots added to a cup of coffee (typically 210–480 ml, 7–16 oz). Some add milk or sugar. Flavored coffees Flavored coffee: In some cultures, flavored coffees are common. Chocolate is a common additive that is either sprinkled on top or mixed with the coffee to imitate the taste of Mocha. Other flavorings include spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, cardamom, or Italian syrups. In the Maghreb, the orange blossom is used as a flavoring. Vanilla- and hazelnut-flavored coffees are common in the United States; these are usually artificially flavored. Turkish coffee is served in very small cups about the size of those used for espresso. Traditional Turkish coffee cups have no handles, but modern ones often do. The crema or "face" is considered crucial, and since it requires some skill to achieve its presence is taken as evidence of a well-made brew. (See above for preparation method.) It is usually made sweet, with sugar added after the brew process begins, and often is flavored with cardamom or other spices. In many places it is customary to serve it with a tall glass of water on the side. Chicory is sometimes combined with coffee as a flavoring agent, as in the style of coffee served at the famous Café du Monde in New Orleans. Chicory has historically been used as a coffee substitute when real coffee was scarce, as in wartime. Chicory is popular as an additive in Belgium and is an ingredient in Madras filter coffee. Alcoholic coffee drinks Alcoholic spirits and liqueurs can be added to coffee, often sweetened and with cream floated on top. These beverages are often given names according to the alcoholic addition: Black coffee with brandy, or marc, or grappa, or other strong spirit. Irish coffee, with Irish whiskey, sugar, and cream. There are many variants, essentially the same but with the use of a different spirit: Café au Drambuie, with Drambuie instead of whiskey Caribbean or Jamaican coffee, with dark rum; a similar drink exists in northern Germany, called Gaelic or Scotch coffee, with Scotch whisky Kahlúa coffee, with Kahlúa coffee liqueur Café royal, with a flambéd and slightly caramelised teaspoonful of sugar and cognac Kaffekask, a Swedish variant where some coffee is added to a cup of brännvin Cold drinks Iced coffee is a cold version of hot coffee, typically drip or espresso diluted with ice water. Iced coffee can also be an iced or chilled form of any drink in this list. In Australia, iced coffee is cold milk flavoured with a small amount of coffee, often topped with ice cream or whipped cream, and served in a tall glass. Frappé is a strong cold coffee drink made from instant coffee and in Greece it is consumed more than Turkish coffee (which the Greeks refer to as "elliniko" or "greek" after the Greek-Turkish dispute over Cyprus in 1974). Frappé was created in Greece in 1957 in the city of Thessaloniki when a businessman taking part in the open, international trade exhibition there, couldn't wait for hot water for his coffee. His idea spread instantly to all Greece. Preparation: one spoonful of instant coffee (and sugar if one wishes) in a shaker with some water (and milk). It is shaken hard enough for one minute, then icecubes are added and it is served with a drinking straw because of the "foam" that is produced. Ice-blended coffee (trade names: Frappuccino, Ice Storm) is a variation of iced coffee. The name Frappucino (a portmanteau of frappé and cappuccino) was originally developed, named, trademarked and sold by George Howell's Eastern Massachusetts coffee shop chain, The Coffee Connection, which was purchased by Starbucks in 1994. Other coffeehouses serve similar concoctions, but under different names, since "Frappuccino" is a Starbucks trademark. One commonly used by many stores is Ice Storm. Another prominent example is the Javakula at Seattle's Best Coffee. The iced cappuccino ("ice cap"), sold at coffee chain Tim Horton's, is a popular ice-blended drink in Canada. A frappuccino is a latte, mocha, or macchiato mixed with crushed ice and flavorings (such as vanilla/hazelnut if requested by the customer) and blended. Thai iced coffee is a popular drink commonly offered at Thai restaurants in the United States. It consists of coffee, ice, and sweetened condensed milk. Igloo Espresso a regular espresso shot poured over a small amount of crushed ice, served in an espresso cup. Sometimes it is requested to be sweetened as the pouring over the ice causes the shot to become bitter. Originating in Italy and has migrated to Australian coffee shops. Cold brew coffee is a process of brewing coffee slowly (12 hours) with cold water to produce a strong coffee concentrate, often served diluted with water or milk of choice. A common commercial example is Toddy coffee, which is a drip system. Affogato is a cold drink, often served as dessert, consisting of a scoop of ice cream or gelato topped with an espresso shot. Often, the drinker is served the ice cream and espresso in separate cups, and will mix them at the table so as to prevent the ice cream from entirely melting before it can be consumed. Confectionery (non-drinks) Chocolate-covered roasted coffee beans are available as a confection; eating them delivers more caffeine to the body than does drinking the same mass (or volume) of brewed coffee (ratios depend upon the brewing method) and has similar physiological effects, unless the beans have been decaffeinated. See also Home roasting coffee Notes References Coffee culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulton%20Center
Fulton Center
Fulton Center is a subway and retail complex centered at the intersection of Fulton Street and Broadway in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The complex was built as part of a $1.4 billion project by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA), a public agency of the state of New York, to rehabilitate the New York City Subway's Fulton Street station. The work involved constructing new underground passageways and access points into the complex, renovating the constituent stations, and erecting a large station building that doubles as a part of the Westfield World Trade Center mall. The project, first announced in 2002, was intended to improve access to and connections among the New York City Subway services stopping at the Fulton Street station. Funding for the construction project, which began in 2005, dried up for several years, with no final approved plan and no schedule for completion. Plans for the transit center were revived by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. The project used to be referred to as the Fulton Street Transit Center, but was re-branded the Fulton Center in May 2012 because of a heightened emphasis on retail. The complex officially opened on November 10, 2014, along with the adjacent Dey Street Passageway. Through the Dey Street Passageway, the complex connects to the World Trade Center, the Westfield World Trade Center mall, PATH station, and observation deck, and provides connections to the Chambers Street–World Trade Center/Park Place/Cortlandt Street () and WTC Cortlandt () stations, as well as the PATH's World Trade Center station. Westfield Corporation operates the retail space as an extension of the Westfield World Trade Center, a block to the west. Components The Fulton Center features a high-visibility Transit Center with entrances on Broadway between Fulton Street and John Street, and it connects the via the underground Dey Street Passageway running east–west under Dey Street. Ove Arup and Partners served as the prime consultant of the entire project. The Fulton Center cost US$1.4 billion, almost twice the original budget of $750 million. The major elements of the Fulton Center project included the renovations of the Fulton Street stations along the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and the IRT Lexington Avenue Line. During the latter's renovation, new entrances were opened at the corner of Broadway and Maiden Lane for the northbound platform, and at Cortlandt Street and Broadway for the southbound platform. The mezzanine serving the Fulton Street station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line, which previously consisted of several ramps on either side of Nassau Street, was straightened. During these renovations, the entire complex was made ADA-accessible. Ten escalators and fifteen elevators were installed, as well as two ADA accessible public restrooms on the concourse and the street levels. A new station building, the Fulton Building, was constructed along the east side of Broadway between Fulton and John Streets. The new station required the demolition of the Girard Building and the former Childs Restaurant Building, and incorporates the landmark Corbin Building at the corner of Broadway and John Street. It was nearly canceled at one point, but was saved in 2009 through funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. This portion of the project was part of a master lease to lease over 60,000 square feet of space. The Fulton Center opened on November 10, 2014, seven years behind schedule and $650 million over budget. Owing to the Fulton Center's use of renewable energy sources and energy-conservation features, the complex was awarded a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Silver certification in March 2016, becoming the first subway station in New York City to receive such a rating. In addition to work on the four linked Fulton Street stations, the Dey Street Passageway, located outside the subway system's paid area, was built under Dey Street. It connected the Fulton Street station complex to the Cortlandt–Church Streets station, serving the . A new entrance building was constructed on the southwest corner of Broadway and Dey Street, providing direct access to the Dey Street passageway. It opened alongside the rest of the Fulton Center in November 2014, and an extension to the World Trade Center Transportation Hub opened in May 2016. There were plans for a free transfer between the Cortlandt–Church Street station and the at the World Trade Center station; however, this plan was removed due to cost overruns. , the connection was again slated to be built and the passageway opened with newly rearranged turnstiles. The connection opened on December 29, 2017, after a reconfiguration of the respective stations' fare areas. A separate transfer to the at WTC Cortlandt, outside the fare controls of either the Cortlandt–Church/World Trade Center or Fulton Street stations, was opened on September 8, 2018. Context Need and funding After several pieces of transit infrastructure in Lower Manhattan were destroyed or severely damaged during the September 11, 2001, attacks, officials proposed a $7 billion redesign of transit in the neighborhood. This included the Fulton Street Transit Center, the South Ferry/Whitehall Street terminal further downtown, and the reconstruction of the West Side Highway. The most important of these projects was the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey's proposed terminal for PATH trains at the World Trade Center site, which was destroyed when the World Trade Center collapsed. A preliminary plan for the new terminal included situating it under Church Street, near the site of the former Hudson Terminal and close to the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA)'s Broadway–Nassau/Fulton Street station. The new terminal would also contain direct connections to the subway; previously, World Trade Center had been served by three different subway stations at Cortlandt and Greenwich Streets, at Cortlandt and Church Streets, and at Church Street between Chambers and Vesey Streets. Plans for an integrated transit hub in Lower Manhattan were announced in January 2002. As part of this initiative, money was also to be allocated to study the feasibility of commuter rail service to Lower Manhattan. This would later become the canceled Lower Manhattan–Jamaica/JFK Transportation Project, which would have created a railway line between Lower Manhattan and John F. Kennedy International Airport via the Long Island Rail Road and AirTrain JFK. As part of the rebuilding process, the Port Authority considered putting the PATH terminal at Broadway and Fulton Street. By April 2002, New York state and city officials notified members of the United States Congress that the project could cost as much as $7.3 billion; at the time, president George W. Bush had pledged only $1.8 billion for transit improvements in Lower Manhattan. The Port Authority ultimately decided to put the PATH terminal near Greenwich Street, two blocks west. The MTA's project to connect the different subway stations at Broadway–Nassau/Fulton Street was approved, despite the fact that the PATH and MTA projects were separate. These stations would instead be connected by a series of underground passageways, which would stretch from the World Financial Center in the west to the Fulton Street Transit Center in the east, spanning over half of Manhattan's width at this point. The Fulton Street Transit Center would also contain a large retail building at Broadway and Fulton Street, serving as the main entrance to that complex. The Fulton Street project would include new passageways, entrances, and elevators to provide transfers between the area's subway stations and increase the capacity of the existing station complex at Broadway–Nassau/Fulton Streets. In February 2003, New York Governor George Pataki announced a $5 billion plan for rebuilt transit infrastructure at South Ferry, Fulton Street, and the World Trade Center. By April 2003, the MTA had released preliminary plans for a $750 million transit hub at Fulton Street, connecting six subway stations. At the time, the Fulton Street station was extremely hard to navigate, as the four stations in the complex had been built by different companies at different times. The MTA initially contemplated razing the Corbin Building on John Street to make way for the transit center's main building, but the agency had agreed to preserve the building by that October. In December 2003, the Federal Transit Administration allocated a combined $2.85 billion to the three Lower Manhattan transit projects. The PATH station received $1.7 billion in aid, while the Fulton Street Transit Center received $750 million and the South Ferry Terminal received $400 million. Planning and cutbacks Compared with other subway stations' renovations, the Fulton Street Transit Center's funding was secure because the project was financed using money from the September 11 recovery fund. After funding for the transit center had been secured, the project's environmental impact statement was released in 2004. That year, a group of architecture firms, including Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners and Lee Harris Pomeroy Associates, were hired to design the Fulton Street Transit Center. The project was still undergoing revisions as of mid-2005, and was to be completed by October 2005. Construction was set to begin later that year. Funding problems began in June 2005, when the original plans were cut back. The projected cost of the Fulton Street Transit Center had grown by $75 million, to $825 million. The design had been delayed to May 2006, and the proposed completion date was now December 2008. In March 2006, the land under the Corbin Building was taken for the proposed transit center by eminent domain. A block to the north, the MTA began the process of evicting and relocating 148 store owners near the site of the transit center's main building. The budget of real-estate acquisition also rose from $50 million to $157 million. This cost increase was a key factor in the ballooning costs of the transit center over the next several years. By May 2006, the budget was nearing $850 million, and the planned completion date was delayed to June 2009. Despite the $45 million budget overrun, the MTA denied that the Fulton Center plan would be curtailed. In November 2006, the MTA announced the creation of a free transfer between the Cortlandt–Church Streets and World Trade Center stations, which would cost $15 million more. By February 2007, the projected cost had risen to $888 million, and the MTA pledged to pay for the $41 million gap with its own money. The completion date was now projected as October 2009. Meanwhile, the costs of other MTA Capital Construction projects were rising as well. The issue peaked in January 2008, when the MTA announced that three other capital projects (the 7 Subway Extension, the Second Avenue Subway, and East Side Access) were facing a combined cost overrun of $1 billion. To remedy the overrun, plans for the Fulton Center's main building had to be downsized: instead of being a structure with a large dome, the headhouse would now be a simple stainless-steel building with a smaller dome. The project, excluding the main building, was now expected to cost $903 million. The main building would cost another $250 million, if built. The cost overruns were attributed to the fact that the MTA had received a single, $870 million bid for one phase of construction, more than twice the $408 million the MTA had originally set aside for that phase. The date of completion was now set for 2010, and the MTA had ordered a 30-day review of the Fulton Center plan. Around the same time, the neighboring World Trade Center Hub's costs also rose from $2.2 billion to $3.4 billion. The funding reductions also resulted in several design cutbacks. The free transfer from the Cortlandt–Church Streets and World Trade Center stations was dropped from the plans, but was later restored using MTA funds before being dropped and restored again. The passageway underneath Dey Street was narrowed from . The MTA deleted the main building from the plan to reduce costs. In March 2008, the MTA announced that it would spend $295 million on an as-yet-undetermined structure at the location of the main building. One proposal included constructing the main building with a performing arts center, rather than a dome, on top. By this time, the MTA lacked several billion dollars in funding for its 2010–2014 capital spending plan. The MTA did not rule out the possibility of converting almost the entire plot into a public plaza and constructing a simple subway entrance from the plaza. New York Post columnist Steve Cuozzo called the project "The Folly on Fulton Street", a word play on "Fulton's Folly", which was used to describe Robert Fulton's steamboat 200 years before. In June 2008, Chris Ward, executive director of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, prepared a report for New York Governor David Paterson regarding the Fulton Street and World Trade Center projects' cost overruns. Despite the Fulton Street Transit Center's financing deficit, the Federal Transit Administration refused to fund the cost overruns associated with the Fulton Center. However, the MTA used 2009 federal stimulus money to help fund the project. In January 2009, the MTA received $497 million in additional stimulus money, bringing the total cost of the Fulton Street Transit Center to $1.4 billion. As part of an exhibit on the city's major public construction projects, the MTA described the status above ground: "Final details are being worked out for the above ground building. The 115-year-old Corbin Building, at the corner of Broadway and John Street, will be restored and incorporated into the transit center entrance design. The transit center will be a focal point with a vibrant design and a visible portal to downtown and the transit system below". Construction With funding secured in 2009, MTA Capital Construction released a plan to open various stages of the Fulton Center project. Much of the below-ground connections, such as the IND mezzanine, were to begin construction first. The project rehabilitated two of the four stations in the original station complex. An intricate system of ramps was replaced by two new mezzanines, and new entrances were opened. Station rehabilitation projects The Fulton Center project involved three station rehabilitation projects: the refurbishment of the Seventh Avenue Line's platform at the eastern end of the complex, served by the ; the rehabilitation of the Lexington Avenue Line's platforms under Broadway, served by the ; and the renovation of Cortlandt–Church Streets, served by the . The former two stations had never been renovated, while Cortlandt Street had been renovated in the 1990s before being damaged during the September 11 attacks. The renovations of the Eighth Avenue Line platforms, served by the , and the Nassau Street Line platforms, served by the , had been completed in the 1990s. The first completed project of the Fulton Center, the rehabilitation of the Seventh Avenue Line platform, started in 2005. The narrowness of this platform required the addition of extra circulation elements, such as stairs. This project was completed by November 2006. Although not part of a rehabilitation, the Cortlandt Street station was first closed in 2005 for the construction of the Dey Street Passageway, the underpass and the construction of the East Bathtub that supports the eastern towers of the new World Trade Center complex that was being rebuilt. With the conclusion of the Dey Street Passageway construction, the uptown platform was opened first, on November 25, 2009. The southbound platform was rehabilitated and reopened on September 6, 2011, with a new underpass, to coincide with the upcoming opening of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum. The Lexington Avenue Line station at the western end of the complex, serving the , was rehabilitated beginning in 2008. Prior to renovations, there was no direct access to the southern end of the northbound platform, causing overcrowding at this location. The renovation started after the entrances at Maiden Lane (northbound) and Cortlandt Street (southbound) were opened to ameliorate passenger flow during subsequent station rehabilitation. Historical features, such as the tiling, were preserved. The structure was joined by the Fulton Building on the northbound platform, and the Dey Street Headhouse on the southbound platform, when they opened. Entrances As part of the reorganization of the Fulton Street station complex, and to mitigate passenger flow congestion during the construction phases of the Fulton Center project, some new entrances opened and some existing entrances closed. In January 2007, the MTA opened a new entrance on the southeast corner of Maiden Lane and Broadway. Like the John Street entrance, it served chiefly the northbound platform of the Lexington Avenue Line. That month, construction began on creating an analogous entrance on Cortlandt Street, just across the street from Broadway, for the southbound platform. These entrances allowed for the temporary closure of the John Street entrance (northbound platform) and the entrance by Dey Street (southbound platform) during the rehabilitation of the Lexington Avenue Line platforms and Dey Street Passageway-related work. On August 1, 2011, the entrance at 135 William Street on the eastern side of the complex opened. This was completed in conjunction with the gradual opening of a transfer mezzanine over the IND Eighth Avenue Line platform, serving the . A terra-cotta mural and an iron gate from the Hotel McAlpin, both which were originally found in the original transfer passageway, were relocated to the new 135 William Street entrance. An additional entrance at 129 Fulton Street provides an elevator connecting to the Nassau Street Line platform and the Eighth Avenue Line mezzanine. To allow for advanced Eighth Avenue Line Mezzanine work and the construction of a permanent underpass under the Lexington Avenue Line tunnel under Fulton Street to take place, the subway station entrance at 222 Broadway became permanently closed on October 29, 2011. In its place, a temporary entrance opened midblock between Fulton Street and John Street, inside the main building construction site. This was followed with a major realignment of the transfer passageway between the Eighth Avenue Line and Lexington Avenue Line trains. Related construction work saw the temporary closure of the entrances at Fulton Street, on the northwest (by St. Paul's Chapel) and southwest corners throughout much of 2011. Both were reopened by the first half of 2012. The entrance to Dey Street (195 Broadway), on the southbound platform, was permanently closed on May 1, 2012, for Dey Street Passageway related work and rehabilitation of the southbound platform. It was to be replaced by the Dey Street Headhouse, across Dey Street, when it opened in late September 2012. At the 129 Fulton Street site and the 150 William Street site are permanent entrances that provide access to the southbound and the , respectively. There is elevator access at the 129 Fulton Street site. Other entrances include the Dey Street Passageway headhouse building (opened 2012) and the Fulton Center main building, or the Fulton Building (opened 2014). IND transfer mezzanine Originally, a network of passageways and ramps loosely connected the various lines with each other, causing congestion during peak hours. The transfer mezzanine, also known as the IND mezzanine, replaced these ramps and made several adjacent entrances redundant. In January 2010, reconstruction of the transfer mezzanine over the Fulton Street IND platform resulted in traffic flow changes. The transfer passageway leading to the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platform at Fulton Street had previously been modified. Effectively, all transfers were made through the IND platform, serving the Eighth Avenue Line. The stacked-staggered configuration of the BMT Nassau Street Line platforms splits the IND mezzanine levels into halves. The eastern half stretches from Nassau Street to William Street, from the southbound Nassau Street Line platform to the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platform. Similarly, the western half of the mezzanine stretches from Nassau Street to Broadway, from the northbound Nassau Street Line to the Lexington Avenue Line platforms. Transferring passengers have to use the third-basement-level IND platform to navigate between both halves of the mezzanine, since the Nassau Street Line's platforms bisect the mezzanine on both the first and second basement levels. The IND mezzanine opened in various phases. Around August 2011, the William Street end of the Eastern mezzanine opened, coinciding with the opening of the 135 William Street entrance. In October 2011, due to a major realignment of the temporary transfer passageway between the Eighth Avenue Line station and the Lexington Avenue Line station, parts of the Western Mezzanine opened as well. The realignment sent passengers through the construction site of the Fulton Building. By January 2012, the Western Mezzanine had opened to the northbound Nassau Street Line platforms. In June 2012, an underpass under the Lexington Avenue Line platforms, traveling approximately under Fulton Street, re-opened and was connected to the Western Mezzanine. With the opening of the new passageway, the older underpass connecting to southbound Lexington Avenue Line platform was simultaneously closed. As a result, the Western Mezzanine was substantially completed. On August 2, 2012, the southbound Nassau Street Line platform was connected to the Eastern Mezzanine. An MTA press release regarded this as the substantial completion of the entire IND mezzanine. Dey Street headhouse and passageway Temporary transfer passages opened to the Lexington Avenue Line trains from the Eighth Avenue Line Mezzanine in October 2011, in conjunction with the closing of the entrance across the street on Fulton Street. In June 2012, this passageway was again replaced, this time by a permanent passageway underneath Fulton Street that adjoined the western Eighth Avenue Line mezzanine directly. The original temporary transfer passageway was part of an underground concourse connecting the Fulton Center and the Dey Street Passageway, and also served a crossunder for the two platforms. The Dey Street Passageway headhouse opened on October 8, 2012. It serves as an entrance for the southbound Lexington Avenue Line trains, and as the main access point for the long-anticipated Dey Street Passageway. Fulton Building The main building for the Fulton Center project, referred to as the Fulton Building by the MTA in its Requests for Proposals in August 2012, is a three-story building clad in glass, with an oculus atop that draws natural light into the main building and the uptown platform of the Lexington Avenue Line station. It is designed by Nicholas Grimshaw and James Carpenter Design Associates. Its construction replaced four buildings along the eastern side of Broadway, which were demolished during 2007. The Fulton Building was nearly canceled in 2009 due to increasing costs, but was restored after $497 million in stimulus funding was allocated toward the Fulton Street Transit Center. The foundations of the main transit complex was completed in August 2010. Full scale superstructure work on the main building began in January 2011, and steel work concluded in October 2011. In November 2014, the Fulton Building opened to the public. Sky Reflector-Net Sky Reflector-Net, which was commissioned as part of MTA Arts & Design program, was installed in 2014 in the Fulton Center transit hub. Located at the center of the oculus, the Sky Reflector-Net uses hundreds of aluminum mirrors to provide natural sunlight from a skylight to an underground area as much as four stories deep. The skylight contains 88 glass blades, which divert sunlight into the center of the building at certain times of the day throughout the year. The last intentional skylight in the New York City Subway system was in the original City Hall station, which closed in 1945. Retail space Billed by MTA officials as New York's "Next Great Public Space", the Fulton Building was designed with a strong focus on retail, with more than of retail space as part of the Westfield World Trade Center shopping mall. Retail stores are featured on concourse level "C2" (the same level as the IND Mezzanine), concourse level "C1M" (the same level as the Lexington Avenue Line platforms), and the ground floor. In addition, the MTA presentation at the stakeholders' meeting in October 2011 indicates the plausible presence for market cafes on the ground floor, "destination restaurants and bars" on the second floor and an anchor-branded tenant on the third and top floor of the building. The addition of retail space was an impetus for the May 2012 name change from "Fulton Street Transit Center" to a simpler "Fulton Center" to attract leases. The MTA looked to private companies to manage the retail section of the Fulton Center, attempting to change it to a shopping destination, as well as a transit center. The retail spaces are intended to provide additional revenue for the MTA in the form of real estate. In July 2012, the MTA made a motion to seek proposals from various companies for a master lease for 65,000 square feet of retail and commercial space. This space includes the Corbin Building, and the Dey Street Passageway and headhouse. The MTA made a Requests for Proposals (RFP) on August 2, 2012. Proposals were by November 2, 2012. According to the MTA's RFP, the main building is called the "Fulton Building" to disambiguate from other related structures, such as the Corbin Building. Corbin Building The Corbin Building, erected in 1889 and an official city and national landmark, is adjacent to the Fulton Building. Originally slated to be demolished, the building was instead restored as a part of the Fulton Center project and incorporated to the overall transit complex. It also provides street-level retail as well as of commercial office space. The building was underpinned during the rehabilitation of the Lexington Avenue Line platforms and the transit building construction. Design elements and the historic decor and facade were preserved as a part of this project. The building as a whole is integrated into the project, with escalators at John Street descending to the Lexington Avenue Line platforms and the Fulton Building. Retail space returned to the ground floor when the Corbin Building reopened in December 2012. For upper floors, an interstitial structure was built for the height of the building, between the original building and the Fulton Center. This interstitial structure allows the Corbin Building to be made compliant to modern building regulations. A new freight elevator, as well as two passenger elevators, were installed in the interstitial building. Additionally, the interstitial unit gives added support to the Corbin Building. However, the interstitial building is considered to be a part of the Fulton Building. Constituent stations The Fulton Center project initially included upgrades to five subway stations: Fulton Street station on the on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line Fulton Street station on the on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line Fulton Street station on the on the IND Eighth Avenue Line Fulton Street station on the on the BMT Nassau Street Line Cortlandt Street station on the on the BMT Broadway Line The World Trade Center PATH station, as well as the New York City Subway WTC Cortlandt station on the on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line are connected to the complex via the World Trade Center Transportation Hub. Despite the presence of a passageway linking the Fulton Street complex and the Chambers Street/Park Place/Cortlandt Street station, there is no free connection between the two stations. There are still paid transfers to the Fulton Street complex and the two Cortlandt Street stations. From the Fulton Street complex, signs within the passageway indicate the presence of the , (the other services in the Chambers/Park/Cortlandt complex, the , , are already accessible through the Fulton Street station). The connection is still possible via an out-of-system transfer through the WTC Transportation Hub. According to the MTA's Final Environmental Impact Statement, the Dey Street Passageway is intended to provide a seamless connection from the Fulton Center to the WTC Transportation Hub and Brookfield Place (formerly the World Financial Center) without the need to cross Church Street and Broadway, both of which are busy traffic arteries in Lower Manhattan. By keeping it outside of the paid area, it would maximize pedestrian flow. See also 7 Subway Extension, another Capital Construction project East Side Access, another Capital Construction project Second Avenue Subway, another Capital Construction project References External links Broadway (Manhattan) Financial District, Manhattan New York City Subway infrastructure New York City Subway projects Nicholas Grimshaw buildings Transit centers in New York City
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendra%27s%20Law
Kendra's Law
Kendra's Law, effective since November 1999, is a New York State law concerning involuntary outpatient commitment also known as assisted outpatient treatment. It grants judges the authority to issue orders that require people who meet certain criteria to regularly undergo psychiatric treatment. Failure to comply could result in commitment for up to 72 hours. Kendra's Law does not mandate that patients be forced to take medication. It was originally proposed by members of the National Alliance on Mental Illness, the Alliance on Mental Illness of New York State, and many local NAMI chapters throughout the state. They were concerned that laws were preventing individuals with serious mental illness from receiving care until after they became "dangerous to self or others". They viewed outpatient commitment as a less expensive, less restrictive and more humane alternative to inpatient commitment. The members of NAMI, working with NYS Assemblywoman Elizabeth Connelly, NYC Department of Mental Health Commissioner Luis Marcos, and Howard Telson were successful in getting a three-year pilot commitment program started at Bellevue Hospital. When the Bellevue Outpatient Commitment Program came to an end, Attorney General Eliot Spitzer, the Treatment Advocacy Center and mental health advocate DJ Jaffe put together a coalition to pass a statewide law. It was based on the same concept as the Bellevue Outpatient Commitment Program but with important differences. Background In 1999, there was a series of incidents involving individuals with untreated mental illness becoming violent. In one assault in the New York City Subway, Andrew Goldstein, 29 and diagnosed with schizophrenia but off medication, pushed Kendra Webdale into the path of an oncoming N train at the 23rd Street station. Goldstein had recently attempted to get treatment but had been turned away. Webdale's family joined a coalition led by Governor Pataki, the Treatment Advocacy Center and Jaffe, and the family played a significant role in getting the law passed. Subsequently, in a similar incident, Julio Perez, age 43, pushed Edgar Rivera in front of an uptown 6 train at 51st Street. Rivera lost his legs and became a strong supporter of the law. Kendra's Law, introduced by Pataki, was created as a response to these incidents. In 2005, the law was extended for five years. As a result of these incidents, involuntary outpatient commitment moved from being seen as a program to help people with mental illness to a program that could increase public safety. Public safety advocates joined in trying to take the Bellevue Pilot Program statewide. What was formerly known as involuntary outpatient commitment was renamed euphemistically as "assisted outpatient treatment", in an attempt to imply a positive intent of the law. Criteria Kendra's Law allows courts to order certain people diagnosed with mental illness to attend treatment as a condition for living in the community. The law is aimed at those who have a pattern of not following treatment recommendations which has resulted in hospitalization, or violent behaviors placing the patient or others as serious risk of physical harm. In order to be admitted to Kendra's Law, individuals must meet the following criteria established in Section 9.60 of NYS Mental Health Law. A patient may be ordered to obtain assisted outpatient treatment if the court finds by clear and convincing evidence that: the patient is eighteen years of age or older; and the patient is suffering from a mental illness; and the patient is unlikely to survive safely in the community without supervision, based on a clinical determination; and the patient has a history of lack of compliance with treatment for mental illness that has: at least twice within the last thirty-six months been a significant factor in necessitating hospitalization in a hospital, or receipt of services in a forensic or other mental health unit of a correctional facility or a local correctional facility, not including any period during which the person was hospitalized or incarcerated immediately preceding the filing of the petition or; resulted in one or more acts of serious violent behavior toward self or others or threats of, or attempts at, serious physical harm to self or others within the last forty-eight months, not including any period in which the person was hospitalized or incarcerated immediately preceding the filing of the petition; and the patient is, as a result of his or her mental illness, unlikely to voluntarily participate in the recommended treatment pursuant to the treatment plan; and in view of the patient's treatment history and current behavior, the patient is in need of assisted outpatient treatment in order to prevent a relapse or deterioration which would be likely to result in serious harm to the patient or others as defined in section 9.01 of this article; and it is likely that the patient will benefit from assisted outpatient treatment; and if the patient has executed a health care proxy as defined in article 29-C of the public health law, that any directions included in such proxy shall be taken into account by the court in determining the written treatment plan; and the treatment plan set forth is the least restrictive plan that is most likely to benefit the patient. A patient can only be ordered to assisted outpatient treatment for a maximum 12-month period. The assisted outpatient treatment may be renewed by petition filed prior to the current order's expiration. Where the petition is for a renewal, the 36-month limit for hospitalizations and the 48-month limit for violent behavior do not apply. Support The New York Times reported that "a study has found that a controversial program that orders these patients to receive treatment when they are not hospitalized has had positive results. Patients were much less likely to end up back in psychiatric hospitals and were arrested less often. Use of outpatient treatment significantly increased, as did refills of medication. Costs to the mental health system and Medicaid of caring for these patients dropped by half or more." According to the Treatment Advocacy Center, the following organizations (in part or in full) support the law: National Treatment Advocacy Center (TAC) American Psychiatric Nurses Association American Psychiatric Association National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) National Sheriffs Association National Crime Prevention Council Statewide National Alliance on Mental Illness New York State (NAMI NYS) NYS Association of Chiefs of Police (NYSCOP) Regional and local AMI-Friends of NYS Psychiatric Institute, NYC NAMI/Familya of Rockland County NAMI Schenectady NAMI Chautauqua County NAMI of Buffalo and Erie County NAMI of NYC/Staten Island NAMI Orange County NAMI Champlain Valley Harlem Alliance for the Mentally Ill NAMI of Montgomery, Fulton, Hamilton Counties NAMI/Albany Relatives NAMI North Country Albany County Forensic Task Force Westchester County Chiefs of Police Association Orange County Police Chiefs Association Town of New Windsor, police department Town of Chester, NY Police Department Town of Mechanicville, police department West Seneca, NY Police Department Broome County District Attorney Selected individual supporters Xavier Amador – author, I am Not Sick, I Don't Need Help! Pete Early – author, Crazy: A Father's Search Through America's Mental Health Madness Rael Jean Isaac – co-author, Madness in the Streets Richard Lamb – Dept. of Psychiatry, USC Edgar Rivera – lost legs in subway pushing E. Fuller Torrey – author, Surviving Schizophrenia Pat Webdale – mother of Kendra Webdale Robert Yolken – Director of Developmental Neurovirology Johns Hopkins Univ. DJ Jaffe, Executive Dir. Mental Illness Policy Org. Media editorial supporters New York Times Newsday New York Post Daily News Albany Times Union Buffalo News Troy News Office of the Attorney General NYS Public Employees Federation Greater NY Hospital Association Citizens Crime Commission Victim Services Agency Visiting Nurses Service Justice for All St. Francis Residence Moreover, research specifically on Kendra's Law in New York State shows lower rates of violence, homelessness, arrest, incarceration, and cost. It shows that those who support Kendra's Law say it helps them get well and stay well. Research in other states that have assisted outpatient treatment programs has also shown positive results. Courts have ruled that Kendra's Law does not violate rights, citing the narrow criteria, the fact that the law does not provide for medication over objection ("force") and the government interest in reducing violence. Supporters note that the system in the United States is so different from that in the U.K. that studies that aggregate community treatment orders (CTOs) used in the U.K. and elsewhere overseas with Kendra's Law as practiced in the U.S. do not give as accurate a picture as studies exclusively on Kendra's Law. They note that the Cochrane Study quoted by opponents of assisted outpatient treatment did not include any of the studies on Kendra's Law, or assisted outpatient treatment as practiced in other states, and only included a pilot program, the Bellevue Outpatient Commitment Program, that was never taken statewide. In addition, the New York Times reported on Kendra's Law: the "program that orders these patients to receive treatment when they are not hospitalized has had positive results. Patients were much less likely to end up back in psychiatric hospitals and were arrested less often. Use of outpatient treatment significantly increased, as did refills of medication. Costs to the mental health system and Medicaid of caring for these patients dropped by half or more." Opposition Kendra's Law is opposed for different reasons by many groups, most notably the anti-psychiatry movement and the New York Civil Liberties Union. Opponents say that the law has harmed the mental health system, because it can deter people from seeking treatment. The implementation of the law is also criticized as being racially and socioeconomically biased. Studies A 2017 Cochrane systematic review of the literature, that included three relatively small randomized controlled trials, did not find significant differences in the use of services, social functioning, or quality of life when comparing compulsory community treatment with standard voluntary care or brief supervised discharge. The systematic review did report that people who receive compulsory community treatment may be less likely to be victims of crime, both violent and non-violent. A randomized, controlled trial published in the Lancet concluded, "the imposition of compulsory supervision does not reduce the rate of readmission of psychotic patients. We found no support in terms of any reduction in overall hospital admission to justify the significant curtailment of patients' personal liberty." A 2005 study, "Kendra's Law: A Final Report on the Status of Assisted Outpatient Treatment", done by New York State's Office of Mental Health, concluded, "Over a three year period prior to their AOT order, almost all (97%) had been hospitalized (with an average of three hospitalizations per recipient), and many experienced homelessness, arrest, and incarceration. During participation in the AOT program, rates for hospitalizations, homelessness, arrests, and incarcerations have declined significantly, and program participants have experienced a lessening of the stress associated with these events." The same study found that 55% fewer recipients engaged in suicide attempts or physical harm to self; 47% fewer physically harmed others; 46% fewer damaged or destroyed property; 43% fewer threatened physical harm to others and the average decrease in harmful behaviors was 44%. 74% fewer participants experienced homelessness; 77% fewer experienced psychiatric hospitalization; there was a 56% reduction in length of hospitalization; 83% fewer experienced arrest; 87% fewer experienced incarceration; 49% fewer abused alcohol and 48% fewer abused drugs. The number of individuals exhibiting good adherence to medications increased 51%; The number of individuals exhibiting good service engagement increased 103%. The study found that of those subjects included in the sample, 75% reported that AOT helped them gain control over their lives; 81% said AOT helped them get and stay well; 90% said AOT made them more likely to keep appointments and take medications; 87% of participants said they were confident in their case manager's ability, and 88% said they and their case manager agreed on the issues to be addressed. The study reported the following effects on the mental health system. "Improved access to services. AOT has been instrumental in increasing accountability at all system levels regarding delivery of services to high need individuals. Community awareness of AOT has resulted in increased outreach to individuals who had previously presented engagement challenges to mental health service providers." "Improved treatment plan development, discharge planning, and coordination of service planning. Processes and structures developed for AOT have resulted in improvements to treatment plans that more appropriately match the needs of individuals who have had difficulties using mental health services in the past." "Improved collaboration between mental health and court systems. As AOT processes have matured, professionals from the two systems have improved their working relationships, resulting in greater efficiencies, and ultimately, the conservation of judicial, clinical, and administrative resources." "There is now an organized process to prioritize and monitor individuals with the greatest need ..." AOT ensures greater access to services for individuals whom providers have previously been reluctant to serve. ..." "There is now increased collaboration between inpatient and community-based providers." A 2009 study, New York State Assisted Outpatient Treatment Evaluation done by Duke University, Policy Research Associates, University of Virginia, concluded that New York State's program had the following effects on the mental health system: The authors said that the evaluation reflected not just the compulsory aspects of the program, but the additional resources provided for recipients, particularly in New York City. The same study found "No evidence that the AOT Program is disproportionately selecting African Americans for court orders, nor is there evidence of a disproportionate effect on other minority populations. Our interviews with key stakeholders across the state corroborate these findings." "AOT order exerts a critical effect on service providers stimulating their efforts to prioritize care for AOT recipients." "After 12 months or more on AOT, service engagement increased such that AOT recipients were judged to be more engaged than voluntary patients. This suggests that after 12 months or more, when combined with intensive services, AOT increases service engagement compared to voluntary treatment alone." "Despite being under a court order to participate in treatment, current AOT recipients feel neither more positive nor more negative about their treatment experiences than comparable individuals who are not under AOT." One study found that Kendra's Law has lowered the risk of violent behaviors, reduced thoughts about suicide, and enhanced capacity to function despite problems with mental illness. Patients given mandatory outpatient treatment were four times less likely than members of the control group to perpetrate serious violence after undergoing treatment. Patients who underwent mandatory treatment reported higher social functioning and slightly less stigma, rebutting claims that mandatory outpatient care is a threat to self-esteem. Another study found, "For those who received AOT, the odds of any arrest were 2.66 times greater (p<.01) and the odds of arrest for a violent offense 8.61 times greater (p<.05) before AOT than they were in the period during and shortly after AOT. The group never receiving AOT had nearly double the odds (1.91, p<.05) of arrest compared with the AOT group in the period during and shortly after assignment." Another study found, "The odds of arrest for participants currently receiving AOT were nearly two-thirds lower (OR=.39, p<.01) than for individuals who had not yet initiated AOT or signed a voluntary service agreement." A study previously cited also found, "The likelihood of psychiatric hospital admission was significantly reduced by approximately 25% during the initial six-month court order ... and by over one-third during a subsequent six-month renewal of the order.... Similar significant reductions in days of hospitalization were evident during initial court orders and subsequent renewals.... Improvements were also evident in receipt of psychotropic medications and intensive case management services. Analysis of data from case manager reports showed similar reductions in hospital admissions and improved engagement in services." A peer-reviewed study that included an analysis on the costs of assisted outpatient treatment found that in New York City net costs declined 50 percent in the first year after AOT began and an additional 13 percent in the second year. In non-NYC counties, costs declined 62 percent in the first year and an additional 27 percent in the second year. This was in spite of the fact that psychotropic drug costs increased during the first year after initiation of AOT, by 40 percent and 44 percent in the city and five-county samples, respectively. The increased community-based mental health costs were more than offset by the reduction in inpatient and incarceration costs. Cost declines associated with AOT were about twice as large as those seen for voluntary services. Another study found that "In all three regions, for all three groups, the predicted probability of a M(edication) P(ossession) R(atio) ≥80% improved over time (AOT improved by 31–40 percentage points, followed by enhanced services, which improved by 15–22 points, and 'neither treatment,' improving 8–19 points)."Another peer review study on the effect of AOT on the mental health system found that "In tandem with New York's AOT program, enhanced services increased among involuntary recipients, whereas no corresponding increase was initially seen for voluntary recipients. In the long run, however, overall service capacity was increased, and the focus on enhanced services for AOT participants appears to have led to greater access to enhanced services for both voluntary and involuntary recipients." Finally, a study found individuals in AOT stay in treatment after AOT ends. "When the court order was for seven months or more, improved medication possession rates and reduced hospitalization outcomes were sustained even when the former AOT recipients were no longer receiving intensive case coordination services." Current status On January 15, 2013, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo signed into law a new measure that extended Kendra's Law through 2017. Forty-seven states have adopted laws allowing for AOT. In February 2021, Governor Cuomo suggested that state lawmakers should revisit or expand Kendra's law, after New York City experienced a spate of violent attacks committed by people with untreated mental illness. References External links No Involuntary Outpatient Torture – (Commitment) – WE THE PEOPLE MindFreedom International The Law Project for Psychiatric Rights Nationwide Organizing Call to Action: STOP forced "mental health treatment" – WE THE PEOPLE Center for Human Rights of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry National Association of Rights, Protection & Advocacy Kendra's Law Summary of the law NYCLU stance on the Law Myths about Kendra's Law National Mental Health Consumers' Self-Help Clearinghouse Kendra's Law, Not Ours Mental health law in the United States United States disability legislation New York (state) statutes 1999 in American law 1999 in New York (state) 1999 politics in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed%20%28character%29
Speed (character)
Speed (Thomas "Tommy" Shepherd) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is depicted as a member of the Young Avengers, a team of teenaged superheroes in the Marvel Universe. His powers are based on those of his uncle Quicksilver. Speed first appeared in the comic book Young Avengers #10 (March 2006). In the 12th issue, he adopts the costumed identity Speed and joins the Young Avengers. His story sees him discovering that he and the magical teen hero Wiccan are in fact long lost twin brothers, and that the pair are the reincarnations of the sons of the Scarlet Witch and her former husband Vision. An illusory Tommy appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) Disney+ miniseries WandaVision (2021) played by Gavin Borders and Jett Klyne. Klyne returned as a human version of Tommy from an alternate reality in the film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022). Publication history Speed made his debut in Young Avengers #10 (March 2006) when he was recruited into the team after being broken out of prison. He was a main character until the conclusion of the series, adopting the code name Speed in the twelfth and final issue (August 2006). Afterwards, Speed continued to appear alongside his team in miniseries such as Young Avengers Presents and Dark Reign: Young Avengers; the event comic tie-ins Civil War, Secret Invasion and Siege: Young Avengers (co-starring with The Runaways in the former two); and various other guest appearances. From 2010 to 2012 he was a part of the main cast in Avengers: The Children's Crusade, written and drawn by the original Young Avengers creative team of Allan Heinberg and Jim Cheung. Speed next appeared in Young Avengers (vol. 2) #6 (August 2013) before mysteriously vanishing. He reappeared at the end of issue #14 (February 2014), with his recovery shown in the final issue #15 (March 2014). Apart a single-panel appearance in the Scarlet Witch series by James Robinson, Speed was absent from comics for five years until a guest appearance alongside the other former Young Avengers in The Unstoppable Wasp #7 (July 2019). He was since featured in the event comic tie-in Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling (September 2020), made a non-speaking cameo in the epilogue issue Empyre: Aftermath (November 2020), and guest-starred in X-Factor (vol. 4) #7 (April 2021) and #10 (August 2021). He was a supporting character in the limited series X-Men: The Trial of Magneto. Fictional character biography Thomas Maximoff Thomas and William were twins, with Tommy being the older of the two, Thomas and Willian supposedly born to Scarlet Witch and Vision; in reality, Scarlet Witch used her reality warping powers to create twin sons, unknowingly, from two of five scattered fragments of the soul of the demon Mephisto that were previously lost to him in an ill-fated encounter with the powerful mutant child Franklin Richards. When the boys' souls were reabsorbed into Mephisto, because of the power Wanda put into the soul fragments, they destroyed him and their souls were reincarnated as Thomas Shepherd, the Young Avenger Speed, and Billy. Thomas Shepherd Thomas "Tommy" Shepherd was raised in Springfield, New Jersey as the only son of Frank and Mary Shepherd, who are divorced. Wiccan and the other Young Avengers locate him as another teenager with ties to the Avengers using the same program devised by the Vision that Iron Lad used to locate most of the current Young Avengers, their intent being to recruit more super-powered teens who could help them rescue their abducted teammate, Hulkling. The Young Avengers find Tommy in a high-powered facility in Springfield that Hawkeye (Kate Bishop) initially describes as "just juvie" (juvenile hall), though the facility and its staff are equipped with advanced offensive and defensive technology such as robotic suits and power dampening containment cells. Vision states that Tommy is being held at the facility, presumably under court order, because he "accidentally" vaporized his school. When they release him from his cell, it is immediately noted that Tommy, a white-haired speedster, bears a striking resemblance to Billy ("twin-like") and Quicksilver, sharing the latter's hair color and similar abilities. The team encounters the armed officers of the facility. Tommy cynically and cruelly begins attacking the officers and fleeing doctors, stating that he had been locked up for months and that during his time there, he was tested and experimented on with the goal to make him into a living weapon. Hawkeye and Patriot manage to stop him and convince him to join them in rescuing their teammate Hulkling from Kl'rt the Super-Skrull. Little more has been revealed about the facility or Tommy's experiences there prior to his release, nor have they been addressed by the other Young Avengers or Tommy himself. Tommy joins Billy as they search for the Scarlet Witch through Genosha and Wundagore before finally encountering Master Pandemonium at a former residence of the Scarlet Witch and the Vision. Master Pandemonium decides not to fight the boys after recognizing Wiccan's magic as being the same as the Scarlet Witch's. Instead, he elaborates on their history concerning Mephisto and the Scarlet Witch and advises them that the history they search for is filled with "darkness and chaos" and that they should embrace who they are in the present. He goes on a date with Kate to help relieve her tensions about losing her name and bow to Clint Barton. He then helps her break into the Secret Avengers home base and reclaim her bow. During the course of the evening, the two share a kiss, addressing the heretofore unspoken love triangle between himself, Kate, and Patriot. However, Kate decides to attempt a relationship with Patriot instead. Tommy decides to officially join the team and adopts the codename Speed. When the Young Avengers confront the group of teenagers that have been using their name, Tommy immediately recognizes the member Coat of Arms (Lisa Molinari). It is revealed that Tommy knew her from "juvie" and is implied that they used to have a relationship. Tommy and his friends are recruited to assist in defending Asgard when it is attacked by the forces under the control of Norman Osborn. Specifically, Tommy is tasked with delivering a backup suit of armor to Iron Man, which is essential in winning the day. An older version of Tommy appears alongside the other Young Avengers in Avengers: The Children's Crusade - Young Avengers, a one-shot with the possible future timeline where the Young Avengers are grown up and now the Avengers. Tommy is together with Kate, who is pregnant and expecting twins. The timeline is the result of Iron Lad continuing to alter the timestream in an attempt to defeat Kang the Conqueror. When the Young Avengers disband following the events of the Children's Crusade, Tommy gets a job assembling tablet computers. He eventually meets and befriends Prodigy, a former member of the New X-Men, and partners with the boy to catch a mysterious entity dressed as Patriot. The "not-Patriot" entity attacks Speed and dissipates his body, before leaving a horrified Prodigy behind. Eventually when Prodigy kisses the not-Patriot, Tommy reappears in the not-Patriot's place with no memory of being missing. Finding himself unexpectedly kissing Prodigy, he jumps back and says that Prodigy is "moving too fast". Later that night Tommy dances with Kate and is embraced tightly by Wiccan. In the one-shot Lords of Empyre: Emperor Hulkling, Speed and Prodigy now appear to be dating. They go out drinking with Hulkling, who describes that they "always have exactly one and a half drinks and start making out". Their relationship status is confirmed in Marvel Voices: Pride #2021, where the characters discuss their different attitudes to being bisexual. For Prodigy, the label is material to his identity and helps him understand himself better, whereas Speed says "I crushed on who I crushed and... never did much worrying about the labels." Speed does not move to the mutant island nation of Krakoa along with Prodigy. He is shown visiting Prodigy at X-Factor headquarters on Krakoa by running across the ocean, rather than using the Krakoan gates. He later attends the Hellfire Gala and discovers the Scarlet Witch's corpse; afterwards remaining on Krakoa while X-Factor conduct the murder investigation. Parentage In Young Avengers #11, Tommy's possible relationship to the Scarlet Witch, the original android Vision, and Billy was revealed by the Super-Skrull and the current Vision. In the past, the Scarlet Witch used her reality-warping powers to create twin sons, unknowingly using two (of five) scattered fragments of the soul of the demon Mephisto that he had lost in an encounter with the powerful mutant child, Franklin Richards. When the boys' souls were reabsorbed into Mephisto, they destroyed him and the souls were reincarnated separately as Thomas Shepherd and William Kaplan. Writer Allan Heinberg stated of the situation, "According to Billy's theory, the souls of Wanda's twins inhabited his and Tommy's bodies when they were dispersed from Mephisto. But it's only a theory." He also stated in another interview that his plans for the new 'season' involved the two searching for Wanda, stating "If everything goes according to plan, Wanda will indeed return to Young Avengers early in Season Two, when Billy and Tommy embark on a search for the true source of their powers. Indeed, the Young Avengers Present issue from March 2008 has been solicited as involving "twin brothers" Wiccan and Speed looking for their "mother Wanda". Much conjecture has been made as to their appearance and powers, and while Marvel's official character files state that they are, indeed, her children, in the comics the only indication thereof is K'Lrt's statements and Vision's files. Billy believes himself to be Wanda's son, however Tommy has been more skeptical about the situation. However, in Young Avengers Presents #3, where Speed and Wiccan search for the Scarlet Witch, Tommy's skepticism appears to have entirely diminished. He refers to himself as Wiccan's "big brother" (though neither truly knows who is older) and frequently refers to the Scarlet Witch during their search as "Mom." In the limited series Avengers: Children's Crusade, the Young Avengers set out to locate the Scarlet Witch and Speed displays his original skepticism of their link to her. As they begin their search, Magneto arrives, having noticed the twins and their similarities to Wanda and Pietro, stating that he wants Wiccan and Speed to finally know him as their grandfather. Upon hearing this, Speed immediately accepts that the relationship must be genuine, later referring to Quicksilver as his "Uncle Pietro". In Children's Crusade #6, Scarlet Witch confirms that Billy and Tommy are the reincarnations of her sons. When Wanda is discussing her life with a psychiatrist, she again confirms that Billy and Tommy are the reincarnated souls of her sons. However, seeing as they are already teenagers, Wanda doesn't know if they were normal kids before her sons' souls took over their bodies (effectively killing whoever they were before) or whether the spirits went back in time to be born and raised by different parents. Powers and abilities Speed is a mutant with the power to move and accelerate at speeds far beyond those of normal human beings. His physiology is designed to move at high speeds which also grants him superhuman reflexes, agility, and durability. This durability is limited to impact forces, so bullets, energy blasts, and other piercing attacks are capable of harming him. It is also likely that Speed possesses a high amount of superhuman strength in his lower body, allowing him to lift around 1 ton, while his upper body is strengthened to the point where he can lift around 800 lbs. Although his top speed is unknown, he can exceed the speed of sound (about 1,225 km/h, or 761 mph) and resist the effects of friction, reduced oxygen, and kinetic impact while moving at those speeds. In Young Avengers Presents #3 he asserts that he is "Quicksilver fast", shown running from the eastern seaboard of the United States to Genosha, an island off the east coast of Africa, as well as search the entire island for anyone living there in the same amount of time it takes Wiccan to teleport the same distance. This indicates that Speed is fast enough to run across the surface tension of a body of water without sinking. In addition, his mind can operate in an accelerated state, allowing him to read in super speed and remember everything he's seen. He can also generate hyperkinetic vibrations that accelerate the molecules in matter, causing any solid object he directs his vibrations at to explode. During the Civil War: Young Avengers and Runaways crossover, when both teams invaded the Cube in order to save their friends, Speed is shown exploding a gun in his hand by using his hyperkinetic vibrations. He is also able to accelerate his molecules (or even those of small groups of people) and vibrate fast enough to pass through solid matter, such as walls. Reception Critical reception Nishid Motwani of CBR.com referred to Speed as a "fan favorite character audiences can't help but love," writing, "Speed has spent a lot of time isolated. He was kept in a facility where high-powered individuals are held captive and experimented upon. Despite the things he has gone through, Tommy's personality is still vibrant and he instantly makes fans fall in love with him." Alex Schlesinger of Screen Rant wrote, "Speed sits at a unique intersection where Young Avengers fans feel they know Tommy and have witnessed his growth, and yet have incredibly few stories where he's a central character. Now would be the perfect time to tap Speed to act as the team lead and mentor for the next generation of youthful superheroes. Speed has the charisma, power, legacy, and connections to be an ideal leader, and it would be incredibly helpful for a new team to have a slightly older, more experienced leader who could guide them in their heroics. The hero Speed, son of the Scarlet Witch, has not been utilized enough in Marvel Comics, but hopefully the future will give Tommy the spotlight as the leader of the Young Avengers." Accolades In 2018, CBR.com ranked Speed 20th in their "25 Fastest Characters In The Marvel Universe" list. In 2021, Looper ranked Speed 9th in their "Fastest Speedsters In History" list. In 2021, Screen Rant ranked Speed 8th in their "10 Most Powerful Members Of The Young Avengers" list. In 2022, CBR.com ranked Speed and Wiccan 1st in their "10 Best Twins In Comics" list, and ranked Wiccan 7th in their "8 Fastest Avengers" list and 12th in their "Marvel: The 20 Fastest Speedsters" list. Other versions Avengers Fairy Tales In the one-shot Avengers Fairy Tales, Speed appears as the White Rabbit in an adaptation of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. He refers to the March Hare (Wiccan) as his brother. The Last Avengers Story In The Last Avengers Story (which uses an alternate timeline), Billy and Tommy grew up as the children of the Vision and the Scarlet Witch. As a child, Tommy witnessed the accidental murder of his mother by his uncle, Quicksilver, which caused their father, the Vision to become emotionless and withdrawn. Tommy (known as "Tommy Maximoff") chose to become a student of Doctor Strange and learn the mystic arts. He and his brother Billy (who became a villain known as "the Grim Reaper" and sought revenge against him and their father) communicated via holograms where Tommy implored his brother to give up his villainy, stating that he was apprehensive to fight him. Eventually the Reaper joined forces with Kang the Conqueror and Ultron-59 and their "final battle" with the Avengers. Tommy sought advice from Doctor Strange about what to do concerning his brother, stating that he was not ready to fight him. Tommy decided to assist the Avengers and tried to reach and recruit the Vision, who had become near-catatonic and enormous having apathetically allowed his molecules to diffuse, but to no avail. Angered and frustrated, Tommy left to fight his brother. Tommy and Billy were locked in battle until their father the Vision saw this and came to his senses and destroyed Ultron, ending the fight. Unlike his Earth-616 counterpart, Tommy Maximoff inherited his mystical abilities from his mother the Scarlet Witch rather than his uncle's super speed. As a student of Doctor Strange, Tommy was able to perform various magical feats, including concussive mystical bolts and creating force fields. In other media Marvel Cinematic Universe Several versions of Thomas "Tommy" Maximoff appear in live-action media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Gavin Borders as a five-year old and Jett Klyne as a ten-year old. In the miniseries WandaVision Tommy appears as an illusion created by Wanda Maximoff via chaos magic when she placed Westview, New Jersey within a "Hex" and displays the ability to willingly age himself. In the episode "Now in Color", Wanda becomes pregnant by unknown means. As it progresses in a short span of time, she and her husband Vision argue over what to name the baby if it is a boy, with the latter pushing for Billy and Wanda wanting an "all-American" name like Tommy. While Vision assents to Wanda's choice, she gives birth to twins, allowing them to use both names. In the episode "All-New Halloween Spooktacular!", Tommy develops superhuman speed while trick-or-treating. In the episodes "Breaking the Fourth Wall" and "Previously On", Wanda and Vision's neighbor "Agnes", later revealed to be the witch Agatha Harkness, babysits Tommy and Billy, but she takes them captive in order to force Wanda to reveal how she changed Westview. In the episode "The Series Finale", Wanda undoes the hex, ending Billy's and Tommy's existence. In a post-credits scene of WandaVision, Wanda hears cries of Billy and Tommy while studying the Darkhold. In the film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022), these cries are revealed to be from alternate realities in which Billy and Tommy actually exist as humans, with Klyne primarily portraying the Tommy of Earth-838. Video games Speed appeared as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Josh Keaton. Speed appeared as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy. References External links Speed at Marvel.com Speed at Marvel Wiki Speed at Comic Vine Avengers (comics) characters Comics characters introduced in 2006 Characters created by Steve Englehart Characters created by Richard Howell Fictional bisexual men Fictional characters from New Jersey Fictional characters who can turn intangible Fictional characters who can manipulate sound Fictional characters with air or wind abilities Fictional characters with density control abilities Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Marvel Comics American superheroes Marvel Comics LGBT superheroes Marvel Comics male superheroes Marvel Comics superheroes Marvel Comics mutants Scarlet Witch Marvel Comics child superheroes Teenage superheroes Twin characters in comics
4605151
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt%20%28Main%29%20Hauptbahnhof
Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof
Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof, also called Frankfurt Central Station and Frankfurt Main Station, is the busiest railway station in the German state of Hesse. Because of its location near the middle of Germany and usage as a transport hub for long and short distance travelling, refers to it as the most important station in Germany. Name The affix "Main" comes from the city's full name, Frankfurt am Main ("Frankfurt on the River Main") and is needed to distinguish it from Frankfurt (Oder) station on the River Oder in Brandenburg. In German, the name is often abbreviated as Frankfurt (Main) Hbf. History Initial situation Before the current Hauptbahnhof was built on the Galgenfeld (gallows field), the three western stations, the termini of the Taunus Railway (Taunusbahn), the Main–Weser Railway (Main-Weser-Bahn) and the Main-Neckar Railway (Main-Neckar-Bahn) were located on the outskirts of the city, the Gallusanlage, the area of today's Bahnhofsviertel ("station district"). Plans Due to the increased volume of travellers at the end of the 19th century, the capacity of the three western railway stations became increasingly inadequate, but changes were made more difficult by the territorial affiliations of the states surrounding the Free City of Frankfurt. After the annexation of Frankfurt, Nassau and Hesse-Kassel by Prussia in 1866, the obstacles in this regard were largely removed, so that planning for a central station was taken seriously. The inadequacy of the existing situation became apparent primarily during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71. Apparently, when troop movements were noticeably hampered by the scattered stations. Like the three western stations before it, the new station was to be built as a terminal station. First, a large station with 34 platform tracks was planned. Because of the huge dimensions, however, a variant with "only" 18 platform tracks was used. Mail and goods handling was to take place under the station hall, local traffic was to be handled outside, which was realised by the main freight yard built later. The town council, which only got a say in 1875, also wanted the railway facilities relocated from the Anlagenring (the ring of roads and parklands on the demolished walls surrounding the inner city) to the former gallows field. A new district with Kaiserstraße as the main axis was to be created on the area of the track fields of the Western stations that was thus freed from railway operations. This option also had the great advantage that operations could be carried out largely undisturbed during the construction phase, since the new station hardly affected the old lines. From 1880, the Bauakademie (Prussian Building Academy) held a competition involving all the major architects to design a "monument that challenged the highest artistic standards". In 1881, the winner of this architectural competition was that of the agricultural inspector and university master builder Hermann Eggert from Strasbourg in Alsace, from among the 55 designs submitted. He was commissioned with the planning and construction of the entrance building. The Berlin architect Johann Wilhelm Schwedler, who specialised in steel construction, scored second place. He became the designer of the three new station halls made of iron with a -high barrel vault, each of which had three platforms with six tracks. Realisation On 18 August 1888, after only five years of construction, the Centralbahnhof Frankfurt (Frankfurt Central Station) was inaugurated. In the next few years, the station district developed to the east of the entrance building and was fully developed by around 1900. Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof was the largest station in Europe until Leipzig Hauptbahnhof was built in 1915. Railway operations The station was designed for regular services. The entry and exit tracks of each line lay next to each other. On the evening of the opening day, a train was unable to stop in time and ran over the buffer stop. The locomotive and the pavement of the transverse platform were damaged. This was the beginning of a whole series of such incidents, which caused some ridicule in the press. The "highlight" was the "sweeping" crossing of the locomotive of the Ostend-Wien-Express on 6 December 1901. The locomotive and tender only came to a standstill for first and second class waiting room. Many engine drivers therefore drove very carefully into the station and came to a stop some distance from the buffer stops. This in turn meant that the last carriages of the trains came to a stop away from the platforms, which the management did not like either. The engine drivers were warned to "drive as close as possible to the buffer stops". Extensions and conversions In 1924 the building was extended with two outer halls in Neoclassical style. The number of tracks increased to 25 (tracks 1 to 24 and 1a). Reliefs with motifs of the Wandervogel movement were installed at the southern entrance. During the Second World War, the station was the target of Allied air raids, for instance on 11 December 1944, when almost 1000 tons of multi-purpose bombs were dropped on the station. However, it had already been damaged by air raids on Frankfurt am Main. Above all, the glazing of the platform halls was destroyed. In order to protect the passengers from rain, the former glass surfaces were partly closed with wood, a temporary solution that remained in place for almost 60 years. Offices that did not necessarily have to be on site for operational purposes were outsourced, the lost and found office for example to the Frankfurt-Höchst station. The station was fully electrified in 1956. A 22 meter high signal box tower was built between 1955 and 1957. In 1957, what was then the largest and most modern track signal box in Europe (with a train number signalling system) was put into operation. 16 operators controlled the 15,000 relay system. The building erected near tracks 9 and 10 is now a listed building. Also in 1957, nine steam shunting locomotives were replaced by seven diesel shunting locomotives. In the early 1960s, Germany's largest express freight handling facility was set up under the station. 15 million pieces of luggage and express goods alone were handled annually in these years. The facilities also included a supply centre for the station and the dining cars, with its own confectionery, large bakery and butcher's shop. Two railway post offices were also part of the extensive facilities, as were 70 freight lifts. As a result of growing inner-city traffic congestion, the idea of an inner-city connecting railway was taken up again in the 1960s, despite the fact that it was not economically justifiable. The construction of the underground railway systems began in 1971 with the B-Tunnel of the Frankfurt U-Bahn in the central city. A large shopping arcade (B level) was created as a distribution level, from which two four-track stations each—an underground station (C level) and an S-Bahn station (D level)—and a three-storey underground car park (part of which can also be used as a fallout shelter), is accessed through numerous corridors and stairs. These were the first public escalators in the city at the time. The tram stop on the square in front of the station, Am Hauptbahnhof, could formerly only be reached from the escalator opened in 1978 on the B level. There is now a pedestrian crossing at street level. The underground stations were built using "cut and cover" construction: for the construction of the S-Bahn station below the long-distance train hall, the north wing of the entrance building was removed from 12 January 1972 and later rebuilt using the original facade cladding. The underground stations began operating in 1978. At the same time, a two-storey air raid shelter was built to offer railway employees protection in an emergency. All telephone operations could be handled from this bunker. It was also possible to operate the loudspeaker system. Even though stocks such as canned food are no longer stored today, the technical systems (air filter systems, power generators) are still fully operational. In the early 1970s, the platform ticket requirement was abolished and the platform barriers were dismantled. The two platforms on tracks 6 to 9 were widened, raised and lengthened for the introduction of ICE operations in June 1991. The space for the widening was gained by demolishing the baggage platforms, which were no longer used. From 2002 to 2006, the listed roofs of the five platform halls were completely renewed during operation, taking into account heritage preservation issues. A total of around of roof and wall cladding, including around of glass, were renewed and 5,000 tons of steel replaced. A special routine was developed as an assembly concept for this basic repair. At a height of ten meters, an assembly and transport platform was drawn in over the length of the roof for the duration of the construction work. Tower cranes were installed in the central area of this platform. Some loads of up to 150 tons per support were lowered to the basement and foundations were built there. All work steps were integrated in the routine in such a way that the platforms were moved by one field () per hall every two weeks. Since then, screw connections instead of rivets have served as the means of fastening, although a specially developed rivet head screw was approved in individual cases by the Federal Railway Authority. The refurbishment of the station roof has allowed significantly more daylight to enter. The trusses that support the roof were painted light gray as in the original condition and therefore appear lighter. The decorative rosettes in the gussets are now painted dark blue and are more easily seen. The entire construction process took place almost unnoticed ten metres above the heads of the travellers. An incident occurred shortly after work began. During welding work, part of the roof of the northern part of the station building caught fire. The "North Ventilation Centre" was almost completely destroyed and had to be replaced. Since air continued to be sucked in during the fire, dirt and damage also occurred inside the building, especially on level B. A total of €117m was invested in the roof renovation. 80 percent of the costs were borne by the federal government. The facade was renovated in 2013. Other parts of the interior design of the station and entrance halls as well as the underground station were also modernised. In the meantime, liquid-crystal displays have replaced the old split-flap displays on the platforms. As in Wiesbaden Hauptbahnhof, seven cubic glass and steel pavilions have replaced the previous buildings on the transverse platform. In mid-2006, cubic and transparent lifts were also installed to connect the S-Bahn platforms to the U-Bahn and to the side platform of the train shed. Due to the frequent theft of luggage trolleys, which caused annual damage of up to €30,000, a security system was installed in the station to prevent the luggage trolleys from being removed from the railway premises. When crossing a red mark, the front wheel locked. This system was originally developed for shopping carts and adapted accordingly. The rental of luggage trolleys was later discontinued, and in view of the increased number of passengers, there was no longer any room for safe operation. Planning began in 1998, and implementation at the end of 2001, of a computer-based interlocking of the SIMIS C type, the four-stage commissioning of which was completed on 27 November 2005. It replaces the track control signal box from 1957, which handled a total of around 20 million trains and 100 million shunting trips. The "Fpf" signal box located between tracks 9 and 10 was considered the largest and most modern signal box in Europe at the time it was commissioned. Since 27 March 1986, circuit changes at the signal box had been prohibited due to age-related signs of wear, the stress on the system and the insulation of the interior wiring. The new signal box is divided into two sub-centres (north and south) and was the largest two-storey signal box building in Germany when it was commissioned. The entry and exit speeds were increased from to and new running options were created with additional points. A platform changeover was introduced on all access routes, and 13 platform tracks of the main station were also divided into two sections (with train detection signals). The system comprises a total of 845 control units, including 340 switches and track closures as well as 67 main signals. The interlocking is now remotely operated from the operations centre in Frankfurt by six dispatchers and a node dispatcher. €132m was spent on the signal box. The new interlocking laid the foundation for numerous extensions and conversions of the tracks of the station and the lines leading to it, in order to better utilise the station platform tracks in the future and to increase their capacity. The wayfinding system was renewed in November 2005 in preparation for the 2006 World Cup. Replacing of the partly outdated signage made a quick and easy orientation within the station possible. Finishing in 2007, the floors and the cladding of the stairs, which had not been renewed for decades, were uniformly covered with black granite from China. Following this, a redesign of the station forecourt, the B level and the S-Bahn station is planned. From July to September 2010, platform 12/13 was removed and rebuilt. The platform cover was separated from the substructure with concrete saws, demolished in sections and rebuilt in prefabricated concrete sections. The new platform was given the same granite flooring as the transverse platform and the main platforms. The part outside the hall will be provided with a new, -long platform roof. Overall, the platform renovation cost €8.5m. In October 2020, the conversion of the B level and the entrance hall began, which will be completely redesigned within eight years. The federal government, DB, the city and the Frankfurt public transport company (Verkehrsgesellschaft Frankfurt) are investing a total of €375m. By the end of 2024, the entrance hall is to be renovated first, followed by the forecourt. Other upgrades The capacity of some access routes is considered to be exhausted. Several lines (e.g. ICE 13 and RB 58) can no longer be routed via the station. For reasons of acceleration, only four platform tracks (tracks 6 to 9) are normally used for long-distance trains on the north-south axis. In order to mitigate a number of traffic disadvantages of terminal stations in general and the Frankfurt railway junction in particular, ideas and suggestions have been discussed again and again since the Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof was commissioned to mitigate the disadvantages or to relocate the station as a whole. These proposals were discarded due to technical problems and lack of economic viability. Various options for underground through stations were discussed in the 1980s and 1990s. The Frankfurt 21 concept that emerged from this provided for the conversion of the station into a twelve-track through station. The project presented in 1996 was shelved in 2001 due to a lack of funding. The RheinMain plus project was then pursued. Deutsche Bahn is planning to separate long-distance and regional traffic from the direction of Mannheim, Mainz and the Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line. Almost all long-distance traffic is to be concentrated on the south side of the station, on platforms 1 to 8, and conflicts between routes are to be reduced. Part of the regional traffic is to be relocated to the north side. Among other things, the construction of a connecting curve known as the Kraftwerkskurve ("power station curve") from Frankfurt South to platform tracks 1 to 3 and the installation of additional sets of points in the apron of the station are planned by 2030. From June 2017 to November 2021, the Homburger embankment was upgraded in two ways. According to an estimate in 2017, the 800-metre-long upgrade would cost €131m, but the costs ultimately amounted to around €180m. The costs were funded by the federal government. Operationally, the line is to be referred to as "Ffm Hbf–Mainzer Landstraße". By 2019, access from level B and the station forecourt are to be remodelled at a cost of €175m. Between the beginning of 2016 and the beginning of 2019, more than 1,000 square metres of new retail space are to be built for €134.5m. The city is contributing €27.5m. Previously unused basements are to be used for this purpose. On 21 December 2015, Deutsche Bahn and the city of Frankfurt signed a contract to modernise the underground distribution level and to create additional access points. Work was scheduled to begin in the fourth quarter of 2016 and be completed in mid-2020. The city of Frankfurt is contributing €27.5m to the construction costs of €135m. The planned Frankfurt am Main long-distance railway tunnel is to run from the Offenbach city limits or from the Frankfurt East station to the Niederräd Main bridge. It is intended to relieve the Hauptbahnhof and turn it into an underground through station for many long-distance lines. The project is included as an "urgent need" of the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 2030. The results of the feasibility study were presented to the public on 28 June 2021. The construction period is estimated at 10 years after the completion of planning. Construction is expected to start in the 2030s and operations would start in the 2040s. The construction costs are estimated at €3.6b. The upgrade of the node is one of 13 infrastructure projects of the proposed German clock-face timetable (Deutschlandtakt) that, according to the coalition agreement of the red-green-yellow federal government presented in November 2021, are to be "accelerated" and implemented "with high political priority". Architecture Above ground part The above-ground part of Frankfurt Haupptbahnhof is divided into the entrance building and the train shed. The entrance building faces on to the street side to the east and thus opens up the terminal station towards the Bahnhofsviertel (station district). The façade of the older building, in front of the three central train sheds, was designed in a Renaissance Revival style, the extensions of the entrance building from 1924, in front of the two outer halls, is in the neoclassical style. The building is wide. The centre of the entrance building is the main reception hall, the street-side entrance of which consists of three doorways divided by two large pillars. Above the centre there is a decorated clock with allegories of day and night and the Deutsche Bahn logo with the word "Hauptbahnhof". The division into three bays is also continued in the roof area, where large glass surfaces let in daylight. The division of the train shed into three parts corresponded to the original use by three railway companies: the Taunus-Eisenbahn, the Prussian state railways and the Hessian Ludwigsbahn. There is a tower on each side of the facade. In the middle of the roof there is a -high bronze group of figures by the Braunschweig sculptor Gustav Herold: Atlas, who carries the globe on his shoulders, accompanied by symbolic figures for steam and electricity. There are also figures representing trade and agriculture and the iron industry and shipping. West of the entrance building is the train shed. It consists of five steel and glass halls that cover the platforms over a length of . The three larger halls are wide and high, the two outer small halls are wide and high. The transverse platform, which allows access to the 24 above-ground mainline tracks in the train shed, extends across the entire width of the halls, only the outer track 1a can only be reached indirectly via the platform on track 1. The platforms, which are at right angles to the transverse platform, are also connected by an underpass (transverse tunnel) connected to the west. Outside the platform halls, the platforms continue with canopies from different eras. Operational usage The station's terminal layout has posed some unique problems ever since the late 20th century, since all trains have to change directions and reverse out of the station to continue on to their destination. This causes long turn-around times and places the passengers in the opposite direction of where they had been sitting. There have been several attempts to change this. The last project, called Frankfurt 21, was to put the whole station underground, connect it with tunnels also to the east, and so avoid the disadvantages of the terminal layout. This would be financed by selling the air rights over the area now used for tracks as building ground for skyscraper, but this soon proved unrealistic, and the project was abandoned. Frankfurt is the third-busiest railway station outside Japan and the second-busiest in Germany after Hamburg Hauptbahnhof. Long distance services As for long-distance traffic, the station profits greatly from its location in the heart of Europe; 13 of the 24 ICE lines call at the station, as well as 2 of the 3 ICE Sprinter lines. To ease the strain on the Hauptbahnhof, some ICE lines now call at Frankfurt Airport station and at Frankfurt (Main) Süd instead of Hauptbahnhof. Local services With regard to regional traffic, Frankfurt Hbf is the main hub in the RMV network, offering connections to Koblenz, Limburg, Kassel, Nidda, Stockheim, Siegen, Fulda, Gießen, Aschaffenburg, Würzburg, Mannheim, Heidelberg, Dieburg, Eberbach, Worms and Saarbrücken with fifteen regional lines calling at the main station. The subterranean S-Bahn station is the most important station in the S-Bahn Rhein-Main network, used by all Frankfurt S-Bahn lines, except line S 7, which terminates at the surface station. Other services Tram connections are offered by TraffiQ, with tram lines 11 and 12 (station Hauptbahnhof/Münchener Straße), 14, 16, 17, 20, 21 and the Ebbelwei-Expreß. The lines U4 and U5 call at the subterranean Stadtbahn stop. Future expansion Construction of a railway tunnel with four platforms below the existing station was proposed in 2018 under the project name Fernbahntunnel Frankfurt am Main (Long-distance railway tunnel Frankfurt am Main). As being listed as "urgent need" in the Federal Infrastructure Plan 2030, government funding for the scheme is secured. A study to determine feasibility of construction is expected to be completed by early 2021. Crime In 2019, the Federal Police recorded 4,787 crimes at Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof, more than at any other German train station. They include the murder of an eight-year-old boy on 29 July. References Sources External links Current departure time in Frankfurt (Main) Hbf | Deutsche Bahn Panorama at the Central Station Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof Official Plan of the Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof Neoclassical architecture in Germany Railway stations in Frankfurt Railway stations in Germany opened in 1888 Renaissance Revival architecture in Germany Frankfurt U-Bahn stations Rhine-Main S-Bahn stations Transit centers in Germany Hermann Eggert buildings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent%20Dirichlet%20allocation
Latent Dirichlet allocation
In natural language processing, Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is a Bayesian network (and, therefore, a generative statistical model) that explains a set of observations through unobserved groups, and each group explains why some parts of the data are similar. The LDA is an example of a Bayesian topic model. In this, observations (e.g., words) are collected into documents, and each word's presence is attributable to one of the document's topics. Each document will contain a small number of topics. History In the context of population genetics, LDA was proposed by J. K. Pritchard, M. Stephens and P. Donnelly in 2000. LDA was applied in machine learning by David Blei, Andrew Ng and Michael I. Jordan in 2003. Overview Evolutionary biology and bio-medicine In evolutionary biology and bio-medicine, the model is used to detect the presence of structured genetic variation in a group of individuals. The model assumes that alleles carried by individuals under study have origin in various extant or past populations. The model and various inference algorithms allow scientists to estimate the allele frequencies in those source populations and the origin of alleles carried by individuals under study. The source populations can be interpreted ex-post in terms of various evolutionary scenarios. In association studies, detecting the presence of genetic structure is considered a necessary preliminary step to avoid confounding. Clinical psychology, mental health, and social science In clinical psychology research, LDA has been used to identify common themes of self-images experienced by young people in social situations. Other social scientists have used LDA to examine large sets of topical data from discussions on social media (e.g., tweets about prescription drugs). Musicology In the context of computational musicology, LDA has been used to discover tonal structures in different corpora. Machine learning One application of LDA in machine learning - specifically, topic discovery, a subproblem in natural language processing - is to discover topics in a collection of documents, and then automatically classify any individual document within the collection in terms of how "relevant" it is to each of the discovered topics. A topic is considered to be a set of terms (i.e., individual words or phrases) that, taken together, suggest a shared theme. For example, in a document collection related to pet animals, the terms dog, spaniel, beagle, golden retriever, puppy, bark, and woof would suggest a DOG_related theme, while the terms cat, siamese, Maine coon, tabby, manx, meow, purr, and kitten would suggest a CAT_related theme. There may be many more topics in the collection - e.g., related to diet, grooming, healthcare, behavior, etc. that we do not discuss for simplicity's sake. (Very common, so called stop words in a language - e.g., "the", "an", "that", "are", "is", etc., - would not discriminate between topics and are usually filtered out by pre-processing before LDA is performed. Pre-processing also converts terms to their "root" lexical forms - e.g., "barks", "barking", and "barked" would be converted to "bark".) If the document collection is sufficiently large, LDA will discover such sets of terms (i.e., topics) based upon the co-occurrence of individual terms, though the task of assigning a meaningful label to an individual topic (i.e., that all the terms are DOG_related) is up to the user, and often requires specialized knowledge (e.g., for collection of technical documents). The LDA approach assumes that: The semantic content of a document is composed by combining one or more terms from one or more topics. Certain terms are ambiguous, belonging to more than one topic, with different probability. (For example, the term training can apply to both dogs and cats, but are more likely to refer to dogs, which are used as work animals or participate in obedience or skill competitions.) However, in a document, the accompanying presence of specific neighboring terms (which belong to only one topic) will disambiguate their usage. Most documents will contain only a relatively small number of topics. In the collection, e.g., individual topics will occur with differing frequencies. That is, they have a probability distribution, so that a given document is more likely to contain some topics than others. Within a topic, certain terms will be used much more frequently than others. In other words, the terms within a topic will also have their own probability distribution. When LDA machine learning is employed, both sets of probabilities are computed during the training phase, using Bayesian methods and an Expectation Maximization algorithm. LDA is a generalization of older approach of probabilistic latent semantic analysis (pLSA), The pLSA model is equivalent to LDA under a uniform Dirichlet prior distribution. pLSA relies on only the first two assumptions above and does not care about the remainder. While both methods are similar in principle and require the user to specify the number of topics to be discovered before the start of training (as with K-means clustering) LDA has the following advantages over pLSA: LDA yields better disambiguation of words and a more precise assignment of documents to topics. Computing probabilities allows a "generative" process by which a collection of new “synthetic documents” can be generated that would closely reflect the statistical characteristics of the original collection. Unlike LDA, pLSA is vulnerable to overfitting especially when the size of corpus increases. The LDA algorithm is more readily amenable to scaling up for large data sets using the MapReduce approach on a computing cluster. Model With plate notation, which is often used to represent probabilistic graphical models (PGMs), the dependencies among the many variables can be captured concisely. The boxes are "plates" representing replicates, which are repeated entities. The outer plate represents documents, while the inner plate represents the repeated word positions in a given document; each position is associated with a choice of topic and word. The variable names are defined as follows: M denotes the number of documents N is number of words in a given document (document i has words) α is the parameter of the Dirichlet prior on the per-document topic distributions β is the parameter of the Dirichlet prior on the per-topic word distribution is the topic distribution for document i is the word distribution for topic k is the topic for the j-th word in document i is the specific word. The fact that W is grayed out means that words are the only observable variables, and the other variables are latent variables. As proposed in the original paper, a sparse Dirichlet prior can be used to model the topic-word distribution, following the intuition that the probability distribution over words in a topic is skewed, so that only a small set of words have high probability. The resulting model is the most widely applied variant of LDA today. The plate notation for this model is shown on the right, where denotes the number of topics and are -dimensional vectors storing the parameters of the Dirichlet-distributed topic-word distributions ( is the number of words in the vocabulary). It is helpful to think of the entities represented by and as matrices created by decomposing the original document-word matrix that represents the corpus of documents being modeled. In this view, consists of rows defined by documents and columns defined by topics, while consists of rows defined by topics and columns defined by words. Thus, refers to a set of rows, or vectors, each of which is a distribution over words, and refers to a set of rows, each of which is a distribution over topics. Generative process To actually infer the topics in a corpus, we imagine a generative process whereby the documents are created, so that we may infer, or reverse engineer, it. We imagine the generative process as follows. Documents are represented as random mixtures over latent topics, where each topic is characterized by a distribution over all the words. LDA assumes the following generative process for a corpus consisting of documents each of length : 1. Choose , where and is a Dirichlet distribution with a symmetric parameter which typically is sparse () 2. Choose , where and typically is sparse 3. For each of the word positions , where , and (a) Choose a topic (b) Choose a word (Note that multinomial distribution here refers to the multinomial with only one trial, which is also known as the categorical distribution.) The lengths are treated as independent of all the other data generating variables ( and ). The subscript is often dropped, as in the plate diagrams shown here. Definition A formal description of LDA is as follows: We can then mathematically describe the random variables as follows: Inference Learning the various distributions (the set of topics, their associated word probabilities, the topic of each word, and the particular topic mixture of each document) is a problem of statistical inference. Monte Carlo simulation The original paper by Pritchard et al. used approximation of the posterior distribution by Monte Carlo simulation. Alternative proposal of inference techniques include Gibbs sampling. Variational Bayes The original ML paper used a variational Bayes approximation of the posterior distribution. Likelihood maximization A direct optimization of the likelihood with a block relaxation algorithm proves to be a fast alternative to MCMC. Unknown number of populations/topics In practice, the optimal number of populations or topics is not known beforehand. It can be estimated by approximation of the posterior distribution with reversible-jump Markov chain Monte Carlo. Alternative approaches Alternative approaches include expectation propagation. Recent research has been focused on speeding up the inference of latent Dirichlet allocation to support the capture of a massive number of topics in a large number of documents. The update equation of the collapsed Gibbs sampler mentioned in the earlier section has a natural sparsity within it that can be taken advantage of. Intuitively, since each document only contains a subset of topics , and a word also only appears in a subset of topics , the above update equation could be rewritten to take advantage of this sparsity. In this equation, we have three terms, out of which two are sparse, and the other is small. We call these terms and respectively. Now, if we normalize each term by summing over all the topics, we get: Here, we can see that is a summation of the topics that appear in document , and is also a sparse summation of the topics that a word is assigned to across the whole corpus. on the other hand, is dense but because of the small values of & , the value is very small compared to the two other terms. Now, while sampling a topic, if we sample a random variable uniformly from , we can check which bucket our sample lands in. Since is small, we are very unlikely to fall into this bucket; however, if we do fall into this bucket, sampling a topic takes time (same as the original Collapsed Gibbs Sampler). However, if we fall into the other two buckets, we only need to check a subset of topics if we keep a record of the sparse topics. A topic can be sampled from the bucket in time, and a topic can be sampled from the bucket in time where and denotes the number of topics assigned to the current document and current word type respectively. Notice that after sampling each topic, updating these buckets is all basic arithmetic operations. Aspects of computational details Following is the derivation of the equations for collapsed Gibbs sampling, which means s and s will be integrated out. For simplicity, in this derivation the documents are all assumed to have the same length . The derivation is equally valid if the document lengths vary. According to the model, the total probability of the model is: where the bold-font variables denote the vector version of the variables. First, and need to be integrated out. All the s are independent to each other and the same to all the s. So we can treat each and each separately. We now focus only on the part. We can further focus on only one as the following: Actually, it is the hidden part of the model for the document. Now we replace the probabilities in the above equation by the true distribution expression to write out the explicit equation. Let be the number of word tokens in the document with the same word symbol (the word in the vocabulary) assigned to the topic. So, is three dimensional. If any of the three dimensions is not limited to a specific value, we use a parenthesized point to denote. For example, denotes the number of word tokens in the document assigned to the topic. Thus, the right most part of the above equation can be rewritten as: So the integration formula can be changed to: The equation inside the integration has the same form as the Dirichlet distribution. According to the Dirichlet distribution, Thus, Now we turn our attention to the part. Actually, the derivation of the part is very similar to the part. Here we only list the steps of the derivation: For clarity, here we write down the final equation with both and integrated out: The goal of Gibbs Sampling here is to approximate the distribution of . Since is invariable for any of Z, Gibbs Sampling equations can be derived from directly. The key point is to derive the following conditional probability: where denotes the hidden variable of the word token in the document. And further we assume that the word symbol of it is the word in the vocabulary. denotes all the s but . Note that Gibbs Sampling needs only to sample a value for , according to the above probability, we do not need the exact value of but the ratios among the probabilities that can take value. So, the above equation can be simplified as: Finally, let be the same meaning as but with the excluded. The above equation can be further simplified leveraging the property of gamma function. We first split the summation and then merge it back to obtain a -independent summation, which could be dropped: Note that the same formula is derived in the article on the Dirichlet-multinomial distribution, as part of a more general discussion of integrating Dirichlet distribution priors out of a Bayesian network. Related problems Related models Topic modeling is a classic solution to the problem of information retrieval using linked data and semantic web technology. Related models and techniques are, among others, latent semantic indexing, independent component analysis, probabilistic latent semantic indexing, non-negative matrix factorization, and Gamma-Poisson distribution. The LDA model is highly modular and can therefore be easily extended. The main field of interest is modeling relations between topics. This is achieved by using another distribution on the simplex instead of the Dirichlet. The Correlated Topic Model follows this approach, inducing a correlation structure between topics by using the logistic normal distribution instead of the Dirichlet. Another extension is the hierarchical LDA (hLDA), where topics are joined together in a hierarchy by using the nested Chinese restaurant process, whose structure is learnt from data. LDA can also be extended to a corpus in which a document includes two types of information (e.g., words and names), as in the LDA-dual model. Nonparametric extensions of LDA include the hierarchical Dirichlet process mixture model, which allows the number of topics to be unbounded and learnt from data. As noted earlier, pLSA is similar to LDA. The LDA model is essentially the Bayesian version of pLSA model. The Bayesian formulation tends to perform better on small datasets because Bayesian methods can avoid overfitting the data. For very large datasets, the results of the two models tend to converge. One difference is that pLSA uses a variable to represent a document in the training set. So in pLSA, when presented with a document the model has not seen before, we fix —the probability of words under topics—to be that learned from the training set and use the same EM algorithm to infer —the topic distribution under . Blei argues that this step is cheating because you are essentially refitting the model to the new data. Spatial models In evolutionary biology, it is often natural to assume that the geographic locations of the individuals observed bring some information about their ancestry. This is the rational of various models for geo-referenced genetic data. Variations on LDA have been used to automatically put natural images into categories, such as "bedroom" or "forest", by treating an image as a document, and small patches of the image as words; one of the variations is called spatial latent Dirichlet allocation. See also Variational Bayesian methods Pachinko allocation tf-idf Infer.NET References External links jLDADMM A Java package for topic modeling on normal or short texts. jLDADMM includes implementations of the LDA topic model and the one-topic-per-document Dirichlet Multinomial Mixture model. jLDADMM also provides an implementation for document clustering evaluation to compare topic models. STTM A Java package for short text topic modeling (https://github.com/qiang2100/STTM). STTM includes these following algorithms: Dirichlet Multinomial Mixture (DMM) in conference KDD2014, Biterm Topic Model (BTM) in journal TKDE2016, Word Network Topic Model (WNTM) in journal KAIS2018, Pseudo-Document-Based Topic Model (PTM) in conference KDD2016, Self-Aggregation-Based Topic Model (SATM) in conference IJCAI2015, (ETM) in conference PAKDD2017, Generalized P´olya Urn (GPU) based Dirichlet Multinomial Mixturemodel (GPU-DMM) in conference SIGIR2016, Generalized P´olya Urn (GPU) based Poisson-based Dirichlet Multinomial Mixturemodel (GPU-PDMM) in journal TIS2017 and Latent Feature Model with DMM (LF-DMM) in journal TACL2015. STTM also includes six short text corpus for evaluation. STTM presents three aspects about how to evaluate the performance of the algorithms (i.e., topic coherence, clustering, and classification). Lecture that covers some of the notation in this article: LDA and Topic Modelling Video Lecture by David Blei or same lecture on YouTube D. Mimno's LDA Bibliography An exhaustive list of LDA-related resources (incl. papers and some implementations) Gensim, a Python+NumPy implementation of online LDA for inputs larger than the available RAM. topicmodels and lda are two R packages for LDA analysis. MALLET Open source Java-based package from the University of Massachusetts-Amherst for topic modeling with LDA, also has an independently developed GUI, the Topic Modeling Tool LDA in Mahout implementation of LDA using MapReduce on the Hadoop platform Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) Tutorial for the Infer.NET Machine Computing Framework Microsoft Research C# Machine Learning Framework LDA in Spark: Since version 1.3.0, Apache Spark also features an implementation of LDA LDA, exampleLDA MATLAB implementation Statistical natural language processing Latent variable models Probabilistic models
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Michigan%20faculty%20and%20staff
List of University of Michigan faculty and staff
The University of Michigan has 6,200 faculty members and roughly 38,000 employees which include National Academy members, and Nobel and Pulitzer Prize winners. Several past presidents have gone on to become presidents of Ivy League universities. Notable faculty: Nobel Laureates Joseph Brodsky, Nobel Prize, Literature 1987 Donald A. Glaser professor of physics, developed in 1954 the world's first liquid bubble chamber to study high-energy subatomic particles and won the Nobel Prize in physics for his invention in 1960 Charles B. Huggins, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1966 Lawrence R. Klein, '30 alumnus; a member of the economics department and the Institute for Social Research. Won the 1980 Nobel Prize in economics for his econometric models forecasting short-term economic trends and policies. Gérard Mourou, co-winner of Nobel Prize, Physics, 2018 Wolfgang Pauli, winner of Nobel Prize, Physics, 1945 Martin L. Perl, Physics Nobel Prize 1995 Norman F. Ramsey, Physics Nobel Prize 1989 Peyton Rous, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1966 Hamilton O. Smith Nobel Prize, for Physiology or Medicine, 1978 Charles H. Townes, Nobel Prize for Physics, 1964 Martinus Veltman, professor emeritus, John D. MacArthur Professor of Physics. 1999 Nobel Prize for Physics. Carl Wieman, one of three scientists who shared the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics Notable faculty: past and present Madeleine K. Albright, visiting scholar. Albright served as United States Secretary of State from 1997 to 2001 W. H. Auden, poet Charles Baxter, former director of the MFA program in creative writing; novelist, poet, and essayist Ruth Behar (born Havana, Cuba, 1956) is a Jewish Cuban American anthropologist, poet Seymour Blinder, professor emeritus of chemistry and physics R. Stephen Berry, professor of physical chemistry William Bolcom, composer Kenneth Boulding, noted economist and faculty member 1949–1967 Richard Brauer Accepted a position at University of Michigan in Ann Arbor in 1948. In 1949 Brauer was awarded the Cole Prize Henry Billings Brown, instructor in law, later US Supreme Court justice Evan H. Caminker: Dean of Law School Anne Carson, Canadian poet, essayist, and translator Carl Cohen, notable for using Michigan Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) in 1996 to identify U-M's policy of racial categorization in admissions, leading to the Grutter and Gratz v. Bollinger lawsuits Wilbur Joseph Cohen, American social scientist and federal civil servant Juan Cole, notable for his weblog "Informed Comment", covering events in the Middle East Thomas M. Cooley, law professor, and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Michigan Christopher Chetsanga, discovered two enzymes that repair DNA after x-irradiation Arthur Copeland, mathematician Brian Coppola, professor of chemistry Pierre Dansereau, Canadian ecologist known as one of the "fathers of ecology". Sheldon Danziger, political scientist, President of the Russell Sage Foundation Michael Daugherty, composer, pianist, and teacher Michael Duff, principal of the Faculty of Physical Sciences at Imperial College London Francis Collins led the Human Genome Project and is the current director of the National Institutes of Health John Dewey, co-founder of pragmatism Igor Dolgachev, mathematician Sidney Fine, longest serving faculty member. Chief biographer of Frank Murphy. William Frankena, moral philosopher Erich Fromm, psychologist Robert Frost Michigan Poet-in-Residence Alice Fulton, poet, author, and feminist William Gehring, professor of psychology Susan Gelman, psychologist Herman Heine Goldstine, mathematician Samuel Goudsmit, conceived – with George Uhlenback – the idea of Quantum Spin Edward Gramlich, professor of economics and member, Federal Reserve Board Linda Gregerson, Frederick G.L. Huetwell Professor at University of Michigan Robert L. Griess, mathematician working on finite simple groups Kristin Ann Hass William Donald "Bill" Hamilton, British evolutionary biologist Donald Hall, English professor and United States Poet Laureate 2006–2007 Thomas Hales solved a nearly four-century-old problem called the Kepler conjecture Paul Halmos, mathematician specializing in functional analysis Eric J. Hill, professor of practice in architecture Melvin Hochster, commutative algebraist Andrew Hoffman, an expert in environmental pollution and sustainable enterprise Daniel Hunt Janzen, evolutionary ecologist, naturalist, and conservationist William Le Baron Jenney, architect and engineer Gerome Kamrowski, artist at the forefront of the development of American Surrealism and Abstract Expressionism Gordon Kane, Victor Weisskopf Collegiate Professor of Physics Barry Klarberg, professional business and wealth manager for athletes, entertainers and high-net-worth individuals Oskar Klein, first work in Ann Arbor dealt with the anomalous Zeeman effect Adrienne Koch, historian, specialist in American history of the 18th century Yoram Koren – James J. Duderstadt University Professor of Manufacturing and Paul G. Goebel Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the College of Engineering Kenneth Lieberthal, China expert and member of the National Security Council during the Clinton Administration Emmett Leith and Juris Upatnieks, created the first working hologram in 1962 Catharine MacKinnon, feminist legal theorist Jason Mars, conversational AI researcher, founder of ClincAI, author Paul McCracken, economist. Chairmen emeritus: President's Council of Economic Advisers Lisa M. Meeks, specialist in disabilities George E. Mendenhall, professor emeritus: Department of Near Eastern Studies and author Gerald Meyers, professor at the University of Michigan Ross School of Business School, former chairman of American Motors Corporation William Ian Miller, legal and social theorist; author of The Anatomy of Disgust Hugh L. Montgomery, number theorist Thylias Moss, developed Limited Fork Poetics, Professor of English and Art & Design, author James V. Neel professor of human genetics, in 1940s discovered that defective genes cause sickle cell anemia Nicholas Negroponte, founder of MIT's Media Lab Reed M. Nesbit, urologist, pioneer of transurethral resection of the prostate Dirk Obbink, papyrologist, 2001 MacArthur Fellowship winner for his work at both Oxyrhynchus and Herculaneum Will Potter,author, civil liberties advocate Anatol Rapoport, author of Two-Person Game Theory (1999) and N-Person Game Theory (2001) Arthur Rich, professor of physics, developed in 1988 with research investigator James C. Van House first positron microscope Gottlieb Eliel Saarinen, architect Jonas Salk, assistant professor of epidemiology Vojislav Šešelj, Serbian political scientist and nationalist leader Anton Shammas, professor of comparative literature and modern Middle Eastern literature Marilyn Shatz, Professor Emerita of Psychology and Linguistics Lawrence Sklar, William K. Frankena Collegiate Professor and Professor of Philosophy, Guggenheim fellow 1974 Kannan Soundararajan, awarded the 2004 Salem Prize, joint winner of the 2005 SASTRA Ramanujan Prize Theodore J. St. Antoine, law school dean and labor arbitrator Stephen Timoshenko, created the first US bachelor's and doctoral programs in engineering mechanics Amos Tversky, behavioral economist and frequent co-author with Daniel Kahneman A. Galip Ulsoy – co-inventor of the Reconfigurable Manufacturing System, and deputy director of the NSF Engineering Research Center for Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems Raymond Louis Wilder, work focused on set-theoretic topology, manifolds and use of algebraic techniques Milford H. Wolpoff, leading proponent of the multiregional hypothesis for human evolution. Trevor D. Wooley Department Chair, Department of Mathematics, University of Michigan. Salem Prize, 1998. Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow, 1993–1995 American Association for the Advancement of Science Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Founded in 1848, AAAS is the world's largest general scientific society and publisher of the journal Science. The tradition of AAAS Fellows began in 1874. Huda Akil, Gardner C. Quarton Professor of Neurosciences in psychiatry, professor of psychiatry and co-director and senior research scientist of the U-M Mental Health Research Institute Sushil Atreya, Professor of atmospheric and space sciences Brian Coppola, Arthur F. Thurnau Professor of Chemistry. Jack E. Dixon, Minor J. Coon Professor of Biological Chemistry, chair of the Department of Biological Chemistry Rodney Ewing, Donald R. Peacor Collegiate Professor of Geological Sciences, professor of materials science and engineering, and professor of nuclear engineering and radiological sciences William R. Farrand, Professor of geological sciences and curator, Museum of Anthropology. Daniel Fisher, Claude W. Hibbard Collegiate Professor of Paleontology, professor of geological sciences, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology, and curator of paleontology Sharon Glotzer, chemical engineer and physicist and the Stuart W. Churchill Professor at the University of Michigan James S. Jackson, Daniel Katz Distinguished University Professor of Psychology and director, Institute for Social Research Arthur Lupia, Professor of political science, research professor at the Institute for Social Research, and principal investigator of the American National Election Studies Anne McNeil, Arthur F. Thurnau Professor of Chemistry and Macromolecular Science and Engineering Vincent L. Pecoraro, John T. Groves Collegiate Professor of Chemistry Melanie Sanford, Moses Gomberg Collegiate Professor of Chemistry and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor of Chemistry Kamal Sarabandi, Rufus S. Teesdale Professor of Engineering, director of Radiation Laboratory, Department of Electrical Entering and Computer Science. Artur Schnabel Pianist and classical composer Sarah Thomason, William H. Gedney Professor of Linguistics George Uhlenbeck, with fellow student Samuel Goudsmit at Leiden, proposed the idea of electron spin in 1925, Professor: University of Michigan (1939–43). Max Planck Medal 1964 (with Samuel Goudsmit). Milford Wolpoff, elected to the rank of Fellow in the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Business Week "Management Gurus" Gary Hamel, MBA PhD Co-Author "The Core Competence of the Corporation" Dave Ulrich, Human Resources – Michigan (Ranked #1) Noel Tichy, Leadership – Michigan, (Ranked #9) C.K. Prahalad, C.K. Prahalad, Strategy, International Business – Michigan/ PRAJA, (Ranked #10) Institute of Medicine Huda Akil, Gardner C. Quarton Distinguished Professor of Neurosciences in Psychiatry, Medical School Michael Boehnke, Richard G. Cornell Collegiate Professor of Biostatistics, department of biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Edward Bove, head, Section of Cardiac Surgery, Medical School Noreen M Clark, dean, Marshall H. Becker Professor of Public Health, School of Public Health Mary Sue Coleman, president, professor of biochemistry, Medical School, & chemistry, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts Francis S. Collins, professor of internal medicine; professor of human genetics, Medical School Jerome Conn, Louis Harry Newburgh university Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Internal Medicine, Medical School Minor J. Coon, Victor C. Vaughn Distinguished University Professor of Biological Chemistry, Medical School Jack Dixon, Minor J. Coon Professor of Biological Chemistry, Medical School Avedis Donabedian, Sinai Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Public Health, School of Public Health Sid Gilman, William J. Herdman Professor of Neurology, Medical School Ada Sue Hinshaw, dean, School of Nursing James S. House, professor of sociology, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts James Jackson, professor of psychology, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts Robert L. Kahn, professor emeritus of psychology, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts David E. Kuhl, professor of internal medicine; professor of radiology, Medical School Martha L. Ludwig, research biophysicist and J. Lawrence Oncley Distinguished Professor, department of biological chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Howard Markel, George E. Wantz Distinguished Professor of the History of Medicine and director of the Center for the History of Medicine Rowena Matthews, elected to The Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences James V. Neel, Lee R. Dice distinguished university professor emeritus of Human genetics, Medical School Gilbert S. Omenn, professor of internal medicine & Human genetics, Medical School, and of public health, School of Public Health June Osborn, professor of epidemiology; professor of pediatrics and communicable diseases, Medical School Alan R. Saltiel, elected in 2005 to The Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences, John Jacob Abel Collegiate Professor in Life Sciences and Professor of Internal Medicine and Physiology Thomas L. Schwenk, professor of family medicine, Medical School Harold Shapiro, former UM president Peter Ward, Godfrey D. Stobbe Professor of Pathology, Medical School David R. Williams, Harold W. Cruse Collegiate Professor of Sociology, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts, and professor of epidemiology, School of Public Health MacArthur Foundation award winners , 41 MacArthur winners — 16 of them university alumni — have served as Michigan faculty Elizabeth S. Anderson, philosopher. William A. Christian, religious studies scholar. Philip DeVries, biologist William H. Durham, anthropologist. Aaron Dworkin, fellow and founder and president of Detroit-based Sphinx Organization Steven Goodman, adjunct research investigator in the U-M Museum of Zoology's bird division, and a conservation biologist in the Department of Zoology at Chicago's Field Museum of Natural History David Green, executive director, Project Impact. Ann Ellis Hanson, visiting associate professor of Greek and Latin. John Henry Holland, professor of electrical engineering and computer science, College of Engineering; professor of psychology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Vonnie C. McLoyd, professor of psychology and research scientist at the Center for Human Growth and Development Natalia Molina, historian Cecilia Muñoz, vice president of the National Council of La Raza. Amos Tversky, psychologist. Karen K. Uhlenbeck, mathematician. Henry T. Wright, anthropologist. George Zweig, physicist. , 25 non-alumni MacArthur winners have served as Michigan faculty. Susan Alcock, professor of classical anthropology and classics, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Robert Axelrod, game theoretician, author of "The Evolution of Cooperation" Ruth Behar, anthropologist. R. Stephen Berry, professor of physical chemistry Joseph Brodsky, professor of Slavic languages and literature Alice Fulton, professor of English from 1983 to 2001, won the Library of Congress Rebekah Johnson Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry in 2002 Kun-Liang Guan, biochemist and associate professor of biological chemistry and senior research associate at the Institute of Gerontology Thomas C. Holt, professor of history, director of Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Stephen Lee, solid state chemist Michael Marletta, biochemist and John Gideon Searle Professor of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy in the College of Pharmacy and professor of biological chemistry in the Medical School Khaled Mattawa, Libyan poet, Arab-American writer Tiya Miles, professor of American culture, Afroamerican & African studies, history, and Native American studies Thylias Moss, professor of English, also Professor of Art & Design (2006) Erik Mueggler, Katherine Verdery Collegiate Professor of Anthropology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Margaret Murnane, Distinguished Professor of Physics at the University of Colorado at Boulder Dirk Obbink, papyrologist and classicist Sherry B. Ortner, professor of anthropology and women's studies Derek Peterson, professor in the departments of History and Afroamerican and African Studies Melanie Sanford, Moses Gomberg Collegiate professor of chemistry Rebecca J. Scott, Professor of History, won the 2006 Frederick Douglass Book Prize for Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba After Slavery Bright Sheng, professor of composition and music theory, School of Music Richard Wrangham, professor of anthropology. Yukiko Yamashita, assistant professor of cell & developmental biology United States National Academy of Engineering Linda M. Abriola, professor of civil and environmental engineering, College of Engineering Ellen Arruda, professor and chair of mechanical engineering, College of Engineering Dennis Assanis, former Jon R. and Beverly S. Holt Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor, College of Engineering Lynn Conway, professor of electrical engineering and computer science, College of Engineering James J. Duderstadt, president emeritus, professor of nuclear engineering and radiological sciences, College of Engineering Elmer G. Gilbert, professor of aerospace engineering and of electrical engineering & computer science, College of Engineering Donald Katz, professor emeritus of chemical engineering, college Yoram Koren, James J. Duderstadt Distinguished University Professor and Paul G. Goebel Professor of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Ronald G. Larson, George Granger Brown Professor of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering Emmett Leith, Schlumberger Professor of Engineering, College of Engineering Gerard A. Mourou, A.D. Moore Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering & and Computer Science, College of Engineering Fawwaz Ulaby, R. Jamison and Betty Williams Professor of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science, College of Engineering Galip Ulsoy, C.D. Mote Jr. Distinguished University Professor of Mechanical Engineering and William Clay Ford Professor of Manufacturing, College of Engineering Chia-Shun Yih, Stephen P. Timoshenko Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Fluid Mechanics, College of Engineering United States National Academy of Sciences Mathew Alpern, professor emeritus of physiological optics, Medical School Richard D. Alexander, Theodore H. Hubell Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Evolutionary Biology, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Robert Axelrod, Arthur W. Bromage Distinguished University Professor of Political Science & Public Policy, School of Public Policy Hyman Bass, professor of education, School of Education, & mathematics, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Jerome Conn, Louis Harry Newburgh University Professor Emeritus of Internal Medicine, Medical School Philip Converse, Robert Cooley Angell Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Sociology & Political Science, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Clyde Coombs, professor emeritus of psychology, College of Literature, Science & the Arts H. Richard Crane, George P. Williams Distinguished University, physicist Thomas M. Donahue, Edward H. White II Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Planetary Science, College of Engineering Kent V. Flannery, James B. Griffin Distinguished University Professor of Anthropological Archaeology, College of Literature Science & the Arts Ronald Freedman, Roderick D. McKenzie Professor Emeritus of Sociology, College of Literature, Science & the Arts, professor emeritus of physics, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts Katherine Freese, George E. Uhlenbeck Professor Emerita of Physics William Fulton, M. S. Keeler Professor, mathematics, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Stanley M. Garn, professor emeritus of nutrition, School of Public Health Frederick Gehring, T.H. Hildebrandt Distinguished University Professor of Mathematics Sharon Glotzer, Stuart W. Churchill Professor of Chemical Engineering. Professor of Materials Science & Engineering, Physics, Applied Physics and Macromolecular Science and Engineering. Melvin Hochster, Raymond L. Wilder Professor of Mathematics, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Martha L. Ludwig, professor of biological chemistry, Medical School Joyce Marcus, professor of anthropology, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Vincent Massey, professor of biological chemistry, Medical School Rowena G. Matthews, G. Robert Greenberg Distinguished University Professor, biological chemistry, Medical School James N. Morgan, professor emeritus of economics, College of Literature, Science & the Arts James V. Neel, Lee R. Dice Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Human Genetics, Medical School Richard Nisbett, Theodore M. Newcomb Distinguished University Professor, psychology, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts James Olds, professor of psychology J. Lawrence Oncley, professor emeritus of biological chemistry, Medical School Kenneth Pike, professor emeritus of linguistics, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Melanie Sanford,Moses Gomberg Collegiate Professor of Chemistry and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor of Chemistry Martinus Veltman, John D. MacArthur Professor of Physics, College of Literature, Science, & the Arts Warren Wagner, Jr., professor emeritus of botany, School of Natural Resources & the Environment Henry Wright, professor of anthropology, College of Literature, Science & the Arts; curator, Museum of Anthropology National Medal of Science The National Medal of Science is the nation's highest honor for scientific achievement. Five other Michigan researchers won the award between 1974 and 1986. Congress established the award program in 1959. It honors individuals for pioneering scientific research. Hyman Bass honored by President Bush in a White House ceremony for the National Medal of Science in 2006. H. Richard Crane, George P. Williams Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Physics, College of Literature, Science & the Arts Elizabeth Crosby, professor of anatomy, Medical School Donald Katz, professor emeritus of chemical engineering, College of Engineering Emmett Leith, Schlumberger Professor of Engineering, College of Engineering James Neel, Lee R. Dice Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of Human Genetics, Medical School Pulitzer Prize-winning faculty Leslie Bassett, professor of music; music, for Variations for Orchestra. William Bolcom, professor of music composition; music, for Twelve New Etudes for Piano Ross Lee Finney, professor of music; music, for a string quartet Robert Frost, a former faculty member, won four Pulitzer Prizes Leland Stowe, professor of journalism; correspondence, for his work as a reporter on the foreign staff of the New York Herald Tribune David C. Turnley, professor of art and design; photography, for images of the political uprisings in China and Eastern Europe Claude H. Van Tyne, professor and chairman of the history department; American History, for The War of Independence. Heather Ann Thompson, professor of American history; for her book on the Attica Prison uprising of 1971. University of Michigan-Ann Arbor faculty Alton L Becker, professor of linguistics Judith Becker, Glenn McGeoch Professor (emeritus) of Music Cécile Fromont, assistant professor of art history Lois Wladis Hoffman, professor emerita, Department of Psychology. Lawrence W. Jones, professor emeritus, Department of Physics William P. Malm, professor (emeritus) of music Ronni Reis, tennis coach Leopoldo Pando Zayas, professor of physics, specializing in string theory Elizabeth Yakel, professor and senior associate dean for academic affairs at the iSchool, specializing in digital archives and digital preservation Weiping Zou, Charles B de Nancrede Professor of Surgery, Immunology and Biology; director for translational research Former administrators Erastus Otis Haven, president (1863–69), later Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church Lee Bollinger, president, now president of Columbia University Nancy Cantor, provost, now chancellor of Syracuse University Walter Harrison, vice president, now at University of Hartford Harlan Hatcher, president (1951–1967) C. C. Little, president (1925–1929), noted cancer researcher and tobacco industry scientist J. Bernard "Bernie" Machen, provost, later president of the University of Florida Frank H. T. Rhodes, vice president, later president of Cornell University Harold Shapiro, president; later president of Princeton University Edward A. Snyder, senior associate dean, later dean at University of Chicago Business School Andrew Dickson White, UM professor of literature, co-founder of Cornell University B. Joseph White, dean, Ross School, later president of the University of Illinois Linda Wilson, UM vice president, later president of Radcliffe College References External links Faculty and staff at the University of Michigan UM Faculty and staff resources UM Faculty and staff services The Michigan Daily Salary Supplement lists the salaries of UM faculty and staff University of Michigan faculty and staff
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20women%27s%20basketball%20tournament
2009 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament
The 2009 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament commenced 21 March 2009 and concluded 7 April 2009 when the University of Connecticut Huskies defeated the Louisville Cardinals 76–54. Michigan State's upset over Duke in the second round would be the last time until 2023 that all four 1 seeds did not progress to at least the Sweet Sixteen. Subregionals Once again, the system is the same as the Division I men's basketball tournament, with the exception that only 64 teams went and there was no play-in game. Automatic bids were secured by 31 conference champions and 33 at-large bids. The subregionals, which used the "pod system", keeping most teams either at or close to the home cities, was held from 21 March to 24 at sixteen sites. The following were chosen in July 2006, prior to the re-expansion of the subregional sites from eight to sixteen: The Pit, Albuquerque, New Mexico (Host: University of New Mexico) Pete Maravich Assembly Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (Host: Louisiana State University) Nationwide Arena, Columbus, Ohio (Host: The Ohio State University) Comcast Center, College Park, Maryland (Host: University of Maryland, College Park) Arena at Gwinnett Center, Duluth, Georgia (Host: University of Georgia) United Spirit Arena, Lubbock, Texas (Host: Texas Tech University) Galen Center, Los Angeles (Host: University of Southern California) Louis Brown Athletic Center, Piscataway, New Jersey (Host: Rutgers University) As per the return to the 16-site subregional format, the following sites were added in 2008: E. A. Diddle Arena, Bowling Green, Kentucky (Host: Western Kentucky University) Jack Breslin Student Events Center, East Lansing, Michigan (Host: Michigan State University) Carver–Hawkeye Arena, Iowa City, Iowa (Host: University of Iowa) Edmund P. Joyce Center, South Bend, Indiana (Host: University of Notre Dame) Bank of America Arena at Hec Edmundson Pavilion, Seattle (Host: University of Washington) Cox Arena, San Diego (Host: San Diego State University) Harry A. Gampel Pavilion, Storrs, Connecticut (Host: University of Connecticut) McKenzie Arena, Chattanooga, Tennessee (Host: University of Tennessee at Chattanooga) Regionals The regionals, held in the city rather than the geographic area as a practice that has been used since 2005, were held there from 28 March to 31 at these sites: Trenton Regional: Sovereign Bank Arena, Trenton, New Jersey (Hosts: Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference and Rider University). Raleigh Regional: RBC Center, Raleigh, North Carolina (Host: North Carolina State University). Oklahoma City Regional: Ford Center, Oklahoma City (Host: Big 12 Conference). Berkeley Regional: Haas Pavilion, Berkeley, California (Hosts: University of California, Berkeley and Pac-10 Conference). The regional winners advanced to the Final Four, held 5 and 7 April 2009 at the Scottrade Center, in St. Louis, Missouri, hosted by the Missouri Valley Conference. Tournament records Three-pointers—Iowa State hit 16 three-point field goals in a first-round game against East Tennessee State, tied for the most number of three-point shots completed in an NCAA Tournament game. Three-pointers—South Dakota State hit 16 three-point field goals in a first-round game against TCU, tied for the most number of three-point shots completed in an NCAA Tournament game. Three-pointers—Connecticut hit 47 three-point field goals, tied for the most number of three-point shots completed in an NCAA Tournament. Qualifying teams – automatic Sixty-four teams were selected to participate in the 2009 NCAA Tournament. Thirty-one conferences were eligible for an automatic bid to the 2009 NCAA tournament. Qualifying teams – at-large Thirty-three additional teams were selected to complete the sixty-four invitations. Tournament seeds Bids by conference Thirty-one conferences earned an automatic bid. In twenty-two cases, the automatic bid was the only representative from the conference. Thirty-three additional at-large teams were selected from nine of the conferences. Bids by state The sixty-four teams came from thirty-two states. Texas had the most teams with six bids. Eighteen states did not have any teams receiving bids. Game summaries Berkeley Region First round Second seeded Stanford easily beat the 15th seeded Gauchos of UC Santa Barbara behind a double-double by Jayne Appel. Third seeded Ohio State beat Sacred Heart by 14 points, but led by only two well into the second half. Freshman guard Samantha Prahalis scored 23 to help lead the Buckeyes to victory. Tenth seeded San Diego State upset seventh seeded DePaul behind Jene Morris's career tying 35 points. Eleventh seed Mississippi State used 21 of 22 free throw shooting to upset the sixth seeded Texas Longhorns. Middle Tennessee's Alysha Clark, the nations D1 scoring leader, scored 34 points, but it wasn't enough to defeat ninth seeded Michigan State, who broke a late tie and held on to win by one point. One seeded Duke easily disposed of sixteen seeded Austin Peay. Fourth seeded Iowa State tied an NCAA tournament record with 16 three-point goals in an easy win over thirteen seed East Tennessee State. Twelfth seeded Ball State upset defending national champion Tennessee, which had never lost an opening game in the tournament before. Tennessee has been in every one of the 29 NCAA Tournaments, and prior to this year, had never failed to make the Sweet Sixteen. Second round Third seeded Ohio State narrowly defeated eleventh seeded Mississippi State 64–58. OSU held MSU scoreless for the last 6:43 of the game. Second seeded Stanford beat San Diego State by 28, but the game was tied 8 minutes into the game. Stanford's Nneka Ogwumike had career highs of 27 points and 13 rebounds. Ninth seeded Michigan State upsets top-seeded Duke on the home floor of Michigan State, in a match up between Duke head coach Joanne P. McCallie and her former team. Michigan State shot under 40% from the floor, but held Duke to under 27%. Twelfth seeded Ball State stayed with Iowa State for 30 minutes, but couldn't maintain the pace. Iowa State extended a four-point lead to win 71–57. Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Fourth seeded Iowa State beat ninth seeded Michigan State by a single point. MSU had a seven-point lead with 1:26 to go, but the Cyclones scored the final eight points of the game. They took the lead on a three-point shot by Alison Lacey for three of her 29 points. The Spartans had a chance to retake the lead, but missed their last three shots. Two seed Stanford beat Ohio State behind Jayne Appel's double-double. OSU freshman Samantha Prahalis scored 19, but it wasn't enough to overcome the Cardinal shooting. Regional final (Elite Eight) Two seed Stanford easily beat four seed Iowa State behind Jayne Appel's 46 points. Jayne's 46 points sets a new school record and places her in the NCAA Tournament record book with the third highest point total in NCAA tournament history. Appel's 27 first half points exceeded the first half total for Iowa State. Oklahoma City Region First round Third seeded North Carolina beat Fourteenth seeded Central Florida. UNC had a 14-point lead with 30 seconds left in the game, but UCF scored the final nine points of the game to make the final margin five points. Second seeded Auburn easily beat fifteen seed Lehigh, behind DeWanna Bonner's 26 points. Sixth seeded Purdue beat eleventh seeded Charlotte to win their twelfth consecutive first-round game. Fourth seeded Pittsburgh beat thirteenth seeded Montana behind Shavonte Zellous's 31 points. Twelfth seeded Gonzaga upset fifth seed Xavier, giving the Bulldogs their first ever NCAA Tournament win. Seventh seeded Rutgers beat Virginia Commonwealth to spoil VCU's NCAA Tournament debut. Top seeded Oklahoma struggled early, but ended up winning easily over Prairie View A&M. Ninth seeded Georgia Tech, playing without leading scorer Alex Montgomery, beat eighth seeded Iowa. Second round Seventh seeded Rutgers upsets second seeded Auburn. Playing on their home court, the Scarlet Knights scored the first nine points and lead 13–2 at the first media timeout. Rutgers held Auburn to 29% shooting and ended the game with a 28-point margin. Fourth seeded Pittsburgh and twelfth seeded Gonzaga were tied at halftime, and with three and a half minutes to go in the game, but the Panthers outscored the Bulldogs in the final minutes to win by five. Sixth seeded Purdue upsets third seeded North Carolina. Purdue had lost its last three games to UNC, but hit 57% of the field goals to win by fifteen. Top seeded Oklahoma held Georgia Tech to 27% shooting in a win that advanced the Sooners to a Sweet Sixteen game in Oklahoma City. Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Sixth seeded Purdue holds off a determined Rutgers team. The Scarlet Knights fell behind early but came back to within two with less than two minutes remaining. Purdue shot 55% in the first half, ending with over 52% shooting. Top seeded Oklahoma beat fourth seed Pittsburgh. Whitney Hand had a career-high 22 points, which helped overcome foul trouble for Courtney Paris. All five Sooner starters scored in double digits. Regional final (Elite Eight) Oklahoma beat Purdue to advance to their second ever Final Four. Courtney Paris had 19 points, 13 rebounds and six blocks, while Danielle Robinson scored 23 points to lead the team over the Boilermakers. Purdue had three players in double-figures, led by Lindsay Wisdom-Hylton with 20, but it wasn't enough. Raleigh Region First round Fourth seeded Vanderbilt beat Western Carolina. Fifth seeded Kansas State beat Drexel. Shalee Lehning tied a career high with 13 assists. Seventh seeded South Dakota State tied an NCAA record with 16 three-point goals to help beat the Horned Frogs of TCU. Ninth seed Utah overwhelmed Villanova, winning by 30. Top seeded Maryland easily beat Dartmouth. Kristi Toliver had as many points at halftime (23) as Dartmouth. Sixth-seeded LSU beats Wisconsin-Green Bay behind Allison Hightower's career-best 26 points. Second seeded Baylor needed overtime to prevail against fifteen seed UTSA. Head coach Kim Mulkey was not at the game, having been hospitalized earlier in the day due to a reaction to medication. Third seeded Louisville forced 27 turnovers in a win over Liberty. Second round Fourth seeded Vanderbilt beat fifth seeded Kansas State behind a career-high 27 points by Jennifer Risper, and 24 points by Christina Wirth. Kansas State held a one-point lead at halftime, but Vanderbilt scored eleven consecutive points in a second half run to take a lead they would not relinquish. Second seeded Baylor beats South Dakota State on a last second shot. Kelli Griffin scored with 0.5 seconds remaining in the game to break a 58–58 tie, and move the Bears into the regional semi-final. Marissa Coleman has 18 points and 18 rebounds to lead top seeded Maryland over Utah on their home floor. Over ten thousand fans watched Maryland win its 35th consecutive game at home. Third seeded Louisville beat LSU on LSU's home floor. LSU had won twelve consecutive victories on their home floor. LSU's will not advance to the Final Four, ending an NCAA record-tying streak of five consecutive appearances. The win was the 31st of the year for Louisville, a school record. Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Three seed Louisville holds two seed Baylor to 39 points, in a surprisingly easy upset. Both Angel McCoughtry and Candyce Bingham had double-doubles to help lead the Cardinals to the first regional championship game in school history. Top seed Maryland survived a challenge from fourth seeded Vanderbilt. The Commodores started strong with an opening 12–2, which they extended to a 33–15 margin with six minutes left in the first half. Vanderbilt's Christina Wirth had a career-high 28 points, but it wasn't enough as Maryland's Marissa Coleman scored 42. Coleman scored the basket to give Maryland the lead with just under 30 seconds left in the game, and the clinching free throws. Regional final (Elite Eight) Third seeded Louisville knocks off top-seeded Maryland to head to their first ever Final Four. Angel McCoughtry had a double-double to lead the Cardinals to the win. Maryland hurt themselves with 21 turnovers. Louisville head coach Jeff Walz was a former assistant coach of Maryland. Trenton Region First round Fifth seed Virginia trailed at halftime, but came back to beat Marist. Sixth seeded Arizona State beat Georgia, despite playing without injured Dymond Simon. Third seeded Florida State had five players in double figure, helping win over North Carolina A&T. Fourth seeded California beats Fresno State. Top seed Connecticut easily beat Vermont behind Tina Charles's 32 points on 13–14 from the field. Eighth seeded Florida beats Temple for its 24th win of the year, tying a school record. Second seeded Texas A&M forces 30 turnovers in a win over Evansville. Tenth seeded Minnesota upsets Notre Dame. Second round Sixth seeded Arizona State's Danielle Orsillo hit a three-pointer with 32 seconds left to break a 54–54 tie. ASU hung on to upset third seeded Florida State. Fourth seeded California won easily over fifth seeded Virginia. Ashley Walker tied a career high with 32 points, while Devanei Hampton and Alexis Gray-Lawson each added 22 points. Second seeded Texas A&M beat tenth seeded Minnesota behind a season-high 20 steals. The Aggies forced 32 turnovers to beat the Gophers by 31. Top seeded Connecticut beat eighth seeded Florida. Renee Montgomery, playing on her home court for the last time in her career, scored 25. The win moves Connecticut in the Sweet Sixteen for the 16th consecutive time, the longest active streak. Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Connecticut faced their largest deficit of the year (eight points) against California, and went into halftime with only a two-point margin. UConn outscored California by 40–12, starting at the time of the eight-point deficit, to take control of the game. UConn's Tiffany Hayes had a career-high 28 points, shooting 9–10 from the field, including 5–6 from beyond the three-point arc. Sixth seeded Arizona State upsets two seed Texas A&M. Briann January and Danielle Orsillo were both perfect from the floor, helping the Sun Devils to a season-high 62 percent shooting percentage. The Texas &M team was also shooting well, hitting 55% of their first 29 shots. They were within three as late as 7:12 left in the game, but ASU outscored them and ended with a fifteen-point margin. Regional final (Elite Eight) Top-seeded Connecticut beat Arizona State to advance to their tenth Final Four. The game was close early – UConn led at one point 20–19, but UConn went on a 9–2 run to open up the margin. After a score by ASU, Maya Moore scored the next five points, which broke the single-season scoring record held by Kara Wolters. Kara was sitting courtside, doing commentary for a Connecticut radio station. The Sun Devils got to within eight at one point in the second half, but Moore and Montgomery combined for eight consecutive points to stretch the lead to 16. ASU would not get within double digits again. Final Four Two very different games in terms of Final Four experience. In the first game, Oklahoma is in only its second Final Four (the first in 2002) and Louisville is making its first ever Final Four. Only four coaches in NCAA history have multiple NCAA championships, and two of them, Tara VanDerveer and Geno Auriemma, coach the second game. Louisville versus Oklahoma Louisville plays the role of newcomer to the Final Four by missing its first 13 shots. Over seven minutes into the game, Louisville has taken their second full timeout, has yet to hit a basket, and is losing 16–2. Louisville shook off the opening jitters and began scoring. Just after the final media timeout of the first half, two Angel McCoughtry free throws would cut the lead to six, but Oklahoma would outscore Louisville 10–4 to take a twelve-point lead into the half. The second half would open up almost a mirror image of the first half. Louisville outscored Oklahoma 15–1 to take their first lead. Oklahoma did not get a basket until more than seven minutes had elapsed. The game would stay close from then on, with never more than a six-point margin by either team. With 18 seconds left in the game Courtney Paris would hit a basket to bring the margin to one. After Candyce Bingham hit one of two free throws, Nyeshia Stevenson took a three-point shot with two seconds left in the game. Her shot rimmed out, and Louisville hung on to win 61–59. Stanford versus Connecticut Connecticut entered the game having won its last 37 games, but their opponent Stanford was the last team to have beaten them. Just over nine minutes into the game, Stanford led 14–13. Jayne Appel scored ten of Stanford's 14 points, and assisted on one of the other two baskets. Then Renee Montgomery scored nine of UConn's next eleven points and assisted on the other basket in the stretch. Maya Moore added five points, part of an 18–4 run to bring the score to 31–18. Connecticut entered the halftime break with a 13-point lead, one more than they had had the last time they had played a Final Four game in St. Louis: a 2001 game in which, despite the large halftime lead, Notre Dame went to win the game and the Championship. This time was different however. Connecticut scored the first eleven points of the second half, to double up Stanford 48–24. Connecticut led by at least 20 until the last five minutes and won 81–64. Jayne Appel matched Renee Montgomery for high scoring honors with 26, but Connecticut also got 24 from Maya Moore. Championship game – Louisville versus Connecticut Louisville would meet Connecticut for the third time in the season, but it would be the first ever all Big East Championship game. UConn prevailed in the first meeting by 28 points, and won by 39 in the Big East Tournament Championship game. Angel McCoughtry tried to change the outcome this time, scoring eleven of Louisville's first 15 points, and assisting on two others, to take a 15–13 lead just over eight minutes into the game. UConn began feeding Tina Charles, who helped pull them to a 14-point lead 39–24, at halftime. Tina would end the game with 25 points, 19 rebounds, and a trophy for the Most Outstanding Player of the Tournament. Connecticut hit 50% of their field goal tries, holding Louisville to just under 31%. Connecticut won 76–54, winning its sixth National Championship, and completing its third perfect season. They would win every game by double digits for the first time in NCAA history. Brackets Results to date * – Denotes overtime period Trenton Regional – Trenton, New Jersey Berkeley Regional – Berkeley, California Raleigh Regional – Raleigh, North Carolina Oklahoma City Regional – Oklahoma City Final Four – St. Louis, Missouri Record by conference Nineteen conferences went 0-1: America East, Atlantic Sun Conference, Big Sky Conference, Big South Conference, Big West Conference, Conference USA, Horizon League, Ivy League, MAAC, MEAC, Missouri Valley Conference, Northeast Conference, Ohio Valley Conference, Patriot League, Southern Conference, Southland, Sun Belt Conference, SWAC, and WAC All-Tournament Team Tina Charles, Connecticut Maya Moore, Connecticut Renee Montgomery, Connecticut Angel McCoughtry, Louisville Jayne Appel, Stanford Game officials Tina Napier(semifinal) Cameron Inouye (semifinal) Lisa Jones (semifinal) Eric Brewton (semifinal) Melissa Barlows (semifinal) Felicia Grinter (semifinal) Dee Kantner (final) Lisa Mattingly (final) Clarke Stevens (final) See also 2009 NCAA Division II women's basketball tournament 2009 NCAA Division III women's basketball tournament 2009 NAIA Division I women's basketball tournament 2009 NAIA Division II women's basketball tournament 2009 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament References External links NCAA official site NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament UConn Huskies women's basketball Louisville Cardinals women's basketball Basketball competitions in Lubbock, Texas Basketball competitions in St. Louis Women's sports in Missouri College sports tournaments in Missouri
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20men%27s%20basketball%20tournament
2009 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
The 2009 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament was the 71st edition of the tournament, a single-elimination tournament in which 65 schools competed to determine the national champion of the men's NCAA Division I college basketball as a culmination of the 2008–09 basketball season. The tournament began on March 17, 2009, and concluded with the championship game on April 6 at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan. The University of North Carolina defeated Michigan State to become the champion. It was the Tar Heels 5th title, and 2nd under Roy Williams. The 2009 tournament was the first time the Final Four had a minimum seating capacity of 70,000, and by having most of the tournament in the February Sweeps of the Nielsen Ratings due to the digital television transition in the United States on June 12, 2009, this was the last NCAA basketball tournament, in all three divisions, to air on analog television. Prior to the start of the tournament, the top ranked team was Louisville in both the AP Top 25 and the ESPN/USA Today Coaches' Polls, followed by North Carolina, Memphis, and Pittsburgh. Only the Tar Heels of North Carolina were the regional winners and played in the Final Four. The Tar Heels completed one of the most dominant runs in the tournament's history by winning each of their games by at least twelve points. For the first time since seeding began, all #1–#3 seeds made it into the Sweet 16, and for the third consecutive time, all #1 seeds made the Elite Eight. Four schools made their NCAA tournament debut, all respective conference champions: Binghamton (America East), Morgan State (MEAC), Stephen F. Austin (Southland), and North Dakota State (Summit), a school in its first season of Division I eligibility. Tournament procedure Sixty-five teams were selected for the tournament. Thirty of the teams earned automatic bids by winning their conference tournaments. The automatic bid of the Ivy League, which does not conduct a postseason tournament, went to Cornell, its regular season champion. The remaining 34 teams were granted "at-large" bids by the NCAA Selection Committee. Two teams play an opening-round game, popularly called the "play-in game". The winner of that game advances to the main draw of the tournament as a 16 seed and plays a top seed in one of the regionals. The 2009 game was played on Tuesday, March 17, at the University of Dayton Arena in Dayton, Ohio, as it has since its inception in 2001. All 64 teams were seeded 1 to 16 within their regions; the winner of the play-in game automatically received a 16 seed. The Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 65. SEC commissioner Michael Slive served his last year as chairman of the committee. Schedule and venues The following are the sites that were selected to host each round of the 2009 tournament: Opening Round March 17 University of Dayton Arena, Dayton, Ohio (Host: University of Dayton) First and Second Rounds March 19 and 21 Greensboro Coliseum, Greensboro, North Carolina (Host: Atlantic Coast Conference) Sprint Center, Kansas City, Missouri (Host: Big 12 Conference) Wachovia Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Host: Saint Joseph's University) Rose Garden, Portland, Oregon (Host: University of Oregon) March 20 and 22 Taco Bell Arena, Boise, Idaho (Host: Boise State University) University of Dayton Arena, Dayton, Ohio (Host: University of Dayton) American Airlines Arena, Miami, Florida (Host: Florida International University) Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, Minneapolis, Minnesota (Host: University of Minnesota) Regional semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight) March 26 and 28 East Regional, TD Garden, Boston, Massachusetts (Host: Boston College) West Regional, University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale, Arizona, Arizona (Host: Arizona State University) March 27 and 29 South Regional, FedExForum, Memphis, Tennessee (Host: University of Memphis) Midwest Regional, Lucas Oil Stadium, Indianapolis, Indiana (Hosts: Horizon League, Butler University) National semifinals and championship (Final Four and championship) April 4 and 6 Ford Field, Detroit, Michigan (Host: University of Detroit Mercy) Qualifying teams Automatic bids The following teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2009 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference's tournament (except for the Ivy League, whose regular-season champion received the automatic bid). Listed by region and seeding Bracket Results to date * – Denotes overtime period All times in U.S. ET. Opening Round Game – Dayton, Ohio Winner advanced to Midwest Regional vs. (1) Louisville. Midwest Regional – Indianapolis, Indiana West Regional – Glendale, Arizona East Regional – Boston, Massachusetts South Regional – Memphis, Tennessee Final Four – Ford Field, Detroit, Michigan Game summaries Midwest Region Goran Suton of Michigan State was the Midwest regional most outstanding player. He was joined by Spartan teammates Kalin Lucas and Travis Walton, Louisville's Earl Clark and Kansas's Cole Aldrich on the NCAA tournament All-Midwest Regional team. First round To play the top-seeded Louisville Cardinals in the first round, Morehead State defeated Alabama State 58–43, with the Eagles keeping the Hornets without a lead the entire game. This marked the first time either team had played in the tournament in five years; the Eagles had not played since 1984. Morehead State fell to Louisville 74–54, the 100th time a 1 seed beat a 16 seed in the tournament since seeding began. However, the Eagles managed to keep the game close until halftime, when Louisville led by only 2 points. In the second half, the Cardinals began to apply their signature fullcourt pressure, forcing turnovers and outscoring Morehead State 22–6 at the beginning of the half. Leon Buchanan's 17 points for the Eagles were not enough to upset Louisville, whose top scorers, Samardo Samuels and Terrence Williams, scored a combined 28 points. Morehead State has not beaten Louisville in 52 years until 2011. In two overtimes, the Siena Saints beat the Ohio State Buckeyes 74–72. Ohio State had the advantage of playing an hour from their campus, and received 25 points, nine rebounds, and eight assists from Evan Turner. The Saints made 6 out of 23 3-pointers and had 22 turnovers. Accordingly, Siena trailed for most of the game, but scored the last four points in regulation to force overtime. At the end of the first overtime, Siena's Ronald Moore drained his first 3-pointer to force a second overtime. With 3.9 seconds left in that overtime, he hit a second three from the same location to give the Saints a late 2-point lead. In an attempt to send the game into a third overtime, Turner shot a 15-footer immediately afterwards, but he missed it. This was Siena's fifth appearance in the tournament, after beating Vanderbilt University in 2008 as a 13 seed. The Arizona-Utah matchup was not as close. The Fifth-seeded Utah Utes were upset by the twelfth-seeded Arizona Wildcats, one of the last teams to make it in the tournament and a questionable entry, by a score of 84–71. The Utes closed the lead to two with roughly five minutes left in the game, but the Wildcats' answer was a 10–1 run. Utah's Luke Nevill committed two fouls less than four minutes into the game and scored only 12 points. Nic Wise of Arizona, meanwhile, led the team with 29 points, with 21 in the second half. Tyler Kepkay led the Utes with a team 19 points in his embarking performance. The Cleveland State-Wake Forest game was an even larger upset. In their second bid in the tournament, the Cleveland State Vikings shocked the Wake Forest Demon Deacons 84–69. This 15-point win ties for third-greatest victory margin for a 13 seed over a 4 seed. Wake Forest, once ranked first in the country, had 16 turnovers in the matchup, compared to six for the Vikings. James Johnson of the Demon Deacons scored 22 points, although this could not compensate for a substandard offense. Their scoring leader, Jeff Teague, finished with 10 points, half his average. For these reasons, Wake Forest never obtained a lead, while Cleveland State sank three consecutive 3-pointers in the early minutes of the game. For the first time in 19 years, Dayton advanced to the second round of the tournament with a win over West Virginia 68–60. This also ended West Virginia's first-round winning streak, which had lasted since 1992. Chris Wright led the Dayton Flyers with 27 points, a career high, while also chalking up 10 rebounds. Charles Little also aided the Flyers with 18 points. Darryl Bryant, who led West Virginia with 21 points, shot two consecutive three-pointers to bring Dayton's lead to 48–47 with 11:02 minutes left in the game. However, that was the closest the Mountaineers had to a lead outside the beginning of the game. In their first eligible year, North Dakota State appeared in the tournament, facing defending champion Kansas. The three-seeded Kansas Jayhawks staved off the fourteenth-seeded Bison's upset bid with an 84–74 victory. Ben Woodside shined with 37 points for the Bison, his sixth game of the season with at least 30 points. However, Sherron Collins and Cole Aldrich proved too much for North Dakota State, accounting for 65 percent of the Jayhawks' points with 32 and 23 respectively. The tenth-seeded USC Trojans demolished the seventh-seeded Boston College Eagles by a score of 72–55, helped by Taj Gibson's 10-for-10 shooting from the field, tied for the second-best NCAA tournament field-goal shooting performance in history. He led the team with 24 points and recorded six rebounds, five assists, and three blocks. Dwight Lewis also added 20 points for the Trojans. After leading 34–30 at halftime, the Eagles scored just a single field goal during one 13-minute stretch, as part of a 23.1 shooting percentage in the second half. Robert Morris, the region's 15 seed, was blown away by second-seeded Michigan State 77–62. The game was tied with 4:44 left in the first half, but then the Colonials went almost 20 minutes without scoring a single point. The Spartans took advantage of this for a 21–0 run that sealed the game in their favor. The Colonials' Jeremy Chappell was the only team member to score double-digit points with 11, and he also led the team with six rebounds, two steals, and three blocks. Raymar Morgan was the Spartans' leading scorer with 16 points. Second round Ninth-seeded Siena faced top seed Louisville, with the Cardinals emerging victorious 79–72. Taking advantage of Louisville's 19 turnovers, the Saints came back from a 12-point deficit with 17:21 left in the game to snatch the lead around the 9-minute mark. Edwin Ubiles broke through Louisville's full-court pressure and added 24 points for Siena. Terrence Williams, known as one of the most relaxed players on the Cardinals roster, saved his team by grabbing rebounds and making 3s. He led the team with 24 points, 15 rebounds, two steals, and four assists. Earl Clark also helped the Cardinals' cause with 12 points and 12 rebounds. In a 12 vs. 13 seed Cinderella matchup, Arizona handily defeated Cleveland State. The Wildcats' zone defense puzzled Cleveland State, and their fast breaks sealed the game. The smallest deficit the Vikings faced was 48–44 about midway through the second half, though the Wildcats then went on a 13–2 run led by Nic Wise's five consecutive points. His 21 points led the team's four double-digit scorers. Arizona was excellent behind the free-throw line, finishing 24 for 28. Cole Aldrich's triple-double with 13 points, 20 rebounds, and 10 blocked shots paved the way for a third-seeded Kansas win over 11 seed Dayton. This was only the sixth triple-double in NCAA tournament history. With 43 points, Dayton scored the fewest points they had all season, compared to Kansas's 60. Despite their small point total, the Flyers shot 72 times, its most all season, amounting to a 22.2 shooting percentage. The Jayhawks were also not having one of their better offensive games, with Sherron Collins being an exception; he made 25 points. This marked the third straight Sweet Sixteen appearance for Kansas. Playing the tenth-seeded USC Trojans, second-seeded Michigan State utilized Travis Walton's career-high 18 points for a 74–69 win. Normally known as a defensive player and averaging 4.9 points per game, Walton shot 8 for 13 from the field. His team out-rebounded USC 33 to 23, and USC made only one three-point play. Star Trojan Taj Gibson was in foul trouble throughout much of the game, and yet his teammates rallied for 14 lead changes and 16 ties. Dwight Lewis, who gave a 19-point performance overall, scored six consecutive points for USC for a late tie. The Spartans only earned a victory after the Trojans missed their last nine shots. With the win, Michigan State has made it to the Sweet 16 eight times of the last 12 years, more than any other team except Duke. Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Louisville, the region's top seed, routed twelfth-seeded Arizona 103–64. In NCAA tournament history, this was Louisville's largest win and Arizona's largest loss. It was no surprise, given the Cardinals' 57.6 field goal percentage and their 48% shooting behind the arc. Their fullcourt pressure forced 15 turnovers on the Wildcats the entire game, including nine in the first half. Earl Clark led the Cardinals with 19 points, whose ballhandling garnered 29 assists. This was the most lopsided Sweet 16 victory since 1972. The Michigan State-Kansas matchup was much more intense. After overcoming a 13-point first half deficit, the Spartans won 67–62. They shot 16 of 17 from the foul line, and on their only miss they rebounded the ball and gave Raymar Morgan the only points of the night on a dunk. Such rallies in the second half narrowed the deficit and occasionally took the lead, although the Jayhawks responded and were up by 2 with 2 minutes left in the game. They were helped by Sherron Collins and Cole Aldrich's combined 37 points. However, Kalin Lucas of the Spartans, who had scored 11 points in the first 39 minutes of the game, made seven straight points with 48 seconds left. Goran Suton also added nine rebounds, five steals, and a season-high 20 points for Michigan State. Regional final (Elite Eight) Michigan State defeated overall number one seed Louisville, 64–52, to advance to their fifth Final Four since 1999. Michigan State held Louisville to their second lowest point total of the season with their man-to-man defense keeping them out of sync all game. Center Goran Suton had 19 points and Durrel Summers had 12 in the rout. Earl Clark had 19 for Louisville. West Region A. J. Price was named MVP of the West Regional. He was joined by teammate Kemba Walker, Missouri's DeMarre Carroll and J. T. Tiller and Memphis' Tyreke Evans on the NCAA West All-regional team. First round Forward Quincy Pondexter scored 23 points to lead his Washington Huskies to a first round 71–58 win over Mississippi State Bulldogs in the West Regional. Only Barry Stewart put up double digit points (14) for the Bulldogs. Second round Pac-10 champions Washington Huskies scored 46 points in the second half, but it was not enough to beat the Purdue Boilermakers in the second round of West Regional, falling short by two points (76–74). Leaders for Purdue were JaJuan Johnson with 22 points and Keaton Grant with 12 rebounds. Isaiah Thomas with 24 points and Jon Brockman with 18 rebounds led the Huskies. Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Connecticut faced Purdue at University of Phoenix Stadium in a West Regional semifinal. It was UConn who took full advantage of many Purdue mistakes and, even though Robbie Hummel was able to shoot quite well scoring 17 points, it was Hasheem Thabeet and the Huskies who pulled away for a 72–60 win to move onto the regional finals. In the nightcap of the sweet sixteen matchups, two sets of Tigers met, pitting Missouri against Memphis in a matchup that saw teams with similar fast-paced styles meet. Missouri was able to pull away with a 27–7 run that gave them a 64–40 lead. Though Memphis attempted to claw back into the game through Tyreke Evans' 33 points, it was JT Tiller, DeMarre Carroll, and Leo Lyons that moved on to meet UConn in the regional final along with the rest of their Missouri Tigers. Regional final (Elite Eight) Kemba Walker came off the UConn bench to spark them to a victory over the 3 seeded Missouri Tigers. East Region Scottie Reynolds was named Regional most outstanding player. He was joined by teammates Dwayne Anderson and Dante Cunningham, Panthers Sam Young and DeJuan Blair on the NCAA East All-Regional team. First round UCLA Bruins' Alfred Aboya scored two free-throw points with 48 seconds remaining in the game to help UCLA get by VCU in the first round at the East Regional in Philadelphia's Wachovia Center with Maynor's potential game winning jumper bouncing off the rim at the buzzer. Top scorers in the game were Eric Maynor (21) for VCU and Josh Shipp (16) for UCLA. Villanova Wildcats, playing at home against an American University team that featured 5 seniors, fell behind early as American hit a barrage of 3 pointers. However, in the 2nd half, Villanova was able to take advantage of 20 free throws in the final 13 minutes of the game to win against American. No. 12 seed Wisconsin upset #5 seed Florida St. 61–59 in OT. Down 31–19 at the half, the Badgers' Jason Bohannon made a three-point jumper to give Wisconsin the lead with 45 seconds left in regulation. Trevon Hughes fouled Toney Douglas, who made two free throws to send the game into over-time. In over-time, the Badgers trailed by one with just seconds left when Hughes made a twisting shot from the lane over two defenders to put the Badgers ahead 60–59. Hughes was also fouled on the shot, and made the resulting free throw to make the score 61–59. Florida State had just enough time to run a full court in-bounds play but, the pass was deflected at half court thus securing the Badger victory. Second round By six Wildcats scoring double-digit points, Villanova ended UCLA's hope of going to the Final Four for the fourth time in a row. Dante Cunningham had 18 points; Reggie Redding and Corey Fisher had 13; Corey Stokes put up 12; eleven points came from Scottie Reynolds and ten points were put up by Dwayne Anderson for the winning team. Josh Shipp had 18 points and Alfred Aboya had 8 rebounds for UCLA. Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Villanova (#3) upset Duke (#2), 77–54, to advance to the Regional Championship game to face Pittsburgh (#1). The Wildcats, who were ahead by 3 at half-time, were led in scoring by Scottie Reynolds (16), Dante Cunningham (14) and Reggie Redding (11). Regional final (Elite Eight) Number one seed Pittsburgh was upset by the Villanova Wildcats, 78–76 in the East Regional Finals, denying the Panthers a chance for a first national championship in men's basketball. With five seconds remaining, Levance Fields, who was fouled by Corey Fisher, shot two free-throws to tie the game for Pitt. But Scottie Reynolds' one-second jumper was good to give Villanova an upset victory. Pitt's Sam Young scored 28 points and DeJuan Blair had 20 points. Dwayne Anderson was top scorer for the Wildcats with 17 points. South Region Ty Lawson was the South regional MVP and he was joined on the All-regional team by teammates Danny Green and Tyler Hansbrough as well as Blake Griffin and Syracuse's Jonny Flynn. First round WKU advanced to the second round for a second consecutive year as a 12 seed, beating 5th seeded Illinois. 10th seeded Michigan upset 7th seeded Clemson 62–59 in its first tournament win since 1998. It was Michigan's first tournament appearance in 11 years after the school was rocked with sanctions and punishments from the Chris Webber scandal in the mid-2000s. Second round Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) Regional final (Elite Eight) Final Four All final four teams in the tournament had won at least one national championship. Entering the tournament, North Carolina had the most, with four (1957, 1982, 1993, 2005); Connecticut had two; (1999, 2004); Michigan State also had two; (1979, 2000), and Villanova won one; (1985). The Spartans had home court advantage by playing in their home state. Six teams have played the Final Four in their home states, but only four of them won. UCLA (1968, 1972, 1975) and North Carolina State (1974) won the national title, but Duke (1994) and Purdue (1980) lost in the Final Four. The biggest advantage came in 1968 and 1972 when UCLA played the championship game at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, which is a short distance from Pauley Pavilion, their home court since 1965. Michigan State vs. Connecticut Michigan State, with 7 minutes to play, finally took hold of the game and defeated the number one seed Connecticut to advance to the championship game against North Carolina. The Spartans started the game with a 7-point run, but the Huskies came back to take a lead in the first half. Michigan State took it back and was leading by two at the half. Connecticut had the lead twice early in the second period. Michigan State, led by guard Kalin Lucas with 21 points and forward Raymar Morgan with 18 points, was just too much at the end for the Huskies. Scoring for Connecticut was shared by Jeff Adrien (13), Stanley Robinson (15), Hasheem Thabeet (17) and A.J. Price (15). Villanova vs. North Carolina After the first five minutes, North Carolina used an 11-point run to end Villanova's hope for a national championship and put the Tar Heels into the championship game for a chance to win their fifth title in nine trips. Ty Lawson produced 22 points, followed by Wayne Ellington with 20 points and Tyler Hansbrough with 18 points. Hansbrough, the sixth-leading scorer in tournament history, pulled down 11 rebounds. For Roy Williams, who coached North Carolina to a national championship in 2005, it is back to the title game again. Championship game – Michigan State vs. North Carolina This 71st title game featured #1 seed North Carolina, which had a 4–4 record in the finals, versus #2 seed Michigan State, which had a 2–0 record going into the game. It was also a matchup featuring future Hall of Fame coach Tom Izzo, who guided Michigan State to the championship in 2000 and 5 trips to the Final Four, against current Hall of Famer Roy Williams, who won the title in 2005 and reached 7 Final Fours. To celebrate the 30th anniversary of the 1979 national title game between Michigan State Spartans and the Sycamores of Indiana State, Hall of Fame players Earvin "Magic" Johnson and Larry Bird, who had played against each other, presented the game ball at the 2009 NCAA national championship game Monday night. The game was a rematch of "BasketBowl II", of 2008's ACC-Big Ten Challenge, won by the Tar Heels 98–63. That game was also played at Ford Field. North Carolina, with a first bucket from Deon Thompson, took off and ran to a 21-point lead at the 10-minute mark. The lead grew to 24 with less than 5 minutes remaining in the first half, with most points coming from Wayne Ellington (15). The Spartans were behind 34–55 at the half, a tournament record lead for the Tar Heels. Goran Suton had the most points for Michigan State. In the second half, Michigan State made a comeback to within 13 points of North Carolina with 4:56 to go in the game, but was unable to overcome the record 21 turnovers. Roy Williams and his Tar Heels defeated the Spartans 89–72 to take home his second trophy for the university. Ty Lawson set a record with 8 steals. All Tournament team Wayne Ellington, North Carolina (Most Outstanding Player) Tyler Hansbrough, North Carolina Ty Lawson, North Carolina Kalin Lucas, Michigan State Goran Suton, Michigan State Tournament notes Largest tournament point differential (+121) by the champion since 1996 (a new record was set in 2016 after the Villanova Wildcats defeated the North Carolina Tar Heels). Highest attended National semifinal Games (72,456) in Final Four history, breaking the old record of 64,959 (a new record was set in 2014). Highest attended National Championship Game (72,922) in Final Four history breaking the old record of 64,959 (a new record was set in 2014). Highest total Final Four attendance (145,378) ever breaking the old record of 129,918 (a new record was set in 2014). Roy Williams is one of four active coaches to win multiple titles. Billy Donovan, Mike Krzyzewski and Jim Calhoun are the three other coaches. Nielsen ratings for the Championship Game were down 7% to 11.9/19 versus a 12.8/20 the previous year. The entire tournament averaged a 6.3/13, a 5% increase. Blake Griffin of Oklahoma was the winner of the John Wooden Award, presented by the Los Angeles Athletic Club on Friday, April 10 in Los Angeles. 708,296 fans in attendance over the course of 35 sessions. Record by conference *Morehead State won the Opening Round game. The America East, Atlantic Sun, Big Sky, Big South, Big West, CAA, Ivy, MAC, MEAC, MVC, NEC, Patriot, Southland, SoCon, SWAC, Summit, and WAC conferences all went 0–1. The columns R32, S16, E8, F4, and CG respectively stand for the Round of 32, Sweet Sixteen, Elite Eight, Final Four, and championship Game. Media Television Once again, except for the play-in game, which was telecast on ESPN, CBS and CBS College Sports Network served as broadcasters on television for the tournament. The only change from past years at the Final Four was that Jim Nantz worked with Clark Kellogg in the color commentary position instead of Billy Packer, who left CBS in July 2008. Studio: Greg Gumbel, Greg Anthony and Seth Davis Jim Nantz and Clark Kellogg and Tracy Wolfson (she was only used as a backstage reporter for the Final Four and NCAA Championship game) – First & Second Round at Greensboro, North Carolina; South Regional at Memphis, Tennessee; Final Four at Detroit, Michigan Dick Enberg or Carter Blackburn and Jay Bilas – Blackburn Thursday afternoon; Enberg Thursday night, First & Second round at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; West Regional at Glendale, Arizona Verne Lundquist and Bill Raftery – First & Second Round at Dayton, Ohio; East Regional at Boston, Massachusetts Gus Johnson and Len Elmore – First & Second Round at Minneapolis, Minnesota; Midwest Regional at Indianapolis, Indiana Kevin Harlan and Dan Bonner – First & Second Round at Portland, Oregon Ian Eagle and Jim Spanarkel – First & Second Round at Miami, Florida Craig Bolerjack and Bob Wenzel – First & Second Round at Boise, Idaho Tim Brando and Mike Gminski – First & Second Round at Kansas City, Missouri For the play-in game in Dayton, ESPN had Brent Musburger, Steve Lavin and Erin Andrews working as the announcers. Some CBS affiliates put additional game broadcasts on digital subchannels, or, as in the following two instances, on other stations: WOIO and WUAB (Raycom Media duopoly): On March 20, WOIO aired Ohio State vs. Siena, while Cleveland State vs. Wake Forest was on WUAB at the same time. The Cleveland area has a substantial number of OSU alumni, and Mansfield, although part of the Cleveland market, is equidistant to both Columbus and Cleveland. KOTV and KQCW (Griffin Media duopoly): Also on March 20, KOTV aired Oklahoma State vs. Tennessee; at the same time, Kansas vs. North Dakota State was on KQCW. The reason for this simulcast is that part of the Tulsa market includes Coffeyville and other communities at the southern end of Kansas. Radio Westwood One was once again the radio home for the tournament. Opening Round Game Marc Vandermeer and Steve Lappas – at Dayton, Ohio First/Second Round Bill Rosinski and Kyle Macy – at Greensboro, North Carolina Kevin Kugler and Pete Gillen – at Kansas City, Missouri Wayne Larrivee and John Thompson – at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Dave Sims and P.J. Carlesimo – at Portland, Oregon Ted Robinson and Bill Frieder – at Boise, Idaho Mark Champion and Kelly Tripucka – at Dayton, Ohio Tom McCarthy and Kevin Grevey – at Miami, Florida Brad Sham and Reid Gettys – at Minneapolis, Minnesota Regionals Kevin Kugler and John Thompson – East Regional at Boston, Massachusetts Ian Eagle and Pete Gillen – Midwest Regional at Indianapolis, Indiana Kevin Harlan and P.J. Carlesimo – South Regional at Memphis, Tennessee Wayne Larrivee and Bill Frieder – West Regional at Glendale, Arizona Final Four Kevin Kugler, John Thompson and Bill Raftery – at Detroit, Michigan International broadcasters : CBC Television, uses the CBS broadcast and commentators, the CBC personalities, themes and graphics. : One HD / ESPN Australia, uses the CBS broadcast and commentators. : ESPN Brasil, uses the CBS broadcast. Europe, North Africa and Middle East: ESPN America : Live/delayed on Basketball TV, and recorded on C/S9; uses the CBS broadcast and commentators. Yahoo! Sports and NCAA.com also broadcast the entire tournament live for free on the internet. See also 2009 NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament 2009 NCAA Division III men's basketball tournament 2009 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament 2009 NCAA Division II women's basketball tournament 2009 NCAA Division III women's basketball tournament 2009 National Invitation Tournament 2009 Women's National Invitation Tournament 2009 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament 2009 NAIA Division II men's basketball tournament 2009 NAIA Division I women's basketball tournament 2009 NAIA Division II women's basketball tournament 2009 College Basketball Invitational 2009 CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament 2008–09 NCAA Division I men's basketball season References NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament Sports in Portland, Oregon
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Crash Bandicoot (character)
Crash Bandicoot is the title character and main protagonist of the Crash Bandicoot series. Introduced in the 1996 video game Crash Bandicoot, Crash is a mutant eastern barred bandicoot who was genetically enhanced by the series' main antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex and soon escaped from Cortex's castle after a failed experiment in the "Cortex Vortex". Throughout the series, Crash acts as the opposition against Cortex and his schemes for world domination. While Crash has a number of offensive maneuvers at his disposal, his most distinctive technique is one in which he spins like a tornado at high speeds and knocks away almost anything that he strikes. Crash was created by Andy Gavin and Jason Rubin, and was originally designed by Charles Zembillas. Crash was intended to be a mascot character for Sony to use to compete against Nintendo's Mario and Sega's Sonic the Hedgehog. Before Crash was given his name (which stems from the visceral reaction to the character's destruction of boxes), he was referred to as "Willie the Wombat" for much of the duration of the first game's production. Crash has drawn comparisons to mascots such as Mario and Sonic the Hedgehog by reviewers. His animations have been praised, while his voice has faced criticism. He has been redesigned several times throughout many games, which have drawn mixed reactions. Concept and creation One of the main reasons Naughty Dog chose to develop Crash Bandicoot (at the time jokingly codenamed "Sonic's Ass Game") for the Sony PlayStation was Sony's lack of an existing mascot character that could compete with Sega's Sonic the Hedgehog and Nintendo's Mario. By this time video game mascots were seen as increasingly unimportant, since they were overshadowed by cross-licensing and the aging games market meant most gamers were too old to find mascots appealing, but Sony were nonetheless interested in covering all bases. Naughty Dog desired to do what Sega and Warner Bros. did with the hedgehog (Sonic) and the Tasmanian devil (Taz) respectively and incorporate an animal that was "cute, real, and no one really knew about". The team purchased a field guide on Tasmanian mammals and selected the wombat, potoroo and bandicoot as options. Andy Gavin and Jason Rubin went with "Willie the Wombat" as a temporary name for the starring character of the game. The name was never meant to be final, due both to the name sounding "too dorky" and to the existence of a non-video game property of the same name. The character was effectively a bandicoot by October 1994, but was still referred to as "Willie the Wombat" because a final name had not been formulated yet. Wanting their mascot game to be multi-dimensional in character depth as well as gameplay, Gavin and Rubin chose not to base Willie around one attribute such as "fast" or "cute". The team felt that Willie should be "goofy and fun-loving, and never talk"; the character's muteness was based on the theory that voices for video game characters were always "lame, negative, and distracted from identification with them." American Exitus artist Charles Zembillas was hired (alongside environmental artist Joe Pearson) and met with weekly to design and develop Willie and the other characters of the game. It was decided early on that there would be no connection between the real animal and Willie's final design. Instead the design of the character was determined "51% by technical and visual necessity and 49% by inspiration". To determine the color of Willie's fur, Gavin created a list of popular characters and their colors, and then made a list of earthly background possibilities (such as forests, deserts, beaches, etc.). Colors that wouldn't look good on the screen were strictly outlawed, such as red, which would "bleed horribly" on older televisions. Orange was selected as the color of Willie's fur as the last available color. Willie's head was made large and neckless to counter the low resolution of the screen and allow Willie's facial expressions to be discernible. Jason Rubin noted the increased difficulty in turning Willie's head with this type of design. Small details such as the gloves, the spots on Willie's back and a light-colored chest were added to help the player determine what side of Willie was visible based on color. Willie was not given a tail or any flappy straps of clothing due to the PlayStation's inability to properly display such pixels without flickering. The length of Willie's pants was shortened to keep his ankles from flickering as they would with longer pants. Andy Gavin owns the original ink sketches of Crash by Charles Zembillas. Willie's final game model was made from 512 polygons with the only textures being for the spots on his back and his shoelaces. It took Andy Gavin a month to settle on that number of polygons. Because of the game's use of vertex animation, Willie was capable of more facial expressions than other video game characters at or before the time. Willie's jumping, spinning and bonking mechanisms were refined as the Naughty Dog team developed the levels "Heavy Machinery" and "Generator Room". While preparing for the game's demonstration at the Electronic Entertainment Expo, the team decided to finally rename the titular character "Crash Bandicoot" (the particular name being credited to Dave Baggett and Taylor Kurosaki), with his surname being based on his canonical species and his first name stemming from the visceral reaction to the character's destruction of boxes ("Dash", "Smash" and "Bash" were other potential names). The marketing director of Universal Interactive Studios insisted that the game and character be named "Wez/Wezzy/Wuzzle the Wombat" or "Ozzie the Otzel". The name Crash Bandicoot prevailed after Naughty Dog threatened to leave the production. After Naughty Dog presented Crash Bandicoot to Sony's Japanese division, the executives of Sony Computer Entertainment Japan stated their dislike of the character and were unimpressed by the renderings of the character made specifically for the meeting. During a break following the initial meeting, Andy Gavin approached Charlotte Francis, the artist responsible for the renderings, and gave her fifteen minutes to close Crash's huge, smiling mouth to make him seem less aggressive, change his eyes from green to "two small black "Pac-Man" shapes" and make his spike of hair smaller. Sony Japan bought Crash Bandicoot for Japanese distribution after being shown the modified printout. Crash served as a mascot for Sony Computer Entertainment from his creation until September 2000 when Universal Interactive Studios and Konami entered an agreement that would enable Konami to publish a Crash Bandicoot game (which would later become Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex) for next-generation game systems, with Universal Interactive handling the production of the games; the agreement served to break the Crash Bandicoot franchise's exclusivity to Sony-produced consoles and effectively made Crash Bandicoot a mascot character for Universal rather than Sony. Crash's game model in Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex was composed of approximately 1,800 polygons, which allowed an increase in detail compared to past models, including a more complex and realistic tuft of hair, a visible uvula, stitching on his jeans and shoes and a designer label on his pants. Upon beginning development of Crash Nitro Kart, Vicarious Visions chief executive officer and chief creative officer Karthik Bala noted that Crash's physical appearance had been inconsistent since his debut in 1996 and decided to "explore the original vision of the character" in an attempt to bring him back to his roots. Charles Zembillas and Joe Pearson were tracked down and enlisted for guidance during development of the game and were faced with the challenge of evolving the character and the franchise visually while retaining their "cartoon-like charm". To redesign Crash and the other mainstay characters of the series for Crash Nitro Kart, the Vicarious Visions team reviewed a number of original development sketches from Zembillas's archives and then redesigned the main characters by incorporating details from the concept art and adding girth to the characters; Crash's appearance in the game, compared to the previous two games, sports a slightly larger nose, fuller eyebrows, and a far more textured body. Zembillas noted that "Crash is slimmer and more appealing now. There's also more emphasis on his eyes, and you can see the craftiness in his personality. That's Crash to me, and he's alive again in Nitro Kart". Voice portrayal Crash Bandicoot was originally voiced by Brendan O'Brien from 1996 to 2004; O'Brien called Jason Rubin, who was at the time looking for a voice artist, after Joe Pearson suggested he do so. O'Brien's original work was recorded at a recording studio below the Alfred Hitchcock attraction. The character was later voiced by Chip Chinery in Crash Team Racing and Steve Blum in Crash Nitro Kart. Jess Harnell voiced the character for fifteen years from 2005 to 2020, beginning with Crash Tag Team Racing to Crash Bandicoot: On the Run!. In 2020, Scott Whyte voiced the character in Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time. Carlos Alazraqui provided his voice in promotional trailers for Cortex Strikes Back. In the Japanese versions of the games, he was voiced by Kappei Yamaguchi up until the release of Nitro Kart and the Pachislot game CR Crash Bandicoot; and by Makoto Ishii in Crash Boom Bang!. In Skylanders Academy, he is voiced by Eric Rogers and later by Rhys Darby. Characteristics Crash was genetically engineered through the use of Cortex and Doctor Nitrus Brio's Evolvo-Ray. Before escaping from Doctor Neo Cortex's island fortress, Crash became romantically attached to a female bandicoot named Tawna, who was another one of Cortex's experiments. Crash's separation from Tawna at the hands of Cortex serves as the primary root of Crash's antagonism of Cortex. Crash is a very emotional character who is quick to laugh and quick to cry. While he has a danger-loving, fearless nature and loves a good fight, he prefers relaxing in the sun and rarely seeks out trouble deliberately. To the ire of his friend Crunch, but the amusement of his sister Coco, Crash is prone to impolite personal habits such as belching or scratching his posterior. Crash is generally depicted as a mute character, with the frequent exception of exclaiming "Whoa!" upon losing a life. In the Radical Entertainment games, Crash speaks in unintelligible gibberish, but gives a verbal exclamation of excitement in the ending sequence of Crash of the Titans. In the Skylanders Academy web series, he speaks in full sentences with an Australian accent and frequently uses slang. Crash narrates the epilogue of Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time in a fully articulate voice that Dalton Cooper of Game Rant described as "Morgan Freeman-esque". In the beginning of the series, Crash's sole offensive maneuvers were jumping onto his enemies and a distinctive technique in which he spins around like a tornado, kicking away anyone or anything that he strikes. In later games Crash can expand his range of abilities by defeating boss characters. The expanded abilities include a powerful splash, the ability to jump while in the air, the "Death Tornado Spin" (a variation of his spinning technique that allows him to hover through the air for a limited time), a bazooka that fires Wumpa Fruit, increased running speed, the ability to safely tip-toe on top of explosive crates, and the ability to jump at incredibly high heights. The games Crash of the Titans and Crash: Mind over Mutant allow Crash to further expand his offensive abilities with new fighting moves learned from collecting a magical substance known as "Mojo". In Skylanders: Imaginators, Crash has the ability to throw TNT crates, and can use his Yo-yo to bring in enemies to spin attack. Appearances As seen in Crash Bandicoot, Crash was once an ordinary eastern barred bandicoot before he was snatched from the wild by Doctor Neo Cortex and subjected to the Evolvo-Ray as part of Cortex's plan to make Crash the "general" of his "Cortex Commandos", which would be used to dominate the world. However, he is later deemed unworthy of being in Cortex's army and escapes from Cortex's castle. As an act of revenge and to rescue a female bandicoot named Tawna, Crash travels through the Wumpa Islands, defeating Cortex's henchmen along the way. He eventually defeats Cortex, steals his airship, and escapes alongside Tawna. A year later in Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back, Crash is sent off to get a new laptop battery for his sister Coco, but is soon abducted by Cortex, who claims to have changed his ways. Crash is then ordered to gather Crystals for Cortex while fighting off opposition from Doctor Nitrus Brio. Once Cortex reveals his hidden intentions, Crash sends him flying off into space and aids Nitrus Brio in destroying the Cortex Vortex. In Crash Bandicoot: Warped, when the remains of the space station crash into Earth and set the demonic Uka Uka free, Crash is recruited by Aku Aku to use Doctor Nefarious Tropy's Time-Twisting Machine to gather the powerful Crystals in their original places before Cortex does. Crash eventually gathers all 25 Crystals and defeats Nefarious Tropy, causing the Time-Twisting Machine to implode on itself. In Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex, Crash is recruited to gather Crystals and return a group of destructive masks named the Elementals to a hibernation state and stop Cortex's new superweapon Crunch Bandicoot. In Crash Twinsanity, after foiling another plot by Doctor Cortex to eliminate him, Crash teams up with Cortex in order to defeat the Evil Twins and restore the natural order of the universe. In Crash of the Titans, Crash aids Coco in the development of a butter-recycling device. This is interrupted when Neo Cortex arrives and kidnaps Aku Aku and Coco. Crash throws Coco's machine at Cortex's airship, severing the chain holding Aku Aku's cage, which causes the cage to fall into the nearby forest. After Crash rescues Aku Aku, they discover that Cortex and Uka Uka are stealing Mojo from a nearby temple and decide to stop them. Crash is unable to rescue his sister but manages to defeat Cortex, and he begins his search for Coco, interrogating Dingodile, Tiny Tiger, N. Gin, and Uka Uka on her whereabouts. Crash finally confronts and defeats Nina Cortex inside of the Doominator robot, liberates his sister, and averts the destruction of Wumpa Island. Feeling happy for themselves, Crash and his family decide to celebrate their victory with pancakes, which he blurts out (speaking for the first time) in joy. Soon after, in Crash: Mind over Mutant, the NV, a personal digital assistant that everyone must possess, is released to the public. However, this turns out to be a plot by Doctor Cortex and his old partner Doctor Nitrus Brio, who use the NV's Mojo-transmitting powers to control everyone who uses the device. Because Crash is unaffected by the NV, he is able to free his friends from the control of the NV and stop Cortex's and Brio's plot. Other appearances in the series Crash appears as a playable character in Team Racing and Bash. The epilogue of Team Racing states that Crash sold his life story, titled "The Color Orange", to a major film studio, set to be released by the Christmas season. In The Huge Adventure, Crash is recruited to gather Crystals to power a device built by Coco that will reverse the effects of Cortex's Planetary Minimizer, which has shrunken the Earth to the size of a grapefruit. In N-Tranced, Crash is awoken from his nap by the kidnapping of Coco and Crunch by Nefarious Tropy and N. Trance. Crash is almost kidnapped himself before being rescued by Aku Aku. He is then sent off to rescue Crunch and Coco, recruit Fake Crash, and defeat N. Trance and Nefarious Tropy. Crash is a playable character in Nitro Kart, in which he is abducted (along with other characters) by Emperor Velo XXVII and forced to compete in the Galaxy Circuit. When Velo relinquishes his power to Crash, Crash seriously considers the possibility of ruling over Velo's empire, but he refuses the offer and leaves Velo with his empire. In Ripto's Rampage, Crash is tricked into thinking that Spyro the Dragon is attacking the Wumpa Islands, but he discovers the truth after a fight on a bridge, and teams up with Spyro to defeat the combined forces of Doctor Neo Cortex and Ripto. In Tag Team Racing, Crash is recruited (along with other characters) by Ebenezer Von Clutch to gather the stolen Power Gems of his amusement park and win the park's ownership. He also finds Von Clutch's lost Black Power Gem by the end of the game. Crash is a playable character in Boom Bang!, in which he interrupts the Viscount's wish to the Super Big Power Crystal and wishes for a vast amount of Wumpa Fruit. Appearances outside of the series Crash makes a special guest appearance in Uncharted 4: A Thief's End in a playable recreation of the 'Boulder Dash' level from Crash Bandicoot. Additionally, Crash appears in Skylanders: Imaginators alongside Doctor Neo Cortex as a playable Skylander. Here he is accompanied by Aku Aku, who serves as his translator. Crash also makes recurring appearances in Skylanders Academy, being transported from his own world into the world of Skylands. Unlike his appearance in Skylanders: Imaginators, Aku Aku does not accompany him. Also unlike any of his other appearances, he speaks fluent English with an Australian accent, provided by showrunner Eric Rogers in the first season and by Rhys Darby in the third season. Crash, Coco, Aku Aku, Cortex, and Kapuna-Wa appear in the PlayStation 4 "It's time to play" commercial alongside other gaming characters. Crash and Aku Aku make a cameo appearance in Astro's Playroom. Cultural impact Merchandise Crash has been featured in two series of Crash Bandicoot action figures produced by the now-defunct Resaurus. For Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back, Resaurus produced a "Jetboard Crash" (a Crash Bandicoot figure bundled with the jetboard seen in the game) and a "Jet Pack Crash" (a goggle-wearing Crash Bandicoot figure bundled with the jet pack seen in the game). The Crash Bandicoot: Warped series featured three different figures of Crash, including one bundled with Aku Aku and Coco Bandicoot figures. A Crash figurine was released as part of the Skylanders: Imaginators starter pack for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 in October 2016; he was made to be playable across all platforms. To promote the series comeback, various shirts, keychains, and other types of merchandise was officially licensed from Activision with Numskull Product Design. Additionally, First 4 Figures plans on producing a Crash Bandicoot statue. Paleontology Paleontologists have named an extinct bandicoot from the Miocene of Australia after the character, Crash bandicoot. Although somewhat unusual for the scientific community, the name was used in an entirely unaltered form, without attempting to return to Latin or Greek roots. Reception As a mascot character, Crash has drawn numerous comparisons to competing mascots such as Mario and Sonic by reviewers. Game publications, including the 2011 version of the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition, have described Crash as one of the best and iconic video game character. Dave Halverson of GameFan praised Crash's animations, appearance and mannerisms as "100% perfection". A reviewer for GameRevolution praised Crash's "quirky mannerisms" as "always refreshing", and John Broady of GameSpot described Crash as "disarmingly cute and fuzzy". Doug Perry of IGN was critical of the character, seeing him as "insanely capitalistic", negatively comparing his voice to Luigi of the Mario series and accusing him of being "the most see-through, copycat mascot that ever existed." Louis Bedigian of GameZone also disliked Crash's voice, remarking "it is really annoying to hear a child say, 'Whoa!' every time you fall in the water, especially when you realize that the child's voice is supposed to be Crash". Crash's animations, particularly in Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex, have been praised as humorous by reviewers. Ryan Davis of GameSpot analyzed Crash's "overextended running style and self-punishing attacks" as establishing him as an "empty-headed but enthusiastic character", and compared his facial contortions to those of comedian Red Skelton. However, he was also included on IGNs of top video game characters who should die, adding that it would be a mercy killing. IGN editor Colin Moriarty stated that his games add little to innovate the series over the years, rendering the character useless. Crash's aesthetic design in the games developed by Radical Entertainment has received mixed reactions from reviewers. Ravi Sinha of GamingBolt considered the design among the worst in video games, noting that the developers should not have tried "to make Crash look 'cool'". Brian Rowe of GameRevolution noted that Crash's fingerless gloves have been replaced with "equally outdated" tribal tattoos and that Crash's personality had been altered from his "obnoxiously extreme attitude" to that of a "bluthering, googly-eyed idiot". Although Rowe wondered when and why the change happened, he concluded that "it's better than the popular goatee-of-rage that so many other platform giants are sporting these days". Arnold Katayev of PSX Extreme, while admitting that the character detail on Crash was "pretty nice", expressed unhappiness with the artistic choices made for the character; he described Crash's tribal tattoos as "a little pretentious" and noted that the increased definition on his mohawk patch made Crash come off as "trying too hard to be cool". He added that Crash's new fighting style begot a stance that consists of Crash "putting up his dukes like a boxer", which he deemed "out of character" for Crash. Finally, while critiquing the voice acting in Crash of the Titans, he remarked that Crash "especially sounds awful, largely because he doesn't actually speak - he just blabs annoying gibberish, which makes him sound like he's an infant". Matt Keller of PALGN also criticized Crash's voice, which he said made Crash sound "like a confused baby". Louis Bedigian of GameZone stated that "Crash's character design has gone from cool to goofy and now to the dreaded place of being dorky" and said that the minute and gradual changes made to Crash's design throughout the series "have really hurt Crash's appearance as a leading game character". GamePro named Crash's new design as the second worst video game character makeover ever. Craig Harris of IGN was more positive on Crash's new appearance and noted that Crash "looks a little floofier and a lot edgier, gaining a spikier Mohawk and trading in his fingerless gloves for tribal ink all up and down his arms" while comparing his incoherent squawking vocalizations to Kazooie of the Banjo-Kazooie series. He concluded that "ultimately he's been changed for the better. He looks a little cooler and more appealing than his more 'Japanese-inspired' edits over the years". References External links Crash Bandicoot at Crash Mania Animal characters in video games Anthropomorphic marsupials Anthropomorphic video game characters Crash Bandicoot characters Fictional racing drivers Genetically engineered characters in video games Male characters in video games Mutant characters in video games Orphan characters in video games Sony Interactive Entertainment protagonists Microsoft protagonists Video game characters who can move at superhuman speeds Universal Pictures cartoons and characters Universal Pictures Video game characters introduced in 1996 Video game mascots Video game protagonists Video game superheroes
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Crash Bandicoot
Crash Bandicoot is a video game franchise originally developed by Naughty Dog as an exclusive for Sony's PlayStation console. It has seen numerous installments created by various developers and published on multiple platforms. The series consists predominantly of platform games, but also includes spin-offs in the kart racing and party game genres. The series was originally produced by Universal Interactive, which later became known as Vivendi Games; in 2008, Vivendi merged with Activision, which currently owns and publishes the franchise. The games are mostly set on the fictitious Wumpa Islands, an archipelago situated to the south of Australia where humans and mutant animals co-exist, although other locations are common. The protagonist of the series is a genetically enhanced bandicoot named Crash, whose quiet life on the Wumpa Islands is often interrupted by the games' main antagonist, Doctor Neo Cortex, who created Crash and wants him dead as he is a failed experiment. In most games, Crash must defeat Cortex and foil his plans for world domination. History 1996–2000: PlayStation exclusivity After presenting Way of the Warrior to Mark Cerny of Universal Interactive Studios, Naughty Dog was signed on to the company for three additional games. In August 1994, Andy Gavin and Jason Rubin began their move from Boston, Massachusetts to Los Angeles, California. During the trip, Gavin and Rubin decided to create a 3D action-platform game, taking inspiration from 16-bit-era games such as Donkey Kong Country, Mario and Sonic. Because the player would be forced to constantly look at the character's backside, the game was jokingly code-named "Sonic's Ass Game". The basic technology for the game and the Crash Bandicoot series as a whole was created somewhere near Gary, Indiana. The rough game theory was designed near Colorado. Soon afterward, Gavin and Rubin discarded their previous game design for Al O. Saurus and Dinestein, a side-scrolling video game based on time travel and scientists genetically merged with dinosaurs. After moving into the Universal Interactive backlot, Gavin and Rubin met with Mark Cerny, discussed the design of the game and made an agreement to go into production. In September 1994, Gavin and Rubin decided to develop their new game for the PlayStation, after which Rubin began character design. In November 1994, Naughty Dog hired Dave Baggett, their first employee and a friend of Gavin's from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Together, Gavin and Baggett created the development tool "Game Oriented Object LISP" (GOOL), which would be used to create the characters and gameplay of the game. In January 1995, Rubin became concerned about the programmer-to-artist ratio and hired Bob Rafei and Taylor Kurosaki as additional artists. Needing a lead character for the game, Naughty Dog recruited artists Charles Zembillas and Joe Pearson and met with them weekly to create the characters and environments of the game, eventually creating a character named "Willy the Wombat". The marketing director of Universal Interactive insisted that the character be named "Wez", "Wuzzles" or "Wizzy the Wombat". On creating the levels for the game, Zembillas and Pearson first sketched each environment, designing and creating additional individual elements later. They aimed for an organic, overgrown look to the game and worked to completely avoid straight lines and 90-degree corners. A Naughty Dog artist sketched every single background object in the game before it was modeled. The artists were tasked with making the best use of textures and reducing the amount of geometry. Dark and light elements were juxtaposed to create visual interest and separate geometry. The Naughty Dog artists would squint when sketching, texturing and playing the levels to make sure they could be played by light value alone. Correct use of color was an important goal for Naughty Dog's artists; for example, mutually accentuating colors were chosen as the theme for the "Lost City" and "Sunset Vista" levels. The interior of Doctor Neo Cortex's castle was designed to reflect Cortex's twisted mind. After the main character's creation, the team went into three months of developing the game. The game first became functional in April 1995 and became playable in June 1995. The first 3 levels in the game were completed by August 1995. However, they were judged to be too difficult to appear so early in the game and were moved to the game's power plant area. Artist Charlotte Francis joined Naughty Dog at around this time. In September 1995, a videotape of Crash Bandicoot was shown to Sony Computer Entertainment behind closed doors. While playing the game during development, Rubin realized that there were many empty areas in the game due to the PlayStation's inability to process numerous on-screen enemy characters at the same time. Additionally, players were solving the game's puzzles too fast. Rubin soon came up with the idea of a box and putting various symbols on the sides to create puzzles. Breaking these boxes would serve to fill in the boring parts of the levels and give the player additional puzzles. The first "crate" was placed in the game in January 1996, and would become the primary gameplay element of the series. Willy the Wombat's destruction of the crates would eventually lead him to be renamed "Crash Bandicoot". In March 1996, Sony agreed to publish Crash Bandicoot, which went into the alpha stage in April 1996. Crash Bandicoot was first shown at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 1996. Development of Cortex Strikes Back began in October 1996. For the game, Andy Gavin created a new engine and scripting language named "Game Oriented Object LISP 2" (GOOL 2) that was three times faster than the previous game's engine, could handle ten times the animation frames and twice the polygon count. The jungle levels were originally to have featured ground fog, but this was abandoned when magazines and the public began to heavily criticize other developers for using fog to hide polygon count. Sunlight and depth accentuation was experimented with for these levels. Wanting to have some "dirty" locations in the game, Naughty Dog worked in the sewer levels and added color contrast to the levels to show depth and break up the repetitive monotony of the endless sewer pipes. A flat plane z-buffer was created for the game; because the water surfaces and mud in the jungle had to be a flat plane and be exactly flat on the Y-axis, there could be no waves and the subdividing plane could not be at an odd angle. The effect only worked on objects in the foreground and was only used on Crash, some enemies and a few boxes at the same time. The soundtrack of Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back was provided by Mutato Muzika (consisting of Mark Mothersbaugh and Josh Mancell), while the sound effects were created by Universal Sound Studios (consisting of Mike Gollom, Ron Horwitz and Kevin Spears). The characters were designed by Charles Zembillas of American Exitus, Incorporated. Clancy Brown provided the voice of Doctor Neo Cortex, while Brendan O'Brien voiced the dual role of Doctor N. Gin and Doctor Nitrus Brio and Vicki Winters voiced Coco Bandicoot. The game was unveiled at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in Atlanta, Georgia in June 1997 to a positive response from the game industry. The game went into the alpha stage in August 1997. Around that time, Dan Arey, the lead designer of Gex: Enter the Gecko, joined Naughty Dog and streamlined the level design. Like the first, the second game was a commercial success, green-lighting a third game. Production of Crash Bandicoot: Warped began in January 1998, with Naughty Dog given only 10½ months to complete the game. Programmers Andy Gavin, Stephen White and Greg Omi created three new gameplay engines for the game. Two of the three new engines were three-dimensional in nature and were created for the airplane and jet-ski levels; the third new engine was created for the motorcycle levels in the style of a driving simulator. The new engines combined make up a third of the game, while the other two-thirds of the game consist of the tweaked engine used in the previous games. Jason Rubin explained that the "classic" engine and game style was preserved due to the success of the previous two games and went on to say that "were we to abandon that style of gameplay, that would mean that we would be abandoning a significant proportion of gamers out there". An arbitrary plane z-buffer was created for the jet-ski and flooded Egyptian hallway levels of the game. To create a completely fluid feel for the water on these levels, an environment map that reflects the sky was fitted onto the surface of the water. A real shadow was given to the Crash character at the request of the Sony Computer Entertainment America producers, who were "sick of that little discus that's following him around." To create an "arcade" experience in the airplane levels and to differentiate them from flight simulators, the enemy planes were programmed to come out in front of the player and give the player ample time to shoot them before they turn around and shoot the player rather than come up behind the player and hit them from behind. The Relic system was introduced to give players a reason to return to the game after it has been completed. Also in 1998, Tiger Electronics released a series called 99X, each containing a black and white video game as opposed to the LCD games they were commonly known for. These were handhelds fitted with a dot-matrix screen, allowing for a wide variety of backgrounds and gameplay for a single game. Although running a software program stored in ROM, the systems were dedicated consoles, similar to the plug-and-play TV games of the 2000s decade. A Crash Bandicoot game, simply titled Crash Bandicoot, was released as part of this series. Despite its name and being a platformer like its predecessors, it is not an adaptation of nor bears any relation to the 1996 game, instead featuring a plot of its own involving Crash retrieving treasure from a mansion haunted by a ghost named Mr. Crumb and his cronies. This was the first handheld game to be released in the series, as well as the first to include a multiplayer mode. While initially Naughty Dog was only signed on to make three games, Crash Team Racing was a possible Crash 3 as it started out in production after Crash 2 and the game which was finished first in production would be released first. However, Naughty Dog had already gotten far into the project and decided to finish it and release it. David Baggett produced the game's soundtrack, with Mark Mothersbaugh and Josh Mancell of Mutato Muzika composing the music. Sound effects were created by Mike Gollum, Ron Horwitz and Kevin Spears of Universal Sound Studios. This marked the end of Naughty Dog's Crash Bandicoot games. With the release of Crash Bash, Universal Interactive's publishing deal with SCE had ended. Crash's prominent status within the video game community prompted the company to make Crash a multiplatform series, giving the series to Mark Cerny and Vicarious Visions to develop two separate but connected games. 2001–2006: Transition to third party Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex was originally to be designed by Cerny and published by Sony. After a falling-out between Universal and the two entities, developer Traveller's Tales was forced to alter the game from a free-roaming title to a standard Crash title. Traveller's Tales had to begin development of the game from scratch and were given only twelve months to complete it. The game was released in 2001 by Universal and Konami (who would publish the game in Japan) for the PlayStation 2, and was followed by ports for GameCube and Xbox in 2002; it received mixed reviews but made the Greatest Hits lineup due to strong sales. The following year, Universal would release their first Crash Bandicoot game, a handheld exclusive called The Huge Adventure developed by Vicarious Visions for the Game Boy Advance and released to favorable reviews. It would warrant a sequel, N-Tranced, which would also be met to similar reception. During this time Traveller's Tales' Oxford Studio were developing a new Crash game for consoles. This game was to be Crash Nitro Kart but due to unknown circumstances Universal moved development of Crash Nitro Kart over to Vicarious Visions. Traveller's Tales Oxford Studio then moved on to their next project, Crash Bandicoot Evolution. Crash Bandicoot Evolution was set to create a new form of gameplay for Crash, with the game planned to be a platformer/RPG with many different elements planned for the game; it eventually became Crash Twinsanity. Although Traveller's Tales planned on creating a Crash Bandicoot game titled Cortex Chaos and a sequel to Crash Twinsanity, Universal never picked up the games, effectively cancelling them. Vicarious Visions's fourth and final game was Crash Bandicoot Purple: Ripto's Rampage for the Game Boy Advance, a crossover with the Spyro franchise and companion game to Spyro Orange: The Cortex Conspiracy. Although Cortex Chaos and the sequel to Crash Twinsanity were cancelled, Traveller's Tales was nonetheless commissioned to develop one final Crash Bandicoot game. It was to be a kart racing game titled Crash Clash Racing. However, Traveller's Tales was taken off the project as it was given to Radical Entertainment. The new studio proceeded to change the project into an entirely new game, keeping only two core ideas, clashing and fusion. The game marked the first game published under Universal's Sierra Entertainment brand, and the first game to use Radical's Titanium Engine, receiving the title Crash Tag Team Racing. The following year Dimps developed Crash Boom Bang!, which was released on July 20, 2006 for the Nintendo DS. Due to the game being developed in Japan it features redesigns of the characters originally used in Japanese promotion artwork of the original PlayStation games, though Crash's model was altered to resemble his Twinsanity model in international releases. The game received highly negative reviews from critics and is considered one of the worst Crash games of all time. 2007–2010: Redesign Development on Crash of the Titans, Radical's second title, began after the completion of Crash Tag Team Racing. The graphics of the Wii version of the game was one of Radical Entertainment's main focuses in the game's development, with Radical stating that the Wii has "a lot of horsepower under the hood" and expressing their desire to make full use of it. They also considered implementing a feature to connect the Wii to DS during gameplay, but stopped due to technical issues and time limitations. The Xbox 360 version got a few extra months of development time to improve its graphics before setting a final release date. The game was the last of the series to be published by Vivendi Games before its merge with Activision. While the game was being developed, the title's main character, Crash Bandicoot, became the new mascot of the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society's "School and Youth" programs in an effort to promote the battle against blood cancer. In a bid to further promote the game, a Hummer was painted with imagery from the game and displayed at the Annual Balloon Fiesta in Bristol, United Kingdom. A "Monster Edition" of the game was released exclusively in Europe on October 12, 2007 for the PlayStation 2. This special edition of the game features "Making-of" videos, water-on tattoos, game hints, a cheat code list, and the game's E3 and theatrical trailers in multiple languages. Due to its "mild cartoon violence and language", the game received a PG rating from the BBFC. Development on Crash: Mind over Mutant, Radical's third and final Crash title, began immediately after the completion of Crash of the Titans. The idea of preserving a Titan for later use came from the play testing sessions of Crash of the Titans, in which the testers were found to be reluctant to leave the Titans behind after an epic battle was won. Fans of the series were also a source of inspiration for Crash: Mind over Mutant, having such wishes as a free-roaming environment, Coco Bandicoot being a playable character and the return of the character Doctor Nitrus Brio. Full camera control was considered for the game, but was rejected for graphical reasons and to avoid having to insert a split-screen view in the cooperation mode. Online gameplay was also considered as a feature in the finished game, but was omitted due to the brief development schedule. Coco Bandicoot as a playable character was omitted from the PlayStation 2 version of the game due to her distinct animations taking up much of the console's memory. The Wii version of Crash: Mind over Mutant was created first, with the graphics scaled up for the Xbox 360, and scaled down for the PlayStation 2. In 2010, rumors appeared that Radical Entertainment was developing a fourth Crash Bandicoot title, under the name Crash Landed, but due to large layoffs in the studio, the game was cancelled with all remaining developers put to work on Prototype 2. The DS edition of this game would be in development by Renegade Kid for approximately two weeks before similarly being cancelled by Activision. High Impact Games was developing a reboot of Crash Team Racing for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Wii, but the game was cancelled by Activision before the initial prototype. Several ideas for the game eventually made it into DreamWorks Super Star Kartz. 2011–2016: Hiatus On a Kotaku interview with then-Activision CEO Eric Hirshberg regarding the future of the Crash series, he said, "I don't have anything official to announce, but I can speak as an individual, I love Crash Bandicoot. Those were some of my favorite video games growing up. And I would love to find a way to bring him back, if we could." Andy Gavin, co-creator of Crash Bandicoot, has said that he would love to see a HD version of the marsupial's first four games, or even a full-blown reboot. Jason Rubin, co-creator of Crash Bandicoot, said he was hopeful that Activision would "bring Crash back to their glory days and that the character is still very dear to fans between 18–49 years". A new design of Crash Bandicoot was spotted in a photo from the Vicarious Visions's studio, raising rumors that a new game might have been in development, though this was later confirmed to be concept art from a previous Crash Bandicoot cancelled game. In June 2013, co-creator Andy Gavin suggested ways to revitalize the series. "Crash needs a total reboot. There's an opportunity to reset the history, and go back to his creation story and the original conflict with Cortex. In that context, you could reprise classic Crash 1 and 2's settings and villains. It would make sense to use a more modern, free-roaming style. I would concentrate on Looney Tunes-esque animation and really addictive action. That's what we did with the original Crash, and there's no reason it couldn't be done today. Given the current Crash games, people forget that he was once cool. Our Crash had a certain whimsical edge to him. Sure, it was goofy—but it wasn't dumb.". In November 2013, rumours began circulating that Sony bought the rights to the franchise from Activision. Speculations were fueled after the release of PlayStation 4's #4ThePlayers campaign, featuring a road sign with a silhouette of Crash, and an arrow pointing towards the orange diamond logo of Sony Computer Entertainment. Publications such as IGN reported that Crash was removed from Activision's official website, which seemed to add further credibility to the rumor. However, shortly after, this was proven false, as an Activision representative told Game Informer that "[Activision still owns] Crash Bandicoot and we continue to explore ways in which we could bring the beloved series to life". In July 2014, Sony Computer Entertainment CEO Andrew House revealed that reviving the Crash Bandicoot series was something that they have been thinking about, saying "It's never off the table.", and Naughty Dog also revealed through an IGN interview the possibility that they may revive both series of Crash Bandicoot as well as Jak & Daxter. In January 2015, however, Naughty Dog's Josh Scherr stated in an interview with Game Informer that Naughty Dog did not miss working on either series and had no intention of bringing them back to life. Despite this, Naughty Dog co-president Evan Wells stated that the company would love to return to Crash Bandicoot but did not see it as viable. On December 5, 2015, rumors of a possible Crash Bandicoot return flared up once again when SIE Worldwide Studios Chairman and SCEA President and CEO Shawn Layden appeared onstage at PlayStation Experience wearing a Crash Bandicoot shirt. Layden, however, never mentioned the series at the event, and has yet to address why he wore the shirt. In February 2016, a new Crash game appeared to be on the horizon when NECA Director of Product Development Randy Falk stated in an interview with YouTuber Pixel Dan that the company had "a lot of stuff going on with Sony" before mentioning that "I see they're bringing Crash Bandicoot back, so there's some great stuff there." Shortly after, however, an NECA representative clarified with GameSpot that Falk's comments were misunderstood, and that Falk was only speaking of a hypothetical return of the series after seeing a fan-made Crash art just before being interviewed. Naughty Dog's 2016 game Uncharted 4: A Thief's End features protagonist Nathan Drake playing a level from the original Crash Bandicoot, further adding to the rumor that a return for the series was imminent. Speculation was fueled even further when it was discovered that Activision's legal ownership of the franchise was not mentioned anywhere in the game's credits, sparking rumors that the franchise had been purchased by Sony. Lex Lang, the then-most-recent voice actor of Dr. Neo Cortex, also hinted on Facebook that he was asked to reprise his role. However, shortly after, the rumors and speculations were derailed when Sony VP of Publisher Relations Adam Boyes confirmed on Twitter that Activision still owns the rights to the franchise, and Lang clarified that he was not teasing a Crash Bandicoot revival, and that he had not been asked to return to the series, but would be open to potentially lending his voice to a new Crash game in the future. 2016–present: Revival At E3 2016 during Sony's press conference, after years of rumors, speculation and outcry, Crash Bandicoot finally made his official return when it was announced, in a timed partnership with Activision, that the first three games from the original PlayStation would be remade from the ground up. Crash would also be a playable character in Activision's then-upcoming toys-to-life game Skylanders: Imaginators, released on October 16, 2016. It was announced at Gamescom 2016 that Dr. Neo Cortex would also be playable in Imaginators, and that a Crash-themed level was created for the game, "Thumpin' Wumpa Islands". The Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy, a collection of remasters of the first three games in the series, was developed by Vicarious Visions and released for the PlayStation 4 on June 30, 2017. Vicarious Visions had also expressed interest in making a new Crash Bandicoot game following the N. Sane Trilogys release. Two additional levels were added as post-launch downloadable content, and the N. Sane Trilogy was eventually ported to the Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows on June 29, 2018 with assistance from Skylanders developer Toys for Bob. During an interview with Metro Game Central, Vicarious Visions producer Kara Massie refused to rule out the possibility of a remaster of Crash Team Racing for the PlayStation 4. Massie has also acknowledged that she was repeatedly asked about revivals of Crash Team Racing and Spyro the Dragon by fans. At the time, Massie had not confirmed if the games would be in the works following the release of N. Sane Trilogy. A remake of Crash Team Racing was teased on December 4, 2018 when then-PlayStation Access presenter Hollie Bennett shared an image of two orange fuzzy dice on Twitter, with an announcement to come two days later at the 2018 Game Awards. The remaster, titled Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled, was formally revealed at the awards show and released on June 21, 2019 for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch with no current plans for a PC version. The remaster was developed from the ground up by Beenox, another subsidiary of Activision, and also incorporates remastered characters, tracks & karts from Crash Nitro Kart (previously developed by Vicarious Visions) as well as remastered characters, karts, and skins from Crash Tag Team Racing. The game also features retro-themed content exclusive to the PlayStation 4 version and monthly timed Grand Prix races with additional unlockable characters at no extra charge. On June 21, 2020, the official Crash Bandicoot social media channels posted a teaser revealing the title of the next Crash Bandicoot game, Crash Bandicoot 4: It's About Time; the game was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on October 2, 2020, and for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 5, and Xbox Series X and Series S on March 12, 2021. Crash Bandicoot: On the Run!, an endless running game for Android and iOS, was announced in July 2020, after soft launching on Android in select regions in Southeast Asia on April 22, 2020 under the title Crash Bandicoot Mobile. The game, developed and published by King in collaboration with Activision, was released on March 25, 2021. In December 2022, multiplayer game Crash Team Rumble was announced for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S, at The Game Awards. The game was released on 20 June 2023. Common gameplay elements Crash Bandicoot is primarily a platforming series. The goal of each level is to guide Crash from the beginning to the end, travelling either into the screen, towards the player or left and right in a side-scrolling manner. Several levels place Crash in unique situations which require the use of motorbikes, jet skis, submarines and various wild animals to complete the level. In the original Crash Bandicoot, Crash's move-set is rather limited; he can run, jump and spin his way through treacherous environments and hostile creatures. Cortex Strikes Back introduces several new moves for Crash to utilize, including a high jump, high spin jump, body slam and slide attack. Warped expands on this by awarding the player with new abilities after each boss is defeated, which was carried over to The Wrath of Cortex. The player can also spin and slide at the same time when pressing the right buttons. Collectibles The most common collectible in the series is Wumpa Fruit, which is found on the main path of most levels, as well as inside most crates. Collecting 100 Wumpa Fruits will award the player an extra life. Wumpa Fruit takes on other uses in most spin-off titles, such as restoring health in certain Crash Bash levels and increasing weapon power in Crash Team Racing. In recent titles, Wumpa Fruit is used to replenish Crash's health, with Mojo effectively replacing it as the new main collectible item. By collecting Aku Aku masks, Crash can be protected from harm from most enemies and obstacles (though certain elements such as bottomless pits will cause him to lose a life regardless). Crash can collect up to two masks for two extra hits of damage, with an additional mask granting him temporary invincibility. When Crash collects two masks, Aku Aku will turn gold in most games; however, in Crash Twinsanity, Aku Aku will sparkle. The other major recurring valuables Crash finds on his adventures include Gems and Crystals. Most Gems in the series are won by breaking open every crate in a level. Starting with Cortex Strikes Back, an additional five colored Gems can be obtained by completing special tasks or finding hidden areas. Crash Twinsanity contains six colored Gems per level, most of which are earned by solving a small puzzle. Crystals, which play a key role in the plot of most Crash games following Cortex Strikes Back, are usually required to make progress through most games. Relics, first introduced in Warped, are earned in Time Trial modes, with more valuable relics earned for higher times. In the original game, players can also obtain two keys after completing two Cortex bonus rounds, which are used to unlock two extra levels. Crates Crates come in several varieties and can be found in abundance across Crash's world. Most crates will assist the player's journey through the game, providing Wumpa Fruit, additional hit points in the form of Aku Aku masks and extra lives. In most games, players will be awarded a gem if they break all the crates in a level. TNT and Nitro Crates are the only boxes that can damage Crash. TNT Crates have a three-second fuse when jumped on, but Nitro Crates will explode instantly upon any contact with Crash or anything else that runs into them. Switch Boxes (distinguished by an exclamation mark) are used to make previously invisible crates appear. A green Switch Box will detonate all Nitro Crates in the level. Crates marked with a "C" are checkpoints that Crash will return to if he is killed during play. Locked Crates are protected by a metal casing that can only be destroyed with Crash's body slam move, while Spring Crates allow him to reach high up areas by bouncing on them. Slot Boxes rapidly switch between multiple types of crates, and if they are not broken in time, will become metallic and indestructible. Time Boxes are a special crate found exclusively in Time Trial mode. They will freeze the clock for the number of seconds displayed on the box, increasing the player's chance of beating the time trial. Structure The original Crash Bandicoot uses a fairly linear structure in which Crash clears through levels on a map, with some areas accessible by locating gems. Beginning with Cortex Strikes Back, the game usually takes place in a hub world called a Warp Room, with levels divided up into sets of five. To progress, the player must find and collect a Crystal within each of the stages, which can be played in any order, before facing the boss of each room. From Twinsanity onwards, the games took a more free-roaming approach, with Crash travelling various areas on foot. Music Numerous composers have contributed music to the Crash Bandicoot series. Mutato Muzika's Josh Mancell was responsible for the music of the first four games. After the fourth game, numerous other composers were responsible for the music in other games. Steve Duckworth composed music for Crash Bash, Andy Blythe and Marten Joustra for The Wrath of Cortex, Ashif Hakik and Todd Masten for Crash Nitro Kart and Spiralmouth composing a cappella for Twinsanity. The music for Tag Team Racing was composed by both Spiralmouth and Marc Baril, while Crash of the Titans and Mind Over Mutant were composed by Baril alone. Developers and publishers The first four Crash Bandicoot games were developed by Naughty Dog. Bash was developed by Eurocom Entertainment Software. The Wrath of Cortex and Twinsanity were respectively developed by Traveller's Tales and its Oxford studio. The Huge Adventure (Crash Bandicoot XS in Europe), 2: N-Tranced, Nitro Kart, Purple: Ripto's Rampage (Crash Bandicoot Fusion in Europe) and N. Sane Trilogy were developed by Vicarious Visions. Tag Team Racing, Crash of the Titans and Mind over Mutant were developed by Radical Entertainment. Boom Bang! was developed by Dimps. Team Racing Nitro-Fueled was developed by Beenox. It's About Time was developed by Toys for Bob. The first five Crash titles were published worldwide by Sony Computer Entertainment. Wrath of Cortex up until Twinsanity were published by Universal Interactive (now the defunct Vivendi Games). Tag Team Racing, Boom Bang! and Crash of the Titans were published by Sierra Entertainment. All games since Mind over Mutant have been published by Activision. From Wrath of Cortex until Nitro Kart, Konami handled publishing and distribution for the Japanese market and also co-published the worldwide release of The Wrath of Cortex for PS2. The Japanese versions of N. Sane Trilogy were published by Sony Interactive Entertainment for PS4 and by Sega of Japan for Nintendo Switch; Sega subsequently handled Team Racing Nitro-Fueled for Japan as well. Other media Manga In 1998, Coro Coro Comics developed a manga series titled Crash Bandicoot—Dansu! de Jump! na Daibōken, loosely based on the events of Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back. The series was drawn and produced by Ari Kawashima, with only two manga volumes being published to date, leaving the total number of comics unknown. Animation During the production of Crash Bandicoot, a pair of cutscenes featuring hand-drawn animation were produced by Universal Animation Studios to serve as the game's intro and outro, as well as act as source material for a potential animated series if the game was well-received and commercially successful. The hand-drawn cutscenes were dropped after Sony Computer Entertainment picked up Crash Bandicoot for publication, as Sony desired to push the PlayStation's 3D polygonal graphics. The cutscenes were uploaded to YouTube by producer David Siller in 2015. In 2007, The Animation Picture Company produced four web-short films, to promote the game Crash of the Titans, titled Crash Bandicoot: No Use Crying, Crash Bandicoot Monster Truck, Crash Bandicoot – Titan Idol and Crash Bandicoot – Have Another, all lasting for about three minutes. These are available for free download on the Xbox 360 video service or are available to watch on the web, originally available for viewing on the Crash Bandicoot official website. Crash also makes a guest appearance in the Skylanders Academy animated series. At the end of the episode "The Skylands Are Falling!", due to the actions of the Skylanders, Crash is inadvertently pulled through a dimensional rift while battling Cortex, ending up in the Skylands. The episode "Crash Landing" features Crash allying with Spyro and the Skylanders to recover the dark relic needed to return him to the Wumpa Islands. Crash's appearance in Skylanders Academy differs from his appearance in Skylanders: Imaginators, but unlike other appearances, he is capable of speaking full sentences with an Australian accent. The third season of Skylanders Academy brought the character back starring Rhys Darby, who replaces Eric Rogers due to stepping down as a showrunner. Crash returned in the episode "Days of Future Crash", in which Dark Spyro and Eruptor brought him to the future for different reasons, messing up their timeline in the process. After retrieving a new time travel device, they sent him home. Crash appeared again in the season finale, "Raiders of the Lost Arkus, Part II", where he and Coco (voiced by Tara Strong) were brought from the Wumpa Islands by the Skylanders and Flynn to stop Kaos from destroying the Core of Light. Coco's appearance in the series seems to be a combination of her Titans and Mind over Mutant design: like Crash, she also speaks in an Australian accent and seems to not only be capable of building her own weapons but able to control technology to the point of utilizing a thought-controlled boomerang in battle. On January 13, 2021, test footage from a scrapped Crash Bandicoot series was leaked on Reddit. The series would have been a co-production between Activision and Amazon Studios. The series was allegedly canceled due to a script dispute. In science The earliest-known bandicoot fossil, from the Miocene of Australia, has been given the binomial Crash bandicoot. Reception The Crash Bandicoot series has been a commercial success. As of 2007, the series altogether has sold over 40 million units worldwide and grossed over $1 billion. According to Gamasutra, the first Crash Bandicoot game had sold 6.8 million units as of November 2003, making it the tenth-best-selling PlayStation game of all time. Cortex Strikes Back sold 3.85 million units in the U.S., while Warped sold 3.74 million. The last 2 games on the PlayStation console, Crash Team Racing and Crash Bash, sold 1.9 and 1.1 million units in the U.S., respectively. According to a Sony press release, the first four titles had sold over 20 million units altogether worldwide by July 2000. Crash Bandicoot: The Wrath of Cortex has sold 1.56 million units in the U.S. On February 12, 2019, Activision announced in a press release for its "4th quarter and 2018 Financial Results", that N. Sane Trilogy has sold-in over 10 million units since its initial release in 2017. The Crash Bandicoot series is one of the few Western video game series to find blockbuster success in Japan. Cortex Strikes Back and Warped sold 1.3 and 1.4 million units in the country, respectively, while the PlayStation 2 version of Wrath of Cortex sold 212,000 units. References Further reading External links Activision Blizzard franchises Video game franchises introduced in 1996 Video games set on fictional islands Activision games Naughty Dog games Video game franchises
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois%20Lenski
Lois Lenski
Lois Lenore Lenski Covey (October 14, 1893 – September 11, 1974) was a Newbery Medal-winning author and illustrator of picture books and children's literature. Beginning in 1927 with her first books, Skipping Village and Jack Horner's Pie: A Book of Nursery Rhymes, Lenski published 98 books, including several posthumously. Her work includes children's picture books and illustrated chapter books, songbooks, poetry, short stories, her 1972 autobiography, Journey into Childhood, and essays about books and children's literature. Her best-known bodies of work include the "Mr. Small" series of picture books (1934–62); her "Historical" series of novels, including the Newbery Honor-winning titles Phebe Fairchild: Her Book (1936) and Indian Captive: The Story of Mary Jemison (1941); and her "Regional" series, including Newbery Medal-winning Strawberry Girl (1945) and Children's Book Award-winning Judy's Journey (1947). Lenski also provided illustrations for books by other authors, including the first edition of The Little Engine that Could by Watty Piper (1930), and the first four volumes of Maud Hart Lovelace's Betsy-Tacy series (1940-1943). In 1967 Lenski established the Lois Lenski Covey Foundation, which provides grants for book purchases to libraries and organizations serving children who are socially and economically at risk. Biography Early life and education Lenski was the fourth of five children born to Richard C. H. Lenski, a Prussian-born Lutheran clergyman and theologian, and Marietta Young Lenski, a Franklin County, Ohio native, who was a schoolteacher before her marriage. When Lois was six, her family moved to the small town of Anna, Ohio, where her father was called to be a pastor. Lenski was encouraged to pursue her talent for art by adults in her life, including teachers, a visiting artist—who, she later recalled, advised her father to buy her a high-quality set of paints because she had talent—and her father, who did so. But she also remembered that no one encouraged her to "be original" or draw what she saw around her during her childhood, describing her work until the age of 15 as copying from other pictures. After commuting by train to high school in Sidney, Ohio, Lenski graduated in 1911. She then attended Ohio State University, graduating in 1915 with a B.S. in education and a teaching certificate. Her minor was in fine arts, with her coursework concentrating on drawing and lettering. After graduating from Ohio State, Lenski received a scholarship to the Art Students League in New York, where she studied until 1920. During this time she also studied illustration at the School of Industrial Art in New York. In 1920, Lenski traveled to London, studying at the Westminster School of Art in 1920-21. She then spent several months traveling in Italy before returning to the United States. Marriage and family life On June 8, 1921, immediately after her return from Italy, Lenski married Arthur Covey, a muralist who had been one of her instructors at the School of Industrial Art and for whom she had worked as an assistant on mural projects before she left for London. Covey was a widower with two young children, and in 1929 Lenski and Covey had a son, Stephen. The family then moved from Westchester County to "Greenacres," a farmhouse in Harwinton, Connecticut, built in 1790. Covey, who was 16 years older than Lenski, expected his wife to take full responsibility for the household and children even if doing so meant that she would have no time for creative work. Lenski, however, refused to give up, later writing that Covey's attitude helped her to realize how important her work was to her. She hired household help when she could and carved out time to work in her studio. Influence on her literary career As Lenski progressed in her literary and artistic career, her family and home life served as important sources of inspiration for her work. Two of the first books she wrote and illustrated, Skipping Village (1927) and A Little Girl of 1900 (1928), drew upon her childhood in small-town Ohio, which she idealized, describing it in her autobiography as "simple, sincere, and wholesome." The "Mr. Small" series of books was inspired by watching her young son Stephen and his friends play with toy trucks, airplanes and other vehicles and realizing that the children tended to see themselves as the operators of the vehicles, like the eponymous Mr. Small, rather than anthropomorphizing them into characters. She would later base two other picture book series, the "Davy" and "Debbie" books, on her experiences with a grandson and granddaughter. Her first historical novel, Phebe Fairchild: Her Book, was inspired by living at Greenacres, describing life as it could have been lived at the house in the 1830s. In the early 1940s, Lenski was told by her doctor that for the sake of her health she needed to avoid Connecticut's harsh winters. The family began to spend their winters in the southern United States, first visiting Louisiana and then Florida. During these trips Lenski observed the social and economic differences between this region of the country and her familiar Midwest and Northeast, inspiring her to write about the ways of life experienced by children in diverse American regions. Although her writing was interrupted by illness in the early 1950s, she continued the project of writing regional stories until 1968. Later life In 1951 Lenski and Covey built a house at Tarpon Springs, Florida, where they spent half of each year. After Covey's death in 1960, Lenski moved permanently to Florida. She continued to write, publishing her last picture book, Debbie and her Pets, in 1971 and her autobiography in 1972. In 1967 she established the Lois Lenski Covey Foundation. Beginning in 1959, her achievements were recognized with honorary doctorates from Wartburg College (1959), UNC-Greensboro (1962), and Capital University in Columbus, Ohio, where her father had once taught (1966). In 1967 she was awarded the Regina Medal by the Catholic Library Association and the Children's Collection Medal by the University of Southern Mississippi. Lenski died September 11, 1974, at her home in Tarpon Springs. Early artistic and literary career Lenski's first professional goal was to become a painter. Her oil paintings were shown at the Weyhe Gallery in New York in 1927 and her watercolors were shown at the Ferargils Gallery in New York in 1932. During this period she also worked as an illustrator, beginning with jobs she took to support herself while studying at the Art Students League between 1915 and 1920. Her first publication was a coloring book called A Children's Frieze Book: To-Put-Together for Home Decoration (1918), for which she was paid $100. She also produced three books of paper dolls for the same publisher, Platt and Munk, during 1918 and 1919. In 1920 Lenski chose to study in London in part because it was the longstanding center of children's book publishing, a field in which American educators, publishers and librarians began to engage seriously only after World War I. In London she illustrated three children's books for the publisher John Lane, including new editions of two stories by Wind in the Willows author Kenneth Grahame. After returning to the United States she continued to work as an illustrator, focusing primarily on collections of folktales and fairy tales during the 1920s. Among the first books for which she provided text as well as illustrations was a collection of nursery rhymes. In 1927, pioneering children's book editor Helen Dean Fish suggested that Lenski should try writing and illustrating her own stories. She originally wrote her first book, Skipping Village, as poetry, changing it to prose at the request of her editor. Decades later, she would return to writing poetry and song lyrics. In 1932 Lenski published The Little Family, an innovative picture book which was the first such book sized to fit small children's hands (the current edition of the book measures 5 × 5.8 inches). Until the mid-1940s Lenski continued to illustrate other authors' books as well as her own, working with writers including Maud Hart Lovelace, Watty Piper, and Hugh Lofting. However, her biographer Bobbie Malone notes that while Lenski wrote about her work as an illustrator in the 1920s in her autobiography, she did not mention her later work of this type, even on "landmark" books like Piper's Little Engine and Lovelace's Betsy-Tacy books. Development of style and methods Although Lenski's many books included diverse subject matter and were written for children of a range of ages, she considered their underlying common thread to be the ordinary experiences of children in their world. In 1964 she wrote: Through all my poems run the same themes, concepts and values that rear again and again in my stories. It is of interest to note that my very first book, Skipping Village, was originally titled: A Child's Town. This theme - a child and his town, or a child and his environment - can be traced through all my books. It is obvious in two of my latest picture books, At Our House and I Went For a Walk, and is behind all of Mr. Small's activities. It runs through my historical books, which portray children and family life in early periods of our history, and it is the basic theme behind my Regional and Roundabout America books. Whether a short picture book, a scholarly historical study, or an interpretation of some phase of life in contemporary America, my books are essentially family stories, reflecting the child in his environment. Historical novels In the early 1930s, Lenski began to apply her approach to storytelling to children's historical fiction. Her first historical novel, Phebe Fairchild: Her Book (1936), was inspired by her life in Connecticut. The story was about a girl's experience of what might now be termed culture shock when she was sent to spend a year with her Puritanical relatives in rural Connecticut during the 1830s. Lenski conducted extensive research for Phebe Fairchild and her subsequent historical and regional novels, including site visits and archival research in her quest to accurately present the physical settings, material culture, speech patterns, and other aspects of the daily lives of her protagonists, as well as their broader social and historical contexts. Malone explains that when Lenski's editor Helen Dean Fish saw a draft of the book, she objected to the way that Lenski, seeking to accurately portray how 1830s-era New England culture marginalized and subordinated children's experiences, had pushed the character of Phebe to the margins of the story. Fish insisted that for the sake of the plot Phebe had to be made central. As Lenski wrote more historical novels, she learned how to create compelling child protagonists, how to balance story and historical details, and how to use her illustrations to support her goal of showing readers how people lived their daily lives. Regional and Roundabout America novels When Lenski and her family began to spend winters in the Southeastern United States during the early 1940s, she was struck by the differences between this part of the country and her familiar New England and Midwest. The first books in what would become her Regional series were inspired by her winter visits to the South, which led her to the conclusion that while American children could read about the lives of their contemporaries in other countries, there were no books available to introduce the children of various American regions to one another. During the winter of 1941-42, while she was staying in New Orleans, she became acquainted with children and their families in the village of Lafitte, near Bayou Barataria. The friends she made in the community and the stories they told her became an important part of Bayou Suzette (1943), the story of a Cajun (or, as Lenski said, "bayou-French") girl in the bayou country during the early twentieth century. The following winter Lenski visited Lakeland, Florida, where she again befriended local people, conducted interviews and read about the area's history, and observed daily life around her, including the children who participated in the strawberry harvest. The resulting book, Strawberry Girl (1945), told the story of a family from North Carolina who migrated to Florida at the turn of the twentieth century and their interactions with the region's "cracker" culture. By the time that Strawberry Girl won the Newbery Award in 1946, Lenski had begun to understand it, along with Bayou Suzette and her work in progress Blue Ridge Billy, about a musical boy living in the North Carolina mountains during the early twentieth century, as the beginning of a series of regional books representing a new direction in children's literature. Although the first three Regional books were historical novels, with Judy's Journey (1947) Lenski turned her attention to the contemporary issue of migrant labor. Many of the subsequent Regional books would also have contemporary settings. After Judy's Journey—which, like its predecessors, was set in areas that Lenski had visited during her seasonal travels—Lenski also broadened the geographic scope of her research and set regional stories throughout the country. As the series grew in popularity, its fans wrote to her and invited her to visit their communities. Some of the books directly resulted from this correspondence; for example, in 1947 Lenski traveled to Mississippi County, Arkansas, after a class in the rural community of Yarbro heard her read aloud on the radio and invited her to visit. Cotton in My Sack (1949), a story about a young girl in a sharecropping family, was inspired by her stay in northeast Arkansas. In the early 1950s, Lenski began to use the research she had compiled for her regional books for a second series, "Roundabout America." These books were requested by teachers and designed for children who were too old for her picture books, but too young for her regional and historical novels. This series included regionally-themed short story collections and short chapter books. Lenski continued to write Regional and Roundabout books until 1968. The final title, Deer Valley Girl, was set in northern Vermont and presented issues including animal welfare, the complexity of life in a small, close-knit community, and the tensions created by outsiders coming to the valley to hunt its deer. Poetry, lyrics and plays After a two-decade hiatus, Lenski returned to poetry in the late 1940s, while she was researching and writing Cotton in My Sack. She later explained that she needed a song for her white cotton-pickers, and as the only picking songs she had found during her research belonged to the distinctive traditions of African-American pickers, she wrote a song for her characters. In the early 1950s, a prolonged illness prevented her from working on books, but she was able to write poems and lyrics. Collaborating with the author and composer Clyde Robert Bulla, she produced a book of hymns and two other songbooks. When she returned to writing books, she began to include songs and poems in each Regional and Roundabout title. In the foreword of The Life I Live, a collection of poems published in 1964, she explained that "I feel that I have been better able to express the essence of their [children's] lives through the medium of verse than in my story-telling." Lenski's concern about the plight of migrant laborers, which she had discovered while researching Judy's Journey, led to her involvement with the Division of Home Missions of the National Council of Churches, which began to advocate and provide services for migrant workers and their children during the early 1950s. In 1952 she and Bulla wrote three plays about migrant families as a way of calling attention to the issue. In The Bean Pickers, an African American mother and her two children followed the bean crops north along the east coast; A Change of Heart was about a Tejano family in Illinois; and Strangers in a Strange Land followed a displaced mining family from Kentucky to Arkansas for cotton-picking. The plays were distributed by the NCC for use by children. Authorial approach Beginning with her first historical novels, Lenski sought to depict her characters' environments as accurately as possible through her writing and illustrations. She understood her role as that of an outsider whose job was to observe, document, and share what she had learned with other outsiders. Malone argues that this attitude reflected the broader patterns of documentary realism that came to prominence in American arts and letters during the Great Depression, especially through the work of WPA-affiliated artists and writers. Lenski often wrote dialogue in dialect form, explaining in the foreword to Blue Ridge Billy that "to give the flavor of a region, to suggest the moods of the people, the atmosphere of the place, speech cannot be overlooked." She wrote, "it seems to me sacrilege to transfer their speech to correct, grammatical, School-Reader English, made easy enough for the dullest child to read." Overall, she committed herself to transmitting the experiences of her informants without sanitizing them to remove sad or difficult material; she wrote that her child readers agreed with this decision, since "life is not all happy." In addition to including childhood problems and concerns in her plots, she revealed the grim and hazardous aspects of life in the communities represented by her characters, including descriptions of poverty, social and economic instability, and violence that she had observed or learned about through her research. In her acceptance speech for the Newbery Award for Strawberry Girl, a book which includes a running conflict between the family of her heroine and their drunken, feckless and violent neighbor, Lenski stated that leaving out such things would "paint a false picture." Nonetheless, Lenski's pedagogical goals extended beyond presenting accurate portraits of the communities she described. She wanted her books to convey a sense of tolerance and acceptance of difference, mutual respect, empathy and pride in the country's cultural richness. She explained her approach as follows: "We need to know our country better. We need to know not only our own region, where our roots are firmly put down, but other regions where people different from ourselves—people of different races, faiths, cultures and backgrounds…..When we know them, understand how they live and why, we will think of them as 'people'—human beings like ourselves." She also intended the books to promote empathy and, through the characters' experiences, serve as examples of social and emotional growth. She wrote, "I am trying to say to children that all people are flesh and blood and have feelings like themselves, no matter where they live or how simply they live or how little they have; that man's material comforts should not be the end and object of life. I am trying to point out that people of character, people who are guided by spiritual values, come often from simple surroundings, and are worthy of our admiration and even our emulation." Controversies and criticism When they were published, Lenski's books were considered innovative because of their realistic, multi-faceted depictions of the communities she presented. Comparing them to other children's literature of the day, critics described Lenski's Regional books as "grim" because of their focus on the experiences of members of socially and economically marginalized groups in the United States. By emphasizing accuracy and refusing to sanitize her stories, Lenski aligned herself with progressive librarians and educators who believed that children's literature should take a realistic approach to everyday life and promote increased social awareness in young readers. Their opponents believed that childhood should be treated as an innocent time, and books for children should shield them from life's problems rather than introducing problems to them. Modern reassessments of the books acknowledge the importance of her innovations but have become much more critical of the didactic elements of her work. Kathleen Hardee Arsenaut concludes that Lenski's "determined view that good character and loving families will invariably overcome social prejudice and economic injustice strikes the modern reader as naive and simplistic," and that her insistence on happy endings through "hopefulness, kindness and self-control" undermined her effectiveness as a purveyor of social realism and at times, as in the case of her work to publicize the conditions faced by migrant workers, an activist. Lenski's portrayals of relationships between white and non-white people, in particular the interactions between Native American and white characters in Bayou Suzette and Indian Captive, have also been criticized. Children's literature scholar Debbie Reese further questions Lenski's reputation for historical accuracy, pointing out that in writing Indian Captive Lenski departed from the historical record of Mary Jemison's captivity in order to convey that "whiteness is special." Selected works Picture book series Mr. Small books (1934-1962) Davy books (1941-1961) Debbie books (1967–71) Seasons books (1945–53) Historical series Phebe Fairchild, Her Book (1936, Newbery Honor book, 2020 new release) A-Going to the Westward (1937) Bound Girl of Cobble Hill (1938) Ocean-Born Mary (1939, 2020 new release) Blueberry Corners (1940) Indian Captive: The Story of Mary Jemison (1941, Newbery Honor book) Puritan Adventure (1944) Roundabout America series We Live in the South (1952) Peanuts for Billy Ben (1952) We Live in the City (1954) Project Boy (1954) Berries in the Scoop (1956) We Live by the River (1956) Little Sioux Girl (1958) We Live in the Country (1960) We Live in the Southwest (1962) We Live in the North(1965) High-Rise Secret (1966) Regional series Bayou Suzette (1943, Ohioana Book Award winner for juvenile literature) Strawberry Girl (1945, Newbery Award winner) Blue Ridge Billy (1946) Judy's Journey (1947, Children's Book Award winner) Boom Town Boy (1948) Cotton in My Sack (1949) Texas Tomboy (1950) Prairie School (1951) Mama Hattie's Girl (1953) Corn-Farm Boy (1954) San Francisco Boy (1955) Flood Friday (1956) Houseboat Girl (1957) Coal Camp Girl (1959) Shoo-Fly Girl (1963) To Be a Logger (1967) Deer Valley Girl (1968) References External links Books Written and Illustrated by Lois Lenski (Illinois State University) Farms, Fields and Florida: Lois Lenski Illustrating the South (Florida State University) The Lois Lenski Covey Foundation Major collections of Lois Lenski papers and documents: Lois Lenski Papers, 1915–1970 at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro Lois Lenski Papers at the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley Lois Lenski Photograph Collection at the University of California, Berkeley Lois Lenski Papers at the University of Southern Mississippi Lois Lenski Papers at Florida State University Lois Lenski Collection at Syracuse University Lois Lenski Papers at the University of Minnesota Lois Lenski Collection at Illinois State University 1893 births 1974 deaths Art Students League of New York alumni American children's writers Newbery Medal winners Ohio State University College of Education and Human Ecology alumni Newbery Honor winners American women artists American women novelists Writers who illustrated their own writing American people of Prussian descent American women children's writers 20th-century American women writers 20th-century American novelists People from Harwinton, Connecticut Writers from Springfield, Ohio Novelists from New York (state) Novelists from Ohio People from Tarpon Springs, Florida
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20change%20adaptation
Climate change adaptation
Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change. These can be both current or expected impacts. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people. It also aims to exploit opportunities. Humans may also intervene to help adjustment for natural systems. There are many adaptation strategies or options. They can help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. We can classify adaptation actions in four ways. These are infrastructural and technological; institutional; behavioural and cultural; and nature-based options. The need for adaptation varies from place to place. It depends on the risk to human or ecological systems. Adaptation is particularly important in developing countries. This is because developing countries are most vulnerable to climate change. So they bear the brunt of the effects of climate change. Adaptation needs are high for food and water. They are high for other sectors that are important for economic output, jobs and incomes. Adaptation planning is important to help countries manage climate risks. Plans, policies or strategies are in place in more than 70% of countries. Other levels of government like cities and provinces also use adaptation planning. So do economic sectors. Developing countries can receive international funding to help develop national adaptation plans. This is important to help them implement more adaptation. The adaptation carried out so far is not enough to manage risks at current levels of climate change. And adaptation must also anticipate future risks of climate change. The costs of climate change adaptation are likely to cost billions of dollars a year for the coming decades. In many cases the cost will be less than the damage that it avoids. Definition The IPCC defines climate change adaptation in this way: "In human systems, as the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects in order to moderate harm or take advantage of beneficial opportunities." "In natural systems, adaptation is the process of adjustment to actual climate and its effects; human intervention may facilitate this." Adaptation actions can be incremental or transformative. Incremental actions are actions that aim to maintain the essence and integrity of a system. Transformative actions are actions that change the fundamental attributes of a system in response to climate change and its impacts. Understanding the need Research on climate change adaptation has been ongoing since the 1990s. The number and variety of subtopics has greatly increased since then. Adaptation has become an established policy area in the 2010s and since the Paris agreement, and an important topic for policy research. Climate change impacts research Scientific research into climate change adaptation generally starts with analyses of the likely effects of climate change on people, ecosystems and the environment. These impacts cover its effects on lives, livelihoods, health and well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, and infrastructure. Impacts may include changed agricultural yields, increased floods, and droughts or coral reef bleaching. Analysis of such impacts is an important step in understanding current and future adaptation needs and options. As of 2022, the level of warming is 1.2°C (2.2°F) above levels before the industrial revolution. It is on track to increase to 2.5 to 2.9°C (4.5 to 5.2°F) by the end of the century. This is causing a variety of secondary effects. Many negative effects of climate change involve changes in extremes or the way conditions vary rather than changes in average conditions. For example, the average sea level in a port might not be as important as the height of water during a storm surge. That is because a storm surge can cause flooding. The average rainfall in an area might not be as important as how frequent and severe droughts and extreme precipitation events become. Disaster risks, response and preparedness Climate change contributes to disaster risk. So experts sometimes see climate change adaptation as one of many processes within disaster risk reduction. In turn, disaster risk reduction is part of the broader consideration of sustainable development. Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction have similar goals (to reduce potential impacts of hazards and increase the resilience of people at risk). They use similar concepts and are informed by similar sources and studies. Disasters are often triggered by natural hazards. A natural event such as a fire or flood is not of itself a disaster: it's only when it affects people or is caused by them that is counts as a disaster. It is argued that natural disasters are always linked to human action or inaction or rooted in anthropogenic processes. Disasters, economic loss and the underlying vulnerabilities that drive risk are increasing. Global risks like climate change are having major impacts everywhere. Scientists forecast climate change will increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather events and disasters. So adaptation may include measures to increase preparedness and relevant disaster response capacities. Aims For humans, adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm, and to exploit opportunities. For natural systems, humans may intervene to help adjustment. Policy aims The Paris Agreement of 2015 requires countries to keep global temperature rise this century to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. Even if greenhouse gas emissions are stopped relatively soon, global warming and its effects will last many years. This is due to the inertia of the climate system. So both carbon neutrality ("net zero") and adaptation are necessary. The Global Goal on Adaptation was also established under the Paris Agreement. The specific targets and indicators for the Global Goal are in development as of 2023. It will support the long-term adaptation goals of the governments that are parties to the agreement. It also aims to fund support for the most vulnerable countries’ adaptation needs in the context of the 1.5/2°C goal. It has three core components. These are reducing vulnerability to climate change, enhancing adaptive capacity, and strengthening resilience. Reduce risk factors: vulnerability and exposure Adaptation can help decrease climate risk by addressing three interacting risk factors. These are hazards, vulnerability and exposure. It is not possible to directly reduce hazards. This is because hazards are affected by current and future changes in climate. Instead, adaptation addresses the risks of climate impacts that arise from the way climate-related hazards interact with the exposure and vulnerability of human and ecological systems. Exposure refers to the presence of people, livelihoods, ecosystems and other assets in places that could suffer negative effects. It is possible to reduce exposure by retreating from areas with high climate risks, such as floodplains. Improving systems for early warnings and evacuations are other ways to reduce exposure. The IPCC defines climate change vulnerability as "the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change. It can apply to humans but also to natural systems. Human and ecosystem vulnerability are interdependent. According to the IPCC, climate change vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. Sensitivity to climate change could be reduced by for example increasing the storage capacity of a reservoir, or planting crops that are more resistant to climate variability. It is also possible to reduce vulnerability in towns and cities with green garden spaces. These can reduce heat stress and food insecurity for low-income neighbourhoods. Ecosystem-based adaptation is one way to reduce vulnerability to climate hazards. For instance, mangroves have the ability to dampen storm energy. So they can help prevent flooding. In this way, protection of the mangrove ecosystem can be a form of adaptation. Insurance and livelihood diversification increase resilience and decrease vulnerability. Other ways to decrease vulnerability include strengthening social protection and building infrastructure more resistant to hazards. Increase adaptive capacity Adaptive capacity in the context of climate change covers human, natural or managed systems. It looks at how they respond to both climate variability and extremes. It covers the ability of a system to adjust to climate change to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences. Adaptive capacity is not the same as adaptation itself. Adaptive capacity is the ability to reduce the likelihood of negative impacts of climate-related hazards. It does this through the ability to design and implement effective adaptation strategies, or to react to evolving hazards and stresses. Societies that can respond to change quickly and successfully have a high adaptive capacity. Conversely, high adaptive capacity does not necessarily lead to successful adaptation action. It does not necessarily succeed in goals of equity and enhancing well-being. For example, adaptive capacity in Western Europe is generally considered to be high. Experts have documented the risks of warmer winters increasing the range of livestock diseases. But many parts of Europe were still badly affected by outbreaks of bluetongue virus in livestock in 2007. In general, adaptation capacity differs between high and low-income countries. By some indices such as ND-GAIN, high-income countries tend to have higher adaptive capacity. However, there is strong variation within countries. The determinants of adaptive capacity include: Economic resources: Wealthier nations are better able to bear the costs of adaptation to climate change than poorer ones. Technology: Lack of technology can impede adaptation. Information and skills: Information and trained personnel are necessary to assess and implement successful adaptation options. Social infrastructure Institutions: Nations with well-developed social institutions are likely to have greater adaptive capacity than those with less effective institutions. These are typically developing nations and economies in transition. Equity: Some believe that adaptive capacity is greater where there are government institutions and arrangements in place that allow equitable access to resources. Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development. In general higher levels of development mean higher adaptive capacity. However, some development locks people into certain patterns or behaviours. And the most developed areas may have low adaptation capacity to new types of natural hazards that they have not previously experienced. Measures to promote sustainable development often overlap with those for adaptive capacity. Both types of activity can reduce climate risk while also yielding development benefits. These activities can include: Improving access to resources, reducing poverty, lowering inequities of resources and wealth among groups, improving education and information, improving infrastructure, improving institutional capacity and efficiency, and promoting local indigenous practices, knowledge, and experiences. Strengthening resilience The IPCC considers climate resilience to be “the capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance”. It includes the abilities to reorganise and learn. This definition is similar to that of climate change adaptation. However resilience involves a more systematic approach to absorbing change. It involves using those changes to become more efficient. The idea is that people can intervene to reorganise the system when disturbance creates an opportunity to do so. They could guide the reorganisation in more desirable directions such as social or development goals. Implemented adaptation most often builds upon resilience as a way of bouncing back to recover after a disturbance. Experts consider it to be incremental rather than transformational. On the other hand, climate resilience-focused projects can be activities to promote and support transformational adaptation. This is because transformational adaptation is connected with implementation at scale and ideally at the system-level. Strengthening resilience is therefore important for maintaining a capacity for transformation. Transformations, and the processes of transition, cover the major systems and sectors at scale. These are energy, land and ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial and societal. Transformations may fail if they do not integrate social justice, consider power differences and political inclusion, and if they do not deliver improvements in incomes and wellbeing for everyone. Climate resilient development is a closely related area of work and research topic that has recently emerged. It describes situations in which adaptation, mitigation and development solutions are pursued together. It is able to benefit from synergies from among the actions and reduce trade-offs. Co-benefits with mitigation Strategies to limit climate change are complementary to efforts to adapt to it. Limiting warming, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and removing them from the atmosphere, is also known as climate change mitigation. There are some synergies or co-benefits between adaptation and mitigation. Synergies include the benefits of public transport for both mitigation and adaptation. Public transport has lower greenhouse gas emissions per kilometer travelled than cars. A good public transport network also increases resilience in case of disasters. This is because evacuation and emergency access becomes easier. Reduced air pollution from public transport improves health. This in turn may lead to improved economic resilience, as healthy workers perform better. Options by type of action There are many adaptation responses. We sometimes call them adaptation measures, strategies or solutions. They help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. Current adaptation focuses on near-term climate risks. It also focuses on particular sectors, such as water and agriculture, and on regions, such as Africa and Asia. It is important to close gaps between adaptation that is carried out and the needs relative to today's climate in order to reduce risks to a tolerable level. However, future adaptation must also anticipate future climate change risks. Some options may become less effective or entirely unfeasible as global warming increases. Adaptation responses fall into four categories that all directly aim to reduce risks and exploit opportunities: Infrastructural and technological adaptation (including engineering, built environment, and high-tech solutions); Institutional adaptation (economic organizations, laws and regulation, government policies and programmes); Behavioural and cultural (individual and household strategies as well as social and community approaches); Nature-based solutions (including ecosystem-based adaptation options). We can also group options is in three categories: 1. Structural and physical adaptation (including engineering and built environment, technological, ecosystem-based, services); 2. Social adaptation (educational, informational, behavioural); 3. Institutional adaptation (economic organizations, laws and regulation, government policies and programmes). Other ways to distinguish types of adaptation are anticipatory versus reactive, autonomous versus planned and incremental versus transformational. Incremental adaptation actions aim to maintain the essence and integrity of a system. Transformative actions change the fundamental attributes of a system in response to climate change and its impacts. Autonomous adaptation is adaptation responds to experienced climate and its effects. It does not involve explicit planning and does not specifically focus on addressing climate change. Planned adaptation can be reactive or anticipatory. Anticipatory adaptation is undertaken before impacts are apparent. Relying on autonomous adaptation to climate change can result in substantial costs. It is possible to avoid many of these costs with planned adaptation. Infrastructural and technological options Built environment Built environment options include installing or upgrading infrastructure to protect against flooding, sea level rise, heatwaves and extreme heat. They also include infrastructure to respond to changed rainfall patterns in agriculture. This could be infrastructure for irrigation. These are explained further in the section below "by type of climate change impact". Early warning systems Climate services Institutional options Institutional responses include zoning regulations, new building codes, new insurance schemes, and coordination mechanisms. Policies are important tools to integrate issues of climate change adaptation. At the national level, adaptation strategies appear in National Adaptation Plans (NAPS) and National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA). They also occur in national climate change policies and strategies. These are at different levels of development in different countries and in cities. This is discussed further in the section below on "implementation". Cities, states, and provinces often have considerable responsibility in land use planning, public health, and disaster management. Institutional adaptation actions occur more frequently in cities than in other sectors. Some have begun to adapt to threats intensified by climate change, such as flooding, bushfires, heatwaves, and rising sea levels. Building codes Managing the codes or regulations that buildings must conform to is important for keeping people healthy and comfortable during extremes of hot and cold and protecting them from floods. There are many ways to do this. They include increasing the insulation values, adding solar shading, increasing natural ventilation or passive cooling, codes for green roofs to reduce urban heat island effects or requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations. Land use zoning controls are central to investment in urban development. They can reduce risks to areas threatened by floods and landslides. Insurance Insurance spreads the financial impact of flooding and other extreme weather events. There is an increasing availability of such options. For example, index-based insurance is a new product which triggers payment when weather indices such as precipitation or temperature cross a threshold. It aims to help customers such as farmers deal with production risks. Access to reinsurance may make cities more resilient. Where there are failures in the private insurance market, the public sector can subsidize premiums. One study identified key equity issues for policy considerations: Transferring risk to the public purse does not reduce overall risk; Governments can spread the cost of losses across time rather than space; Governments can force home-owners in low-risk areas to cross-subsidize the insurance premiums of those in high-risk areas; Cross-subsidization is increasingly difficult for private sector insurers operating in a competitive market; Governments can tax people to pay for tomorrow's disaster. Government-subsidized insurance, such as the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program, comes under criticism for providing a perverse incentive to develop properties in hazardous areas. This increases overall risk. Insurance can also undermine other efforts such as property level protection and resilience to increase adaptation. Appropriate land-use policies can counter this behavioural effect. These policies limit new construction where there are current or future climate risks. They also encourage the adoption of resilient building codes to mitigate potential damages. Coordination mechanisms Coordination helps achieve goals shared by a range of people or organizations. Examples are information-sharing or joint implementation of adaptation options. Coordination helps use resources effectively. It avoids duplication, promotes consistency across government, and makes it easier for all people and organizations involved to understand the work. In the food production sector, adaptation projects financed through the UNFCCC often include coordination between national governments and administrations at the state, provincial or city level. There are fewer examples of coordination between community-level and national government. Behavioural and cultural options Individuals and households play a central role in adaptation. There are many examples particularly in the global south. Behavioural adaptation is a change in the strategies, practices and actions that help to reduce risk. These can include protecting homes from flooding, protecting crops from drought, and adopting different income-earning activities. Behavioural change is the most common form of adaptation. Change in diets and food waste Food waste spoilage increases with exposure to higher temperatures and humidity. It also increases with extreme events such as flooding and contamination. This can happen at different points in the food supply chain. Thus it can be a risk to food security and nutrition. Adaptation measures can review the production, processing and other handling practices of suppliers. Examples include further sorting to separate damaged products, drying the product for better storage or improved packaging. Other behaviour change options for retailers and consumers include accepting fruit and vegetables that appear less than perfect, redistributing food surpluses, and lowering prices on nearly expired food. Dietary change options in regions with excess consumption of calories include replacing meat and dairy foods with a higher share of plant-based foods. This has both mitigation and adaptation benefits. Plant-based options have much lower energy and water requirements. Adaptation options can investigate the dietary patterns that are better suited to the regional, socioeconomic and cultural context. Social-cultural norms strongly affect preferences for foods. Policies such as subsidies, taxes, and marketing can also support dietary choices that help adaptation. Change in livelihood strategies Agriculture offers many opportunities for adaptation. These include changing planting times, or changing to crops and livestock that are better adapted to climate conditions and presence of pests. Other examples are breeding more resilient crops and selecting genetically modified crops. All these aim to improve food security and nutrition. Seasonal migration Seasonal migration or mobility includes traditional strategies such as pastoralism or seeking seasonal employment in urban centres. and is They are normally voluntary and economically motivated. Weather fluctuations and extremes can influence migration. Weather variability is an important contributor to declines in agricultural incomes and employment. Climate change has made these impacts more likely. As a result migration has increased, particularly rural to urban movement. Migration, including seasonal migration, counts as behavioural climate adaptation. But many other factors influence migration decisions. It is difficult to say how much climate change influences migration. Nature-based options Nature-based solutions (NBS) work with nature and ecosystems to provide benefits to both societies and overall biodiversity. In the context of climate change, they provide adaptation and mitigation options that benefit and support wild species and habitats. In doing this they often contribute to other sustainable development goals. Nature-based solutions is an overarching term that includes actions known as ecosystem-based adaptation. However NBS is not restricted to climate change, and often also refers to climate change mitigation. So it is a less specific term. Both approaches require benefits to people and nature to be delivered simultaneously. Supporting ecosystems and biodiversity Ecosystems adapt to global warming depending on their resilience to climate change. Humans can help adaptation in ecosystems in order to strengthen biodiversity. One example is to increase links between ecosystems so that species can migrate on their own to more favourable climate conditions. Another is to assist this migration through human transport of plants or animals. Another example is to use scientific research and development to help coral reefs survive climate change. Protection and restoration of natural and semi-natural areas also helps build resilience, making it easier for ecosystems to adapt. Supporting people and societies Many actions that promote adaptation in ecosystems also help humans adapt via ecosystem-based adaptation and nature-based solutions. For instance, restoration of natural fire regimes makes catastrophic fires less likely and reduces the human exposure to this hazard. Giving rivers more space allows natural systems to store more water. This makes floods in inhabited areas less likely. The provision of green spaces and tree planting creates shade for livestock. There is a trade-off between agricultural production and the restoration of ecosystems in some areas. Options by type of impact Some adaptation options tackle specific climate hazards like floods or drought. Other options emerge when there are risks from different hazards as well as other factors that contribute to them such as with migration. Flooding Flooding can occur in cities or towns as urban flooding. It can also take place by the sea as coastal flooding. Sea level rise can make coastal flooding worse. In some areas there are also risks of glacial lake outburst floods. There are many adaptation options for flooding: Installing better flood defences such as flood barriers, sea walls and increased pumping capacity Installing devices to prevent seawater from backflowing into storm drains Rainwater storage to deal with increased run-off from rainfall. This includes reducing paved areas or changing to water-permeable pavements, adding water-buffering vegetation, adding underground storage tanks, and subsidizing household rain barrels Raising pumps at wastewater treatment plants Buying out homeowners in flood-prone areas Raising street level to prevent flooding Using and protecting mangroves Glacial lakes in danger of outburst flooding can have their moraines replaced with concrete dams to provide protection. This may also provide hydroelectric power More frequent drenching rains may make it necessary to increase the capacity of stormwater systems. This separates stormwater from blackwater, so that overflows in peak periods do not contaminate rivers. One example is the SMART Tunnel in Kuala Lumpur. New York City produced a comprehensive report for its Rebuilding and Resiliency initiative after Hurricane Sandy. It includes making buildings less prone to flooding. It also aims to make specific problems encountered during and after the storm less likely to recur. These include weeks-long fuel shortages even in unaffected areas due to legal and transportation problems, flooded health care facilities, insurance premium increases, damage to electricity and steam generation and distribution networks, and flooding of subway and roadway tunnels. Sea level rise Heat waves A 2020 study projects that regions inhabited by one third of the human population could become as hot as the hottest parts of the Sahara within 50 years. This will happen without a change in patterns of population growth and without migration, unless there is a sharp reduction in greenhouse gas emissions to limit warming to 1.5 °C. The most affected regions have little adaptive capacity as of 2020. Cities are particularly affected by heat waves due to the urban heat island effect. Climate change does not cause urban heat islands. But it leads to more frequent and more intense heat waves which in turn amplify the urban heat island effect in cities. Compact, dense urban development may increase the urban heat island effect. This results in higher temperatures and increased exposure. Tree cover and green space can reduce heat in cities. They act as sources of shade and promote evaporative cooling. Other options include green roofs, passive daytime radiative cooling applications, and the use of lighter-coloured surfaces and less absorptive building materials in urban areas. These reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat. It may be necessary to change city trees to more heat-tolerant varieties. Methods for adapting to increased heat include: The use and development of air conditioning and cooling systems. Adding air conditioning can make schools and workplaces cooler. But it results in additional greenhouse gas emissions unless it uses renewable energy. Solar-energy passive cooling systems for houses and/or refrigeration. Changed rainfall patterns in agriculture Cclimate change is altering global rainfall patterns. This affects agriculture. Rainfed agriculture accounts for 80% of global agriculture. Many of the 852 million poor people in the world live in parts of Asia and Africa that depend on rainfall to cultivate food crops. Climate change will modify rainfall, evaporation, runoff, and soil moisture storage. Extended drought can cause the failure of small and marginal farms. This results in increased economic, political and social disruption. Water availability strongly influences all kinds of agriculture. Changes in total seasonal precipitation or its pattern of variability are both important. Moisture stress during flowering, pollination, and grain-filling harms most crops. It is particularly harmful to corn, soybeans, and wheat. Increased evaporation from the soil and accelerated transpiration in the plants themselves will cause moisture stress. There are many adaptation options. One is to develop crop varieties with greater drought tolerance and another is to build local rainwater storage. Using small planting basins to harvest water in Zimbabwe has boosted maize yields. This happens whether rainfall is abundant or scarce. And in Niger they have led to three or fourfold increases in millet yields. Climate change can threaten food security and water security. It is possible to adapt food systems to improve food security and prevent negative impacts from climate change in the future. More spending on irrigation Demand for water for irrigation is likely to rise in a warmer climate. This will increase competition between agriculture and urban and industrial users. Agriculture is already the largest consumer of water in semi-arid regions. Falling water tables and the resulting increase in energy to pump water will make irrigation more expensive. This is particularly the case when drier conditions will require more water per acre. Other strategies can make the most efficient use of water resources. The International Water Management Institute has suggested five strategies that could help Asia feed its growing population in light of climate change. These are modernizing existing irrigation schemes to suit modern methods of farming; supporting farmers' efforts to find their own water supplies by tapping into groundwater in a sustainable way; looking beyond conventional Participatory Irrigation Management schemes by working with the private sector; expanding capacity and knowledge; and investing outside the irrigation sector. Drought and desertification Reforestation is one way to stop desertification fueled by climate change and non-sustainable land use. One of the most important projects is the Great Green Wall that aims to stop the southward expansion of the Sahara desert. By 2018 only 15% of it had been carried out. But there are already many positive effects. These include the restoration of over 12 million acres (5 million hectares) of degraded land in Nigeria; the planting of roughly 30 million acres of drought-resistant trees across Senegal; and the restoration of 37 million acres of land in Ethiopia. Tree maintenance led to the refilling of groundwater wells with drinking water, additional food supplies for rural towns, and new sources of work and income for villagers. Added migration pressures Migration events have many causes. The environment is one of many factors. Economic, demographic or political factors are often important in migration decisions. Climate change is an indirect or less important cause. Migration is a form of adaptation. People may be able to generate more income, diversify livelihoods, and spread climate risk. But there are other ways of looking at migration and environmental change. Migration can be a human rights issue or a security issue. The human rights framing suggests developing protection frameworks for migrants. Increased border security may be an implication of treating migration as a national security issue. It is possible to combine both approaches, taking national concerns into account in accordance with human rights. Would-be migrants often need access to social and financial capital. These include support networks in the chosen destination and funds or physical resources to move. Migration is often the last adaptive response households will take when they face environmental factors that threaten their livelihoods and other strategies would not work. Measures to increase adaptive capacity, such as social protection and promoting women's empowerment, can help people with little power in migration decisions. Sometimes people are unwilling or unable to migrate. In such cases it may be necessary for the government to intervene to keep people safe. Many discussions around migration are based on projections. Relatively few use current migration data. Migration related to sudden events like hurricanes, wildfires, heavy rains, floods, and landslides is often short-distance, involuntary, and temporary. Slow-impact events such as droughts and slowly rising temperatures have more mixed effects. But they are more likely to lead to longer-term changes. International impacts and cascading risk International climate risks are climate risks that cross national borders. Sometimes the impacts of climate change in one country or region can have further consequences for people in other countries. Risks can spread from one country to a neighbouring country, or from one country to distant regions. Risks can also cascade and have knock-on effects elsewhere, across multiple borders and sectors. For example, an impact of the floods in Thailand in 2011 was disruption to manufacturing supply chains affecting the automotive sector and electronics industry in Japan, Europe and the USA. Options for adapting are less developed. They include developing resilient infrastructure in the originating country, increasing storage facilities to allow more buffer in the recipient country, or diversifying and re-routing trade. Options by sector This section looks at the main sectors and systems affected by climate change. Experts have assessed the risks and adaptation options for them. Ecosystems and their services The main risks to ecosystems from climate change are biodiversity loss, ecosystem structure change, increased tree mortality, increased wildfire, and ecosystem carbon losses. These risks are linked. Loss of species can increase the risks to ecosystem health. Wildfire is an increasing risk for people as well as to ecosystems in many parts of the world. Wildfires and increased pest infestations due to climate change caused much of the recent tree mortality in North America. Risks to seas and coastal areas include coral bleaching linked with ocean warming. This can change the composition of ecosystems. Coral bleaching and mortality also increase the risks of flooding on nearby shorelines and islands. Ocean acidification attributed to climate change drives change in coral reefs and other ecosystems such as rocky shores and kelp forests. Ecosystems can respond to climatic and other environmental pressures in different ways. Individual organisms can respond through growth, movement and other developmental processes. Species and populations can relocate or genetically adapt. Human interventions can make ecosystems more resilient and help species adapt. Examples are protecting larger areas of semi-natural habitat and creating links between parts of the landscape to help species move. Ecosystem-based adaptation actions provide benefits for both ecosystems and humans. They include restoring coastal and river systems to reduce flood risk and improve water quality, creating more green areas in cities to reduce temperatures, and reinstating natural fire regimes to reduce risk of severe wildfires. There are many ways to reduce the risk of disease outbreaks. They include building surveillance systems of pathogens affecting humans, wildlife and farm animals. Assisted migration Assisted migration is the act of moving plants or animals to a different habitat. The destination habitat may or may not have once previously held the species. The only requirement is the destination habitat must provide the bioclimatic requirements to support the species. Assisted migration aims to remove the species from a threatening environment. It aims to give them a chance to survive and reproduce in an environment that does not pose an existential threat to the species. Assisted migration is a potential solution to changes in environments due to climate change that are faster than natural selection can adapt to. It has the potential to allow species that have poor natural dispersal abilities to avoid extinction. However it has also sparked debate over the possibility of the introduction of invasive species and diseases into previously healthy ecosystems. Despite these debates, scientists and land managers have already begun the process of assisted migration for certain species. There have been several studies of the climate adaptive potential of butterflies. Health Climate change-related risks to health include direct risks from extreme weather such as cold waves, storms, or prolonged high temperatures. There are also indirect risks such as mental health impacts of undernutrition or displacement caused by extreme weather. Similarly there are mental health risks from loss of access to green spaces, reduced air quality, or from anxiety about climate change. There are further risks from changes in conditions for transmission of infectious diseases. Malaria and dengue are particularly climate-sensitive. There are several approaches to adapt to new or increased infectious disease risks. These include vector control through improved housing and better sanitation conditions through WASH services. It could also include insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor spraying. For food-borne diseases it includes food processing and storage. Adaptation options for heat include expanding access to air conditioning and establishing heat action plans that include early warning systems for heatwaves. Other options are passive cooling systems to include shading and ventilation. These could be part of improved building and urban design and planning, green infrastructure or public cooling centres. Adaptation options to respond to mental health impacts include increasing funding and access to mental healthcare, incorporating mental health into climate resilience and disaster risk planning, and improving post-disaster support. Mental health also benefits from broader activities such as design of healthy natural spaces, education and cultural activities. It is also closely related to food security and nutrition. Cities Rising temperatures and heatwaves are key risks for cities. With warmer temperatures the urban heat island effect is likely to get worse. Population growth and land use change will influence human health and productivity risks in cities. Urban flooding is another key risk. This is especially the case in coastal settlements where flood risks are exacerbated by sea-level rise and storm surges. A further set of risks arises from reduced water availability. When supply cannot meet demand from expanding settlements, urban residents become exposed to water insecurity and climate impacts. This is especially so during periods of lower rainfall. These key risks differ greatly between cities, and between different groups of people in the same city. Adaptation options for cities include flood control measures within and outside properties and urban drainage projects. Other examples are nature-based solutions such as bioswales or other vegetated infrastructure and restoration and/or protection of mangroves along coastlines. Vegetation corridors, greenspace, wetlands and other green infrastructure can also reduce heat risks. Building designs such as installing air conditioning, ‘cool roofs’ with high-reflectance materials or solar chimneys can also help. Several institutional adaptations are particularly important for cities, for example legislation of building codes, zoning and land use measures. Many cities have integrated city-wide adaptation strategies or plans that bring together social and economic activities, civil authorities and infrastructure services. Such actions are more effective if they are implemented in partnership with local communities, national governments, research institutions, and the private and third sector. Water Climate change is affecting the overall and seasonal availability of water across regions. Climate change is projected to increase the variability of rain. There will be impacts on water quality as well as quantity. Floods can wash pollutants into water bodies and damage water infrastructure. In many places, particularly in the tropics and sub-tropics, there are longer dry spells and droughts, sometimes over consecutive years. These have contributed to drier soil conditions, lower groundwater tables and reduced or changed flows of rivers. There are risks to ecosystems, and across many water-using sectors of the economy. Agriculture is likely to be affected by changes in water availability, putting food security at risk. Irrigation has often contributed to groundwater depletion and changes in the water cycle. It can sometimes make a drought worse. Some of the most popular adaptations in agriculture include choosing less water-intensive crops or drought and flood-resistant varieties. They include shifting the timing of sowing and harvesting according to the start of the rainy season. There are other technological options available for saving water. Water is used for hydroelectric generation, for cooling of power plants, and in other industries such as mining. Adapting hydroelectric plant designs and control systems to operate with less water or diversifying in energy generation with other renewables are effective options. Livelihoods and communities Climate change affects livelihoods and living conditions in significant ways. These include access to natural resources and ecosystems, land and other assets.  Access to basic infrastructure services such as water and sanitation, electricity, roads, telecommunications is another aspect of vulnerability of communities and livelihoods to climate change. The biggest livelihood-related risks stem from losses of agricultural yields, impacts on human health and food security, destruction of homes, and loss of income. There are also risks to fish and livestock that livelihoods depend on. Some communities and livelihoods also face risks of irreversible losses and challenges to development, as well as more complex disaster risks. The consequences of climate change are the most severe for the poorest populations. These are disproportionately more exposed to hazards such as temperature extremes and droughts. They usually have fewer resources and assets and less access to funding, support and political influence. There are other forms of disadvantage due to discrimination, gender inequalities and through lack of access to resources This includes people with disabilities or minority groups. Across livelihoods sectors for households and communities the most common adaptation responses are engineered and technological options. These include traditional infrastructure to protect a specific land use, ecosystem approaches such as watershed restoration or climate-smart agriculture technologies. Adaptation requires public and private investment in various natural assets. It also requires institutions that prioritize the needs of communities, including the poorest. Options by region Developing countries tend to be more vulnerable to climate change than developed countries. Based on development trends in 2001, scientists have found that few developing countries would have the capacity to efficiently adapt to climate change. This was partly due to their low adaptive capacity and the high costs of adaptation in proportion to their GDP. Examples: Africa: Africa's major economic sectors are vulnerable to observed climate variability. This vulnerability contributed to Africa's weak adaptive capacity. As a result Africa is highly vulnerable to future climate change. Projected sea-level rise is likely to increase the socio-economic vulnerability of African coastal cities. Asia: Climate change can result in the degradation of permafrost in boreal Asia. This will make climate-dependent sectors more vulnerable and affect the region's economy. Australia and New Zealand: In Australia and New Zealand, most human systems have considerable adaptive capacity. Some Indigenous communities have low adaptive capacity. Europe: Scientists judge the adaptation potential of socioeconomic systems in Europe as relatively high in 2001. This is due to Europe's high GNP, stable growth, stable population, and well-developed political, institutional, and technological support systems. Latin America: The adaptive capacity of socioeconomic systems in Latin America is very low, particularly with regard to extreme weather events. As a result the region is highly vulnerability. Polar regions: The Arctic is extremely vulnerable to climate change. It was predicted in 2007 that there would be major ecological, sociological, and economic impacts in the region. Small islands: Scientists found in 2007 that small islands were particularly vulnerable to climate change. Costs Economic costs The economic costs of adaptation to climate change will depend on how much the climate changes. Higher levels of warming lead to considerably higher costs. Globally, adaptation is likely to cost tens or hundreds of billions of dollars annually for the next several decades. The IPCC's most recent summary states that adaptation will cost $15 to 411 billion per year for climate change impacts to 2030. Most estimates are well above $100 billion." Because these costs are much higher than the finance available, there is an adaptation gap. This is especially pressing in developing countries. This gap is wideningand forms a major barrier to adaptation. This widening has become apparent because the overwhelming majority of global tracked climate finance goes to mitigation. Only a small proportion goes on adaptation. More regional estimates are also available. For example, the Asian Development Bank has a series of studies on the Economics of Climate Change in the Asia-Pacific region. These studies provide cost analysis of both adaptation and mitigation measures. The WEAP (Water Evaluation And Planning system) assists water resources researchers and planners in assessing impacts of and adaptations to climate change. The United Nations Development Programme's Climate Change Adaptation Portal includes studies on climate change adaptation in Africa, Europe and Central Asia, and Asia and the Pacific. Cost benefit analysis As of 2007 there was still a lack of comprehensive, global cost and benefit estimates for adaptation. Since then, an extensive research literature has emerged. Studies generally focus on adaptation in developing countries or within a sector. For many adaptation options in specific contexts, the investment will be lower than the avoided damages. But global estimates have considerable uncertainty. International finance The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change incorporates a financial mechanism to developing country parties to support them with adaptation. This is in Article 11 of the convention. Until 2009, three funds existed under the UNFCCC financial mechanism. The Global Environmental Facility administers the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF). The Adaptation Fund resulted from negotiations during COP15 and COP16 in 2009 and 2010. It has its own Secretariat. Initially, when the Kyoto Protocol was in operation, the Adaptation Fund was financed by a 2% levy on the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). At the 2009 Copenhagen Summit, nations committed to the goal of sending $100 billion per year to developing countries for climate change mitigation and adaptation by 2020. The Green Climate Fund was created in 2010 as one of the channels for mobilizing this climate finance. The 2015 Paris conference, COP21, clarified that the $100 billion per year should involve a balanced split between mitigation and adaptation. , the promised $100 billion per year had not been fully delivered. Most developing country finance was still targeted towards mitigation. Adaptation received only 21% of the public finance provided in 2020. Global adaptation financing from multilateral development banks exceeded €19 billion in 2021. This implies a rising trend in the financing of adaptation. Multilateral banks made a commitment to increase adaptation financing in a joint declaration on climate change at COP27. This particularly targets low-income nations, small island developing states, and underprivileged people. The European Investment Bank has said that it will raise the share it contributes to 75% for projects focusing on climate adaptation. The bank usually contributes up to 50% to a project it participates in. Also in 2022, nations agreed on a proposal to establish a loss and damage fund to support communities in averting, minimizing, and addressing damages and risks where adaptation is not enough or comes too late. Additionality A key feature of international adaptation finance is the concept of additionality. This reflects the linkages between adaptation finance and other levels of development aid. Many developed countries already provide international aid assistance to developing countries. This addresses challenges such as poverty, malnutrition, food insecurity, availability of drinking water, indebtedness, illiteracy, unemployment, local resource conflicts, and lower technological development. Climate change threatens to exacerbate or stall progress on fixing some of these problems, and creates new ones. Additionality refers to the extra costs of adaptation to avoid existing aid being redirected. The four main definitions of additionality are: Climate finance classified as aid, but additional to the Millennium Development Goals; Increase on previous year's Official Development Assistance (ODA) spent on climate change mitigation; Rising ODA levels that include climate change finance but where it is limited to a specified percentage; and Increase in climate finance not connected to ODA. A criticism of additionality is that it encourages business as usual. This is because it does not account for the future risks of climate change. Some advocates have proposed integrating climate change adaptation into poverty reduction programs. From 2010 to 2020, Denmark increased its global warming adaptation aid by one third, from 0.09% of GDP to 0.12% of GDP. But this did not involve additional funds. Instead, the aid was taken from other foreign assistance funds. Politiken wrote: "Climate assistance is taken from the poorest." Challenges Differing time scales Adaptation can occur in anticipation of change or be a response to those changes. For example, artificial snow-making in the European Alps responds to current climate trends. The construction of the Confederation Bridge in Canada at a higher elevation takes into account the effect of future sea-level rise on ship clearance under the bridge. Effective adaptive policy can be difficult to implement because policymakers are rewarded more for enacting short-term change, rather than long-term planning. Since the impacts of climate change are generally not seen in the short term, policymakers have less incentive to act. Furthermore, climate change is occurring on a global scale. This requires a global framework for adapting to and combating climate change. The vast majority of climate change adaptation and mitigation policies are being implemented on a more local scale. This is because different regions must adapt differently. National and global policies are often more challenging to enact. Maladaptation Much adaptation takes place in relation to short-term climate variability. But this may cause maladaptation to longer-term climate trends. The expansion of irrigation in Egypt into the Western Sinai desert after a period of higher river flows is maladaptation given the longer-term projections of drying in the region. Adaptations at one scale can have impacts at another by reducing the adaptive capacity of other people or organizations. This is often the case when broad assessments of the costs and benefits of adaptation are examined at smaller scales. An adaptation may benefit some people, but have a negative effect on others. Development interventions to increase adaptive capacity have tended not to result in increased power or agency for local people. Agency is a central factor in all other aspects of adaptive capacity and so planners need to pay more attention to this factor. Limits to adaptation People have always adapted to climate change. Some community coping strategies already exist. Examples include changing sowing times or adopting new water-saving techniques. Traditional knowledge and coping strategies must be maintained and strengthened. If not there is a risk of weakening adaptive capacity as local knowledge of the environment is lost. Strengthening these local techniques and building upon them also makes the adoption of adaptation strategies more likely. This is because it creates more community ownership and involvement in the process. In many cases this will not be enough to adapt to new conditions. These may be outside the range of those previously experienced, and new techniques will be necessary. The incremental adaptations become insufficient as the vulnerabilities and risks of climate change increase. This creates a need for transformational adaptations which are much larger and costlier. Current development efforts increasingly focus on community-based climate change adaptation. They seek to enhance local knowledge, participation and ownership of adaptation strategies. Incentivizing private investment in adaptation Climate change adaptation is a much more complex investment area than mitigation. This is mainly because of the lack of a well-defined income stream or business case with an attractive return on investment on projects. There are several specific challenges for private investment: Adaptation is often needed in non-market sectors or is focused on public goods that benefit many. So there is a shortage of projects that are attractive to the private sector; There is a mismatch between the timing of investments needed in the short term and the benefits that may occur in the medium or long term. Future returns are less attractive to investors than short-term returns; There is a lack of information about investment opportunities. This especially concerns uncertainties associated with future impacts and benefits. These are key considerations when returns may accrue over longer timeframes; There are gaps in human resources and capacities to design adaptation projects and understand financial implications of legal, economic and regulatory frameworks. However, there is considerable innovation in this area. This is increasing the potential for private sector finance to play a larger role in closing the adaptation finance gap. Economists state that climate adaptation initiatives should be an urgent priority for business investment. Trade-offs with mitigation Trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation may occur when climate-relevant actions point in different directions. For instance, compact urban development may lead to reduced greenhouse gas emissions from transport and building. On the other hand, it may increase the urban heat island effect, leading to higher temperatures and increasing exposure, making adaptation more challenging. Planning and implementation Climate adaptation planning aims to manage the level of risks of negative impacts. Adaptation planning is similar to risk management. It is a continuing process of assessment, action, learning and adjustment, rather than a single set of decisions. In this way planning and implementing adaptation are both closely connected. Adaptation planning is an activity. But it is also associated with a type of adaptation. Planned adaptation is sometimes distinguished from autonomous adaptation. Another important concept in adaptation planning is mainstreaming. Mainstreaming means integrating climate change into established strategies, policies or plans. This can be more efficient than developing separate climate adaptation activities and is more likely to succeed. It can also be more sustainable. It involves changing the mindsets and practices of policymakers to bring in new issues and have them widely accepted. A key entry point for this type of integration is national development planning. It needs to take into account new and existing national policies, sectoral policies and budgets. Similarly, mainstreaming adaptation in cities should consider existing city plans, such as land use planning. There approach also has shortcomings. One criticism is that it has reduced the visibility of stand-alone adaptation programmes. Adaptation planning usually draws on assessments of risks and vulnerability to climate change. It evaluates the relative benefits and costs of different measures to reduce these risks. Following planning, the next stage is implementation. Guidance has been developed that outline these general stages of an adaptation process, such as the EU Adaptation Support Tool. Preparing the ground for adaptation Assessing climate change risks and vulnerabilities Identifying adaptation options Assessing adaptation options Implementing adaptation Monitoring and evaluating adaptation As of 2022, adaptation efforts have focused more on adaptation planning than on implementation. All regions and sectors have made progress. However the gaps between current needs and current implementation continues to grow. Monitoring and evaluation of adaptation is crucial to ensure that adaptation action is proceeding as planned. It also provide lessons to improve them and understand which additional actions are necessary. Development and use of monitoring and evaluation systems is increasing at national and local levels. As of 2020, around a quarter of countries had a monitoring and evaluation framework in place. By country and city National governments typically have the key role in setting policies, planning, coordinating and distributing finance for climate adaptation. They are  also accountable to the international community through international agreements. Many countries document their adaptation plans in their NDCs submitted under the Paris Agreement and/or national adaptation plans. Developing countries can receive support with international funding to help them develop their national adaptation plans. As of 2020, 72% of countries had a high level adaptation instrument – such as a plan, policy or strategy. Relatively few had progressed to the tangible implementation of projects: at least not to significantly reduce the climate risk their populations are exposed to. Countries have also made progress in developing plans for subnational government authorities. These include county/provincial level, sectors and city plans. In 2020, around 21% of countries had sub-national plans and 58% had sectoral plans. As of 2022, there is better integration of adaptation priorities into other national plans and planning systems. Planning is also more inclusive. This means that climate laws and policies increasingly reference different groups such as persons with disabilities, children, young people and future generations. Many cities have integrated city-wide adaptation strategies or plans that bring together their social and economic activities, civil authorities and infrastructure services.   A survey of 812 global cities found that 93% reported they are at risk from climate change, 43% did not have an adaptation plan in 2021, and 41% of cities had not carried out a climate risk and vulnerability assessment. Global goals Sustainable Development Goal 13 aims to strengthen countries' resilience and adaptive capacities to climate-related issues. This adjustment includes many areas such as infrastructure, agriculture and education. The Paris Agreement includes several provisions for adaptation. It seeks to promote the idea of global responsibility, improve communication via the adaptation component of the Nationally Determined Contributions, and includes an agreement that developed countries should provide some financial support and technology transfer to promote adaptation in more vulnerable countries. The United Nations estimates Africa would need yearly funding of $1.3 trillion to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in the region, considering population growth. The International Monetary Fund also estimates that $50 billion may be needed only to cover the expenses of climate adaptation. See also Adaptation in Africa Green bond Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast Climate finance Climate justice Climate Vulnerability Monitor References External links The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II assesses the scientific literature on adaptation: Working Group II — IPCC The weADAPT platform encourages the sharing of experiences from adaptation projects to accelerate learning and climate action. Adaptation Animal ecology Plant ecology Climate change policy National security Climate change
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20Red%20%28miniseries%29
Rose Red (miniseries)
Rose Red is a 2002 American television miniseries scripted by horror novelist Stephen King, directed by Craig R. Baxley, and starring Nancy Travis, Drew Barrymore, Matt Keeslar, Julian Sands, Kimberly J. Brown, David Dukes, Melanie Lynskey, Matt Ross, Emily Deschanel, Judith Ivey, and Kevin Tighe. It was filmed in Lakewood, Washington. The plot focuses on a reputedly haunted mansion located in Seattle, Washington, named Rose Red. Due to its long history of supernatural events and unexplained tragedies, the house is investigated by parapsychologist Dr. Joyce Reardon and a team of gifted psychics. Conceived as a feature film, writer Stephen King pitched the idea for Rose Red to Steven Spielberg in 1996, envisioning it as a loose remake of Robert Wise's 1963 film The Haunting (which itself was based on Shirley Jackson's 1959 novel The Haunting of Hill House). In 1999, a feature film remake of The Haunting was released, after which King's script was revised and expanded into a miniseries. In writing the teleplay, King incorporated a variety of influences, including elements of Jackson's novel as well as the Winchester Mystery House in San Jose, California. The setting changed from Los Angeles to Seattle after the production team secured the Thornewood Estate in Lakewood as a shooting location. Rose Red was filmed in the fall of 2000 in Seattle and Lakewood with principal photography concluding in mid-December. Post-production lasted approximately six months, during which various special effects were implemented into the series. ABC provided Rose Red with a $200,000 marketing campaign, which included extensive advertising. In addition to television commercials, an elaborate campaign was launched to make the fictional mansion and its history appear real: This included a fake website for the fictional Beaumont University, the university featured in the film, as well as the publication of The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer: My Life at Rose Red (2001), a novel purportedly written by the fictional character of Ellen Rimbauer, the wife of the estate's owner, and edited by the miniseries' fictional protagonist, Dr. Joyce Reardon. Rose Red premiered in the United States on ABC on January 27, 2002, running for three consecutive nights, during which it accrued a viewership of over 18.5 million. Plot Dr. Joyce Reardon, an unorthodox university psychology professor, leads a team of psychics to the massive and antiquated Seattle mansion known as Rose Red in an attempt to record data that would constitute scientific proof of paranormal phenomena. The mansion is publicly thought to be haunted, as at least 23 people have either disappeared or died there and the interior of the house appears to change or increase in size, yet only from the inside. Reardon's team awakens the evil spirit possessing the house, leading to several deaths and the revelation of the mansion's deadly secrets. History of Rose Red According to information revealed at various points in the miniseries, and Ellen's diary, Rose Red was built in 1906 by wealthy oilman John Rimbauer as a wedding gift for his young wife, Ellen. Rimbauer used much of his wealth to build the mansion, which was in the Tudor-Gothic style and situated on of woodland in the heart of Seattle on the site of a Native American burial ground. The house was rumored to be cursed even as it was being constructed; three construction workers were killed on the site, and a construction foreman was murdered by a co-worker. While honeymooning in Africa, Ellen Rimbauer fell ill (from an unspecified sexually transmitted disease given to her by her unfaithful husband) and made the acquaintance of Sukeena, a local tribeswoman. The two women became very close while Sukeena nursed Ellen back to health, and Sukeena accompanied the Rimbauers back to the newly completed Rose Red to work there full-time as a servant. The Rimbauers soon had two children, Adam and April, the latter born with a withered arm, but Ellen quickly became unhappy with her marriage to her philandering, neglectful, and misogynistic husband. After a spiritualist seance, Ellen came to believe that if she continued to build and expand the house, she would never die. Bizarre deaths and unresolved disappearances became more commonplace at the house throughout the years. Several female servants disappeared and one of John Rimbauer's friends died of a bee sting in the solarium, while his business partner (whom Rimbauer had cheated out of his share of the oil company's profits) hanged himself in front of Rimbauer's children in the parlor room of Rose Red. Six-year-old April also vanished while playing in the kitchen, never to be seen or heard from again, leaving only her doll in the chair she was last seen sitting in. Sukeena, who was babysitting April, was the last person to see her alive and was tortured mercilessly by the local police after being suspected of April's murder. During April's disappearance, eight-year-old Adam was sent off to attend boarding school and kept away from the house as much as possible. John Rimbauer died in an apparent suicide by throwing himself from an upper stained-glass window; in actuality, however, he was murdered by Ellen and Sukeena. Ellen used nearly all of her dead husband's fortune to continually add to the home over the next several decades, enlarging it significantly. The mysterious disappearances continued to occur: a famous actress and dear friend of Ellen's, Deanna Petrie, vanished in the house's billiard room during a party in the 1940s. By the 1950s, both Ellen Rimbauer and Sukeena had disappeared in Rose Red. For several years after Ellen's disappearance, only servants occupied Rose Red. Eventually, all left one by one out of fear. Adam Rimbauer, who inherited the house, lived there for a short time with his wife. However, he abandoned Rose Red after witnessing several paranormal events, such as seeing the ghost of his long-lost little sister April, and watching rooms alter their size and shape before his very eyes. After his death, and with the family fortune depleted, his wife generated income by permitting the Seattle Historical Society to give tours of the house. These ceased in 1972 after a female participant disappeared while on a tour of the mansion. Investigations for paranormal phenomena were conducted on the property in the 1960s and 1970s. But these also ended, and the house fell into disrepair. The miniseries begins in the year 2001. Steven Rimbauer, the great-grandson of John and Ellen Rimbauer, has inherited Rose Red. He has been offered a substantial sum of money to have the house torn down and the site developed into condominiums. He is intrigued by the paranormal history of the house, and has agreed to allow one more investigation of the mansion. Part 1 In 1991 Seattle, young Annie Wheaton is drawing a picture of a house as her parents and older sister, Rachel, argue outside her room. As she draws lines down over the house in her picture, rocks fall through the roof of an identical house belonging to an elderly couple down the street whose dog had bitten Annie, severely damaging the building. Ten years later in 2001, Dr. Joyce Reardon is a professor at the fictional Beaumont University who teaches classes on psychic phenomena. Kevin Bollinger, a reporter for the campus newspaper, skeptically questions her about a trip she will be taking to Rose Red, an ostensibly haunted and abandoned mansion in Seattle. Professor Carl Miller, Joyce's departmental chair who questions the validity of Joyce's research, orders Bollinger to follow Reardon and spy on a meeting with the group of psychics she is taking to Rose Red. The group includes Victor "Vic" Kandinsky, an elderly precognate with heart disease; Pam Asbury, a young psychometric; Cathy Kramer, a middle-aged automatic writer; Nick Hardaway, a telepath with remote viewing capabilities; and Emery Waterman, a young post-cognate. The group meets with Steve Rimbauer, the last descendant of Ellen and John Rimbauer, in an auditorium at the college. Bollinger takes a photo of the group joining hands in a circle, and the photo and an article ridiculing Joyce are published in the campus newspaper. Dr. Miller takes Bollinger to Rose Red and drops him off, instructing him to obtain additional embarrassing photos once the group of psychics arrives. The reporter is greeted by Sukeena at the front door, who tells him that he is expected. Not realizing she is a ghost, Bollinger enters the mansion. He becomes trapped in the solarium, where he is pulled off-screen by an unseen force. The back-stories of psychics Emery Waterman and Annie Wheaton are introduced. Emery Waterman is a rude, sarcastic, and obnoxious young man under the control of his domineering mother, Patricia Waterman; when he sees spirits from Rose Red, he caustically tells them they can't scare him off because he needs the money. The audience learns that Rachel Wheaton now cares for Annie Wheaton, who rarely speaks and refers to Rachel as "Sister." The audience also learns that Joyce is having a sexual affair with Steve, although the film remains unclear whether she loves him or is merely using him to gain access to Rose Red. Part 2 Joyce and the group of psychics, now joined by Rachel "Sister" Wheaton and a teenaged Annie Wheaton, arrive at Rose Red. The team tours the mansion. Joyce and Steve point out that the home contains many optical illusion as well as an upside-down room and a library with a mirrored floor. The team finds Bollinger's cell phone, and Steve calls Miller to confront him over his attempt to discredit the group. That night, Emery sees the ghost of an actress who disappeared from the house decades earlier; Pam dreams of the decomposing body of Kevin Bollinger; the Wheaton sisters are visited by a ghost under the bed and in the closet; and Cathy sees something moving under the carpet and her blankets. Later in the night, Pam is lured outside by a doppelganger into the garden pond and is presumably drowned. The next morning, when Dr. Miller receives Steve's voicemail message, it instead says that Bollinger slit his wrists and wrote Miller's name in his blood before expiring. The message unnerves Dr. Miller and he goes to the mansion to learn more. Patricia Waterman also has driven to the mansion after being unable to reach her son via his cell phone. The two arrive simultaneously, and their cars collide in the driveway when Mrs. Waterman swerves to avoid what she believes to be a figure running across the road. Terrified, Mrs. Waterman begins to run through the forest on the grounds of the mansion while calling for her son. Miller, wanting to get her insurance information, pursues her. Inside Rose Red, Emery hears his mother's cries but dismisses them as an auditory illusion created by the haunted house. On the other side of the house, Pam leads Vic into the garden toward a pond with a statue of Ellen in it. She suddenly disappears. When Vic looks down into the pond, he sees what he believes to be Pam's dead body. He attempts to pull her out of the water, but the body vanishes and he is left clutching only her nightgown. He panics and runs back toward the house. Looking back, he sees the statue come to life and has a heart attack. Vic tries to draw the attention of Emery (who is inside the house), but Emery again believes this to be an apparition and refuses to open the window. Nick arrives and tries to open the window, but it will not open and the glass cannot be broken. Vic collapses and dies in full view of Emery and Nick. Out in the woods, Mrs. Waterman is stopped and knocked unconscious by the ghost of Kevin Bollinger. Part 3 Annie Wheaton has discovered a dollhouse that is a miniature replica of Rose Red. While standing on a chair in an attempt to reach the dollhouse, she falls and is knocked unconscious. Rachel Wheaton and Steve Rimbauer see her fall and attempt to render first aid. Meanwhile, on the other side of the house, Rose Red's windows and doors mysteriously open again. Emery Waterman, realizing that his mother's screams were not an illusion, rushes outside to look for his mother. He runs into Dr. Miller, who warns him to stay away, and then flees. Emery chases Miller but cannot catch him, so he returns to Rose Red. Miller, continuing to frantically run around the grounds of the house, is found and attacked by the ghost of Kevin Bollinger. Emery attempts to convince the others that they should all leave. They refuse, and Emery tries to depart on his own. As he does so, he runs into the ghosts of Pam Asbury and Deanna Petrie (Yvonne Sciò), the movie star who vanished in the house in the 1940s. Emery has the power to make apparitions disappear by repeating the phrase "not there," and avoids the deadly fate of his mother and Dr. Miller. As Emery is about to leave Rose Red, Annie Wheaton wakes and via psychokinesis causes the doors of Rose Red to slam shut. Emery's hand is caught in the door, and some of his fingers are severed. While the others assist Emery, Joyce Reardon asks Annie to continue to keep the doors and windows sealed, promising to give her the dollhouse if she does so. However, Steve soon discovers that he can communicate with Annie telepathically, and she begins to form a friendship with him. Later, Steve relives some repressed memories of a visit to the house with his drunken mother during which a ghostly Ellen Rimbauer appeared to him and called on Steve to aid her in continuing Rose Red's unending construction. Meanwhile, Emery suspects that Annie, not some "spirit of Rose Red," is keeping the house sealed. Nick confirms Emery's suspicions and then informs the group that Bollinger appeared to have hanged himself in the library. The group begins to speculate that Rose Red has never been in a dormant state and that the mansion's supernatural powers are linked to Annie and Steve (whose psychic abilities become apparent only when he is in the house because of his familial connection to the property). Nick correctly guesses that Joyce brought the psychics to the house in an attempt to reawaken Rose Red rather than simply investigate it. The wounded Emery suggests that Annie be killed to allow everyone to escape, alarming the rest of the group. While in the kitchen, Cathy Kramer is attacked by Mrs. Waterman and is rescued by Nick. The two decide to tie up the deranged woman and leave her in the kitchen. They agree not to inform Emery so that the unstable young man does not become more unbalanced. A ghostly Sukeena appears and drags Mrs. Waterman off into the dark wine cellar. As Nick and Cathy head back toward the main hall, the house changes around them and they become lost. A mysterious shape under the carpet chases them, and they flee. The shape begins to catch up to them, and Nick shoves Cathy into a room, saving her life, and slams the door behind her, turning around just in time to see a skeletal monster rushing up to him. With silence in the hallway, Cathy opens the door again but finds no sign of Nick or the entity in the empty hallway. As the house continues to change around her, Cathy ends up in the attic. Suddenly overcome by the urge to automatically write, she witnesses the murder of John Rimbauer by Ellen and Sukeena. Steve and Rachel, meanwhile, decide to look for Nick and Cathy. They find Cathy in the attic, where she is about to be attacked by a corpse-like creature. Their presence seemingly prevents the house from acting, and the corpse drops lifeless to the floor. The corpse's withered arm lets them deduce that the carcass is that of Steven's missing great-aunt (and Ellen's daughter), April Rimbauer. Suddenly, April's corpse releases a bright white light from its mouth and instantly disintegrates. The group reunites in the main hall. Emery attempts to attack Annie with a fireplace poker. Using psychokinesis, Annie animates a suit of armor and attempts to indirectly attack Emery with its halberd. It is unclear whether either is genuinely attempting to kill the other: Emery had previously stated that knocking Annie unconscious should be sufficient to escape, while the placement of Annie's final halberd attack suggests that it was a warning shot. Neither attack succeeds, and Joyce calms both individuals. In an attempt to uncover the secret of Rose Red, Steve creates a telepathic link between Cathy and Annie, and Cathy begins to engage in automatic writing. Annie begins to draw pictures of boulders striking the house, smashed doors, and broken glass, and soon doors and windows all over the house are opening and closing violently, and glass in the windows shatters. Rocks begin to fall, destroying Mrs. Waterman's car and causing severe damage to Rose Red. Cathy automatically writes "help us" and "open the doors," prompting Annie to unseal the house. Steve, Emery, Cathy, Rachel, and Annie make their escape from Rose Red, but Joyce, now clearly insane, refuses to leave. The group is attacked by the spectre of Ellen Rimbauer, but Annie prevents Ellen from coming after them. Mrs. Waterman's ghost leaps from a mirror and attempts to draw Emery into the spirit realm, but Emery, with the assistance of Steve and Cathy, resists his mother for the first time in his life, and Mrs. Waterman vanishes again. The survivors flee to their cars as boulders rain down on Rose Red. Back in the house, Joyce suddenly realizes too late that she does want to leave, but is surrounded by the ghosts of Rose Red: Nick, Pam, Vic, Mrs. Waterman, Miller, Bollinger, Sukeena, and Deanna Petrie. She screams in terror as the film fades to black. Six months later, the survivors visit Rose Red, just before the mansion is due to be demolished and replaced by condominiums. They pay their last respects to the dead by laying red roses on the path leading up to the house. As they drive away, the ghosts of Ellen Rimbauer, Sukeena, and Joyce watch the survivors depart from the tower window. Cast Characters in the present Nancy Travis as Dr. Joyce Reardon, professor of parapsychology Matt Keeslar as Steve Rimbauer, descendant of Rimbauer family Melanie Lynskey as Rachel "Sister" Wheaton, a waitress and elder sister of Annie Kimberly J. Brown as Annie Wheaton, an autistic teenager with telekinetic powers Judith Ivey as Cathy Kramer, research group member and automatic writer Matt Ross as Emery Waterman, psychic with retrocognition, former assistant to homicide detectives Julian Sands as Nick Hardaway, telepathic psychologist Emily Deschanel as Pam Asbury, a psychic television host with psychometric abilities Kevin Tighe as Victor "Vic" Kandinsky, psychic with precognition David Dukes as Dr. Carl Miller, psychology department head Laura Kenny as Patricia Waterman, mother of Emery Waterman Jimmi Simpson as Kevin Bollinger, college newspaper reporter Richard Sanders as Mr. Stanton, elderly neighbor of Rachel and Annie Stephen King as Pizza Delivery Man Characters from the past John Procaccino as John P. Rimbauer, oil tycoon, original owner of Rose Red; murdered by Ellen and Sukeena Julia Campbell as Ellen Gilchrist-Rimbauer, wife of John; disappeared at Rose Red Tsidii Le Loka as Sukeena, Ellen's maid; disappeared at Rose Red Justin T. Milner as Adam Rimbauer, son of John and Ellen Paige Gordon as April Rimbauer, daughter of John and Ellen; disappeared at Rose Red Yvonne Sciò as Deanna Petrie, actress and friend of Ellen; disappeared at Rose Red Don Alder as Douglas Posey, John's ex-business partner; committed suicide at Rose Red Production Conception Author Stephen King had always wanted to write a script about a haunted house, having been inspired by an alleged haunted house in his home town of Durham, Maine. King originally pitched the idea for Rose Red to Steven Spielberg as a feature film in 1996, partly a loose remake of the 1963 film The Haunting. The project went into turnaround and a complete script was written, but Spielberg demanded more thrills and action sequences while King wanted more horror. King and Spielberg mutually agreed to shelve the project after several years of work, and King bought back the rights to the script. King returned to the project in 1999, completed a revised script, and unsuccessfully pitched the script to director Mick Garris (with whom King had worked on the 1992 film Sleepwalkers, the 1994 TV miniseries The Stand, and the 1997 TV miniseries The Shining). King next proposed the project on Friday, June 18, 1999, to producer Mark Carliner (with whom King had worked on two miniseries, The Shining and 1999's Storm of the Century). Carliner agreed to produce the script as a feature film, and King agreed to start script revisions on Monday, June 21. Unfortunately, King was hit by an automobile while walking on a road near his home on Saturday, June 19, 1999, and needed time to recuperate. Writing After surgery and a month's recovery in the hospital, King returned home and completed work on the Rose Red script over the next month, recasting the project as a television miniseries. He would later state that in converting the screenplay into a miniseries teleplay, he found the miniseries format more conducive to his writing style, specifically because the detail-oriented nature of his writing: "I'm a putter-in-'er rather than a take-'er-outer," he said. The writing proved to be therapeutic: King partly based his concept for Rose Red on the Winchester Mystery House in San Jose, California, but added the concept that the house could appear larger and different on the inside even though it looked the same from the outside. The action was originally set in Los Angeles, California, and the production crew scouted the Winchester Mystery House as a possible filming location. Although the project was no longer intended to be an adaptation of The Haunting of Hill House, the script continued to borrow heavily from Shirley Jackson's novel. The team of researchers strongly resembles that assembled in Jackson's novel, and the rain of rocks is identical to one described in Jackson's story. Pre-production began in July 2000. After a five-month search for a shooting location, the producers discovered Thornewood Castle in Lakewood, Washington, and secured permission to use the mansion as the façade of Rose Red. King subsequently rewrote elements of script and set the action in Seattle, Washington, to accommodate the change. The production paid $500,000 to have many of the rooms on the first floor of Thornewood restored to their early 20th-century state for filming of the miniseries. At the time, the main floor of the house had been partially converted into apartments. Dead trees and dead ivy were used to make Thornewood appear abandoned. Filming and post-production The production team included producers Carliner, Thomas H. Brodek, and Robert F. Phillips; director Craig R. Baxley; production designer Craig Stearns; and visual effects supervisor Stuart Robertson (who won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects for his work on the 1997 film What Dreams May Come). These individuals and others had worked on Storm of the Century two years earlier. Shooting of Rose Red began on August 22, 2000, and ended in mid-December 2000 in the Seattle metropolitan area. The budget for the miniseries was slightly more than $35 million. Interior sets were built between May and October 2000 in three former airplane hangars at the abandoned Sand Point Naval Base in Seattle. More than of interior sets were built. The largest set contained a full-scale version of the great hall at Rose Red, including a fireplace, columns, grand staircase, adjacent dining hall, and doorway to the solarium (the last being a feature inspired by the Shirley Jackson novel). Two bedrooms and the billiard room at Thornewood Castle were used for on-location shoots. The intersection of Spring Street and Seventh Avenue in Seattle was used for the fictional location of Rose Red; other Seattle locations used in the miniseries include a section of Main Street and a house in Mount Baker (this is the home destroyed by a rain of stones in the miniseries). Additional photography took place on the University of Washington campus (standing in for Beaumont University), and in the Arctic Building, whose interior dome is displayed in the library of Rose Red. Actor David Dukes died of a heart attack on October 9, 2000, in Spanaway, Washington, while shooting Rose Red. He was due to film his death scene the following day. A double was used for shots of his character running through foliage, and King rewrote some scenes to feature other characters instead of Miller. The computer-operated ghost puppets created by XFX cost $150,000 each. Post-production took six months, and the miniseries was delivered to the ABC television network in early September 2001. Release Rose Red originally aired on the ABC broadcast television network in the United States over three nights, from January 27–29, 2002. Marketing Promotion for Rose Red was a "carefully-staged media event" leading up to its release. A $200,000 promotional marketing campaign for the miniseries began in November 2001. Marketing of the film presented the movie as based on actual events. In 2000, two years before the miniseries aired, the producers contracted with author Ridley Pearson to write a tie-in novel, The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer: My Life at Rose Red, under the pseudonym "Dr. Joyce Reardon" (one of the main characters of the miniseries). The novel presented itself as nonfiction, and claimed to be the actual diary of Ellen Rimbauer (wife of the builder of Rose Red). The work was originally intended to be an architectural book featuring photos and drawings of the fictional Rose Red house with the supernatural elements subtly woven into the text and photos, but Pearson (building on several references to a diary in King's script) wrote it as Ellen Rimbauer's diary instead. Inspired by the 1999 film The Blair Witch Project, King came up with the idea of presenting the novel as real by having "Dr. Joyce Reardon" edit the "diary". King also inserted a reference into the book's foreword that a "best-selling author had found the journal in Maine", so that fans would be misled into concluding that King had written the work. The ruse worked. Fans and the press speculated for some time that Stephen King or his wife Tabitha King had written the book until Pearson was revealed to be the novel's author. The companion novel was a hit, rising high on several bestseller lists. Intended to be a promotional item rather than a stand-alone work, its popularity spawned a 2003 prequel television miniseries to Rose Red, titled The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer. The novel tie-in idea was repeated on Stephen King's next project, the miniseries Kingdom Hospital. Richard Dooling, King's collaborator on Kingdom Hospital and writer of several episodes in the miniseries, published a fictional diary, The Journals of Eleanor Druse, in 2004. A fictional website for Beaumont University (where Dr. Joyce Reardon, one of the main characters in the miniseries, taught parapsychology) was established. It provided information on the history of Rose Red, background on the Rimbauer family, and limited information on various disappearances at the mansion. The site is no longer functional, but can still be viewed through web archive programs such as the Wayback Machine. The marketing campaign was considered highly successful, with many readers believing that The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer was real. The fake Beaumont University site was bombarded with emails from fans who were convinced that Dr. Joyce Reardon, Beaumont University, and Rose Red were real. Critical reception Rose Red, which aired during sweeps, was a ratings hit with an average of 18.5 million viewers over three nights and an 8.5 rating. Critical reception to the miniseries was mixed. The New York Times called it fun if not terribly original: Another critic noted that, while the miniseries moves along "effectively", the effort seemed "padded to more than four hours" with "needless exposition ... and repetitious spookhouse sequences". Daily Variety was more critical of the miniseries, however, noting that "All of the elements that make a King story so accessible and entertaining are missing from this production." Daily Variety praised director Craig Baxley's direction, cinematographer David Connell's camera work, Craig Stearns' special effects and production design, and young actress Kimberly Brown's performance. But the magazine concluded that the over-long script and "backstories, particularly the origin of the house, are so convoluted and ill conceived, even the best f/x can't save the day." Critic Laura Fries had particularly severe criticism for actress Nancy Travis: Other critics panned the screenplay as "dumbly, numbly entertaining pastiche" and "a strained struggle for cogent characters and a coherent story line", but praised the production for its sound, visual effects, music, and make-up. Other reviewers found little to praise in the miniseries, however. "Rose Red is a rambling wreck of a film ... about as scary as a hangnail," said the Seattle Post-Intelligencer. "...It is made-for-TV pablum, meant to satisfy unsophisticated palates the way restaurants make ordinary food seem appetizing with highfalutin menus." USA Today focused on what it felt was a poor story and slow pacing: "...a numbingly predictable series of seen-it-before jolts ... played at exceedingly slow speed." Many critics were unimpressed with the special visual effects which others had found praiseworthy. "Rose Red," said the New York Daily News, "...is a haunted-house story that's told so slowly, it's almost inert. The climactic special effects are even worse, guaranteeing that—should you last to the end—the only screaming you'll be doing is with laughter." Critic and academic Tony Magistrale felt the miniseries over-relied on special effects so much that it felt "oppressive", concluding: {{blockquote|the miniseries spends an excessive amount of time dramatizing the shocking and horrific displays of the house's reanimation and not nearly enough effort examining why any of these displays are relevant to a larger purpose. ... While the film's super-annuated Halloween tricks are often visually and technically stunning, they also tend to weaken the seriousness of Rose Red'''s storyline and dominate it at the expense of character development.}} Most damning of all, he concluded, was the lack of character development: "...there are few characters in the miniseries that we care about—and certainly no one to inspire the heroic imagination, as does Wendy Torrance in the miniseries version of The Shining or Mike Anderson in Storm [of the Century]." Intertextuality King's teleplay for Rose Red contains references to various characters from his other works: The character of Annie Wheaton is similar to another Stephen King character, Carrie White—the main character from King's first published novel, Carrie. As a young girl, Carrie telekinetically dropped stones on her house, and Annie does the same thing at both the beginning and end of Rose Red. The epilogue of Carrie contains a brief appearance of a young girl named Annie who, it appears, has the same powers as Carrie. The character of Deanna Petrie shares the last name of the young protagonist Mark Petrie of King's 1975 novel 'Salem's Lot. Emery Waterman shares a name—and many character traits—with Harold Emery Lauder from The Stand. Nick Hardaway shares similarities with Nick Hopewell from The Langoliers, such as his name, the fact that he is British and that he has to constrain Emery's mother when she lost her mind in a similar way that Nick Hopewell constrained Craig Toomey. Rose Red is referred to in King's Black House as one of the places where "slippage" occurs. The character Pam has the special power of "The Touch." Although the ability is not referred to by this name, it is the same psychic power that the characters Alain Johns and Jake Chambers have in The Dark Tower novels. Differences and contradictions The companion novel The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer dates the expedition to the Rose Red mansion as having taken place sometime during or before the year 2000. But the miniseries states that the present day events that show the expedition happen ten years after 1991, while also showing one of the characters holding a bill with a statement dated in the year 2002. The death of John Rimbauer's partner appears differently in the miniseries than in the novel. In the novel, John is still spending his time near the mansion, while in the miniseries John is said to have been away in Europe at the time. In the novel John's partner Posey gets hit by a popgun accidentally fired by John's son as he falls upon the noose he set around his neck, while in the miniseries John's son only stares as Posey commits suicide. The mockumentary Unlocking Rose Red: The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer released to promote both the show and the companion novel states that the actress Deanna Petrie disappeared in 1934 rather than in 1946 as revealed in both the companion novel and the show. Prequel film A prequel television film, The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer, based on the novel by Pearson, was released in 2003. Unlike Rose Red, King had no involvement. Home mediaRose Red'' was released in April 2002 as a two-disc DVD set by Lions Gate Home Entertainment and Trimark Home Video. References Works cited External links Thornewood Castle, used as a shooting location for the Rose Red mansion 2002 television films 2002 films 2000s American television miniseries 2000s American horror television series American horror fiction television series Fictional houses Fictional parapsychologists Television shows written by Stephen King Television shows based on works by Stephen King Television shows set in Seattle Television series by Lionsgate Television Television series by Disney–ABC Domestic Television
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20British%20gallantry%20awards%20for%20the%20Iraq%20War
List of British gallantry awards for the Iraq War
A list of British awards for gallantry in the Iraq War, awarded between 2003 and 2010. Apart from appointments to purely military orders, only gallantry awards have been included and only those that allow post-nominal letters (this excludes appointments to the Order of the British Empire for distinguished service and fourth-level awards such as Mentions-in-Despatches and Queen's Commendations). The list includes the rank and decorations the recipient held at the time, together with their regiment, corps or service, and the date of publication of the award in the London Gazette. The first honours list was published in October 2003, and covered the initial invasion period from 19 March to 19 April. Thereafter lists covered six month periods of operations, ending in March or September, normally being published several months later. The final list was published in March 2010. Victoria Cross The Victoria Cross (VC) is the highest award for gallantry in the presence of the enemy, and is also the highest honour in the British Honours System. A miniature of the award is worn on the undress uniform to indicate the unique nature of the award. Private Johnson Gideon Beharry, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 George Cross The George Cross (GC) is the highest civilian award for bravery, and ranks as second only to the Victoria Cross. It may be awarded to members of the armed forces for acts of heroism not in the presence of the enemy. A miniature of this award is also worn in undress. Trooper Christopher Finney, The Blues and Royals, October 2003 Captain Peter Allen Norton, The Royal Logistic Corps, March 2006 Order of the Bath Senior officers may be appointed to the Order of the Bath for distinguished service. There are three Divisions: Knight Grand Cross (GCB), Knight Commander (KCB) and Companion (CB). KCB: Air Marshal Brian Kevin Burridge CBE, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Lieutenant General John George Reith CB CBE, late The Parachute Regiment, October 2003; CB for service in Kosovo / Macedonia, CBE for service in the Gulf; previously Mentioned in Despatches and appointed OBE for service in Northern Ireland, and also awarded QCVS for service in former Yugoslavia CB: Air Vice Marshal Andrew David White, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Distinguished Service Order The Distinguished Service Order (DSO) is awarded for leadership during operations. It may be awarded to any rank, but the majority of awards are to officers of at least the rank of lieutenant colonel (or equivalent) commanding recognised formations. Although an Order, and with only one Class - Companion - bars may be awarded for further periods of service meriting an appointment to the Order. Major Charles Kane Antelme, Welsh Guards, serving with Special Air Service (SAS), July 2008 Wing Commander Stuart David Atha, Royal Air Force, October 2003; later awarded QCVS for service in Afghanistan Brigadier Graham John Binns CBE MC, late The Prince of Wales's Own Regiment of Yorkshire, October 2003; CBE and MC both for actions in former Yugoslavia; previously appointed MBE for service in Northern Ireland Major John Henry Bowron, The Light Infantry, March 2005; previously awarded QCVS for service in Northern Ireland, later appointed OBE for further service in Iraq Major General Robin Vaughan Brims CBE, late The Light Infantry, October 2003; CBE for service in Northern Ireland, previously Mentioned in Despatches, and appointed MBE and OBE, all for services in Northern Ireland; also awarded QCVS for service in former Yugoslavia; later appointed Officer of US Legion of Merit for service in Iraq and appointed CB Major James Chenevix Coote, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Major James Alexander Delacour De Labilliere MBE, The Rifles, March 2010; MBE for service in former Yugoslavia / Albania Brigadier Timothy Paul Evans MBE, late The Light Infantry, March 2008; previously Mentioned in Despatches for actions in the Gulf (not gazetted until 1997) Major Angus George Costeker Fair, The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, December 2006; bar awarded for later service in Afghanistan Major General Graeme Cameron Maxwell Lamb CMG OBE, late The Queen's Own Highlanders, April 2004; OBE for service in the Gulf (not gazetted until 1994), also Mentioned in Despatches and awarded QCVS for actions in Northern Ireland; later appointed Officer of US Legion of Merit for service in Iraq Lieutenant Colonel Justin Charles Wladyslaw Maciejewski MBE, The Rifles, March 2008; previously awarded QCVS for service in Iraq Lieutenant Colonel Matthew Philip Maer MBE, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005; MBE for service in former Yugoslavia Lieutenant Colonel Jorge Emanuel Mendonca MBE, The Queen's Lancashire Regiment, April 2004 Colonel Gordon Kenneth Messenger OBE, Royal Marines, October 2003; OBE for service in former Yugoslavia, bar to DSO awarded for later service in Afghanistan Lieutenant Colonel Michael Lawrence Riddell-Webster, The Black Watch, October 2003; previously awarded QCVS for service in former Yugoslavia, later awarded QCVS for service in Northern Ireland Lieutenant Colonel Patrick Nicholas Yardley Monrad Sanders OBE, The Rifles, July 2008; OBE for previous service in Iraq Major Richard Cowan Taylor, The Life Guards, October 2003 Wing Commander Ian David Teakle OBE, Royal Air Force, October 2003; OBE for service in Kosovo / Macedonia Conspicuous Gallantry Cross The Conspicuous Gallantry Cross (CGC) is the next level of award down from the Victoria Cross for gallantry in the face of the enemy. Sergeant Christopher Mark Broome, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Sergeant Terry Bryan, 1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery, Royal Regiment of Artillery, March 2005 Corporal John Collins, The Parachute Regiment, December 2006 Colour Sergeant Leonard John Durber, The Parachute Regiment, March 2009 Lance Corporal of Horse Michael John Flynn, The Blues and Royals, October 2003; later awarded MC for actions in Afghanistan Corporal Benjamin Paul Greensmith, The Parachute Regiment, September 2004 (not gazetted until March 2008); later awarded MC for further actions in Iraq (recorded below) Colour Sergeant James Royce Harkess, The Worcestershire and Sherwood Foresters Regiment, December 2006 Sergeant Jonathan Stuart Hollingsworth QGM, The Parachute Regiment, July 2007 (killed in action); QGM for actions in Northern Ireland Corporal Shaun Garry Jardine, The King's Own Scottish Borderers, April 2004 Corporal Adam William Miller, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, March 2008 Sergeant Gordon Robertson, The Parachute Regiment, April 2004 Marine Justin Royston Thomas, Royal Marines, October 2003 Corporal Terence Alan Thomson, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Acting Colour Sergeant Matthew Richard Tomlinson, Royal Marines, March 2006; later awarded MC for actions in Afghanistan Staff Sergeant James Anthony Wadsworth, The Royal Logistic Corps, March 2008 Royal Red Cross The Royal Red Cross is awarded for distinguished nursing service. There are two classes: Members (RRC) and Associates (ARRC). Officers of the rank of lieutenant colonel and above will normally be admitted as Members; Membership is also awarded to those Associates providing a second period of service worthy of recognition. RRC: Major Tessa Joanne Grieves, Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, March 2009 Major Janet Mary Pilgrim ARRC, Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, July 2008; ARRC for service in Afghanistan, previously awarded QCVS for service in Kosovo / Macedonia Lieutenant Colonel Caroline Whittaker TD, Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, April 2004 ARRC: Corporal Jennifer Anne Daw, Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service, December 2006 Lieutenant Julian Peter Despres, Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service, October 2003 Flight Lieutenant Cormac Francis Doyle, Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service, July 2007 Staff Sergeant Huw Francis Isaac Jones, Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, July 2007 Sergeant Gary Anthony King, Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, July 2008 Captain Nicola Denise Watson, Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, October 2003 Distinguished Service Cross The Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) is the third-level medal awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy at sea. Lieutenant Commander Philip Charles Ireland, Royal Navy, October 2003 Military Cross The Military Cross (MC) is the third-level medal awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy on land. Royal Navy Corporal David John Beresford, Royal Marines, October 2003 Marine Richard Thomas Bywater, Royal Marines, October 2003 (not gazetted until March 2005) Captain Christopher Edward Haw, Royal Marines, October 2003 Captain James Knight, Royal Marines, July 2007 Corporal Terry Robert Knights, Royal Marines, July 2007 Captain Paul Patrick Lynch, Royal Marines, October 2003 Marine Gareth Thomas, Royal Marines, October 2003 Corporal Peter Raymond Watts, Royal Marines, October 2003 Army Cavalry Lance Corporal Christopher Stephen Balmforth, The Queen's Royal Hussars, March 2005 Corporal of Horse Glynn Ashley Bell, The Blues and Royals, April 2004 Lieutenant Simon Thomas Farebrother, The Queen's Dragoon Guards, October 2003 Sergeant Christopher Paul Richards, Royal Dragoon Guards, March 2009 Major Henry Francis Austin Sugden, The Queen's Dragoon Guards, October 2003 Artillery Captain Grant Ingleton, Royal Regiment of Artillery, October 2003 Infantry Captain Ibrar Ali, The Yorkshire Regiment, July 2007 Warrant Officer Class 1 Andrew Allman, The Parachute Regiment, October 2003 (not gazetted until March 2005) Corporal Simon John Barry, The Parachute Regiment, March 2009 Captain Robert James Bassett-Cross, Scots Guards, December 2006 Sergeant Nathan Lewis Bell, The Parachute Regiment, October 2003; previously Mentioned in Despatches for actions in Sierra Leone Guardsman Anton Liam Branchflower, Irish Guards, October 2003 Captain Delmore Alexander Britton QGM, The Parachute Regiment, October 2003 (not gazetted until September 2005); QGM for actions in Northern Ireland, also Mentioned in Despatches for actions in the Gulf (not gazetted until 1997) Lieutenant Alex John Burgess, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, July 2007; later Mentioned in Despatches for actions in Afghanistan Corporal Mark Richard Byles, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Lieutenant Charles Oliver Campbell, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, October 2003 Lance Corporal Nicholas Alan Thomas Coleman, The Devonshire and Dorset Light Infantry, December 2006 Private Ryan John Copping, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, December 2006 Lance Corporal Trevor Raywood Coult, The Royal Irish Regiment, September 2006 Captain Jeremy Alexander Crossley, The Rifles, March 2009 Major Ian Grange Crowley, The Yorkshire Regiment, March 2008 Corporal Anthony William Currie, The King's Own Scottish Borderers, April 2004 Kingsman Michael Davison, The King's and Cheshire Regiment, Territorial Army, April 2004 Second Lieutenant Richard Gordon Deane, The Royal Irish Regiment, March 2005 Staff Sergeant Brendan William Elliott, The Royal Anglian Regiment, September 2009 Fusilier David Owen Evans, The Royal Welch Fusiliers, March 2005 Acting Warrant Officer Class 2 Mark David Evans, The Royal Welch Fusiliers, March 2005 Warrant Officer Class 2 David Gordon Falconer, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Major Justin Burritt Featherstone, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Warrant Officer Class 2 Brian Gerard Forrester, The Parachute Regiment, September 2009 Colour Sergeant Benjamin Paul Greensmith CGC, The Parachute Regiment, July 2008; CGC for earlier actions in Iraq (recorded above) Acting Sergeant Neil Griffiths, The Royal Welch Fusiliers, March 2005 Lieutenant Christopher Ashley Head, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, October 2003 Major Richard Alexander Head, The Light Infantry, December 2006; later awarded QCVS for service in Afghanistan Major James Benjamin Weston Hollister, The King's Regiment, April 2004; later appointed MBE for further service in Iraq Corporal Steven Phillip Iszard, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, December 2006 Sergeant Paul Joseph Kelly, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, September 2004 Colour Sergeant Stephen Kincaid, The Parachute Regiment, March 2008 Lance Corporal Peter William Laing, The Black Watch, October 2003; later awarded QGM for further actions in Iraq (recorded below) Major Jeremy Lamb, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, July 2007 Second Lieutenant Rupert Grenville Simon Lane, The Rifles, March 2008 Colour Sergeant Mark Anthony Langridge, The Parachute Regiment, March 2008 Warrant Officer Class 2 Robert Gerald Leeds, The Parachute Regiment, March 2010; previously awarded QCB for actions in Northern Ireland Warrant Officer Class 2 Darren William Leigh, The Queen's Lancashire Regiment, April 2004 Rifleman Mark David Lunn, The Rifles, March 2008 Sergeant James Eric Newell, The Parachute Regiment, September 2006 Major Mark Andrew Peter Nooney, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, December 2006 Sergeant Michael Craig O'Brien, The Parachute Regiment, March 2008 Lieutenant Daniel Charles Morgan O'Connell, Irish Guards, October 2003 Second Lieutenant Thomas Peter Algar Orde-Powlett, Irish Guards, October 2003 Corporal Richard Thomas Pask, The Royal Welsh, March 2008 Sergeant David Anthony Harrington Perfect, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Acting Warrant Officer Class 2 Rodney Alan Poulter, The Rifles, March 2008 Colour Sergeant Alexander Joseph Reid, The Parachute Regiment, October 2003 (not gazetted until March 2006); previously Mentioned in Despatches for actions in Sierra Leone (not gazetted until 2003) Colour Sergeant Jason Paul Roberge, The Parachute Regiment, October 2003 (not gazetted until March 2006) Lance Corporal Sean Vitty Ernest Robson, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Corporal John William Randolph Rose, The Black Watch, October 2003 Lance Sergeant Steven Eric Ross, Grenadier Guards, December 2006 Private Troy O'Neil Samuels, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Private Jokini Sivoinauca, The Rifles, July 2007 Captain James Duncan Stenner, Welsh Guards, October 2003 (gazetted posthumously in April 2004) Major Stephen Nicholas Webb, The Royal Welsh, March 2008 Lance Corporal Brian Wood, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, March 2005 Major James Medley Woodham, The Royal Anglian Regiment, March 2006 Support Corps Captain Simon Daniel Bratcher, The Royal Logistic Corps, March 2006; later awarded US Bronze Star Medal for actions in Iraq Corporal Craig George James Comber, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, October 2003 Lance Corporal Darren George Dickson, The Royal Logistic Corps, Territorial Army, March 2005 Captain Graham Bentley 256 Canine SAR 1st WD Regiment, March 2005 Lieutenant Colonel Robert Charles Fram, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, March 2008 Sergeant Mark Jack Heley, Corps of Royal Engineers, October 2003 Staff Sergeant Richard Peter Thomas Johnson, Corps of Royal Engineers, October 2003 Staff Sergeant Christopher Brian Lyndhurst, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, July 2007 Sergeant Mark McDougall, Corps of Royal Engineers, July 2008 Private Michelle Suzanne Claire Norris, Royal Army Medical Corps, December 2006; first female award Lieutenant Toby Christian Rider, Corps of Royal Engineers, October 2003 Lance Corporal Paul Christopher Wilson, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, July 2007 Royal Air Force Corporal David James Hayden, Royal Air Force Regiment, March 2008; first award to RAF NCO Distinguished Flying Cross The Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) is the third-level medal awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy in the air. Bar to DFC: Squadron Leader Philip Jeremy Robinson DFC, Royal Air Force, October 2003 (not gazetted until September 2006); original award (dated 2002, not gazetted until 2003) and later second bar for actions in Afghanistan Squadron Leader Paul Graham Shepherd DFC, Royal Air Force, October 2003 (not gazetted until September 2006); original award for actions in Sierra Leone (not gazetted until 2003) DFC: Flight Lieutenant Shane William Anderson, Royal Air Force, March 2006 Staff Sergeant Rupert St John Hardington Banfield, Army Air Corps, October 2003 Squadron Leader Stephen Robin Carr, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Major William David Chesarek, United States Marine Corps, December 2006 Captain Richard Timothy Cuthill, Army Air Corps, October 2003 Flight Lieutenant Owen Eifion Edwards, Royal Air Force, October 2003 (not gazetted until March 2005) Flight Lieutenant Michelle Jayne Goodman, Royal Air Force, March 2008; first female award Flight Lieutenant Kevin Harris, Royal Air Force, March 2009 Squadron Leader David John Knowles, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Flight Lieutenant Scott Morley, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Acting Lieutenant Commander James Lloyd Newton, Royal Navy, October 2003 Squadron Leader Harvey Smyth, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Flight Lieutenant Andrew David Turk, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Squadron Leader John Turner, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Squadron Leader Ian Warwick Richard Walton, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Captain Scott Warwick Watkins, Australian Army Aviation, September 2005 Air Force Cross The Air Force Cross (AFC) is also a third-level award for gallantry in the air, awarded for actions whilst not in active operations against the enemy. Wing Commander Kevin Havelock, Royal Air Force, October 2003 Flight Lieutenant Nicholas Robert Ireland, Royal Air Force, October 2003 George Medal The George Medal (GM) is the next level below the George Cross for bravery not in the face of the enemy. Corporal Martin Paul Caines, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, December 2006 Captain Kevin Michael David Ivison, The Royal Logistic Corps, September 2006 Staff Sergeant Gary John O'Donnell, The Royal Logistic Corps, December 2006; awarded posthumous bar for actions in Afghanistan Warrant Officer Class 1 Nicholas Keith Pettit QGM, Corps of Royal Engineers, April 2004; QGM for actions in former Yugoslavia Fusilier Daniel James Smith, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, September 2006 Queen's Gallantry Medal The Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM) is the third-level medal awarded for bravery not in the face of the enemy. Bar to QGM: Captain Eamon Conrad Heakin QGM, The Royal Logistic Corps, March 2008; original award for actions in Northern Ireland, later awarded US Bronze Star medal for actions in Iraq Captain Vincent Michael Strafford QGM, The Royal Logistic Corps, March 2008; original award for actions in Afghanistan QGM: Warrant Officer Class 2 Brendan James Campbell, Irish Guards, March 2008 Lance Corporal Simon David Campbell RVM, Irish Guards, April 2004 (not gazetted until September 2004) Warrant Officer Class 2 Adrian Robert Craddock, The Royal Logistic Corps, March 2005; later awarded US Bronze Star Medal for service in Iraq Private Damian Kenneth Currie, The Black Watch, March 2005 Colour Sergeant Carl Philip Dakin, The Parachute Regiment, October 2003 (not gazetted until March 2005) Acting Staff Sergeant Simon James De Gruchy, The Royal Logistic Corps, September 2005 Captain Crispin Tony Grant Driver-Williams, The Royal Logistic Corps, March 2005 Captain Timothy Robert Gould, The Royal Logistic Corps, October 2003 Sergeant Stephen Robert Goulding, Corps of Royal Engineers, March 2005 Corporal Michael Glen Harrold, The Queen's Royal Lancers, July 2007 Staff Sergeant Chris James Hewett, The Royal Logistic Corps, September 2006 Corporal John Austin Hiscock, Royal Marines, October 2003 Corporal Peter William Laing MC, The Black Watch, March 2005; MC for previous actions in Iraq (recorded above) Private Jonetani Matia Lawaci, The Black Watch, March 2005 Private Michael David McLaughlin, The Black Watch, September 2005 Captain Taitusi Kagi Saukuru, The King's Regiment, September 2004 Sergeant Andrew William Sindall, Corps of Royal Engineers, October 2003 Lance Sergeant Kevin William Tomlinson, Irish Guards, March 2008 Guardsman Lee Wheeler, Irish Guards, April 2004 (not gazetted until September 2004) Lance Corporal Michael Andrew Wilkinson, The Royal Anglian Regiment, July 2007 Staff Sergeant Anthony Michael Wyles, Corps of Royal Engineers, Territorial Army, April 2004 See also British honours system Operation Telic List of British gallantry awards for the War in Afghanistan References Gallantry Awards For The Iraq War United Kingdom Gallantry Awards Gallantry Awards For The Iraq War Gallantry Awards For The Iraq War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20Kill%20a%20Mockingbird%20%28film%29
To Kill a Mockingbird (film)
To Kill a Mockingbird is a 1962 American coming-of-age legal drama crime film directed by Robert Mulligan. The screenplay by Horton Foote is based on Harper Lee's 1960 Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. The film stars Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch and Mary Badham as Scout. It marked the film debut of Robert Duvall, William Windom and Alice Ghostley. It gained overwhelmingly positive reception from both the critics and the public; a box-office success, it earned more than six times its budget. The film won three Academy Awards, including Best Actor for Peck, and was nominated for eight, including Best Picture. In 1995, the film was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". In 2003, the American Film Institute named Atticus Finch the greatest movie hero of the 20th century. In 2007, the film ranked twenty-fifth on the AFI's 10th anniversary list of the greatest American movies of all time. In 2020, the British Film Institute included it in their list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 15. The film was restored and released on Blu-ray and DVD in 2012, as part of the 100th anniversary of Universal Pictures. Plot Narration is by the adult Jean Louise "Scout" Finch. Young Scout and her older brother Jem live in Maycomb, Alabama, during the early 1930s. Despite the family's modest means, the children enjoy a happy childhood with their widowed father, Atticus Finch, and their African-American housekeeper, Calpurnia. Over the summer, Jem, Scout, and their friend Dill play games and often search for Arthur "Boo" Radley, an odd, reclusive neighbor who lives with his brother Nathan. The children have never seen Boo, who rarely leaves the house. Occasionally, Jem has found small objects left inside a tree knothole on the Radley property. These include a broken pocket watch, an old spelling bee medal, a pocket knife, and two carved soap dolls resembling Jem and Scout. Atticus, a lawyer, strongly believes all people deserve fair treatment, in turning the other cheek, and in defending what you believe. Many of Atticus' clients are poor farmers who pay for his legal services in trade, often leaving him fresh produce, firewood, and so on. Atticus' work as a lawyer often exposes Scout and Jem to the town's racism, aggravated by poverty. As a result, the children mature more quickly. Atticus chooses to defend Tom Robinson, an African-American accused of raping a Caucasian girl, Mayella Ewell. This heightens tension in the town and causes Jem and Scout to experience schoolyard taunts. One evening before the trial, Atticus sits out front to safeguard Robinson, where a lynch mob arrives. Scout, Jem, and Dill unexpectedly interrupt the confrontation. Scout, unaware of the mob's purpose, recognizes Mr. Cunningham and asks him to say hello to his son Walter, her classmate. He becomes embarrassed, and the mob disperses. At the trial, it is alleged that Tom entered the Ewell property at Mayella's request to chop up a chifforobe and that Mayella showed signs of having been beaten around that time. One of Atticus' defensive arguments is that Tom's left arm is disabled due to a farming accident years ago, yet the supposed rapist would have had to mostly assault Mayella with his left hand before raping her. Atticus shows that Mayella's father, Bob Ewell, is left-handed, implying that he beat Mayella because he caught her seducing the young African-American defendant. He also states that Mayella was never examined by a doctor after the alleged rape. Taking the stand, Tom denies he attacked Mayella, but states that she kissed him against his will. He testifies that he had previously assisted Mayella with various chores at her request because he "felt sorry for her" – words that incite a swift, negative reaction from the prosecutor, and a gasp from the Caucasian audience. In his closing argument, Atticus asks the all-Caucasian male jury to cast aside their prejudices and focus on Tom's obvious innocence. However, Tom is found guilty. As Atticus exits the courtroom, the African-American spectators in the balcony rise to show their respect and appreciation. When Atticus arrives home, Sheriff Tate tells him Tom was killed during his transfer to prison, supposedly while attempting to escape. Atticus goes to the Robinson's to inform them of Tom's death, accompanied by Jem. Bob Ewell appears and spits in his face. Autumn arrives, and Scout and Jem attend an evening school pageant in which Scout portrays a ham. After the pageant, Scout is unable to find her dress and shoes, forcing her to walk home with Jem while wearing the large, hard-shelled costume. While cutting through the woods, Scout and Jem are attacked. Scout's cumbersome costume protects her but restricts her vision. The attacker knocks Jem unconscious, but is himself attacked (and killed) by a second man, unseen by Scout. Scout escapes her costume and sees the second man carrying Jem towards their house. Scout follows them and runs into the arms of a frantic Atticus. Still unconscious, Jem has his broken arm treated by Doc Reynolds. Scout tells Sheriff Tate and her father what happened, then notices a strange man behind Jem's bedroom door. Atticus introduces Scout to Arthur Radley, whom she knows as Boo. It was Boo who rescued Jem and Scout, overpowering Bob Ewell and carrying Jem home. The sheriff reports that Ewell, apparently seeking revenge for Atticus humiliating him in court, is dead at the scene of the attack. Atticus mistakenly assumes Jem killed Ewell in self-defense, but Sheriff Tate realizes the truth – Boo killed Ewell defending the children. His official report will state that Ewell died falling on his knife. Tate refuses to drag the painfully shy, introverted, likely autistic Boo into the spotlight for his heroism, insisting it would be a sin. As Scout escorts Boo home, she draws a startlingly precocious analogy: comparing the unwelcome public attention that would have been heaped on Boo, with the killing of a mockingbird that does nothing but sing. Cast Uncredited roles in order of appearance Kim Stanley as the narrator; the voice of adult Scout"Maycomb was a tired old towneven in 1932 when I first knew itthat summer I was six years old." Paulene Myers as Jessie, Mrs. Dubose's servant, sitting close to her on the Dubose porch. Jamie Forster as Mr. Townsend, sitting on a bench, with three men, near the courthouse: "If you're lookin' for your daddy, he's inside the courthouse." Steve Condit as Walter Cunningham Jr., Mr. Cunningham's son, at dinner with the Finch family: "Yes, sir. I don't know when I had roast. We been havin' squirrels and rabbits lately." David Crawford as David, Tom Robinson's son, sitting on the steps to the Robinsons' shack: "Good evening." Kim Hamilton as Helen, Tom Robinson's wife, inside the Robinsons' shack: "Good evening, Mr. Finch." Dan White as the mob leader approaching as Atticus Finch sits in front of the jailhouse: "He in there, Mr. Finch?" Kelly Thordsen as a heavyset member of the mob who grabs and picks up Jem: "Well, I'll send you home." William "Bill" Walker as Reverend Sykes, at the courthouse for Tom Robinson's trial: "Miss Jean Louise? Miss Jean Louise, stand up. Your father's passin'." Charles Fredericks as the court clerk at Tom Robinson's trial: "Place your hand on the bible, please. Do you solemnly swear to tell the truth...?" Guy Wilkerson as the jury foreman at Tom Robinson's trial: "We find the defendant guilty as charged." Jay Sullivan as the court reporter at Tom Robinson's trial: "Yes." Jester Hairston as Spence, Tom Robinson's father in front of the Robinsons' shack: "Hello Mr. Finch. I'm Spence, Tom's father." Hugh Sanders as Doctor Reynolds, the town physician who examines Jem: "He's got a bad break, so far as I can tell. Somebody tried to wring his arm off." Casting James Stewart declined the role of Atticus Finch, concerned that the story was too controversial. Universal offered the role to Rock Hudson when the project was being first developed but producer Alan J. Pakula wanted a bigger star. Pakula remembered hearing from Peck when he was first approached with the role: "He called back immediately. No maybes. [...] I must say the man and the character he played were not unalike". Peck later said in an interview that he was drawn to the role because the book reminded him of growing up in La Jolla, California. The 1962 softcover edition of the novel opens: "The Southern town of Maycomb, Alabama, reminds me of the California town I grew up in. The characters of the novel are like people I knew as a boy. I think perhaps the great appeal of the novel is that it reminds readers everywhere of a person or a town they have known. It is to me a universal story – moving, passionate and told with great humor and tenderness." Gregory Peck. Production The producers had wanted to use Harper Lee's hometown of Monroeville, Alabama for the set. Harper Lee used her experiences as a child in Monroeville as the basis for the fictional town of Maycomb, so it seemed that would be the best place. However, the town had changed significantly between the 1920s and the early 1960s, so they made it on the backlot in Hollywood instead. The Old Monroe County Courthouse in Monroeville was used as a model for the film set, since they could not use the courthouse due to the poor audio quality in the courthouse. The accuracy of the recreated courthouse in Hollywood led many Alabamians to believe that the film was shot in Monroeville. The Old Courthouse in Monroe County is now a theater for many plays inspired by To Kill a Mockingbird as well as a museum dedicated to multiple authors from Monroeville. Reception The film received widespread critical acclaim. As of January 2023, it maintains a rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus states, "To Kill a Mockingbird is a textbook example of a message movie done right – sober-minded and earnest, but never letting its social conscience get in the way of gripping drama." Metacritic, using a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 88 out of 100 based on 16 critics, meaning "universal acclaim". According to Bosley Crowther of The New York Times when the movie first premiered at the Radio City Music Hall: Horton Foote's script and the direction of Mr. Mulligan may not penetrate that deeply, but they do allow Mr. Peck and little Miss Badham and Master Alford to portray delightful characters. Their charming enactments of a father and his children in that close relationship, which can occur at only one brief period, are worth all the footage of the film. Rosemary Murphy as a neighbor, Brock Peters as the Negro on trial, and Frank Overton as a troubled sheriff are good as locality characters, too. James Anderson and Collin Wilcox as Southern bigots are almost caricatures. But those are minor shortcomings in a rewarding film. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times criticized the film for focusing less on black people, criticizing the film for having a white savior narrative: It expresses the liberal pieties of a more innocent time, the early 1960s, and it goes very easy on the realities of small-town Alabama in the 1930s. One of the most dramatic scenes shows a lynch mob facing Atticus, who is all by himself on the jailhouse steps the night before Tom Robinson's trial. The mob is armed and prepared to break in and hang Robinson, but Scout bursts onto the scene, recognizes a poor farmer who has been befriended by her father, and shames him (and all the other men) into leaving. Her speech is a calculated strategic exercise, masked as the innocent words of a child; one shot of her eyes shows she realizes exactly what she's doing. Could a child turn away a lynch mob at that time, in that place? Isn't it nice to think so. Walt Disney requested that the film be privately screened in his house. At the film's conclusion, Disney sadly stated, "That was one hell of a picture. That's the kind of film I wish I could make." In a retrospective review, American film critic Pauline Kael claimed that, when Gregory Peck received the Academy Award for Best Actor: ... there was a fair amount of derision throughout the country: Peck was better than usual, but in that same virtuously dull way. (There was the suspicion that Peck was being rewarded because the Lincolnesque lawyer shot a rabid dog and defended an innocent black man accused of raping a white woman.) Peck's performance became synonymous with the role and character of Atticus Finch. "Hardly a day passes that I don't think how lucky I was to be cast in that film", Peck said in a 1997 interview. "I recently sat at a dinner next to a woman who saw it when she was 14-years-old, and she said it changed her life. I hear things like that all the time". Harper Lee, in liner notes written for the film's DVD re-release by Universal, wrote: "When I learned that Gregory Peck would play Atticus Finch in the film production of To Kill a Mockingbird, I was of course delighted: here was a fine actor who had made great films – what more could a writer ask for? ...The years told me his secret. When he played Atticus Finch, he had played himself, and time has told all of us something more: when he played himself, he touched the world". Upon Peck's death in 2003, Brock Peters, who played Tom Robinson in the film version, quoted Harper Lee at Peck's eulogy, saying, "Atticus Finch gave him an opportunity to play himself". Peters concluded his eulogy stating, "To my friend Gregory Peck, to my friend Atticus Finch, vaya con Dios". Peters remembered the role of Tom Robinson when he recalled, "It certainly is one of my proudest achievements in life, one of the happiest participations in film or theater I have experienced". Peters remained friends not only with Peck but with Mary Badham throughout his life. Peck himself admitted that many people reminded him of this film more than any other film he had ever done. Awards and honors In 1995, To Kill a Mockingbird was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It is also Robert Duvall's big-screen debut, as the misunderstood recluse Boo Radley. Duvall was cast on the recommendation of screenwriter Horton Foote, who met him at Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City where Duvall starred in a 1957 production of Foote's play, The Midnight Caller. In 2007, Hamilton was honored by the Harlem community for her part in the movie. She was the last surviving African-American adult who had a speaking part in the movie. When told of the award, she said, "I think it is terrific. I'm very pleased and very surprised". The American Film Institute named Atticus Finch the greatest movie hero of the 20th century. Additionally, the AFI ranked the movie second on their 100 Years... 100 Cheers list, behind It's a Wonderful Life. The film was ranked number 34 on AFI's list of the 100 greatest movies of all time, but moved up to number 25 on the 10th Anniversary list. In June 2008, the AFI revealed its "Ten top Ten"the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genresafter polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. To Kill a Mockingbird was acknowledged as the best film in the courtroom drama genre. American Film Institute lists: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #34 AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains: Atticus Finch – #1 Hero AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes: "Miss Jean Louise, stand up. Your father's passing." – Nominated "You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view, until you climb inside of his skin and walk around in it." – Nominated AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – #17 AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – #2 AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies: 10th Anniversary Edition – #25 AFI's 10 Top 10 – #1 Courtroom Drama Music Elmer Bernstein's score for To Kill a Mockingbird is regarded as one of the greatest film scores and has been recorded three times. It was first released in April 1963 on Ava; then Bernstein re-recorded it in the 1970s for his Film Music Collection series; and finally, he recorded the complete score (below) in 1996 with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra for the Varese Sarabande Film Classics series. "Main Title" – 3:21 "Remember Mama" – 1:08 "Atticus Accepts The Case – Roll in the Tire" – 2:06 "Creepy Caper – Peek-A-Boo" – 4:10 "Ewell's Hatred" – 3:33 "Jem's Discovery" – 3:47 "Tree Treasure" – 4:23 "Lynch Mob" – 3:04 "Guilty Verdict" – 3:10 "Ewell Regret It" – 2:11 "Footsteps in the Dark" – 2:07 "Assault in the Shadows" – 2:28 "Boo Who" – 3:00 "End Title" – 3:25 See also List of American films of 1962 La Joven (The Young One), the 1960 film Trial film White savior narrative in film References External links To Kill A Mockingbird location and production notes 1962 crime drama films 1962 films 1960s English-language films 1960s legal films Film American black-and-white films American legal drama films American courtroom films Films scored by Elmer Bernstein Films about lawyers Films about miscarriage of justice Films about prejudice Films about race and ethnicity Films about racism in the United States Films about siblings Films based on American novels Films directed by Robert Mulligan Films featuring a Best Actor Academy Award-winning performance Films featuring a Best Drama Actor Golden Globe winning performance Films set in Alabama Films set in the 1930s Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award Films with screenplays by Horton Foote Great Depression films Southern Gothic films United States National Film Registry films Universal Pictures films American crime drama films Films about father–daughter relationships Films about father–son relationships 1960s American films American coming-of-age drama films Films about children
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor%20Zhivago%20%28novel%29
Doctor Zhivago (novel)
Doctor Zhivago ( ; ) is a novel by Boris Pasternak, first published in 1957 in Italy. The novel is named after its protagonist, Yuri Zhivago, a physician and poet, and takes place between the Russian Revolution of 1905 and World War II. Owing to the author's critical stance on the October Revolution, Doctor Zhivago was refused publication in the USSR. At the instigation of Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, the manuscript was smuggled to Milan and published in 1957. Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature the following year, an event that embarrassed and enraged the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The novel was made into a film by David Lean in 1965, and since then has twice been adapted for television, most recently as a miniseries for Russian TV in 2006. The novel Doctor Zhivago has been part of the Russian school curriculum since 2003, where it is read in 11th grade. Plot summary The plot of Doctor Zhivago is long and intricate. It can be difficult to follow for two reasons. Firstly, Pasternak employs many characters, who interact with each other throughout the book in unpredictable ways. Secondly, he frequently introduces a character by one of his/her three names, then subsequently refers to that character by another of the three names or a nickname, without expressly stating that he is referring to the same character. Part 1 Imperial Russia, 1902. The novel opens during a Russian Orthodox funeral liturgy, or panikhida, for Yuri's mother, Marya Nikolaevna Zhivago. Having long ago been abandoned by his father, Yuri is taken in by his maternal uncle, Nikolai Nikolaevich Vedenyapin, a philosopher and former Orthodox priest who now works for the publisher of a progressive newspaper in a provincial capital on the Volga River. Yuri's father, Andrei Zhivago, was once a wealthy member of Moscow's merchant gentry, but has squandered the family's fortune in Siberia through debauchery and carousing. The next summer, Yuri (who is 11 years old) and Nikolai Nikolaevich travel to Duplyanka, the estate of Lavrenty Mikhailovich Kologrivov, a wealthy silk merchant. They are there not to visit Kologrivov, who is abroad with his wife, but to visit a mutual friend, Ivan Ivanovich Voskoboinikov, an intellectual who lives in the steward's cottage. Kologrivov's daughters, Nadya (who is 15 years old) and Lipa (who is younger), are also living at the estate with a governess and servants. Innokenty (Nika) Dudorov, a 13-year-old boy who is the son of a convicted terrorist has been placed with Ivan Ivanovich by his mother and lives with him in the cottage. As Nikolai Nikolaevich and Ivan Ivanovich are strolling in the garden and discussing philosophy, they notice that a train passing in the distance has come to a stop in an unexpected place, indicating that something is wrong. On the train, an 11-year-old boy named Misha Grigorievich Gordon is traveling with his father. They have been on the train for three days. During that time, a kind man had given Misha small gifts and had talked for hours with his father, Grigory Osipovich Gordon. However, encouraged by his attorney, who was traveling with him, the man had become drunk. Eventually, the man had rushed to the vestibule of the moving train car, pushed aside the boy's father, opened the door and thrown himself out, killing himself. Misha's father had then pulled the emergency brake, bringing the train to a halt. The passengers disembark and view the corpse while the police are called. The deceased's lawyer stands near the body and blames the suicide on alcoholism. Part 2 During the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Amalia Karlovna Guichard arrives in Moscow from the Urals with her two children: Rodion (Rodya) and Larissa (Lara). Mme. Guichard's late husband was a Belgian who had been working as an engineer for the railroad and had been friends with Victor Ippolitovich Komarovsky, a lawyer and "cold-blooded businessman." Komarovsky sets them up in rooms at the seedy Montenegro hotel, enrolls Rodion in the Cadet Corps and enrolls Lara in a girls' high school. The girls' school is the same school that Nadya Kologrivov attends. On Komarovsky's advice, Amalia invests in a small dress shop. Amalia and her children live at the Montenegro for about a month before moving into the apartment over the dress shop. Despite an ongoing affair with Amalia, Komarovsky begins to groom Lara behind her mother's back. In early October, the workers of the Moscow-Brest railroad line go on strike. The foreman of the station is Pavel Ferapontovich Antipov. His friend Kiprian Savelyevich Tiverzin is called into one of the railroad workshops and stops a workman from beating his apprentice (whose name is Osip (Yusupka) Gimazetdinovich Galiullin). The police arrest Pavel Ferapontovich for his role in the strike. Pavel Ferapontovich's boy, Patulya (or Pasha or Pashka) Pavlovich Antipov, comes to live with Tiverzin and his mother. Tiverzin's mother and Patulya attend a demonstration which is attacked by dragoons, but they survive and return home. As the protestors flee the dragoons, Nikolai Nikolaevich (Yuri's uncle) is standing inside a Moscow apartment, at the window, watching the people flee. Some time ago, he moved from the Volga region to Petersburg, and at the same time moved Yuri to Moscow to live at the Gromeko household. Nikolai Nikolaevich had then come to Moscow from Petersburg earlier in the Fall, and is staying with the Sventitskys, who were distant relations. The Gromeko household consists of Alexander Alexandrovich Gromeko, his wife Anna Ivanovna, and his bachelor brother Nikolai Alexandrovich. Anna is the daughter of a wealthy steel magnate, now deceased, from the Yuriatin region in the Urals. They have a daughter Tonya. In January 1906, the Gromekos host a chamber music recital at their home one night. One of the performers is a cellist who is a friend of Amalia's, and her next-door neighbor at the Montenegro. Midway through the performance, the cellist is recalled to the Montenegro because, he is told, someone there is dying. Alexander Alexandrovich, Yuri and Misha come along with the cellist. At the Montenegro, the boys stand in a public corridor outside one of the rooms, embarrassed, while Amalia, who has taken poison, is treated with an emetic. Eventually, they are shooed into the room by the boarding house employees who are using the corridor. The boys are assured that Amalia is out of danger and, once inside the room, see her, half-naked and sweaty, talking with the cellist; she tells him that she had "suspicions" but "fortunately it all turned out to be foolishness." The boys then notice, in a dark part of the room, a girl (it is Lara) asleep on a chair. Unexpectedly, Komarovsky emerges from behind a curtain and brings a lamp to the table next to Lara's chair. The light wakes her up and she, unaware that Yuri and Misha are watching, shares a private moment with Komarovsky, "as if he were a puppeteer and she a puppet, obedient to the movements of his hand." They exchange conspiratorial glances, pleased that their secret was not discovered and that Amalia did not die. This is the first time Yuri sees Lara, and he is fascinated by the scene. Misha then whispers to Yuri that the man he is watching is the same one who got his father drunk on the train shortly before his father's suicide. Part 3 In November 1911, Anna Ivanovna Gromeko becomes seriously ill with pneumonia. At this time, Yuri, Misha, and Tonya are studying to be a doctor, philologist, and lawyer respectively. Yuri learns that his father had a child, a boy named Evgraf, by Princess Stolbunova-Enrizzi. The narrative returns to the Spring of 1906. Lara is increasingly tormented by Komarovsky's control over her, which has now been going on for six months. In order to get away from him, she asks her classmate and friend Nadya Laurentovna Kologrivov to help her find work as a tutor. Nadya says she can work for Nadya's own family because her parents happen to be looking for a tutor for her sister Lipa. Lara spends more than three years working as a governess for the Kologrivovs. Lara admires the Kologrivovs, and they love her as if she were their own child. In her fourth year with the Kologrivovs, Lara is visited by her brother Rodya. He needs 700 rubles to cover a debt. Lara says she will try to get the money, and in exchange demands Rodya's cadet revolver along with some cartridges. She obtains the money from Kologrivov. She does not pay the money back, because she uses her wages to help support her boyfriend Pasha Antipov (see above) and his father (who lives in exile), without Pasha's knowledge. We move forward to 1911. Lara visits the Kologrivovs' country estate with them for the last time. She is becoming discontented with her situation, but she enjoys the pastimes of the estate anyway, and she becomes an excellent shot with Rodya's revolver. When she and the family return to Moscow, her discontent grows. Around Christmastime, she resolves to part from the Kologrivovs, and to ask Komarovsky for the money necessary to do that. She plans to kill him with Rodya's revolver should he refuse her. On 27 December, the date of the Sventitsky's Christmas party, she goes to Komarovsky's home but is informed that he is at a Christmas party. She gets the address of the party and starts toward it, but relents and pays Pasha a visit instead. She tells him that they should get married right away, and he agrees. At the same moment that Lara and Pasha are having this discussion, Yuri and Tonya are passing by Pasha's apartment in the street, on their way to the Sventitskys. They arrive at the party and enjoy the festivities. Later, Lara arrives at the party. She knows no one there other than Komarovsky, and is not dressed for a ball. She tries to get Komarovsky to notice her, but he is playing cards and either does not notice her or pretends not to. Through some quick inferences, she realizes that one of the men playing cards with Komarovsky is Kornakov, a prosecutor of the Moscow court. He prosecuted a group of railway workers that included Kiprian Tiverzin, Pasha's foster father. Later, while Yuri and Tonya are dancing, a shot rings out. There is a great commotion and it is discovered that Lara has shot Kornakov (not Komarovsky) and Kornakov has received only a minor wound. Lara has fainted and is being dragged by some guests to a chair; Yuri recognizes her with amazement. Yuri goes to render medical attention to Lara but then changes course to Kornakov because he is the nominal victim. He pronounces Kornakov's wound to be "a trifle", and is about to tend to Lara when Mrs. Sventitsky and Tonya urgently tell him that he must return home because something was not right with Anna Ivanovna. When Yuri and Tonya return home, they find that Anna Ivanovna has died. Part 4 Komarovsky uses his political connections to shield Lara from prosecution. Lara and Pasha marry, graduate from university, and depart by train for Yuriatin. The narrative moves to the second autumn of the First World War. Yuri has married Tonya and is working as a doctor at a hospital in Moscow. Tonya gives birth to their first child, a son. Back in Yuriatin, the Antipovs also have their first child, a girl named Katenka. Although he loves Lara deeply, Pasha feels increasingly stifled by her love for him. In order to escape, he volunteers for the Imperial Russian Army. Lara starts to work as a teacher in Yuriatin. Sometime later, she leaves Yuriatin and goes to a town in Galicia, to look for Pasha. The town happens to be where Yuri is now working as a military doctor. Elsewhere, Lt. Antipov is taken prisoner by the Austro-Hungarian Army, but is erroneously declared missing in action. Wounded by artillery fire, Yuri is sent to a battlefield hospital in the town of Meliuzeevo, where Lara is his nurse. Galiullin (the apprentice who was beaten in Part 2) is also in Lara's ward, recovering from injuries. He is now a lieutenant in Pasha's unit; he informs Lara that Pasha is alive, but she doubts him. Lara gets to know Yuri better but is not impressed with him. At the very end of this Part, it is announced in the hospital that there has been a revolution. Part 5 After his recovery, Zhivago stays on at the hospital as a physician. This puts him at close quarters with Lara. They are both (along with Galiullin) trying to get permission to leave and return to their homes. In Meliuzeevo, a newly arrived commissar for the Provisional Government, whose name is Gintz, is informed that a local military unit has deserted and is camped in a nearby cleared forest. Gintz decides to accompany a troop of Cossacks who have been summoned to surround and disarm the deserters. He believes he can appeal to the deserters' pride as "soldiers in the world's first revolutionary army." A train of mounted Cossacks arrives and the Cossacks quickly surround the deserters. Gintz enters the circle of horsemen and makes a speech to the deserters. His speech backfires so badly that the Cossacks who are there to support him gradually sheath their sabres, dismount and start to fraternize with the deserters. The Cossack officers advise Gintz to flee; he does, but he is pursued by the deserters and brutally murdered by them at the railroad station. Shortly before he leaves, Yuri says goodbye to Lara. He starts by expressing his excitement over the fact that "the roof over the whole of Russia has been torn off, and we and all the people find ourselves under the open sky" with true freedom for the first time. Despite himself, he then starts to clumsily tell Lara that he has feelings for her. Lara stops him and they part. A week later, they leave by different trains, she to Yuriatin and he to Moscow. On the train to Moscow, Yuri reflects on how different the world has become, and on his "honest trying with all his might not to love [Lara]." Parts 6 to 9 Following the October Revolution and the subsequent Russian Civil War, Yuri and his family decide to flee by train to Tonya's family's former estate (called Varykino), located near the town of Yuriatin in the Ural Mountains. During the journey, he has an encounter with Army Commissar Strelnikov ("The Executioner"), a fearsome commander who summarily executes both captured Whites and many civilians. Yuri and his family settle in an abandoned house on the estate. Over the winter, they read books to each other and Yuri writes poetry and journal entries. Spring comes and the family prepares for farm work. Yuri visits Yuriatin to use the public library, and during one of these visits sees Lara at the library. He decides to talk with her, but finishes up some work first, and when he looks up she is gone. He gets her home address from a request slip she had given the librarian. On another visit to town, he visits her at her apartment (which she shares with her daughter). She informs him that Strelnikov is indeed Pasha, her husband. During one of Yuri's subsequent visits to Yuriatin they consummate their relationship. They meet at her apartment regularly for more than two months, but then Yuri, while returning from one of their trysts to his house on the estate, is abducted by men loyal to Liberius, commander of the "Forest Brotherhood," the Bolshevik guerrilla band. Parts 10 to 13 Liberius is a dedicated Old Bolshevik and highly effective leader of his men. However, Liberius is also a cocaine addict, loud-mouthed and narcissistic. He repeatedly bores Yuri with his long-winded lectures about the glories of socialism and the inevitability of its victory. Yuri spends more than two years with Liberius and his partisans, then finally manages to escape. After a grueling journey back to Yuriatin, made largely on foot, Yuri goes into town to see Lara first, rather than to Varykino to see his family. In town, he learns that his wife, children, and father-in-law fled the estate and returned to Moscow. From Lara, he learns that Tonya delivered a daughter after he left. Lara assisted at the birth and she and Tonya became close friends. Yuri gets a job and stays with Lara and her daughter for a few months. One of Lara's friends, Sima Tuntseva, gives her a lengthy sermon on Mary Magdalene in the style of Tolstoy. Eventually, a townsperson delivers a letter to Yuri from Tonya, which Tonya wrote five months before and which has passed through innumerable hands to reach Yuri. In the letter, Tonya informs him that she, the children, and her father are being deported, probably to Paris. She says "The whole trouble is that I love you and you do not love me," and "We will never, ever see each other again." When Yuri finishes reading the letter, he has chest pains and faints. Part 14 In the dead of winter, Lara and Yuri move back to the estate at Varykino where there are literal wolves at the door every night. Komarovsky reappears. Having used his influence within the CPSU, Komarovsky has been appointed Minister of Justice of the Far Eastern Republic, a Soviet puppet state in Siberia. He offers to smuggle Yuri and Lara outside Soviet soil. They initially refuse, but Komarovsky states, falsely, that Pasha Antipov is dead, having fallen from favor with the Party. Stating that this will place Lara in the Cheka's crosshairs, he persuades Yuri that it is in her best interests to leave for the East. Yuri convinces Lara to go with Komarovsky, telling her that he will follow her shortly. Meanwhile, the hunted General Strelnikov (Pasha) returns for Lara. Lara, however, has already left with Komarovsky. After expressing regret over the pain he has caused his country and loved ones, Pasha commits suicide. Yuri finds his body the following morning. Part 15 After returning to Moscow, Zhivago's health declines; he marries another woman, Marina, and fathers two children with her. He also plans numerous writing projects which he never finishes. Yuri leaves his new family and his friends to live alone in Moscow and work on his writing. However, after living on his own for a short time, he dies of a heart attack while riding the tram. Meanwhile, Lara returns to Russia to learn of her dead husband and ends up attending Yuri Zhivago's funeral. She persuades Yuri's half-brother, who is now NKVD General Yevgraf Zhivago, to assist her in her search for a daughter that she had conceived with Yuri, but had abandoned in the Urals. Ultimately, however, Lara disappears, believed arrested during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge and dying in the Gulag, "a nameless number on a list that was later misplaced." Epilogue During World War II, Zhivago's old friends Nika Dudorov and Misha Gordon meet up. One of their discussions revolves around a local laundress named Tanya, a bezprizornaya, or war orphan, and her resemblance to both Yuri and Lara. Tanya tells both men of the difficult childhood she has had due to her mother abandoning her in order to marry Komarovsky. Much later, the two men meet over the first edition of Yuri Zhivago's poems. Background Soviet censorship Although it contains passages written in the 1910s and 1920s, Doctor Zhivago was not completed until 1955. The novel was submitted to the literary journal Novy Mir ("Новый Мир") in 1956. However, the editors rejected Pasternak's novel because of its implicit rejection of socialist realism. The author, like Zhivago, showed more concern for the welfare of individuals than for the welfare of society. Soviet censors construed some passages as anti-Soviet. They also objected to Pasternak's subtle criticisms of Stalinism, Collectivization, the Great Purge, and the Gulag. Translations Pasternak sent several copies of the manuscript in Russian to friends in the West. In 1957, Italian publisher Giangiacomo Feltrinelli arranged for the novel to be smuggled out of the Soviet Union by Sergio D'Angelo. Upon handing his manuscript over, Pasternak quipped, "You are hereby invited to watch me face the firing squad." Despite desperate efforts by the Union of Soviet Writers to prevent its publication, Feltrinelli published an Italian translation of the book in November 1957. So great was the demand for Doctor Zhivago that Feltrinelli was able to license translation rights into eighteen different languages well in advance of the novel's publication. The Communist Party of Italy expelled Feltrinelli from their membership in retaliation for his role in the publication of a novel they felt was critical of communism. A French translation was published by Éditions Gallimard in June 1958, with an English translation being published in September 1958. Russian text published by CIA The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency realized that the novel presented an opportunity to embarrass the Soviet government. An internal memo lauded the book's "great propaganda value": not only did the text have a central humanist message, but the Soviet government's having suppressed a great work of literature could make ordinary citizens "wonder what is wrong with their government". The CIA set out to publish 1,000 copies of a Russian-language hardcover edition at Mouton Publishers of the Hague in early September 1958, and arranged for 365 of them, in Mouton's trademark blue linen cover, to be distributed at the Vatican pavilion at the 1958 Brussels world's fair. The printing by Mouton Publishers of the 1,000 copies of an adulterated Russian-language version, organized by the CIA, had typos and truncated storylines, and it was illegal, because the owner of the manuscript was Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, who later put his name on the Mouton edition. Author Ivan Tolstoi claims that the CIA lent a hand to ensure that Doctor Zhivago was submitted to the Nobel Committee in its original language, in order for Pasternak to win the Nobel prize and further harm the international credibility of the Soviet Union. He repeats and adds additional details to Fetrinelli's claims that CIA operatives intercepted and photographed a manuscript of the novel and secretly printed a small number of books in the Russian language. Recently released CIA documents do not show that the agency's efforts in publishing a Russian-language edition were intended to help Pasternak win the Nobel, however. , a Russian philologist, also contributed her research about the history of publications, following the publication of Lazar Fleishman's book Russian Emigration Discovers "Doctor Zhivago", where she thought that the only possible conclusion was that the pirated edition of Doctor Zhivago was initiated by one of the biggest émigré organizations in Europe: the Central Association of Postwar Émigrées. While CAPE was known to engage in anti-Soviet activities, the printing of this edition was not an imposition of its own political will but rather a response to the spiritual demands of the Russian emigration that was greatly stirred by the release of Pasternak's novel in Italian without an original Russian edition. Award In 1958 Pasternak wrote to Renate Schweitzer, Some people believe the Nobel Prize may be awarded to me this year. I am firmly convinced that I shall be passed over and that it will go to Alberto Moravia. You cannot imagine all the difficulties, torments, and anxieties which arise to confront me at the mere prospect, however unlikely, of such a possibility... One step out of place—and the people closest to you will be condemned to suffer from all the jealousy, resentment, wounded pride and disappointment of others, and old scars on the heart will be reopened... On 23 October 1958, Boris Pasternak was announced as the winner of the 1958 Nobel Prize for Literature. The citation credited Pasternak's contribution to Russian lyric poetry and for his role in, "continuing the great Russian epic tradition". On 25 October, Pasternak sent a telegram to the Swedish Academy: Infinitely grateful, touched, proud, surprised, overwhelmed. On 26 October, the Literary Gazette ran an article by David Zaslavski entitled, "Reactionary Propaganda Uproar over a Literary Weed". Acting on direct orders from the Politburo, the KGB surrounded Pasternak's dacha in Peredelkino. Pasternak was not only threatened with arrest, but the KGB also vowed to send his mistress Olga Ivinskaya back to the gulag, where she had been imprisoned under Stalin. It was further hinted that, if Pasternak traveled to Stockholm to collect his Nobel Medal, he would be refused re-entry to the Soviet Union. As a result, on 29 October Pasternak sent a second telegram to the Nobel Committee: In view of the meaning given the award by the society in which I live, I must renounce this undeserved distinction which has been conferred on me. Please do not take my voluntary renunciation amiss. The Swedish Academy announced: This refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. There remains only for the Academy, however, to announce with regret that the presentation of the Prize cannot take place. Soviet revenge Despite his decision to decline the award, the Soviet Union of Writers continued to denounce Pasternak in the Soviet press. Furthermore, he was threatened at the very least with formal exile to the West. In response, Pasternak wrote directly to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, "Leaving the motherland will mean equal death for me. I am tied to Russia by birth, by life and work." After being ousted from power in 1964, Khrushchev read the novel and felt great regret for having banned the book at all. As a result of this and the intercession of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Pasternak was not expelled from his homeland. Ultimately, Bill Mauldin produced a political cartoon lampooning the Soviet State's campaign against Boris Pasternak. The cartoon depicts Pasternak and another convict splitting trees in the snow. In the caption, Pasternak says, "I won the Nobel Prize for literature. What was your crime?" The cartoon won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1959. Doctor Zhivago after author's death Pasternak died of lung cancer in his dacha in Peredelkino on the evening of 30 May 1960. He first summoned his sons, and in their presence said, "Who will suffer most because of my death? Who will suffer most? Only Oliusha will, and I haven't had time to do anything for her. The worst thing is that she will suffer." Pasternak's last words were, "I can't hear very well. And there's a mist in front of my eyes. But it will go away, won't it? Don't forget to open the window tomorrow." Shortly before his death, a priest of the Russian Orthodox Church had given Pasternak the last rites. Later, in the strictest secrecy, an Orthodox funeral liturgy, or Panikhida, was offered in the family's dacha. Despite only a small notice appearing in the Literary Gazette, handwritten notices carrying the date and time of the funeral were posted throughout the Moscow subway system. As a result, thousands of admirers traveled from Moscow to Pasternak's civil funeral in Peredelkino. According to Jon Stallworthy, "Volunteers carried his open coffin to his burial place and those who were present (including the poet Andrey Voznesensky) recited from memory the banned poem 'Hamlet'." One of the dissident speakers at the graveside service said, "God marks the path of the elect with thorns, and Pasternak was picked out and marked by God. He believed in eternity and he will belong to it... We excommunicated Tolstoy, we disowned Dostoyevsky, and now we disown Pasternak. Everything that brings us glory we try to banish to the West... But we cannot allow this. We love Pasternak and we revere him as a poet... Glory to Pasternak!" Until the 1980s, Pasternak's poetry was only published in heavily censored form. Furthermore, his reputation continued to be pilloried in State propaganda until Mikhail Gorbachev proclaimed perestroika. In 1988, after decades of circulating in samizdat, Doctor Zhivago was finally serialized in the pages of Novy Mir, which had changed to a more anti-communist position than in Pasternak's lifetime. The following year, Yevgeny Borisovich Pasternak was at last permitted to travel to Stockholm to collect his father's Nobel Medal. At the ceremony, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich performed a Bach composition in honor of his fellow Soviet dissident. The novel has been part of the Russian school curriculum since 2003, where it is taught in 11th grade. Themes Loneliness In the shadow of all this grand political change, we see that everything is governed by the basic human longing for companionship. Zhivago and Pasha, in love with the same woman, both traverse Russia in these volatile times in search of such stability. They are both involved in nearly every level of the tumultuous times that Russia faced in the first half of the 20th century, yet the common theme and the motivating force behind all their movement is a want of a steady home life. When we first meet Zhivago he is being torn away from everything he knows. He is sobbing and standing on the grave of his mother. We bear witness to the moment all stability is destroyed in his life and the rest of the novel is his attempts to recreate the security stolen from him at such a young age. After the loss of his mother, Zhivago develops a longing for what Freud called the "maternal object" (feminine love and affection), in his later romantic relationships with women. His first marriage, to Tonya, is not one born of passion but from friendship. In a way, Tonya takes on the role of the mother-figure that Zhivago always sought but lacked. This, however, was not a romantic tie; while he feels loyal to her throughout his life, he never could find true happiness with her, for their relationship lacks the fervor that was integral to his relationship to Lara. Disillusionment with revolutionary ideology In the beginning of the novel, between the 1905 Russian Revolution and World War I, characters freely debate different philosophical and political ideas including Marxism, but after the revolution and the state-enforced terror of war communism, Zhivago and others cease to talk politics. Zhivago, a stubborn non-conformist, rants within himself at the "blindness" of revolutionary propaganda and grows exasperated with "the conformity and transparency of the hypocrisy" of his friends who adhere to the prevailing dogma. Zhivago's mental and even physical health crumble under the strain of "a constant, systematic dissembling" by which citizens, rather than thinking for themselves, are expected to "show [themselves] day by day contrary to what [they] feel." In the epilogue, in which Russia is enveloped in World War II, the characters Dudorov and Gordon discuss how the war united Russia against a real enemy, which was better than the preceding days of the Great Purge when Russians were turned against one another by the deadly, artificial ideology of totalitarianism. This reflects Pasternak's hope that the trials of the Great Patriotic War would, to quote translator Richard Pevear, "lead to the final liberation that had been the promise of the [Russian] Revolution from the beginning." Coincidence and the unpredictability of reality In contrast to the socialist realism that was imposed as the official artistic style of the Soviet Union, Pasternak's novel relies heavily on unbelievable coincidences (a reliance for which the plot was criticized). Pasternak uses the frequently-intersecting paths of his cast of characters not only to tell several different people's stories over the decades-long course of the novel, but also to emphasize the chaotic, unpredictable nature of the time period in which it is set, and of reality more generally. In the end, immediately before his death, Zhivago has a revelation of "several existences developing side by side, moving next to each other at different speeds, and about one person's fate getting ahead of another's in life, and who outlives whom." This reflects the crisscrossing journeys of characters over decades, and represents the capricious chance governing their lives. Literary criticism Edmund Wilson wrote of the novel: "Doctor Zhivago will, I believe, come to stand as one of the great events in man's literary and moral history". V. S. Pritchett wrote in the New Statesman that the novel is "[t]he first work of genius to come out of Russia since the revolution." When the novel came out in Italian, Anders Österling, the then permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy which awards the Nobel Prize in Literature, wrote in January 1958: "A strong patriotic accent comes through, but with no trace of empty propaganda... With its abundant documentation, its intense local color and its psychological frankness, this work bears convincing witness to the fact that the creative faculty in literature is in no sense extinct in Russia. It is hard to believe that the Soviet authorities might seriously envisage forbidding its publication in the land of its birth". Some literary critics "found that there was no real plot to the novel, that its chronology was confused, that the main characters were oddly effaced, that the author relied far too much on contrived coincidences." Vladimir Nabokov, who had celebrated Pasternak's books of poetry as works of "pure, unbridled genius", however, considered the novel to be "a sorry thing, clumsy, trite and melodramatic, with stock situations, voluptuous lawyers, unbelievable girls, romantic robbers and trite coincidences." On the other hand, some critics praised it for being things that, in the opinion of translator Richard Pevear, it was never meant to be: a moving love story, or a lyrical biography of a poet in which the individual is set against the grim realities of Soviet life. Pasternak defended the numerous coincidences in the plot, saying that they are "traits to characterize that somewhat willful, free, fanciful flow of reality." In response to criticism in the West of his novel's characters and coincidences, Pasternak wrote to Stephen Spender: Names and places Zhivago (Живаго): the Russian root zhiv means "alive". Larissa: a Greek name suggesting "bright, cheerful". Komarovsky (Комаровский): komar (комар) is the Russian for "mosquito". Pasha (Паша): the diminutive form of "Pavel" (Павел), the Russian rendering of the name Paul. Strelnikov (Стрельников): Pasha/Pavel Antipov's pseudonym, strelok means "the shooter"; he is also called Rasstrelnikov (Расстрельников), which means "executioner". Yuriatin (Юрятин): the fictional town was based upon Perm, near by which Pasternak had lived for several months in 1916. This can be understood in Russian as "Yuri's town". The public reading room at Yuriatin was based on the Pushkin Library, Perm. Adaptations Television A 1959 Brazilian television series (currently unavailable) was the first screen adaptation. A 2002 British television serial, Doctor Zhivago stars Hans Matheson, Keira Knightley, Alexandra Maria Lara, and Sam Neill. It was broadcast by ITV in the UK in November 2002 and on Masterpiece Theatre in the US in November 2003. A 2006 Russian mini-series produced by Mosfilm. Its total running time is over 500 minutes (8 hours and 26 minutes). Film The most famous adaptation of Doctor Zhivago is the 1965 film adaptation by David Lean, featuring the Egyptian actor Omar Sharif as Zhivago and English actress Julie Christie as Lara, with Geraldine Chaplin as Tonya and Alec Guinness as Yevgraf. The film was commercially successful and won five Oscars. It is still considered a classic film, remembered also for Maurice Jarre's score, which features the romantic "Lara's Theme". Though faithful to the novel's plot, depictions of several characters and events are noticeably different, and many side stories are dropped. Theatre A musical called Doktor Zhivago premiered in Perm, Russia in the Urals on 22 March 2007, and remained in the repertoire of Perm Drama Theatre throughout its 50th Anniversary year. Doctor Zhivago is a musical adaptation of the novel. It originally premiered as Zhivago at the La Jolla Playhouse in 2006. Ivan Hernandez played the title role. It was revised and premiered as Doctor Zhivago at the Lyric Theatre, Sydney in February 2011, starring Anthony Warlow and Lucy Maunder and produced by John Frost. The musical features a score by Lucy Simon, a book by Michael Weller, and lyrics by Michael Korie and Amy Powers (Lizzie Borden and songs for Sunset Boulevard). Both the 2006 and the 2011 productions were directed by Des McAnuff. The Swedish-language musical Zjivago premiered at Malmö Opera in Sweden on 29 August 2014. A musical was produced in Japan by the Takarazuka Revue in February 2018. Translations into English Max Hayward and Manya Harari (1958) Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (2010) Nicolas Pasternak Slater, illustrated with 68 pictures by Leonid Pasternak (2019) References Further reading Inside the Zhivago Storm, by Paolo Mancosu, the story of the first publication of Doctor Zhivago and of the subsequent Russian editions in the West, Zhivago's Secret Journey: From Typescript to Book (), by Paolo Mancosu, the story of the typescripts of Doctor Zhivago that Pasternak sent to the West, External links The CIA’s ‘Zhivago’ | by Michael Scammell | The New York Review of Books Inside the Zhivago Storm, website accompanying Mancosu's book. Homegrown Doctor Zhivago to Debut on Russian Television "The Doctor Zhivago caper" (editorial), The Boston Globe, 20 February 2007. "The Wisest Book I Ever Read", by Robert Morgan from The Raleigh News & Observer. 'The Dr Zhivago Drawings' artist's rendering "Doctor Zhivago – A New Musical" 'The Poems of Doctor Zhivago' 1957 in the Soviet Union 1957 novels Adultery in novels Book censorship in the Soviet Union Novels about physicians Novels set in Moscow Novels set in Russia Novels set in the Russian Revolution Novels set during the Russian Civil War Russian novels adapted into films Soviet novels Novels set during World War I Pantheon Books books Dialectical materialism Boris Pasternak Censored books Family saga novels 1905 Russian Revolution
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Dnipro%20Cherkasy
FC Dnipro Cherkasy
City Sports Club Dnipro Cherkasy () is a Ukrainian football team based in Cherkasy. Over its history the club has been dissolved and revived several times. The original club that existed 1955-1974 was dissolved following a financial scandal. After that the club again was dissolved and revived couple of more times. In the fall of 2018 the administration of Cherkasy Tsentralny Stadion revived the club as MSC Dnipro Cherkasy. On 21 June 2023 the 31st PFL Conference excluded several clubs that did not compete in the 2022–23 season and did not renew their membership. Team names 1955–1974: first club (18 seasons) 1955–1956: FC Dynamo/Burevisnyk Cherkasy 1956–1966: FC Kolhospnyk Cherkasy 1967–1972: FC Dnipro Cherkasy 1973–1974: FC Hranyt Cherkasy 1975–2002: second club (26 seasons) 1975–1997: FC Dnipro Cherkasy 1997–2002: FC Cherkasy 2003–2009: third club (5 seasons) 2003–2004: FC Cherkasy 2004–2009: FC Dnipro Cherkasy 2018–2023: fourth club (4 seasons) 2018–2023: FC Dnipro Cherkasy History overview The Cherkasy city football club traces its heritage to 1947 when Cherkasy FC (ChFC) represented the city at the republican football competitions (as part of Kyiv Oblast). Next year the city was represented by an army team Dom Ofitserov (DO). Upon creation of the Cherkasy Oblast in 1954, the city of Cherkasy was represented in republican competitions by Torpedo. In 1955, the city was represented in republican competitions by local branch of Dynamo sports society, but in mid-season was replaced with another team that was a member of Burevisnyk sports society. Burevisnyk is considered to be a direct predecessor of the latter FC Dnipro. The club was established on 9 May 1955, the 10th anniversary Victory Day. The original team kept its professional status for 44 years since acquiring it in 1958 and reacquired it in 2003 after the short term disruption for the 2002/03 season. Over its history Dnipro has already many times revived and dissolved. As a "team of masters" Kolhospnyk (predecessor of Kolos sports society), the club was admitted to the Soviet Class B competitions in 1958. In 1960 football competitions in Class B were organized and Ukrainian clubs as "teams of masters" played in its own republican tournament known as Class B of the Ukrainian SSR. In December 1957 after series of friendlies, the football team Kolhospnyk Cherkasy was included in national competitions among teams of Class B. Such an unprecedented decision about inclusion of the Cherkasian football club in championship was connected with construction of the stadium, stands of which contained 27 sectors and capacity of 15,000 spectators. Already in 1959 Kolhospnyk inscribed in its history its first feat when it became a winner of the IV International games among rural teams of socialist countries that took place in Bulgaria. In 1967 the main Cherkasy team switched its name to Dnipro after the river on the banks of which the city of Cherkasy sits. Following another reorganization of the Soviet football competitions in 1970, republican Class B competitions were phased away and the Soviet Class A was expanded to three divisions. Many teams of former Ukrainian Class B were admitted to the Soviet Class A Second Group that next year in 1971 it was renamed in the Soviet Second League. Among those teams was Dnipro. However, in 1972 Dnipro was relegated to amateurs (republican competitions) where it was renamed to Hranyt and coached by former Dynamo player Vitaliy Khmelnytskyi in two seasons returned to the Second League. Yet it did not stay there too long as the club in 1974 appeared in a middle of a corruption scandal. This corruption case reached to be dealt at a level of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine and feuilleton at the Muscovite newspaper "Pravda" under an eloquent title "Gild the leg". The club was expelled from the PFL in the second half of the 2008–09 season due to failing to arrive to a scheduled fixture for the second time. Stadium History of the club is closely entwined with history of central stadium in Cherkasy. Before 1957 in Cherkasy existed 10 stadiums with football fields the bigger being "Kharchovyk" (5,000), "Avanhard/Trud" (2,500), "Vodnyk" (1,500). Before the World War II on territory of Ukraine, all important football games in Cherkasy used to take place at Kharchovyk ("Food-provider") Stadium, however due to combat actions the stadium of Cherkasy Refined Sugar Factory was destroyed. Following the war and until early 1950s, the main city stadium became Vodnyk. In 1952 after debut of the Soviet Olympic team at the Olympics in Helsinki, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union made emphasis on mass involvement in sports. The archive documents show that on 15 September 1955 there were allocated to local sports society "Kolhospnyk" in connection of building a local central stadium in place of Vodnyk and in two years the city authorities majestically opened a fine football arena of VSS "Kolhospnyk" with capacity of 15,000 spectators. On 9 November 1957 the new stadium hosted a first exhibition game between Dinamo (from Kyiv) and local Kolhospnyk. Colours Traditionally the club colours are white, red and blue. Honors Ukrainian Druha Liha Winners (2): 1992–93, 2005–06 Group B Ukrainian football championship among amateurs Winners (2): 1973, 1987 Cherkasy Oblast Football Championship Winners (2): 1956, 1957 Players League and cup history Soviet Union {|class="wikitable" |-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Domestic Cup !colspan=2|Other !Notes |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Torpedo Cherkasy |- |align=center|1954 |align=center|4th |align=center|6 |align=center|10 |align=center|1 |align=center|1 |align=center|8 |align=center|6 |align=center|35 |align=center|3 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Burevisnyk Cherkasy |- |align=center|1955 |align=center|4th |align=center|8 |align=center|14 |align=center|0 |align=center|5 |align=center|9 |align=center|12 |align=center|43 |align=center|5 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1956 |align=center|4th |align=center bgcolor=silver|2 |align=center|14 |align=center|10 |align=center|1 |align=center|3 |align=center|24 |align=center|13 |align=center|21 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Kolhospnyk Cherkasy |- |align=center|1957 |align=center|4th |align=center bgcolor=silver|2 |align=center|10 |align=center|2 |align=center|6 |align=center|2 |align=center|17 |align=center|14 |align=center|10 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted |- |align=center|1958 |align=center|2nd |align=center|13 |align=center|30 |align=center|5 |align=center|11 |align=center|14 |align=center|22 |align=center|35 |align=center|21 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1959 |align=center|2nd |align=center|4 |align=center|28 |align=center|14 |align=center|8 |align=center|6 |align=center|36 |align=center|24 |align=center|36 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1960 |align=center|2nd |align=center|12 |align=center|32 |align=center|8 |align=center|10 |align=center|14 |align=center|31 |align=center|46 |align=center|26 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1961 |align=center|2nd |align=center|16 |align=center|34 |align=center|9 |align=center|10 |align=center|15 |align=center|25 |align=center|47 |align=center|28 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center rowspan=2|1962 |align=center rowspan=2|2nd |align=center|6 |align=center|24 |align=center|8 |align=center|12 |align=center|4 |align=center|27 |align=center|21 |align=center|28 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center|8 |align=center|10 |align=center|5 |align=center|3 |align=center|2 |align=center|19 |align=center|13 |align=center|13 |align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated |- |align=center rowspan=2|1963 |align=center rowspan=2|3rd |align=center|6 |align=center|38 |align=center|19 |align=center|8 |align=center|11 |align=center|50 |align=center|35 |align=center|46 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center|12 |align=center|2 |align=center|1 |align=center|0 |align=center|1 |align=center|2 |align=center|3 |align=center|2 |align=center| |- |align=center rowspan=2|1964 |align=center rowspan=2|3rd |align=center|5 |align=center|30 |align=center|11 |align=center|12 |align=center|7 |align=center|32 |align=center|24 |align=center|34 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center|15 |align=center|10 |align=center|4 |align=center|3 |align=center|3 |align=center|8 |align=center|6 |align=center|11 |align=center| |- |align=center rowspan=2|1965 |align=center rowspan=2|3rd |align=center|8 |align=center|30 |align=center|10 |align=center|10 |align=center|10 |align=center|30 |align=center|30 |align=center|30 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center|19 |align=center|10 |align=center|7 |align=center|2 |align=center|1 |align=center|14 |align=center|8 |align=center|16 |align=center| |- |align=center rowspan=2|1966 |align=center rowspan=2|3rd |align=center|12 |align=center|38 |align=center|11 |align=center|14 |align=center|13 |align=center|24 |align=center|31 |align=center|36 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center|23 |align=center colspan=7|withdrew |align=center| |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Dnipro Cherkasy |- |align=center rowspan=2|1967 |align=center rowspan=2|3rd |align=center bgcolor=silver|2 |align=center|40 |align=center|19 |align=center|12 |align=center|9 |align=center|46 |align=center|22 |align=center|50 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center|6 |align=center|5 |align=center|1 |align=center|0 |align=center|4 |align=center|4 |align=center|10 |align=center|2 |align=center| |- |align=center|1968 |align=center|3rd |align=center|16 |align=center|40 |align=center|10 |align=center|15 |align=center|15 |align=center|33 |align=center|41 |align=center|35 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1969 |align=center|3rd |align=center|19 |align=center|40 |align=center|8 |align=center|13 |align=center|19 |align=center|21 |align=center|36 |align=center|29 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1970 |align=center|3rd |align=center|15 |align=center|40 |align=center|15 |align=center|14 |align=center|11 |align=center|49 |align=center|42 |align=center|44 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1971 |align=center|3rd |align=center|24 |align=center|50 |align=center|9 |align=center|15 |align=center|26 |align=center|28 |align=center|69 |align=center|33 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated |- |align=center|1972 |align=center|4th |align=center|6 |align=center|14 |align=center|4 |align=center|3 |align=center|7 |align=center|9 |align=center|15 |align=center|11 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Hranyt Cherkasy |- |align=center rowspan=2|1973 |align=center rowspan=2|4th |align=center bgcolor=gold|1 |align=center|14 |align=center|11 |align=center|2 |align=center|1 |align=center|27 |align=center|7 |align=center|24 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center bgcolor=gold|1 |align=center|4 |align=center|3 |align=center|1 |align=center|0 |align=center|8 |align=center|3 |align=center|7 |align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted |- |align=center|1974 |align=center|3rd |align=center|16 |align=center|38 |align=center|9 |align=center|10 |align=center|13 |align=center|32 |align=center|49 |align=center|34 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=lightgrey|Expelled |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Dnipro Cherkasy |- |align=center|1975 |align=center|4th |align=center|7 |align=center|12 |align=center|0 |align=center|2 |align=center|10 |align=center|9 |align=center|25 |align=center|2 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1976 |align=center|4th |align=center|9 |align=center|20 |align=center|4 |align=center|4 |align=center|12 |align=center|20 |align=center|37 |align=center|12 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted |- |align=center|1977 |align=center|3rd |align=center|23 |align=center|44 |align=center|8 |align=center|10 |align=center|26 |align=center|26 |align=center|69 |align=center|26 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1978 |align=center|3rd |align=center|18 |align=center|44 |align=center|11 |align=center|12 |align=center|21 |align=center|29 |align=center|53 |align=center|34 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1979 |align=center|3rd |align=center|14 |align=center|46 |align=center|14 |align=center|13 |align=center|19 |align=center|38 |align=center|49 |align=center|41 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1980 |align=center|3rd |align=center|17 |align=center|44 |align=center|13 |align=center|9 |align=center|22 |align=center|43 |align=center|50 |align=center|35 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1981 |align=center|3rd |align=center|20 |align=center|44 |align=center|13 |align=center|11 |align=center|20 |align=center|44 |align=center|55 |align=center|37 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1982 |align=center|3rd |align=center|8 |align=center|46 |align=center|21 |align=center|12 |align=center|13 |align=center|54 |align=center|42 |align=center|54 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1983 |align=center|3rd |align=center|25 |align=center|50 |align=center|13 |align=center|13 |align=center|24 |align=center|35 |align=center|61 |align=center|39 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1984 |align=center|3rd |align=center|26 |align=center|38 |align=center|3 |align=center|9 |align=center|26 |align=center|11 |align=center|55 |align=center|15 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated |- |align=center|1985 |align=center|4th |align=center|5 |align=center|14 |align=center|3 |align=center|5 |align=center|6 |align=center|11 |align=center|29 |align=center|11 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1986 |align=center|4th |align=center|8 |align=center|16 |align=center|3 |align=center|3 |align=center|10 |align=center|14 |align=center|30 |align=center|9 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center rowspan=2|1987 |align=center rowspan=2|4th |align=center bgcolor=gold|1 |align=center|16 |align=center|12 |align=center|1 |align=center|3 |align=center|35 |align=center|10 |align=center|25 |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center rowspan=2| |align=center|to finals |- |align=center bgcolor=gold|1 |align=center|5 |align=center|4 |align=center|1 |align=center|0 |align=center|10 |align=center|2 |align=center|9 |align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted |- |align=center|1988 |align=center|3rd |align=center|22 |align=center|50 |align=center|16 |align=center|9 |align=center|25 |align=center|57 |align=center|77 |align=center|41 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1989 |align=center|3rd |align=center|17 |align=center|52 |align=center|15 |align=center|16 |align=center|21 |align=center|64 |align=center|79 |align=center|46 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated |- |align=center|1990 |align=center|3rd |align=center|16 |align=center|36 |align=center|8 |align=center|7 |align=center|21 |align=center|26 |align=center|48 |align=center|23 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1991 |align=center|3rd |align=center|18 |align=center|50 |align=center|17 |align=center|10 |align=center|23 |align=center|47 |align=center|59 |align=center|44 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |} Ukraine Dnipro joined the Ukrainian competitions upon finishing the 1991 Soviet Lower Second League, Zone 1 season. {|class="wikitable" |-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Domestic Cup !colspan=2|Europe !Notes |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Dnipro Cherkasy |- |align=center|1992 |align=center|2nd "A" |align=center|12 |align=center|26 |align=center|9 |align=center|4 |align=center|13 |align=center|22 |align=center|27 |align=center|22 |align=center|1/32 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated |- |align=center|1992–93 |align=center|3rd |align=center bgcolor=gold|1 |align=center|34 |align=center|20 |align=center|9 |align=center|5 |align=center|59 |align=center|33 |align=center|49 |align=center|1/64 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted |- |align=center|1993–94 |align=center|2nd |align=center|5 |align=center|38 |align=center|19 |align=center|7 |align=center|12 |align=center|56 |align=center|39 |align=center|45 |align=center|1/32 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1994–95 |align=center|2nd |align=center|20 |align=center|42 |align=center|11 |align=center|8 |align=center|23 |align=center|33 |align=center|48 |align=center|41 |align=center|1/64 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1995–96 |align=center|2nd |align=center|20 |align=center|42 |align=center|6 |align=center|4 |align=center|32 |align=center|26 |align=center|91 |align=center|22 |align=center|1/32 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1996–97 |align=center|2nd |align=center|17 |align=center|46 |align=center|16 |align=center|7 |align=center|23 |align=center|46 |align=center|78 |align=center|55 |align=center|1/64 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Cherkasy |- |align=center|1997–98 |align=center|2nd |align=center|7 |align=center|42 |align=center|19 |align=center|11 |align=center|12 |align=center|51 |align=center|41 |align=center|68 |align=center|1/64 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1998–99 |align=center|2nd |align=center|4 |align=center|38 |align=center|24 |align=center|4 |align=center|10 |align=center|68 |align=center|42 |align=center|76 |align=center|1/16 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|1999–00 |align=center|2nd |align=center bgcolor=tan|3 |align=center|34 |align=center|17 |align=center|8 |align=center|9 |align=center|48 |align=center|34 |align=center|39 |align=center|1/16 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|2000–01 |align=center|2nd |align=center|16 |align=center|34 |align=center|19 |align=center|7 |align=center|18 |align=center|35 |align=center|5' |align=center|34 |align=center|1/16 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated |- |align=center|2001–02 |align=center|3rd "B" |align=center|11 |align=center|34 |align=center|13 |align=center|7 |align=center|14 |align=center|49 |align=center|36 |align=center|16 |align=center|1/32 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=lightgrey|dissolved |- |align=center colspan=14|revived as FC Cherkasy |- |align=center|2003 |align=center|4th |align=center|2 |align=center|8 |align=center|6 |align=center|1 |align=center|1 |align=center|17 |align=center|6 |align=center|19 |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|2003–04 |align=center|3rd "C" |align=center|8 |align=center|30 |align=center|11 |align=center|7 |align=center|12 |align=center|40 |align=center|40 |align=center|40 |align=center|1/32 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center colspan=14|FC Dnipro Cherkasy |- |align=center|2004–05 |align=center|3rd "B" |align=center bgcolor=Tan|3 |align=center|28 |align=center|20 |align=center|5 |align=center|3 |align=center|48 |align=center|15 |align=center|65 |align=center|1/8 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|2005–06 |align=center|3rd "B" |align=center bgcolor=gold|1 |align=center|24 |align=center|18 |align=center|3 |align=center|3 |align=center|49 |align=center|22 |align=center|57 |align=center|1/16 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted |- |align=center|2006–07 |align=center|2nd |align=center|15 |align=center|36 |align=center|10 |align=center|9 |align=center|17 |align=center|31 |align=center|46 |align=center|39 |align=center|1/16 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center| |- |align=center|2007–08 |align=center|2nd |align=center|18 |align=center|38 |align=center|8 |align=center|17 |align=center|13 |align=center|43 |align=center|43 |align=center|35 |align=center|1/32 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated |- |align=center|2008–09 |align=center|3rd "A" |align=center|7 |align=center|32 |align=center|17 |align=center|5 |align=center|10 |align=center|37 |align=center|20 |align=center|50 |align=center|1/64 finals |align=center| |align=center| |align=center bgcolor=lightgrey|Expelled |- |align=center colspan=14|revived as FC Slavutych Cherkasy |- |} Head coaches Head coaches Ihor Kolomoyets Albert Zalyalutdinov Notes References See also FC Cherkaskyi Dnipro – formation of new club in 2010 which entered the professional ranks in 2011 and has historically tied itself to this former club. External links Official team website Fans' website Football clubs in Cherkasy Association football clubs established in 1955 1955 establishments in Ukraine Kolos (sports society) Agrarian association football clubs in Ukraine
4608193
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right%20of%20abode%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
Right of abode in the United Kingdom
The right of abode (ROA) is an immigration status in the United Kingdom that gives a person the right to enter and live in the UK. It was introduced by the Immigration Act 1971 which went into effect on 1 January 1973. This status is held by British citizens, certain British subjects, as well as certain Commonwealth citizens with specific connections to the UK before 1983. Since 1983, it is not possible for a person to acquire this status without being a British citizen. The right of abode is the most common immigration status in the UK due to its association with British citizenship. However, it should not be confused with the indefinite leave to remain (ILR), another form of long-term residency status in the UK which is more comparable to other countries' permanent residence status. Rights and privileges of the right of abode All individuals who have the right of abode in the UK (regardless of whether they are a British citizen, British subject or Commonwealth citizen) enjoy the following rights and privileges: an unconditional right to enter, live, work and study in the United Kingdom an entitlement to use the UK/EEA/Switzerland immigration channel at United Kingdom ports of entry an entitlement to apply for United Kingdom social security and welfare benefits (although those with indefinite leave to enter may also apply) a right to vote and to stand for public office in the United Kingdom (since everyone with the right of abode is a Commonwealth citizen; these rights are conditional upon living in the United Kingdom). Unlike indefinite leave to remain, a person's right of abode is normally valid for life and will not lapse regardless how long they stay outside the UK (or whether they have ever set foot in the UK) and cannot be revoked unless they lose their Commonwealth or British citizenship, or, for Commonwealth citizens, when the Home Secretary deemed it necessary for "the public good". In comparison, a person's ILR status will automatically lapse if they are absent from the UK for two or more consecutive years. If they wish to resume their residency, they may wish to consider applying for a Returning Resident Visa which will grant them indefinite leave to enter the UK if the application is approved. In addition, those with the right of abode who are not yet British citizens may apply for British citizenship by naturalisation (or registration for British subjects or Commonwealth citizens with British-born mothers). Children born in the United Kingdom, British Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories to those with the right of abode in the UK will normally be British citizens by birth automatically. History of right of abode before 1983 Prior to the enactment of British Nationality Act 1981, right of abode in the UK was mainly determined by a mix of one's connection with the UK and their nationality status. The Immigration Act 1971 limited the right to enter and live in the United Kingdom to certain subsets of Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies with ties to the UK itself. The following two categories of persons had right of abode: Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs) CUKCs who met any of the following requirements acquired right of abode between 1973 and 1983. born in a part of the British Islands (note that birth in the UK or the islands would automatically confer CUKC status in most circumstances); born to or legally adopted by a CUKC parent born in the British Islands; born to or legally adopted by a parent who, in turn, was born to or legally adopted by a CUKC parent born in the British Islands; had settled in the British Islands and remained for at least five years before 31 December 1982, providing that all entry conditions had been removed by the end of that period; was a female CUKC married to a CUKC man with right of abode. Commonwealth citizens Any Commonwealth citizens who met one of the requirements below would also acquire right of abode between 1973 and 1983. born to or legally adopted by a CUKC parent born in the British Islands (note that this provision primarily applied to persons born to UK-born CUKC mothers as women could not pass down CUKC status); was a female Commonwealth citizen married to a CUKC man who had right of abode. The person they were married to must not have a living ex-partner who had acquired right of abode in the UK at any given time. (This restriction does not apply if the applicant entered the UK at any time prior to 1 August 1988 and was the only wife of the husband who had been allowed to enter the UK.) Right of abode was limited to CUKCs and Commonwealth citizens, therefore certain people with connections to the UK were not eligible even if they had a UK-born parent. For example, a person born to a UK-born CUKC mother and a non-Commonwealth citizen father in the United States would not acquire right of abode as they possessed neither CUKC status nor Commonwealth citizenship (CUKC status by descent could only be inherited from the father before 1983). However, the same person would obtain right of abode if born in Canada, due to Canada's membership in the Commonwealth, even when they would not be a CUKC or, since 1983, a British citizen. "So had it" language That wording of the measure introduced minor confusion into the concept of the right of abode, when it limited right of abode through descent to a CUKC who had a parent who had CUKC status by "birth, adoption, naturalisation or .... registration in the United Kingdom or in any of the islands" or a grandparent CUKC who "at the time of that birth or adoption so had it". Whether "so had it" referred to a grandparent who had CUKC status generally or CUKC status from the UK and islands specifically was decided by courts to refer to the latter. As the right of abode on 31 December 1982 was necessary to become a British citizen on 1 January 1983 under the British Nationality Act 1981, this meant that failing to meet the interpretation of the right of abode test above resulted in no British citizenship through that route. The British Nationality Act 1981 modified the right of abode section of the Immigration Act 1971 to remove the wording at issue, although the former version still had effect for determinations of British citizenship through right of abode for persons born before 1983 and potentially their descendants. Effect on British citizenship under British Nationality Act 1981 CUKCs with right of abode would in 1983 become British citizens, whereas Commonwealth citizens' nationality status remained unchanged. However, any person who had voluntarily or involuntarily lost their CUKC status (or Commonwealth citizenship) between 1973 and 1983 would also lose their right of abode (which might be inadvertently caused by a colony's independence or a country's withdrawal from the Commonwealth). Consequently, this would also mean that they would have no legal status in the UK. This issue was highlighted in the 2018 Windrush scandal. The introduction of the right of abode principle effectively created two tiers of CUKCs: those with right of abode and those without right of abode, both of which shared the same nationality status until 1983. The latter group would become either British Dependent Territories citizens or British Overseas citizens that year, depending on whether they had a connection with a British Dependent Territory. Acquisition of the right of abode Since 1983, right of abode is established by the British Nationality Act 1981 and subsequent amendments, although the 1981 Act did not deprive any person's right of abode providing that they had retained the right on 31 December 1982. Two categories of persons hold right of abode: British citizens All persons who became British citizens on or since 1 January 1983 have the right of abode in the British Islands. Commonwealth citizens and British subjects who retained their right of abode prior to 1983 Right of abode is also retained by a Commonwealth citizen or a British subject who, on 31 December 1982: had a parent who, at the time of the person's birth or legal adoption, was a citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies on account of having been born in the UK; or was a female Commonwealth citizen or British subject who was, or had been, married to a man who had the right of abode. For this purpose, the UK includes the Republic of Ireland prior to 1 April 1922. No person born in 1983 or later can have the right of abode unless he or she is a British citizen. It is essential that the person concerned should have held Commonwealth citizenship or British subject status on 31 December 1982 and has not voluntarily or involuntarily ceased to be a Commonwealth citizen (even temporarily) after that date. For this reason, citizens of Pakistan and South Africa are generally not entitled to the right of abode in the UK as these countries were not Commonwealth members on 1 January 1983, unless they have citizenship in another Commonwealth country. However, citizens of Fiji (left the Commonwealth in 1987, rejoined in 1997) and Zimbabwe (left in 2003) are still continuously considered to be Commonwealth citizens for nationality purposes even after the two countries' withdrawal the Commonwealth because the UK has not amended Schedule 3 to the British Nationality Act 1981 to that effect. Since 1983, the only two countries that withdrew their Commonwealth membership and were subsequently removed from Schedule 3 are The Gambia (removed in 2013, re-added in 2018 but has no effect reviving the right of abode) and Maldives (removed in 2017), and, consequently, their citizens would have lost their right of abode on the day these countries were removed from Schedule 3 unless also holding British citizenship or citizenship of another country listed in Schedule 3 (which now includes South Africa and Pakistan). A woman claiming the right of abode through marriage will cease to qualify if another living wife or widow of the same man: is (or has been at any time since her marriage) in the UK, unless she entered the UK illegally, as a visitor, or with temporary permission to stay; or has been given a certificate of entitlement to right of abode or permission to enter the country because of her marriage. However, this restriction does not apply to a woman who: entered the UK as a wife before 1 August 1988, even if other wives of the same man are in the UK; or who has been in the UK at any time since her marriage, and at that time was that man's only wife to have entered the UK or to have been given permission to do so. Multiple claims An individual may be able to claim the right of abode in the United Kingdom through more than one route. For example, a woman who was a New Zealand citizen and married to a CUKC with right of abode on 31 December 1982, and who subsequently moves to the UK with her husband and naturalises as British citizen can claim the right of abode in the UK both through her British citizenship and through her status as a Commonwealth citizen who was married to a CUKC with right of abode on 31 December 1982. Therefore, if she were to renounce her British citizenship, she would still hold right of abode as a Commonwealth citizen married to a CUKC. However, if she were to renounce her New Zealand citizenship, she would permanently lose her ability to claim a right of abode through her Commonwealth citizenship and marriage to a British citizen on 31 December 1982, and would only be able to claim a right of abode through her British citizenship. Proof of the right of abode The only legally recognised documents proving an individual's right of abode in the UK are the following: a British passport describing the holder as a British citizen or as a British subject with the right of abode a certificate of entitlement to the right of abode in the UK, which has been issued by the UK government or on its behalf An individual who has the right of abode in the UK but does not have or is ineligible for such a British passport can apply for a certificate of entitlement to be affixed inside his/her other passport or travel document. For example, a US citizen who has naturalised as a British citizen can apply for a certificate of entitlement to be affixed inside his or her US passport to prove that he or she is free from immigration restrictions in the UK, rather than obtaining a British passport. A British Overseas Territories Citizen from the British Virgin Islands who is also a British citizen can apply for a certificate of entitlement to be affixed inside his or her British Virgin Islands passport to prove that he or she is free from immigration restrictions in the UK, rather than obtaining a British citizen passport. In contrast, a New Zealand citizen who has right of abode but is not a British citizen must hold a valid certificate of entitlement in their New Zealand passport in order to be exempt from immigration control in the UK, otherwise they will be treated as subject to immigration control by UK Border Force officers at a port of entry. A certificate of entitlement costs £372 when issued in the UK and £388 when issued outside the UK. This is considerably more expensive than obtaining a British passport (£77.50 for a 10-year adult passport, £49 for a 5-year child passport and free for a 10-year passport for those born on or before 2 September 1929 when issued inside the UK; £128 for a 10-year adult passport, £81.50 for a 5-year child passport and free for a 10-year passport for those born on or before 2 September 1929 when issued outside the UK). Other United Kingdom immigration concessions United Kingdom immigration laws allow settlement to other categories of persons; however, although similar in practice these do not constitute a formal right of abode and the full privileges of the right of abode are not necessarily available. Irish citizens and the Common Travel Area Before 1949, all Irish citizens were considered under British law to be British subjects. After Ireland declared itself a republic in that year, a consequent British law gave Irish citizens a similar status to Commonwealth citizens in the United Kingdom, despite them ceasing to be such. Unlike Commonwealth citizens, Irish citizens do not require leave to enter the United Kingdom and, if they move to the UK, are considered to have 'settled status' (a status that goes beyond indefinite leave to remain). They may be subject to deportation from the UK upon the same lines as other European Economic Area nationals. In February 2007 the British government announced that an especially lenient procedure would apply to the deportation of Irish citizens compared to the procedure for other European Economic Area nationals. As a result, Irish nationals are not routinely considered for deportation from the UK when they are released from prison. EU, EEA, and Swiss nationals in the UK In the Immigration (European Economic Area) Regulations 2006, the United Kingdom declared that most citizens of EEA member states and their family members should be treated as having only a conditional right to reside in the UK. This has implications should such a person wish to remain permanently in the United Kingdom after ceasing employment, claim social assistance, apply for naturalisation or acquire British citizenship for a UK-born child. Those EU/EEA/Swiss nationals who would be treated as holding permanent residency in the UK include: certain persons who have retired from employment or self-employment in the UK and their family members those who have been granted permanent residence status (normally acquired after 5 years in the UK) Irish citizens (because of the Common Travel Area provisions) These persons remain liable to deportation on public security grounds. Following Brexit, all EEA citizens' right to reside in the UK, including their permanent residence, will cease, although the UK government announced in October 2018 that any EEA citizen who takes up residence on or before 31 December 2020, or already took up residence (including holders of permanent residence status), will be eligible to apply for either settlement or pre-settlement status from 30 March 2019 to 30 June 2021. EEA citizens wishing to take up residence in the UK after 2020 will not be given preferential immigration status. The status of Irish citizens in the UK, which pre-dates EC-related legislation, was unaffected and was confirmed by the insertion of section 3ZA into the Immigration Act 1971. Indefinite leave to remain Indefinite leave to remain is a form of UK permanent residence that can be held by all nationalities except for British or Irish citizens, but it does not confer a right of abode. British Overseas Territories All British overseas territories operate their own immigration controls, which apply to British citizens as well as to those from other countries. These territories generally have local immigration laws regulating who has belonger status in that territory. See also British nationality law Common Travel Area Commonwealth citizen History of British nationality law Indefinite leave to remain Right of abode References Immigration law in the United Kingdom
4608223
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Side%20Story%20%281961%20film%29
West Side Story (1961 film)
West Side Story is a 1961 American musical romantic drama film directed by Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins, written by Ernest Lehman, and produced by Wise. The film is an adaptation of the 1957 Broadway musical of the same title, which in turn was inspired by Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. It stars Natalie Wood, Richard Beymer, Russ Tamblyn, Rita Moreno, and George Chakiris, and was photographed by Daniel L. Fapp in Super Panavision 70. The music was composed by Leonard Bernstein, with lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. Released on October 18, 1961, through United Artists, the film received praise from critics and viewers, and became the highest-grossing film of 1961. It was nominated for 11 Academy Awards and won 10, including Best Picture (in addition to a special award for Robbins), becoming the record holder for the most wins for a musical. West Side Story is regarded as one of the greatest musical films of all time. The film was designated as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1997. A second film adaptation of the same name by Steven Spielberg was released in December 2021. Plot In New York City in 1957, two teenage gangs compete for control on the Upper West Side. The Jets, a group of whites led by Riff, brawl with the Sharks, Puerto Ricans led by Bernardo. Lieutenant Schrank and Officer Krupke arrive and break it up. The Jets challenge the Sharks to a rumble to be held after an upcoming dance. Riff wants his best friend Tony, a co-founder and former member of the Jets, to fight at the rumble. Riff invites Tony to the dance, but Tony says he senses something important is coming. Riff suggests it could happen at the dance. Tony finally agrees to go. Meanwhile, Bernardo's younger sister, Maria, tells her best friend and Bernardo's girlfriend, Anita, how excited she is about the dance. At the dance, the two gangs and their girls refuse to intermingle. Tony arrives; he and Maria fall in love instantly, but Bernardo angrily demands that Tony stay away from her. Riff proposes a midnight meeting with Bernardo at Doc's drug store to settle the rules for the rumble. Maria is sent home; Anita argues that Bernardo is overprotective of Maria, and they compare the advantages of Puerto Rico and the mainland United States. Tony sneaks onto Maria's fire escape where they reaffirm their love. Krupke, who suspects the Jets are planning something, warns them not to cause trouble. The Sharks arrive, and the gangs agree to a showdown the following evening under the highway, with a one-on-one fistfight. When Schrank arrives, the gangs feign friendship. Schrank orders the Sharks out and fails to discover information about the fight. The next day at the bridal shop where they work, Anita accidentally tells Maria about the rumble. Tony arrives to see Maria. Anita, shocked, warns them about the consequences if Bernardo learns of their relationship. Maria makes Tony promise to prevent the rumble. Tony and Maria fantasize about their wedding. The gangs approach the area under the highway. Tony arrives to stop the fight, but Bernardo antagonizes him. Unwilling to watch Tony be humiliated, Riff initiates a knife fight. Tony intervenes, leading to Bernardo stabbing and killing Riff. Tony kills Bernardo with Riff's knife, and a melee ensues. Police sirens blare, and everyone flees, leaving behind the dead bodies. Maria waits for Tony on the roof of her apartment building; her fiancé Chino (an arranged engagement) arrives and tells her what happened. Tony arrives and asks for Maria's forgiveness. He plans to turn himself in to the police. Maria is devastated but confirms her love for Tony and asks him to stay. The Jets and their new leader, Ice, reassemble outside a garage and focus on reacting to the police. Anybodys arrives and warns them that Chino is after Tony with a gun. Ice sends the Jets to warn Tony. A grieving Anita enters the apartment while Tony and Maria are in the bedroom. The lovers arrange to meet at Doc's, where they will pick up getaway money to elope. Anita spots Tony leaving through the window and chides Maria for the relationship with Bernardo's killer, but Maria convinces her to help them elope. Schrank arrives and questions Maria about the rumble. Maria sends Anita to tell Tony that Maria is detained from meeting him. When Anita reaches Doc's, the Jets harass and even try to rape her, when Doc appears and intervenes. Anita angrily lies, saying that Chino has killed Maria. Doc banishes the Jets, gives Tony his getaway money and delivers Anita's message. Tony, distraught, runs into the streets, shouting for Chino to kill him, too. In the playground next to Doc's, Tony spots Maria and they run toward each other, only for Chino to shoot Tony. The gangs arrive to find Maria holding Tony, who dies in her arms. Maria stops the gangs from fighting, takes the gun from Chino and threatens to shoot everyone, blaming their hate for the deaths. Schrank and Krupke arrive to arrest Chino, and the gangs unite to carry Tony's body away in a funeral procession with Maria following, the feud finally over. Cast Natalie Wood as Maria, Bernardo's younger sister and Chino's arranged fiancée, who falls in love with Tony Marni Nixon as Maria's singing voice (also Anita's singing voice in Quintet) Richard Beymer as Tony, co-founder and one-time member of the Jets and best friend of Riff, who works at Doc's drugstore and falls in love with Maria Jimmy Bryant as Tony's singing voice Russ Tamblyn as Riff, leader of the Jets, best friend of Tony Tucker Smith as Riff's singing voice for "Jet Song" Rita Moreno as Anita, Bernardo's girlfriend, and Maria's closest confidante Betty Wand as Anita's singing voice for "A Boy Like That" George Chakiris as Bernardo, leader of the Sharks, older brother of Maria and Anita's boyfriend Simon Oakland as Police Lieutenant Schrank, a hard-boiled plainclothes detective Ned Glass as Doc, Tony's boss; a decent, elderly Jewish drugstore owner William Bramley as Police Sergeant Krupke, a brusque beat cop (Bramley played the role in the original Broadway production) Uncredited: John Astin as Glad Hand, well-meaning but ineffective social worker Penny Santon as Madam Lucia, bridal shop owner Jets Tucker Smith as Ice (a character created for the film), Riff's lieutenant; becomes leader of the Jets after Riff's death Tony Mordente as Action, a short-tempered Jet. David Winters as A-Rab, Baby John's best friend Eliot Feld as Baby John, the youngest member of the Jets; a relative innocent Bert Michaels as Snowboy David Bean as Tiger Robert Banas as Joyboy Anthony 'Scooter' Teague as Big Deal Harvey Evans (Harvey Hohnecker) as Mouthpiece Tommy Abbott as Gee-Tar Jet girls Susan Oakes as Anybodys, a tomboy and wannabe Jet Gina Trikonis as Graziella, Riff's girlfriend Carole D'Andrea as Velma, Ice's girlfriend Uncredited: Rita Hyde d'Amico as Clarice, Big Deal's girlfriend Pat Tribble as Minnie, Baby John's girlfriend Francesca Bellini as Debby, Snowboy's girlfriend Elaine Joyce as Hotsie, Tiger's girlfriend Sharks Jose De Vega as Chino Martin, Bernardo's best friend, who is the arranged fiancé of Maria Jay Norman as Pepe, Bernardo's lieutenant Gus Trikonis as Indio, Pepe's best friend Eddie Verso as Juano Jaime Rogers as Loco Larry Roquemore as Rocco Robert Thompson as Luis Nick Covacevich as Toro Rudy Del Campo as Del Campo Andre Tayir as Chile Shark girls Yvonne Wilder as Consuelo, Pepe's girlfriend (In credits as Yvonne Othon) Suzie Kaye as Rosalia, Indio's girlfriend Joanne Miya as Francisca, Toro's girlfriend Uncredited: Maria Jimenez Henley as Teresita, Juano's girlfriend Luci Stone as Estella, Loco's girlfriend Olivia Perez as Margarita, Rocco's girlfriend Musical numbers Act I "Overture" – Orchestra "Prologue" – Orchestra "Jet Song" – Riff and Jets "Something's Coming" – Tony "Dance at the Gym: (Blues, Promenade, Mambo, Cha-cha, and Jump)" – Orchestra "Maria" – Tony "America" – Anita, Bernardo, Sharks and Girls "Tonight" – Tony and Maria "Gee, Officer Krupke" – Riff and Jets "Maria (violin)" – Orchestra Act II "I Feel Pretty" – Maria, Consuelo, Rosalia, and Francisca "One Hand, One Heart" – Tony and Maria "Tonight Quintet" – Maria, Tony, Anita, Riff, Bernardo, Jets, and Sharks "The Rumble" – Orchestra "Somewhere" – Tony and Maria "Cool" – Ice and Jets "A Boy Like That/I Have a Love" – Anita and Maria "Somewhere" (reprise) – Maria "Finale" – Orchestra Production Executive producer Walter Mirisch enlisted the services of Jerome Robbins, who had directed and choreographed the stage version of West Side Story. Because Robbins had no previous film experience, Mirisch hired Robert Wise to co-direct and produce because of his "experience in gritty subject matter" and his ability to complete motion pictures under budget and ahead of schedule. Robbins was to direct the musical sequences, and Wise would handle the story's dramatic elements. Robbins directed his portion of the film first, spending a great deal of time on retakes and on-set rehearsals as well as discussing setups with Wise. Assistant director Robert Relyea recalled an unusual number of injuries endured by the dancers. After 45 days of shooting, the picture was 24 days behind schedule. With the film over budget, Wise dismissed Robbins. The remaining dance numbers were directed with the help of Robbins's assistants. Recognizing Robbins's considerable creative contribution to the film, Wise agreed that Robbins should be given co-directing credit. Robbins and Wise also kept in contact and discussed the production, with Wise's taking many of Robbins's suggestions about the editing of the film. The titles and end credits sequences were designed by Saul Bass with Elaine Makatura Bass. Bass was credited as visual consultant for creating the opening sequence over the film's overture. On location shooting for the "Prologue" and "Jet Song" occurred at two different Manhattan, New York locations. A playground located at East 110th Street, now Tito Puente Way, between 2nd and 3rd Avenues, served as the backdrop for introducing the two gangs. West 68th Street between West End and Amsterdam Avenues, three blocks north of the San Juan Hill community, provided additional realism for where the gangs roamed. The sound stages at the Samuel Goldwyn Studio, located in West Hollywood, California, were used for rehearsals and studio shooting. Casting Although Robbins pushed for 29-year-old Carol Lawrence, the first Maria, to be cast in the same role in the film, after seeing her screen test the producers agreed she was too old to play the part. A number of other cast members from the Broadway and West End productions were cast in the film. Tony Mordente, who played A-Rab on stage, was cast as Action in the film, and George Chakiris, Riff in the London stage production, played Bernardo in the film. Tucker Smith, who joined the Broadway production several months into its run, played Diesel, renamed Ice for the film. David Winters, the first Baby John on stage, played A-Rab. Eliot Feld, an ensemble member and understudy for Baby John on Broadway, played Baby John. Jay Norman, Juano on stage, appeared as Pepe. Reprising their stage roles in the film were Carole D'Andrea as Velma, Tommy Abbott as Gee-Tar, and William Bramley as Officer Krupke. Elvis Presley was approached for Tony, but his manager Colonel Tom Parker turned down the part. Others who were considered for the part included Russ Tamblyn, Warren Beatty, Burt Reynolds, Anthony Perkins, Bobby Darin, Troy Donahue, Marlon Brando, Richard Chamberlain, and Robert Redford. Reynolds was considered "too tough" for the part. Chamberlain was believed to be "too mature" for the role. Tamblyn impressed Wise and was given the supporting role of Riff. Ultimately, Richard Beymer won the part of Tony. Natalie Wood was filming Splendor in the Grass with Warren Beatty and was involved with him romantically off-screen. The producers were not considering her for the role of Maria at that time. When considering Beatty for the role of Tony, Wise requested a reel of his work. However, after seeing a clip from Splendor in the Grass, the producers decided his co-star Wood was perfect for Maria, but Beatty was not suitable for the role of Tony. Jill St. John, Audrey Hepburn, Diane Baker, Elizabeth Ashley, Suzanne Pleshette and Angela Dorian were among the many actresses who were considered for the role of Maria in the film. Editing Thomas Stanford won the Academy Award for Best Film Editing for his work on West Side Story. The film was listed as the 38th best-edited film of all time in a 2012 survey of members of the Motion Picture Editors Guild. The dance sequences in particular have been noted by critics. In Louis Giannetti's textbook Understanding Movies, he writes: "Musicals are often edited in a radically formalist style, without having to observe the cutting conventions of ordinary dramatic movies. The editing of West Side Story is very abstract. The music...and the dance numbers...are edited together for maximum aesthetic impact, rather than to forward the story. Nor are the shots linked by some principle of thematic association. Rather, the shots are juxtaposed primarily for their lyrical and kinetic beauty, somewhat like a music video". In his retrospective review, Roger Ebert singled out the dances as extraordinary. Robbins participated in the editing of the musical numbers along with Stanford, Wise, and Walter Mirisch. His notes to Stanford stress that the editing should reveal the characters' emotions even if that compromised the dancing. The quote from Giannetti above indicates that the notes didn't strongly affect the final cuts of the dance numbers. Reception Critical response West Side Story is regarded as one of the greatest musical films ever made. It holds a rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus states: "Buoyed by Robert Wise's dazzling direction, Leonard Bernstein's score, and Stephen Sondheim's lyrics, West Side Story remains perhaps the most iconic of all the Shakespeare adaptations to visit the big screen". Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote that "moving [the story] from stage to screen is to reconstruct its fine material into nothing short of a cinema masterpiece". Whitney Williams of Variety was also effusive, writing: "Technically, it is superb; use of color is dazzling, camera work often is thrilling, editing fast with dramatic punch, production design catches mood as well as action itself". The Hollywood Reporter called it "a magnificent show, a milestone in movie musicals, a box-office smash. It is so good that superlatives are superfluous. Let it be noted that the film musical, the one dramatic form that is purely American and purely Hollywood, has never been done better". By contrast, Pauline Kael derided the film as "frenzied hokum", decrying that the dialogue was "painfully old-fashioned and mawkish" and the dancing was a "simpering, sickly romantic ballet". Writing in 2004, Roger Ebert included the film in his list of "Great Movies": "So the dancing is remarkable, and several of the songs have proven themselves by becoming standards, and there are moments of startling power and truth. West Side Story remains a landmark of musical history. But if the drama had been as edgy as the choreography, if the lead performances had matched Moreno's fierce concentration, if the gangs had been more dangerous and less like bad-boy Archies and Jugheads, if the ending had delivered on the pathos and tragedy of the original, there's no telling what might have resulted". Box office West Side Story was a commercial success upon its release. It became the highest-grossing film of 1961, earning rentals of $19,645,000 in the United States and Canada. It remained the highest-grossing musical film of all-time until the release of The Sound of Music in 1965. The film grossed $44.1 million worldwide ($ million in ). Because of profit participation, United Artists earned a profit of only $2.5 million on the film ($ million in ). Accolades and honors West Side Story won 10 Academy Awards, making it the musical film with the most Oscar wins (including Best Picture). It was the first film to share the Academy Award for Best Director between two people, with Wise winning in the Best Picture and Best Director categories. American Film Institute lists: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #41 AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #3 AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: "Somewhere" – #20 "America" – #35 "Tonight" – #59 AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – #2 AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #51 The film's cast appeared and was honored at the 50th anniversary of West Side Story at the 2011 Ventura Film Festival. Score and soundtrack Leonard Bernstein was displeased with the orchestration for the movie, which was the work of Sid Ramin and Irwin Kostal, who had orchestrated the original Broadway production. That show had been orchestrated for roughly 30 musicians; for the movie, United Artists allowed them triple that, including six saxophone parts, eight trumpets, five pianos and five xylophones. Bernstein found it "overbearing and lacking in texture and subtlety". Stephen Sondheim, who did not like the sequence of the songs in the Broadway version, had the song "Gee, Officer Krupke" being sung before the rumble in place of the song "Cool" which is sung instead after the rumble; the song "I Feel Pretty" is also sung before the rumble instead of after. In addition, the song "America" was sung in-between the two love songs "Maria" and "Tonight", instead of having the two love songs being sung consecutively. Though mentioned in earlier scripts, the "Somewhere" dream ballet was not well defined for the film and was put on the back burner for Robbins to conceive and execute towards the end of shooting. With Robbins relieved of his duties midway in the production, the dance sequence was eliminated. "Somewhere" was left to be sung by Tony and Maria in her bedroom. Reprises of the lyrics were omitted as well, especially in the songs "One Hand, One Heart" and "A Boy Like That". Some lyrics were changed in order to avoid censorship, especially in the songs "Jet Song", "Gee, Officer Krupke", "America" and the "Tonight Quintet". Even the phrase "Womb to Tomb, Sperm to Worm" between Riff and Tony had to be replaced with "Womb to Tomb, Birth to Earth" between Riff and Tony near the beginning of the film and "One-Two-Three, One-Two-Three" between Riff and Diesel in the Quintet. As provided in her contract, Wood prerecorded her songs and allowed the production team to decide whether to use her voice. She found the songs challenging, but was allowed to film her scenes lip-synching to her own vocals and was led to believe that these versions would be used, although music supervisors Saul Chaplin and Johnny Green had already decided to use Marni Nixon's voice. Wood's singing voice is only heard during the reprise of the song "Somewhere" when Tony dies. Though Nixon had recorded the songs in the same orchestra sessions as Wood, she had to re-record them to synch with Wood's filmed performances. Even the one song for which Wood had lip-synched to Nixon's voice, "One Hand, One Heart", had to be recorded again because Wood's lip-synching was unsatisfactory. When Marni Nixon learned that she had not signed a contract for participating in the recording and demanded a percentage of the LP record, she was told that all percentages had been allocated. Bernstein gave her 0.25% of his album royalties. This set a precedent for all future "ghost singers". Beymer's vocals were performed by Jimmy Bryant. Tucker Smith, who played Ice, dubbed the singing voice of Riff in "Jet Song", instead of Russ Tamblyn. Tamblyn's own voice was used in "Gee, Officer Krupke" and the "Quintet". Rita Moreno was dubbed by Betty Wand in the song "A Boy Like That" because the song needed to be performed at a register that was too low for her. However, Moreno sang her own vocals in "America". Marni Nixon sang some of Moreno's parts in the "Quintet" when illness prevented Moreno from doing so. Wand was also ill on the day of final recording, and so Nixon recorded Anita's vocal line as well. For the 50th anniversary of the film's 1961 release, a score closer to the Broadway version was created by Garth Edwin Sunderland of the Leonard Bernstein Office to be performed live at screenings of the movie with the score removed, but with the original vocals maintained. The score's New York City premiere was presented at Lincoln Center's David Geffen Hall, called Avery Fisher Hall at the time, built atop the original film locations, which were razed in a late 1950s urban renewal project. Legacy In 2009, photographer Mark Seliger re-created scenes from the film for magazine Vanity Fair called West Side Story Revisited, using Camilla Belle as Maria, Ben Barnes as Tony, Jennifer Lopez as Anita, Rodrigo Santoro as Bernardo and Chris Evans as Riff. Portraying the Sharks are Minka Kelly, Jay Hernandez, Natalie Martinez, Brandon T. Jackson and Melonie Diaz. Portraying the Jets are Ashley Tisdale, Sean Faris, Robert Pattinson, Cam Gigandet, Trilby Glover, Brittany Snow and Drake Bell. West Side Story influenced Michael Jackson's "Beat It" and "Bad" music videos. The first features Jackson as a peacemaker between two rival gangs in a homage to his favorite film. 2021 film A second film adaptation of the musical was released by 20th Century Studios on December 10, 2021, directed by Steven Spielberg and choreographed by Justin Peck, with a screenplay by Tony Kushner. It stars Ansel Elgort as Tony, Rachel Zegler as Maria and Ariana DeBose as Anita; Moreno returns as a new character, Valentina, who is Doc's widow. It received seven nominations at the 94th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, winning one Oscar for DeBose's performance. See also List of American films of 1961 Whitewashing in film References External links 1961 Original Film page on West Side Story official website West Side Story on location filming in New York City 1961 films 1961 musical films 1960s English-language films 1960s gang films 1960s musical drama films 1961 romantic drama films 1960s teen romance films American dance films American gang films American historical romance films American musical drama films American romantic drama films American romantic musical films American teen musical films Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners Best Picture Academy Award winners Films about interracial romance Films about juvenile delinquency Films about race and ethnicity Films about racism Films based on adaptations Films based on musicals Films based on Romeo and Juliet Films based on works by Stephen Sondheim Films directed by Robert Wise Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe winning performance Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Academy Award-winning performance Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe-winning performance Films scored by Leonard Bernstein Films scored by Saul Chaplin Films scored by Johnny Green Films scored by Irwin Kostal Films set in the 1950s Films set in New York City Films set in New York (state) Films shot in New York City Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award Films whose director won the Best Directing Academy Award Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing Academy Award Films with screenplays by Ernest Lehman Modern adaptations of works by William Shakespeare United Artists films United States National Film Registry films 1960s American films Films produced by Robert Wise
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Tea%20Party
Boston Tea Party
The Boston Tea Party was an American political and mercantile protest on December 16, 1773 by the Sons of Liberty in Boston in colonial Massachusetts. The target was the Tea Act of May 10, 1773, which allowed the British East India Company to sell tea from China in American colonies without paying taxes apart from those imposed by the Townshend Acts. The Sons of Liberty strongly opposed the taxes in the Townshend Act as a violation of their rights. In response, the Sons of Liberty, some disguised as Native Americans, destroyed an entire shipment of tea sent by the East India Company. The demonstrators boarded the ships and threw the chests of tea into the Boston Harbor. The British government considered the protest an act of treason and responded harshly. The episode escalated into the American Revolution, becoming an iconic event of American history. Since then other political protests such as the Tea Party movement have referred to themselves as historical successors to the Boston protest of 1773. The Tea Party was the culmination of a resistance movement throughout British America against the Tea Act, a tax passed by the British Parliament in 1773. Colonists objected to the Tea Act believing it violated their rights as Englishmen to "no taxation without representation", that is, to be taxed only by their own elected representatives and not by a parliament in which they were not represented. The well-connected East India Company also had been granted competitive advantages over colonial tea importers, who resented the move and feared additional infringement on their business. Protesters had prevented the unloading of tea in three other colonies, but in Boston, embattled Royal Governor Thomas Hutchinson refused to allow the tea to be returned to Great Britain. The Boston Tea Party was a significant event that helped accelerate and intensify colonial support for the American Revolution. Parliament responded in 1774 with the Intolerable Acts, or Coercive Acts, which, among other provisions, ended local self-government in Massachusetts and closed Boston's commerce. Colonists up and down the Thirteen Colonies in turn responded to the Intolerable Acts with additional acts of protest, and by convening the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which petitioned the British monarch for repeal of the acts and coordinated colonial resistance to them. The crisis escalated, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, which marked the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. Background The Boston Tea Party arose from two issues confronting the British Empire: the financial problems of the British East India Company and an ongoing dispute about the extent of Parliament's authority, if any, over the British American colonies without seating any elected representation. The North Ministry's attempt to resolve these issues produced a showdown that eventually resulted in the Revolution, the associated War of Independence, and ultimately the end of British colonialization and the emergence of the United States as a sovereign nation. Tea trade to 1767 As Europeans developed a taste for tea in the 17th century, rival companies were formed to import the product from China, which was then governed by the Qing dynasty. In 1698, the British Parliament granted the East India Company a monopoly on the importation of tea. When tea became popular in the British colonies, Parliament sought to eliminate foreign competition by passing an act in 1721 that required colonists to import their tea only from Great Britain. The East India Company did not export tea to the colonies; by law, the company was required to sell its tea wholesale at auctions in England. British firms bought this tea and exported it to the colonies, where they resold it to merchants in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. Until 1767, the East India Company paid an ad valorem tax of about 25% on tea that it imported into Great Britain. Parliament laid additional taxes on tea sold for consumption in Britain. These high taxes, combined with the fact that tea imported into the Dutch Republic was not taxed by the Dutch government, meant that Britons and British Americans could buy smuggled Dutch tea at much cheaper prices. The biggest market for illicit tea was England—by the 1760s the East India Company was losing £400,000 per year to smugglers in Great Britain—but Dutch tea was also smuggled into British America in significant quantities. In 1767, to help the East India Company compete with smuggled Dutch tea, Parliament passed the Indemnity Act, which lowered the tax on tea consumed in Great Britain and gave the East India Company a refund of the 25% duty on tea that was re-exported to the colonies. To help offset this loss of government revenue, Parliament also passed the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, which levied new taxes, including one on tea, in the colonies. Instead of solving the smuggling problem, however, the Townshend duties renewed a controversy about Parliament's right to tax the colonies. Townshend duty crisis A controversy between Great Britain and the colonies arose in the 1760s when Parliament sought, for the first time, to impose a direct tax on the colonies for the purpose of raising revenue. Some colonists, known in the colonies as American patriots, objected to the new tax program, arguing that it was a violation of the British Constitution. Britons and British Americans agreed that, according to the constitution, British subjects could not be taxed without the consent of their elected representatives. In Great Britain, this meant that taxes could only be levied by Parliament. Colonists, however, did not elect members of Parliament, and so American Whigs argued that the colonies could not be taxed by that body. According to Whigs, colonists could only be taxed by their own colonial assemblies. Colonial protests resulted in the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766, but in the 1766 Declaratory Act, Parliament continued to insist that it had the right to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever". When new taxes were levied in the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, American patriots again responded with protests and boycotts. Merchants organized a non-importation agreement, and many colonists pledged to abstain from drinking British tea, with activists in New England promoting alternatives, such as domestic Labrador tea. Smuggling continued apace, especially in New York and Philadelphia, where tea smuggling had always been more extensive than in Boston. Dutied British tea continued to be imported into Boston, however, especially by Richard Clarke and the sons of Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson, until pressure from Massachusetts Whigs compelled them to abide by the non-importation agreement. Parliament finally responded to the protests by repealing the Townshend taxes in 1770, except for the tea duty, which Prime Minister Lord North kept to assert "the right of taxing the Americans". This partial repeal of the taxes was enough to bring an end to the non-importation movement by October 1770. From 1771 to 1773, British tea was once again imported into the colonies in significant amounts, with merchants paying the Townshend duty of three pence () per pound in weight of tea. Boston was the largest colonial importer of legal tea; smugglers still dominated the market in New York and Philadelphia. Tea Act of 1773 The Indemnity Act of 1767, which gave the East India Company a refund of the duty on tea that was re-exported to the colonies, expired in 1772. Parliament passed a new act in 1772 that reduced this refund, effectively leaving a 10% duty on tea imported into Britain. The act also restored the tea taxes within Britain that had been repealed in 1767, and left in place the three pence Townshend duty in the colonies, equal to £ today. With this new tax burden driving up the price of British tea, sales plummeted. The company continued to import tea into Great Britain, however, amassing a huge surplus of product that no one would buy. For these and other reasons, by late 1772 the East India Company, one of Britain's most important commercial institutions, was in a serious financial crisis. The severe famine in Bengal from 1769 to 1773 had drastically reduced the revenue of the East India Company from India bringing the Company to the verge of bankruptcy and the Tea Act of 1773 was enacted to help the East India Company. Eliminating some of the taxes was one obvious solution to the crisis. The East India Company initially sought to have the Townshend duty repealed, but the North ministry was unwilling because such an action might be interpreted as a retreat from Parliament's position that it had the right to tax the colonies. More importantly, the tax collected from the Townshend duty was used to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges. This was in fact the purpose of the Townshend tax: previously these officials had been paid by the colonial assemblies, but Parliament now paid their salaries to keep them dependent on the British government rather than allowing them to be accountable to the colonists. Another possible solution for reducing the growing mound of tea in the East India Company warehouses was to sell it cheaply in Europe. This possibility was investigated, but it was determined that the tea would simply be smuggled back into Great Britain, where it would undersell the taxed product. The best market for the East India Company's surplus tea, so it seemed, was the American colonies, if a way could be found to make it cheaper than the smuggled Dutch tea. The North Ministry's solution was the Tea Act, which received the assent of King George on May 10, 1773. This act restored the East India Company's full refund on the duty for importing tea into Britain, and also permitted the company, for the first time, to export tea to the colonies on its own account. This would allow the company to reduce costs by eliminating the middlemen who bought the tea at wholesale auctions in London. Instead of selling to middlemen, the company now appointed colonial merchants to receive the tea on consignment; the consignees would in turn sell the tea for a commission. In July 1773, tea consignees were selected in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Charleston. The Tea Act in 1773 authorized the shipment of 5,000 chests of tea (250 tons) to the American colonies. There would be a tax of £1,750 (equal to £ today) to be paid by the importers when the cargo landed. The act granted the EIC a monopoly on the sale of tea that was cheaper than smuggled tea; its hidden purpose was to force the colonists to pay a tax of 3 pennies on every pound of tea. The Tea Act thus retained the three pence Townshend duty on tea imported to the colonies. Some members of Parliament wanted to eliminate this tax, arguing that there was no reason to provoke another colonial controversy. Former Chancellor of the Exchequer William Dowdeswell, for example, warned Lord North that the Americans would not accept the tea if the Townshend duty remained. But North did not want to give up the revenue from the Townshend tax, primarily because it was used to pay the salaries of colonial officials; maintaining the right of taxing the Americans was a secondary concern. According to historian Benjamin Labaree, "A stubborn Lord North had unwittingly hammered a nail in the coffin of the old British Empire." Even with the Townshend duty in effect, the Tea Act would allow the East India Company to sell tea more cheaply than before, undercutting the prices offered by smugglers, but also undercutting colonial tea importers, who paid the tax and received no refund. In 1772, legally imported Bohea, the most common variety of tea, sold for about 3 shillings (3s) per pound, equal to £ today. After the Tea Act, colonial consignees would be able to sell it for 2 shillings per pound (2s), just under the smugglers' price of 2 shillings and 1 penny (2s 1d). Realizing that the payment of the Townshend duty was politically sensitive, the company hoped to conceal the tax by making arrangements to have it paid either in London once the tea was landed in the colonies, or have the consignees quietly pay the duties after the tea was sold. This effort to hide the tax from the colonists was unsuccessful. Resisting the Tea Act In September and October 1773, seven ships carrying East India Company tea were sent to the colonies: four were bound for Boston, and one each for New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. In the ships were more than 2,000 chests containing nearly 600,000 pounds of tea. Americans learned the details of the Tea Act while the ships were en route, and opposition began to mount. Whigs, sometimes calling themselves Sons of Liberty, began a campaign to raise awareness and to convince or compel the consignees to resign, in the same way that stamp distributors had been forced to resign in the 1765 Stamp Act crisis. The protest movement that culminated with the Boston Tea Party was not a dispute about high taxes. The price of legally imported tea was actually reduced by the Tea Act of 1773. Protesters were instead concerned with a variety of other issues. The familiar "no taxation without representation" argument, along with the question of the extent of Parliament's authority in the colonies, remained prominent. Samuel Adams considered the British tea monopoly to be "equal to a tax" and to raise the same representation issue whether or not a tax was applied to it. Some regarded the purpose of the tax program—to make leading officials independent of colonial influence—as a dangerous infringement of colonial rights. This was especially true in Massachusetts, the only colony where the Townshend program had been fully implemented. Colonial merchants, some of them smugglers, played a significant role in the protests. Because the Tea Act made legally imported tea cheaper, it threatened to put smugglers of Dutch tea out of business. Legitimate tea importers who had not been named as consignees by the East India Company were also threatened with financial ruin by the Tea Act. Another major concern for merchants was that the Tea Act gave the East India Company a monopoly on the tea trade, and it was feared that this government-created monopoly might be extended in the future to include other goods. In New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, South Carolina, protesters compelled the tea consignees to resign. In Charleston, the consignees had been forced to resign by early December, and the unclaimed tea was seized by customs officials. There were mass protest meetings in Philadelphia. Benjamin Rush urged his fellow countrymen to oppose the landing of the tea, because the cargo contained "the seeds of slavery". By early December, the Philadelphia consignees had resigned, and in late December the tea ship returned to England with its cargo following a confrontation with the ship's captain. The tea ship bound for New York City was delayed by bad weather; by the time it arrived, the consignees had resigned, and the ship returned to England with the tea. Standoff in Boston In every colony except Massachusetts, protesters were able to force the tea consignees to resign or to return the tea to England. In Boston, however, Governor Hutchinson was determined to hold his ground. He convinced the tea consignees, two of whom were his sons, not to back down. When the tea ship Dartmouth, arrived in the Boston Harbor in late November, Whig leader Samuel Adams called for a mass meeting to be held at Faneuil Hall on November 29, 1773. Thousands of people arrived, so many that the meeting was moved to the larger Old South Meeting House. British law required Dartmouth to unload and pay the duties within twenty days or customs officials could confiscate the cargo (i.e. unload it onto American soil). The mass meeting passed a resolution, introduced by Adams and based on a similar set of resolutions promulgated earlier in Philadelphia, urging the captain of Dartmouth to send the ship back without paying the import duty. Meanwhile, the meeting assigned twenty-five men to watch the ship and prevent the tea – including a number of chests from Davison, Newman and Co. of London – from being unloaded. The colonial governor of Massachusetts, Governor Hutchinson, refused to grant permission for the Dartmouth to leave without paying the duty. Two more tea ships, Eleanor and Beaver, arrived in Boston Harbor. On December 16 – the last day of Dartmouth'''s deadline – approximately 5,000–7,000 people out of an estimated population of 16,000 had gathered around the Old South Meeting House. After receiving a report that Governor Hutchinson had again refused to let the ships leave, Adams announced that "This meeting can do nothing further to save the country." According to a popular story, Adams's statement was a prearranged signal for the "tea party" to begin. However, this claim did not appear in print until nearly a century after the event, in a biography of Adams written by his great-grandson, who apparently misinterpreted the evidence. According to eyewitness accounts, people did not leave the meeting until 10–15 minutes after Adams's alleged "signal", and Adams in fact tried to stop people from leaving because the meeting was not yet over. Destruction of the tea While Samuel Adams tried to reassert control of the meeting, people poured out of the Old South Meeting House to prepare to take action. In some cases, this involved donning what may have been elaborately prepared Mohawk costumes. While disguising their individual faces was imperative, because of the illegality of their protest, dressing as Mohawk warriors was a specific and symbolic choice. It showed that the Sons of Liberty identified with America, over their official status as subjects of Great Britain. That evening, a group of 30 to 130 men, some dressed in the Mohawk warrior disguises, boarded the three vessels and, over the course of three hours, dumped all 342 chests of tea into the water. The precise location of the Griffin's Wharf site of the Tea Party has been subject to prolonged uncertainty; a comprehensive study places it near the foot of Hutchinson Street (today's Pearl Street). The property damage amounted to the destruction of 92,000 pounds or 340 chests of tea, reported by the British East India Company worth £9,659 (equivalent to £ in ), or roughly $1,700,000 dollars in today's money. The owner of two of the three ships was William Rotch, a Nantucket-born colonist and merchant. Another tea ship intended for Boston, the William, ran aground at Cape Cod in December 1773, and its tea was taxed and sold to private parties. In March 1774, the Sons of Liberty received information that this tea was being held in a warehouse in Boston, entered the warehouse and destroyed all they could find. Some of it had already been sold to Davison, Newman and Co. and was being held in their shop. On March 7, Sons of Liberty once again dressed as Mohawks, broke into the shop, and dumped the last remaining tea into the harbor.Diary of John Adams, March 8, 1774; Boston Gazette, March 14, 1774 Reaction Whether or not Samuel Adams helped plan the Boston Tea Party is disputed, but he immediately worked to publicize and defend it. He argued that the Tea Party was not the act of a lawless mob, but was instead a principled protest and the only remaining option the people had to defend their constitutional rights. John Adams, Samuel's second cousin and likewise a Founding Father, wrote in his diary on December 17, 1773 that the Boston Tea Party proved a historical moment in the American Revolution, writing: In Great Britain, even those politicians considered friends of the colonies were appalled and this act united all parties there against the colonies. The Prime Minister Lord North said, "Whatever may be the consequence, we must risk something; if we do not, all is over". The British government felt this action could not remain unpunished, and responded by closing the port of Boston and putting in place other laws known as the "Intolerable Acts." Benjamin Franklin stated that the East India Company should be paid for the destroyed tea, all ninety thousand pounds (which, at two shillings per pound, came to £9,000, or £ [2014, approx. $1.7 million US]). Robert Murray, a New York merchant, went to Lord North with three other merchants and offered to pay for the losses, but the offer was turned down. The incident resulted in a similar effect in North America, when news of the Boston Tea Party reached London in January and Parliament responded with a series of acts known collectively in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts. These were intended to punish Boston for the destruction of private property, restore British authority in Massachusetts, and otherwise reform colonial government in America. Although the first three, the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act and the Administration of Justice Act, applied only to Massachusetts, colonists outside that colony feared that their governments could now also be changed by legislative fiat in England. The Intolerable Acts were viewed as a violation of constitutional rights, natural rights, and colonial charters, and united many colonists throughout America, exemplified by the calling of the First Continental Congress in September 1774. A number of colonists were inspired by the Boston Tea Party to carry out similar acts, such as the burning of Peggy Stewart. The Boston Tea Party eventually proved to be one of the many reactions that led to the American Revolutionary War. In his December 17, 1773, entry in his diary, John Adams wrote: In February 1775, Britain passed the Conciliatory Resolution, which ended taxation for any colony that satisfactorily provided for the imperial defense and the upkeep of imperial officers. The tax on tea was repealed with the Taxation of Colonies Act 1778, part of another Parliamentary attempt at conciliation that failed. Legacy John Adams and many other Americans considered tea drinking to be unpatriotic following the Boston Tea Party. Tea drinking declined during and after the Revolution, resulting in a shift to coffee as the preferred hot drink. According to historian Alfred Young, the term "Boston Tea Party" did not appear in print until 1834. Before that time, the event was usually referred to as the "destruction of the tea". According to Young, American writers were for many years apparently reluctant to celebrate the destruction of property, and so the event was usually ignored in histories of the American Revolution. This began to change in the 1830s, however, especially with the publication of biographies of George Robert Twelves Hewes, one of the few still-living participants of the "tea party", as it then became known. The Boston Tea Party has often been referenced in other political protests. When Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi led a mass burning of Indian registration cards in South Africa in 1908, a British newspaper compared the event to the Boston Tea Party. When Gandhi met with the Viceroy of India in 1930 after the Indian salt protest campaign, Gandhi took some duty-free salt from his shawl and said, with a smile, that the salt was "to remind us of the famous Boston Tea Party." American activists from a variety of political viewpoints have invoked the Tea Party as a symbol of protest. In 1973, on the 200th anniversary of the Tea Party, a mass meeting at Faneuil Hall called for the impeachment of President Richard Nixon and protested oil companies in the ongoing oil crisis. Afterwards, protesters boarded a replica ship in Boston Harbor, hanged Nixon in effigy, and dumped several empty oil drums into the harbor. In 1998, two conservative US Congressmen put the federal tax code into a chest marked "tea" and dumped it into the harbor. In 2006, a libertarian political party called the "Boston Tea Party" was founded. In 2007, the Ron Paul "Tea Party" money bomb, held on the 234th anniversary of the Boston Tea Party, broke the one-day fund-raising record by raising $6.04 million in 24 hours. Subsequently, these fund-raising "Tea parties" grew into the Tea Party movement, which dominated conservative American politics for the next two years, reaching its peak with a voter victory for the Republicans in 2010 who were widely elected to seats in the United States House of Representatives. Boston Tea Party Ships and Museum The Boston Tea Party Museum is located on the Congress Street Bridge in Boston. It features reenactments, a documentary, and a number of interactive exhibits. The museum features two replica ships of the period, Eleanor and Beaver. Additionally, the museum possesses one of two known tea chests from the original event, part of its permanent collection. Participants Phineas Stearns George Robert Twelves Hewes Actual tea The American Antiquarian Society holds in its collection a vial of actual tea-infused harbor water from 1773. Cultural references The Boston Tea Party has been subject of several films: The Boston Tea Party, a 1908 film by Edwin S. Porter The Boston Tea Party, a 1915 film by Eugene NowlandThe Boston Tea Party, a 1934 film narrated by John B. Kennedy Boston Tea Party, an educational Disney film excerpted from Johnny Tremain (1957) It has been subject of The Boston Tea Party, a 1976 play by Allan Albert, and "Boston Tea Party", a 1976 song by the Sensational Alex Harvey Band from SAHB Stories. See also Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760–1789) Prelude to the American Revolution Pine Tree Riot, 1772 Burning of the Peggy Stewart, 1774 Notes References General sources Alexander, John K. Samuel Adams: America's Revolutionary Politician. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. . Carp, Benjamin L. Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America (Yale U.P., 2010) online Ketchum, Richard. Divided Loyalties: How the American Revolution came to New York. 2002. . Knollenberg, Bernhard. Growth of the American Revolution, 1766–1775. New York: Free Press, 1975. . Labaree, Benjamin Woods. The Boston Tea Party. Originally published 1964. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1979. . online Maier, Pauline. The Old Revolutionaries: Political Lives in the Age of Samuel Adams. New York: Knopf, 1980. . Raphael, Ray. Founding Myths: Stories That Hide Our Patriotic Past. New York: The New Press, 2004. . Thomas, Peter D. G. The Townshend Duties Crisis: The Second Phase of the American Revolution, 1767–1773. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. . Thomas, Peter D. G. Tea Party to Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution, 1773–1776. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. . Young, Alfred F. The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution. Boston: Beacon Press, 1999. ; . Further reading Norton, Mary Beth. 1774: The Long Year of Revolution (2020) online review by Gordon S. Wood Tyler, John W. Smugglers and Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution (2019) online External links The Boston Tea Party Historical Society Eyewitness Account of the Event Boston Tea Party Ships & Museum Tea Party Finds Inspiration In Boston History – audio report by NPR'' Booknotes interview with Alfred Young on The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution, November 21, 1999 BBC Radio program about the 'forgotten truth' behind the Boston Tea Party Eyewitness to History: The Boston Tea Party, 1773 Boston Harbor 1773 in the Thirteen Colonies 1773 protests 1773 riots Massachusetts in the American Revolution Political repression in the United States History of the Thirteen Colonies Rebellions in the United States Tax resistance in the United States History of Boston Battles and conflicts without fatalities History of tea 1773 in the Province of Massachusetts Bay British East India Company 1773 crimes in North America
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan%20African%20music%20traditions
Sub-Saharan African music traditions
In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, the use of music is not limited to entertainment: it serves a purpose to the local community and helps in the conduct of daily routines. Traditional African music supplies appropriate music and dance for work and for religious ceremonies of birth, naming, rites of passage, marriage and funerals. The beats and sounds of the drum are used in communication as well as in cultural expression. African dances are largely participatory: there are traditionally no barriers between dancers and onlookers except with regard to spiritual, religious and initiation dances. Even ritual dances often have a time when spectators participate. Dances help people work, mature, praise or criticize members of the community, celebrate festivals and funerals, compete, recite history, proverbs and poetry and encounter gods. They inculcate social patterns and values. Many dances are performed by only males or females. Dances are often segregated by gender, reinforcing gender roles in children. Community structures such as kinship, age, and status are also often reinforced. To share rhythm is to form a group consciousness, to entrain with one another, to be part of the collective rhythm of life to which all are invited to contribute. Yoruba dancers and drummers, for instance, express communal desires, values, and collective creativity. The drumming represents an underlying linguistic text that guides the dancing performance, allowing linguistic meaning to be expressed non-verbally. The spontaneity of these performances should not be confused with an improvisation that emphasizes the individual ego. The drummer's primary duty is to preserve the community. Master dancers and drummers are particular about the learning of the dance exactly as taught. Children must learn the dance exactly as taught without variation. Improvisation or a new variation comes only after mastering the dance, performing, and receiving the appreciation of spectators and the sanction of village elders.<ref>Zimbabwe Dance. Kariamu Welsh Asante. Africa World Press, Inc. 2000, p. 60 </ref> The music of the Luo, for another example, is functional, used for ceremonial, religious, political or incidental purposes, during funerals (Tero buru) to praise the departed, to console the bereaved, to keep people awake at night, to express pain and agony and during cleansing and chasing away of spirits, during beer parties (Dudu, ohangla dance), welcoming back the warriors from a war, during a wrestling match (Ramogi), during courtship, in rain making and during divination and healing. Work songs are performed both during communal work like building, weeding, etc. and individual work like pounding of cereals, winnowing. Regions Alan P. Merriam divided Africa into seven regions for ethnomusicological purposes, observing current political frontiers (see map), and this article follows this division as far as possible in surveying the music of ethnic groups in Africa. Music of the northern region of Africa (red on the map), including that of the Horn of Africa (dark green on the map), is mostly treated separately under Middle Eastern and North African music traditions. West African music (yellow on the map) includes the music of Senegal and the Gambia, of Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Liberia, of the inland plains of Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso and also the coastal nations of Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo as well as the islands of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe. Central African Music (dark blue on the map) includes the music of Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. The Eastern region (light green on the map) includes the music of Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe as well as the islands of Madagascar, the Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius and Comoros. The eastern region has received south Asian and even Austronesian influences via the Indian Ocean. The Southern region (brown on the map) includes the music of South Africa, Lesotho, Eswatini, Botswana, Namibia and Angola. Sahel and Sudan The music of Sudan (turquoise on the map) indicates the difficulty of dividing music traditions according to state frontiers. The musicology of Sudan involves some 133 language communities. that speak over 400 dialects, Afro-Asian, Nilotic and Niger–Congo. Sudan takes its name from that of the sub-Saharan savanna which makes, with the Nile, a great cross-roads of the region. South of the Sahara the Sahel forms a bio-geographic zone of transition between the desert and the Sudanian savannas, stretching between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea. The Nilotic peoples prominent in southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania, include the Luo, Dinka, Nuer and Maasai. Many of these have been included in the Eastern region. The Dinka are a mainly agro-pastoral people inhabiting the Bahr el Ghazal region of the Nile basin, Jonglei and parts of southern Kordufan and Upper Nile regions. They number around 1.5 million, about 10% of the population. of Sudan. The Arabian rebab has found a home among the Nuba peoples. The Senegambian Fula have migrated as far as Sudan at various times, often speaking Arabic as well as their own language. The Hausa people, who speak a language related to Ancient Egyptian and Biblical Hebrew, have moved in the opposite direction. Further west the Berber music of the Tuareg has penetrated to Sub-Saharan countries. These are included in the Western region, but the music of Sub-Saharan herders and nomads is heard from west to east. Western, central, eastern and southern territories These remaining four regions are most associated with Sub-Saharan African music: familiar African musical elements such as the use of cross-beat and vocal harmony may be found all over all four regions, as may be some instruments such as the iron bell. This is largely due to the expansion of the Niger–Congo-speaking people that began around 1500 BC: the last phases of expansion were 0–1000 AD.A Brief History of Botswana Only a few scattered languages in this great area cannot readily be associated with the Niger–Congo language family. However two significant non-Bantu musical traditions, the Pygmy music of the Congo jungle and that of the bushmen of the Kalahari, do much to define the music of the central region and of the southern region respectively. As a result of the migrations of Niger-Congo peoples (e.g., Bantu expansion), polyrhythmic culture (e.g., dance, music), which is generally associated with being a common trait among modern cultures of Africa, spread throughout Africa. Due to the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, music of the African diaspora, many of whom descend from Niger-Congo peoples, has had considerable influence upon modern Western forms of popular culture (e.g., dance, music). West Africa The music of West Africa must be considered under two main headings: in its northernmost and westernmost parts, many of the above-mentioned transnational sub-Saharan ethnic influences are found among the Hausa, the Fulani, the Wolof people, the Mande speakers of Mali, Senegal and Mauritania, the Gur-speaking peoples of Mali, Burkina Faso and the northern halves of Ghana, Togo and Cote d'Ivoire, the Fula found throughout West Africa, and the Senufo speakers of Côte d'Ivoire and Mali. The coastal regions are home to the Niger-Congo speakers; Kwa, Akan, the Gbe languages, spoken in Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria, the Yoruba and Igbo languages, spoken in Nigeria and the Benue–Congo languages of the east. Inland and coastal languages are only distantly related. While the north, with its griot traditions, makes great use of stringed instruments and xylophones, the south relies much more upon drum sets and communal singing. Northern Complex societies existed in the region from about 1500 BCE. The Ghana Empire existed from before c. 830 until c. 1235 in what is now south-east Mauritania and western Mali. The Sosso people had their capital at Koumbi Saleh until Sundiata Keita defeated them at the Battle of Kirina (c. 1240) and began the Mali Empire, which spread its influence along the Niger River through numerous vassal kingdoms and provinces. The Gao Empire at the eastern Niger bend was powerful in the ninth century CE but later subordinated to Mali until its decline. In 1340 the Songhai people made Gao the capital of a new Songhai Empire. The Hausa people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Nigeria, Niger, Sudan and many West and Central African countries. They speak a Chadic language. There are two broad categories of traditional Hausa music; rural folk music and urban court music developed in the Hausa Kingdoms before the Fulani War. Their folk music has played an important part in Nigerian music, contributing elements such as the goje, a one-stringed fiddle. The originally nomadic/pastoral Senegambian Fula people or Tukulor represent 40% of the population of Guinea and have spread to surrounding states and as far as Sudan in the east. In the 19th century they overthrew the Hausa and established the Sokoto Caliphate. The Fula play a variety of traditional instruments including drums, the hoddu (xalam), a plucked skin-covered lute similar to a banjo, and riti or riiti (a one-string bowed instrument similar to a violin), in addition to their vocal music. They also use end-blown bamboo flutes. Their griots are known as gawlo. Mande music: the music of Mali is dominated by forms derived from the Mande Empire Their musicians, professional performers called jeliw (sing. jeli, French griot), have produced popular alongside traditional music. Mande languages include Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Bissa, Dioula, Kagoro, Bozo, Mende, Susu, Vai and Ligbi: there are populations in Burkina Faso, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Liberia and, mainly in the northern inland regions, in the south coast states of Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. Wolof music: the Wolof people, the largest ethnic group in Senegal, kin to the Fula, have contributed greatly to popular Senegalese music. The related Serer people are notable for polyphonic song. In Senegal, The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau the Jola are notable for their stringed instrument the akonting, a precursor of the banjo while the Balanta people, the largest ethnic group of Guinea-Bissau, play a similar gourd lute instrument called a kusunde or kussundé, with a short A/B drone string at the bottom, a top F string of middle length and a middle C string, the longest. Top string stopped gives G, middle string stopped is D. Songhai music, as interpreted by Ali Farka Toure, has gathered international interest for a minor pentatonic lute-and-voice style that is markedly similar to American blues. The Senufo or Senoufo, living in southern Mali and the extreme western corner of Burkina Faso to Katiola in Côte d'Ivoire with one group, the Nafana, in north-western Ghana. The Senufo are notable for funeral and poro music. Among Gur-speaking peoples the Dagomba use the lunga talking drum and a bass drum with snares called a gungon, as well as the flute, gonje (goje) and bell. as well as molo (xalam) lute music, also played by Gurunsi peoples such as the Frafra. Similar styles are practised by local Fulani, Hausa, Djerma, Busanga and Ligbi speaking people. Drummers in Dagbon are storytellers, historians, bards of family ancestry who perform at events called sambanlunga. The Gurunsi, the Lobi, the Wala and the related Dagaaba people of Ghana and Burkina Faso and are known for complex interlocking (double meter) patterns on the xylophone (gyil). The Mossi people, whose Mossi Kingdoms in present-day Burkina Faso, withstood their Songhai and Mende neighbours before falling to the French, have a griot tradition. Also djambadon. also brosca. The Gulf of Guinea The Akan people include the Akwamu, Bono, Akyem, Fante, Ashanti, who originated the Adowa and kete styles, the Baoulé whose polyphonic music introduced the gbébé rhythm to Ivory Coast, the Nzema people who play the edengole. Akan peoples have complex court music including the atumpan and Ga kpanlogo style, a modernized traditional dance and music form, developed around 1960. Yacub Addy, Obo Addy, and Mustapha Tettey Addy are Ga drummers who have achieved international fame. A huge log xylophone is used in asonko music. The 10–14 string Ghanaian seprewa, midway between the kora and the African harp, is still played but often replaced by guitar. Other styles include; adaha, agbadza, akwete, ashiko and gombe as well as konkomba, mainline, osibisaba and sikyi. Instrumentation includes the aburukawa, apentemma, dawuro and torowa. Ewe music, the music of the Ewe people of Ghana, Togo and Benin, is primarily percussive with great metrical complexity. Ewe drumming ensembles produce dance music and have contributed popular styles such as agbadza and borborbor, a konkomba/highlife fusion of the 1950s. The related Aja people are native to south-western Benin and south-eastern Togo. Aja living in Abomey mingled with the local tribe, thus creating the Fon or Dahomey ethnic group, now the largest in Benin. Tchinkoumé. Yoruba music is prominent in the music of Nigeria and in Afro-Latin and Caribbean musical styles. Ensembles using the talking drum play a type of music that is called dundun after the drum, using various sizes of tension drum along with special band drums (ogido). The leader or oniyalu uses the drum to "talk" by imitating the tonality of Yoruba language. Yoruba music traditionally centred on folklore and spiritual/deity worship, utilising basic and natural instruments such as handclaps. Professional musicians were referred to by the derogatory term of Alagbe. Igbo music informs Highlife and Waka. The drum is the most important musical instrument for the Igbo people, used during celebrations, rites of passage, funerals, war, town meetings and other events, and the pot-drum or udu (means "pot") is their most common and popular drum: a smaller variant is called the kim-kim. Igbo Styles include egwu ota. Other instruments: obo – ufie – ogene, a flat metal pan used as a bell. Bassa people (Cameroon) originated assiko, a popular dance from the South of Cameroon. The Kasena use a hocket vocal style. Other styles are; jongo, len yoro. Instruments include; gullu, gungonga, korbala, kornia, sinyegule, wua and yong wui. A Bamileke style is mangambe; Bamileke people use the gong. The Beti-Pahuin of Cameroon Style = bikutsi; Dance = bikutsi; Instrumentation = njang – rattle include Fang people chorus and drum group; Instrumentation = mvet; Other = bebom-mvet. Music of São Tomé and Principe Styles: danço-Congo – dêxa – socopé – ússua – xtléva; Instruments: cowbell – flute – rattle; Other: Tchiloli The music of Cape Verde has long been influenced by Europe, Instrumentation includes the accordion (gaita), the bowed rabeca, the violão guitar and the viola twelve string guitar as well as cavaquinho, cimboa and ferrinho. Styles include batuque, coladera, funaná, morna and tabanca. Central Africa The central region of African music is defined by the tropical rain-forests at the heart of the continent. However Chad, the northernmost state, has a considerable subtropical and desert northern region. Northern traditions The north of this region has Nilo-Saharans such as the Zande people. Early kingdoms were founded near Lake Chad: the Kanem Empire, ca. 600 BCE – 1380 CE encompassed much of Chad, Fezzan, east Niger and north-east Nigeria, perhaps founded by the nomadic Zaghawa, then ruled by the Sayfawa dynasty. The Bornu Empire (1396–1893) was a continuation, the Kanembu founding a new state at Ngazargamu. These spoke the Kanuri languages spoken by some four million people in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Cameroon, Libya and Sudan. They are noted for lute and drum music. The Kingdom of Baguirmi (1522–1897) and the Ouaddai Empire (1635–1912) were also centred near Lake Chad. The Toubou, who live mainly in the north of Chad around the Tibesti mountains and also in Libya, Niger and Sudan, are semi-nomadic herders, Nilo-Saharan speakers, mostly Muslim, numbering roughly 350,000. Their folk music revolves around men's string instruments like the keleli and women's vocal music. The Central Sudanic Baguirmi language has 44,761 speakers and is associated with the kingdom of Baguirmi. They are known for drum and zither music and a folk dance in which a mock battle is conducted between dancers wielding large pestles. The Sara people are a linguistically related ethnic group, the largest in Chad, making up to 30% of its population and 10% of the Central African Republic. Descendants of the Sao civilisation, they use the balafon, whistle, harp and kodjo drums. The Zande people live in the north-east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, south-western Sudan and the south-eastern Central African Republic. Their number is estimated by various sources at between 1 and 4 million. Horns and trumpets such as the long royal trumpet, a tin horn known as waza or kakaki are used in coronations and other upper-class ceremonies throughout both Chad and Sudan. Other traditional Chadian instruments include the hu hu (string instrument with calabash resonators), maracas. The griot tradition uses the kinde (a five-string bow harp). The Pygmy people The Pygmy peoples have high levels of genetic diversity, yet are extremely divergent from all other human populations, suggesting they have an ancient indigenous lineage, the most ancient divergence after the Southern African Bushmen. It is estimated that there are between 250,000 and 600,000 Pygmies living in the Congo rainforest, Most Pygmy communities dwell in tropical forests. with populations in Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of Congo, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia. As partial hunter-gatherers, living partially but not exclusively on the wild products of their environment, they trade with neighbouring farmers to acquire cultivated foods and other material items. There are several Pygmy groups, the best known being the Mbenga (Aka and Baka) of the western Congo basin, the Mbuti (Efe etc.) of the Ituri Rainforest, and the Twa of the Great Lakes. Pygmy music Includes the Aka, Baka, Mambuti Mbuti and Efé; styles: hindewhu – hocket – likanos – liquindi – lullaby – yelli. Instrumentation = flute – ieta – limbindi – molimo – ngombi – trumpet – whistle. Other = boona – elima – jengi – molimo The African Pygmies are particularly known for their usually vocal music, typically characterised by dense contrapuntal communal improvisation. Music permeates daily life and there are songs for entertainment as well as specific events and activities. Bashi Instrumentation = lulanga. Bantu traditions Bemba people of Zambia. (or 'BaBemba' using the Ba- prefix to mean 'people of', and also called 'Awemba' or 'BaWemba' in the past) belong to a large group of peoples mainly in the Northern, Luapula and Copperbelt Provinces of Zambia who trace their origins to the Luba and Lunda states of the upper Congo basin, in what became Katanga Province in southern Congo-Kinshasa (DRC). There are over 30 Bemba clans, named after animals or natural organisms, such as the royal clan, "the people of the crocodile" (Bena Ng'andu) or the Bena Bowa (Mushroom Clan). The Bemba language (Chibemba) is related to the Bantu languages Kaonde (in Zambia and the DRC), Luba (in the DRC), Nsenga and Tonga (in Zambia), and Nyanja/Chewa (in Zambia and Malawi). It is mainly spoken in the Northern, Luapula and Copperbelt Provinces, and has become the most widely spoken African language in the country, although not always as a first language. Bemba numbered 250,000 in 1963 but a much larger population includes some 'eighteen different ethnic groups' who, together with the Bemba, form a closely related ethno-linguistic cluster of matrilineal-matrifocal agriculturalists known as the Bemba-speaking peoples of Zambia. Instrumentation = babatone – kalela East Africa The East African musicological region, which includes the islands of the Indian Ocean, Madagascar, Réunion, Mauritius, Comor and the Seychelles, has been open to the influence of Arabian and Iranian music since the Shirazi Era. In the south of the region Swahili culture has adopted instruments such as the dumbek, oud and qanun – even the Indian tabla drums. The kabosy, also called the mandoliny, a small guitar of Madagascar, like the Comorian gabusi, may take its name from the Arabian qanbūs. Taarab, a modern genre popular in Tanzania and Kenya, is said to take both its name and its style from Egyptian music as formerly cultivated in Zanzibar. Latterly there have been European influences also: the guitar is popular in Kenya, the contredanse, mazurka and polka are danced in the Seychelles. Northern traditions The Luo peoples inhabit an area that stretches from Southern Sudan and Ethiopia through northern Uganda and eastern Congo (DRC), into western Kenya and Tanzania and include the Shilluk, Acholi, Lango and Joluo (Kenyan and Tanzanian Luo). Luo Benga music derives from the traditional music of the nyatiti lyre: the Luo-speaking Acholi of northern Uganda use the adungu. Rhythms are characterized by syncopation and acrusis. Melodies are lyrical, with vocal ornamentations, especially when the music carries an important message. Songs are call-and-response or solo performances such as chants, recitatives with irregular rhythms and phrases which carried serious messages. Luo dances such as the dudu were introduced by them. A unique characteristic is the introduction of another chant at the middle of a musical performance. The singing stops, the pitch of the musical instruments go down and the dance becomes less vigorous as an individual takes up the performance in self-praise. This is called pakruok. A unique kind of ululation, sigalagala, mainly done by women, marks the climax of the musical performance. Dance styles are elegant and graceful, involving the movement of one leg in the opposite direction to the waist or vigorous shaking of the shoulders, usually to the nyatiti. Adamson (1967) commented that Luos clad in their traditional costumes and ornaments deserve their reputation as the most picturesque people in Kenya. During most of their performances the Luo wore costumes; sisal skirts (owalo), beads (Ombulu / tigo) worn around the neck and waist and red or white clay used by the ladies. The men's costumes included kuodi or chieno, a skin worn from the shoulders or from the waist. Ligisa headgear, shield and spear, reed hats and clubs were made from locally available materials. Luo musical instruments range from percussion (drums, clappers, metal rings, ongeng'o or gara, shakers), nyatiti, a type of lyre; orutu, a type of fiddle), wind (tung' a horn, Asili, a flute, Abu-!, to a specific type of trumpet. In the benga style of music. the guitar (acoustic, later electric) replaced the nyatiti as the string instrument. Benga is played by musicians of many tribes and is no longer considered a purely Luo style. The Music and dance of the Maasai people used no instruments in the past because as semi-nomadic Nilotic pastoralists instruments were considered too cumbersome to move. Traditional Maasai music is strictly polyphonic vocal music, a group chanting polyphonic rhythms while soloists take turns singing verses. The call and response that follows each verse is called namba. Performances are often competitive and divided by age and gender. The neighbouring Turkana people have maintained their ancient traditions, including call and response music, which is almost entirely vocal. A horn made from the kudu antelope is also played. The Samburu are related to the Maasai, and like them, play almost no instruments except simple pipes and a kind of guitar. There are also erotic songs sung by women praying for rain. The Borana live near the Ethiopian border, and their music reflects Ethiopian, Somali and other traditions. They are known also for using the chamonge guitar, which is made from a cooking pot strung with metal wires. Bantu traditions Drums (ngoma, ng'oma or ingoma) are much used: particularly large ones have been developed among the court musicians of East African kings. The term ngoma is applied to rhythm and dance styles as well as the drums themselves. as among the East Kenyan Akamba, the Buganda of Uganda, and the Ngoni people of Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia, who trace their origins to the Zulu people of kwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. The term is also used by the Tutsi/Watusi and Hutu/Bahutu. Bantu style drums, especially the sukuti drums, are played by the Luhya people (also known as Avaluhya, Abaluhya or Luyia), a Bantu people of Kenya, being about 16% of Kenya's total population of 38.5 million, and in Uganda and Tanzania. They number about 6.1 million people. Abaluhya litungo. The Kikuyu are one of the largest and most urbanized communities in Kenya. At the Riuki cultural center in Nairobi traditional songs and dances are still performed by local women, including music for initiations, courting, weddings, hunting, and working. The Kikuyu, like their neighbours the Embu and the Meru are believed to have migrated from the Congo Basin. Meru people like the Chuka, who live near Mount Kenya, are known for polyrhythmic percussion music. The Buganda are a large southern Ugandan population with well-documented musical traditions. The akadinda, a xylophone, as well as several types of drum, is used in the courtly music of the Kabaka or king. Much of the music is based on playing interlocking ostinato phrases in parallel octaves. Other instruments; engelabi, ennanga or (inanga, a harp), entenga. Dance – baksimba. The music of Rwanda and Burundi is mainly that of the closely related Tutsi/Watusi and Hutu/Bahutu people. The Royal Drummers of Burundi perform music for ceremonies of birth, funeral and coronation of mwami (kings). Sacred drums (called karyenda) are made from hollowed tree trunks covered with animal skins. In addition to the central drum, Inkiranya, the Amashako drums provide a continuous beat and Ibishikiso drums follow the rhythm established by the Inkiranya. Dancers may carry ornamental spears and shields and lead the procession with their dance. Instrumentation; ikembe – inanga – iningiri – umuduri – ikondera – ihembe – urutaro. Dances: ikinimba – umushayayo – umuhamirizo – imparamba – inkaranka – igishakamba – ikinyemera Swahili culture: Styles gungu – kinanda – wedding music Dances chakacha – kumbwaya – vugo, Instrumentation kibangala – rika – taishokoto The ng'oma drumming of Gogo women of Tanzania and Mozambique, like that of the ngwayi dance of northeastern Zambia, uses "interlocking" or antiphonal rhythms that feature in many Eastern African instrumental styles such as the xylophone music of the Makonde dimbila, the Yao mangolongondo or the Shirima mangwilo, on which the opachera, the initial caller, is responded to by another player, the wakulela. The Chopi people of the coastal Inhambane Province are known for a unique kind of xylophone called mbila (pl: timbila) and the style of music played with it, which "is believed to be the most sophisticated method of composition yet found among preliterate peoples." Ensembles consist of around ten xylophones of four sizes and accompany ceremonial dances with long compositions called ngomi which consist of an overture and ten movements of different tempos and styles. The ensemble leader serves as poet, composer, conductor, and performer, creating a text, improvising a melody partially based on the features of the Chopi's tone language, and composing a second countrapuntal line. The musicians of the ensemble partially improvise their parts according to style, instrumental idiom, and the leader's indications. The composer then consults with the choreographer of the ceremony and adjustments are made. Chopi styles: timbala. Instruments: kalimba – mbila – timbila – valimba – xigovia – xipala-pala – xipendane – xitende – xizambe Chopi languages include Tonga. Tonga dance = mganda The Kamba people are known for their complex percussion music and spectacular performances, dances that display athletic skills resemble those of the Tutsi and the Embu. Dances are usually accompanied by songs composed for the occasion and sung on a pentatonic scale. The Akamba also have work songs. Their music is divided into several groups based on age: Kilumi is a dance for mainly elderly women and men performed at healing and rain-making ceremonies, Mbeni for young and acrobatic girls and boys, Mbalya or Ngutha is a dance for young people who meet to entertain themselves after the day's chores are done, Kyaa for the old men and women.Kiveve, Kinze etc. In the Kilumi dance the drummer, usually female, plays sitting on a large mwase drum covered with goatskin at one end and open at the other. The drummer is also the lead singer. Mwali (pl: Myali) is a dance accompanying a song usually made to criticize anti-social behaviour: Mwilu is a circumcision dance. The Gusii people use an enormous lute called the obokano and the ground bow, made by digging a large hole in the ground, over which an animal skin is pegged. A small hole is cut into the skin and a single string placed across the hole. The Mijikenda (literally "the nine tribes") are found on the coast of Tanzania, Kenya and Southern Somalia. They have a vibrant folk tradition perhaps due to less influence from Christian missionaries. Their music is mostly percussion-based and extremely complex. Taarab is a mixture of influences from Arabic, Indian and Mijikenda music found in the coastal regions of Kenya, Zanzibar, Pemba and the islands off East Africa. Yao people (East Africa) dance = beni (music) – likwata The Indian Ocean The Bajuni people live primarily in the Lamu islands and also in Mombasa and Kilifi. The Bajuni women's work song "Mashindano Ni Matezo" is very well known. Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, which include Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues are noted for the dance/music style sega. Mascarene also maloya music – maloya (ritual). Instrumentation kayamb – maravanne – ravanne – tambour. Madagascar also vakodrazana style, dance basese – salegy – sigaoma – tsapika – watsa watsa. Instrumentation jejy voatavo – kabosy – lokanga – marovany – sodina – valiha. Famadihana ritual, hiragasy theater. Seychellois dance contonbley. Southern Africa Bushmen Also Basarwa, Khoe, Khwe, San, !Kung. The Khoisan (also spelled Khoesaan, Khoesan or Khoe-San) is a unifying name for two ethnic groups of Southern Africa who share physical and putative linguistic characteristics distinct from the Bantu majority of the region, the foraging San and the pastoral Khoi. The San include the original inhabitants of Southern Africa before the southward Bantu migrations from Central and East Africa reached their region. Khoi pastoralists apparently arrived in Southern Africa shortly before the Bantu. Large Khoi-san populations remain in several arid areas in the region, notably in the Kalahari Desert. Styles= hocket The Southern Bantu languages include all of the important Bantu languages of South Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana, and several of southern Mozambique. They have several sub-groups; Nguni languages include Xhosa, Zulu and Northern Ndebele. Zulu music has contributed the Mbaqanga style to African popular music as well as the polyphonic vocal styles called mbube and isicathamiya. Also izihlabo – maskanda Instruments: guitar Other = ukubonga. Xhosa music made an international impression in the jazz world through Miriam Makeba and others, for example, Mike Oldfield's Amarok includes some Xhosa tunes and vocal lyrics. Instruments: uhadi. Ndbele Instrumentation: guitar Other: bira ceremony Tekela languages: Swati, Phuthi, Southern Ndebele. Sotho music style: mohabelo Sotho: Birwa, Northern Sotho (Pedi), Southern Sotho (Sotho), Lozi. Sotho–Tswana languages; Tswana, Tswapong, Kgalagadi. Shona music also Tsonga. Instruments: hosho – kalimba – matepe – mbira – ngoma drums – njari – panpipe Other: bira ceremony – kushaura-kutsinhira Shona languages include Shona proper, Dema, Kalanga, Manyika, Ndau, Nambya, Tawara, Tewe. Tswa–Ronga languages: Ronga, Tswa, Gwamba, Tsonga, Venda. The Ovambo people number roughly 1,500,000 and consist of a number of kindred groups that inhabit Ovamboland in northern Namibia, forming about half of that state's population, as well as the southernmost Angolan province. Shambo, a traditional dance music, blended Ovambo music previously popularised by folk guitarist Kwela, Kangwe Keenyala, Boetie Simon, Lexington and Meme Nanghili na Shima with a dominant guitar, rhythm guitar, percussion and a heavy "talking" bassline. The Herero, with about 240,000 members, mostly in Namibia, the remainder living in Botswana and Angola speak a similar language, as do the Himba people. Herero people oviritje, also known as konsert, has become popular in Namibia. The Damara are genetically Bantu but speak the "click" language of the bushmen. Ma/gaisa or Damara Punch is a popular dance music genre that derives from their traditional music. Pedi styles = harepa, Instrumentation = harepa Instruments Aburukuwa Atoke Brekete – used especially by the Gorovodu, a vodun order of the Anlo and Ewe people. Axatse – a rattle or idiophone. Fontomfrom – the royal talking drum of the Bono people. Kaganu – a narrow drum or membranophone. Kidi – a drum about two feet tall Kora (instrument) – a 21 string double harp-lute Kloboto Kpanlogo Prempensua – large thumb piano. Totodzi Seprewa – 6–10 stringed harp of the Akan and Fante peoples of south and central Ghana, used in an old genre of praise music. Sogo – the largest of the supporting drums used to play in AtsiãLobi xylophone. Goun kakagbo – hongan Calabash – A dried calabash bowl turned upside down and hit with the fist and fingers wearing rings. Used as accompaniment to melodic instruments Flutes Goonji/Gonjey/Goge – Traditional one stringed-fiddle played by a majority of other sahelian groups in West Africa. Gungon – Bass snare drum of the Lunsi ensemble. Of northern origin, it is played throughout Ghana by various groups, known by southern groups as brekete. Related to the Dunun drums of other West African peoples. Gyil – large resonant Xylophones, related to the Balafon. Mbira – small pentatonic thumb piano. Koloko – Varieties of Sahelian lute. Varieties include the one-stringed 'Kolgo/Koliko' of Gur-speaking groups, the two-stringed 'Molo' of the Zabarma and Fulani minorities, or the two-stringed 'Gurumi' of the Hausa. Lunna/Kalangu – Varieties of Hourglass-shaped Talking drums. Musical bow – known as 'Jinjeram' (in Gurunsi) or Jinjeli (in Mossi-Dagomba languages).'' Shekere Whistles Horns Lemba people Instrumentation: mbira Yombe people Instrumentation: panpipe Shangaan Instrument: guitar Venda Instruments: ngoma drums – panpipe Comorian msondo – ndzendze. Zaramo dance/instrument msondo – also ngoma. Lango okeme. Busoga panpipe African dances West Gerewol. Dan people masked dance. Yoruba gelede. Hausa asauwara Ewe dances: agbadza – Gadzo. Mande include the Mandinka, Maninka and Bamana Dances: bansango – didadi – dimba – sogominkum. Dagomba dance: takai – damba – jera – simpa – bamaya – tora – geena. São Tomé and Principe dance: danço-Congo – puíta – ússua. Cape Verde Dance = batuque – coladera – funaná – morna – tabanca. Kasena Dances: jongo – nagila – pe zara – war dance. Akan dances: adowa – osibisaba – sikyi. The Ashanti Nzema people dance: abissa – fanfare – grolo – sidder Southern Chewa people Dance = gule wa mkulu – nyau Lomwe dance = tchopa Luvale dance = manchancha Nyanja dance = chitsukulumwe – gule wa mkulu likhuba Tumbuka dance = vimbuza Kaondedance kachacha Henga dance = vimbuza Notes References Sub-Saharan African folk African traditional music Traditional music
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naga%20the%20Serpent
Naga the Serpent
is a fictional character in the light novel, anime, manga, radio drama and game versions of Hajime Kanzaka's media franchise Slayers, who was introduced in Dragon Magazine in 1990. She is also often known as Naga the White Serpent, which is a more literal translation from Japanese (白蛇JP, "white snake"), and an early English version by A.D. Vision had her name transliterated as "Nahga". The name she is best known by is in reality an alias of Princess Gracia Ul Naga Saillune (Japanese: グレイシア＝ウル＝ナーガ＝セイルーン Gureishia Uru Nāga Seirūn). The character has great magical powers and an unstable but resilient personality. She is particularly obsessed with a fellow wandering sorceress and the central character of Slayers, Lina Inverse. While occasionally referred to as Lina's sidekick and traveling partner, Naga's arrogance and self-imagined rivalry made her just as likely to antagonize Lina during the course of any story. Naga is a few years older than Lina and takes great pride in her much more voluptuous appearance, but like her she has numerous character flaws, often played for comedic purposes. She was well received by anime critics and general audience alike. Naga's Japanese voice actor is Maria Kawamura, and her English voice actresses are Kelly Manison in the OVAs and movies. In the anime series Slayers Evolution-R, Naga appears as a cameo character named Nama (ナーマ), voiced by Kawamura in Japanese and by Eva Kaminsky in English. Character Background Naga's real full name is Gracia Ul Naga Saillune, making her the first daughter of the Holy Kingdom of Saillune's crown prince Philionel El Di Saillune and the older sister of Amelia Wil Tesla Saillune. She has one living uncle, Christopher Wil Brogg Saillune, one deceased uncle, Randy Saillune, and a deceased cousin, Alfred Saillune. Her grandfather, Eldoran Saillune, is the king of Saillune, although Philionel acts as regent. Naga's mother was murdered several years earlier by the infamous assassin Booley. The teenage (16 or 17 years old at the time) Naga immediately took revenge and killed him with the crown princess' original spell, Chaos String. After the funeral, the traumatized Naga found the outfit she currently wears inside her mother's closet, and shortly after this, she left home to learn the ways of the world and gain more magic powers. Naga still keeps in touch with her homeland and occasionally she is sent living expenses money through a messenger. All this was disclosed only in interviews with the Slayers creator Hajime Kanzaka, but was hinted in Naga's "White Serpent" nickname (a white serpent being the coat of arms of Saillune). In Slayers NEXT, Zelgadis states that Seyruun has a "runaway princess," also implied to be Naga. Naga had originally planned to simply challenge to a duel and defeat the famed teenage sorceress Lina Inverse to inherit her supposed title of the "Invincible Dark Lord" (which Naga apparently invented herself). However, as the story progressed, her obsession with Lina has quickly become more complicated and in some ways even more irrational. Naga becomes associate with Lina, is traveling with her supposed archrival and aiding her in battle, yet also often turning against her whenever someone offers Naga enough gain from it. From her side, the cynical and neurotic Lina is often abusive towards Naga and in total disregard of her safety even when they work together (such as repeatedly blowing her away with explosive spells or using her as bait for the enemy), but Naga almost never gets seriously hurt and usually just laughs it off, rarely seen as a serious enemy even when they are fighting. On the other hand, both Naga and Lina also directly saved each other's lives on a number of occasions. Attributes The novels describe Naga as a remarkably beautiful young woman of about 18 or 19 years with a distinguished appearance, long hair (either dark-blue, violet or raven black), and intelligent blue eyes. Tall, very well-endowed, and flaunting her sexuality, Naga is in a striking contrast to the diminutive and insecure Lina. She takes pride in being physically intimidating, preferring a menacing and revealing black leather outfit, which is as a keepsake from her mother but Naga also personally enjoys to wear it (though the exaggerated size of her spiked spaulders is so unpractical that Naga has at times jabbed them in her own face when spellcasting). Naga's introduction in the novels describe it as an old-time 'evil sorceress' fashion style that, according to Lina, used to be popular centuries earlier. The large magic sword that she carries around is purely for a show, and can be only used defensively for blocking and parrying, due to Naga's hemophobia after witnessing the killing of her mother; in effect, she has a severe aversion to the sight of blood which can cause her to faint. To her dismay, Naga, who believes herself to be Lina's "greatest, strongest and final rival," is often referred to as Lina's sidekick or "that other girl." The usually dismissive Lina likes to compare Naga's irritating habit of following her around as akin to goldfish's trailing feces (in the words of Lina: "She might be a useless ally, but having her as an enemy can sure be amusing"). However, Naga also often makes her very annoyed (even to the point of rage), especially when Naga makes fun of her small breasts, playing on Lina's physical inferiority complex and her envy of Naga's bust size. Naga is much more graceful than Lina and has an outrageously loud boisterous 'noblewoman' (ojousama) laugh (which Kanzaka said is similar to the laughter of Naga's mother) that most people in the Slayers world find unbearably obnoxious (to the point of rendering them physically powerless). While a princess, Naga does not boast of that (her heritage is never mentioned in any series and has only been acknowledged in interviews and supplemental materials), however the way she acts makes it quite apparent: when she stands before other members of royalty, she speaks to them as equals, while Lina will bow her head and speak only when spoken to. Many of her very self-confident and 'dramatic' poses and speeches are similar to those of Amelia or Martina, another Slayers princess. Naga's inflated ego, her carefreeness and vanity, recurrent appetite for good food, considerable greed for money and magical treasure, frequent and excessive drinking of alcohol, and often-displayed overconfidence along with her notable lack of common sense (including a notorious tendency to have her careless and ill-considered spells to backfire), all mean she often gets herself, and Lina, into trouble. Abilities Despite Lina's mockery of Naga's magical skills, she is an exceptionally talented sorceress, and may, in fact, be Lina's greatest rival. She is well versed in black magic and capable of casting healing spells and golem-forming and dragon-conjuring spells. Naga is especially proficient at white magic, though she only uses it when absolutely necessary, and also specializes in shamanistic magic, in particular spells of earth and water and ice variety. She enjoys creating golems (even if they usually do not turn out very well and sometimes go berserk and turn against her), has developed several of her own spells (including Bogardic Elm, Freeze Rain, Gu Ru Dooga, Mega Vu Vraimer, Void Breath and Vu Raywa), and her most common spells to use are water/ice-based (such as Freeze Arrow) in contrast to Lina who uses fire-related ones. Naga knows and can use the ultimate shamanistic and white magic spells (Ra Tilt and Resurrection), is able to stop living-dead powered via necromancy with a powerful Flow Break spell, and has learnt Levitation by just observing its use by Lina. According to Kanzaka, Naga and Lina are the mightiest human magic users in the world of Slayers and Naga actually has a larger potential magical capacity, while Lina knows the ultimate black magic spells (notably the devastating Dragon Slave). One of Naga's roles is that she is "constantly reminding Lina that however great her magic, she is still lacking in this regard." She also has a strange ability to control jellyfish, and is surprisingly highly skilled at hand-to-hand combat (punching and kicking), as well as very talented artistically and good at cooking. Her swordsmanship is often the subject of question, as she carries around a large sword yet never uses it. Naga's uncanny potential to survive any peril practically unscathed was at first very surprising to Lina, who has actually left her for dead on a few occasions, before she got used to it and began to take it for granted. Appearances Novels and drama CDs Naga has first appeared in the 1991-2008 Slayers Special series of light novels, which was later (from volume 30 onward) re-titled as Slayers Smash (an ongoing series since 2008). Like in the case of other Slayers novels, most of the Special series stories were first published in Dragon Magazine. Some of them were first collected in the Slayers Delicious series and some are subtitled as "Slayers Excellent" or "Slayers Superior"; some were also later re-published in the series Slayers Select. The Special series, which axis are the joint adventures of Lina and Naga, serves as a prequel to the main series (starting about three years prior to the first meeting of Lina and Gourry Gabriev) and is less serious in its content. Naga is the main protagonist of Slayers Special 3: Nāga no Bouken ("Adventures of Naga") and is the titular subject of the 2012 bonus book Slayers Addition: Nāga Ijin-den ("Legend of Naga the Great"). An exclusive side-story of Lina and Naga, "Slayers Gaiden", was published in the issue #200 of Dragon Magazine in 2002. Hajime Kanzaka was originally going to make Naga appear in The Battle of Saillune (volume 4 of the main novel series) but had a trouble to implement this idea properly. This led him to create the character of Amelia. Kanzaka said Naga would not appear in the main series due to Amelia being there, but the two actually meet in Slayers VS Orphen, a novel and CD drama crossover of Slayers and Sorcerous Stabber Orphen, where the masked Naga appears incognito and keeps her identity secret to Amelia. Naga also appears in the first volume of Kadokawa Shoten Tsubasa-published alternative series of Slayers children's novels written by Nambo Hidehisa, where her outfit was redesigned to be a less skimpy (wearing a miniskirt instead of a thong) by the artist Yuji Himukai. When they first meet, Lina mistakes Naga for Gourry's mother due to their similar looks and guesses she is "about 40 years old." The 2006 audio drama Slayers Kita Kaette EX #4: Kita kaette Naga!? provides a closure to the entire Slayers saga, with the retired Lina and Naga, now elderly in their eighties (with almost all other characters already dead) and vacationing together. After Lina revives the choking Naga (who meets her mother in a near-death experience), the two recall their past but their versions do not match, leading Lina to challenge Naga to a final fight as to decide who is right. The battle ends in both of them trying to cast top-level black magic spells (Naga's Dynast Brass and Lina's Dragu Slave) but breaking their own hips in the process. Anime and manga Naga is co-protagonist of the first four Slayers films from the late 1990s: Slayers: The Motion Picture (Slayers Perfect), Slayers Return (and its manga adaptation), Slayers Great, and Slayers Gorgeous (the scripts for Return, Great and Gorgeous were also published in the book Slayers Original). She has the same role in all episodes of both of the Slayers OVA series, Slayers Special, and Naga-centered Slayers Excellent (the latter of which takes place before the events of the first Slayers film, 1995's Slayers Perfect, and in fact details Naga's initial meeting with Lina). A typical plot of a Lina and Naga anime story features them as mercenary companions-opponents (that relationship being very fluid) meeting weird strangers who then hire the two against each other for their own hidden purposes. Naga's frequent role in the anime is that of a comedic foil to Lina. According to Helen McCarthy, while the Slayers TV series has "remained essentially asexual," it was "the absence of TV restrictions" that allowed to "retain Naga from the [light novel] stories." Naga's Japanese voice actress Maria Kawamura said she had trouble breathing after recording sessions of Naga's laugh for the Slayers Special episode "The Scary Chimera Plan", which featured Naga's ten clones all laughing at once. Kawamura also provided an audio commentary for all the movies and OVAs in the 2015 Blu-ray release. In the manga, Naga appears through the early 2000s series Slayers Special. Some of the chapters are based on the novels and the OVA series and some are original stories. As described by Jason Thompson, "the two bickering heroines go on dungeon crawls, work as maids and waitresses, search for 'bosom growth potions,' and fight the occasional bad guy." Naga makes only a cameo appearances in the 2001 film, manga and CD drama Slayers Premium (as is the tradition with all of the anime movies and series published thus far, Naga does not actually meet or interact with any of the main characters other than Lina & Amelia) and in the 2008 manga The Hourglass of Falces. She also makes a possible cameo in the first season of the Slayers TV series (episode 17) and appears as Nama in the first six episodes of the fifth TV season, Slayers Evolution-R. Games Naga appears as a supporting player character through the entire official series of the Slayers role-playing video games from the 1990s: Slayers for the PC98, Slayers for the Super Famicon (SNES, in a dual role including as a boss during the first encounter), Slayers Royal, Slayers Royal 2, and Slayers Wonderful, at times interacting with some members of the main story party (often with Gourry). She and Lina are also featured as player characters in the 2008 game Magical Battle Arena. In 2016, Naga, Lina and Gourry were announced to make guest appearances in Granblue Fantasy. She also appeared with Lina in Valkyrie Anatomia in 2018, and with Lina and others in Puzzle & Dragons and LINE Rangers in 2019, later returning to Puzzle & Dragons as a special event boss in 2021. Her costume was furthermore featured in 2020 collab events in Tales of the Rays as worn by Natalia Luzu Kimlasca-Lanvaldear and by the succubus Albedo in Overlord: Mass for the Dead, and Naga herself joined Tales in 2023. In another collaboration event, she could be summoned in Elemental Story in 2023. The first setting book published for the Japanese tabletop role-playing game MAGIUS RPG was Slayers RPG: Together with Naga (スレイヤーズRPG―ナーガ様といっしょ) focused on Naga and her antics. In this fast-paced, gag-based comedic game released by Fujimi Shobo in 1995, the game master-controlled Naga has her own party of player characters; it later saw a release of the collection of illustrated transcripts of play sessions. She is also featured in several cards in the collectible card game Slayers Fight. Other appearances Kawamura's image songs for Naga were included in several Slayers soundtracks. Naga-themed single CD (KIDA-109) was released by King Records in 1995. A plushie of Naga was made by Banpresto in 1995, a PVC figure was released by MegaHouse in 2003, another pre-painted figure was released by Kadokawa as a tie-in for Return, and a small keychain figure of Naga was made by Toei in 1997. A 1/6 scale garage kit Naga figure sculpted by Kitahara Kousuke was released by Volks in 2012; a tiny figure called "Naga's golem" was also sold by Volks separately in a limited offer and is now available together with the main statuette. A Nendoroid figure was released in 2019, and a Naga perfume was offered in Nakano Broadway's Fairy Tail store in 2023. Derived characters Nama Either Naga or one of her clones makes an extended cameo appearance in the 2009 Slayers TV series Slayers Evolution-R as an animated suit of armor calling herself Nama, who bears a striking resemblance to Naga in both mannerisms (including her laugh) and spellcasting preferences. Nama was a treasure hunter, of whom only her shadow is actually shown and who has lost a majority of her memories when her soul got enchanted into the living armor. While it is never directly shown or confirmed to the audience or the characters that she is Naga, Nama is perfectly able to perform the Pacifist Crush move along with Amelia, something only a daughter of Prince Phil would know how to do, and Xellos makes a comment that the name Nama is very close to her actual name, implying that he knows her true identity. During the course of the series, Xellos makes Nama's spirit return to her original body by destroying the urn that has caused the curse. Naga copies After the events of Slayers Special, there are ten clones of Naga due to her participation in a chimera experiment of the wizard Diol. The copies are just like Naga (complete with the attire and the infamous laugh), except that they do not possess any of her memories and magical abilities. They also show up in the Slayers video games Slayers Royal and Slayers Wonderful, the latter of which includes the copies #5 and #9 among playable characters in one part of the story. Following the use of the Shadow Reflector by the sorcerer Lagen in the Slayers Special story "Mirror, Mirror", there is also a copy of Naga called Shadow Naga that does have her skills, but has a completely opposite personality (a shy, meek and extremely modest girl). Kanzaka said that Shadow Lina and Shadow Naga will both just live a quiet and peaceful life. Reception and cultural impact Naga the Serpent was originally planned to be featured only in one Slayers story ("Naga's Challenge"), but a very positive response from readers turned her into the franchise's major recurring character. In 2000, she won the "Best of Dragon Magazine" popular vote in two categories, including first place for the best supporting role in the magazine's history. Writing in 1999, Dave Halverson called Lina and Naga "two of anime [medium]'s brightest stars in both Japan and the U.S." as well as "perhaps the best character designs in the anime universe." Naga has continued to be a major factor for the enduring popularity of Slayers in Japan. Both Maria Kawamura's original Japanese voice of Naga and the English dubbing by Kelly Manison were acclaimed by anime critics, with Halverson calling Manison and Cynthia Martinez (as Lina) the best voice acting duo he has heard in 1998. Kawamura's portrayal of Naga, including her notorious cackling laughter, is considered her most famous role. Naga is well known classic representative of manga and anime tendency for having an openly seductive enemy or rival for a virginal female protagonist. She was described as "walking fanservice" by Citlin Donovan from The Mary Sue and as "a definite favourite for almost all of male part of the audience" by Polish magazine Kawaii. Helen McCarthy wrote in 2006, "Naga and her breasts have become three very popular characters in the series, and long-term fans of the series wait eagerly to see how the writers can explain not only her disappearance between the end of Special and the beginning of the original series, but also why she is never even mentioned after the events of the videos." In 2006, Chris Beveridge of Mania.com listed the absence of Naga in the Slayers TV series as one of the ten reasons it "will always suck," stating that "besides her wonderful costume that brings about a lot of great eye-candy when it comes to cosplayers, she typified the kind of 'anime laugh' that only a precious few have. She was also the perfect foil when it came to dealing with Lina, something that the TV series never had." Crunchyroll's Nate Ming noted Naga for her "incredibly dominant, overbearing presence," and Krzysztof Wojdyło of Polish magazine Otaku placed her first of his 2012 ranking of top ten buxom characters in all manga and anime, noting that how despite her "rather dark past hidden under her constant smile and somewhat psychotic behavior," she has still remained "probably the most fun and memorable character" on that list. That same year, Anime News Network's Lynzee Loveridge also included Naga's outfit among the most impractical fighting regalia for her spaulders. In 2013, Wirtualna Polska ranked Naga's bust as the ninth most beautiful pair of breasts in pop culture. The 2001 first edition cover of American role-playing game Ironclaw shows Lina and Naga in cameo role. The protagonists of the 2002 anime miniseries Cosplay Complex, Chako and Reika, dress up as Naga and Lina respectively in the third episode. Lina and Naga also made a cameo appearance in French comic book series Les Légendaires Origines in 2014. Notes References Animated human characters Anime and manga characters who use magic Anime and manga sidekicks Fantasy film characters Fantasy television characters Female characters in anime and manga Female soldier and warrior characters in anime and manga Fictional alcohol abusers Fictional armour Fictional characters who can manipulate light Fictional characters with air or wind abilities Fictional characters with anti-magic or power negation abilities Fictional characters with earth or stone abilities Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities Fictional characters with healing abilities Fictional characters with ice or cold abilities Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Fictional characters with water abilities Fictional female swordfighters Fictional princesses Fictional shamans Fictional swordfighters in anime and manga Fictional witches Literary characters introduced in 1990 Slayers characters Teenage characters in anime and manga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20intermarriage
Royal intermarriage
Royal intermarriage (also known as inbreeding) is the practice of members of ruling dynasties marrying into other reigning families. It was more commonly done in the past as part of strategic diplomacy for national interest. Although sometimes enforced by legal requirement on persons of royal birth, more often it has been a matter of political policy or tradition in monarchies. In Europe, the practice was most prevalent from the medieval era until the outbreak of World War I, but evidence of intermarriage between royal dynasties in other parts of the world can be found as far back as the Late Bronze Age. Monarchs were often in pursuit of national and international aggrandisement on behalf of themselves and their dynasties, thus bonds of kinship tended to promote or restrain aggression. Marriage between dynasties could serve to initiate, reinforce or guarantee peace between nations. Alternatively, kinship by marriage could secure an alliance between two dynasties which sought to reduce the sense of threat from or to initiate aggression against the realm of a third dynasty. It could also enhance the prospect of territorial acquisition for a dynasty by procuring legal claim to a foreign throne, or portions of its realm (e.g., colonies), through inheritance from an heiress whenever a monarch failed to leave an undisputed male heir. In parts of Europe, royalty continued to regularly marry into the families of their greatest vassals as late as the 16th century. More recently, they have tended to marry internationally. In other parts of the world royal intermarriage was less prevalent and the number of instances varied over time, depending on the culture and foreign policy of the era. By continent/country While the contemporary Western ideal sees marriage as a unique bond between two people who are in love, families in which heredity is central to power or inheritance (such as royal families) have often seen marriage in a different light. There are often political or other non-romantic functions that must be served and the relative wealth and power of the potential spouses may be considered. Marriage for political, economic, or diplomatic reasons, the marriage of state, was a pattern seen for centuries among European rulers. Africa At times, marriage between members of the same dynasty has been common in Central Africa. In West Africa, the sons and daughters of Yoruba kings were traditionally given in marriage to their fellow royals as a matter of dynastic policy. Sometimes these marriages would involve members of other tribes. Erinwinde of Benin, for example, was taken as a wife by the Oba Oranyan of Oyo during his time as governor of Benin. Their son Eweka went on to found the dynasty that rules the Kingdom of Benin. Marriages between the Swazi, Zulu and Thembu royal houses of southern Africa are common. For example, the daughter of South African president and Thembu royal Nelson Mandela, Zenani Mandela, married Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini, a brother of Mswati III, King of Eswatini. Elsewhere in the region, Princess Semane Khama of the Bamangwato tribe of Botswana married Kgosi Lebone Edward Molotlegi of the Bafokeng tribe of South Africa. Other examples of historical, mythical and contemporary royal intermarriages throughout Africa include: Princess Mantfombi Dlamini, sister of Mswati III of Eswatini, and Goodwill Zwelithini, King of the Zulus, as his chief queen consort Maxhob'ayakhawuleza Sandile, King of Rharhabe Xhosas, and Noloyiso Sandile, the daughter of King Cyprian Bhekuzulu of the Zulus. The Toucouleur emperor Umar Tall and Princess Maryem, the daughter of Sultan Muhammed Bello of Sokoto Chief Nfundu Bolulengwe Mtirara of the Thembu people, a great-nephew of Nelson Mandela, and Princess Nandi of Zululand, a granddaughter of King Goodwill Zwelithini. Fadlallah, son of Shehu Rabih az-Zubayr of Borno, and Khadija, a daughter of Sheik Mohammed al-Mahdi al-Sanusi of the Senoussi people. Princess Owawejokun, a daughter of the Owa Atakumosa of Ijeshaland, and Ogoro, the Ajapada of Akure. Oranyan, the Alaafin of Oyo, and Torosi, a princess of the Nupe people. Ancient Egypt Several Egyptian pharaohs married the daughters of neighbouring kings to secure peace and form alliances. The Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty, the earliest known surviving peace treaty in the world, was sealed by a marriage between the pharaoh Ramesses II and a Hittite princess. Pharaoh Amasis II married a Greek princess named Ladice daughter of King Battus III of Cyrene. Pharaoh Amenhotep III alone is known to have married several foreign women: Gilukhepa, the daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni, in the tenth year of his reign. Tadukhepa, the daughter of his ally Tushratta of Mitanni, Around Year 36 of his reign. A daughter of Kurigalzu, king of Babylon. A daughter of Kadashman-Enlil, king of Babylon. A daughter of Tarhundaradu, ruler of Arzawa. A daughter of the ruler of Ammia (in modern Syria). Asia Babylonia and Assyria There are a few recorded cases of intermarriage between Assyrian and Babylonian royals. According to legend, the Babylonian Semiramis was married to the Assyrian general Onnes and then to the Assyrian king Ninus, the legendary founder of Nineveh according to the Ancient Greeks. She has been equated with the historical Shammuramat, wife of Shamshi-Adad V. In turn, Shammuramat has been claimed to be of Babylonian descent. In the early 9th century BC, the Babylonian king Nabu-shuma-ukin I (Dynasty of E) exchanged daughters in marriage with the contemporary Assyrian monarch. The Assyrian princess Muballitat-Sherua, daughter of Ashur-uballit I, was given in marriage to the contemporary Babylonian monarch. She was the mother of the future Babylonian king Kara-hardash. Additionally, Kurigalzu II was either the son or grandson of Muballitat. Other consorts of Assyrian monarchs, such as Naqiʾa, Ešarra-ḫammat, Banitu (who was perhaps brought to Assyria as a hostage after Tiglath-Pileser's conquest of Babylon) might also have been of Babylonian origin. Babylon and Elam Babylonians and Elamites engaged many times in royal intermarriage, especially in the Kassite period. It is probable that Elamites and Kassites had close ties long before the first attested royal intermarriages between them. Babylonian Kassites and Elamites intensively intermarried for a period of about 120 years, from c. 1290 to 1170 BC. The royal intermarriages in this period were: Pahir-ishshan to eldest daughter (princess) of Kurigalzu II (1290); Untash-Napirisha to daughter of prince Burnaburiash (1250); Kidin-Hutran to daughter of prince [...]-duniash (1230); Shutruk-Nakhunte to the eldest daughter of Melishihu. Also Napirisha-Untash (c. 1210 BC) and Hutelutush-Inshushinak (c. 1190) are thought to have married Babylonian Kassite princesses. A man of Elamite origin, Mar-biti-apla-usur, the founder of the so-called Elamite dynasty, reigned in Babylon from around 980 to 975 BC, though the identity and origin of his consort are unknown. He might not have been himself from Elam but a Babylonian partially of Elamite origin. Thailand The Chakri dynasty of Thailand has included marriages between royal relatives, but marriages between dynasties and foreigners, including foreign royals, are rare. This is in part due to Section 11 of 1924 Palace Law of Succession which excludes members of the royal family from the line of succession if they marry a non-Thai national. The late king Bhumibol Adulyadej was a first-cousin once removed of his wife, Sirikit, the two being, respectively, a grandson and a great-granddaughter of Chulalongkorn. Chulalongkorn married a number of his half-sisters, including Savang Vadhana and Sunandha Kumariratana; all shared the same father, Mongkut. He also married Dara Rasmi, a princess of a vassal state. Vietnam The Lý dynasty which ruled Dai Viet (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý empress regnant (Lý Chiêu Hoàng) and a member of fishermen-turned-warlords Trần clan (Trần Thái Tông) from Nam Định, which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own Trần dynasty. A Lý princess also married into the Hồ clan faction, which later usurped power and established the Hồ dynasty after having a Tran princess marry their leader, Hồ Quý Ly. Cambodia The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618. In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh City. India In the Chola dynasty in southern India, Madhurantaki the daughter of Emperor Rajendra II married Kulottunga I the son the son of Eastern Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra. This was to improve the relationship between the two royal houses and to straighten Chola influence in Vengai. Kulottunga and Madhurantaki were first cousins as Kulottunga's mother Amangai Devi was the sister of Rajendra II making them both the grandchildren of Emperor Rajendra I. China Marriage policy in imperial China differed from dynasty to dynasty. Several dynasties practiced Heqin, which involved marrying off princesses to other royal families. The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu general Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese general Li Ling after he surrendered and defected. The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han Chinese general who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu. The Xianbei Tuoba royal family of Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s. Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 劉輝, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei, Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南陽長公主 to Xiao Baoyin 蕭寶夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty. Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong. Northern Liang King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong. The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei. The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese Qu family which originated from Gansu. Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia. The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya. Tang dynasty (618–907) emperors exchanged and the rulers of the Uyghur Khaganate exchanged princesses in marriage to consolidate the special trade and military relationship that developed after the Khaganate supported the Chinese during the An Lushan Rebellion. The Uyghur Khaganate exchanged princesses in marriage with Tang dynasty China in 756 to seal the alliance against An Lushan. The Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur Khan had his daughter Uyghur Princess Pijia (毗伽公主) married to Tang dynasty Chinese Prince Li Chengcai (李承采), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin, while the Tang dynasty Chinese princess Ninguo married Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur. At least three Tang imperial princesses are known to have married khagans between 758 and 821. These unions temporarily stopped in 788, which is believed in part to be because stability within the Chinese empire meant that they were politically unnecessary; however, threats from Tibet in the west, and a renewed need for Uyghur support, precipitated the marriage of Princess Taihe to Bilge Khagan. The ethnically Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916. The Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu. The Khitan Liao dynasty arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao. Han Chinese Geng family intermarried with the Khitan and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin. Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi. Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning. His wife was also known as "Madame Han". The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying. Emperors of the proceeding Song dynasty (960–1279) tended to marry from within their own borders. Tang emperors, mainly took their wives from high-ranking bureaucratic families, but the Song dynasty did not consider rank important when it came to selecting their consorts. It has been estimated that only a quarter of Song consorts were from such families, with the rest being from lower status backgrounds. For example, Liu, consort of Emperor Zhenzong, had been a street performer and consort Miao, wife of Emperor Renzong was the daughter of his own wet nurse. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), emperors chose their consorts primarily from one of the eight Banner families, administrative divisions that divide all native Manchu families. To maintain the ethnic purity of the ruling dynasty, after the Kangxi Period (1662–1722), emperors and princes were forbidden to marry non-Manchu and non-Mongol wives. Imperial daughters however were not covered by this ban, and as with their preceding dynasties, were often married to Mongol princes to gain political or military support, especially in the early years of the Qing dynasty; three of the nine daughters of Emperor Nurhaci and twelve of Emperor Hongtaiji's daughters were married to Mongol princes. The Manchu imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Han Chinese Ming generals and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to Han Chinese generals who defected to the Manchu side during the Manchu conquest of China. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming general Li Yongfang (李永芳) after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 (Prince Keqin) and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups. Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese generals Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克, Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei). Nurhaci's son Abatai's daughter was married to Li Yongfang. The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" () title. Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao 李侍堯. The "efu" 額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses. Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and married Aisin Gioro women, with Prince Abatai's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong. A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 (Prince An) was wedded to Geng Juzhong 耿聚忠 who was another son of Geng Jingmao. The fourteenth daughter of Kangxi (和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to Sun Chengen, the son (孫承恩) of Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克, a Han bannerman. Korea The Silla Kingdom had a practice that limited the succession to the throne to members of the seonggol, or "sacred bone", rank. To maintain their "sacred bone" rank, members of this caste often intermarried with one another in the same fashion that European royals intermarried to maintain a "pure" royal pedigree. The Goryeo dynasty had a history of incestuous marriage within the royal family in its early years, starting from Gwangjong, the fourth king, who married his half-sister Queen Daemok. To avoid scandals, the female members of the dynasty would be ceremonially adopted by their maternal families after birth. This practice of dynastic incest ended with the overthrow of Queen Heonae, the mother of Mokjong, the seventh king, after she attempted to seize the throne for herself and her illegitimate sons by placing these sons as Mokjong's heir, only to be foiled by a coup masterminded by the Goryeo general Gang Jo. After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon. In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順). She was a collateral branch of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤). Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan. Japan The Japanese may not have seen intermarriage between them and the royal dynasties of the Korean Empire damaging to their prestige either. According to the Shoku Nihongi, an imperially commissioned record of Japanese history completed in 797, Emperor Kanmu who ruled from 781 to 806 was the son of a Korean concubine, Takano no Niigasa, who was descended from King Muryeong of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. In 1920, Crown Prince Yi Un of Korea married Princess Masako of Nashimoto and, in May 1931, Yi Geon, grandson of Gojong of Korea, was married to Matsudaira Yosiko, a cousin of Princess Masako. The Japanese saw these marriages as a way to secure their colonial rule of Korea and introduce Japanese blood in to the Korean royal House of Yi. Europe Medieval and Early Modern Europe Careful selection of a spouse was important to maintain the royal status of a family: depending on the law of the land in question, if a prince or king was to marry a commoner who had no royal blood, even if the first-born was acknowledged as a son of a sovereign, he might not be able to claim any of the royal status of his father. Traditionally, many factors were important in arranging royal marriages. One such factor was the amount of territory that the other royal family governed or controlled. Another, related factor was the stability of the control exerted over that territory: when there was territorial instability in a royal family, other royalty would be less inclined to marry into that family. Another factor was political alliance: marriage was an important way to bind together royal families and their countries during peace and war and could justify many important political decisions. The increase in royal intermarriage often meant that lands passed into the hands of foreign houses, when the nearest heir was the son of a native dynasty and a foreign royal. Given the success of the Habsburgs' territorial acquisition-via-inheritance, a motto came to be associated with their dynasty: Bella gerant alii, tu, felix Austria, nube! ("Let others wage war. You, happy Austria, marry!") Monarchs sometimes went to great lengths to prevent this. On her marriage to Louis XIV of France, Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain, was forced to renounce her claim to the Spanish throne. When monarchs or heirs apparent wed other monarchs or heirs, special agreements, sometimes in the form of treaties, were negotiated to determine inheritance rights. The marriage contract of Philip II of Spain and Mary I of England, for example, stipulated that the maternal possessions, as well as Burgundy and the Low Countries, were to pass to any future children of the couple, whereas the remaining paternal possessions (including Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan) would first of all go to Philip's son Don Carlos, from his previous marriage to Maria Manuela of Portugal. If Carlos were to die without any descendants, only then would they pass to the children of his second marriage. On the other hand, the Franco-Scottish treaty that arranged the 1558 marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots and Francis, the son and heir of Henry II of France, had it that if the queen died without descendants, Kingdom of Scotland would fall to the throne of Kingdom of France. Religion has always been closely tied to European political affairs, and as such it played an important role during marriage negotiations. The 1572 wedding in Paris of the French princess Margaret of Valois to the leader of France's Huguenots, Henry III of Navarre, was ostensibly arranged to effect a rapprochement between the nation's Catholics and Protestants, but proved a ruse for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. After the English Reformation, matches between English monarchs and Roman Catholic princesses were often unpopular, especially so when the prospective queen consort was unwilling to convert, or at least practice her faith discreetly. Passage of the Act of Settlement 1701 disinherited any heir to the throne who married a Catholic. Other ruling houses, such as the Romanovs and Habsburgs, have at times also insisted on dynastic marriages only being contracted with people of a certain faith or those willing to convert. When in 1926 Astrid of Sweden married Leopold III of Belgium, it was agreed that her children would be raised as Catholics but she was not required to give up Lutheranism, although she chose to convert in 1930. Some potential matches were abandoned due to irreconcilable religious differences. For example, plans for the marriage of the Catholic Władysław IV Vasa and the Lutheran Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine proved unpopular with Poland's largely Catholic nobility and were quietly dropped. Marriages among ruling dynasties and their subjects have at times been common, with such alliances as that of Edward the Confessor, King of England with Edith of Wessex and Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland with Elizabeth Granowska being far from unheard of in medieval Europe. However, as dynasties approached absolutism and sought to preserve loyalty among competing members of the nobility, most eventually distanced themselves from kinship ties to local nobles by marrying abroad. Marriages with subjects brought the king back down to the level of those he ruled, often stimulating the ambition of his consort's family and evoking jealousy—or disdain—from the nobility. The notion that monarchs should marry into the dynasties of other monarchs to end or prevent war was, at first, a policy driven by pragmatism. During the era of absolutism, this practice contributed to the notion that it was socially, as well as politically, disadvantageous for members of ruling families to intermarry with their subjects and pass over the opportunity for marriage into a foreign dynasty. Ancient Rome While Roman emperors almost always married wives who were also Roman citizens, the ruling families of the empire's client kingdoms in the Near East and North Africa often contracted marriages with other royal houses to consolidate their position. These marriages were often contracted with the approval, or even at the behest, of the Roman emperors themselves. Rome thought that such marriages promoted stability among their client states and prevented petty local wars that would disturb the Pax Romana. Glaphyra of Cappadocia was known to have contracted three such royal intermarriages: with Juba II&I, King of Numidia and Mauretania, Alexander of Judea and Herod Archelaus, Ethnarch of Samaria. Other examples from the Ancient Roman era include: Polemon II, King of Pontus and Berenice of Judea. Polemon later married Julia Mamaea of Emesa, while Berenice was previously married to Herod of Chalcis. Aristobulus IV of Judea and Berenice of Judea Aristobulus Minor of Judea and Iotapa of Emesa Gaius Julius Alexander and Julia Iotapa Sohaemus of Emesa and Drusilla Tiberius Julius Aspurgus and Gepaepyris Cotys III and Antonia Tryphaena Tiberius Julius Aspurgus and Gepaepyris Herod Antipas and Phasaelis of Nabatea Iotapa and Sampsiceramus II of Emesa Byzantine Empire Though some emperors, such as Justin I and Justinian I, took low-born wives, dynastic intermarriages in imperial families were not unusual in the Byzantine Empire. Following the fall of Constantinople in 1204, the ruling families, the Laskarides and then the Palaiologoi, thought it prudent to marry into foreign dynasties. One early example is the marriage of John Doukas Vatatzes with Constance, the daughter of Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire, to seal their alliance. After establishing an alliance with the Mongols in 1263, Michael VIII Palaiologos married two of his daughters to Mongol khans to cement their agreement: his daughter Euphrosyne Palaiologina was married to Nogai Khan of the Golden Horde, and his daughter Maria Palaiologina, was married to Abaqa Khan of the Ilkhanate. Later in the century, Andronikos II Palaiologos agreed to marital alliances with Ghazan of the Ilkhanate and Toqta and Uzbeg of the Golden Horde, which were quickly followed by their marriages to his daughters. The Grand Komnenoi of the Empire of Trebizond were famed for marrying their daughters to their neighbours as acts of diplomacy. Theodora Megale Komnene, daughter of John IV, was married to Uzun Hassan, lord of the Aq Qoyunlu, to seal an alliance between the Empire and the so-called White Sheep. Although the alliance failed to save Trebizond from its eventual defeat, and despite being a devout Christian in a Muslim state, Theodora did manage to exercise a pervasive influence both in the domestic and foreign actions of her husband. Their grandson Ismail I was the founder of the Safavid dynasty of Iran Though usually made to strengthen the position of the empire, there are examples of interdynastic marriages destabilising the emperor's authority. When Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos married his second wife, Eirene of Montferrat, in 1284 she caused a division in the Empire over her demand that her own sons share in imperial territory with, Michael, his son from his first marriage. She resorted to leaving Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and setting up her own court in the second city of the Empire, Thessalonica. Post World War I era In modern times, among European royalty at least, marriages between royal dynasties have become much rarer than they once were. This happens to avoid inbreeding, since many royal families share common ancestors, and therefore share much of the genetic pool. Members of Europe's dynasties increasingly married members of titled noble families, including George VI of the United Kingdom, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood, Prince Michael of Kent, Charles III of the United Kingdom, Baudouin of Belgium, Albert II of Belgium, Prince Amedeo of Belgium, Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein, Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein, Prince Constantin of Liechtenstein, Princess Nora of Liechtenstein (the Liechtensteins, originally an Austrian noble family, always married nobles much more often than royals), Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden, Princess Désirée, Baroness Silfverschiöld, Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz, Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo, Princess Marie Adelaide of Luxembourg, Princess Marie Gabrielle of Luxembourg, Guillaume, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois or untitled nobility as Philippe of Belgium and Beatrix of the Netherlands, and very often commoners, as Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden, Harald V of Norway, Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway, Henri of Luxembourg, Felipe VI of Spain, Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, Margrethe II of Denmark, Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark, William, Prince of Wales and Albert II of Monaco have done. Among Europe's current kings, queens and heirs apparent, only Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein married a member of a foreign dynasty, as did the abdicated Juan Carlos I of Spain. Members of two reigning houses Examples of royal intermarriage since 1918 include: Prince Nikolaus of Liechtenstein and Princess Margaretha of Luxembourg (1982, most recent example of intermarriage between two European dynasties reigning at the time of the wedding, ) Constantine II of Greece and Princess Anne-Marie of Denmark (1964) Hereditary Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg and Princess Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium (1953) Princess Elizabeth of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark (1947) Peter II of Yugoslavia and Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark (1944) Prince Aimone, Duke of Spoleto and Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark (1939) Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark and Princess Ingrid of Sweden (1935) Prince George, Duke of Kent and Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (1934) Boris III of Bulgaria and Princess Giovanna of Italy (1930) Umberto, Prince of Piedmont and Princess Marie José of Belgium (1930) Crown Prince Olav of Norway and Princess Märtha of Sweden (1929) Prince Leopold, Duke of Brabant and Princess Astrid of Sweden (1926) Prince Paul of Yugoslavia and Princess Olga of Greece and Denmark (1923) Alexander I of Yugoslavia and Princess Maria of Romania (1922) Crown Prince Carol of Romania and Princess Helen of Greece and Denmark (1921) Crown Prince George of Greece and Princess Elisabeth of Romania (1921) Prince Axel of Denmark and Princess Margaretha of Sweden (1919) Members of one reigning house and one non-reigning house Examples since 1918 include: Princess Caroline of Monaco and Ernst August, Prince of Hanover (1999) Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein and Duchess Sophie in Bavaria (1993) Prince Gundakar of Liechtenstein and Princess Marie of Orléans (1989) Princess Astrid of Belgium and Archduke Lorenz of Austria-Este (1984) Princess Marie-Astrid of Luxembourg and Archduke Carl Christian of Austria (1982) Princess Barbara of Liechtenstein and Prince Alexander of Yugoslavia (1973) Princess Benedikte of Denmark and Richard, Hereditary Prince of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg (1968) Princess Irene of the Netherlands and Prince Carlos Hugo of Parma (1964) Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark and Juan Carlos, Prince of Asturias (1962) Princess Birgitta of Sweden and Prince Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1961) Prince Alexander of Liechtenstein and Princess Josephine of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg (1961) Princess Alix of Luxembourg and Prince Antoine de Ligne (1950) Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein and Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria (1949) Prince Karl Alfred of Liechtenstein and Archduchess Agnes Christina of Austria (1949) Princess Eugénie of Greece and Denmark and Raimundo, 2nd Duke of Castel Duino (1949) Prince Georg Hartmann of Liechtenstein and Duchess Maria Christina of Württemberg (1948) Princess Sophie of Greece and Denmark and Prince George William of Hanover (1946) Prince Hans-Moritz of Liechtenstein and Princess Clotilde of Thurn and Taxis (1944) Princess Maria Francesca of Savoy and Prince Luigi of Bourbon-Parma (1939) Prince Eugenio, Duke of Ancona and Princess Lucia of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1938) Princess Eugénie of Greece and Denmark and Prince Dominik Rainer Radziwiłł (1938) Crown Prince Paul of Greece and Princess Frederica of Hanover (1938) Princess Feodora of Denmark and Prince Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe (1937) Princess Alexandrine-Louise of Denmark and Count Luitpold of Castell-Castell (1937) Princess Juliana of the Netherlands and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld (1936) Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten and Princess Sibylla of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1932) Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark and Berthold, Margrave of Baden (1931) Princess Ileana of Romania and Archduke Anton of Austria (1931) Princess Margarita of Greece and Denmark and Gottfried, Hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (1931) Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark and Georg Donatus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Hesse (1931) Princess Sophie of Greece and Denmark and Prince Christoph of Hesse (1930) Princess Hilda of Luxembourg and Prince Adolph of Schwarzenberg (1930) Prince Christopher of Greece and Denmark and Princess Françoise of Orléans (1929) Prince Filiberto, Duke of Pistoia and Princess Lydia of Arenberg (1928) Prince Amedeo, Duke of Apulia and Princess Anne of Orléans (1927) Princess Mafalda of Savoy and Prince Philipp of Hesse (1925) Princess Nadezhda of Bulgaria and Duke Albrecht Eugen of Württemberg (1924) Princess Elisabeth of Luxembourg and Prince Ludwig Philipp of Thurn and Taxis (1922) Princess Margaret of Denmark and Prince René of Bourbon-Parma (1921) Princess Sophie of Luxembourg and Prince Ernst Heinrich of Saxony (1921) Princess Antonia of Luxembourg and Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria (1921) Prince Karl Aloys of Liechtenstein and Princess Elisabeth of Urach (1921) Princess Maria Bona of Savoy-Genoa and Prince Konrad of Bavaria (1921) Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg and Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma (1919) Modern examples of dynastic intra-marriage Examples since 1918 include: Prince Knud of Denmark and Princess Caroline-Mathilde of Denmark (1933) Marriages between members of non-reigning houses Examples since 1918 include: Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia and Princess Sophie of Isenburg (2011) Prince David Bagration of Mukhrani and Princess Ana Bagration-Gruzinsky (2009) Prince Aimone, Duke of Apulia and Princess Olga of Greece (2008) Princess Anna of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and Prince Manuel of Bavaria (2005) Princess Maria Pia of Savoy and Prince Michel of Bourbon-Parma (2003) Alexander, Count of Schönburg-Glauchau and Princess Irina of Hesse (1999) Archduke Georg of Austria and Duchess Eilika of Oldenburg (1997) Archduke Simeon of Austria and Princess María of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1996) Stephan, Hereditary Prince of Lippe and Countess Maria of Solms-Laubach (1994) Archduchess Sophie of Austria and Mariano Hugo, Prince of Windisch-Graetz (1990) Prince Alexander of Saxe-Gessaphe and Princess Gisela of Bavaria (1987) Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen and Princess Margarita of Hohenlohe-Oehringen (1984) Christoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein and Princess Elisabeth of Lippe-Weissenfeld (1981) Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover and Countess Monika zu Solms-Laubach (1981) Prince Michel of Ligne and Princess Eleonora of Orléans-Braganza (1981) Johannes, Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis and Countess Gloria von Schönburg-Glauchau (1980) Prince Charles Napoléon and Princess Béatrice of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1978) Heinrich, Hereditary Prince of Fürstenberg and Princess Maximiliane of Windisch-Graetz (1976) Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia and Prince Franz Wilhelm of Prussia (1976) Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia and Princess Maria da Glória of Orléans-Braganza (1972) Prince Johannes Heinrich of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Princess Mathilde of Saxony (1968) Wolfgang-Ernst, Hereditary Prince of Ysenburg and Büdingen and Princess Leonille of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg (1967) Maximilian, Margrave of Baden and Archduchess Valerie of Austria-Tuscany (1966) Duke Friedrich August of Oldenburg and Princess Marie Cécile of Prussia (1965) Alois-Konstantin, Hereditary Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg and Princess Anastasia of Prussia (1965) Prince Carlos, Duke of Calabria and Princess Anne of Orléans (1965) Duke Carl Gregor of Mecklenburg and Princess Maria Margarethe of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1965) Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta and Princess Claude of Orléans (1964) Prince Moritz of Hesse and Princess Tatiana of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg (1964) Prince Andrew of Yugoslavia and Princess Kira Melita of Leiningem (1963) Prince Friedrich Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe and Princess Marie Louise of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1962) Prince Maria Emanuel of Saxony and Princess Anastasia of Anhalt (1962) Princess Alexandra of Ysenburg and Büdingen and Prince Welf Henry of Hanover (1960) Duke Carl of Württemberg and Princess Diane of Orléans (1960) Henri, Count of Clermont and Duchess Marie-Thérèse of Württemberg (1957) Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia and Princess Margarita of Baden (1957) Princess Marie Louise of Bulgaria and Prince Karl of Leiningen (1957) Archduke Joseph Árpád of Austria and Princess Maria of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg (1956) Prince Andrew of Yugoslavia and Princess Christina of Hesse (1956) George, Duke of Mecklenburg and Archduchess Charlotte of Austria (1956) Prince Alfonso of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Princess Virginia von Fürstenberg (1955) Princess Diana of Bourbon-Parma and Prince Franz Josef of Hohenzollern (1955) Princess Maria Pia of Savoy and Prince Alexander of Yugoslavia (1955) Duke Christian Louis of Mecklenburg and Princess Barbara of Prussia (1954) Heinrich IV, Prince Reuss of Köstritz and Princess Marie Luise of Salm-Horstmar (1954) Robert, Archduke of Austria-Este and Princess Margherita of Savoy-Aosta (1953) Archduke Felix of Austria and Princess Anna-Eugénie of Arenberg (1952) Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover and Princess Ortrud of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1951) Duke Anton-Günther of Oldenburg and Princess Ameli of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg (1951) Archduke Otto of Austria and Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen (1951) Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern and Princess Margarita of Leiningen (1951) Emich Kyrill, Prince of Leiningen and Duchess Eilika of Oldenburg (1950) Prince Ludwig of Bavaria and Princess Irmingard of Bavaria (1950) Archduke Carl Ludwig of Austria and Princess Yolande of Ligne (1950) Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich of Russia and Princess Leonida Bagration of Mukhrani (1948) Michael I of Romania and Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma (1948) Princess Iniga of Thurn and Taxis and Prince Eberhard of Urach (1948) Princess Marie Alix of Schaumburg-Lippe and Peter, Hereditary Prince of Schleswig-Holstein (1947) Prince Irakli Bagration of Mukhrani and Infanta María de las Mercedes of Spain (1946) Duke Georg Alexander of Mecklenburg and Archduchess Ilona of Austria (1946) Prince Pedro Gastão of Orléans-Braganza and Princess María de la Esperanza of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1944) Prince Hubertus of Prussia and Princess Magdalena Reuss of Köstritz (1943) Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza and Princess Maria Francisca of Orléans-Braganza (1942) Prince Konstantin of Bavaria and Princess Maria Adelgunde of Hohenzollern (1942) Prince Friedrich Josias of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Countess Viktoria-Luise of Solms-Baruth (1942) Prince Karl Franz of Prussia and Princess Henriette of Schönaich-Carolath (1940) Duchess Woizlawa Feodora of Mecklenburg and Prince Heinrich I Reuss of Köstritz (1939) Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia and Grand Duchess Kira Kirillovna of Russia (1938) Archduke Gottfried of Austria and Princess Dorothea of Bavaria (1938) Friedrich Günther, Prince of Schwarzburg and Princess Sophie of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1938) Princess Marie Eleonore of Albania and Prince Alfred of Schönburg-Waldenburg (1937) Prince Pedro Henrique of Orléans-Braganza and Princess Maria Elisabeth of Bavaria (1937) Infante Alfonso of Spain and Princess Alicia of Bourbon-Parma (1936) Infante Juan of Spain and Princess María de las Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1935) Prince Ludwig Ferdinand of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and Princess Friederike Juliane of Salm-Horstmar (1935) Prince Raphael Rainer of Thurn and Taxis and Princess Margarete of Thurn and Taxis (1932) Prince Henri of Orléans and Princess Isabelle of Orléans-Braganza (1931) Princess Eulalia of Thurn and Taxis and Prince Philipp Ernst of Thurn and Taxis (1929) Duke Philipp Albrecht of Württemberg and Archduchess Rosa of Austria (1928) Archduke Hubert Salvator of Austria and Princess Rosemary of Salm-Salm (1926) Grand Duchess Maria Kirillovna of Russia and Prince Karl of Leiningen (1925) Prince Wolrad of Schaumburg-Lippe and Princess Bathildis of Schaumburg-Lippe (1925) Princess Marie Antoinette of Schwarzburg and Friedrich Magnus V, Count of Solms-Wildenfels (1925) Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg and Princess Elisabeth of Stolberg-Rossla (1924) Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria and Princess Anna of Saxony (1924) Prince Wolfgang of Hesse and Princess Marie Alexandra of Baden (1924) Duke Philipp Albrecht of Württemberg and Archduchess Helena of Austria (1923) Prince Friedrich Christian of Saxony and Princess Elisabeth Helene of Thurn and Taxis (1923) Prince Feodor Alexandrovich of Russia and Princess Irina Pavlovna Paley (1923) Wilhelm II, German Emperor and Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz (1922) Josias, Hereditary Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont and Duchess Altburg of Oldenburg (1922) Leopold IV, Prince of Lippe and Princess Anna of Ysenburg and Büdingen (1922) Nikolaus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Oldenburg and Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1921) Prince Karl August of Thurn and Taxis and Princess Maria Ana of Braganza (1921) Prince Franz Joseph of Hohenzollern and Princess Maria Alix of Saxony (1921) Princess Marie Adelheid of Lippe and Prince Heinrich XXXV Reuss of Köstritz (1921) Franz Joseph, Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis and Princess Isabel Maria of Braganza (1920) Prince Frederick of Hohenzollern and Princess Margarete Karola of Saxony (1920) Princess Marie Adelheid of Lippe and Heinrich XXXII, Prince Reuss of Köstritz (1920) Princess Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and Count Hans of Solms-Baruth (1920) Prince Waldemar of Prussia and Princess Calixta of Lippe-Biesterfeld (1919) Prince Sigismund of Prussia and Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg (1919) As a result of dynastic intra-marriage all of Europe's reigning hereditary monarchs since 1939 descend from a common ancestor, John William Friso, Prince of Orange. Since 2022, all of Europe's reigning hereditary monarchs descend from a more recent common ancestor: Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. Muslim world Al-Andalus From the time of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and throughout the Reconquista, marriage between Spanish and Umayyad royals was not uncommon. Early marriages, such as that of Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa and Egilona at the turn of the 8th century, was thought to help establish the legitimacy of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Later instances of intermarriage were often made to seal trade treaties between Christian kings and Muslim caliphs. Ottoman Empire The marriages of Ottoman sultans and their sons in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries tended to be with members of the ruling dynasties of neighbouring powers. With little regard for religion, the sultans contracted marriages with both Christians and Muslims; the purpose of these royal intermarriages were purely tactical. Christian consorts of Ottoman sultans include Theodora Kantakouzene of Byzantium, Kera Tamara of Bulgaria and Olivera Despina of Serbia. These Christian states along with Muslim beyliks of Germiyan, Saruhan, Karaman and Dulkadir were all potential enemies, and marriage was seen as a way of securing alliances with them. Marriage with foreign dynasties seems to have ceased in 1504, with the last marriage of a sultan to a foreign princess being that of Murad II and Mara Branković, daughter of the Serbian ruler Đurađ Branković, in 1435. By this time, the Ottomans had consolidated their power in the area and absorbed or subjugated many of their former rivals, and so marriage alliances were no longer seen as important to their foreign policy. The Islamic principle of kafa'a discourages the marriages of women to men of differing religion or of inferior status. Neighbouring Muslim powers did not start to give their daughters in marriage to Ottoman princes until the fifteenth century, when they were seen to have grown in importance. This same principle meant that, while Ottoman men were free to marry Christian women, Muslim princesses were prevented from marrying Christian princes. Post World War I era There are several modern instances of intermarriage between members of the royal families and former royal families of Islamic states (i.e., Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, the constituent states of the United Arab Emirates, etc.). Examples include: Muhammad Ali, Prince of the Sa'id, son of Fuad II of Egypt and Princess Noal Zaher Shah, granddaughter of Zahir Shah of Afghanistan (2013) Sheik Khalid bin Hamad Al Khalifa, son of Hamad Al Khalifa, King of Bahrain and Princess Sahab bint Abdullah, daughter of Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia (2011) Mohammed bin Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi and Latifa bint Mohammed Al Maktoum, daughter of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum of Dubai (2009) Nasser bin Hamad Al Khalifa, son of Hamad Al Khalifa, King of Bahrain and Shaikha bint Mohammed Al Maktoum, daughter of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum of Dubai (2009) Sheik Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, (half-brother of Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Emir of Abu Dhabi and President of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) ) and Sheika Manal bint Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, daughter of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Emir of Dubai and Prime Minister of UAE (2005) Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum of Dubai and Princess Haya bint Hussein of Jordan (2004) Abdullah of Pahang and Tunku Azizah Aminah Maimunah of Johor (1986) Ibrahim Ismail, Sultan of Johor and Raja Zarith Sofia of Perak (1982) Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani and Maryam bint Rashid Al Maktoum (1957) Mohamed Abdel Moneim and Neslişah Sultan, granddaughter of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI (1940) Prince Nayef bin Abdullah and Princess Mihrimah Sultan, granddaughter of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V (1940) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran and Princess Fawzia Fuad of Egypt (1939) Senije Zogu, sister of Zogu I of Albania, and Şehzade Mehmed Abid, son of Abdul Hamid II (1936) Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and Şükriye Sultan (1935). Azam Jah and Princess Durru Shehvar, daughter of Abdul Mejid II. Dürrüşehvar Sultan (daughter of Ottoman Caliph Abdulmejid II) and Azam Jah (son of Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah VII) (1931) There are also numerous cases of intramarriage between cadet branches within the ruling families from the Arabian Peninsula, including the House of Saud, the House of Sabah, the House of Khalifa, the House of Thani, and the House of Busaid. Other such examples include Prince Hamzah bin Hussein and Princess Noor bint Asem (2003), Hussein of Jordan and Dina bint Abdul-Hamid (1955), Talal of Jordan and Zein Al-Sharaf Talal (1934), and Ghazi of Iraq and Aliya bint Ali (1934), all from the Hashemite dynasty. Oceania Hawaii Royal incest was extremely common in the Kingdom of Hawaii and its predecessors, despite being rare in other Polynesian societies. Among the aliʻi, the ruling class, marriage between blood relatives of the first degree was believed to produce children with the highest rank under the kapu system, equal to that of the gods. A marriage between brother and sister was considered "the most perfect and revered union". It was believed that the mana of a particular aliʻi could be increased by incestuous unions. According to O. A. Bushnell, "in several accounts about Hawaiians, an ali’i who was the issue of an incestuous marriage [...] was noted for a splendid body and a superior intelligence". Writers have suggested that this preference for brother–sister incest came about as a way to protect the royal bloodline. Notable instances of incestuous relationships among Hawaiian royalty were those between King Kamehameha II and his half-sister Kamāmalu, which was a fully fledged marriage, and between Kamehameha III and his full sister Nahienaena. In the latter case, the siblings had hoped to marry but their union was opposed by Christian missionaries. Americas Inca Peru The Sapa Inca of Peru frequently married their sisters, such between as the children Huayna Capac: Huascar married Chuqui Huipa, Atawallpa married Coya Asarpay, and Manco Inca married Cura Ocllo. During and after the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, dynastic marriages began to occur between Inca princesses and Spanish conquistadors. The aforementioned Cura Ocllo married Gonzalo Pizarro following the death of her brother-husband, and her sister Quispe Sisa married Francisco Pizarro. Morganatic marriage At one time, some dynasties adhered strictly to the concept of royal intermarriage. The Habsburgs, Sicilian and Spanish Bourbons and Romanovs, among others, introduced house laws which governed dynastic marriages; it was considered important that dynasts marry social equals (i.e., other royalty), thereby ruling out even the highest-born non-royal nobles. Those dynasts who contracted undesirable marriages often did so morganatically. Generally, this is a marriage between a man of high birth and a woman of lesser status (such as a daughter of a low-ranked noble family or a commoner). Usually, neither the bride nor any children of the marriage has a claim on the bridegroom's succession rights, titles, precedence, or entailed property. The children are considered legitimate for all other purposes and the prohibition against bigamy applies. Examples of morganatic marriages include: Casimir III the Great and Krystyna Rokiczana (1356) Frederick I, Elector Palatine and Clara Tott (1462) Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse and Margarethe von der Saale (1540) Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria and Philippine Welser (1557) Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Camilla Martelli (1570) Christian IV of Denmark and Kirsten Munk (1615) Ferdinando Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and Camilla Faà (1616) Charles Philip, Duke of Södermanland and Elizabeth Ribbing (1620) Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine and Marie Luise von Degenfeld (1658) John II Casimir Vasa and Claudine Françoise Mignot (1672) Rudolph Augustus, Duke of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel and Rosine Elisabeth Menthe (1681) Louis XIV and Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon (1683) Emmanuel Lebrecht, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen and Gisela Agnes of Rath (1692) Louis, Grand Dauphin and Marie Émilie de Joly de Choin (1694) Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau and Anna Louise Föhse (1698) Frederick IV of Denmark and Elisabeth Helene von Vieregg (1703) Eberhard Louis, Duke of Württemberg and Wilhelmine von Grävenitz (1707) Augustus Louis, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen and Agnes Wilhelmine von Wuthenau (1722) Victor Amadeus II and Anna Canalis di Cumiana (1730) Charles, Duke of Courland and Franciszka Krasińska (1760) Prince Francis Xavier of Saxony and Maria Chiara Spinucci (1765) Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans and Charlotte Béraud de La Haye de Riou (1773) Infante Luis of Spain and María Teresa de Vallabriga (1776) Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg and Countess Franziska von Hohenheim (1785) Frederick William II of Prussia and Julie von Voss (1787) Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden and Louise Caroline of Hochberg (1787) Frederick William II of Prussia and Sophie von Dönhoff (1790) Alexander, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Elizabeth Craven (1791) Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia and Countess Joanna Grudna-Grudzińska (1796) Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and Lucia Migliaccio (1814) Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma and Adam Albert von Neipperg (1821) Frederick William III of Prussia and Auguste von Harrach (1824) Archduke John of Austria and Anna Plochl (1829) Frederick William, Elector of Hesse and Gertrude von Hanau (1831) Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies and Agustín Fernando Muñoz (1833) Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma and Charles-René de Bombelles (1834) Duke Alexander of Württemberg and Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde (1835) Jérôme Bonaparte and Justine Bartolini-Baldelli (1840) William I of the Netherlands and Henrietta d'Oultremont (1841) William II, Elector of Hesse and Emilie Ortlöpp (1841) William II, Elector of Hesse and Caroline of Berlepsch (1843) Prince Adalbert of Prussia and Therese Elssler (1850) Frederick VII of Denmark and Louise Rasmussen (1850) Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Countess Julia Hauke (1851) Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar and Lady Augusta Katherine Gordon-Lennox (1851) Pierre Napoléon Bonaparte and Éléonore-Justine Ruflin (1852) Prince Albert of Prussia and Rosalie von Rauch (1853) Prince William of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld and Maria von Hanau-Hořowitz (1857) Duke Ludwig Wilhelm in Bavaria and Henriette Mendel (1859) Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Laura Williamina Seymour (1861) Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Constanze Geiger (1861) Prince Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Mary Esther Lee (1864) Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse and Anna Magdalena Appel (1868) Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia and Alexandra Zhukovskaya (1868) Ferdinand II of Portugal and Elise Friederike Hensler (1869) Victor Emmanuel II and Rosa Vercellana (1869) Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen and Ellen Franz (1873) Alexander II of Russia and Catherine Dolgorukova (1880) Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia and Countess Sophie of Merenberg (1891) Duke Ludwig Wilhelm in Bavaria and Antonie Barth (1892) Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and Countess Sophie Chotek von Chotkova und Wognin (1900) Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia and Olga Karnovich (1902) Prince Bernhard of Lippe and Armgard von Cramm (1909) Leopold II of Belgium and Caroline Lacroix (1909) Princess Tatiana Constantinovna of Russia and Konstantine Bagration of Mukhrani (1911) Prince Victor of Thurn and Taxis and Lida Eleanor Nicolls (1911) Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia and Natalia Brasova (1912) Princess Irina Alexandrovna of Russia and Felix Yusupov (1914) Prince Oskar of Prussia and Countess Ina Marie von Bassewitz (1914) Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia and Nikolai Kulikovsky (1916) Alexander of Greece and Aspasia Manos (1919) Infanta Beatriz of Spain and Alessandro Torlonia, 5th Prince of Civitella-Cesi (1935) Leopold III of Belgium and Mary Lilian Baels (1941) Prince Michael of Greece and Denmark and Marina Karella (1965) Inbreeding Over time, because of the relatively limited number of potential consorts, the gene pool of many ruling families grew progressively smaller, until all European royalty was related. This also resulted in many being descended from a certain person through many lines of descent, such as the numerous European royalty descended from Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom or King Christian IX of Denmark. The House of Habsburg was infamous for inbreeding, with the Habsburg lip cited as an ill effect, although no genetic evidence has proved the allegation. The closely related houses of Habsburg, Bourbon, Braganza and Wittelsbach also engaged in first-cousin unions frequently and in double-cousin and uncle-niece marriages occasionally. When Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor married Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily in 1790, they were double first cousins having the same set of grandparents. Francis became the first Emperor of Austria in 1804 and dissolved the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. All later Emperors of Austria and heads of the House of Habsburg were descendants of this union. Examples of incestuous marriages and the impact of inbreeding on royal families include: Most rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty from Ptolemy II (with the exception of ) were married to their brothers and sisters, in order to keep the Ptolemaic blood "pure" and to strengthen the line of succession. Cleopatra VII (also called Cleopatra VI) and Ptolemy XIII, who married and became co-rulers of ancient Egypt following their father's death, are the most widely known example. King Tutankhamun's father and mother were related. The Persian Sassanian dynasty often married close blood relatives, partially for religious reasons (see xwedodah). One example would be Narseh, who married his sister Shapuhrdukhtag. Four Japanese Emperors married their sisters: namely Emperor Bidatsu, Emperor Yōmei, Emperor Kanmu, and Emperor Junna. Jean V of Armagnac was said to have formed a rare brother-sister liaison, left descendants and claimed to be married. There is no evidence that this "marriage" was contracted for dynastic rather than personal reasons. One of the most famous examples of a genetic trait aggravated by royal family intermarriage was the House of Habsburg, which inmarried particularly often and is known for the mandibular prognathism of the Habsburger (Unter) Lippe (otherwise known as the 'Habsburg jaw', 'Habsburg lip' or 'Austrian lip'"). This was typical for many Habsburg relatives over a period of six centuries. See also List of coupled cousins Haemophilia in European royalty Incest Inbreeding Inbreeding depression Prohibited degree of kinship Notes References and Sources References Sources . Royalty Monarchy Types of marriage
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians%20in%20Lebanon
Armenians in Lebanon
The Armenians in Lebanon (; ; ) are Lebanese citizens of Armenian descent. There has been an Armenian presence in Lebanon for centuries. According to Minority Rights Group International, there are 156,000 Armenians in Lebanon, around 4% of the population. Prior to the Lebanese Civil War, the number was higher, but the community lost a portion of its population to emigration. After surviving the Armenian genocide, and initially settling in shanty towns in Lebanon, the Armenian population gradually grew and expanded until Beirut (and Lebanese towns like Anjar) became a center of Armenian culture. The Armenians became one of Lebanon’s most prominent and productive communities. History Armenians first established contact with Lebanon when Tigranes the Great conquered Phoenicia from the Seleucids and made it part of his short-lived Armenian Empire. When the Roman Empire established its rule over both Armenia and ancient Lebanon, some Roman troops of Armenian origin went there in order to accomplish their duties as Romans. After Armenia converted to Christianity in 301, Armenian pilgrims established contact with Lebanon and its people on their way to Jerusalem; some of whom would settle there. The Catholic Armenians who fled to Lebanon in the declining years of the 17th century may be credited with establishing the first enduring Armenian community in the land. The Maronites further acted on the Armenians' behalf in 1742, when they interceded with the Vatican to win Papal recognition for the patriarch of the Armenian Catholics. In 1749, the Armenian Catholic Church built a monastery in Bzoummar, where the image of Our Lady of Bzommar is venerated. The monastery is now acknowledged as the oldest extant Armenian monastery in Lebanon. Alongside it was built the patriarchal see for the entire Armenian Catholic Church. In 1890's the Hamidian massacres had produced a trickle of Armenian refugees into Lebanon. Armenians in Lebanon (1915–1975) The Armenian presence in Lebanon during the Ottoman period was minimal; however, there was a large influx of Armenians after the Armenian genocide of 1915. Other Armenians inhabited the area of Karantina (literally "Quarantine", a port-side district in the Lebanese capital of Beirut). Later on, a thriving Armenian community was formed in the neighbouring district of Bourj Hammoud. In 1939, after the French ceded the Syrian territory of Alexandretta to Turkey, Armenians and other Christians from the area moved to the Bekaa Valley. The Armenians were grouped in Anjar, where a community exists to this day. Some of these Armenian refugees had been settled by the French mandate authorities in camps in the South of Lebanon: El Buss and Rashidieh camps in Tyre would later make way for Palestinian refugees. Prior to 1975, Beirut was a thriving center of Armenian culture with varied media production, which was exported to the Armenian diaspora. Armenians in Lebanon (1975–present) During the Lebanese Civil War, Armenians, grouped in Bourj Hammoud and Anjar, have been known for their neutrality in the civil war. And while the insecurity and economic dislocation of the war caused Lebanese Armenians to lose much of their number to emigration, the distinctive features and manifold successes of the community yet remain. There are three prominent Armenian political parties in Lebanon: the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (also Dashnak or Tashnag), Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchag) and Armenian Democratic Liberal Party (Ramgavar Party). They play significant influence in all facets of Armenian life. During the civil war militant organizations, such as ASALA, became active in Lebanon, and used it as a launching pad for their operations. ASALA was founded in 1975 in Beirut, during the Lebanese Civil War by Hagop Hagopian, pastor Reverend James Karnusian and Kevork Ajemian, a prominent contemporary writer, with the help of sympathetic Palestinians. More than 150,000 Lebanese-Armenians have political representation in 6 seats in the Lebanese Parliament, in addition to one ministerial position. Lebanon was one of the region’s first nations and the first Arab League member to recognize the Armenian genocide. The Armenian bloc of the Lebanese Parliament put forth a resolution, calling for the commemoration of the anniversary of the Armenian genocide; the legislature unanimously approved the resolution on 4 April 1997 In May 2000, the Lebanese Parliament approved a resolution calling for the commemoration of the Genocide’s 82nd anniversary and called on all Lebanese citizens to unite with the Armenian people every April 24 to commemorate it. On 4 August 2020, during the 2020 Beirut explosions, 15 Armenians were killed, more than 250 injured, the Armenian Catholicosate in Antelias suffered great material damage, Armenian churches and the building of Haigazian University have been damaged. Armenian neighborhoods Armenians live in many parts of Lebanon. Historically most Armenians have lived in Beirut and Matn District and Anjar in the Bekaa Region. From Beirut proper we can mention grander Ashrafieh: Hadjen (Corniche Nahr), Khalil Badawi, Karm el Zeytoun (Հայաշէն), Rmeil, Gemmayze, Mar Mikhael, Sursock, and Geitawi. Armenians have had strong presence also in other Beirut regions such as Khandaq Ghamik, Zuqaq al-Blat, Zarif, Bab Idris, Sanayeh (Kantari), Clemenceau and Hamra, among others. During the civil war many of these Armenians emigrated or fled to safer regions in Lebanon. From the Beirut suburbs, there are big concentrations in Matn District, particularly Bourj Hammoud, Dora-Amanos, Fanar, Rawda, Jdeide, Zalka, Jal El Dib, Antelias, Mezher (Dzaghgatzor), Naccash, Dbayeh, Awkar and in the regions situated from Antelias to Bikfaya. To the north, there are further Armenian populations scattered in Jounieh, Byblos and Tripoli (particularly the Mina area). Anjar is a place where Armenian populations is predominant. There are Armenian religious centers in Antelias and Bikfaya (Armenian Apostolic Church) and Beirut and Bzommar (Armenian Catholic Church). There is an Armenian orphanage in historic sites in Byblos. In the Bekaa, there are Armenians living in Zahlé and most notably Anjar. Bourj Hammoud Bourj Hammoud (, ) is a suburb in east Beirut, Lebanon in the Metn district. The suburb is heavily populated by Armenians as it is where most survivors of the Armenian genocide settled. Bourj Hammoud is an industrious area and is one of the most densely populated cities in the Middle East. It is divided into seven major regions, namely Dora, Sader, Nahr Beirut, Anbari, Mar Doumet, Naba'a and Gheilan. It is sometimes called "Little Armenia". Bourj Hamoud has a majority Armenian population but also has a notable number of other Lebanese Christians, a considerable Shi'a Muslim population, a Kurdish population, and some Palestinian and newcomer Christian refugees from Iraq. Most streets in Bourj Hammoud are named after various Armenian cities such as Yerevan, mountains such as Aragats, and rivers such as Araks. A lot of streets are also named after cities and regions in modern-day-Turkey which were heavily populated by Armenians such as Cilicia, Marash, Sis, Adana, etc. Mezher (Dzaghgatzor) Mzher (or Dzaghgatzor in Armenian) is a small town located between Antelias and Bsalim, in Matn district. It is a new town, where most of the population is Armenian, along with other Christians. In Mzher the Armenian community has one of the top Armenian schools, Melankton and Haig Arslanian College (Jemaran) and a socio-cultural sport club, Aghpalian. The headquarters of SAHALCO are also situated nearby. Most of the Armenians of Mzher come from Bourj Hamoud, Ashrafieh, Anjar and the other old Armenian quarters. Anjar Anjar (, ), also known as Haoush Mousa (), is a town of Lebanon located in the Bekaa Valley. The population is about 2,400 consisting almost entirely of Armenians. Jbeil Jbeil-Byblos (, ), is a town of Lebanon located in the Keserwan-Jbeil_Governorate. Armenians in Jbeil count around 200 Armenian family. In Jbeil the Armenian community has the Armenian Community Center () including : A.R.F Hohita Keri Gomide, Armenian Relief Cross Sosse chapter, Lebanese Armenian Youth Federation Ararad chapter, Serop Aghpuir Badanegan Miyoutioun, Birds Nest Orphanage, Sourp gayane Church. an additional 40 Armenian families live in the neighboring city of Batroun. Politics According to the traditional Lebanese confessional representation in the Lebanese Parliament, a certain number of seats have been reserved for Armenian candidates according to their confession. Presently the Lebanese-Armenians are represented in the 128-seat Lebanese Parliament with 6 guaranteed seats (5 Armenian Orthodox and 1 Armenian Catholic) as follows: 3 Armenian Orthodox and 1 Armenian Catholic seat in the Beirut I electoral district 1 Armenian Orthodox seat in the Matn District 1 Armenian Orthodox seat in Zahle District As many Protestants in Lebanon are ethnic Armenians, the sole parliamentary slot for Evangelical (Protestant) community has at times been filled by an Armenian, making for a total of 7 Armenian deputies in the Lebanese Parliament. Lebanese Armenians have been represented in government by at least one government minister in the formations of Lebanese governments. In case of larger governments (with 24 ministers and above) Armenians are traditionally given two government ministry positions. Lebanese-Armenians also have their quota in top-level public positions. Unlike the Maronite Church and other religious groups in Lebanon, the Armenian Apostolic Church is not a political actor in its own right. Armenians do, however, enjoy political representation in Lebanon's multiconfessional government. Since the Cold War era, the Armenian Apostolic Church has participated in politics as a proxy for the nationalist Dashnak party. Education Lebanon is the location of the only Armenian university outside Armenia. Haigazian University was established in Beirut by the Armenian Missionary Association of America and the Union of the Armenian Evangelical Churches in the Near East. Founded in 1955, Haigazian is a liberal arts Armenian institution of higher learning, which uses English as the language of instruction. Most Armenian schools are run by the three Armenian Christian denominations (Orthodox, Catholic and Evangelical). Others are run by cultural associations like Hamazkayin and Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU). Notable schools include: Armenian Evangelical College (Beirut) Armenian Evangelical Central High School (Ashrafieh, Beirut) Armenian Evangelical Shamlian Tatigian Secondary School (Bourj Hamoud) Yeghishe Manoukian College (Debbayeh) Hamazkayin Melankton & Haig Arslanian Djemaran School (Mezher) United Armenian College (Bourj Hammoud) Mesrobian College (Bourj Hammoud) Culture Music Anatolian and kef music were a source of controversy due to the shared Ottoman past they represented in the post-genocide era. A combination of factors in Lebanon, including political independence and the strength of various Armenian institutions, created conditions that were permissive of the rise of an Armenian nationalism that was similar to the Turkish nationalism that emerged in the Ottoman Empire in the years leading up to the 1915 genocide. Music in the Lebanese diaspora became another means to separate "us" and "them", but also provided a space where Lebanese Armenians could connect with a concept of "home" in place of the Ottoman past and Soviet present. Community choirs that formed in Lebanon during the 1930s, led by former students of Komitas, utilized the imagery of Komitas as the saint and martyr of Armenian music. These choirs proved to be critical in the development of collective identity amongst Lebanese Armenians. According to Sylvia Angelique Alajaji, a professor of music who has studied music in the Armenian diaspora, "in a literal and symbolic sense, the songs sung by the choirs articulated home and articulated belonging." Armenian pop music thrived in 1970s Lebanon, until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War. Many artists fled Lebanon during those years including pop singer Adiss Harmandian and classical soprano singer Arpine Pehlivanian. Songs were released about the war including one by Manuel Menengichian with the lyrics "Brothers turned into lions against each other/ Tearing up your heart, Lebanon". Theater Like other cultural institutions of the Lebanese Armenian community, Armenian theater suffered during the years of the Lebanese Civil War. Many prominent figures decided to leave Lebanon; Berge Fazlian, founder of the Vahram Papazian group, was among those who fled during the wartime violence. Though theater experience a decline during the war years, it does not disappear entirely; the groups that remained in Lebanon were able to put on productions that filled the two theraters of Bourj Hammoud. Fazlian is considered one of the most important figures in Lebanese theater; his theater projects were covered in Armenian, Arabic and French-language newspapers of the period. Fazlian was born in Istanbul in 1926; after obtaining his education in Turkey and directing several plays, a friendly colleague advised him to seek his fortune outside Turkey, imploring Fazlian to "never leave the theater", but also reminding him that an Armenian was not likely to land a leading role in Turkey. Fazlian left Istanbul in 1951 and settled in Beirut where he founded the Nor Pem (“New Stage”) theater group in 1956, Vahram Papazian in 1959, and Azad Pem (“Free Stage”) in 1971. Lebanon had only one theater group in Beirut prior to Fazlian's creation of the Vahram Papazian group and that was Hamazkayin's Kasbar Ipegian theater company. Ipegian, who had settled in Beirut in 1930, was one of Hamazkayin's founders. Hamazkayin was the cultural arm of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) or Dashnak party. The Hamazkayin Theater Association, which Ipegian founded in 1941, performed plays created by Armenian writers like Levon Shant and Papken Papazian. Their self-stated mission was to "reestablish and spread the art of theater in the diaspora". This included enhancing "Armenian theater’s educational role in the preservation of national identity". Fazlian himself was a leftist and his group was associated the Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU), while Ipegian's group was associated with Hamazkayin and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF). There was a rivalry between the two groups. Before Fazlian's group the only plays available were partisan plays presented by members of the ARF and their sympathesizers, who would perform in the Hamazkayin plays. On the other hand, Fazlian's Vahram Papazian group performed a variety of plays that included Western Armenian, Eastern Armenian and even non-Armenian plays. Women In 1932 Siran Seza, a Lebanese-Armenian writer, began publishing the first feminist literary review for women in Lebanon called The Young Armenian Woman (). Seza was born in Constantinople (present day Istanbul) in 1903. Seza had translated Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther into Armenian when she was 15; her talent was recognized by Armenian poets of the era, such as Vahan Tekeyan, which led to her work being published in important literary journals of that time. The final issue of The Young Armenian Women was published in 1968. The Armenian community in Lebanon developed educational institutions and organizations to address issues like poverty, which were exacerbated by the violent conflict and crisis in Lebanon. The focus of these institutions was on women's role as mothers, which is not uncommon in times of war or violent conflict. They sought to kept Armenian children connected to the community by offering cultural activities like traditional Armenian dance and music. The three main Armenian churches ran private Armenian schools for the children; even the poorest Armenian families tried to enroll their children in private Armenian schools and they often needed NGO assistance to pay for the schoolbooks. Life in the Armenian community of Bourj Hammoud was largely effected by gender. Non-Armenian men, even those who married Armenian women, rarely carried significant influence (wasta) in the community's social networks. For example, access to the only low-income housing for Armenians was governed by a set of "unofficial rules"; in practice, this meant that Armenian men married to non-Armenian women could rent or purchase an apartment in the housing project, but Armenian women married to non-Armenian men would face significant hurdles to secure this type of housing. Economy Armenian American historian Richard G. Hovannisian has described what he calls the "economic vivacity" of the Armenian community in Lebanon in terms of the hundreds of Armenian owned shops in Beirut. The city's business quarter closes down on April 24, on the anniversary of the Armenian genocide. In the years after World War II, between 1946 and 1948, the Soviet Union sponsored a repatriation campaign encouraging Armenians living in diaspora to move to Soviet Armenia. In Beirut, which had a relatively large Armenian community, the repatriation campaign impacted the economy and destabilized the community. As Armenians emigrated from Beirut, property values deflated and lower income Arabs (some of them Shi'a) began to move into the Armenian quarters of the city. Hovannisian has written that "This unwelcome infiltration of culturally less developed and rapidly multiplying Muslim elements has been bemoaned by the affected Armenians for a quarter of a century." Media "Pyunik" () was the first Armenian newspaper in Lebanon renamed Nor Pyunik (). In 1924, the newspaper Lipanan () was published. In 1927, Aztag replaced Nor Punik. Press: Dailies There are three Armenian daily newspapers published in Beirut all mouthpieces of the traditional Armenian political parties (Tashnag, Hunchag and Ramgavar). Aztag (), a daily newspaper that speaks on behalf of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation – Tashnag and was established in 1927. It also published an online English version and an online Arabic supplement. Ararad (), a daily newspaper published by the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party – Hunchag Party Zartonk (), daily newspaper is published by Armenian Democratic Liberal Party – Ramgavar and was established in 1937. From the defunct Armenian political newspapers besides Pyunik in the 1920s, one should mention the independent non-partisan newspaper Ayk () (after decades of publishing in Armenian, the licence owner Lucie Tosbat sold it to Monday Morning Publishing Group and Ayk started publishing as an English-language daily renamed Ike before folding.) Ayk daily's Lebanese-Armenian publishers Dikran and Lucie Tosbat also published the French language Le Soir. Special mention should also be made for the Armenian leftist daily newspaper Joghovourti Tsayn ( meaning Voice of the People) which had a short span of publication but remained influential during its span of publication. Press: Weekly publications and periodicals Lebanon has a history of periodicals and weekly newspapers in the Armenian language. Notable long-running publications include: Hask (Հասկ), official publication of the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia (Armenian Apostolic) Avedik (Աւետիք), official publication of the Armenian Catholic Church Yeridasart Hayouhi (Երիտասարդ Հայուհի, literary periodical dedicated to women) which was later turned into an independent political biweekly called Yeridasart Hay (Երիտասարդ Հայ). Nor Gyank (Նոր Կեանք, meaning New Life) the lifestyle newspaper/magazine Gantch (Կանչ), the Armenian Communist weekly (part of Arabic language communist "An Nidaa") Khosnag (Խօսնակ), the Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) official publication Pakine (Բագին) literary cultural publication Shirak (Շիրակ) literary cultural publication Spurk (Սփիւռք meaning diaspora) literary and cultural publication Nayiri (Նայիրի) literary and cultural publication Massis (Մասիս), Armenian Catholic publication Badanegan Artsakank (Պատանեկան Արձագանք) Armenian Evangelical / Youth publication Academic publications Hasg Hayakidagan Hantes, an annual Armenological publication by the Holy See of Cilicia Haigazian Armenological Review, an annual Armenological publication of Haigazian University Radio The Lebanese state radio established very early on daily radio broadcasts in Armenian through its second channel consecrated to broadcasting in languages (mainly French and English). That programming goes on to date on Radio Liban. During the civil war, the Lebanese Armenians established a great number of unlicensed radio stations (some non-stop for 24 hours a day). The pioneer was the popular radio station "Radio Paradise" and later on "Vana Tsayn" (Voice of Van). However, with the Lebanese Parliament enacting laws organizing the airwaves, all the unlicensed stations (alongside the other Lebanese stations) had to close. They were replaced by two operating and fully licensed radio stations operating in Armenian in Lebanon in accordance with the new broadcast laws – "Voice of Van" and "Radio Sevan". Television Lebanese private stations and state-owned Tele-Liban have consecrated occasionally television programming in Armenian on certain occasions. During the Lebanese civil war, an Armenian television station "Paradise Television" co-operated with "Radio Paradise" was established through a broadcast tower in Bourj Hammoud. But "Paradise Television" Armenian television station had to close after it failed to get a broadcasting licence according to the new laws organizing the airwaves. Al Mustaqbal Television (also known as Future Television) and OTV broadcast daily 30-minutes news and comments in Armenian in their regular programming schedule. Religion Officially, there are three Armenian denominations recognized by the government. The Armenians have Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, or Armenian Evangelical mentioned in their identity cards, in the denomination field. Sometimes, however, there are variations particularly in case of the Armenian Evangelicals, sometimes registered as just Evangelicals or Protestants without mention of Armenian. There are also some Armenian Catholics who are registered under the denomination Latin, sometimes Armenian Latin. Apostolic (Orthodox) Armenians The Holy See of Cilicia is located in Antelias (a northern suburb of Beirut). It was relocated there in 1930 from Sis (historical Cilicia, now in Turkey) after the Armenian genocide. Alongside the Mother See of Holy Echmiadzin located in Armenia, it is one of the two sees of the Armenian Apostolic Church (the national church of Armenians). The Catholicos, the leader of the Holy See of Cilicia, has his summer residence in Bikfaya in the Matn District also north of Beirut. The seminary of the Armenian Apostolic Church is also on site at Bikfaya. The affairs of the Lebanese Armenian Orthodox population however are run by an independent body, the Armenian Prelacy of Lebanon (Aratchnortaran Hayots Lipanani) with its own Armenian Primate of Lebanon Bishop Shahé Panossian as head. The Armenian Apostolic churches in Lebanon include: The Saint Gregory the Illuminator Mother Cathedral (Sourp Krikor Lousavoritch Mayr Dajar) which serves as the church for the Holy See of Cilicia (Catholicossate of the Great House of Cilicia – In Armenian "Gatoghigosaran Medzi Danen Guiligio" (Antelias, Lebanon). The big complex also contains a memorial chapel dedicated to the victims of the Armenian genocide, an Armenian library, printing presses, Armenian museum and "Veharan", residence of the catholicos of Cilicia and premises for the clergy. Holy Sign (Saint Nshan) Armenian Orthodox Church (Downtown Beirut) which serves as the church for the Armenian Apostolic Archbishopric of Lebanon and head office of the Armenian Primate of Lebanon. Saint Hagop Armenian Apostolic Church (Jetawi, Achrafieh, Beirut) Saint George (Sourp Kevork) Armenian Apostolic Church (Hadjin, Mar Mikhael, Beirut) Armenian Apostolic Church of the Assumption (Khalil Badaoui, Beirut) Armenian Apostolic Church of the Assumption (Jounieh, Kesrouan, Lebanon) Forty Martyrs (Karasoun Manoug) Armenian Apostolic Church (Marash, Bourj Hammoud) Holy Mother of God (Sourp Asdvadzadzin) Armenian Apostolic Church (Adana, Bourj Hammoud) Saint Vartan Armenian Apostolic Church (Tiro, Bourj Hammoud) Saint Sarkis Armenian Apostolic Church (Sis, Bourj Hammoud) Saint Paul (Sourp Boghos) Armenian Apostolic Church (Anjar, Beqaa, Lebanon) Holy Pentecost Armenian Apostolic Church (Tripoli, North Lebanon) Holy Mother of God (Sourp Asdvadzadzin) Armenian Apostolic Church – a complex that also includes the Zarehian Tebrevank (both in Bickfaya, Metn) and the commemorative statue of the Armenian genocide Catholic Armenians Armenian Catholic Church, has its patriarchate in the Lebanese capital Beirut, and represents Armenian Catholics around the world. Armenian Catholic Church also has its summer residence and its convent in Bzoummar, Lebanon. Armenian Catholic churches include: St. Elie-St. Gregory the Illuminator (Sourp Yeghia – Sourp Krikor Lousavoritch Armenian Catholic Cathedral, (Debbas Square, Downtown Beirut) Armenian Catholic Church of the Annunciation (Achrafieh, Jetawi, Beirut) – also serving as church for the Armenian Catholic Patriarchal Eparchy. Armenian Catholic Church and the Convent of Bzoummar (Bzommar, Lebanon) St. Saviour (Sourp Pergitch) Armenian Catholic Church (Bourj Hammoud) Holy Cross (Sourp Khatch) Armenian Catholic Church (Zalka) Our Lady of Fatima Armenian Catholic Church (Hoch el Zaraani, Zahle, Beqaa) Our Lady of the Rosary Armenian Catholic Church (Anjar, Beqaa) Evangelical Armenians Armenian Evangelical Church, headquartered in Ashrafieh. The affairs of the Lebanese Evangelical community is run by the Union of the Union of the Armenian Evangelical Churches in the Near East (UAECNE). Major Armenian Evangelical Churches: First Armenian Evangelical Church (Kantari, Beirut) Armenian Evangelical Church (Achrafieh, Beirut) Armenian Evangelical Church (Nor Marash, Bourj Hammoud) Armenian Evangelical Emmanuel Church (Nor Amanos, Baouchriye) Armenian Evangelical Church (Anjar, Beqaa) The Armenian Evangelical Church has 5 active youth groups called "Chanits" which is a part of the World's Christian Endeavor Union. Children's, teenagers', and Chanits camps; women's conferences, church retreats, and educational programs take place at "KCHAG" which is located just outside Beirut in Mansouriyeh, Matn District. There are also a number of "Brethren" churches of Evangelical orientation ("Yeghpayroutyoun" in Armenian). Monuments Armenian Genocide Monument Bikfaya is home to a commemorative plaque and monumental sculpture, honoring the victims of the 1915 Armenian genocide. Designed by Zaven Khedeshian and renovated by Hovsep Khacherian in 1993, the outdoor, freestanding sculpture rests on top of a hill that is located on the grounds of the summer retreat of the Catholicate of Cilicia. The sculpture is a bronze abstract figure of a woman standing with hands open toward the sky. A plaque with Arabic and Armenian inscriptions reads:This monument, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Armenian genocide, was erected with the cooperation of the whole Armenian Community in Lebanon, to celebrate the rebirth of the Armenian nation and to express gratitude to our country, Lebanon – April 24, 1969 Members of the Armenian community of Lebanon visit the monument on April 24 every other year. The pilgrimages are alternated with the memorial chapel at the Armenian Catholicossate in Antelias. Sports and Scouts Movements There are three predominantly Armenian sports clubs in Lebanon with a strong tradition in sports as well as Scouting. They are Homenetmen Beirut also known as HMEM—full name Hay Marmnagertagan Enthanour Miyutioun (Armenian General Union of Physical Culture) Homenmen Beirut also known as HMM—full name Hay Marzagan Miyutioun (Armenian Sports Union) Antranik Sports Club (of the Armenian Youth Association (AYA) of the Armenian General Benevolent Union AGBU) All of them have various branches distributed in many Lebanese cities throughout the country where there are Lebanese Armenian communities. Football The Armenian clubs Homenetmen and Homenmen have important football teams in the official first and second division football leagues in Lebanon, although the membership of the teams is not restricted to ethnic Armenians and will usually include other Lebanese non-Armenian players as well as contracted foreign players, including professional players from Armenia. Homenetmen Beirut has won the Lebanese Football Championship title 7 times in the years: 1944, 1946, 1948, 1951, 1955, 1963 and 1969 and Homenmen Beirut the Championship title 4 times in 1945, 1954, 1957 and 1961. Overall, both clubs feature in the top 5 of most titles in Lebanese football with Homenetmen Beirut winning seven Lebanese titles and Homenmen 4 titles. Pagramian Sports Club was active with its football program in the 1940s and 1950s until it closure in 1960. In 1969, a new sports club Ararad Sports Association considered as a continuation of Pagramian's sports programme. Basketball Armenian clubs Antranik and Homenetmen have prominent basketball teams playing in the official first and second division basketball league in Lebanon, although the membership of the teams is mixed and is not restricted to Armenians and will usually include other Lebanese non-Armenian players as well as contracted foreign players. Many Lebanese Armenians have represented Lebanon in the national team. In women's sports, the Armenian basketball clubs (Homenetmen and Antranik) are traditionally considered as powerhouses in the sport, and both clubs have won the official Lebanese Basketball Championships women title on several occasions. The Armenian club Antranik's Women Basketball team went on to win the pan-Arab club championship titles. Other Sports The above-mentioned Lebanese Armenian clubs also have huge influence on many other sports in Lebanon, but most notably in cycling, table tennis (ping pong) and track and fields. Individual Armenians have also excelled, most notably in weightlifting, wrestling and martial arts competitions. Women Sports Lebanese Armenians also have great influence in women sports in Lebanon, most notably in basketball, cycling and table tennis. The Armenian basketball clubs of Homenetmen and Antranik have won the official Lebanese Basketball Championships on several occasions. The Armenian club Antranik's Women Basketball team went on to win the pan-Arab championship titles. Homenetmen Antelias' Women Basketball team won the Lebanese championship consecutively twice in 2016 and 2017. Notable people Lebanon knows a great number of Armenian notable personalities including politicians Khatchig Babikian, Karim Pakradouni, Hagop Pakradounian, and Vartine Ohanian, media personalities like Zaven Kouyoumdjian, Paula Yacoubian, Nshan Der Haroutioutian, and Mariam Nour, sportsmen like Gretta Taslakian and Wartan Ghazarian, and artists like Paul Guiragossian, Pierre Chammassian, Serj Tankian, Ara Malikian, John Dolmaian, Lazzaro (producer), C-rouge. See also Armenia–Lebanon relations Armenian diaspora Armenian Revolutionary Federation in Lebanon Anjar, Lebanon Bourj Hammoud Holy See of Cilicia List of Lebanese Armenians Lebanese Canadian Lebanese American Sources CIA World Factbook, 2007 References External links Religion Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia Official site Armenian Catholic Church Official site Armenian (Orthodox) Prelacy of Lebanon Media Armeniandiaspora.com: Media of the Lebanese Armenian community Ararad Armenian Daily Aztag Armenian Daily (Armenian) – Arabic supplement – English (daily) Zartonk Armenian Daily Radio Sevan Armenian Radio Station Voice of Van Armenian Radio Station Other Embassy of Armenia to Lebanon Homenetmen Lebanon Official site Official site of Anjar, large Armenian town in Bekaa, Lebanon Lebanon Ethnic groups in Lebanon Middle Eastern diaspora in Lebanon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panthays
Panthays
Panthays (; ) form a group of Chinese Muslims in Myanmar. Panthays are one of the oldest group of Muslims in Burma. The exact proportion of the Chinese Muslim group in the local Chinese population remains unknown due to a lack of data. However, they are concentrated particularly in the northern part of Myanmar- closer to Yunnan, China from where the Panthays historically originated. They particularly reside in the Tangyan-Maymyo-Mandalay-Mogok-Taunggyi area and the Shan States Etymology The name Panthay is a Burmese word, which is said to be identical with the Shan word Pang hse. It was the name by which the Burmese refer to Chinese Muslims who came with caravans to Burma from the Chinese province of Yunnan. The name was not used or known in Yunnan itself. The predominant Muslim ethnic group living in Yunnan are the Hui () and identify as Hui or Huihui (), but never as Panthay. Notably, the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan during the mid 19th century is called in Chinese as either the Du Wenxiu Rebellion or the Pingnan Kingdom. Several theories are suggested as to its derivation, but none is strong enough to refute the others. The Burmese of Old Burma called their own indigenous Muslims Pathi, a word deriving from Persian. It was applied to all Muslims other than the Chinese Muslims. The term "Panthay" being used for Yunnanese Muslims dates from about this time; it was widely used by British travelers and diplomats in the region from about 1875. One other theory is that Panthay is shortened version of the Burmese phrase "Tarup Pase", meaning Chinese Muslim. This was then anglicised by Sladen in his 1868 expedition to Dengyue, Yunnan. The term Panthay achieved widespread usage during the period of British rule, and remains the name by which Myanmar's Chinese Muslim community has generally been distinguished in English language sources to this day. Culture During the Panthay Rebellion, Sultan Suleiman (Du Wenxiu) was eager to establish close and friendly relations neighboring states. He took the opportunity to have a Chinese Muslim mosque installed at the Burmese King's capital. He sent Colonel Mah Too-tu, one of his senior military officers, as his special envoy and agent to Mandalay with the important mission. The mosque took about two years to finish and was opened in 1868 as the second mosque to be built in the royal capital. Today, 134 years later, the Panthay Mosque is still standing as the second oldest mosque in Mandalay. No comprehensive census of the remaining Panthay population within Burma has been taken since 1931 as the 1941 census was cancelled. Restrictions on travel for foreigners, combined with the weak central government control over outlying areas of the Shan and Kachin Hills where many Panthays live, made attempts to calculate the Panthay population almost impossible in 1980. An exaggerated estimate of 100,000 Panthays resident within Burma appeared in the Burmese daily Hanthawaddi in 1960.. Readily identifiable Panthay communities continue to exist in several areas like Yangon, Mandalay, Taunggyi. Ny report, the Panthays have communities in Kengtung, Bhamo, Mogok, Lashio, Pyin-Oo-Lwin and at Tanyan, near Lashio. Wherever they have settled in sufficient numbers, the Panthays have established their own mosques and madrasas. Some of these mosques are in "pseudo-Moghul" style, clearly having been influenced by Indian Muslim tastes and styles, whilst others (notably at Mandalay) have Chinese architectural features. As with the Hui in China, the Burmese Panthay are exclusively Hanafi Muslims. Few are conversant with more than the most elementary phrases of Arabic, and quite often when a Panthay imam is not available to care for the spiritual welfare of a community, a South Asian and Zerbadi Muslim is engaged instead. The Zerbadi are descendent community of intermarriages between foreign Muslim (South Asian and Middle Eastern) males and Burmese females. Panthay caravaners In the pre-colonial times the Panthays emerged as excellent long-distance caravaneers of southern China and northern Southeast Asia. They virtually dominated whole caravan trade of Yunnan by the time the first pioneers of French and British imperialism arrived in Yunnan. By the mid 19th century the caravans of Yunnanese traders ranged over an area extending from the eastern frontiers of Tibet, through Assam, Burma, Thailand, Laos and Tongkin (presently part of Vietnam), to the southern Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou and Guangxi. The Chinese Muslim domination of the Yunnan caravan network continued well into the 20th century. The Chinese Muslims of Yunnan were noted for their mercantile prowess. Within Yunnan, the Muslim population excelled as merchants and soldiers, the two qualities, which made them ideally suited to the rigors of overland trade in the rugged, mountainous regions, and to deserve the rewards therefrom. They might have been helped in this by their religion of Islam from its inception had flourished as a Religion of Trade. The religious requirement to perform Hajj pilgrimage had also helped them to establish an overland road between Yunnan and Arabia as early as the first half of the 14th century. The merchandise brought from Yunnan by the Panthay caravaneers included silk, tea, metal utensils, iron in the rough, felts, finished articles of clothing, walnuts, opium, wax, preserved fruits and foods, and dried meat of several kinds. The Burmese goods taken back to Yunnan were raw cotton, raw and wrought silk, amber, jades and other precious stones, velvets, betel-nuts, tobacco, gold-leaf, preserves, paps, dye woods, stick lac, ivory, and specialized foodstuffs such as slugs, edible bird's nest, among other things. Raw cotton, which was reserved as a royal monopoly, was in great demand in China. An extensive trade in this commodity had existed between the Konbaung dynasty and Yunnan. Goods were transported up the Ayeyarwady River to Bhamo where it was sold to the Chinese merchants, and conveyed partly by land and partly by water into Yunnan, and from there to other provinces of China. Most caravans consisted of between fifty and one hundred mules, employing ten to fifteen drivers. History Muslims in Yunnan The history of the Panthays in Burma was inseparably linked to that of Yunnan, their place of origin. Within Yunnan, the Chinese Muslim population excelled as merchants and soldiers, which made them ideally suited to the rigors of overland trade in the mountainous regions. Commercial and cultural contacts between the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and the Irrawaddy Delta and lower Salween River probably predate significant migration by Han Chinese or Bamar populations into either area. In the 8th century, the Yi state of Nanzhao was the dominant power in the region, a position which both it and its successor, the Dali Kingdom, held until the Mongol conquest of the region five centuries later.. Despite the political independence of Nanzhao, Chinese cultural influence penetrated the frontier region throughout the Tang and Song dynasties. It is possible that during the mid-Tang period – in about 801 – surrendered Muslim soldiers, described in the Chinese Annals as the Hēiyī Dàshí (, "Black-clad Tay'ī, a term referring to the black flags of the Abbasid Caliphate) were first settled in Yunnan. It is at least certain that Muslims of Central Asian origin played a major role in the Yuan conquest and rule of Southwest China. As a result, a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century. One important soldier-administrator was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, a Turkic court official and general who became Yuan Governor of Yunnan from 1274–79. His son Nasir al-Din, was in charge Yunnan's road systems and commanded the first Mongol invasion of Burma in 1277. Shams al-Din is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building temples of Confucius as well as mosques and schools. During his rule, a significant number of Muslim soldiers of Central Asian origin were transferred to Yunnan, which was still largely unpopulated by Han Chinese settlers. The descendants of these Muslim garrison troops are the nucleus of present-day Chinese Muslim populations both in Yunnan and Burma. Within Yunnan, the Hui Muslim population flourished throughout the Yuan and Ming periods. In the early Yuan dynasty, Marco Polo noted the presence of "Saracens" amongst the population during his visit. The Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani similarly recorded in the Jami' al-tawarikh that "the great city of Yachi" in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Dali, which was the earliest centre of Hui settlement in Yunnan. Panthays during Konbaung period In the 19th century, during the Konbaung period, Panthays started to settle in the royal capital of Mandalay, particularly during the reign of King Mindon. Although their number was small, a few found their way inside the court as jade-assessors. They lived side by side with non-Muslim Chinese in Chinatowns (;tayoke tan), which had been designated by King Mindon as the residential area for the Chinese. The non-Muslim Chinese had started settling in considerably earlier. So by the arrival of the Panthays, there already was a Chinese community at Mandalay with its own bank, companies and warehouses and organized social and economic life. It happened that there were also already Chinese jade-assessors in the employ of the king. Rivalry between the Chinese and Panthay jade-assessors in courting the royal favor naturally led to a quarrel between the two groups, resulting in a number of deaths. King Mindon did not give much serious thought to the religious and social differences between the Panthays and the Chinese. But after the Chinatown quarrel, the king began to see the wisdom of separating the two groups. King Mindon granted the Panthays of the royal capital land on which to settle as a separate community. The goal beibg to preventing further quarrels between them and the Chinese. The Panthays were given the rare favor of choosing their own place of residence within the confines of the royal capital, and they chose the site on which the present-day Panthay Compound is located. It was bounded on the north by 35th Street, in the south by 36th Street, in the east by 79th Street and in the west by 80th Street. This site was chosen because it was the camping ground for the mule caravans from Yunnan, which regularly came to the capital via the Hsenwi route. The King also permitted a mosque to be built on the granted site so that the Panthays would have their own place of worship. Having no funds for an undertaking of such magnitude, the Panthays of Mandalay put up the matter to the Sultan of Yunnan. Sultan Sulaiman had already started a business enterprise (hao) in Mandalay and was happy to take the opportunity. Panthay rebellion According to Ming Guangshi's book Panthay History, the Panthay originate from the families of some loyal lieutenants of the self-proclaimed Sultan of Yunnan - the Hui General Du Wenxiu (). These families fled to Wa State in northern Shan State after the failure of the Panthay Rebellion under the leadership of Ma Lin-Gi (). Ma Lin-Gi divorced his wife of surname Yuan and married a widow of surname Ting. They later had two sons, the elder named Mah Mei-Ting (馬美廷) born in 1878 and the second son named Mah Shen-Ting (馬陞廷) born in 1879. The older son later became the leader of the Panthay community in Myanmar. During early 19th century, the Hui Muslim and other minority peoples of Yunnan faced increased population pressures as a result of Han Chinese migration to the province. Resentment against this development, coupled with mounting hostility towards Qing rule, led to the Panthay Rebellion in 1855. Muslim miners in the Qianshui region were the starting point of the rebellion. Within two years, the center of rebellion had spread to westwards under the leadership of Du Wenxiu. Du was a Hui born in Yongcheng. Du Wenxiu's father was a Han who converted to Islam. The unfavorable discrimination with which the Hui were treated was at the root of their rebellions. However, the revolt was not religious in nature, since the Muslims were joined by non-Muslim Shan and Kakhyen groups. In addition, loyalist Muslim forces helped Qing crush the rebel Muslims. For the next fifteen years, until the Qing reconquest, Dali remained the capital of the self-proclaimed Pingnan Kingdom, "Country of the peaceful South", proclaimed as an "Islamic Kingdom of Yunnan". Du erected a Forbidden City, wore Ming hanfu in repudiation of Qing authority, and adopted the Muslim name and title "Sultan Sulayman". The Sultanate, fashioned after those in the Middle East, survived in Yunnan for over ten years, reaching its heights in 1860. Panthay governorships were also created in a few important cities, such as Momein (Tengchong), close to the Burmese border town of Bhamo. The Qing secretly hounded mobs on to the rich Panthays, provoked anti-Hui riots and instigated destruction of their mosques. The Panthays repulsed the desultory attacks and took town after town. The ancient holy city of Dali fell to the Panthays in 1857. With the capture of Dali, Muslim supremacy became an established fact in Yunnan. During this period, the Sultan Suleiman, on his way to Mecca as a pilgrim, visited Rangoon, presumably via the Kengtung. From there he went to Calcutta where he had a chance to see the power of the British colonists. He had also started a company in Mandalay, housed in a one-story brick building located at the present-day Taryedan on the west side of the 80th Street, between 36th and 37th Streets. The hao had been carrying on business in precious stones, jades, cotton, silk and other commodities of both Chinese and Burmese origins. The Panthay power declined after 1868. The Chinese Imperial Government had succeeded in reinvigorating itself. By 1871, it launched a campaign for the annihilation of the Panthays. Quickly, towns fell and Sultan Suleiman found himself caged in by the walls of his capital. He turned to the British colonists for military assistance, but was unsuccessful. Seeing no escape, Sultan Suleiman tried to take his own life before the fall of Dali, but was beheaded before the poison could take effect. The Sultan's head was preserved in honey and sent to the Imperial Court as a trophy of their decisive victory. Exodus The scattered remnants of the Panthay troops continue their resistance after the fall of Dali. But when Momien was next besieged and stormed by the imperial troops in May 1873, their resistance broke completely. Many adherents to the Panthay cause were persecuted by the Qing. Many Panthays fled with their families across the Burmese border and took refuge in the Wa State where, they set up the exclusively Panthay town of Panglong in 1875. The demise of the Sultanate had shattered the hope of all their own Islamic kingdom in Yunnan. For a period of perhaps ten to fifteen years following the collapse, the province's Hui minority was widely discriminated against. During these years, Hui refugees settled across the frontier within Burma gradually established themselves in their traditional callings – as merchants, caravaneers, miners, restaurateurs as well as some smugglers and mercenaries. 15 years after the fall of the Sultanate, the original Panthay settlements had grown to include numbers of Shan and other hill peoples. Mandalay Colonel Mah Too-tu found himself in the same situation. When the Sultanate fell, Mah Too-tu was stranded at Mandalay. For a man of his rank and stature, going back to Dali meant sure execution by the Qing authorities. In November 1868, he bought a plot of land with a house on it for 80 pieces of one-kyat coins from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess. On 7 June 1873, Mah Too-tu married Shwe Gwe, a lady from Sagyin-wa village near Amarapura, who happened to be the daughter of a princess of Manipur brought to Mandalay as a captive by the Burmese king. Mah Too-tu spent the last years of his life at the Panthay Compound with his Burmese wife. After the mass exodus from Yunnan, the number of Panthays residing in Mandalay gradually increased. The new arrivals, usually families, came by way of Bhamo or via the Wa State. When the land for the Panthays was granted by King Mindon, there were a few houses on it, in addition to several old graves. The place had been an abandoned graveyard. In the years immediately following the completion of the mosque, there were less than twenty houses in the Panthay Compound. There were also between ten and twenty Panthay households living in other parts of Mandalay. The establishment of the Panthay Mosque in 1868 marked the emergence of the Panthays as a distinct community in Mandalay. Although the number of this first generation of Panthays remained small, the mosque signified the beginning of the first Panthay Jama'at (Congregation) in Mandalay Ratanabon Naypyidaw. Panlong Over the next thirty years or so, the Panthays of Panlong in Wa State continued to prosper. By the early 1920s, a feud had developed between them and the Wa in neighbouring Pangkham. In 1926, this erupted into the local "Wa-Panthay War". The Panthay emerged victorious and Panlong threw off its vassalage to Pangkham and reinforced its dominance over trade in the area. In addition to legitimate trading, the Panthays of Panlong also became known as 'the aristocrats of the opium business' in the region now known as the Golden Triangle. The Panthay left the risky business of peddling this highly profitable commodity locally to Shan and Han Chinese dealers. Instead, they ran large, well-armed caravans in long-distance convoys far into Siam, Laos, Tonkin and Yunnan. Each muleload was guarded by two rifles. When Harvey visited Panlong in 1931 he found that Panthay numbers had risen to 5,000 ('including local recruits') and that they were financed by Singaporean Chinese, had 130 Mauser rifles with 1,500 mules, and exported opium by the hundredweight into French, Siamese and British territory. In contrast to Harvey's estimate, official estimates put the Panthay population of Burma at 2,202 for 1911 (1,427 males and 775 females), whilst by the 1921 Census of India this had declined to 1,517 (1,076 males and 441 females), and by 1931 to 1,106 (685 males and 421 females). British Burma Other Panthays moved further into Burma, initially as miners anxious to exploit the ruby mines of Mogok; the Baldwin silver mines of Namtu in the Northern Shan State, the jade mines of Mogaung in Kachin State. Numbers of Panthay restaurateurs and innkeepers, merchants and traders settled in the urban centres of upland Burma – chiefly at Lashio, Kengtung, Bhamo and Taunggyi – to service the needs of these miners, passing caravaneers and local inhabitants. Other settlements largely devoted to trade with the indigenous Shan and Karen populations sprang up along the Salween River. Some moved to major urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, most notably to Mandalay and Rangoon, where they flourished as merchants and middle-men representatives of Panlong and the other "Overland Chinese" settlements of Upper Burma and the "Overseas Chinese" community of the lowland port-cities. Bassein and Moulmein must also have attracted some Panthay settlement, the latter port being a terminus of the overland caravan trade from Yunnan in its own right, via the northern Thai trade route through Kengtung, Chiang Mai and Mae Sariang. During most of the British rule in Burma these Panthay settlers flourished, specialising in all levels of commerce from the international gem markets to shop and inn-keeping, mule-breeding and peddling or street hawking. Yunnanese peddlars penetrated into the unadministered and inaccessible hill tracts of "The Triangle" between the Mali Hka and Nmai Hka rivers, to the north of Myitkyina. Beyond the urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, the Panthays continued their involvement in the caravan trade with Yunnan, transporting silk, tea, metal goods and foods from China to Burma, and carrying back European manufactured goods like broadcloths, specialized food and, above all, raw cotton, to Yunnan. World War II and independence The traditional dominance of Panthay in the trade of the Burma-Yunnan frontier region was set back by the construction of the Burma Road between Lashio and Kunming in 1937–38. During World War II, the main Panthay settlement at Panglong was destroyed in 1941 by the Japanese invasion of Burma. Many Panthay fled to Yunnan, or crossed the jungle frontiers into Thailand and Laos to escape Japanese persecution. The Japanese destroyed Panglong, burning it and driving out the over 200 Hui households out as refugees to Yunnan and Kokang. Ma Guanggui, a Hui, became the leader of the Hui Panlong self defense guard. The guard was created by the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China to fight against the Japanese invasion of Panlong in 1942. An account of the Japanese attack in Panlong was written and published in 1998 in the "Panglong Booklet". The exodus of thousands of Yunnanese refugees and Kuomintang troops following the seizure of power by the Chinese Communists in 1949. As a result of these developments, which brought a flood of predominantly Han, and not Hui, "Overland Chinese" to the Burmese Shan States, many Panthay seem to have chosen to migrate to northern Thailand, where their communities continue to flourish. See also Islam in Burma Islam in China Islam in India Islam in Asia Burmese Indians Rohingya people Burmese Chinese Hui Chinese Chin Haw Panthay Rebellion Dungan people Burmese Malays References Further reading Anderson, John, Mandalay to Momien: A Narrative of the Two Expeditions to Western China of 1868 and 1875 (London: Macmillan, 1876). Ba Shin, Lt. Colonel, "Coming of Islam to Burma Down to 1700 AD.," Asian History Congress (New Delhi: Azad Bhavan, 1961). Forbes, Andrew D.W., "The Role of Hui Muslims in the Traditional Caravan Trade between Yunnan and Thailand," Asian Merchants and Businessmen in the Indian Ocean and the China sea: 13th-20th Centuries (French Journal published under the direction of Denys Lombard & Jean Aubin), (Paris: School of Higher Studies in Social Sciences, 1987). Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). Traders of the Golden Triangle. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B006GMID5K Kaye, J.W., Major Sladen's Report on the Bhamo Route, (In Continuation of Parliamentary Paper No. 251, of Session 1868-9), (London: India Office, 1871), Microfilm copy. Scott, J. George, GUBSS, 1, i ( Rangoon Government Printing, 1900). Thaung, Dr., “Panthay Interlude in Yunnan: A Study in Vicissitudes Through the Burmese Kaleidoscope,” JBRS Fifth Anniversary Publications No. 1 (Rangoon Sarpy Beikman, 1961). Yule, Col. Henry & Burnell, A. C., Hobson-Jobson- A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical And Discursive (Delhi-.Munshiran Manoharlal, 1968), Reprint. Than Tun, Dr. (Professor of History), History on Tour, 111, (In Burma) (Yangon Nantha House, August 1968). Parabaik dated 13 November 1868 containing a short account of Mah Too-tu's purchase of land and house from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess (a family parabaik of the writer). External links Chinese diaspora in Asia Ethnic groups in Myanmar Hui people Muslim communities in Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Lawrence%20Seminary%20High%20School
St. Lawrence Seminary High School
St. Lawrence Seminary High School is a preparatory high school operated by the Province of St. Joseph of the Capuchin Order at Mount Calvary, Wisconsin. The school is in the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. It is an all-male boarding school, with approximately 225 students enrolled in grades 9 through 12. The school's mission is to prepare its male students for vocations (ordained, vowed religious, married, or single life) in the Catholic Church. The high school was founded in 1860 as the Convent Latin School by two Capuchin friars, Gregory Haas (1826-1895) and Bonaventure Frey (1831-1912). Over the years it has been called the Convent Latin School, the Little Seminary of St. Lawrence of Brindisi, St. Lawrence College, St. Lawrence Seminary, and St. Lawrence Seminary High School. St. Francis Brothers' School merged with St. Lawrence Seminary. History Founding On February 2, 1849 the pioneer priest Father Caspar Rehrl purchased the hilltop land at Mount Calvary from John Blonigen. A log church of Saint Nicholas was built and the first mass was on May 17, 1849 with the dedication on June 25, 1853. Four diocesan priests served as non-resident pastors. On October 15, 1856 two Swiss diocesan priests, Gregory Haas and John Anthony (Bonaventure) Frey, arrived by horseback on the hill called Mount Calvary in east central Wisconsin. The little log church of Saint Nicholas was the only building on the hill. They decided to build their own little cloister. The two priests had left their native Switzerland in July of that year. They arrived in Milwaukee, where Bishop John Martin Henni, a fellow countryman, welcomed them to work among the immigrants in the diocese. But the two priests had not come to work with immigrants; they had come to establish the Capuchin Order in the United States, even though they themselves were not yet Capuchins. The two priests bought the property on Mount Calvary. The 29-year-old Haas returned to Europe to beg funds and to bring back a Capuchin to serve as novice master for him and Frey and any other candidates who joined them. The 25-year-old Frey began building the friary for the first Capuchin foundation in the United States. When Haas returned from Switzerland with two Capuchin friars and three candidates, he found the friary burdened by debts, but not ready for occupancy by the seven men who would begin the Capuchin foundation. For the first of several times, the School Sisters of Notre Dame, who had a small convent and school on the neighboring hill, came to the rescue. They gave the Capuchins the use of their convent. On December 2, 1857 Father Anthony Maria Gachet, a Capuchin who returned with Haas from Switzerland, invested him and Frey and the three other candidates with the Capuchin habit. Even during their novitiate Father Francis and Father Bonaventure (as they were now known) had to make a begging trip to Canada, so great was the burden of debt on the new foundation. Their trip was successful, and the debts were paid. They made their first profession of vows on February 16, 1859. Father Anthony Maria, the novice master, lost interest in the undertaking and began to work among the Menominee people in Keshena, Wisconsin. Convent Latin School In 1860 Father Francis and Father Bonaventure opened the Convent Latin School to educate boys so they could join the Capuchin Order. Four boys enrolled. The tuition was $10.00 a year. This marked the beginning of Saint Lawrence Seminary. The first year of the new college was difficult. The founders’ dreams were modified by their recognition of the need for priests in the Midwest. The college served to educate young men, some of whom the founders hoped would be drawn to join the new Capuchin foundation. In the fall of 1862 15 students enrolled, and 20 began the following year. In 1864 a college wing was added to the friary. (In the mid-19th century any formal educational institution beyond elementary was called a college.) The Convent Latin School merged with the college, making total enrollment 49 students. Friars who taught in the college also served nearby parishes. Their parish ministry financially supported the college. They also went on preaching and begging tours in the Midwest. In 1867 the friary was enlarged again to make more room for the college students. It was now a quadrangle with a courtyard in the center. The following year saw 28 Capuchin friars and 42 students at the newly completed college. Little Seminary of Saint Lawrence of Brindisi Disaster struck the friary and college on Christmas night, 1868 when a fire started in the sacristy after everyone was asleep. The entire building, with the exception of part of the parish church, burned to the ground. For a second time, the School Sisters of Notre Dame rescued the friars by allowing them the use of their convent. The sisters moved into a recently vacated farmhouse next to their property. All but six students at the college were sent home. The six students who remained decided they wanted to join the Capuchins. Rebuilding began and, remarkably, the friary and college were ready for occupancy in August 1869. The college was known as the Little Seminary of Saint Lawrence of Brindisi. The college students needed separate quarters. In 1872 Saint Joseph Hall was erected for their use. The number students continued to increase, and the Laurentianum (the present Main Building) was built in 1881. All student activity was now separate from the friary, with the exception of the dining room. In 1886, at the urging of bishops in the Midwest, a commercial course was introduced into the college curriculum so that Catholic young men going into the business world would have a strong foundation in their Catholic faith. The Minister General of the Capuchin Order visited the college in 1891 and encouraged the friars to spare no efforts in making Saint Lawrence College a first-class educational institution. A student chapel was added to the Laurentianum in 1893. Saint Thomas Hall was built in 1898 to serve as an auditorium and gymnasium. The grounds were beautified continually, and the course of studies was refined and broadened. The curriculum was now a six-year course, including philosophy. The college was accredited by the Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities. Saint Lawrence College In 1903 the Capuchin Province decided that Saint Lawrence College would serve the exclusive purpose of preparing candidates for the Capuchin Order. The commercial course and the philosophy curriculum were discontinued. The decision decreased the enrollment from 130 students in the 1902-03 academic year to 75 the following year. From 1905 through 1907 the rector of Saint Lawrence College was Father Joseph Wald who was originally from Green Bay, Wisconsin. Father Wald also taught Latin, Geology and Zoology. In 1906 the Province elected Father Antonine Wilmer as Provincial Minister. He had been the rector of Saint Lawrence College prior to the decision that it serve exclusively Capuchin candidates. Immediately after his election as Provincial Minister, he held a conference with the faculty at Saint Lawrence. He outlined his idea for the college, which was to prepare the students, by a thorough high school and college course, either to enter any lay profession or to continue successfully their preparation for ministry. Saint Francis Hall was built in 1917 as a residence for those students who intended to be Capuchins. These students took their classes with the rest of the student body, but wore the Third Order habit and lived in Saint Francis Hall. They also followed a schedule of prayer that was different from the other students. In 1923 the General Minister of the Order visited the college and said Capuchin candidates should not be educated with diocesan seminarians and others in the same institution. He wanted the college closed to all but Capuchin candidates. The friars at the college and many others in the Province were chagrined at the decision of the General. When the General met with the Provincial Superiors, he said that the dual purpose could not continue, but he left it to the Provincial Superiors to resolve the matter. They resolved the matter by abolishing the separate course for the Capuchin candidates. The college would continue and Saint Francis Hall became available to the whole college. Saint Lawrence Seminary Development of higher education in the United States during the 1920s influenced Saint Lawrence College. The professors earned graduate degrees. The college was affiliated with the University of Wisconsin (now University of Wisconsin–Madison), which accredited the school in 1930. In 1933 Capuchin Father Alexis Gore was appointed rector. He realigned the curriculum and introduced the method of teaching required by the Regents of University of the State of New York. The transition was completed smoothly in one year. Father Gerald Walker was appointed rector in 1943. The previous year's enrollment had been 130 students. Father Gerald dreamed of a greater Laurentianum. Through massive amounts of correspondence with prospective students and benefactors, he led the school to great growth. A new college catalog was widely distributed, with the result that the 1943-44 school year began with an enrollment of 173 students. By 1949 the school had reached its capacity of about 200 students. Many applicants were put on the waiting list. In 1951 ground breaking took place for the erection of Saint Mary's Hall, a multipurpose building that included a dormitory, a dining room, study halls, and recreation rooms. The increased space was filled immediately. Enrollment jumped to 273 students. In 1953 the name of the school was officially changed from Saint Lawrence College to Saint Lawrence Seminary. St. Francis Brothers’ School and North Central Accreditation That same year property two miles distant from the seminary was purchased to provide a campus for Saint Francis Brothers’ School, which opened with 11 students in 1954. Father Gratian Zach succeeded Father Gerald Walker as rector in 1955. A new student chapel was built in 1957, present day St. Conrad Hall. Construction was completed on a new dormitory, St. Anthony Hall in 1959, and Saint Fidelis Activities Building in 1962. The serious work of academic growth took the form of preparing for accreditation of the two schools by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. 1963 witnessed a record enrollment of 361 students. Saint Lawrence Seminary and Saint Francis Brothers’ School were accredited by North Central in 1966. On April 1, 1966 the accreditation was completed. Post-Vatican II There was one final building project yet to be completed. The friary on the hill, which had been built after the fire of 1868, needed to be replaced. By 1967 some minor seminaries had already closed. In 1968 Father Rupert Dorn, the Provincial of the Capuchin Province wrote, "We know that some minor seminaries have closed down. Others have become Christian leadership schools ... Recently I was told by a seminary professor, 'The minor seminary is a sinking ship and the sooner we get off it the better'." We cannot predict with any certainty that we will not have to make adjustments at the minor seminary in the future. However, for the present we will work with all our hearts to save the ship." In that spirit the construction of a new friary and student chapel was undertaken. The former student chapel was converted into an auditorium, and the complex was dedicated in July 1971. Academic requirements in the United States in the late 1960s and the 1970s dictated the discontinuance of the junior college department at Saint Lawrence Seminary. A merger in 1971 between Saint Francis Brothers’ School and Saint Lawrence Seminary brought the Brothers’ School students to the Hill, leaving the former Brothers’ School campus to serve as a residence for the college students who took their courses at Marian College of Fond du Lac or at other colleges in the area. Father Joseph O’Connor was appointed rector in 1971. Enrollment was 295 students. That number stabilized at about 280 for the next few years. In 1975 opening day enrollment was 320. With many minor seminaries closing, some questioned the reason for the continued high enrollment of Saint Lawrence. Did the young men intend to be priests and brothers or not? The Board of Directors of the seminary discussed whether in 10 or 15 years the philosophy and mission of the seminary would be specifically to prepare candidates for the priesthood and brotherhood, or ministry in any form. Enrollment declined from 276 in 1980 to 203 in 1984. In 1985 a study of the seminary was commissioned asking: What can Saint Lawrence Seminary do? What can't it do? What, if anything, can it do with excellence? Is there anyone interested in what Saint Lawrence can do? If so, how might it reach those people? The study concluded that one thing Saint Lawrence Seminary could do with excellence was to provide a foundation for a life of ministry in the Church. Priests, brothers, deacons, and lay alumni indicated that the personal relationship with God they developed during their days at Saint Lawrence inspired their adult lives. The Roman Catholic Church had rearticulated its understanding of ministry and who was called to ministry, stating that ministry was the prerogative of all baptized Catholics. Saint Lawrence Seminary modified its philosophy and mission to include young men who wanted to lay a foundation for a life of ministry in the Church. The study indicated that for an increase in enrollment the school needed to be more selective in the students it accepted. Although the school became more selective, enrollment continued to decline. A turn-around began to take place in 1989. The enrollment rose from 149 in 1989 to 234 in 1994. Sexual abuse allegations In 1992 the Milwaukee Journal published a series of articles alleging the sexual abuse of students by members of the Capuchin Order. The seminary hired a law firm to contact all alumni to ascertain the extent of the problem and offer assistance. On July 13, 2012 Father Dennis Druggan was removed as rector of the school following allegations of sexual misconduct involving two boys during his tenure at St. Labre Indian Catholic High School in Ashland, Montana between 1984 and 1991. On February 18, Fr. Dennis Druggan was removed from the ministry after a provincial review board stated that there was "sufficient evidence to sustain the allegations". The Rosebud, Montana County Attorney did not pursue an investigation, citing the expiration of the statute of limitations, but stated that the case remains open, since Druggan left the state within ten years of the alleged incident. The seminary today Throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century St. Lawrence Seminary has become an increasingly multicultural institution dedicated to preparing young men for a life of ministry within the Catholic Church. St. Lawrence Seminary continues to function as a college preparatory school, partnering with parents and providing for ministry and leadership in the Roman Catholic Church. As of March 2014, the school enrolls approximately 200 students. While students must be Roman Catholic and male, the student body is predominantly Hispanic and Asian. In the early morning of March 8, 2014, there was a fire at the St. Joseph Hall. It was the oldest building on campus, built in 1872 and was used for admissions and the school band. The building was knocked down to prevent the fire from spreading to other buildings. Deemed of suspicious origin, a fifteen year old male was taken into custody on charges of theft and burglary. A brick from St. Joseph's served as the cornerstone for the recently remodeled St. Anthony Hall. Marian University (Wisconsin) offers the St. Lawrence Seminary Award, partial tuition scholarship for Freshman and Transfer Students who have attended the four consecutive semesters preceding graduation from St. Lawrence Seminary in Mount Calvary. Purpose St. Lawrence Seminary has existed, since its founding in 1860, as a school for Catholic high school and college youth interested in pursuing a vocation to ministry in the Catholic Church, primarily in the priesthood. Underlying the school's philosophy is the conviction that the primary obligation of all Christians is to witness to gospel values in that vocation to which God calls them. Combined with this belief is the additional conviction that such values are not only the path to eternal salvation and union with God for each individual but also the only real remedy for the ills of the human community. Therefore, the staff of St. Lawrence Seminary attempts to promote and foster these values in themselves and in the adolescents who enter into and participate in the life of the community. The overriding purpose for St. Lawrence's existence is to promote, foster, and live principles and values announced in the gospel of Jesus Christ and articulated in the Catholic Church. School seal and motto Celsitudo ex humilitate is the motto of St. Lawrence Seminary, which has been incorporated into the school seal. Used to describe St. Lawrence of Brindisi, Celsitudo ex humilitate can be translated literally as “To the heavens out of our humility” or more poetically as “To the heights, from the depths.” The seal depicts a cross on a hill with the motto and date of the school's founding. Mascot and school colors St. Lawrence Seminary's sports teams are known as “The Hilltoppers”, inspired by the Swiss origins of the school's founders and the hill of Mount Calvary on which St. Lawrence is located. Brown and gold are the school colors, the brown taken from the color of the Capuchin Franciscan habit worn by the friars and the gold being the color that adorns the flag of the Catholic Church. The St. Lawrence Seminary Alumni Association provides opportunities for alumni of the school to come together to reinforce their ties with the school and each other. The Provincial Minister and Provincial Councilors of the Capuchin Province of St. Joseph serve as the trustees of the school. A Ministry Council, appointed by the Provincial Council, advises the administration and trustees on the seminary's policies and procedures. Members of this council include lay and ordained alumni, educators, Capuchins and the wife and mother of alumni. Extracurricular activities The school participates in forensics as a member of the Wisconsin High School Forensic Association and the Wisconsin Forensic Coaches Association. The students publish a yearbook, The Laurentian, annually and a school newspaper, Hilltopics. Each spring the students present either a musical or dramatic play. In addition to performing a Christmas concert and a spring concert, students in the choir and band participate in the solo and ensemble competitions sponsored by the Wisconsin School Music Association. The school participates in a variety of sports and belongs to the Wisconsin Interscholastic Athletic Association and the Wisconsin Flyway Conference. Field Day One of the long-held traditions of St. Lawrence is Field Day. The tradition began in 1907. According to the biography of rector Fr. Benedict Mueller "The rector loved to see his students enjoy themselves to the full in the proper time in place. On Field Day he was meticulously attentive, leaving nothing to chance, personally supervising the making of sandwiches, the purchase of ice cream, soda, and the other trimmings. In 1907 he introduced the custom of holding the annual Field Day on the college grounds. Previously, Field Day had been just that, a day spent some miles away from home grounds in the field of some friendly farmer. A sudden storm sometimes meant a drenching for the crowd of shelterless students and a ruined day. Besides, with the Field Day at home there was a much better opportunity for a variety of athletic events." In 1972, the Student Council began choosing a word for the theme of the day. The custom is to choose a word that begins with the letter "E". Students use the theme to hold a contest for the best T-shirt design. The tradition continues today with 2020's Field Day being themed as "Epidemic" and featuring virtual competitions. Students compete by fraternities in a variety of events. The morning traditionally ends with a "Don't be late for Chapel" event, a relay race from the bottom of the hill to the top. A highlight of the afternoon is the customary faculty-student softball game. The afternoon ends with the traditional "Tower Shower" where seniors toss water balloons (some containing money) off the top of the four story tower. Notable alumni Since 1860 there have been over 5,000 alumni of the Convent Latin School, St. Lawrence College, St. Francis Brothers' School, and St. Lawrence Seminary. Over 1,500 have been priests. The 3,500 lay alumni have entered a great variety of professions, many have been in involved in active ministry in the Catholic Church. Bishop Apollinaris William Baumgartner OFMCap (Apostolic Vicar of Agana, Guam) - William Baumgartner – 1916−19 Bishop Salvador Albert Schlaefer Berg, OFMCap (Apostolic Vicar of Bluefields, Nicaragua) – 1938 Fr. Celestine Bittle, OFMCap, 1897−1962; noted author and philosopher, military chaplain, and first principal of Messmer High School in Milwaukee Msgr. Terrence G. Brady, the vicar general of the Archdiocese of Dubuque and rector of St. Raphael Cathedral – 1891−95 Bishop Fabian Wendelin Bruskewitz (Bishop of Lincoln, NE) – 1949−53 Bishop Octavio Cisneros (Auxiliary of Brooklyn, NY) – 1962−65 Mathias Durbin – 1862−67, first student whose name was recorded Bishop Raphael Michael Fliss (Ordinary of Superior, WI) – 1944−45 Fr. Clement Neubaur, OFMCap (Capuchin Minister General) 1908−10 Archbishop John F. Noll (Ordinary of Ft. Wayne, IN) – 1888−93 Bishop Joseph Nathaniel Perry (Auxiliary Chicago, IL) – 1963−66 Archbishop Henry Rohlman (Ordinary of Dubuque, IA) – 1892−96 George Nauman Shuster - 1907−11, noted author, professor at University of Notre Dame, president of Hunter College Bishop David Albin Zywiec Sidor, OFMCap (Auxiliary of Bluefields, Nicaragua) – David Zywiec – 1961−65 Bishop Pablo Ervin Schmitz Simon, OFMCap (Ordinary of Bluefields, Nicaragua) – Paul Schmitz – 1958−62 Fr. Lawrence Vorwerk, OFMCap 1862−64, earliest student to become a Capuchin Fr. Antonine Wilmer, OFMCap 1872−77, served as rector of St. Lawrence, Provincial Minister, Definitor General, and rector of the College in Rome = deceased References Sources Baer, C. R. (2005). Lady Poverty revisited: A history of the Province of St. Joseph of the Capuchin Order. Detroit, MI: Capuchin Province of St. Joseph. Clark, Keith (2010). The Dreams of Our Founders & the Hopes of Our Students. The Province of St. Joseph of the Capuchin Order, Inc. Jansch, Ronald, OFM Cap. (2007) Bonaventure's Memoirs, a translation. Detroit, MI: Capuchin Province of St. Joseph. Vieracker, C. (1924). The Laurentianum: Its Origin and Work (1864-1924). Mt. Calvary, WI: St. Lawrence College Alumni Association. Vieracker, C. (2007). The History of Mt. Calvary (Fond Du Lac County, WI). (R. Jansch, trans.). Detroit, MI: Capuchin Province of St. Joseph. (Original work published 1907) Zehr, M. A. (2003). "Spiritual guidance," Education Week"", 23(10), 34-39. External links Official website St. Lawrence Seminary Alumni Association website Spiritual Guidance, article at Education Week Video about St. Lawrence St. Lawrence Seminary High School celebrates 150 years of education at The Badger Catholic Classes back in session following fire at St. Lawrence Seminary at WTAQ Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee Catholic minor seminaries in the United States Catholic secondary schools in Wisconsin Seminaries and theological colleges in Wisconsin Boys' schools in the United States Schools in Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin Educational institutions established in 1860 1860 establishments in Wisconsin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20planning
Economic planning
Economic planning is a resource allocation mechanism based on a computational procedure for solving a constrained maximization problem with an iterative process for obtaining its solution. Planning is a mechanism for the allocation of resources between and within organizations contrasted with the market mechanism. As an allocation mechanism for socialism, economic planning replaces factor markets with a procedure for direct allocations of resources within an interconnected group of socially owned organizations which together comprise the productive apparatus of the economy. There are various forms of economic planning that vary based on their specific procedures and approach. The level of centralization or decentralization in decision-making depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed. In addition, one can distinguish between centralized planning and decentralized planning. An economy primarily based on planning is referred to as a planned economy. In a centrally planned economy, the allocation of resources is determined by a comprehensive plan of production which specifies output requirements. Planning can also take the form of indicative planning within a market-based economy, where the state employs market instruments to induce independent firms to achieve development goals. A distinction can be made between physical planning (as in pure socialism) and financial planning (as practiced by governments and private firms in capitalism). Physical planning involves economic planning and coordination conducted in terms of disaggregated physical units whereas financial planning involves plans formulated in terms of financial units. In socialism Different forms of economic planning have been featured in various models of socialism. These range from decentralized-planning systems which are based on collective decision-making and disaggregated information to centralized systems of planning conducted by technical experts who use aggregated information to formulate plans of production. In a fully developed socialist economy, engineers and technical specialists, overseen or appointed in a democratic manner, would coordinate the economy in terms of physical units without any need or use for financial-based calculation. The economy of the Soviet Union never reached this stage of development, so planned its economy in financial terms throughout the duration of its existence. Nonetheless, a number of alternative metrics were developed for assessing the performance of non-financial economies in terms of physical output (i.e. net material product versus gross domestic product). In general, the various models of socialist economic planning such as a socialist mode of production exist as theoretical constructs that have not been implemented fully by any economy, partially because they depend on vast changes on a global scale. In the context of mainstream economics and the field of comparative economic systems, socialist planning usually refers to the Soviet-style command economy, regardless of whether or not this economic system actually constituted a type of socialism or state capitalism or a third, non-socialist and non-capitalist type of system. In some models of socialism, economic planning completely substitutes the market mechanism, supposedly rendering monetary relations and the price system obsolete. In other models, planning is utilized as a complement to markets. Concept of socialist planning The classical conception of socialist economic planning held by Marxists involved an economic system where goods and services were valued, demanded and produced directly for their use-value as opposed to being produced as a by-product of the pursuit of profit by business enterprises. This idea of production for use is a fundamental aspect of a socialist economy. This involves social control over the allocation of the surplus product and in its most extensive theoretical form calculation-in-kind in place of financial calculation. For Marxists in particular, planning entails control of the surplus product (profit) by the associated producers in a democratic manner. This differs from planning within the framework of capitalism which is based on the planned accumulation of capital in order to either stabilize the business cycle (when undertaken by governments) or to maximize profits (when undertaken by firms) as opposed to the socialist concept of planned production for use. In such a socialist society based on economic planning, the primary function of the state apparatus changes from one of political rule over people (via the creation and enforcement of laws) into a technical administration of production, distribution and organization; that is, the state would become a coordinating economic entity rather than a mechanism of political and class-based control and thereby ceasing to be a state in the Marxist sense. Administrative-command system The concept of a command economy is differentiated from the concepts of a planned economy and economic planning, especially by socialists and Marxists who liken command economies (such as that of the former Soviet Union) to that of a single capitalist firm, organized in a top-down administrative fashion based on bureaucratic organization akin to that of a capitalist corporation. Economic analysts have argued that the economy of the Soviet Union actually represented an administrative or command economy as opposed to a planned economy because planning did not play an operational role in the allocation of resources among productive units in the economy since in actuality the main allocation mechanism was a system of command-and-control. The term administrative-command economy gained currency as a more accurate descriptor of Soviet-type economies. Decentralized planning Decentralized economic planning is a planning process that starts at the user-level in a bottom-up flow of information. Decentralized planning often appears as a complement to the idea of socialist self-management, most notably by democratic socialists and libertarian socialists. The theoretical postulates for models of decentralized socialist planning stem from the thought of Karl Kautsky, Rosa Luxemburg, Nikolai Bukharin and Oskar R. Lange. This model involves economic decision-making based on self-governance from the bottom-up (by employees and consumers) without any directing central authority. This often contrasts with the doctrine of orthodox Marxism–Leninism which advocates directive administrative planning where directives are passed down from higher authorities (planning agencies) to agents (enterprise managers), who in turn give orders to workers. Two contemporary models of decentralized planning are participatory economics, developed by the economist Michael Albert; and negotiated coordination, developed by the economist Pat Devine. Lange–Lerner–Taylor model The economic models developed in the 1920s and 1930s by American economists Fred M. Taylor and Abba Lerner and by Polish economist Oskar R. Lange involved a form of planning based on marginal cost pricing. In Lange's model, a central planning board would set prices for producer goods through a trial-and-error method, adjusting until the price matched the marginal cost, with the aim of achieving Pareto-efficient outcomes. Although these models were often described as market socialism, they actually represented a form of market simulation planning. Material balances Material balance planning was the type of economic planning employed by Soviet-type economies. This system emerged in a haphazard manner during the collectivisation drive under Joseph Stalin and emphasized rapid growth and industrialization over efficiency. Eventually, this method became an established part of the Soviet conception of socialism in the post-war period and other socialist states emulated it in the latter half of the 20th century. Material balancing involves a planning agency (Gosplan in the case of the Soviet Union) taking a survey of available inputs and raw materials and using a balance-sheet to balance them with output targets specified by industry, thereby achieving a balance of supply and demand. In capitalism Intra-firm and intra-industry planning Large corporations use planning to allocate resources internally among their divisions and subsidiaries. Many modern firms also use regression analysis to measure market demand to adjust prices and to decide upon the optimal quantities of output to be supplied. Planned obsolescence is often cited as a form of economic planning that is used by large firms to increase demand for future products by deliberately limiting the operational lifespan of its products, thus forcing customers to buy replacements. The internal structures of corporations have therefore been described as centralized command economies that use both planning and hierarchical organization and management. According to J. Bradford DeLong, many transactions in Western economies do not pass through anything resembling a market, but rather they are actually movements of value among different branches and divisions within corporations, companies and agencies. Furthermore, much economic activity is centrally planned by managers within firms in the form of production planning and marketing management (that consumer demand is estimated, targeted and included in the firm's overall plan) and in the form of production planning. In The New Industrial State, the American economist John Kenneth Galbraith noted that large firms manage both prices and consumer demand for their products by sophisticated statistical methods. Galbraith also pointed out that because of the increasingly complex nature of technology and the specialization of knowledge, management had become increasingly specialized and bureaucratized. The internal structures of corporations and companies had been transformed into what he called a "technostructure". Its specialized groups and committees are the primary decision-makers and specialized managers, directors and financial advisers operate under formal bureaucratic procedures, replacing the individual entrepreneur's role and intrapreneurship. Galbraith stated that both the obsolete notion of entrepreneurial capitalism and democratic socialism (defined as democratic management) are impossible organizational forms for managing a modern industrial system. Joseph Schumpeter, an economist associated with both the Austrian School and the institutional school of economics, argued that the changing nature of economic activity (specifically the increasing bureaucratization and specialization required in production and management) was the major cause for capitalism eventually evolving into socialism. The role of the businessman was increasingly bureaucratic and specific functions within the firm required increasingly specialized knowledge which could be supplied as easily by state functionaries in publicly owned enterprises. In the first volume of Das Kapital, Karl Marx identified the process of capital accumulation as central to the law of motion of capitalism. The increased industrial capacity caused by the increasing returns to scale further socializes production. Capitalism eventually socializes labor and production to a point that the traditional notions of private ownership and commodity production become increasingly insufficient for further expanding the productive capacities of society, necessitating the emergence of a socialist economy in which means of production are socially owned and the surplus value is controlled by the workforce. Many socialists viewed these tendencies, specifically the increasing trend toward economic planning in capitalist firms, as evidence of the increasing obsolescence of capitalism and inapplicability of ideals like perfect competition to the economy, with the next stage of evolution being the application of society-wide economic planning. State development planning State development planning or national planning entails macroeconomic policies and financial planning conducted by governments to stabilize the market or promote economic growth in market-based economies. This involves the use of monetary policy, industrial policy and fiscal policy to steer the market toward targeted outcomes. Industrial policy includes government taking measures "aimed at improving the competitiveness and capabilities of domestic firms and promoting structural transformation". In contrast to socialist planning, state development planning does not replace the market mechanism and does not eliminate the use of money in production. It only applies to privately owned and publicly owned firms in the strategic sectors of the economy and seeks to coordinate their activities through indirect means and market-based incentives (such as tax breaks or subsidies). Around the world While economic planning is mainly associated with socialism and the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, in particular its administrative-command system, government planning of the economy can also happen under other political philosophies to industrialise and modernise the economy. A different form of planned economy operated in India during the Permit Raj era from 1947 to 1990. The unusually large government sector in countries like Saudi Arabia means that even though there is a market, central government planning controls allocation of most economic resources. In the United States, the government temporarily seized large portions of the economy during World War I and World War II, resulting in a largely government-planned war economy. East Asia The development models of the East Asian Tiger economies involved varying degrees of economic planning and state-directed investment in a model sometimes described as state development capitalism or the East Asian Model. The economy in both Malaysia and South Korea were instituted by a series of macroeconomic government plans (First Malaysia Plan and Five-Year Plans of South Korea) that rapidly developed and industrialized their mixed economies. The economy of Singapore was partially based on government economic planning that involved an active industrial policy and a mixture of state-owned industry and free-market economy. France Under dirigisme (dirigism), France used indicative planning and established a number of state-owned enterprises in strategic sectors of the economy. The concept behind indicative planning is the early identification of oversupply, bottlenecks and shortages so that state investment behavior can be quickly modified to reduce market disequilibrium so that stable economic development and growth can be sustained. France experienced its Trente Glorieuses (Thirty Glorious), years with economic prosperity. Soviet Union The Soviet Union was the first national economy to attempt economic planning as a substitute for factor market allocation. Soviet-type economic planning took form in the 1930s and largely remained unchanged despite mild reforms until the Soviet Union's dissolution. Soviet economic planning was centralized and organized hierarchically, with a state planning agency such as the Gosplan establishing target rates for growth and the Gossnab allocating factor inputs to enterprises and economic units throughout the national economy. The national plan was broken down by various ministries, which in turn used the plan to formulate directives for local economic units which implemented them. The system used material balance planning. Economic information, including consumer demand and enterprise resource requirements, were aggregated to balance supply from the available resource inventories, with demand based on requirements for individual economic units and enterprises through a system of iterations. Leon Trotsky was one of the earliest proponents of economic planning during the NEP period. Trotsky argued that specialisation, the concentration of production and the use of planning could “raise in the near future the coefficient of industrial growth not only two, but even three times higher than the pre-war rate of 6% and, perhaps, even higher”. The economy of the Soviet Union operated in a centralized and hierarchical manner during the Stalinist era. The process used directives which were issued to lower-level organizations. Thus, the Soviet economic model was often referred to as a command economy or an administered economy as plan directives were enforced by inducements in a vertical power structure, with actual planning playing little functional role in the allocation of resources. Owing to difficulties in transmitting information in a timely fashion and disseminating information on demand throughout the whole economy, administrative mechanisms of decision-making and resource allocation played the dominant role in allocating factor inputs as opposed to planning. Historian Robert Vincent Daniels regarded the Stalinist period to represent an abrupt break with Lenin's government in terms of economic planning in which an deliberated, scientific system of planning that featured former Menshevik economists at Gosplan had been replaced with a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucratic waste, bottlenecks and shortages. Stalin's formulations of national plans in terms of physical quantity of output was also attributed by Daniels as a source for the stagnant levels of efficiency and quality. United Kingdom The need for long-term economic planning to promote efficiency was a central component of Labour Party thinking until the 1970s. The Conservative Party largely agreed, producing the postwar consensus, namely the broad bipartisan agreement on major policies. A long-term economic plan was a phrase often used in British politics. United States The United States used economic planning during World War I. The federal government supplemented the price system with centralized resource allocation and created a number of new agencies to direct important economic sectors, notably the Food Administration, Fuel Administration, Railroad Administration and War Industries Board. During World War II, the economy experienced staggering growth under a similar system of planning. In the postwar period, United States governments utilized such measures as the Economic Stabilization Program to directly intervene in the economy to control prices and wages, among other things, in different economic sectors. Since the start of the Cold War, the federal government has directed a significant amount of investment and funding into research and development (R&D), often initially through the United States Department of Defense. The government performs 50% of all R&D in the United States, with a dynamic state-directed public-sector developing most of the technology that later becomes the basis of the private sector economy. Noam Chomsky has referred to the United States economic model as a form of state capitalism. Examples include laser technology, the internet, nanotechnology, telecommunications and computers, with most basic research and downstream commercialization financed by the public sector. That includes research in other fields including healthcare and energy, with 75% of most innovative drugs financed through the National Institutes of Health. Criticism The most notable critique of economic planning came from Austrian economists Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises. Hayek argued that central planners could not possibly accrue the necessary information to formulate an effective plan for production because they are not exposed to the rapid changes that take place in an economy in any particular time and place and so they are unfamiliar with those circumstances. The process of transmitting all the necessary information to planners is thus inefficient without a price system for the means of production. Mises also had a similar opinion. In his analysis of socialism in 1938, Oskar R. Lange addressed this theoretical issue by pointing out that planners could gain much of the information they required by monitoring changes in plant inventory levels. In practice, economic planners in Soviet-typed planned economies were able to make use of this technique. Proponents of decentralized economic planning have also criticized central economic planning. Leon Trotsky believed that central planners, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and so they would be unable to respond to local conditions quickly enough to effectively coordinate all economic activity. Trotsky further specified the need for Soviet democracy in relation to the industrialisation period to the Dewey Commission:“The successes are very important, and I affirmed it every time. They are due to the abolition of private property and to the possibilities inherent in planned economy. But, they - I cannot say exactly - but I will say two or three times less than they could be under a regime of Soviet democracy”. In his work, Revolution Betrayed, Trotsky argued that the excessive authoritarianism under Stalin had undermined the implementation of the First five-year plan. He noted that several engineers and economists who had created the plan were themselves later put on trial as "conscious wreckers who had acted on the instructions of a foreign power". See also Calculation in kind Council democracy Cybernetics Decentralized planning (economics) Dirigisme Economic democracy Econometrics Enterprise resource planning Indicative planning Industrial policy Input-output planning Material Product System Material balance planning Mixed economy Nonmarket forces Participatory planning Peer-to-peer economy Planned economy Socialist calculation debate Socialization (economics) Socialist economics Soviet-type economic planning "The Use of Knowledge in Society" Why Socialism? - an article written by Albert Einstein which presented a critique of modern capitalism and advocated for a planned economy. Notes Socialism Economic ideologies Economic systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Southern%20Mississippi
University of Southern Mississippi
The University of Southern Mississippi (Southern Miss or USM) is a public research university with its main campus located in Hattiesburg, Mississippi. It is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award bachelor's, master's, specialist, and doctoral degrees. The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Founded on March 30, 1910, the university is a dual campus institution, with its main campus located in Hattiesburg and its other large campus – Gulf Park – located in Long Beach. It has five additional teaching and research sites, including the John C. Stennis Space Center and the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory (GCRL). Originally called the Mississippi Southerners, the Southern Miss athletic teams became the Golden Eagles in 1972. The school's colors, black and gold, were selected by a student body vote shortly after the school was founded. While mascots, names, customs, and the campus have changed, the black and gold colors have remained constant. USM's 17 sport programs participate in NCAA Division I athletics, mainly as members of the Sun Belt Conference. History The University of Southern Mississippi was founded on March 30, 1910, as Mississippi Normal College, a teacher-training school. The Normal College was created to standardize the process of training upcoming teachers. Before the existence of a specialized teaching college, instructors were required to travel throughout Mississippi in preparation for teaching their students. R. H. Hunt designed the original campus plan and seven buildings in the Colonial Revival style. The college's first president, Joseph Anderson Cook, presided over the opening session of instruction on September 18, 1912, and oversaw the construction of College Hall (the academic building); Forrest County Hall (men's and married students' dormitory); Hattiesburg Hall (women's dormitory); the Industrial Cottage (training laboratory for home management); and the president's home (now the Ogletree Alumni House). In its first session, Mississippi Normal College had a total enrollment of 876 students, and stood for "clean, pure, efficient lives." As the school developed its curriculum and departments, its name changed to reflect its progress: in 1924, to Mississippi State Teachers College, and in 1940, to Mississippi Southern College. The college's fifth president, State Archivist Dr. William David McCain, was installed in 1955 and worked to expand Mississippi Southern College. He oversaw the construction of 17 new structures on campus and convinced Gov. Ross Barnett to upgrade the school to university status in recognition of its graduate programs. On February 27, 1962, Barnett signed the bill into law which officially renamed the school as the University of Southern Mississippi. Desegregation and civil rights In 1954 the United States Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. But when Clyde Kennard, a black Korean War veteran, attempted to enroll at Mississippi Southern College in the late 1950s, McCain made major efforts with the state political establishment and local black leaders to prevent it. Kennard was turned down three times. After he wrote letters about educational integration to the local paper, he was twice arrested on trumped-up criminal charges; he was eventually convicted and sentenced to seven years in the state prison. McCain's direct involvement in this abuse of the justice system is unclear. He was likely aware that the charges against Kennard were fraudulent, but neither he nor other public officials made any objection. Speaking to businessmen in Chicago on a trip sponsored by the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, McCain said: "We insist that educationally and socially, we maintain a segregated society. ... In all fairness, I admit that we are not encouraging Negro voting," he said. "The Negroes prefer that control of the government remain in the white man's hands." Kennard was finally released on parole in 1963, when he was terminally ill with cancer; he died six months later. By the early 1960s, national pressure was growing to integrate Mississippi's institutions of higher learning. McCain was well known to vehemently oppose having any black students at Mississippi Southern. In 1962 James Meredith attempted to enroll at the University of Mississippi, the state's flagship institution. His enrollment was accomplished after white rioting and use of federal troops to end the violence. By the fall of 1965 both Ole Miss and Mississippi State University had been integrated – the former violently, the latter peacefully. McCain, USM and state leaders recognized the state needed to integrate to appeal to businesses from outside the state. They made extensive confidential plans for the admission of their first black students. A faculty guardian and tutor was secretly appointed for each to help with the transition. The campus police department was instructed to prevent or quickly stop any incident against the two black students. Student athletic, fraternity, and political leaders were recruited to keep the calm and protect the university from the kind of negative publicity that Ole Miss had suffered during rioting against Meredith's enrollment. As a result, black students Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong and Raylawni Branch were enrolled without incident in September 1965. In 2018, USM unveiled a Freedom Trail Marker in honor of Clyde Kennard, in front of Kennard Washington Hall, named after him and the first African-American doctoral student to graduate from USM, Walter Washington. Shortly thereafter, at the spring commencement ceremonies in May 2018, Clyde Kennard was posthumously awarded the Doctor of Humane Letters honoris causa from USM. A student in Kennard's Sunday School class at Mary Magdalene Baptist Church in Eatonville, Mississippi, accepted the honor on his behalf. Between 1955 and 1965, USM along with its president, William D. McCain, infringed upon the civil rights of Gay and Lesbian students. Gay and Lesbian students, with an emphasis on male homosexuals, were targeted and expelled. McCain's intentions were to purge the campus of all sexual impurities. In 1969, the Afro-American Cultural Society (AACS) was founded. Alvin Williams, an early member of the organization and professor emeritus of media at the university, described AACS as an "instrumental part of student life for black students" attending the university in the late 1960s. The organization was later renamed as the African American Student Organization (AASO) in the 1990s. The transition of the 1960s to the 1970s gave way to a surge of social activism and major changes within the university. In response to growing concerns of black students, the university ramped its efforts to hire black faculty. In 1972, "General Nat" (Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest) was discarded in favor of the Golden Eagles. In 1974, standout football player Fred Cook was voted as the first black Mr. USM. The first black Greek organizations premiered in 1975. By the time McCain retired in 1975, enrollment had climbed to 11,000 students. In the years following McCain's campus transformation, The University of Southern Mississippi continued to expand dramatically. Notable changes included: replacement of the quarter system with the semester system, creation of the Polymer Science Institute, reorganization of the university's 10 schools into six colleges, affiliation with Conference USA, establishment of the School of Nursing as a college; the implementation of online classes; and an expansion of the Gulf Coast campus. Presidents Joseph Anderson "Joe" Cook – 1912–1928 Claude Bennett – 1928–1933 Dr. Jennings Burton George – 1933–1945 Dr. Robert Cecil Cook – 1945–1954 Dr. Richard Aubrey McLemore (acting president) – 1955 Dr. William David McCain – 1955–1975 Dr. Aubrey Keith Lucas – 1975–1996 Dr. Horace Weldon Fleming Jr. – 1997–2001 Dr. Aubrey Keith Lucas (interim president) – 2001–2002 Dr. Shelby Freeland Thames – 2002–2007 Dr. Martha Dunagin Saunders – 2007–2012 Dr. Aubrey Keith Lucas (interim president) – 2012–2013 Dr. Rodney D. Bennett – 2013–2022 Dr. Joseph S. Paul – 2022–present Recent developments In the early 21st century, Southern Miss developed under the presidency of Dr. Shelby Thames. His tenure was characterized by a significant increase in the quantity of research conducted at the university. USM was classified as a "Doctoral / Research Extensive" university by the Carnegie Foundation during the Thames era. According to the National Science Foundation, USM spent $61 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 183rd in the nation. Dr. Thames' work to respond to the destruction wrought by Hurricane Katrina brought praise from the community. In October 2005, the Faculty Senate of the Gulf Park campus passed an official resolution of appreciation. The Hattiesburg American reported that Thames' post-Katrina address to the faculty at Hattiesburg was well received. Thames avoided laying off any University employees after the storm, although the Gulf Park campus alone sustained over $100 million in damage. (By contrast, Tulane University in New Orleans released approximately 25% of the staff. It dropped significant athletic and academic programs, including the Computer Science major and most engineering programs, in retrenchment after closure and damage to the campus.) The Thames administration gained financing and supervised execution of several construction projects on campus, often in partnership with private-sector entities. An addition to the student union houses the second-largest Barnes & Noble store in the southern U.S., which is open to the community. Barnes & Noble pays $1.5 million in annual rent on this facility. Thames also negotiated a financially favorable food services agreement with Aramark (who will donate $9 million to university construction projects). Other enhancements include the upscale Power House restaurant (at a former college power plant adapted for this use); the $15 million sorority village; additions to the football, basketball, and baseball facilities; and urban design elements to make the campus more open, "green," and pedestrian-friendly. The university experienced an unexpected, highly publicized drop from "Tier 3" to "Tier 4" in the U.S. News & World Report college rankings beginning in the 2004 edition. This roughly coincided with the height of the Shelby Thames controversy, when he fired tenured professors for "dissension". Several organizations scrutinized the legality of his actions, as tenure was designed to protect academic independence. In 2004, the USM Faculty Senate expressed their grievances to Thames after the allegations were heard. The Faculty Senate later published a review of the Thames Administration describing its controversies. After Thames resigned, by 2009, U.S. News & World Report again ranked the university as in the upper portion of "Tier 3.". In the 2011 U.S. News & World Report College ranking, USM was in the "Tier 2". In 2016, USM was ranked by U.S. News & World Report 125th in national public universities and 220th in national universities. USM is also ranked highly by Washington Monthly, which has criticized rankings by U.S. News & World Report and developed its own system. These rankings attempt to make a more holistic assessment of an institution's value; USM ranked 98th out of 245 doctoral institutions. This was the highest ranking of any school in Mississippi. , Washington Monthly ranked USM 235th in national universities overall. On February 10, 2013, an EF4 wedge tornado tore through the Southern Miss campus, causing tens of millions of dollars in damage. The tornado formed in western Hattiesburg and continued into Southwestern Alabama. The tornado destroyed two buildings and damaged six others. As most students were away for Mardi Gras break and there were advanced warnings of the tornado, there were no fatalities and few injuries on campus. In June 2015 Southern Miss released a statement on the removal of the Mississippi state flag from all USM campuses. Later that year on October 25, 2015, university president Rodney D. Bennett released another statement, announcing that the university would only raise flags that he felt united all students. Since the removal of the state flag, protests to bring back the flag have become common Sunday occurrence on the Hattiesburg campus. Golden Eagle logo dispute In 2003, Southern Miss replaced their attack eagle logo from the 1990s with an eagle head logo. Two years later, when Southern Miss attempted to trademark the new logo, the University of Iowa filed against it, for they believed it looked too similar to their Hawkeyes logo. The new logo was very popular, and was placed on sports venues, advertising, and all merchandise. In August 2011, the US Patent and Trademark Office denied the trademark. In 2014, Southern Miss revealed a new logo that was a redesigned version of the 2003 logo. This new logo was copyrighted and has mostly replaced the 2003 logo. Army ROTC closure In early October 2013, the U.S. Army announced that, due to financial constraints and the low production rate of commissioned officers, 13 ROTC programs at various universities would be shut down, including the Golden Eagle Battalion of Southern Miss. The programs were to be ended by the end of the 2014–2015 spring semester, but the universities attempted to appeal the decision. On October 12, a press conference was held at USM to protest the closure; speakers included Governor Phil Bryant and Major General Augustus Collins. In early November, the Army said it had changed its plan to end programs at specified institutions, putting them on a two-year probation, with reevaluation. USM has been taken off probation and the ROTC program continues. Campus Gulf Park campus The university's operations on the Mississippi Gulf Coast began in 1947 when Mississippi Southern College first organized classes at Van Hook Hall, on the Methodist Camp Grounds in Biloxi. In 1958, the operation was moved to Mary L. Michael Junior High School in Biloxi. To meet the educational needs of various occupational fields, the university relocated in 1964 to Keesler Air Force Base. In addition, it obtained classroom facilities for night classes from the Jefferson Davis campus of the Mississippi Gulf Coast Junior College. It called this complex the USM Harrison County Resident Center. In September 1966, Southern Miss extended its offerings by adding the Jackson County Resident Center, located on the Jackson County campus of the MGCCC in Gautier. The Jackson County Center was built for the university by the Jackson County Board of Supervisors. This effort was encouraged by Dr. Shelby Thames when he was executive vice president of USM. The center was constructed with the intention of enabling students in Jackson County to complete four-year degrees in several fields through combined programs at MGCCC and USM. In 2009, however, the university decided to close its Jackson County Center and consolidate course offerings at other teaching sites on the Gulf Coast. The Gulf Park College for Women in Gulfport, Mississippi, opened in 1921. The last commencement was held in 1971 and the University of Southern Mississippi acquired the campus in 1972. In March 1972, USM moved its Harrison County Resident Center program from the Jefferson Davis campus of MGCCC to the Gulf Park campus, located on Highway 90 in Long Beach. One of the most prominent landmarks on campus is the Friendship Oak. This huge live oak tree on the lawn of Hardy Hall and the Administration Building, dates from approximately 1487. The earliest available reference to the moniker Friendship Oak is found in an article written by Bob Davis, correspondent for the New York Sun. He described the tree in his book People, People, Everywhere (1936). In July 1972, the Board of Trustees of State Institutions of Higher Learning established the USM Gulf Park and Keesler Air Force Base Center as an upper-level degree completion regional campus of the university. It offered programs leading to degrees at the baccalaureate and graduate levels. University development has continued and on August 19, 2002, Southern Miss admitted its first class of freshmen on its Gulf Park Campus. USM is the only comprehensive university in the state with dual-campus status. In the early 21st century the Gulf Park campus serves as the central campus for several remote teaching centers, including: The Stennis Space Center Teaching and Research Site is located in Hancock County on the Mississippi-Louisiana border; it is NASA's largest rocket engine test facility. Stennis also is home to the university's Department of Marine Science. Gulf Coast Student Service Center Teaching Site: located in Gulfport, this became the interim site of the Gulf Park campus following Hurricane Katrina, from 2005 to 2012. Gulf Coast Research Laboratory Teaching and Research Site (GCRL), located in Ocean Springs, is home of the Department of Coastal Sciences, the Center for Fisheries and Research and Development, the Marine Education Center, and the Thad Cochran Marine Aquaculture Center. Point Cadet Teaching Site, located in Biloxi. The R/V Tommy Munro, a 97-foot research vessel, is a unit of GCRL and docks at Point Cadet. The Keesler Center, located on Keesler Air Force Base in Biloxi, provides courses for military personnel as well as the civilian community. Other USM units in the Gulf Coast region are elements of the College of Marine Sciences; the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory in Ocean Springs; the J. L. Scott Marine Education Center and Aquarium on Point Cadet in Biloxi; the Hydrographic Science Research Center; and the Center for Marine Sciences at the John C. Stennis Space Center in Hancock County. On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused about $115 million in damage to Gulf Park. Classes were relocated to the Healthmark Center in Gulfport. In 2012, the Gulfport campus was closed and all facilities were moved back to the renovated Long Beach campus. The Friendship Oak survived this storm as it survived Hurricane Camille and countless lesser storms that have hit the area. Libraries The Cook Library, located on the Hattiesburg campus, contains the principal collections of books, periodicals, microforms, government documents and other materials which directly support the instructional programs of The University of Southern Mississippi at all levels. The McCain Library and Archives houses the Library's Special Collections and University Archives on the Hattiesburg campus. Collections include the de Grummond Children's Literature Collection as well as Mississippi oral history, manuscripts, and civil war materials. The Gulf Coast Library, located on the Long Beach campus, is part of the University Libraries serving the Gulf Coast campuses (Gulf Park, Keesler, and Jackson County campuses). This state-of-the-art library is the only comprehensive university library on the Mississippi Gulf Coast. The Gunter Library is located at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory (GCRL), Ocean Springs, MS campus. The Library provides technical information for the research staff, resident faculty and students, and visitors. Included are files of abstracts and reprints, books and journals, expedition reports, dissertations, and reference works. Special book collections support the academic program of the Laboratory. Landmarks The District is located near the intersection of US Highway 49 and Hardy Street. The historic district of campus is anchored by the five original buildings of the campus: Ogletree Alumni House, The Honor House, College Hall, Forrest Hall, and Hattiesburg Hall. It is also the traditional tailgating site for students during football season. It is home to Lake Byron, which has served as a focal point for many university activities and several weddings. The Century Gate is a brick and stone wall at the front of the university, between East and West Memorial Drive. It was built to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the university's founding in 1910. It displays the university seal, as well as the words "The University of Southern Mississippi." The All-American Rose Garden is one of two All-American Gardens in the state. The garden at Southern Miss was developed by the Hattiesburg Area Rose Society in 1972 through the leadership of the late William Wicht, a Hattiesburg resident who served as the first president of HARS. A memorial to Wicht's efforts to make the garden a reality is located next to the garden. Since its official dedication in 1974, the Southern Miss rose garden has received numerous awards for maintenance and display. Many a student has tried to impress his sweetheart by picking a rose, which if caught, carries a fine of up to 500 dollars. The All-American Rose Garden is a rose garden found near Hardy Street on the campus of the University of Southern Mississippi. The garden has a semicircular form and contains many various types of hybrid roses in 32 rose beds. It existed since 1973 and was accredited the status 'Public Rose Garden' by the All-American Rose Selection Inc. in 1975. Many biologists and botanists come from all over the world to study the roses found in the rose garden. Due to the large number of rare roses found in the rose garden, plucking out a rose is against college policy, and getting caught currently results in a fine of $500. The Eagle Walk is found underneath the upper deck of M.M. Roberts Stadium. Two hours prior to football game day, a cannon is fired, which begins the procession. ROTC, The Pride of Mississippi Marching Band, university officials, and football players make a march through this street to the cheers of thousands of fans. Every fall, the incoming freshman give the walls and street a "fresh coat of paint" as they have done for half a century. The Dome is a nickname for the Lucas Administration building found at the Hardy Street entrance to campus. It is so named due to the large cupola at the peak of the roof. Originally, it was an orange color of copper. This faded to a dull green over the years. In 2001, a restoration project was undertaken which painted the dome back to its original copper color. Currently, it houses the offices of the president, vice president and other supporting staff. Shoemaker Square is an expanse of land formed near The Hub and the Walker Science Building Quad. The bricked fountain is focal point of the "Friday Night At the Fountain", a student-led pep rally prior to Saturday football games. The fountain has been tainted with soap suds by pranksters on many occasions. The Little Rock can be found in the historic district of campus. It is traditionally painted weekly and is used to promote various campus athletic, academic and fine art events. Occasionally, it can be found to be painted with logos of secret societies that exist on campus. The Eagle Statue, formally named "Lofty Return", is a massive three-ton sculpture of a Golden eagle, measuring 22 feet tall and 20 feet wide, and resting on an eight-foot-high pedestal. It stands behind Southern Hall, facing Hardy Street. A slightly smaller replica of it was also erected on the Gulf Park campus as a symbol tying the two campuses together. Academics Southern Miss offers approximately 189 programs leading to baccalaureate, master's, specialist, and doctorate degrees. Southern Miss has traditionally drawn many of its students from Mississippi schools and community colleges, hailing from every county in Mississippi, though today the majority of undergraduates come from public schools across the southern United States and around the globe. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and its programs are accredited by 30 state and national agencies. The University of Southern Mississippi offers more than 250 clubs and organizations, as well as intramural athletics and special events. Student organizations at Southern Miss include the Student Government Association, The Legacy, The Student Printz (the biweekly student-produced newspaper), The Southerner (the yearbook), Southern Style (the university's student orientation team), national fraternities and sororities, honor societies, and various religious organizations. In addition, the school participates in the NCAA's Division I-FBS, and Sun Belt Conference featuring year-round athletics in 16 sports. Southern Miss also hosts, participates in, and promotes more than 300 cultural events every year. Regular events include the Jazz and Blues Festival held on the Long Beach campus, performances by the theater, dance and music departments, and exhibits presented by the art department. The university's Dale Center for the Study of War and Society hosts several lectures and programs throughout the year. Several guest lecturers including General David Petraeus (2017), Dr. Robert M. Gates (2014), and former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright (2010) visited Hattiesburg as a part of the center's Dale Distinguished Lecture Series. 2018 marked the 13th annual Richard McCarthy Lecture Series, wherein students and the community at large could participate in a broad range of events and programming from panel discussions to roundtables focusing on war and the effects it has on the societies surrounding it. The University of Southern Mississippi is governed by the University President along with the Mississippi Board of Trustees of State Institutions of Higher Learning. The President of the University of Southern Mississippi is the day-to-day administrator of Southern Miss and is appointed by and responsible to the State Institutions of Higher Learning Board. Dr. Rodney D. Bennett became the tenth president of the university in April 2013. Colleges and schools The University of Southern Mississippi recently began an academic reorganization changing the academic structure at the university and the roles of administrators. This plan reduced the number of colleges from six to four and consolidated traditional departments into thematic schools. College of Business and Economic Development School of Accountancy School of Finance School of Management School of Marketing College of Education and Human Sciences School of Child and Family Sciences School of Education School of Kinesiology and Nutrition School of Library and Information Science School of Psychology School of Social Work College of Nursing and Health Professions School of Health Professions School of Leadership and Advanced Nursing Practice School of Professional Nursing Practice School of Speech and Hearing Sciences College of Arts and Sciences School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences School of Communication School of Computing Sciences and Computer Engineering School of Construction and Design School of Criminal Justice, Forensic Science, and Security School of Humanities School of Interdisciplinary Studies and Professional Development School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences School of Music School of Ocean Science and Engineering School of Performing and Visual Arts School of Polymer Science and Engineering School of Social Science and Global Studies In addition to its academic colleges, The University of Southern Mississippi also offers the following programs: George R. Olliphant Honors College Graduate Studies International Studies Program Fully Online Programs in Sport Management (M.S.) and Sport Coaching Education (M.S.) DuBard School for Language Disorders Frances A. Karnes Center for Gifted Studies Student life Semesters at the university run from August to December and January to May, with a 10-week summer session. There are two four-week accelerated summer terms. In Fall 2006, The University of Southern Mississippi dedicated a 4-story, multimillion-dollar addition to its R.C. Cook University Union. The Thad Cochran Center now houses a 2-story Barnes & Noble Bookstore, three ballrooms, a stadium-style theater, student organization offices, and Southern Miss Dining and Fresh Food Company. Several meeting rooms are within the union complex. The Union and Programs team hosts more than a thousand events each year. In Fall 2010, the University of Southern Mississippi opened Century Park (now known as Century Park North), a gated living community with four residence halls and a multi-purpose building containing a convenience store. In the 2014–2015 school year, the university opened Century Park South, another gated living community with three residence halls and the campus's new student health center. At nearly 300, Southern Miss' student organizations appeal to a wide spectrum of interests: Business, Education and Psychology, the Arts, Games and Athletics, Graduate Studies, Greek Life, Health and Human Sciences, Honors Societies, Liberal Arts, the Military, Religious Life, Residence Halls, Community Service, and Science and Technology. The largest organizations based on student membership include the: Student Government Association, African-American Student Organization, Southern Miss Activities Council, The Legacy Student Alumni Association, and Baptist Student Union. Greek life The university has 26 Greek organizations on campus, including 14 fraternities and 12 sororities. There are 19 fraternity and sorority houses. Dining services The University of Southern Mississippi holds a contract with Aramark to provide dining services. Known as Eagle Dining on campus, Aramark operates multiple eateries on campus as well as four Provisions on Demand (POD) locations, which are small retail operations similar to convenience stores. Eagle Dining operates the following dining locations: The Fresh Food Company, located on the 1st Floor of the Thad Cochran Center, a buffet style cafeteria and the main dining location for students and visitors The Agora, a food court located in the International Center containing Bento Sushi and Einstein Bros. Bagels Seymour's, a food court located in the RC Cook University Union containing Subway and Chick-Fil-A Freshens, located in Asbury Hall Southern Wing Company (formerly The Powerhouse), located directly north of Cook Library and next to the Math Zone The Grub Slinger, a food truck with differing locations based on the day of the week Starbucks, located on the 1st Floor of Cook Library Eagle Dining operates the following Provisions on Demand (POD) locations: Century Park North Learning Center Liberal Arts Building Scianna Hall Thad Cochran Center 1st Floor, outside of The Fresh Food Company Residential housing The University of Southern Mississippi has 13 residence halls, and about 5,000 students live on campus throughout the school year. Residence halls: Wilber Hall – houses males and females on separate floors; offers single and double rooms; communal bathrooms on each floor Hattiesburg Hall – houses females; offers single rooms; shared bathroom between three rooms Mississippi Hall – houses males; offers single rooms; also houses Residence Hall Association (RHA) in basement; shared bathroom between three rooms Hillcrest Hall – houses females; offers single and double rooms; shared bathroom between two rooms Scholarship Hall – houses females; private ensuite bathrooms McCarty Hall Private ensuite bathrooms McCarty Hall North McCarty Hall South Century Park North Private ensuite bathrooms Building 1 Building 2 Building 3 Building 4 Century Park South Private ensuite bathrooms in Vann and Scott Halls, private bathrooms in hall at Luckyday Hall Luckyday Citizenship Hall – houses Luckyday Citizenship Scholars Vann Hall – houses males and females on separate floors Scott Hall – houses males and females on separate floors, also houses Moffitt Health Center on its First Floor Closed residence halls: Pulley Hall Roberts Hall Greek Life Housing: The Village, a community-style living area that houses the current National Panhellenic Conference sororities and the National Pan-Hellenic Council sororities, as well as Upperclass Scholarship, Nursing, and Athletic women. Fraternity Row Home to 8 fraternity houses Apartments: Cedarbrook Apartments, located on the west side of campus, offer 1 bedroom units with in-unit laundry Repurposed Residence Halls: Bond Hall – home to University Police, Student Counseling Services, Office of the Controller, Office of Research Accommodations, and Office of Disability Accommodations Hickman Hall – home to Department of Housing and Residence Life Jones Hall – home to University Communications, USM Foundation, and a Call Center Bolton Hall – home to Seymour's Career Closet (relocated to Bolton Hall in 2021) Forrest County Hall – home to Business Services Office Publications and media Southern Miss Now is the official news source of the University Communications Office. The Student Printz is the university's student-run newspaper, published once weekly during the fall and spring semesters. The Southerner is the university's full-color yearbook publication. The Southerner was discontinued in 2015. WUSM FM 88.5 is the 3000-watt Southern Miss public radio FM station, located on the first floor of Southern Hall. Mississippi Review is a quarterly published journal that features fiction, poetry, and essays. Gordon Weaver founded it in 1970. Frederick Barthelme became editor in 1977. In 1995, it was the first large literary magazine to launch a fully online issue. In 1998, its print version was published twice yearly, the online version, a separate publication, was published monthly except August, by Center for Writers at The University of Southern Mississippi. The Drawl is a publication that highlights the traditions and history of Southern Miss. Incoming Golden Eagles are given a copy of The Drawl in their first week of school. The Talon is a quarterly magazine for alumni and friends of the university. Mardi Gras holiday The University of Southern Mississippi is one of the few universities in Mississippi to allow a two-day holiday each year for Mardi Gras. The university does not hold classes on the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, many USM students expressed a desire for the holiday. The university is near New Orleans and has ties to Biloxi and Mobile, where Mardi Gras is also celebrated. In 1981, Ken Stribling, president of USM's student body, organized a student drive to establish an annual holiday on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras). The university's Calendar Committee refused the request, but Stribling appealed to USM President Aubrey Lucas. At an annual Christmas celebration at USM in December 1981, Lucas announced that USM would try the holiday on Fat Tuesday in 1982 to see how it worked. Stribling appealed again in 1982, and Lucas allowed the holiday for Fat Tuesday in 1983. The next year, the holiday for Fat Tuesday was made a permanent part of the university's calendar. The university's student government in 2003 gained addition of the Monday before Ash Wednesday as part of the Mardi Gras Holiday, creating a two-day holiday for the event and a four-day weekend for students. While many USM students attend Mardi Gras celebrations, the majority of students use the four-day weekend to prepare for mid-term exams or visit family and friends. The novelty of Mardi Gras Holiday has become a recruiting tool. Athletics The Golden Eagles have excelled in all areas of athletics. Southern Miss has captured national titles twice in football and three times in track and field. In 2011, the Golden Eagle football team finished as the No. 19 team in the Associated Press (AP) College Poll. The Golden Eagle football team has also competed in twenty-four bowl games throughout the course of the program's history. It is important to note that twelve of these bowl games have resulted in a victory for the Golden Eagles. On November 13, 1982, the Golden Eagle football team upset Alabama's Crimson Tide in famed coach Bear Bryant's last home game in Tuscaloosa. M.M. Roberts Stadium is the home of the Golden Eagle football team and can hold up to 36,000 fans. The Golden Eagle baseball team are two-time Conference USA champions and have been invited to twelve regional NCAA tournaments and also a trip to the College World Series. The Golden Eagle baseball team has the No. 3 recruiting class in the country by Baseball America. University of Southern Mississippi baseball hosted the 2022 NCAA baseball regionals at Hill Denson Field at Pete Taylor Park, as well add the MHSAA softball championships at HawkinsBarker field. The Southern Miss basketball team is a one-time champion of the NIT tournament. Fine arts The University of Southern Mississippi is the only institution within the state, and one of a dozen universities in America, to be accredited in all four fine arts emphasis areas: art, dance, theatre and music. It operates the Southern Miss Wind Ensemble and the USM Symphony Orchestra, which has enjoyed soloists such as singers Renee Fleming and Ray Charles, cellist Yo-Yo Ma, violinist Itzhak Perlman, violinist Joshua Bell, flautist James Galway, clarinetist Anthony McGill, trumpet player Doc Severinsen, and tenor Plácido Domingo. The Southern Chorale has become nationally and internationally recognized. They recently performed at Carnegie Hall in New York City and performed at various concerts in Norway and Sweden. The Southern Miss Pride of Mississippi Marching Band has performed at such events as the inauguration of President Jimmy Carter and Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York in November 2010. The Department of Theatre and Dance has been active in the Kennedy Center/American College Theatre Festival at times recently placing first in various areas of the national competition. Several productions from USM have been selected for performance at the Region IV (Southeast) festival; two productions (Catfish Moon & The Rimers of Eldritch) have been invited to the national KC/ACTF festival at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C.. Notable alumni and faculty See also Institute of Child Nutrition Notes References External links University of Southern Mississippi Universities and colleges established in 1910 Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Buildings and structures in Hattiesburg, Mississippi Education in Forrest County, Mississippi Tourist attractions in Forrest County, Mississippi Education in Harrison County, Mississippi 1910 establishments in Mississippi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halukka
Halukka
The halukka, also spelled haluka, halukkah or chalukah (, meaning distribution) was an organized collection and distribution of charity funds for Jewish residents of the Land of Israel (the Holy Land). General method of operation Sympathizing Jews in a diaspora city or district would form a standing committee, presided over by a gabbai, to supervise collections and to remit funds semiannually to the managers of the halukkah, located in Jerusalem. The halukkahs policy was to divide funds equally in thirds: one-third was distributed to yeshiva scholars, one-third was distributed to poor widows and orphans, and for temporary relief to helpless men, and one-third was used to defray Jewish community expenses. The distributions were made semiannually, before the Passover and the New-Year festivals. The Jerusalem management would send representatives (sing. "meshulach", Heb. ; pl. "meshulachim", Heb. ) on fund-raising missions throughout the Levant, Italy, Germany, France, the Netherlands, and England, with occasional visits to Russia, Poland, and America. One ubiquitous and passive method of fund-raising was the institution of the household and synagogue 'charity-box', an innovation of late seventeenth century meshulachim, frequently labeled so that the charity be given in memory of Rabbi Meir Ba'al ha-Nes. Origin The conceptual antecedent of the halukka may date back to the earliest Rabbinical period, when the Jewish academies in Eretz Israel were supported in large part by voluntary contributions from congregations elsewhere. The term "messenger of Zion" ("sheliah Tziyyon", Heb. ) was applied during the Amoraic era (fourth century CE) to Rabbi Hama ben Ada, who traveled between Babylon and Eretz Israel, delivering decisions and messages, and probably soliciting relief. There exists a scholarly historical dispute whether Rabbi Yechiel of Paris transferred his yeshiva from Paris to Acre around 1257 or not. According to the opinion that he did emigrate, along with 300 disciples, they soon found themselves without means of support, and that one Rabbi was then sent to solicit relief in the Ottoman lands. This would make R' Yaakov the first documented meshulach. During the famine of 1441, the Jewish community of Jerusalem sent a meshulach, whose name is curiously recorded as Esrim veArba'ah (a surname, and not, as Heinrich Graetz supposes, a title of honor indicating his knowledge of the 24 books of the Bible) to European countries. The meshulach was directed to go first to a Jewish central committee located in Constantinople in order to obtain necessary credentials. However, Constantinople and Jerusalem were at the time under the jurisdiction of the warring states of Turkey and the Egyptian Mamelukes, so the committee chairman, Moses Capsali, was prohibited under Turkish law from allowing money to be imported to Jerusalem. Ruling of Rabbi Joseph Caro Rabbi Joseph Caro of Safed (d. 1575), author of the authoritative code of Jewish Law, the Shulkhan Arukh, ruled that residents of Jerusalem and of the Holy Land have a superior claim upon Jewish charity. The prior, longstanding, and still legitimate opposing view is that residents of one's own city or adopted country have the superior claim. Both views are based on , which refers to supporting the poor person "within any of your gates, in your land". Caro's ruling was based on the presumption that the only land which God gave the Jewish people was the Holy Land. Meshulachim in the 17th century Takkanah of 1625 To provide for a permanent increase of the haluḳḳah, the Jewish communities of Galilee, early in the seventeenth century, adopted an rabbinic ordinance ("takkanah") invalidating any will not made in the presence of the ַParnas; this had the effect of reminding testators of their duty toward the community of Jerusalem. Another takkanah was afterward issued which practically amounted to a confiscation, for the benefit of the halukkah, of the chattels, money, and accounts of a deceased Jew who left no resident heirs. There were many evasions, and in several instances the well-to-do, before taking up their residence in the Holy Land, stipulated a certain sum which was to be paid to the community upon their death in place of the fulfilment of the decree. This so-called "inheritance tax" was strenuously opposed by the richer classes, and it was spasmodically abolished and reenacted. The income from this tax, however, never amounted to one-third of the halukkah, and to supply the deficiency there was no alternative but to resort to the meshulachim, who as a result became so numerous, and such frequent visitors in the European congregations, that they were regarded as wandering tramps, a nuisance and a reproach. Moses Hagiz, a typical meshulach, deplores the low estimate of the meshulach entertained by the general public, and in reply to a Spanish contributor, (1) shows why the Holy Land is religiously superior to other countries, (2) urges the duty of settling there even prior to the fulfillment of the prophecies, (3) speaks of the calamities and tribulations of the Jews in Jerusalem, and (4) explains why the funds contributed in all parts of the world are insufficient. Referring to the meshulachim, he says: "They are sent abroad to acquaint our people in foreign countries of Jewish conditions in the Holy Land, and to enlist sympathy and support for the standard-bearers of the Tabernacle of God, who keep alive Jewish hopes and inspirations in the Land of Israel." He points out that the fact that "Christians will remit thousands of pounds annually for the maintenance of a Christian settlement is a challenge to the Jews who neglect to provide for the beloved sons of Zion." Hagiz estimated the appropriation of the halukkah for 1,500 souls in Southern Syria, including 1,000 in Jerusalem, to be 10,000 lire. Toward this sum there was an income from communal taxes of 2,000 lire; from legacies 2,000 lire; collected by meshulachim 2,000 lire; leaving a deficiency of 4,000 lire; Jewish indebtedness already amounted to sixty thousand "shekalim" (florins?). Hagiz was aware of the fact that the meshulachim were not liked, that they were abused no less than were the sages in Jerusalem, who were suspected and accused of "leading a luxurious life and spending the funds of the halukkah in drinking coffee and smoking tobacco." Nevertheless, he was ready to state under oath that the halukkah barely supplied one-third of their actual necessaries of life. The main sources of the halukkah at that time in Europe were London, Amsterdam, Venice, and Leghorn. Borrowing from Gentiles To meet the drain on the halukkah, the Jerusalem Jewish community borrowed from Gentiles at an enormous rate of interest, up to 45% per annum, mortgaging their communal property; and when they failed to meet the obligations at maturity, the leaders of the congregation were imprisoned and held for ransom. Rabbi David Melammed, a meshulach of Hebron, rendered a decision to the effect that inasmuch as the representative Jews of Hebron were held under bail for taxes and other indebtedness of the community, they came under the category of "captives held for ransom," whose claims, therefore, took precedence over all other charitable matters having a special fund for disposal, and were not a perversion of charity. ===The meshulach'''s employment contract and compensation=== The Jerusalem management of the halukkah would typically contractually obligate itself to provide for the meshulachs family during his absence, to advance his initial travelling expenses, and to allow him to keep a 45% commission on all contributions coming directly from him or that were due to his influence, and a 10% commission on all income from his territory during the ten years following his return. A meshulach would contractually obligate himself to devote his attention and best endeavors: to arousing people to charity by offering public lectures; to urging local gabbaim to increase their remittances, and; to opening up new sources of income. The term of this contract would generally be from three to ten years, but could be longer. In a mission to an important city, a meshulach might sometimes accept a rabbinate or the position of a "maggid"-preacher. Occasionally, a meshulach would undertake the promotion of a business enterprise. He would also serve as a news-trafficker. Over time, the position would develop a level of disrepute due to those among the meshulachim who thought chiefly of personal gain, and cared little for the cause they represented. Pseudo-meshulachim, who represented no community, but travelled on their own behalf, also contributed largely to bring discredit upon the office and duty they had fraudulently assumed. Ashkenazi participation During the middle of the eighteenth century, Ashkenazi Hasidim began arriving in the Holy Land in significant numbers, and began to receive a share of the halukkah. The share, however, they asserted, was not in proportion to their numbers. They complained to the Ashkenazi gabbaim of Europe, and eventually created their own hallukah organization, with the aid of the Council of the Four Lands, headquartered in Lublin, Poland. Later, Rabbi Abraham Gershon Kutawer, leader of the Hasidim in Hebron, sent meshulachhim to Metz and diverted the halukkah revenue from that source to his own section of the Holy Land. In a letter of Aryeh Judah Meisels of Apta, written in Jerusalem, the Ashkenazim accused the Sephardim of bad faith, declaring that, in spite of assurances to the contrary, the Ashkenazim were discriminated against and compelled to rely entirely upon their own resources. The Ashkenazim of Safed remained united with the Sephardim and drew from the general halukkah. A letter dated 1778, and written from Safed by Israel Perez Polotzker to the gabbaim of Vitebsk, Russia, states that their meshulachim came to the house of Baruch Ananio, the head gabbai of the central committee at Constantinople, and received 3,000 lire. Out of this sum they paid 2,000 lire to the Pasha for taxes and 250 lire for expenses of the meshulachim, the balance (750 lire) going to the halukkah. In the credentials issued to Rabbi Abraham ha-Kohen of Lask, a Jerusalem meshulach sent to Poland in 1783, the Sephardic central committee writes that Ashkenazim in the Holy Land were taken care of and given a proportionate share of the halukkah. Tiberias Hasidim A group of the hasidim from South Russia settled in Tiberias. Their leader, Rabbi Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk, sent a meshulach regularly to Poland and Volhynia, and in a businesslike manner rendered receipts for past donations signed by the leaders in Tiberias, with requests for further assistance. Contributions poured in, and the only difficulty experienced by the meshulach was the safe delivery of the funds to Tiberias and Jerusalem, as the roads via Constantinople were infested by bands of robbers. He had to wait sometimes for three or four months for a protected vessel sailing from Constantinople to Haifa or Acre; and thence a safe-conduct with armed soldiers to Tiberias and Jerusalem was necessary. Meanwhile, the halukkah being exhausted, the Hasidim had to borrow money in anticipation of the next remittances. The requirements of the halukkah at that time exceeded 700 ducats. A subscription fund-raising campaign for the halukkah was introduced by Rabbi Abraham Kalisker, leader of the Hasidim in Tiberias. He secured the assistance of Rabbi Mordecai of Niesvizh, who issued a proclamation, dated "22 Adar I., 5556 1796," and addressed to all Jews of Poland, imploring every male and female, adult and minor, whether living in cities or villages, to donatee a fixed sum every week for the support of their countrymen, who had settled in the Holy Land. The amount was to be paid quarterly, in addition to funds raised at weddings, circumcisions, and other religious rejoicings. This proclamation was approved by other rabbis in Poland, and the result was a substantial increase in the halukkah. Safed Perushim In 1801, about two dozen Ashkenazi Perushim, disciples of Rabbi Elijah of Vilna, led by Rabbi Menahem Mendel of Shklov and Rabbi Yisroel ben Shmuel of Shklov, emigrated from Lithuania to the Holy Land, and joined the rolls of the needy at the trough of the halukkah. When their share of the halukkah proved inadequate, Rabbi Israel appointed himself the meshulach for Lithuania and Belarus, and succeeded in establishing an adequate share for his group. The halukkah of the Perushim was increased by Rabbi Aryeh Loeb Katzenellenbogen of Brest-Litovsk and by Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, who issued proclamations to the effect that the contributions put in the boxes bearing the name of Rabbi Meir Ba'al HaNeis should not be used for candles in the synagogues, as was the custom in some cases, nor for anything but the specific purpose of supporting the poor in the Holy Land. The headquarters for the halukkah of the Perushim were then relocated from Shklov to Vilna, and a second European headquarters, that of the combined central committee for the halukkah of both the Sephardim and Perushim, was relocated from Metz to Amsterdam. Jerusalem Ashkenazim After 1850, the Ashkenazi congregations (kolelim) of Jerusalem began to splinter, beginning with the ֽֽ, followed by the Warsaw and the Hungarian kolelim, until there existed no fewer than twenty-five kolelim in Jerusalem. The principal motivation for the splintering was the prospect of enlarging each individual group's halukkah portion at the expense of general halukkah fund, each kolel claiming an exclusive right to the funds collected from their particular homeland. Additionally, some kolelim instituted new apportionment policies, privileging certain of their beneficiaries ("men of learning and distinction") with an advance share over others (ḳedimah). Ashkenazi Central Committee The splintering of the Jerusalem kollelim caused anxiety to those who had no kollel to care for them, and raised concerns in the general Ashkenazi Jewish community regarding community-wide expenses, such as rabbinical salaries, Turkish military taxes, and bakshish for Turkish officials. In response, Rabbis Shmuel Salant and Meir Auerbach organized an Ashkenazi Central Committee ("Va'ad ha-Klali") for Jerusalem, in 1866, to represent the general interests of all Ashkenazim in the Holy Land; the Sephardim continued the management of their affairs under the guidance of the hakam bashi of Jerusalem. The Ashkenazi Central Committee employed its own special representatives, or meshulachim, whom they sent to countries lacking a kolel in the Holy Land. This opened up many new funding sources for the halukkah in South Africa, Australia, England, and particularly in America. Halukka in the Americas Among the early meshulachim to America were Rabbi Moses Malki of Safed (who visited the Newport congregation in 1759), and Rabbi Samuel Cohen of Jerusalem (1775). An interesting meshulach was Raphael Hayyim Isaac Carregal, of Hebron, who was in Newport in 1771 and 1773, after visiting the West Indies (Curaçao, 1764). By 1871, Sephardi and Ashkenazi meshulachim having found themselves in an unproductive competition for American funds, the two groups arrived at a compromise by which: Jerusalem was to be the point for all remittances; the Ashkenazim in Jerusalem were to receive from the halukkah fund an advance of $500 per annum; 15% of the remainder was to be advanced for the poor of both parties in Jerusalem; the remainder was to be divided: 60% for both parties in Jerusalem and Hebron, and 40% to Safed and Tiberias. Under the terms of this compromise, the distribution by the Central Committee, irrespective of the kolel affiliation, was to be known as the "minor halukkah", or "halukkah ketannah", and averaged about one dollar per person. Accountability and bookkeeping Rabbi Yosef Rivlin, as secretary of the Central Committee and working under the Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem Shmuel Salant, reorganized it in 1885, introduced a modern system of bookkeeping, and issued printed reports of the receipts and expenditures of the halukkah to gabbaim and contributors. These reports, known as "shemesh tzedaḳah" (the sun of righteousness), contain items of history relative to almost every country in the world. At the time of the earliest reports, the contributions intended for division between the Sephardim and the Ashkenazim were usually sent to Nathan Marcus Adler, chief rabbi of England, who forwarded the proper amounts to Raphael Meir Panigel, the Hakam Bashi, and Rabbi Samuel Salant, Chief Ashkenazi Rabbi of Jerusalem. The North-American Relief Society for the indigent Jews of Jerusalem, whose members were Portuguese and German Jews, sent about $750 per annum through the chief rabbi of England, with instructions to divide the amount between the two parties. Contributions intended only for Ashkenazim were sent to Rabbi Samuel Salant. The New York Society for the Relief of the Poor in Palestine forwarded to Rivlin about $1,250 yearly. Baltimore was the next best center, sending about $500 yearly through the congregations Chizuk Emoonah and Shearith Israel. Altogether the American contributions to the halukkah did not exceed $5,000 per annum up to 1885. But through the energetic work of Rivlin the increase of the Ashkenazic halukkah from America was soon apparent, and was largely due to the reports and the activity of the meshulachim, who covered every state from Maine to California. The agreement of 1871 with the Sephardim had become obsolete by that time, and to strengthen their position in America the Sephardim, following the example of their opponents, began to issue, in 1891, similar reports, entitled "Ha-Moreh li-Tzedaḳah" (The Guide for Charity). The Sephardim, tired of opposing the Ashkenazim in North America, retired, and confined their attention to Italy, the Barbary States (today Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya), Turkey, Egypt, Yemen, Persia, India, Turkestan, etc. The result was that the two factions entirely separated as regards the halukkah, each working in its own sphere. Kolel America The American Jews in the Holy Land, following the examples of the other kolelim, strove to organize their own kolel. Joseph G. Wilson, the United States consul at Jerusalem, in his approval of the project dated Feb. 10, 1879, said that "a responsible agency for the distribution of their charities may be the means of great and lasting good," and promised cooperation to the best of his power. But the Central Committee in Constantinople would not allow this new kolel to break off. Funds from America were a great source of income for the general population. If they were to become a separate entity the small number of Americans living in Ottoman Southern Syria would receive an allotment far far greater than the native Jews. The Central Committee instead, satisfied the few American claimants for assistance from the general fund. After several other attempts, the Americans, with the help of the American Consul in Southern Syria (also Consul to Palestine or Consul to Eretz Israel), finally succeeded in organizing their kolel (Aug., 1895), and induced Rabbi Joshua Loeb Diskin in Jerusalem to accept their rabbinate and to receive all contributions for the American kolel. The members in New York contributing to the American kolel were incorporated Dec. 17, 1897, as "The American Congregation, the Pride of Jerusalem." The receipts were, in 1898, $943; in 1899, $1,255; in 1900, $1,762. The central committee, which controlled the general funding of the community and kept the community unified for decades, feared the consequences of the separation. Being unable to convince those clamoring for separation the Central Committee effected a settlement in 1901 on a basis of two-thirds for themselves and one-third for the Kolel America from all collections made in the United States and Canada. The two-thirds were to be used for general expenses, and the balance divided into three parts, one part for the Perushim, one part for the Hasidim, and the remainder for Safed and Tiberias. Objections to the Halukkah A good deal of criticism was levelled against the halukkah. When the Jewish Encyclopedia was published in 1906, the Hebrew and Jewish press were almost unanimous in criticizing the halukkah, principally for the reasons: (1) it promoted mendicancy and pauperism; (2) it encouraged idleness and thriftlessness; (3) it fostered divisions between the Sephardim and Ashkenazim; (4) it gave the controlling rabbis too much power to hamper and prevent modern schools for manual labor and secular knowledge; (5) the distributions were made unjustly, with many who do not need or deserve aid being beneficiaries, while others, like the Yemenite Jews and the extremely poor, were ignored. It was even claimed that the halukkah managers opposed the introduction of agriculture as a means of ameliorating the condition of the poor, and that they were hostile to the Zionist movement for fear it might interfere with them and end their power. All these accusations may have had some basis of fact. The rabbis, however, disclaimed any intention on their part to oppose agriculture and industry for the young and coming generation, so long as a proper religious training was not neglected. They insisted that the purpose of the halukkah was only to give aid to the helpless, and especially to learned men. Indeed, the editor of Ha-Lebanon defended the public support of the halukkah for the residents of the Holy Land by analogy, pointing out that the Christians supported their cloisters and nunneries. Modern equivalents In the aftermath of World War I, the halukka system continued to splinter, with the formation of groups such as Tomchei Yotsei Anglia for the support of scholars originally from England. The halukka system was not abolished with the founding of the State of Israel in 1948; it continues amongst Orthodox Jews under the auspices of a number of organizations, such as: Kupath Rabbi Meir Baal Haness Kolel Polen the general united charity of Rabbi Meir Baal Haneis Salant Kolel Shomrei HaChomos Kolel Chibas Yerushalayim Kollel Zibenbergen See also Meshulach Shadar References Its bibliography: Konṭres Emet, Meha-Aretz, Amsterdam, 1843–1844;Ot Emet, Nos. 1–8, Amsterdam, 1854–59;Reports Shemesh Tzedaḳah, Nos. 1–20, Jerusalem, 1885–1900;Reports Ha-Morch li-Tzedaḳah, Nos. 1–9, Jerusalem, 1891–99;Reports American Congregation, the Pride of Jerusalem, Nos. 1–3, New York 1898–1900;Report Kolel America, No. 1, Jerusalem, 1901;Ha-Tzefirah, 1880, No. 41;Ha-Melitz, 1883, No. 94; 1885, No. 16; 1888, No. 164; 1889, Nos. 82–83;Habatztzelet, 1889, No. 21;Jewish Comment, xiv., No. 17;Jued. Volkskalender, pp. 151 et seq.'', Bruenn, 1903–04. Parfitt, Tudor (1987) The Jews in Palestine, 1800-1882. Royal Historical Society studies in history (52). Woodbridge: Published for the Royal Historical Society by Boydell. External links Kupath Rabbi Meir Baal Haness - Kollel Polin Jewish charities based in Israel Jews and Judaism in Ottoman Palestine Jews and Judaism in Jerusalem Diaspora organizations Jews and Judaism in Ottoman Galilee
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender%20variance
Gender variance
Gender variance or gender nonconformity is behavior or gender expression by an individual that does not match masculine or feminine gender norms. A gender-nonconforming person may be variant in their gender identity, being transgender or non-binary, or they may be cisgender. In the case of transgender people, they may be perceived, or perceive themselves as, gender-nonconforming before transitioning, but might not be perceived as such after transitioning. Transgender adults who appear gender-nonconforming after transition are more likely to experience transphobic discrimination. Terminology People who exhibit gender variance may be called gender-variant, gender-nonconforming, gender-diverse, or gender-atypical. The terms gender variance and gender-variant are used by scholars of psychology, psychiatry, anthropology, and gender studies, as well as advocacy groups of gender-variant people themselves. The term gender-variant is deliberately broad, encompassing such specific terms as transsexual, butch and femme, queen, sissy, tomboy, femboy, travesti, or hijra. The word transgender usually has a narrower meaning and different connotations, including an identification that differs from the gender assigned at birth. GLAAD (formerly the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation)'s Media Reference Guide defines transgender as an "umbrella term for people whose gender identity or gender expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth." Not all gender-variant people identify as transgender, and not all transgender people identify as gender-variantmany identify simply as men or women. Gender identity is one's internal sense of their own gender; while most people have a gender identity of a boy or a man, or a girl or a woman, gender identity for other people is a more complex experience. Furthermore, gender expression is the external manifestation of one's gender identity, usually through "masculine", "feminine", or gender-variant presentation or behavior. Australian terminology In Australia, the term gender-diverse or, historically, sex and/or gender-diverse, may be used in place of, or as well as, transgender. Culturally-specific gender diverse terms include sistergirls and brotherboys, for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Ambiguities about the inclusion or exclusion of intersex people in terminology, such as sex and/or gender-diverse, led to a decline in use of the terms sex and/or gender-diverse and diverse sexes and genders (DSG). Current regulations providing for the recognition of trans and other gender identities use terms such as gender diverse and transgender. In July 2013, the Australian National LGBTI Health Alliance produced a guide entitled "Inclusive Language Guide: Respecting people of intersex, trans and gender diverse experience" which clearly distinguishes between different bodily and identity groups. In childhood Multiple studies have suggested a correlation between children who express gender nonconformity and their eventually coming out as gay, bisexual, or transgender. In multiple studies, a majority of those who identify as gay or lesbian self-report gender nonconformity as children. However, the accuracy of some of these studies have been questioned. The therapeutic community is currently divided on the proper response to childhood gender nonconformity. One study suggested that childhood gender nonconformity is heritable. Studies have also been conducted about adults' attitudes towards nonconforming children. There are reportedly no significant generalized effects (except for a few outliers) on attitudes towards children who vary in gender traits, interests, and behavior. Children who are gender-variant may struggle to conform later in life. As children get older and are not treated for the mismatch between their minds and bodily appearance, this leads to discomfort, and negative self-image and eventually may lead to depression, suicide, or self-doubt. If a child is nonconforming at a very young age, it is important to provide family support for positive impact to family and the child. Children who do not conform prior to age 11 tend to have an increased risk for depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation as a young adult. A 2012 study found that both children who will be heterosexual and children who will have a minority sexual orientation who expressed gender nonconformity before the age of 11 were more likely to experience abuse physically, sexually, and psychologically. Roberts et al. (2013) found that of participants in their study aged between 23 and 30, 26% of those who were gender nonconforming experienced some sort of depressive symptoms, versus 18% of those were gender-conforming. Treatment for gender identity disorders (GID; now known as gender dysphoria) such as gender variance have been a topic of controversy for three decades. In the works of Hill, Carfagnini and Willoughby (2007), Bryant (2004), "suggests that treatment protocols for these children and adolescents, especially those based on converting the child back to a stereotypically gendered youth, make matters worse, causing them to internalize their distress." Treatment for GID in children and adolescents may have negative consequences. Studies suggest that treatment should focus more on helping children and adolescents feel comfortable living with GID. There is a feeling of distress that overwhelms a child or adolescent with GID that gets expressed through gender. Hill et al. (2007) states, "if these youth are distressed by having a condition deemed by society as unwanted, is this evidence of a disorder?" Bartlett and colleagues (2000) note that the problem in determining distress is aggravated in GID cases because usually, it is not clear whether distress in the child is due to gender variance or secondary effects (e.g., due to ostracization or stigmatization). Hill et al. (2007) suggests, "a less controversial approach, respectful of increasing gender freedom in our culture and sympathetic to a child's struggle with gender, would be more humane." Numerous studies confirm that LGBTQ+ students face increased instances of victimization in schools compared to their heterosexual peers, leading to lower well-being and academic performance. While research on gender variant adolescent school experience is limited, available findings indicate similar trends. Furthermore, understanding gender variance especially in young children, can be complex, making it challenging for social workers to empathize. Moreover, school social workers often work in environments that emphasize "heteronormativity" where femininity and masculinity are defined based on heterosexual relationships, making it difficult to address the needs of gender variant children. Social status for men vs. women Gender nonconformity among people assigned male at birth is usually more strictly, and sometimes violently, policed in the West than is gender nonconformity among people assigned female at birth. However, a spectrum of types of gender nonconformity exists among boys and men. Some types of gender nonconformity, such as being a stay-at-home father, may pass without comment whereas others, such as wearing lipstick and skirts, may attract stares, criticism, or questioning. Some cultures are more tolerant than others of such differences. This is a comparatively recent development in historical terms, because the dress and careers of women used to be more heavily policed, and still are in countries like Iran and Saudi Arabia (where they are regulated by law.) The success of second-wave feminism is the chief reason for the freedom of women in the West to wear traditionally-male clothing such as trousers, or to take up traditionally-male occupations such as being a medical doctor, etc. In the Soviet Union, women were allowed to take up traditionally male occupations such as construction work, but were paid less. Employers sometimes preferred women workers and sometimes male workers. In some former Soviet countries, gender equality went into reverse after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Gender nonconforming transgender people in the United States have been demonstrated to have worse overall health outcomes than transgender individuals who identify as men or women. Association with sexual orientation Gender norms vary by country and by culture, as well as across historical time periods within cultures. For example, in Pashtun tribes in Afghanistan, adult men frequently hold hands, without being perceived as gay, whereas in the West this behavior would, in most circumstances, be seen as proof of a homosexual relationship. However, in many cultures, behaviors such as crying, an inclination toward caring for and nurturing others in an emotionally open way, an interest in domestic chores other than cooking, and self-grooming can all be seen as aspects of male gender nonconformity. Men who exhibit such tendencies are often stereotyped as gay. Studies found a high incidence of gay males self-reporting gender-atypical behaviors in childhood, such as having little interest in athletics and a preference for playing with dolls. The same study found that mothers of gay males recalled such atypical behavior in their sons with much greater frequency than mothers of heterosexual males. For women, adult gender nonconformity is often associated with lesbianism due to the limited identities women are faced with in adulthood. Notions of heterosexual womanhood often require a rejection of physically demanding activities, social submission to a male figure (husband or boyfriend), an interest in reproduction and homemaking, and an interest in making oneself look more attractive for men with appropriate clothing, make-up, hairstyles and body shape. Lesbian and bisexual women, being less concerned with attracting men, may find it easier to reject traditional ideas of womanhood because social punishment for such transgression is not effective, or at least no more effective than the consequences of being openly gay or bisexual in a heteronormative society (which they already experience). This may help account for high levels of gender nonconformity self-reported by lesbians. Gender theorist Judith Butler, in their essay Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory, states: "Discrete genders are part of what humanizes individuals within contemporary culture; indeed, those who fail to do their gender right are regularly punished. Because there is neither an 'essence' that gender expresses or externalizes nor an objective ideal to which gender aspires." Butler argues that gender is not an inherent aspect of identity, further stating, "...One might try to reconcile the gendered body as the legacy of sedimented acts rather than a predetermined or foreclosed structure, essence or fact, whether natural, cultural, or linguistic". Research into nonbinary gender identities has found this: The overwhelming majority of non-binary respondents ... identified as having a sexual minority sexual orientation, which is also consistent with findings from other research. This substantial overlap between non-binary gender and sexual minority status is intriguing and supports the conceptualization that "non-traditional" gender identities (i.e., outside the gender binary) and sexual orientation are distinct yet interrelated constructs. Bisexual and gay male individuals who do not conform to traditional gender norms might experience increased discrimination compared to those who do. One study found Latino gay and bisexual men that identify as gender nonconforming faced higher levels of homophobia and psychological distress compared to their gender-conforming counterparts. Furthermore, nonconforming to traditional gender norms may elevate the risk of suicide attempts among gay adolescents, whereas studies on lesbians do not consistently show similar patterns. This may be attributed to heightened mistreatment of boys displaying feminine traits, by parents and peers. Clothing Among adults, the wearing of women's clothing by men is often socially stigmatized and fetishized, or viewed as sexually abnormal. However, cross-dressing may be a form of gender expression and is not necessarily related to erotic activity, nor is it indicative of sexual orientation. Other gender-nonconforming men prefer to simply modify and stylise men's clothing as an expression of their interest in appearance and fashion. Gender-affirmative practices Gender-affirmative practices recognize and support an individual's unique gender self-identification and expression. Gender-affirmative practices are becoming more widely adopted in the mental and physical health fields in response to research showing that clinical practices that encourage individuals to accept a certain gender identity can cause psychological harm. In 2015, the American Psychological Association published gender-affirmative practice guidelines for clinicians working with transgender and gender-nonconforming people. Preliminary research on gender-affirmative practices in the medical and psychological settings has primarily shown positive treatment outcomes. As these practices become more widely used, longer-term studies and studies with larger sample sizes are needed to continue to evaluate these practices. Research has shown that youth who receive gender-affirming support from their parents have better mental health outcomes than their peers who do not. Gender-affirmative practices emphasize gender health. Gender health is an individual's ability to identify as and express the gender(s) that feels most comfortable without the fear of rejection. Gender-affirmative practices are informed by the following premises: gender variance is not a psychological disorder or mental illness gender expressions vary across cultures gender expressions are diverse and may not be binary gender development is affected by biological, developmental, and cultural factors if pathology occurs, it is more often from cultural reactions rather than from within the individual Mental health practitioners have begun integrating the gender-affirmative model into cognitive behavioral therapy, person-centered therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy. While taking different approaches, each therapeutic modality may prove beneficial to gender-variant people looking to self-actualize, cope with minority stress, or navigate personal, social, and occupational issues across their lifespan. Atypical gender roles Gender expectations, like other social norms, can vary widely by culture. A person may be seen as expressing an atypical gender role when their gender expression and activities differ from those usually expected in that culture. What is "typical" for one culture may be "atypical" for another. People from cultures who conceptualize gender as polar opposites on a binary, or having only two options, may see cultures with third gender people, or fluid gender expressions, and the people who live in these gender roles, as "atypical". Gender expressions that some cultures might consider "atypical" could include: Househusbands: men from patriarchal cultures who stay at home to raise children and take care of the home while their partner goes to work. National Public Radio reported that by 2015 this had risen to around 12.6% of heterosexual marriages. This would only be "atypical" in a culture where it is the norm for women to stay home. Androgynous people: having a gender presentation that is either mixed or neutral in a culture that prizes polarised (binary) presentations. Crossdresser: a person who dresses in the clothing of, and otherwise assumes, "the appearance, manner, or roles traditionally associated with members of the opposite sex". Crossdressers may be cisgender, or they may be trans people who have only socially transitioned without further medical intervention. Femminiello: a population of people who embody a third gender role in traditional Neapolitan culture (southern Italy). Hijra: a traditional third-gender person who is occasionally intersex, but most often considered male at birth. Many of the Hijra are eunuchs who have chosen to be ritually castrated in a dedication ceremony. They have a ceremonial role in several traditional South Asian cultures, often performing naming ceremonies and blessings. They dress in what is considered "women's" garments for that culture, but are seen as neither men nor women, but hijra. Khanith: an effeminate gay male in Omani culture who is allowed to associate with women. The clothing of these individuals must be intermediate between that of a male and a female. Two-spirit: a modern, pan-Indian, umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who fulfill a traditional third-gender (or other gender-variant) social and ceremonial role in their cultures. The term two-spirit was created in 1990 at the Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering in Winnipeg, and "specifically chosen to distinguish and distance Native American/First Nations people from non-Native peoples." Male spirit mediums in Myanmar: Biological men that are spirit mediums (nat kadaw) wear women's attire and wear makeup during religious ceremonies. The majority of male spirit mediums live their lives permanently as women. See also Discrimination against non-binary people Effeminacy Gender bender Gender binary Gender diversity Gender dysphoria Gender polarization Gender policing Masculinity Queer heterosexuality Third gender Transphobia References Further reading External links Androgyny Nonconformity Nonconformity Transgender
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropshitz%20%28Hasidic%20dynasty%29
Ropshitz (Hasidic dynasty)
Ropshitz (, ) is the name of a Hasidic dynasty, or rabbinical family and group, who are descendants of Rabbi Naftali Zvi of Ropshitz (1760–1827). Ropshitz is the name of a town in southern Poland, known in Polish as Ropczyce. Several contemporary rebbes are styled "Ropshitzer Rebbe", in reference to the Ropshitz dynasty: Rebbe Chaim Rubin, Ropshitzer Rebbe of Borough Park, Brooklyn, New York (see Ropshitz branch below), and others. Lineage Rebbe Menachem Mendel of Linsk Rabbi Menachem Mendel Rubin of Linsk (Lesko) ( – 1803 [23 Tishri 5564]) is often considered the first rebbe of the Ropshitz dynasty. His father, Rabbi Yaakov, was the rabbi of Linsk. He married Beila, daughter of Rabbi Yizchak Halevi Horowitz (called Reb Itzikl Hamburger), the rabbi of (the triple Jewish community of Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbek). He was a disciple of the Hasidic rebbes Yechiel Michel, the maggid of Zlotshov, and Elimelech of Lizhensk. He was the rabbi of Leshnov (Leshniv); then, , he became the rabbi of Horodenka. In [], after the death of his father, he inherited the latter's position as the rabbi of Linsk. His descendants continued the rabbinical dynasty of Linsk until the Holocaust. A collection of his writings was published by his descendant Yehoshua Rubin of Baligród as Liḳuṭe Maharam (), appended to his son, Rebbe Naftali of Ropshitz' Ayalah sheluḥah ()‎. Rebbe Naftali Tzvi of Ropshitz Rebbe Naftali Tzvi Horowitz of Ropshitz (1760–1827), son of Rabbi Mendl of Linsk. Subsequently rebbe and rabbi of Ropshitz, he succeeded his father as the rabbi of Linsk, and was the rabbi of Strzyżów (Strizhov) as well. His children were Rebbe Avraham Chaim of Linsk, Rebbe Yaakov of Melitz, Rebbe Eliezer of Dzhikov, and Ratza, wife of Rebbe Asher Yeshaya Rubin of Ropshitz. Melitz branch Rebbe Yaakov Horowitz of Melitz ( – 1836), son of Rebbe Naftali Tzvi. His father appointed him as the rabbi of Kolbasov (Kolbuszowa). In about 1810, he was chosen by the Jews of Melitz (Mielec) to be the town's rabbi and was smuggled out of Kolbasov (as he was beloved by the townsfolk of Kolbasov, and they did not allow him to leave). In Melitz he began to officiate as a rebbe. His teachings were published from manuscript in [5754] as Zeraʻ Yaʻaḳov (). Selected portions of this manuscript had been published previously. Linsk branch Rebbe Avraham Chaim Horowitz of Linsk ( or  – 1831), son of Rebbe Naftali Tzvi. He briefly succeeded his father as rabbi of Linsk, but died soon after. Rebbe Menachem Mendel Horowitz of Linsk (died 1868), son of Rebbe Avraham Chaim Rebbe Avraham Chaim Horowitz (the second) of Linsk ( or  – 1904), son of Rebbe Menachem Mendel. Rabbi Yisrael Horowitz of Veislitz (Wiślica), son of Rebbe Menachem Mendel. Rabbi of Veislitz. Dzhikov branch Rebbe Eliezer Horowitz of Dzhikov (died October 19, 1860 [3 Cheshvan 5621]), son of Rebbe Naftali Tzvi Rebbe Meir Horowitz of Dzhikov (died June 19, 1877 [8 Tammuz 5637]), son of Rebbe Eliezer. Rabbi of Tarnobrzeg (Dzhikov) concurrently with his father's being rebbe there. He succeeded his father as rebbe also. He died in Karlsbad. His teachings were published in Imre No'am () (Jarosław, 1907). Rebbe Naftali Chaim Horowitz of Dzhikov (died 1894), son of Rebbe Meir and son-in-law of Rebbe Moshe Unger of the Dombrov dynasty, son-in-law of Rebbe Chaim Halberstam of Sanz. He settled in Safed and later in Jerusalem, and after his father's death refused to return to Poland to lead his father's followers. He was renowned for his mysterious behavior. Author of Minḥah ḥadashah () (Jerusalem, 1880). Rebbe Betzalel Horowitz of Pilzno ( – ), son of Rebbe Naftali Chaim. He married Gitele, the eldest daughter of his great-uncle, Rebbe Reuven Horowitz of Dembitz, and was one of his successors as the rebbe of Dembitz, and a contender for the rabbinate of Dembitz. He was the rabbi of Pilzno. He died young. Rebbe Menashe Horowitz of Pilzno, son of Rebbe Betzalel. He succeeded his father as the rabbi of Pilzno, and died in the Holocaust. Rebbe Eliezer Nisan Horowitz of Safed (died 1916), son of Rebbe Naftali Chaim. He married Miriam, daughter of Rabbi Yaakov Kahane, the rabbi of Chutzi-Emer (, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast, Ukraine). After his premature death, she married Rebbe Yisrael Hager of the Vizhnitz dynasty in his second marriage, who raised her three daughters. Rebbe Mordechai Yehuda Adler, a descendant of the Lelov dynasty and son-in-law of Rebbe Eliezer Nisan Horowitz. After his premature death, his wife, Tzirel, daughter of Rebbe Eliezer, married her step-brother Rebbe Baruch Hager, the Rebbe of Seret of the Vizhnitz dynasty (son of Rebbe Yisrael), who raised her children from her first marriage. Rebbe Naftali Chaim Adler (1909 or 1914 – 1995), Dzhikover Rebbe of Netanya, son of Rebbe Mordechai Yehuda and son-in-law of Rebbe Chaim Meir Hager of Vizhnitz Rabbi Mordechai ("Motel") Adler (1952–1989), son of Rebbe Naftali Chaim. He married the granddaughter of the Temeshvarer–Biksader Rebbe. He was the rabbi and rosh hakolel of the Mincha Chadasha synagogue in Borough Park, Brooklyn. He died in a car accident when he was 38 years old. Rebbe Yisrael Eliezer Adler, Dzhikover Rebbe of Rehovot, son of Rebbe Naftali Chaim and son-in-law of his uncle, Rabbi Moshe Ernster (whose wife was Rebbe Chaim Meir Hager's daughter). In 2012, shortly after the death of his uncle, Rebbe Moshe Yehoshua Hager, he was proclaimed by Rebbe Moshe Yehoshua's successors as "Dzhikover Rebbe". Rebbe Eliyahu Horowitz of Zholin (Żołynia), son of Rebbe Naftali Chaim Rabbi Menashe Horowitz of Zholin (died 1972), son of Rebbe Eliyahu. He married Matel, daughter of Rebbe Yehuda Unger of Sokolov of the Dombrov dynasty. He was the rabbi of Zholin after his father. His wife and their children died in the Holocaust. He survived and was the rabbi of the Rayim Ahuvim synagogue of Brownsville, Brooklyn, New York. Rebbe Yehoshua Horowitz of Dzhikov (1848–1912), son of Rebbe Meir Rebbe Alter Yechezkel Eliyahu Horowitz of Dzhikov, son of Rebbe Yehoshua and son-in-law of his uncle, Rebbe Yisroel Hager of Vizhnitz, whose wife was Rebbe Meir Horowitz's daughter Rebbe Chaim Menachem David Horowitz of Dzhikov (died 1944), son of Rebbe Alter. Last rabbi of Tarnobrzeg. Rebbe Meir Horowitz, son of Rebbe Alter Rebbe Yehoshua Horowitz (died 2013), Dzhikover Rebbe of New York, son of Rebbe Meir Rebbe Yehuda Horowitz of Dzhikov, Jerusalem and London, son of Rebbe Alter Rebbe Tovia Horowitz of Madin (died ), son of Rebbe Meir. He married the daughter of Rebbe David Spira of Dinov, of the Dinov dynasty. He was the rabbi of Madin (Majdan Królewski). Rebbe Bentzion Horowitz of Madin ( – ), son of Rebbe Tovia. Orphaned at a young age, he was raised by his uncle, Rebbe Yehoshua of Dzhikov. He married Golda Leah, daughter of Rebbe Pinchas Rabinowitz of Kintzk (Końskie) of the Pshischa dynasty. He succeeded his father as the rabbi of Madin, perhaps as early as 1899. During World War I, he lived in Vienna with his son, Rebbe Tovia of Sunik. He died during the Holocaust in a hospital in Rzeszów in [5700]. Rebbe Tovia Horowitz of Sunik (Sanok) ( – ), son of Rebbe Bentzion. He married the daughter of his cousin, Rebbe Yehoshua Spira of Ribotitsh of the Dinov dynasty, whose grandfather was Rebbe David of Dinov. He was an active member of the Agudath Israel movement, and one of the founders of the Bais Yaakov movement of Orthodox girls' education, started by Sarah Schenirer. Rebbe Yechiel Horowitz of Pokshivnitz (Koprzywnica), son of Rebbe Meir and son-in-law of Rebbe David Halberstam of Kshanov (Chrzanów) of the Sanz dynasty. He was the rabbi of Pokshivnitz, directly across the Vistula (then the Galician–Polish border) from Dzhikov. He was later expelled as an Austria-Hungarian national by the government of Congress Poland and he settled in Tarnów. Rebbe Aharon Horowitz of Beitsh (Biecz), son of Rebbe Meir and son-in-law of Rebbe Chaim Halberstam of Sanz Rebbe Alter Eliezer Horowitz of Beitsh, son of Rebbe Aharon and son-in-law of Rebbe Moshe Leib Spira of Strizhov of the Dinov dynasty. Rebbe Chaim Shlomo Horowitz, Strizhover Rebbe of New York. Before the Holocaust, he was the rabbi of Zalizha (, Zakarpattia Oblast, Ukraine). Rebbe Asher Horowitz of Rimanov (Rymanów) ( – 1934), son of Rebbe Meir. He was orphaned as a child and was raised by his brother Rebbe Yehoshua of Dzhikov. In his first marriage, he married Malka, daughter of Rebbe Yosef Friedman, rebbe of Rimanov of the Rimanov dynasty, and was a rabbi there. Later he lived in Kraków. Rebbe Tzvi Chaim Horowitz of Rimanov (died 1939), son of Rebbe Asher. He married Sarah, daughter of his uncle, Rebbe Yisrael Hager of Vizhnitz. He became the rabbi of Rimanov after World War I, when his father settled in Kraków, and succeeded the latter and his maternal grandfather as the rebbe of Rimanov in 1935. His health was frail. He fell ill in 1937, and died two years later. In 1966, he was reinterred in the ohel of his father-in-law in Bnei Brak. Rebbe (Alter) Moshe Eliezer Horowitz of Rimanov (died ), son of Rebbe Tzvi Chaim and the last Rebbe of Rimanov. He married Chaya Hinda, daughter of his relative Rebbe Naftali Horowitz of Melitz. He succeeded his father first as the rabbi of Rimanov in 1935 and later as rebbe after his father's death in 1939. After escaping the Holocaust for some time in Grosswardein (Oradea), he and his family were deported to Auschwitz and murdered in . Rebbe Chaim Yaakov Frankel, great-grandson of Rebbe Tzvi Chaim, one of several contemporary Rimanover rebbes. His wife is the daughter of the Komarner Rebbe of Jerusalem. Rabbi Yisrael Horowitz of Baranov ( – 1870), son of Rebbe Eliezer. In his first marriage he married Yocheved, daughter of Rebbe David Hager of Zablotov (Zabolotiv) of the Kosov dynasty. Later he married his cousin Beila, daughter of his uncle Rebbe Avraham Chaim Horowitz, the rebbe of Linsk. He was the first rabbi of Baranov (Baranów Sandomierski), and refused to officiate as a rebbe. Rebbe Avraham Simcha Horowitz of Baranov (1845–1916), son of Rebbe Yisrael. In 1909, after about forty years of being the rabbi — as his father's successor — and rebbe of Baranov, he left Poland and settled in Jerusalem, where he had a synagogue. Rebbe Reuven Horowitz of Dembitz, son of Rebbe Eliezer. Rabbi and rebbe of Dębica (Dembitz). He had no children with his first wife, daughter of his cousin, Rebbe Menashe Rubin of Ropshitz (see Ropshitz branch below). His second wife was the daughter of a son of Rabbi Isser, the rabbi of Rozvadov (Rozwadów). After her death, he married her wealthy uncle's adoptive daughter, with whom he had his other children. Rebbe Alter Yeshaya Horowitz of Dembitz ( – 1895), son of Rebbe Reuven (his only son from his second marriage). He succeeded his father as the rabbi and rebbe of Dembitz. He had no children. Rebbe Shmuel Horowitz of Dembitz ( – 1921), son of Rebbe Reuven (from his third marriage). He married the daughter of Rabbi Yechiel Wagschal, the rabbi of Frysztak, a descendant of Rebbe Elimelech of Lizhensk. He succeeded his brother Rebbe Alter's positions in Dembitz. Rebbe Moshe Horowitz of Rozvadov (died 1894), son of Rebbe Eliezer and son-in-law of Rebbe Yekusiel Yehuda Teitelbaum Rebbe Tzvi Hersh Horowitz of Rozvadov, son of Rebbe Moshe Rebbe Avraham Chaim Horowitz of Plontsh, son of Rebbe Moshe Rebbe Yitzchak Horowitz (R. 'Itzikel' Stitshiner) of Szczucin (Stitshin in Yiddish) and Tarnów, son of Rebbe Moshe Rebbe Yehuda Horowitz (Reb 'Yidele' Stitshiner) of Stitshin and later the Stitshiner Rav in Brooklyn (died 1981), son of Rebbe Yitzchak and son-in-law of Rebbe Yehoshua Spira of Rybotycze of the Dinov dynasty. Reb Mordechai Menashe Zilber (Reb Mottel) Student Of Rebbe Yehuda, Current Rebbe Of Toldos Yehuda Stitchin Rebbe Eliezer Yehoshua Yudkovsky, grandson of Rebbe Yehuda, current Stitshiner Rov Ropshitz branch Rebbe Asher Yeshaya Rubin of Ropshitz ( – 1845), son-in-law of Rebbe Naftali Tzvi, known as Reb Osher'l. He succeeded his father-in-law as rabbi and rebbe of Ropshitz. His teachings were published in Or yeshaʻ () (Lviv, 1876). Rebbe Menashe Rubin of Ropshitz (died 1861), son of Rebbe Asher Yeshaya. His teachings were published in Leḥem Shemena () (Lviv, 1876). Rebbe Yitzchak Mariles of Ropshitz, son-in-law of Rebbe Menashe Rebbe Menachem Mendel Mariles of Ropshitz and Dibetzk, son of Rebbe Yitzchak Rebbe Menashe Mariles of Ropshitz and Dibetzk, son of Rebbe Mendel Rebbe Aharon Rubin of Rymanów (died 1857), son of Rebbe Asher Yeshaya Rebbe Yaakov Rubin of Baranów (died 1905), son of Rebbe Aharon. He was a rebbe in Baranów, later in Tarnów. He had no children. His stepson, Rabbi Moshe Isser Glantz (son of his wife, Malka) published his writings in Toldot Yaʻaḳov () (Mukachevo, 1908). Rebbe Nachum Rubin of Narol (died 1876), son of Rebbe Aharon and son-in-law of Rebbe Avraham Reinman, Rabbi of Narol of the Narol dynasty. Rebbe Shmuel Rubin of Kortshin, son of Rebbe Aharon. He married Yocheved, daughter of Rebbe Elazar Weissblum, son of Rebbe Naftali Weissblum of the Lizhensk dynasty. He succeeded (the unrelated) Rabbi Shmuel Aharon Rubin as the rabbi of Korczyna. Rabbi Naftali Rubin of Vishnitza ( – 1938), son of Rebbe Shmuel. He married Chana Malka, daughter of Rebbe Yechezkel Shraga Halberstam of Shineva of the Sanz dynasty. He was the rabbi of Kalvaria (Kalwaria Zebrzydowska), then dayan of Vishnitza (Nowy Wiśnicz), and later the rabbi of the same. He was not a rebbe. Rabbi Chaim Baruch Rubin of Vishnitza ( – 1943), son of Rabbi Naftali. He married the daughter of his cousin, Rabbi Tzvi Yosef Rubin the rabbi of Yaslo. He succeeded his father's position in Vishnitza. He died in the Holocaust. Rebbe Yona Rubin, the Vishnitzer Rebbe of Nisk (Nisko), son of Rabbi Naftali. He married his cousin, Chana Beila, daughter of his uncle Rabbi Asher Rubin, the rabbi of Kortshin. Rabbi Asher (Reuven) Rubin of Kortshin, son of Rabbi Shmuel. He was the rabbi of Kortshin. Rebbe Elimelech Rubin of Sokoliv (died ), son of Rebbe Asher Yeshaya Rebbe Yitzchak{{efn|"Yitzchak Betzalel", as his name is given in some sources, is a mistake.Rubin of Brody and Radekhiv, son of Rebbe Elimelech. His wife, Eidel, was the daughter of Rebbe Sholom Rokeach of Belz, and was famous as a rebbe in her own right. Rebbe Shmuel Shmelke Rubin of Seret (died 1901), son of Rebbe Yitzchak (see Seret (Hasidic dynasty)) Rebbe Naftali Tzvi Rubin of Radichov (Radekhiv), son of Rebbe Yitzchak. His wife, Tamar, was the daughter of Rebbe Aryeh Leibush Neuhaus of Tomaszów Lubelski of the Chelm dynasty. Rebbe Asher Yeshaya Rubin of Zholkiv (Zhovkva) (died 1916), son of Rebbe Naftali Tzvi. His wife was Malka Freida, daughter of Rabbi Chaim Eliyahu Lieberman, the rabbi of Zholkiv. He was a rebbe in Zholkiv, and later the Zholkiver Rebbe in Kshanov (Chrzanów). Rebbe Elimelech Rubin (known by his epithet , "Sage Nahor" - "the Blind") of Yavrov (died 1904), son of Rebbe Yitzchak. He was a follower of the rebbes of Belz. Rebbe Avraham Yehoshua Heshil Rubin of Yaslo (Jasło) (died 1908), son of Rebbe Elimelech. He was the rabbi of Sokołów Małopolski. Later, he was appointed as the first rabbi of Jasło. He later settled in Safed where he was the rabbi of the Galician Jewish community. He died in Safed. Rebbe Tzvi (Hersh) Yosef Rubin of Yaslo ( – ), son of Rebbe Avraham Yehoshua Heshil. He succeeded his father as the rabbi of Yaslo after the latter settled in Israel. Rebbe Alter (Elimelech) Rubin of Sokołów (1847 – after 1928), son of Rebbe Elimelech. He succeeded his father and his brother as the rabbi of Sokołów Małopolski. Rebbe Menachem Mendel Rubin of Glogiv ( – 1873), son of Rebbe Asher Yeshaya. He married Chava Ester, daughter of Rebbe Meir Rothenberg of Apt ("the Or la-Shamayim"). In his second marriage, he married his first wife's niece (her brother's daughter). Rebbe Meir Rubin of Glogiv (1829–1897), son of Rebbe Mendel. His wife was Mirel Gola, daughter of Rebbe Yosef Unger of Dombrov. Rebbe Chaim Yechiel Rubin of Dombrov (1854 – ), son of Rebbe Meir. His wife was Devora, daughter of Rebbe Sender Lipa Eichenstein of Zidichov. He was the rabbi of Limna. Later, he was succeeded his maternal grandfather as the rebbe of Dombrov. He died in Berlin. Grand Rabbi Yissachar Berish Rubin of Dombrova. Rebbe in Berlin, and later in Washington Heights, New York. Grand Rabbi Esriel Rubin of Dombrova, son in law of Rebbe Yisachar Ber Shapiro of Kechneye, Nadvorna Dynasty Grand Rabbi Naftoli Tzvi Rubin of Dombrova-Monsey, son of Rabbi Esriel of Dombrova[1] Rebbe Shalom Rubin of Reisha-Ruskaviesh (, Rzeszów) (1856 –), son of Rebbe Meir. His wife was Chana Mindel, daughter of Rebbe Simcha Spira, son of Rebbe Elazar Spira of Lantzhut of the Dinov dynasty. Rebbe Yitzchak Tovia Rubin of Sanz (1858–1927), son of Rebbe Meir. His wife, Nechama was the daughter of Rebbe Chaim Halberstam of Sanz. He was a rebbe in Nowy Sącz (Sanz) after his father-in-law's death. Rebbe Arye Leibish Rubin of Tomaszów Lubelski and Cieszanów (died 1942), son of Rebbe Yitzchak Tovia and son-in-law of his cousin, Rebbe Simcha Yissachar Ber Halberstam of Cieszanów, son of Rebbe Yechezkel Shraga Halberstam of Sieniawa. Rebbe Shalom Yechezkel Shraga Rubin (died 1986), Tsheshanover Rebbe in New York, son of Rebbe Arye Leibish. Rebbe Simcha Yissachar Ber Rubin, Tsheshanover Rebbe in New York, son of Rebbe Arye Leibish and son-in-law of Rebbe Yehoshua Eichenstein of Grosswardein of the Zidichov dynasty. Rebbe Baruch Rubin of Brezdovitz (, Lviv Oblast, Ukraine) and Gherla (then called Szamosújvár) (1864–1935), son of Rebbe Meir. He married Sara Shlomzti, daughter of Rebbe Menachem Mendel Eichenstein of Zidichov. (She survived him and settled in Jerusalem, where she was a rebbe.) He was the rabbi of the community of his father-in-law's followers in Berezdivtsi, where he adopted the customs and style of prayer (nusach) of the Zidichov dynasty. Later he was a rebbe in Kolomyia. During World War I, he fled from Kolomyia to Dej. After a brief stay in Dej, he settled in nearby Gherla. His writings were published as She'erit Barukh () (Jerusalem, 1973).His son-in-law Rebbe Moshe Frisherman of the Tomashov dynasty (husband of his daughter Mindel) succeeded him as the rebbe of Gherla until the Holocaust, in which his first wife and their children died. (Later he was known simple as the rebbe of Tomashov.)Another son-in-law of Rebbe Baruch, Rebbe Tzvi Hersh Kahane, was the ancestor of the Kahane branch of the Spinka dynasty. Rebbe Yaakov Yisrael veYeshurun Rubin of Sulitz and Sasregen (30 Kislev 5645 [December 18, 1884], Zhydachiv, – 15 Sivan 5704 [June 6, 1944]), son of Rebbe Baruch. His first wife, Rechil, was the daughter of Rabbi Mordechai Yosef Moshe Moskowitz, rebbe of Suliţa (Sulitz), through whose influence he was appointed as the rabbi of Sulitz in approximately 1909. After her death, he married Alte Nechama Malka, daughter of Rabbi Chaim Dachner of Seret, a descendant of the Kosov and Belz Hasidic dynasties (see Seret (Hasidic dynasty)). They both died in the Holocaust. Rebbe Menachem Mendel Rubin ( – 2007), Muzhayer Rebbe, son of Rebbe Yaakov Yisrael veYeshurun and son-in-law of Rebbe Chaim Meir Yechiel Horowitz of Raniżów (see Melitz branch above). He succeeded his father-in-law as the rebbe of Selish (Vynohradiv) and officiated as the rabbi of Muzhay (, Zakarpattia Oblast, Ukraine). Rabbi of the Khal Yeshurun Ropshitz congregation of Ocean Parkway, Brooklyn, New York. Rebbe Chaim (Meir Yechiel Moshe) Rubin, Ropshitzer Rebbe of Borough Park, Brooklyn, son of Rebbe Menachem Mendel and son-in-law of his uncle, Rebbe Shmuel Shmelka Rubin, the Sulitzer Rebbe. He is a disciple of his maternal great-uncle, Rebbe Yoel Teitelbaum, the Satmarer Rebbe. His great-uncle appointed him as the Rosh ha-Kolel (dean of a kollel) of his Kolel in Kiryas Joel, New York, in around 1977. Later, at the Rebbe of Satmar's suggestion, he settled in the "Ropshitz" neighborhood of Kiryas Joel and founded a synagogue called "Kedushas Yom Tov". Later he settled in Borough Park, Brooklyn, where his synagogue, Cong. Zera Kodesh Kedushas Yom Tov D'Ropshitz, is located, and is now known as the Ropshitzer Rebbe Also cousin with Spinka Rebbe of Jerusalem . Rebbe Shmuel Shmelka Rubin (1925–2013 ), Sulitzer Rebbe, son of Rebbe Yaakov Yisrael veYeshurun and son-in-law of Rebbe Yissachar Ber Rosenbaum of Stroznitz. Rabbi of the Sulitz congregation of Far Rockaway, Queens, New York. Rebbe Mordechai David Rubin, Sasregener Rebbe, son of Rebbe Yaakov Yisrael veYeshurun and son-in-law of Rebbe Yehoshua Eichenstein of Grosswardein of the Zidichov dynasty. Rabbi of K'hal Sasregen congregation in the Midwood neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. Rabbi Yaakov Yisrael veYeshurun Rubin, Brizdovitzer Rov of Borough Park, Brooklyn—rabbi of the Brizdovitz congregation. Rebbe Meir Yosef Rubin of Kerestir (Bodrogkeresztúr) (died 1944), son of Rebbe Baruch. He married Rivka Tzirel, daughter of Rebbe Avraham Steiner, the Rebbe of Kerestir. He succeeded his father-in-law's position in Kerestir. He died in the Holocaust. Rebbe Yissachar Berish Rubin, Kerestirer Rebbe of New York, son of Rebbe Meir Yosef. He was for a rebbe for a while after the Holocaust in the town of Kerestir; later he emigrated to the United States. Rebbe Yaakov Yosef Rubin of Glogov ( – 1873), son of Rebbe Mendel. His first wife was his cousin, daughter of Rebbe Leibush Neuhaus of Tomaszów Lubelski of the Chelm dynasty, whose wife was his mother's sister. In his second marriage, he married Hesa, daughter of Rebbe Elazar Hopstein of Kozhnitz of the Kozhnitz dynasty. His father appointed him as the rabbi of Glogov in his stead. Rebbe Alter Moshe Chaim Rubin of Raniżów and Glogov ( – ), son of Rebbe Yaakov Yosef. In his first marriage, he married Yehudis, daughter of Rebbe David Spira, Rebbe of Dinov (Dynow) of the Dinov dynasty. He was the rabbi of Raniżów, later of Glogów in his father's place (some 25 years after the latter's death). His second wife was Pearle (née Freilich), daughter of R' Menachem Yakov Freilich. Rebbe Elazar Rubin ( – 1933), Sasover Rebbe of New York, son of Rebbe Yaakov Yosef (from his second marriage). After his father's premature death, Rebbe Chaim Halberstam of Sanz raised him. In his first marriage, he married the daughter of Rebbe Uri Langner of Rohatyn of the Stretin dynasty. In his second marriage, he married Rechel, daughter of Rebbe Shlomo Mayer, Rebbe of Sasov (Sasiv, Ukraine) of the Alesk dynasty (his children were from his second marriage). He was first a rebbe in Glogov. Then, in around 1919, he was asked by the American followers of the Sasov dynasty to settle in the United States to be their Rebbe, to which he acquiesced. He wrote Zikhron Elʻazar () (Lviv, 1930), with an introduction describing his family and personal history. He died in New York.His daughter (from his second marriage), Chava Sara (died in childbirth, 1916), was the mother of Rebbe Yaakov Yosef Weisz of the Spinka dynasty, ancestor of the extant Weiss branch of the Spinka dynasty. Rebbe Chanoch Henich Dov Rubin, Sasover Rebbe of London, England, son of Rebbe Elazar (from his second marriage). Rebbe Yosef David Rubin ( – 1983), Sasover Rebbe of New York, son of Rebbe Elazar (from his second marriage). His first wife was the daughter of Rebbe Yisrael Horowitz of Melitz. His second wife was the daughter of Rebbe Shalom Reuven Rosenfeld of the Kaminka dynasty, grandson of Rebbe Chaim Halberstam of Sanz. Rebbe Asher Yeshaya Rubin of Stashov (died 1936), son of Rebbe Mendel (from his second marriage). His wife was Sheindel, daughter of Rebbe Avraham Yitzchak Weissblum of Stashov of the Lizhensk dynasty. He settled in Cologne after World War I. Rebbe Avraham Yitzchak Rubin of Chirov, son of Rebbe Asher Yeshaya. He was a rebbe in Chirov. He died in the Holocaust. Rebbe Yechiel Rubin of Kolbasov ( – 1860), son of Rebbe Asher Yeshaya. Rabbi of Kolbuszowa (Kolbasov) from . He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Rebbe Avraham Aharon Teitelbaum of the Siget dynasty. Rebbe Asher Yeshaya Rubin of Kolbasov ( – 1914), son of Rebbe Yechiel. His wife, Chana Shifra, was the daughter of Rebbe Sender Safrin, the eldest son of Rebbe Yitzchak Eisik Yechiel Yehuda Safrin of Komarno, founder of the Komarno dynasty. Notes References Alfasi's system divides Ropshitz into two dynasties: Ropshitz proper (p. 268), comprising the Linsk, Melitz, and Dzhikov branches, and Ropshitz II (p. 335), comprising the Ropshitz branch. Further reading General Dzhikov branch references Ropshitz branch references (in Or yeshaʻ () by Rebbe Asher Yeshaya of Ropshitz) This edition includes: Liḳuṭe Maharmam () by his son Rebbe Menachem Mendel of Glogiv (in Or yeshaʻ) Liḳuṭe Maharam () by his son Rebbe Meir of Glogiv (in Or yeshaʻ) Facsimiles (including annotated transcriptions) of manuscripts by and about members of the Ropshitz dynasty Sheʼerit Barukh () by his son Rebbe Baruch of Brezdovitz Gilyone yosher (), by his son Rebbe Yaakov Yisrael veYeshurun of Sulitza Zeraʻ ḳodesh matsavtah (), a genealogical treatise by his son Rabbi Asher Yeshaya (who died in the Holocaust). External links Meditative Tune from Ropshitz "Mazel Tov" Tune from Ropshitz Dance Tune from Ropshitz Waltz from Ropshitz - played by Andy Statman Hasidic dynasties
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Andersen
Eric Andersen
Eric Andersen (born February 14, 1943) is an American folk music singer-songwriter, who has written songs recorded by Johnny Cash, Bob Dylan, Judy Collins, Linda Ronstadt, the Grateful Dead and many others. Early in his career, in the 1960s, he was part of the Greenwich Village folk scene. After two decades and sixteen albums of solo performance he became a member of the group Danko/Fjeld/Andersen. Personal history Eric Andersen's grandfather emigrated from Norway. Eric Andersen was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and grew up in Snyder, New York, a suburb of Buffalo. Elvis Presley made an impression on him when 15-year-old Andersen saw him perform. He moved to Boston and then San Francisco, where he met Tom Paxton, finally settling in New York City at the height of the Greenwich Village folk movement. Andersen was at one point married to former Cambridge folksinger Debbie Green, who contributed guitar, piano, and backing vocal performances to various records Andersen released between 1965 and 1975. He was a resident of Woodstock, New York, between 1975 and 1983. He then moved to Oslo, Norway, and maintained a residence in New York City. He was cohabiting and has four children with the Norwegian visual artist Unni Askeland. He currently lives in the Netherlands. He married Dutch social scientist and singer Inge Andersen in 2006. He has a daughter Sari (with Debbie Green), who contributed backing vocal performances to his Memory of the Future album. In 2022, Andersen was awarded an honorary doctorate degree from Hobart and William Smith Colleges. Musical career 1964–1969: Folk breakthrough In the early 1960s, Andersen was part of the Greenwich Village folk scene in New York City. His best-known songs from the 1960s folk era are "Violets of Dawn", "Come to My Bedside", and "Thirsty Boots" (the latter recorded by Judy Collins, Bob Dylan, and John Denver amongst others). In 1964, Andersen made his debut at Gerdes Folk City in a live audition for Vanguard Records. In 1965 he released his first Vanguard album Today Is the Highway. In 1966 he made his Newport Folk Festival debut. The Beatles' manager Brian Epstein was in the process of becoming his manager when he died. Joni Mitchell cites Andersen as the source of her open tunings. 1970s: Singer-songwriter era Andersen took part in the Festival Express tour across Canada in 1970 with the Grateful Dead, Janis Joplin, The Band, Delaney Bramlett and others. Andersen signed with Columbia in 1972 and issued his most commercially successful album, Blue River, on that label. From that album, the song "Is It Really Love At All?" is the most popular. The master tapes of his follow-up album Stages were lost (until 1989) before the album could be released, resulting in the loss of much of the momentum he had gained with Blue River. Andersen parted ways with Columbia and recorded sporadically for a number of labels throughout the remainder of the 1970s and into the early 1980s. In 1975 he performed with Arlen Roth at the opening show of Bob Dylan's Rolling Thunder Revue at Gerde's Folk City and again in Niagara Falls. In the late 1970s, Andersen was also a member of the Woodstock Mountains Revue, a folk group that also featured Artie Traum, Happy Traum and John Sebastian. 1980s: Europe Andersen fell into obscurity for a number of years for audiences in United States. After moving to Europe, he recorded three albums, including Midnight Son, Tight in the Night and Istanbul. Andersen established his own company, Wind and Sand Records, to sell his music through mail order. Andersen reemerged in 1989 with a new album, Ghosts Upon the Road. Though the album did only modestly well, it was widely praised and placed on a number of critics' year-end "best of" lists. The title track was a 10 1/2-minute autobiographical song that Andersen wrote about when he lived in Beacon Hill, Boston, and moved to New York City in 1964. Stages: The Lost Album The Stages tapes were found nearly two decades after they had been lost. Forty boxes consisting of the original master tapes were found October 1989 in the vaults at Columbia Records in New York. The album was recorded after Blue River and featured guest artists Leon Russell, Joan Baez and Dan Fogelberg, among others. It was issued in 1991 as Stages: The Lost Album. 1990s: Danko/Fjeld/Andersen At this point in his career, Andersen was living in Oslo, Norway, and, in the early 1990s, he joined the trio Danko/Fjeld/Andersen, with Rick Danko (the Band) and the Norwegian singer-songwriter Jonas Fjeld. The trio recorded three albums and performed together for nine years. 1998–present: Late solo work In 1998, Andersen released his first solo album in a decade, Memory of the Future. Praised as "dreamy and introspective", the album was followed two years later by You Can't Relive The Past, which included original blues numbers as well as a selection of songs co-written with Townes Van Zandt. A double album, Beat Avenue, followed in 2003. Besides mostly rock-dominated ballads, the album's 26-minute title track is a jazzy beat poem relating his experiences among San Francisco's beat community of artists on the day of President John F. Kennedy's assassination. Andersen's next albums, The Street Was Always There (2004) and Waves (2005), were both produced by multi-instrumentalist Robert Aaron. In addition to covers of his own songs, the albums featured new versions of classics by his sixties contemporaries and friends, including David Blue, Bob Dylan, Richard Fariña, Tim Hardin, Peter La Farge, Fred Neil, Phil Ochs, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Paul Siebel, Patrick Sky, Tom Paxton, John Sebastian, Happy Traum, Lou Reed, and Tom Rush. His next album, Blue Rain, released in 2007, was his first live album. It was recorded in Norway and contains a blend of blues, jazz and folk. In 2011, Andersen released his second live album, The Cologne Concert, with :it:Michele Gazich (Mary Gauthier, Mark Olson) on violin and Inge Andersen (his wife) on backing vocals. In 2013, Andersen performed in Greenwich Village: Music That Defined a Generation, a feature-length documentary about the Greenwich Village music scene, which was issued on DVD in November. In August 2014, Andersen released a limited-edition double 10" vinyl record, "Shadow and Light of Albert Camus", featuring :it:Michele Gazich on violin and piano, with cover design paintings of :de:Oliver Jordan. In April 2017, Andersen phoned Joni Mitchell, who was at home recovering from a serious long-term illness, and suggested bringing his band to her house for some music-making. (Andersen was the guitarist who had taught Mitchell open-G tuning.) Mitchell was greatly cheered by having music in her home and in her life again, and as a result of Andersen's visit was inspired to start hosting regular music sessions, which became known as "Joni Jams". The music sessions assisted her recovery, and she was able to return to live performance in 2022. In May 2017, Andersen released his album Mingle with the Universe: The Worlds of Lord Byron, featuring Inge Andersen (backing vocals), :it:Michele Gazich (violin), Giorgio Curcettie (oud, bass, guitar), Cheryl Prashker (percussion) and Paul Zoontjes (aka :nl:Simon Keats, piano) with cover design paintings of :de:Oliver Jordan. In December 2017, the album Silent Angel: The Fire and Ashes of Heinrich Böll was released celebrating the centenary of the writer Heinrich Böll's birth. In March 2018, Sony/Legacy Recordings issued The Essential Eric Andersen, a 42-track double CD release covering fifty years of his recorded history from Today is the Highway on to The Cologne Concert album and unreleased New York recordings. A documentary about Eric Andersen, entitled The Songpoet, premiered at The Copenhagen Music Film Festival on September 13, 2019. Set against the cultural landscapes of his 50-year artistic journey, the film depicts an intimate portrait of Andersen—writing, recording, and performing today and reflecting on his life's work. The film was produced by Toward Castle Films and Skipping Stone Pictures. Beginning in April 2021 The Songpoet was made available for TV broadcast in the United States by American Public Television, and a free stream of the full documentary became available at the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) website. In June 2020, Y&T Music issued Woodstock under the Stars, a collection featuring a 36-track triple CD drawn from concerts, a webcast and studio sessions recorded between 1991 and 2011. The performances feature special guests Rick Danko, John Sebastian, Garth Hudson, Eric Bazilian, Happy Traum, Artie Traum, Inge Andersen (singer-songwriter, Eric Andersen's wife and harmony singer), Joe Flood, Jonas Fjeld, Gary Burke and Robert Aaron) with cover design paintings of :de:Oliver Jordan. In October 2022, Y&T Music issued Tribute To A Songpoet: Songs of Eric Andersen, a collection of 42 songs on a triple CD with a cover design painting of :de:Oliver Jordan featuring new (and some vintage) recordings and interpretations of his songs by an eclectic group of artists with musical and personal connections to him. The artists include Bob Dylan, Lucy Kaplansky, Albert Lee, Scarlet Rivera, Willie Nile, Elliott Murphy, Eric Bazilian, Larry Campbell, Mary Chapin Carpenter, Janis Ian, Robert Aaron, Steve Addabbo, John Gorka, Happy Traum, Amy Helm, Linda Ronstadt, Lenny Kaye, Rick Danko and many others. In February 2023, Appaloosa Records issued Foolish Like the Flowers, a live album recorded in Spaziomusica, Italy featuring Scarlet Rivera on violin, Paolo Ercoli on dobro,Cheryl Prashker on percussion and Inge Andersen on backing vocals. Andersen has completed the recording of another new album, Dance of Love and Death. The album was co-produced, recorded and mixed by Steve Addabbo (Suzanne Vega). Other musicians who performed on the album include Lenny Kaye (Patti Smith Group), Larry Campbell (Bob Dylan band; Phil Lesh and Friends, Levon Helm (Band)), Steve Addabbo, Robert Aaron, :it:Michele Gazich, Richard Barone, and Inge Andersen. The record is expected to be released soon. Musical legacy In his lengthy career, Andersen has issued more than 30 albums to which many artists have contributed, including Joan Baez, Dan Fogelberg, Al Kooper, Willie Nile, Joni Mitchell, Lou Reed, Leon Russell, Richard Thompson, Rick Danko, Garth Hudson, Eric Bazilian, Arlen Roth, Tony Garnier, Howie Epstein, and many others. His songs have been recorded by artists all over the world, including the Blues Project, Johnny Cash, Judy Collins, Peter, Paul & Mary, the Mitchell Trio, John Denver, The Dillards, Ricky Nelson, Fairport Convention, Grateful Dead, Ratdog (Bob Weir), Bob Dylan, Linda Ronstadt, Gillian Welch, Eilen Jewell Mary-Chapin Carpenter, Françoise Hardy, Rick Danko, Linda Thompson, The Kingston Trio and Pete Seeger. Richard Harrington, music critic for The Washington Post, wrote, "No other songwriter born in the generation between World War II and Korea has better explored the insistence of love, whether it be sensible or hopeless, beseeched or betrayed." Awards In 2003, Andersen won the Premio Tenco award with Patti Smith in San Remo, Italy. It is an award given to outstanding songwriters. Writings In 1999 Andersen wrote an essay entitled "My Beat Journal" for the Rolling Stone Book of the Beats. That same year he published an article in National Geographic Traveler entitled "Coastal Norway" . In 2009, Andersen contributed an essay entitled "The Danger Zone" to the Naked Lunch @ 50: Anniversary Essays, a book volume edited by Oliver Harris and Ian MacFadyen devoted to William S. Burroughs’ Naked Lunch, considered one of the landmark publications in the history of American literature. Andersen wrote the lyric texts, composed music, and recorded songs for painter Oliver Jordan's Albert Camus exhibition called "Paintings out of Revolt". This exhibition first took place for the Camus centenary in Aix-en-Provence in 2013, and was at the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, Germany, during the summer of 2014. In 2013 Andersen wrote the liner notes for "The Essential Pete Seeger" for Sony/Legacy Records. Discography Today Is the Highway (Vanguard, 1965) 'Bout Changes 'n' Things (Vanguard, 1966) 'Bout Changes 'n' Things Take 2 (Vanguard, 1967) More Hits From Tin Can Alley (Vanguard 1968) Single: Think About It / So Hard To Fall (Vanguard, 1968) A Country Dream (Vanguard, 1969) Avalanche (Warner Bros., 1969) Eric Andersen (Warner Bros., December 1969) Non-album single: Sitting In The Sunshine (co-written by Carole King and Toni Stern)/Sunshine And Flowers (1970) (Warner Brothers) Non-album single: Born Again/Rocky Mountain Red (written by Michael Chain) (1971) (Warner Brothers) – ("Born Again" was performed on "The Johnny Cash Show" in 1971.) Blue River (Columbia, 1972) Be True To You (Arista, 1975) Sweet Surprise (Arista, 1976) Midnight Son (CBS, 1980) Tight in the Night (CBS, 1984) Istanbul (EMI, 1985) original soundtrack Ghosts Upon the Road (Gold Castle, 1989) Stages: The Lost Album (Columbia, 1991) [mostly recorded in 1972–73, the master tapes were then lost, with three brand new tracks] Danko/Fjeld/Andersen – Rick Danko, Jonas Fjeld & Eric Andersen (Mercury, 1991) Ridin' on the Blinds – Rick Danko, Jonas Fjeld & Eric Andersen (Grappa, 1994) Kerouac: Kicks Joy Darkness – Various Artists (1997) Memory of the Future (Normal, 1998) You Can't Relive The Past (Norske Gram, 2000) One More Shot – Rick Danko, Jonas Fjeld & Eric Andersen (BMG Norway, 2001) (2 CD's) Beat Avenue (Appleseed, 2002) (2 CD's) Street Was Always There: Great American Song Series, Vol. 1 (Appleseed, 2004) Waves: Great American Song Series, Vol. 2 (Appleseed, 2005) Blue Rain – live (Appleseed, 2007) So Much on My Mind: The Anthology (1969–1980) (Raven, 2007) Avalanche (re-issue) (Warner Bros., 2008) The Cologne Concert - live (Meyer, 2011) Shadow and Light of Albert Camus (Meyer, 2014) Be True to You / Sweet Surprise (re-issue) (BGO, 2017) Mingle with the Universe: The Worlds of Lord Byron (Meyer, 2017) Silent Angel: The Fire and Ashes of Heinrich Böll (Meyer, 2017) The Essential Eric Andersen (Sony/Legacy, 2018) (2 CD's) Rolling Coconut Revue Japan Concert 1977 - live (Super Fuji Discs, 2020) Woodstock under the Stars (Y&T Music, 2020) (3 CD's) Tribute To A Songpoet: Songs of Eric Andersen (Y&T Music, 2022) (3 CD's) Foolish Like the Flowers - live (Appaloosa Records, 2023) Filmography and DVD appearances In 1965, Eric Andersen starred in the Andy Warhol movie Space, in which he sang. In 1974, Andersen appeared in the Les Blank documentary A Poem is a Naked Person, which covered three years in the life of rock star Leon Russell. The film remained unreleased for forty years but was finally released in 2015. In 1984, Andersen appeared as a guest in a film documentary about Phil Ochs called Chords of Fame and sang the Och's song, "When I'm Gone". In 1985, Andersen wrote original music for the movie Istanbul, starring Brad Dourif. In 2011, filmmakers Paul Lamont and Scott Sackett began production on The Songpoet, a documentary exploring Eric Andersen's uncompromising 50-year artistic journey. The film has been finished in February 2019 and had its premiere at The Copenhagen Music Film Festival, September 13, 2019. Judy Collins Wildflower Festival – Judy Collins, Eric Andersen, Tom Rush & Arlo Guthrie (2003) (2 DVDs) Joni Mitchell: Woman of Heart and Mind (2003) (DVD) Festival Express – Various Artists (2004) (2 DVDs) Festival Express – Various Artists (2014) (Blu-ray, reissue) Buffy Sainte-Marie: A Multimedia Life (2006) (DVD) Judy Collins & Friends, Live in San Diego, 2002 – Judy Collins, Eric Andersen, Tom Rush & Arlo Guthrie (2012) (2 DVDs, reissue) Greenwich Village: Music that defined a generation (2013) (DVD) Bob Dylan: Roads Rapidly Changing – In & Out of the Folk Revival 1961–1965 (2015) (DVD) A Poem is a Naked Person – Leon Russell & Various Artists (2016) (DVD, Blu-ray) Sources —,"Eric Andersen", The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Simon & Schuster, 2001). James Ketchell, , Rockbeatstone (August 2007). Documentary Film:The Songpoet (April 2012). "Greenwich Village: Music that defined a generation" (January 2013). "Greenwich Village: Music that defined a generation, DVD" (November 2013). "Dance of Love and Death" (January 2014). References External links home – ERIC ANDERSEN Eric Andersen Grateful Dead Family Discography:Home Eric Andersen | Biography, Albums, Streaming Links Danko/Fjeld/Andersen: Danko/Fjeld/Andersen Danko/Fjeld/Andersen: Ridin' on the Blinds Danko/ Fjeld/ Andersen: One More Shot Naked Lunch @50 The Songpoet full documentary at www.pbs.org 1943 births Living people American folk singers American male singer-songwriters Arista Records artists Columbia Records artists Fast Folk artists Musicians from Pittsburgh Musicians from Greenwich Village Singer-songwriters from Pennsylvania Vanguard Records artists Warner Records artists American expatriates in Norway American expatriates in the Netherlands Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Vampire%20Hunter%20D%20novels
List of Vampire Hunter D novels
This is a listing of all light novels in the Vampire Hunter D series, written by Hideyuki Kikuchi, illustrated by Yoshitaka Amano, Ayami Kojima and Vincent Chong, and translated by Kevin Leahy and Takami Nieda. Publication history Japanese editions Known simply as the series in Japan, the first novel, Vampire Hunter "D", was written by Hideyuki Kikuchi and published in 1983. To date, over 35 novels have been published in the main series, with some novels comprising as many as four volumes; including the supplemental volume, Dark Nocturne, over 50 individual volumes have been published. The series has also spawned anime, audio drama, and manga adaptations, art books, and a supplemental guide book. All of the official publications in the series were originally published by Asahi Sonorama under the Sonorama Bunko label. Additionally, from November 1992 through February 1993, special hardcover editions of the first seven volumes, plus Dark Nocturne, were published by Asashi Sonorama to commemorate the series' 10th anniversary, as the ; each included a new cover illustration and a color interior illustration by Yoshitaka Amano. Following the closing of the Sonorama branch in September 2007, the release of D - Throng of Heretics in October 2007 under the Asahi Bunko - Sonorama Selection label marked the transition to the new publisher, Asahi Shimbun Publishing, a division of Asahi Sonorama's parent company. From December 2007 through January 2008, Asahi Shimbun Publishing reprinted the complete Vampire Hunter catalogue under the Sonorama Selection label, including e-book releases on the Kindle platform. In January 2011, Asahi Sonorama published the first spinoff light novel series set in the Vampire Hunter universe, a prequel series written by Kikuchi titled , illustrated by Ayami Kojima, artist and character designer for the Castlevania series of video games. Only two volumes were published, both in hardcover, with a planned third volume on hold since 2013. In May and June 2021 Asahi Shimbun published new paperback and Kindle editions of the two volumes, featuring new cover illustrations by Yoshitaka Amano. In November 2017, Kikuchi began to serialize new Vampire Hunter stories in Asahi Shimbun's monthly magazine with the story Vampire Hunter: D — Deadened City. These stories are later collected and printed as full entries in the main series, sometimes under new titles. The current ongoing story, , began serialization in December 2022. English editions On May 11, 2005, the first official English translation was released by DH Press and Digital Manga Publishing, translated by Kevin Leahy. Translations of subsequent volumes have released at a relatively consistent annual or biannual pace, and supplementary material including a guidebook and two artbooks have also been published. The numbering scheme for the official English releases are inconsistent with the original Japanese, as each book is individually numbered regardless of whether multi-part stories are divided between multiple volumes or compiled into a single volume, and because the supplementary short story anthology Dark Nocturne is included. In cases where multi-part stories are compiled in a single volume, the second volume's cover is presented as a color frontispiece. In 2012 Dark Horse Books began to publish e-book editions of the series on the Kindle platform, and after 2014 Dark Horse Books took over as the publishing imprint for future print editions. In 2013 Viz Media's Haikasoru imprint released an official English translation of the first book in the prequel series, retitled Noble V: Greylancer, translated by Takami Nieda with newly commissioned cover artwork by Vincent Chong. In 2021 Dark Horse Books began to publish omnibus editions with Vampire Hunter D Omnibus: Book One collecting the first three novels in the series. In late 2021 they also began to publish official dramatized audiobook adaptations of the novels produced by GraphicAudio, featuring a full voice cast, music, and sound effects. Vampire Hunter series Vampire Hunter D Doris Lang, orphaned daughter of a Werewolf Hunter, hires the dhampir Vampire Hunter D to take care of Count Magnus Lee. But the vampiric ruler of that Frontier sector is only one of her problems. The Count's daughter Larmica and the werewolf retainer Garou are determined to see Doris dead before she can be drawn into their "family." Greco Rohman, son of the chief of Ransylva village, has his lecherous eye on Doris. And dashing, deadly Rei-Ginsei and his Fiend Corps are also closing in. This book was adapted into the first Vampire Hunter D animated movie, Vampire Hunter D. Collected in Vampire Hunter D Omnibus: Book One. Raiser of Gales A long, hard winter, due perhaps to problems with the weather controllers, has isolated the village of Tepes. Near the village stands a strange hill, a one-time stronghold of the Nobility which still contains beautiful paintings and experimental equipment. Ten years earlier, four children disappeared while playing, only to reappear a month later. Now in 12090 A.D., a new terror grips the village as the victims of vampires moving in daylight begin to appear. The village turns of course to D, who finds that all suspicion has already fallen on those missing children, three of whom have now grown into excellent adults. The girl Lina in particular is fascinated by vampire art, even though it may cost her a scholarship to the Capital—her only chance of leaving the hick village. Collected in Vampire Hunter D Omnibus: Book One. Demon Deathchase With his dying breath, an old man begs that his daughter and the Noble who made off with her be pursued and, if necessary, slain. Their destination is a spaceport in the Claybourne States and their ultimate goal—a world where their love might be safe. The vampire Mayerling is perhaps the only one humans ever spoke well of, and the girl, who remains strangely nameless throughout the book, goes with him of her own free will. Still, the old man puts a hefty price on their heads, and that sort of blood in the water draws Hunters—the notorious Marcus clan and D. The four Marcus brothers Borgoff, Nolt, Groveck, and Kyle, along with their sister Leila, are as famous for their Vampire Hunting as they are for their predilection toward killing off the competition, and they hide a dark secret about their sister as well. As if all this warfare was not lively enough, Mayerling pulls through the hamlet of Barbarois and enlists a trio of powerful bodyguards from the local population—all of which are human/monster half-breeds. This novel was loosely adapted into the second VHD animated movie, Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust. Collected in Vampire Hunter D Omnibus: Book One. Tale of the Dead Town Pausing long enough to rescue a young lady and make an apparent ally, D rendezvous with his next place of employment, a city of 500 which floats a meter above the ground and cruises at 20 km/h. "The Town," long thought safe from marauding monsters, has suffered a rash of vampire attacks. But the introduction of D, the young lady and former tenant of said city Lori Knight and the brash John M. Brasselli Pluto VIII does little to alleviate their woes. The Stuff of Dreams D goes to a thriving town where, in the past ages, mortals and the Nobility lived together peacefully. The 17-year-old beauty Sybille Schmitz has slept there for 30 years since being bitten, neither waking nor aging. It is dreams of her dancing in a ghostly chateau bathed in blue light that lure D there, where the entire village has already dreamt of the handsome dhampir. There are a number of folks who feel that by awakening the sleeping woman, the Vampire Hunter will destroy their peaceful world, and they would gladly kill D to prevent that. After all, their village produces 20 times as much food as they need, and the exporting of that bounty has made them quite comfortable. And the murderous Bio Brothers, Harold and Duncan, are called in to see to the disposal of the cursed half-breed D. Pilgrimage of the Sacred and the Profane A supposedly impassable desert lies between the Inner and Outer Frontier. To cross it, the centenarian Granny Viper is looking for some powerful backup. Granny is a "people finder" and she must ferry her latest find, a young woman named Tae, across to the town of Barnabas in the next four days. As an "abductee" who lived 8 years in the vampire castle of Gradinia, Tae is the object of suspicion. Her only hope for future happiness is pinned on arriving in Barnabas before the last of her blood relations move on. Hoping to play on the sympathies of frosty D and enlist his aid, Granny offends her other potential escorts—those renowned warriors of the Frontier, Bingo and Clay Bullow. The following arrangement is reached: D is traveling to Barnabas on business of his own, Granny and Tae are free to follow him, and the Bullow Brothers tag along as well to settle the score with D when the journey is over. But it will not be easy going, as the desert has a mind of its own. Mysterious Journey to the North Sea In D — Mysterious Journey to the North Sea (Part One), the 17-year-old Wu-Lin is traveling from the fishing village of Florence to Cronenberg to have a strange jewel appraised. No less than three people try to steal it from her: the young commoner Toto, an old artist named Professor Krolock, and the grotesque Gilligan, an obscenely overweight gangland boss in a custom exo-skeleton. He has Wu-Lin killed, but her dying request of D is that he bring the gem back to her older sister Su-In in their village on the north sea. Gilligan is determined to have the gem. He dispatches five mysterious individuals with the promise that the one who brings it to him will get all he possesses. This group consists of such colorful characters as Shin the Puppetman, King Egbert, Undiscernible Twin, and Reminiscence Samon. Also tailing D from Cronenberg is handsome Glen, a warrior and "seeker of knowledge" who wants to kill the Vampire Hunter because he's the only thing he has ever feared. The second part of the story, D — Mysterious Journey to the North Sea (Part Two), begins when everyone arrives in Florence just as its short, week-long summer is about to begin. Millennia ago, the area had been a resort for the Nobility until the day, about 1000 years ago, when a traveler in black arrived and punished the cruel vampire residents. Only Baron Meinster refused to leave, and the traveler threw him into the sea. Now, for the past few years, the village's summer has been marred by vampire attacks -- "Meinster's Revenge." Su-In hired D because something particularly distressing is going on here. Though the whole world knows that the Nobility have difficulty with rain or flowing water, the vampire in Florence seems to be coming from the sea. The Rose Princess In the village of Sacuri a young lady is brought by carriage to see a Noble woman, but before the princess can finish feeding on this offering, a young man shows up and attempts to slay the vampire. He fails, but with the aid of a glider-like backpack he manages to escape from her and her armored bodyguards. But back in the village, the entire populace is being held prisoner until he is captured. No one may leave or enter, under pain of death, and if the youth is not found in ten days, ten villagers will be impaled with five more villagers to be drawn and quartered for every day after that he remains missing. D arrives just as two of the four knights who serve the princess are keeping several families from fleeing. Even after a third knight arrives on the scene, they do nothing to stop him from entering the village. Clearly the Blue Knight, Red Knight, and Black Knight have reservations about crossing blades with the dashing Hunter. Once in town, he pays a visit to an old witch named Mama Kipsch to give her a message from her grandson—the youth who attacked the princess in the first place. D informs her that the boy is dead now, but that he recruited the Vampire Hunter before he died. The village of Sacri, it seems, has made a deal with the devil: The princess has seen to it that their lands remained fertile and her superhuman knights have protected them from both bandits and monsters, but in return, they have had to let the princess feed on them. Still, not everyone in town is happy with the status quo. A group of biker toughs led by Elena would be all too happy to see the Vampire Hunter dispose of the local Nobility. Pale Fallen Angel When you want the job done right, hire a professional, and that's what Baron Byron Balazs does. As one of the blood-drinking Nobility, the Baron is hardly the sort of employer you would expect for a Vampire Hunter, but D agrees to act as his bodyguard in exchange for an obscene amount of money and the Baron's word that he won't dine on any humans during the long trip to Krauhausen. Furthermore, on their arrival there the good Baron wants D to dispose of Lord Vlad Balazs—his own father. He is truly his father's son, for at the same time Lord Vlad is retaining the services of a half dozen Hunters with promises of a king's ransom to the individual or group who does away with the young Baron. Joining the pair in their travels are the haughty Miska, a snobbish Noblewoman saved from the stake who also happens to be bound for Krauhausen, the adolescent acrobat team of Hugh and May, raised by a circus after vampires killed their parents, and, finally, the lovely Taki, formerly the assistant to the cruel trail magician Johann and currently fleeing from the same. Twin-Shadowed Knight D — Twin-Shadowed Knight 1 begins with D slaying a vampire, who leaves the triumphant Hunter with the cryptic words, "Find Muma." Not sure exactly if "Muma" is a person, place, or thing, D travels to the village of Sedoc, where a huge misty crater is attracting the dead for hundreds of miles around. In the village he meets Mia, the lovely young daughter of a fortune-teller, who promptly retains his services. It seems that her mother has foreseen something terrible happening there, and being on her own deathbed, sent her daughter in her stead to try and prevent that catastrophe. But when they go to the newly formed crater to see what could prompt thousands of corpses to rise from their graves and throw themselves into that hole, things get really weird. The D that emerges from the mist brutally dispatches a vigilante group formed by the young men of the village, and begins to act quite unlike himself. This other D, or "the false D" as he is called, has set up shop in the base at the bottom of the crater. While he looks and dresses just like the Hunter we know and love, there are differences, too. He's much more garrulous, has an eye for the ladies, and is certainly more emotional. However, the only physical difference is that he lacks the mysterious symbiotic face in his left hand. And while he is very protective of the strange experimental station, eventually he joins forces with D and Mia. In D — Twin-Shadowed Knight 2, the trio hits the road in search of "Muma," running across two technicians who had assisted the vampires' "Sacred Ancestor" in his experiments, and had their lives strangely prolonged in the process. The first is a man named Gii, who has created a ghastly Lovecraftian creature that he worships as a god. His sister Shusha is a ghost now, killed as a witch by villagers she wanted to help and unable to move on due to the artificial heart the Sacred Ancestor gave her. Still able to feel pain, she is tortured by a twisted monk who sends a band of mounted skeletons after D. In their travels, D, "the false D," and Mia see a mountain range collapse to reveal a road long concealed—the road that they must travel. But they are not alone on that torturous track. There are hundreds of victims of the Sacred Ancestor out there looking for him, hovering in a strange state which is neither life nor death, longing for him to taste their blood again. The road, it seems, is a part of his experiments, an unearthly form of natural selection that becomes more difficult with each step, ensuring that only the strongest can continue on. Dark Road Running across an isolated community composed entirely of former vampire victims, D rescues a woman named Rosaria from a human death squad that has annihilated the other pariahs, and deals with the killers as mercilessly as they dispatched the villagers. But before he can escort the woman to safety she is abducted by General Gaskell—perhaps the fiercest vampire Noble ever, surpassed only by the Sacred Ancestor in popularity among human researchers. An uncompromising warrior, the General had one side of his immortal body permanently burned when he remained locked in combat with a foe despite the rising of the sun. Gaskell knew secrets no other vampire did, and he led rebel forces in an assault on "the Capital" for hundreds of years before he was finally destroyed. But now he has strangely reappeared, and he's not alone—he commands a number of the most infamous vampires in history, renowned even more for the murder of their own kind than for that of humanity. Though he must rescue Rosaria from Gaskell's floating castle, D finds himself on foot out in the middle of nowhere after his cyborg horse is destroyed, until salvation arrives in the form of a wagon train carrying a transport squad from the Frontier Commerce Guild. The Commerce Guild uses these wagons to supply goods to the scattered villages of the Frontier, so it's rather surprising when these astute business men refuse to let D pay for a horse—but in the end the deal they strike is much better indeed. Gaskell's mobile castle has drifted into the area, making their normally dangerous job that much more perilous, so they hire D as their escort in exchange for the horse. Before accepting the assignment D manages to extricate Rosaria from the castle, but in the process he's blinded by Madame Laurencin, one of Gaskell's evil cohorts. In addition to General Gaskell and Madame Laurencin, there are a number of notable adversaries waiting for their crack at D. First is Duke Shuma, a fop with a lethal walking stick who has responded to the General's call in the place of his father. Roland, Duke of Xenon, is a heavily armored vampire who can summon spears out of thin air. His daughter, Lady Ann, is an 800-year-old vampire trapped in a body that looks less than 10, but she states she and her basket loaded with deadly flowers have one more kill to their credit than her infamous father does. Major General Gillis comes from a clan of assassins, and he has the ability to move in the form of a shadow. He also has his heart set on Lady Ann. Grand Duke Mehmet controls a giant robotic combat suit from a safe distance. The suit not only mimics his movements, but it also shares the recuperative powers of its vampire master for so long as he lives. And Doctor Gretchen is the ruthless Noblewoman who conducted her poisoning experiments on tens of thousands of humans and vampires. While poison cannot kill vampires, it can leave them in torment until the end of time, and it is said that thousands of her undying victims are still suffering in hidden labs. Despite the fact that D is blind, and that Lady Ann nearly destroys his left hand in a misguided attempt to free him from its malignant influence, he manages to keep the vampires at bay. As a last resort, Gaskell decides he must put another fearsome warrior named Lord Rocambole into the fray—but Rocambole requires several sacrificial victims from the ranks of the vampires and there is a dearth of volunteers. In fact, it's rather amusing to see how each tries to strike a deal with the General to kill the others in order that he or she might be spared. And as the body count rises, Gaskell and his minions are left wondering just who exactly the Sacred Ancestor was trying to kill. Tyrant's Stars The story begins shortly after D — Dark Road, with D squaring off against Count Braujou, a vampiric Nobleman who has sat in the same spot for 5001 years. D has been hired to dispatch him because the Capital wants to claim his treasure, and the two are just about to do battle when something crashes back to earth, destroying half the northern Frontier in the process. This is what Braujou has waited long millennia for—the return of the renegade vampire Lawrence Valcua from his exile to outer space. Valcua is also known as "the Ultimate Noble," and he wields a mystic sword named Glencaliber that can open or close the fabric of space with a single slash. But despite being the hero who led the Nobility's attack against the alien homeworld when the O.S.B (outer-space beings) tried to take Earth from the vampires, he eventually earned him the wrath of others of his kind, including the Sacred Ancestor. When he was exiled to outer space, Valcua took his entire kingdom with him, and swore that when the time was right they would be back to have their revenge. But Braujou has been waiting for more than just a fight with a skilled opponent. There is a promise he must keep. Back in the days when the other Nobility were trying to overcome Valcua, they found him a very worthy foe, indeed. The warlord Gaskell, Count Braujou, and Duke Harness were traveling to their showdown with him when they found a human by the side of the road. A former prisoner who had been kept in the Ultimate Noble's castle for experimentation, something about him moved Braujou to give him some medicine, and the man swore he'd repay that kindness. The vampires laughed and told the human he should accompany them to the castle then, and gave him no more thought. But after Harness was slain, and both Braujou and Gaskell were ready to fall to Valcua, the man appeared and saved them by knocking the Ultimate Noble back with a cross he fashioned from two swords, which enabled an escape. The grateful vampires were prepared to grant him any request, but knowing that someday Valcua would return and have his revenge on all those responsible for his defeat, he only asked that his descendants be protected from the horrible wrath that would eventually come. That man's name was Winslow Dyalhis. Now, years later, Adele Dyalhis lives in the village of Somui with her teenage children Matthew and Sue and her good-for-nothing drunkard husband. Braujou and Duchess Miranda; the widow of Harness, rush to protect the Dyalhis family from certain retribution. However; seven of Valcua's powerful henchmen have already been sent to settle the long overdue account. Amongst the superhuman fiends there is a female water sprite named Lucienne (who can appear wherever there's water), a web-spinning mutant from the lunar colonies by the name of Speeny, the mesmerizing traveling preacher Curio, the ax-wielding Jessup the Beheader, and a young giant named Seurat. D has agreed to postpone his business with Braujou until he's had a chance to honor his agreement. Additionally; Mrs. Dyalhis is able to enlist D's protection for her children. Fortress of the Elder God The story begins when a nun delivers a mysterious orphan named Toto to a futuristic airport, where we meet the rest of the passengers who will accompany him on the flight to the Capital. There's the old married couple of Mr. And Mrs. Stow who left the center of known civilization to travel around the Frontier visiting their fully grown children. In rather sharp contrast to these normal folks is Jan, a petty gangster with a crescent scar on his face and a machete he'll pull at the drop on a hat, and Maria, a blonde boozer. A pair of cops called Wiseman and Goseau will also be on board, along with the "suckling" they're escorting—a hooded prisoner who has felt the bite of the Nobility, and Bierce, an arrow-hurling warrior who is past his prime. When the group's aircraft is ravaged by an unknown force and goes down in the middle of a deadly zone strangely nicknamed "the playground," the passengers know that nearly all hope is lost—no search party would ever venture into the area, they are hundreds of miles from anywhere, and strange beasts are beginning to close in on them. Luckily for them D happens to be riding by, and he agrees to be their guard at Toto's request—but only after he has taken care of business at a strange fortress in the area. Given the choice of waiting there alone or traveling along with the Hunter on his perilous errand, the party chooses the latter. The fortress in question has a chilling history. Thousands of years earlier, the Sacred Ancestor's army laid siege to it, because the Nobles there had taken to worshipping a tentacled "god" named Kururu. Vampires, it seems, do not have much of a knack for taking their own lives, so they wanted this dark god to destroy the whole world, themselves included. Three hundred believers in the fortress were able to hold out against 30,000 attackers for thirteen months due to their great faith and the power their "god" gave them. That same number of troops was killed in a single day, with only Arch Duke Valcua surviving the incident. Finally, the Sacred Ancestor alone made it through the doors and came out a year later—apparently so exhausted that he slept for the next century. But no one has been inside in the last 5000 years. Once D arrives, the fortress goes back into operation, and another of the Sacred Ancestor's armies—at least 30,000 troops who were tucked away in another dimension waiting for such an occurrence—shows up to lay siege again. The army is hell-bent on getting into the fortress and destroying everyone inside, which is bad news for D and the stranded travelers since they have taken shelter in it. But they have more than the enemy at the walls to worry about, as a voice speaks to many of them and promises tremendous power in exchange for following its secretive instructions. Mercenary Road The action begins on a lazy day in Bossage, one of the Frontier's more prosperous towns. A ruthless quartet robs the local bank, slaughtering everyone present—and the chilling account of their actions is given by the first guard slain! His spirit has been channeled to explain that one of the four bank robbers is possessed by something that the guard fears even beyond the grave. The mayor of Bosage is trying to hire a pair of skilled warriors—a flamboyantly dressed man named Strider and a woman in dragon-scale armor by the name of Stanza—to go down the "Florence Highway" after the bank robbers, as well as to rescue people from the surrounding area from another threat. It seems that a mysterious army once covered the road to Grand Duke Dolreack's castle, so that the "Florence Highway" is also known as the "Highway of the Enchanted Troops." And now reports have filtered into town that the enchanted troops are back, threatening everyone in the area. The mayor needs someone to go to the now-abandoned castle and rescue any humans who might have taken shelter there, since the castle is a kind of holy ground for the troops and should keep them at bay. He's just about to pay Strider and Stanza twice as much as he originally bargained for when the Vampire Hunter D rides into town. With D around, the two warriors will be lucky if they can get in on the job now at half the going rate, but the mayor didn't make his town rich by being stupid. He wants the added insurance of having the warriors go with the Vampire Hunter, whether any of the three likes it or not. When he's not being pestered by either of the warriors, D is visited by a rather rotund and hirsute man with the unlikely appellation of "Beatrice." A decade earlier, Beatrice was part of a group of Hunters who ventured into Dolreack's castle, and he barely made it out alive. Although he no longer remembers what happened inside, he does have a notebook full of things he wrote in his delirium shortly after escaping the former lair of the Nobility, and he thinks this may be of interest to D. While D and his companions are out battling their way through the rapidly growing forces—soldiers dressed in ash-gray military apparel who are roughly human except for their glassy green eyes and lipless slash of a mouth—they rescue a girl named Elene Slocum, then encounter the bank robbers. While all of these humans are essentially baggage to the Vampire Hunter, they end up traveling together anyway. As they make their way to the castle, they try to discover who has brought the enchanted troops back, and for what purpose. Scenes from an Unholy War The story begins by describing a pair D has seen several times in his travels: a woman and a man, always together, always on the road. Cut to a village called Genevez on the western edge of the Frontier, where D encounters the pair for a third time. The man, named Rust, is the sheriff there, and the woman, Lira, assists him in his duties. D is among the warriors and mercenaries summoned to defend the village from a notorious bandit gang known as the Black Death. But now it appears the Black Death won't be descending on the village, and the mayor wants to dismiss the hired help at a fraction of their agreed wages. The deputy mayor, Odama, wants to pay them even less, or kill the itinerant warriors so they won't join forces with the Black Death. D rewards Odama for his scathing character assessment by lopping off his nose. No sooner does D leave the scene than he's struck by "sunlight syndrome"—the periodic ailment unique to dhampirs last seen in Demon Deathchase. Strangely enough, the staff of the local hotel have been taught what to do for a dhampir in these dire straits, so D is in good hands. But while D is recovering, and his left hand is running the show, Rust and Lira ask him to hang around a while longer and help them out. It seems the Black Death is going to pay a call on them after all. Record of the Blood Battle D agrees to escort a convoy carrying a Noble to face public trial. A bandit seeks the "Dead Love Flower" that the Noble had successfully cultivated, and the enemies of the Noble's parents target the men and women of the group. Can D bring himself to kill humans in order to protect the Noble!? White Devil Mountain D — White Devil Mountain (Part One): A shuttle containing a Noble in a coffin crashes into White Devil Mountain while en route to the Capital. The Noble is none other than Gilzen, who is detested as a demon to the point that even allied Nobles chose to bind his coffin with heavy chains and seal it deep underground. Commissioned by a Noble to recover the coffin, D ventures into the snowstorm which constantly rages around the mountain. In tow are two men, a female doctor, a guard, a boy looking for his father, and a female bounty hunter who opposes D. Gathering together, they begin the dangerous hike up the mountain. D — White Devil Mountain (Part Two): Within a castle piercing the mountainside, D finds the group of knights who protect the most unlucky Noble, Gilzen, like their king. However, another soldier is waiting for him—an extraterrestrial who crash landed 10,000 years ago and was captured and turned into a vampire by Gilzen. Using the advanced technology that Gilzen stole from the extraterrestrial, he separates the castle and those within from the flow of time. His goal: to oppose the Sacred Ancestor's rise to power. Iriya the Berserker An attractive female warrior named Iriya appears before D. Since childhood, her goal has been to slay her parents and siblings who had been transformed into vampires by the Nobility. Throng of Heretics A device which has observed ruins in the southern Frontier Sector for 300 years suddenly deactivates. Nobles who were cruelly slaughtered by the hands of men, the survivors of the Zeno family, are revived. Fearing the fangs of vengeance, the mayor of the village where the murderer's descendants reside hires five vampire hunters. As the mayor returns from the Capital, five enemies target his daughter. During a thunderstorm, a noble attacks her on the mountain pass. Amid the flashes of lightning, the master's beautiful visage appears... The blood-sucking Nobles, the hunters, and D—the chaotic journey of three parties begins as the bloody wind blows. Undead Island There was once a laboratory of the Nobility on a lone island, from which white mist poured out, and a nearby fishing village whose citizens would vanish, reduced to servants of the Nobility. The village, Meg, was struck by this tragedy countless times. The town's security officer hired bounty hunters to cross to the solitary island, to investigate and return to the village with news, but the mysterious troupe was soon seized. What's more, the beautiful D has been witnessed on the island. Who on Earth could have hired him, and why is he there? D displays his serene swordsmanship on the Nobility's island in this eagerly anticipated publication. Bedeviled Stagecoach A female government official is ordered to escort captured servants of the Nobility on a convoy, along with three aides: a hunter, a blacksmith, and a barmaid, to the Capital. However, the highway crosses into the territory of the Noble that is their master. In the wake of monster attacks which increase as they approach the danger zone, D appears. Nightmare Village A group of travelers caught in a landslide take refuge in a village, once the testing ground for a nightmarish experiment in which the DNA of outer-space beings, humans, and nobles was used to create a new form of life. When the sleeping village awakens with a thirst for blood and a pair of nobles command a bizarre prototype to attack the travelers, D arrives to put an end to the town's legacy. The Tiger in Winter At the request of a beautiful woman on the verge of death, D embarks on a journey to meet Duke Van Doren. Villagers, bandits, and an investigation team from the Capital—all rush out in pursuit of the Duke's mysterious new invention. What is this invention that could change the world? As the setting sun continues its descent and time transitions into an endless winter, a solitary Noble, once renowned as the Royal Tiger for his valor on the battlefield, welcomes D. Noble Front Hired to kill a Noble who has been sharing technology with humans in exchange for sacrifices, D travels to the Castle of Bergenzy in the Northern Frontier. However, the fortress was once a testing ground for the Sacred Ancestor's mysterious experiments, and its terrible legacy may just be the most horrific enemy that D has ever faced. Originally announced with the working title . Gold Fiend A thousand years ago, the Nobility taught a physician the key to creating a new breed of human beings, and he kidnapped and killed over a thousand men and women in order to produce such a neo-human. However, after that, local villagers attacked his home and set it ablaze, killing his successful samples... or so it seemed. Now the village is being visited by mysterious men and women and, one by one, the villagers are falling victim to fatal vampiric attacks. Just then, who should appear but D...!? Originally announced with the working title . Sylvia's Road Home Festival of the Nobility Banquet in Purgatory The Twisted Nobleman The Wicked Beauty Originally announced with the working title . Lost Legion of the Nobility The Five Assassins Cursed Demon Flight Deadened City Originally serialized monthly in Issatsu no Hon magazine from November 2017 through August 2018. The Visitor in Black Originally announced with the working title . Mountain Demon Originally serialized monthly in Issatsu no Hon magazine from September 2018 through June 2019. Dark Witchsong Originally serialized monthly in Issatsu no Hon magazine under the title from July 2019 through May 2020. The Assassins' Stronghold Demon Howl Expedition Originally serialized monthly in Issatsu no Hon magazine from June 2020 through March 2021. Bloodwind Trail Originally serialized monthly in Issatsu no Hon magazine from April 2021 through January 2022. Dawnshadow Legion Originally serialized monthly in Issatsu no Hon magazine from February 2022 through November 2022. Omnibus editions Book One Collects the first three volumes of the series: Vampire Hunter D, Raiser of Gales, and Demon Deathchase. Book Two Collects volumes four through six of the series: Tale of the Dead Town, The Stuff of Dreams, and Pilgrimage of the Sacred and the Profane. Book Three Collects volumes seven through nine of the series: Mysterious Journey to the North Sea Parts One and Two and The Rose Princess. Book Four Collects volumes ten through twelve of the series: Dark Nocturne, Pale Fallen Angel Parts One and Two, and Pale Fallen Angel Parts Three and Four. Book Five Collects volumes thirteen through fifteen of the series: Twin-Shadowed Knight Parts One and Two, Dark Road Parts One and Two, and Dark Road Part Three. Another Vampire Hunter series The Noble Greylancer Set in the year 7001 of the Noble Calendar, during the early stages of the conflict between the Nobility and the Outer Space Beings, which would come to be known as the Three Thousand Years' War. It follows the exploits of Greylancer, a powerful warrior of the Nobility and Lord of the Northern Frontier Sector, as he battles the invading OSB and an anti-Noble faction, and gets caught up in a conspiracy involving the ruling Council and the rebel Mayerling. Blood of a Hero Five years after the previous volume, a new enemy of the Nobility has arisen. The hero Sunhawk, after rampaging across the Frontier, has finally invaded Greylancer's Northern Frontier Sector. However a mysterious disease has claimed the lives of several Nobles who have fed on human blood, and the fearful Nobility has ordered Greylancer to infiltrate a free land known as the Twilight Zone in order to discover its source. Awaiting him are the malevolent OSB and a rebel Noble, along with the assassins who have joined him. Meanwhile, a conspiracy to place the entire Frontier under the sole rule of the Capital is revealed, and a noble begins to slaughter humans with toxic blood. The chaos leads Greylancer to the Nobility's Grand Ball, lance in hand. What will become of Sunhawk, and what will come of the incident? Novellas Dark Nocturne Vampire Hunter Anthology: D — Dark Nocturne, published between Vampire Hunter 7: D — Mysterious Journey to the North Sea and Vampire Hunter 8: D — The Rose Princess, is a supplemental volume that exists outside of the main numbering scheme and collects the following novellas, which were originally serialized in Asahi Sonorama's sci-fi magazine Shishi-oh from October 1991 through February 1992: Dark Nocturne : The first tale concerns Ry, a young man who goes to Anise village seeking the haunting song he'd heard from his father on his deathbed. Many vampires had been entertained at a chateau there until about 200 years earlier, and they lured young men and women in their twenties there with a song no one else could duplicate. That same song had been heard again 20 years before our story begins. On his way to Anise, Ry encounters Price and his cohorts Bijima and Kurt. Price heard the ghostly tune while in his mother's womb, and can imitate it. But he and his lackeys seem to be up to no good. D appears in time to save the boy. The female mayor of the village has hired the Vampire Hunter, among others, to find out what's going on at the chateau, and to see if the vampires have returned. D sees his life complicated by Amne, the headstrong daughter of the innkeeper where D is lodging and just the sort of cat curiosity so often kills. Originally published in the October and November 1991 issues of Shishi-oh. An Ode to Imagined Fall : The second story takes place in a village called "Shirley's Door," which is famous for its beauty in fall. A centenarian known as "Helga of the Red Basket" hires D when she foresees trouble in the swamp near her home—a place where the vampiric Nobility once dwelled. This particular village long made it a practice to offer up one of extraordinary beauty so that everyone else might be spared, and Mayor Murtock is willing to continue the tradition to preserve the peace. The real problem there is that his son, Lyle, happens to be in love with the intended sacrifice—a girl named Cecile. D has met the pair on his way into town, so you can imagine he's not about to sit back and do nothing while humans turn on humans. Originally published in the December 1991 and January 1992 issues of Shishi-oh. Legend of the War Fiends : The final section begins in a massive castle carved from a mountain in the center of an "Armageddon Zone"—an area with a radius of 2000 km left barren by a battle between two vampire clans that lasted 5000 years. The castle has a nuclear generator that produces 50 million megawatts of power per hour, which for the last 2000 years has gone into creating Dynus, a man with a somewhat childish demeanor. He is one clan's "last strike," and apparently they weren't the only ones with that foresight. A girl named Raya who has been sold into the entertainment business in the Capital is the other side's sleeper agent. Her witch-like powers come from genetic encoding done centuries earlier by other vampires to stage this one last battle. D is on the scene to protect Raya until she leaves for her new job, but the strange visitors to the area are apparently there to watch the fireworks and see which of the extinct clans triumphs in the end. The two ill-fated individuals not only befriend D, but they also grow quite fond of each other, but their fate was decided millennia earlier. Originally published in the February 1992 issue of Shishi-oh. Short stories Armageddon : Originally published in Yoshitaka Amano's 1984 artbook Maten, and later collected in Kikuchi's short story collection The Chaser and in Vampire Hunter "D" Reader's Guide. The short story offers a brief glimpse into the final showdown between D and his father, the Sacred Ancestor. Portrait of Yzobel : Originally published in 1997 in the artbook Coffin - Vampire Hunter D as Portrait of Ixobel. An English translation by Kevin Leahy was included in the original Japanese edition of the artbook, making it the first piece of Vampire Hunter D literature to be published English. It was later collected in Vampire Hunter "D" Reader's Guide, and retranslated by Kevin Leahy as Portrait of Yzobel for the English edition of the guidebook. Village in Fog : Originally published in 2000 in the artbook Yoshitaka Amano Picture Collection - Vampire Hunter "D", and collected in Vampire Hunter "D" Reader's Guide. The Castle's Resident : Originally given as a prize to a fan as a handwritten manuscript at Kikuchi's second annual "Bonenkai" year-end party in Shinjuku, it was later published in 2001 in Vampire Hunter "D" Reader's Guide. On the Night Road : A short story written exclusively to be published in 2001 in Vampire Hunter "D" Reader's Guide. Message from Cecile : Published in 2005 in Vampire Hunter D - Audio Drama CD Box. At the time the only Vampire Hunter D short story that had yet to be published in English. Adapted into a multi-issue comic book series Vampire Hunter D: Message from Mars. BB Project : Published in 2006 in Dream World Temptation: Hideyuki Kikuchi's Complete Works. Takes place a thousand years after the events depicted in Armageddon. The Wanderer's Ship : Published in the New York Anime Festival 2008 Official Guide Book. One of three original manuscripts written by Hideyuki Kikuchi which have been raffled off to fans, along with publication rights, at his semi-annual fan gatherings in Japan. The recipient of this particular manuscript, Hitomi Yasue, decided to share the story with an English audience, hoping to expose more English readers to the novel series. It was subsequently translated by Kevin Leahy and published in the New York Anime Festival 2008 Official Guide Book, and a live reading by professional voice actors was also performed at the convention. To date, it has only been released in English. Voyage Through Strange Waters : A short story manuscript distributed exclusively to attendees of Kikuchi's houseboat tour in November 2011. Siren of the Cape : Published on February 12, 2021 in Masaya Yamaguchi's A Sweet and Painful Kiss: Vampire Compilation, an anthology celebrating the 99th birthday of the late Christopher Lee, along with an essay written by Kikuchi titled Vampire Hunter K's Vampire Movie Recommendations. Other works Coffin — Vampire Hunter D Coffin is a retrospective of Yoshitaka Amano's work on the Vampire Hunter D series up to the release of D - Pale Fallen Angel 4, and includes nearly all of the Vampire Hunter illustrations, prints, and sketches produced in that 14-year period by Amano, as well as an original short story, Portrait of Yzobel, by Kikuchi. Yoshitaka Amano Art Collection: Vampire Hunter "D" Vampire Hunter "D" Reader's Guide Billed as "the essential companion to the world of Vampire Hunter D", this guidebook includes rare artwork and sketches, a behind-the-scenes look at Kikuchi's writing process, a collection of short stories, and an extensive glossary of characters and terminology appearing in the series up to and including D - Dark Road. Omitted from the English release, the original Japanese edition also includes commentaries and essays, a look at Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust and other contemporary vampire media, and a discussion between Kikuchi and Yoshiaki Kawajiri. The English edition's glossary is expanded to nearly 200 pages, however, and more closely resembles an encyclopedia. Yoshiaki Kawajiri's "Vampire Hunter D" Storyboard Collection This 647 page art book contains Kawajiri's storyboards created for Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust. Vampire Hunter Tale: The Hunter in White is a short manga written by Hideyuki Kikuchi and illustrated by Ai Kozaki that was published in 2004 by Kawade Shobō Shinsha in Kawade Dream Mook: Hideyuki Kikuchi Special Edition. It depicts a handsome vampire hunter saving a pair of sisters fleeing from a Noble and his hunting hounds. The unnamed hunter has dark skin and dreadlocks, is clad in elegant white attire including a cloak and cavalier hat, and wields a shashka — an inversion of D's general appearance. Vampire Hunter Aside: Dhampir Hunting A spinoff light novel written by Yūki Asakawa with story supervision from Hideyuki Kikuchi, illustrated by Yukito, and published by Asahi under the Asahi Aero Paperback imprint. The story deviates from the established lore of the main series and depicts a beautiful female Dhampir Hunter named Olivia Cross, who is hired by a Noble to eliminate a group of vampiric half breeds who have been kidnapping and murdering young women in his territory. Though the novel sets up a potential ongoing series, it was not continued. References External links DHpress Books Digital Manga Publishing Asahi Shinbun Publishing - The current Japanese publisher of the Vampire Hunter series. Hideyuki Kikuichi Official Fan Club (Japanese) Vampire Hunter D DH Press Vampire Hunter D
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.%20L.%20S.%20Shackle
G. L. S. Shackle
George Lennox Sharman Shackle (14 July 1903 – 3 March 1992) was an English economist. He made a practical attempt to challenge classical rational choice theory and has been characterised as a "post-Keynesian", though he is influenced as well by Austrian economics. Much of his work is associated with the Dempster–Shafer theory of evidence. Life He was born in Cambridge, son of a mathematics-teacher father who had coached John Maynard Keynes to an Eton scholarship. Shackle attended The Perse School but his parents could not afford to support him through university so he started work as a bank clerk. Later becoming a teacher, he studied in his own time for a University of London BA degree which he took in 1931. He started work on a PhD under the supervision of Friedrich Hayek at the LSE but switched to an interpretation of Keynes's General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. He obtained his doctorate in 1937. At LSE he became good friends with German born economist Ludwig Lachmann, who was inspired by Shackle's own work on uncertainty; and developed his own theory of divergent expectations based on Shackle's writing. Following a number of academic posts, at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Shackle was appointed to S-Branch, Sir Winston Churchill's inner office of economists. There he served along with Donald MacDougall and Helen Makower under the leadership of Frederick Lindemann. Following the war, a short spell at the Cabinet Office under James Meade and at the University of Leeds led to appointment as Brunner Professor of Economics at the University of Liverpool, a post he held until his retirement in 1969. Overview Shackle was influenced by Keynes and Gunnar Myrdal and challenged the conventional role of probability in economics, contending that it failed adequately to deal with "surprising" events. The grounds of his thinking can be seen in Keynes's remark: Though technical in nature, Shackle's work took economics into novel territory such as the importance of imagination in economic decisions to assess the plausibility of alternative outcomes. Though Shackle's work has had a limited impact on mainstream thought within economics, it continues (perhaps increasingly) to attract interest. Among Shackle's contributions to decision making theory, his potential surprise theory of economic decisions was the most formidable. Abandoning the probability theory foundations of most of modern economics, Shackle proceeded to focus on plausibility or a possibility analysis of economic decisions. To Shackle, economic agents did not make decisions based on probability distributions and consequently derive rational expectations from the "hard data" as New Classical economists such as Leonard Savage support, to Shackle, the crucial element in economic decision making was imagination, which consequently factors into decision making. Shackle's considerations of imperfect knowledge's role in economics foresaw many of the advances in psychological economics, particularly from Herbert Simon's bounded rationality theory. When realizing that economic decision makers lack the knowledge necessary for probabilistic analysis, the ability to consequently make rational expectations off of said data is almost impossible. To make matters even more complicated for the New-Classical economists, Shackle proceeded with his analysis, already attacking one of the core foundations of modern Mainstream economics, perfect knowledge. To Shackle, economic decision making was not derived from probability and frequency, it was based on the imagination's role in comprehending the possibility of economic decisions. If probability analysis held true for most economic decisions, most of modern economies would not exist. In this idealized state in which rational expectations could be generated, entrepreneurs simply would not exist. Entrepreneurship is probabilistically irrational, it makes little sense to embark upon an economic decision in which its fate is determined by millions of other contingent human beings and their subjective needs and preferences. The probabilistic analysis of such a situation would be strongly biased in favor of refraining from engaging in entrepreneurship; it simply makes little sense to engage in such a process for the economic statistician when the odds of such a situation being a success are immensely minute. It would then follow that in a world in which individuals interpreted probability before making economic decisions, individuals would refrain from entrepreneurship, for such a risky endeavor to be successful is such a situation in which the outcome depends on subjective preferences of unknown individuals. Entrepreneurs, then, are truly irrational in a probabilistic evaluation of economic decisions. Understanding such a peculiar situation to the statistician, Shackle proceeded to develop his potential surprise theory of economic decision making. Rather than weighing entire frequencies of outcomes for a certain situation, economic decision makers would weigh only a few outcomes and possibilities before making a real economic action; Shackle proposed only two possible outcomes for economic decision makers to weigh, rather than the frequency of an entire probability distribution. Shackle's potential surprise theory was fundamentally based on the role of imagination in economics, bridging the great asymmetry of knowledge of entrepreneurs to make actions which consequently determine the future: "At the heart of Shackle’s theory of choice is the idea that, when people consider the possible consequences of taking a decision, they give their attention only to those outcomes that they (a) imagine and (b) deem, to some degree, to be possible. This set of outcomes is not guaranteed to include what actually happens, which may be an event they had not even imagined and which comes as a complete surprise to them" Shackle's theory of choice is a theory that is incredibly odd to most mainstream economists dealing with choice theory, primarily due to the fact potential surprise theory is not a theory of probability and knowledge, it's a theory of imagination and possibility. Potential surprise theory is based on the entrepreneur, or economic decision maker, who weighs two different possible choices based on tolerable levels of potential surprise. The economic decision maker first distinguishes between the possible and the impossible outcomes and proceeds to eliminate this from their considerations. An outcome that happens to be subjectively terrible and implausible by the economic decision maker can be represented by a variable R , and an outcome that is subjectively amazing but also implausible by the economic actor will be assigned the variable U. Anything better than U and worse than R are eliminated from the view of the economic decision maker and the focus of the two values to be chosen by the economic decision maker is to be in-between these two maximum points. The focus two points for the economic actor that are in between these two values are then weighed by their level of potential surprise, whether or not they are subjectively tolerable to the economic actor. A recurring theme throughout Shackle's work is the subjective use of the imagination to guide economic decisions. Rather than weighing every possible function, or at least a majority of the functions in a probability distribution, a Shackleian economic actor proceeds to make their economic decisions based on subjective dual decisions and simply weighs the two against one another before proceeding with a course of action. The economic actor is in a way keeping his options open, a possibility that does not occur for the Savage expected utility hypothesis economic actor who takes the "Look before you jump expression" to its logical extremities; a notion untenable for the real economic world. At the centre of Shackle's kaleidic vision was the ability for economic actors to keep their options open and due to imperfect knowledge and the nature of imagination, proceed with the dual analysis of possibilities rather than entire probability distributions. Shackle had, for a period of time had captured the attention of economists, however this slowly waned as economics moved away from Shackle's theory and towards the foundations of the rational expectations hypothesis, consequently leading to the rational expectations revolution, even capturing the attention of Kenneth Arrow, a renowned Mainstream economist: "The reason for the current lack of interest is probably not any denial that Shackle’s position is fundamentally correct; it is the absence of the analytic tools needed to make the exceptional approach capable of generating operationally meaningful conclusions." Despite the latter iterations of Shackle's economic theory of decision making, there still has been little change to the economic consensus on probability theory, although Shackle's potential surprise theory bears a remarkable similarity with scenario planning of the Royal Dutch Shell, a peculiarity even Shackle noticed. On further contributions outside of decision making theory, he also claimed the importance of Gunnar Myrdal's analysis by which saving and investment are allowed to adjust ex ante to each other. However, the reference to ex ante and ex post analysis has become so usual in modern macroeconomics that the position of Keynes to not include it in his work, is currently considered as an oddity, if not a mistake. As Shackle put it: Shackle has also made important contributions to the history of economic thought, especially with regard to twentieth century economic schools of thought. Expansion on Keynes' economics While Shackle thought that Keynes' work provided the best basis on which to construct a new type of economics he thought that Keynes had not fully understood the importance of the revolution that he had undertaken when he had written his key works. Shackle said that Keynes' work must be understood as having taken three steps until it finally arrived at a new revolutionary method of economic analysis. The first of these three steps was to be found in Keynes' Treatise on Money. "Before the Treatise", Shackle wrote, "the interest rate was determined by tastes and objective circumstances, by the persuadibility of income-earners to transfer consumption from the present into the future, and the desire of business men to transfer the means of free enterprise from the future to the present, thus altering the productive possibilities and enlarging the prospective income of the society including themselves". Shackle wrote that already in his Treatise on Money Keynes was attacking this conception of the interest rate. Shackle maintained that Keynes had not yet in the Treatise understood "the meaning of the great undermining which had thus happened to the theory of value". But on Shackle's reading Keynes abandoned this "great undermining" of the "theory of value"—by which he meant any economics based on market equilibrium—in his General Theory instead falling back on a "curious methodology... where what is displayed to the reader is a range of 'equilibria' of the most precarious and ephemeral kind". Shackle writes that Keynes only really arrived at the true meaning of the revolution he had undertaken in Chapter 12 of the General Theory and then, more forcefully, in his 1937 article in the Quarterly Journal of Economics entitled The Theory of Employment. In these writing Keynes formulated a theory of uncertainty about the future that exploded the entire edifice of traditional economics which rested, implicitly, on the notion of timeless equilibrium conceptions which implied full access to knowledge on the part of all actors. In outlining this Shackle sought to marry what he considered Keynes' best insights in the Treatise on Money with his later notion of liquidity preference in the General Theory. In doing so Shackle formed a coherent, speculative theory of interest rates in which interest rates are set in line with financial speculators' expectations in the face of an uncertain future. Shackle wrote: This complemented Keynes' own idea in the General Theory that investment is ultimately set in line with the animal spirits of those investment and was thus not subject to rational calculation, as that term is understood by most economists. These two points render Shackle's expansion of Keynes' economics inherently indeterminate. For Keynes and Shackle a market economy need not arrive at any particular destination. It is to be seen as an entity in continuous flux that will only generate sufficient investment to ensure full employment by an unlikely fluke. Equilibrium versus time The essence of Shackle's radical reevaluation of economic theory was primarily epistemic. He thought that neoclassical economics and other forms of economics that use equilibrium methods ignored the dimension of time. Neoclassical economics relies on the idea that agents will act rationally; but this rationality is effectively synonymous with saying that agents know the future. Shackle pointed out that in order for agents to act "rationally"—in the sense that neoclassical economists understood that word—they would have to logically know what actions all other agents were going to undertake. This, Shackle claimed, was effectively the same as assuming that they knew the future. Shackle maintained that the way that neoclassical economics had smuggled in this strong assumption was in its use of simultaneous equations. When they tried to justify this method neoclassical economists, beginning with Léon Walras and Francis Ysidro Edgeworth invoked the principle of tâtonnement or "groping". They assumed that agents would continuously test out different bids and prices until the series of bids and prices that produced equilibrium was reached. This implied that the system of simultaneous equations was being used as a sort of shorthand for a result that was actually reached dynamically through a series of trials and errors. But Shackle claimed that this type of reasoning based on an analogy between a static system of simultaneous equations and a dynamic process of tâtonnement was extremely misleading. Shackle claimed that the entire market equilibrium construct could not deal with time and could thus not deal with the actual material which the economist must study, which was inherently historical by nature. What is more Shackle was extremely dismissive of attempts to relax the strong assumptions of market equilibrium theory to render it more realistic. He thought that the foundations were too at odds with the nature of the material being dealt with to salvage it by relaxing some of the stronger assumptions as, for example, Neo-Keynesian and New Keynesian economists try to do. He wrote: Shackle went on to write that what the market equilibrium conception showed was a world of perfect knowledge frozen in time. It thereby negated itself as being of any use in a world where knowledge of the future is impossible and time moves in one direction. In such a world the action of human beings must be in part based on reason and in part on imagination—specifically, imagination with respect to what various individuals imagine the future might be or even should be. Shackle wrote that neoclassical economics rested on a teleological or pre-determined future and thus left no space for human choice which was inherently tied up with a human being's capacity to freely imagine what might be in store in the future. Shackle wrote: For Shackle this was the correct path for a serious economics that purported to deal with the real world should take. It should move away from abstractions that could not account for time or proper, free choice and instead should try to make sense of a world where both imagination and reason played a role in determining economic outcomes. Shackle called this type of reasoning kaleidics. Others commenting on Shackle In 'The Black Swan', Nassim Nicholas Taleb writes about Shackle (emphasis added): Hayek is one of the rare celebrated members of his "profession" (along with J. M. Keynes and G.L.S. Shackle) to focus on true uncertainty, on the limitations of knowledge, on the unread books in Eco's library. [...] Tragically, before the proliferation of empirically blind idiot savants, interesting work had been begun by true thinkers, the likes of J. M. Keynes, Friedrich Hayek, and the great Benoit Mandelbrot, all of whom were displaced because they moved economics away from the precision of second-rate physics. Very sad. 'One great underestimated thinker is G.L.S. Shackle, now almost completely obscure, who introduced the notion of "unknowledge"', that is, the unread books in Umberto Eco's library. It is unusual to see Shackle's work mentioned at all, and I had to buy his books from secondhand dealers in London. Bibliography Shackle, G.L.S. (1938) Expectations, Investment and Income — (1983). "The Bounds of Unknowledge". In J. Wiseman (ed), Beyond positive economics. New York: St. Martin's Press. References Further reading Arrow, Kenneth J., and Hurwicz, L. et al. (1972) in Charles Frederick Carter and J.L. Ford (eds.), Uncertainty and Expectations in Economics. Essays in Honour of G.L.S. Shackle. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, New York: Augustus M. Kelley. Frowen,S.F. (2004) "Shackle, George Lennox Sharman (1903–1992)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, , accessed 3 April 2006 Earl, Peter E. and Littleboy, Bruce (2014) G.L.S. Shackle (Great Thinkers in Economics), Palgrave Macmillan. External links An interview with GLS Shackle, by Richard Ebeling, 1981, Ludwig von Mises Institute Bibliography from the New School for Social Research website "Reflections on George Shackle – Three Excerpts from the Shackle Collection", by Stephen C. Littlechild, Review of Austrian Economics, 16:1, 113–117, 2003 Great Thinkers: John Kay FBA on G. L. S. Shackle FBA podcast, The British Academy 1903 births 1992 deaths 20th-century English historians Academics of the London School of Economics English economists Fellows of the Econometric Society Historians of economic thought People educated at The Perse School Post-Keynesian economists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infamous%20Decade
Infamous Decade
The Infamous Decade () was a period in Argentine history that began with the 1930 coup d'état against President Hipólito Yrigoyen. This decade was marked on one hand by significant rural exodus, with many small rural landowners ruined by the Great Depression, which in turn pushed the country towards import substitution industrialization, and on the other hand, by electoral fraud to perpetuate conservative governments in power. The poor results of economic policies and popular discontent led to another coup in 1943, the Revolution of 1943, by the Grupo de Oficiales Unidos (GOU), a nationalist faction of the Armed Forces, which triggered the rise to power of Juan Perón. The Infamous Decade Besides electoral fraud, this period was characterised by persecution of the political opposition (mainly against the UCR) and generalised government corruption, against the background of the Great Depression. The impact of the economic crisis forced many farmers and other countryside workers to relocate to the outskirts of the larger cities, resulting in the creation of the first villas miseria (shanty towns). Thus, the population of Buenos Aires jumped from 1.5 million inhabitants in 1914 to 3.5 million in 1935. Lacking in political experience, in contrast with the European immigrants who brought with them socialist and anarchist ideas, these new city-dwellers would provide the social base, in the next decade, for Peronism. Political and economic scandals The democratic liberal senator Lisandro de la Torre (founder in 1914 of the Democratic Progressive Party) denounced various scandals, directing an investigation on the meat trade starting in 1935. In the midst of the investigation, de la Torre's disciple, senator-elect Enzo Bordabehere, was murdered by Ramón Valdez Cora on the Senate floor, and the province of Santa Fe was intervened. The murder was depicted by Juan José Jusid's 1984 film, Asesinato en el Senado de la Nación. CHADE (Companía Hispano Argentina de Electricidad, an offshoot of the Sofina multinational conglomerate) was also at the heart of an important political and financial scandal. The CHADE scandal, symbol of the Infamous Decade, led to investigations following the revolution of 1943 that deposed Ramón Castillo's government in a military coup, and to the subsequent Rodríguez Conde report on concessions given to the electrical companies. Execution of Severino Di Giovanni and other anarchist show trials In 1931, a year after the execution of the Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni and his comrade Paulino Scarfó—who had implemented a propaganda of the deed campaign aimed both at international support of the Sacco and Vanzetti case and at attacking Fascist Italy's interests in Argentina—three anarchists were given life sentences during a show trial in which they were tortured, on the charges of having assassinated family members of conservative politician José M. Blanch. Known as the "prisoners of Bragado" (presos de Bragado), the case raised international public indignation. Anarchists, who had created a solidarity network with comrades expelled under the 1902 Law on Residency which legalised the expulsion of immigrants who "compromise national security or disturb public order", were considered as public enemies by Uriburu's dictatorship. Prior to their execution, three anarchist bombs had detonated at three strategic places on the Buenos Aires railway network on 20 January 1931, killing three and wounding 17. In 1942 Minister Solano Lima signed the prisoners' releases; their names were cleared by a 1993 law upheld by Socialist deputy Guillermo Estévez Boero. In 2003 a law granted a pension to the daughter of one of the anarchist victims of this show trial. Justo's presidency (1932–1938) In 1933 Arturo Jauretche took part in a failed uprising, led by Col. Francisco Bosch and Col. Gregorio Pomar in Paso de los Libres, in the province of Corrientes. He was subsequently detained. Economic and social policy The Roca-Runciman Treaty It was during Justo's term that Argentina signed the Roca-Runciman Treaty with the United Kingdom, which assured the UK a provision of fresh meat in exchange for important investments in the field of transportation in Argentina, given certain economic concessions from Argentina, such as giving control over the public transport in Buenos Aires to a British company, the Corporación de Transportes. At the 1932 Ottawa Conference, the British had adopted measures that favored imports from its own colonies and dominions. The pressure from Argentine landowners for whom the government restored trade with the main buyer of Argentine grain and meat had been very strong. Led by the president of the British Trade Council, Viscount Walter Runciman, they were intense and resulted in the signing on April 27 of the Roca-Runciman Treaty. The treaty created a scandal, because the UK allotted Argentina a quota less than any of its dominions—390,000 tons of meat per year were allotted to Argentina in exchange for many concessions to British companies, and 85% of exportation had to be arranged through British refrigerated shippers. In addition, the tariffs of the railways operated by the UK were not regulated, the treaty did not establish customs fees over coal, had given special dispensation to British companies with investments in Argentina and had reduced the prices of their exports. So many problems resulted from the treaty that Vice President Roca, after the signing of the treaty, declared, "By its economic importance, Argentina resembles just a large British dominion." Lisandro de la Torre, one of Roca's principal and most vociferous opponents, mocking his words in an editorial, wrote, "In these conditions we wouldn't be able to say that Argentina had been converted into a British dominion because England does not take the liberty to impose similar humiliations upon its dominions." The National Democratic Party, one of the parties that had supported the nomination of Justo for President, had split because of this controversy. Finally the Senate rescinded the treaty on July 28. Many workers strikes followed the deliberations, especially in Santa Fé Province, which ended with government intervention. Import substitution industrialization and Pinedo's economic policies On the other hand, the trade isolationism of the world powers ultimately prompted the beginning of Argentine industrial development via import substitution. Important firms, such as the Bunge & Born agribusiness food company and the Tornquist group, previously turned towards exports but began to diversify their activities and invest in national industries aimed at local consumption. Under the direction of conservative Minister of Economy Federico Pinedo, economic policy became interventionist, although still in a conservative aim. Pinedo created the Central Bank (BCRA), which was advised by Sir Otto Niemeyer, the director of the Bank of England. The BCRA's board of director was mainly composed of personalities tied to private banks. It had as its missions the managing of the peso and the regulation of interest rates. Writer and thinker Raúl Scalabrini Ortiz was a strong critic of British involvement in Argentina, of which the BCRA itself was the prime example. The Juntas Reguladores Nacionales were also created during this period, aimed at developing private and state activities and controlling the quality of products, both for national consumption and for export. In order to support prices of products and avoid overproduction, the Juntas destroyed entire loads of corn, used as fuel for locomotives, despite popular hunger. Thirty million pesos per year were spent to destroy wine products. Furthermore, Pinedo launched a national project of road construction, the national network reaching 30,000 kilometers in 1938 (although many remained without pavement). This competed with the railway system, in the hands of mostly British companies, and furthered the penetration of US firms selling motor vehicles in the Argentine market. US foreign direct investment (FDI) grew during this time, with companies such as the textile firms Sudamtex, Ducilo and Anderson Clayton establishing themselves in Argentina, as well as the tire companies Firestone and Goodyear, the electronics firm Philco and the chemistry firm Johnson & Johnson. Notable exceptions to these conservative policies were the policies of Luciano Molinas, governor of the Santa Fe Province (1932–1936) and one of the leader of the Democratic Progressive Party, and of Amadeo Sabattini, Governor of Córdoba (1936–1940). The first act of governor Molinas, assuming office on February 20, 1932, was to re-establish the progressive Constitution of the Santa Fe Province established by the Constituent Assembly of 1921, which had been abrogated by the radical governor Enrique Mosca. He also ensured independence of the judicial system, tax equality, secular education, women's suffrage and right of foreigners' to vote for the election of communal authorities. Molinas' administration also created the Provincial Department of Labour, which ensured the observance of article 28 of the provincial Constitution, concerning the 8 hours day, minimum wages and regulation of child and female labour. Molinas also reduced his salary from 2,500 to 1,800 pesos, suspended payment of the external debt of the province, which permitted Santa Fe's budget to become positive. Henceforth, he subsidized public works under the impulsion of the minister Alberto Casella, leading to increased local employment. He also implemented moderate land reforms, harshly opposed by the conservative and Alvearist radicals, as well as the Sociedad Rural. Finally, he created the Experimental Institute of Agricultural Investigation, a predecessor of the National Agricultural Technology Institute (INTA). However, fearing electoral defeats for the Concordancia both in Santa Fe and in the Electoral College, Justo ordered military intervention in the Santa Fe Province on October 3, 1935, sending the Colonel Perlinger and the minister Joaquín F. Rodríguez to take control of the local government. Armed resistance against the federal intervention occurred, but in order to avoid a bloodbath, Molinas and De la Torre rejected the resistance. Rodríguez soon abrogated again the 1921 Constitution and progressively dismantled Molinas' achievements. Justo had already ordered intervention in the Provinces of San Juan and Tucumán in 1934, and ordered similar military interventions in Catamarca, Santa Fe and Buenos Aires in 1935 (the latter enabling the fraudulent election of Manuel Fresco as governor ). Despite this federal intervention, Marcelo Alvear's Radical party (UCR) decided in 1935 to abandon its abstentionist policy protesting the fraud. Opposed to Alvear's turnaround, in 1935, young Yrigoyenistas from a nationalist background founded FORJA (Fuerza Orientadora Radical de la Juventud Argentina, Radical Orienting Force of Argentine Youth), which had as leaders the Socialist Arturo Jauretche, Raúl Scalabrini Ortiz and Gabriel del Mazo. FORJA's motto was: "We are a colonial Argentina, we want to be a free Argentina." Among other things, FORJA denounced the silence of the government on many problems such as the creation of the Central Bank, "economic sacrifices imposed in benefices of foreign capitalism", "petroleum politics", "arbitrary military interventions", "restrictions to freedom of opinion", "incorporation to the League of Nations", "suppression of relations with Russia", "parliamentary investigations", "the Senate crime", etc. The workers' movement At the time of the 1930 coup, three trade unions existed in Argentina: the Confederación Obrera Argentina (COA, founded in 1926 and linked to the Socialist Party), the Unión Sindical Argentina (USA, anarcho-syndicalist) and the FORA V (dissolved by Uriburu). On September 20, 1930, the COA and the USA merged in the General Confederation of Labour (CGT), although the two rival tendencies remained. Meanwhile, the syndicalist current of the CGT was discredited, because of its supporting alliance with the government in order to achieve social advances, while the socialist current proposed open opposition, tied to political support to the Socialist party. The syndicalist current was in particular affected by its agreements with the pro-fascist governor of Buenos Aires, Manuel Fresco (1936–1940). The latter, who had been elected during one of the "most burlesque" and "fraudulent" elections of the Infamous Decade (according to the words of the US ambassador,) commissioned the architect Francisco Salamone various buildings, which combined Art Deco, functionalism, Futurism and Fascist architectures. Although the Great Depression and the subsequent rural exodus had brought many politically inexperienced workers to Buenos Aires, the spontaneous import substitution industrialization enabled, starting in 1935, coupled to the strengthening of trade unions, wages' increase. Henceforth, a 48-hour general strike was launched in January 1936 by workers' in construction, during which 3 workers and 3 policemen were killed. Ortiz and Castillo administration (1938–1943) Roberto Marcelino Ortiz and Ramón S. Castillo's candidacies, respectively as president and vice-president, for the 1938 elections were launched at the British Chamber of Commerce, and supported by its president William Mc Callum. Ortiz, a former Alvearista, was fraudulently elected, and assumed his new office in February 1938. However, without much success, he attempted to clean up the country's corruption, ordering federal intervention in the Province of Buenos Aires, governed by Manuel Fresco, and cancelling the fraudulent elections which had been won by the conservative Alberto Barceló. Federico Pinedo, still Minister of Economy, presented on 18 November 1940 an "Economic Reactivation Plan", which was to implement some protectionist measures and building of social lodging in order to face the crisis. He also proposed the nationalization of the British railways, having agreed upon advantageous terms for their owners with them beforehand. However, the conservatives voted against his plan, which led him to resign. During World War II, Argentina maintained the same neutrality it had adopted during the first World War, which was advantageous for Great Britain. Although the USA attempted to push the country into the war, during the January 1942 Rio de Janeiro Conference, Argentina resisted, with support from the British. A few months later, in June 1942, Ortiz resigned because of his sickness, and died a month later. He was replaced by his vice-president Castillo, who began to work to launch the candidacy of Robustiano Patrón Costas, vice-president of the Senate and sugar entrepreneur, who had supported him in 1938. Meanwhile, the Democratic Union political coalition (which included the Radical Civic Union, the Democratic Progressive Party, as well as the Socialist Party and the Communist Party) had been formed in 1942. Their electoral platform, aimed against endemic corruption, announced the needs to guarantee "freedom of thought and assembly" and "labor union rights", as well as vouching for "active solidarity with the people struggling against the Nazi-Fascist aggression". June 1943 coup On 4 June 1943, the nationalist faction of the army, gathered around the Grupo de Oficiales Unidos (GOU, formed in March 1943) opposed both to corruption and to the Conservative government, overthrew Castillo in a coup. Composed under the initiative of the colonel Miguel A. Montes and Urbano de la Vega, the GOU included as main members the colonel Juan Domingo Perón and Enrique P. González. Sympathisers of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, the GOU established General Pedro Ramírez as chief of state, despite a short attempt by General Arturo Rawson to claim the office. Presidents of the Infamous Decade José Félix Uriburu (1930–1932) Agustín Pedro Justo (1932–1938) Roberto Marcelino Ortiz (1938–1940) Ramón S. Castillo (1940–1943) References Bibliography Nállim, Jorge. "Between the Local and the Transnational: New Historiographical Approaches on Argentine Political History, 1930 to 1943." Estudios Interdisciplinarios de América Latina y el Caribe 25.1 (2014): 103-120. online Felipe Pigna, Los Mitos de la Historia Argentina, 3, ed. Planeta, 2006 (reed.2007) Gisela Cramer, "Argentine Riddle. The Pinedo Plan of 1940 and the Political Economy of the Early War Years", Journal of Latin American Studies, 30 (octubre 1998), pp. 519–550 Gisela Cramer, "Pre-peronist Argentina and the Origins of IAPI", en: Iberoamericana Vol. 2, No. 5 (2002), pp. 55–78. Juan José LLach, "El Plan Pinedo de 1940, su significado histórico y los orígenes de la economía política del peronismo", Desarrollo Económico (enero-marzo 1984) External links Década Infame at Todo-Argentina (Spanish) Portal Planeta's article (Spanish) Great Depression 20th century in Argentina 1930 in Argentina Electoral fraud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20Aircraft%20Group%2024
Marine Aircraft Group 24
Marine Aircraft Group 24 (MAG-24) is a United States Marine Corps aviation unit based at Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay. MAG-24 is subordinate to the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing and the III Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF). Mission Provide combat-ready, expeditionary aviation forces capable of short-notice, worldwide employment to a Marine Air Ground Task Force. Current Subordinate units The following units are subordinate to MAG-24: Marine Aviation Logistics Squadron 24 (MALS-24) – Warriors Marine Wing Support Squadron 174 (MWSS-174) – Gryphons Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 153 (VMGR-153) - Hercules Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 268 (VMM-268) – Red Dragons Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 363 (VMM-363) – Lucky Red Lions Marine Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Squadron 3 (VMU-3) – Phantoms History World War II Activation (1 March 1942) MAG-24 was activated along with Marine Aircraft Group 23 (MAG-23) at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa on 1 March 1942 and attached to the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing (2d MAW) (which had only been activated in Jan 1941). MCAS Ewa was located on southwest Oahu and adjacent Naval Air Station Barbers Point. The intended use of MAG-24 was to "fill the need of dive-bombers in combat areas." MAG-24 was first commanded by Maj I.L. Kimes and consisted of only two squadrons (VMF-211 and VMF-212) mostly on paper. Both MAG-24 and MAG-23 struggled along without aircraft for several months as almost all available assets were diverted to Midway or elsewhere. The only aircraft available to both MAGs were a few overhauled SBD-1s and SBD-2s which were, according to LtCol Claude Larkin: "no good but gave us something to fly." The activation of MAG-24 and MAG-23 were the result of a major organizational overhaul of Marine Aviation which included the activation of MAG-11, 12, and 14 at Camp Kearny, California, MAG-13 in San Diego, and MAG-22 at Midway. Runway Construction in Efate, New Hebrides (March – May 1942) Two weeks after the activation of MAG-24, on 15 March, the Headquarters Squadron commanded by Capt John K. Little departed for Efate, New Hebrides to help construct an airfield. The importance of Efate to the U.S. war effort was its relative location. Admiral Ernest King, Chief of Naval Operations, stated: "let Efate be the first rung in a ladder from which a step-by-step general advance could be made through the New Hebrides, Solomons, and Bismarcks." Over the next 24 months, the Allies accomplished exactly that. While never attacked by the Japanese at Efate, the efforts to construct the airfield were hampered by a lack of appropriate engineering equipment and malaria. Capt Little and the men of MAG-24 received a letter of commendation from Brig Gen Neal C. Johnson, USA for work completed "in the face of tremendous odds." Simultaneously during this period VMF-212 was transferred from MAG-24 to MAG-21 and deployed from Ewa to Efate over the period of 29 April to 9 June. Efate would be significant in addition to the "first rung." The airfield was used as a place of respite and training for rotating squadrons to the front line. Additionally, the 3rd Marine Division used the island for amphibious rehearsals to incorporating lessons learned from Guadalcanal. The Headquarters Squadron of MAG-24 departed Efate for MCAS Santa Barbara on 24 May and by August 1942 the airfield had a 6000 ft runway capable of supporting combat operations for Guadalcanal. Marine Corps Air Station Santa Barbara (June 1942 – January 1943) In the period between May 1942 and December 1943, MAG-24 moved several times as the war in the Pacific escalated. In June 1942, MAG-24 was the first unit at the newly opened MCAS Santa Barbara with only 12 Officers and 125 men. At first, MCAS Santa Barbara was more like an advanced island base, and the air station was initially nicknamed "the Swamp". Heavy rains and the tide often flooded the field requiring 4-wheel drive Jeeps to get anywhere. Pilots would also jokingly ask for clearance to land on the "Santa Barbara Lake." Because a Japanese submarine had just shelled the nearby Ellwood Oil Field on 23 February 1942 the Marines were given a warm welcome as the protectors of Santa Barbara. One week, this warm welcome resulted in 15 weddings being performed by the MAG-24 chaplain. MAG-24 initially stood port/starboard watch to thwart any further attacks from the Japanese by building fighting holes and manning defensive positions on the coast adjoining the airfield. Initially the airfield only had one aircraft, a Grumman J2F Duck, that was loaded with depth charges should a Japanese submarine return. Eventually the Duck was joined by a SNJ-3 Texan, and a SBC-4 Helldiver biplane. However, by the fall of 1942, MAG-24 was composed of VMSB-143, VMSB-144, VMSB-242, VMSB-243, and VMSB-244, all flying the SBD Dauntless. Once appropriately equipped, MAG-24 underwent an accelerated training program in preparation for combat duty. By January 1943, MAG-24 was returning to MCAS Ewa aboard the USS Mormachawk, and then assigned to the 4th Marine Base Defense Aircraft Wing. MAG-24 Headquarters Squadron would remain at MCAS Ewa, but attached personnel found themselves at Midway Atoll, Johnston Atoll, and Palmyra Atoll until it was MAG-24's turn to deploy into the Pacific theater. Invasion of Bougainville (September 1943 – December 1944) In September 1943, MAG-24 joined the Pacific campaign when it deployed to Efate, New Hebrides. Efate was the gateway to the Pacific conflict; units remained there for 2–4 weeks for training and receiving replacements. Assigned to Marine Air Wing South Pacific (MASP), MAG-24 was assigned the mission of local air defense awaiting deployment to the front line. While the squadrons assigned to MAG-24 were in constant rotation, the MASP consisted of five fighter squadrons (VMF), three dive-bomber squadrons (VMSB), and three torpedo bombing squadrons (VMTB). Concurrently during the MAG-24 deployment was the landing and occupation of Arundel Island and the isolation of Kolombangara as the Allied forces completed the campaign for New Georgia. During this time, the air war at the front line consisted of fighter sweeps and bombing runs as the Allied forces advanced towards Bougainville. Throughout September and into October the Japanese airfields on the island of Bougainville were bombed steadily and with increasing intensity. On 17 November 1943, MAG-24 moved to Banika, part of the Russell Islands, where they would support the invasion of Bougainville until the allied airfields were complete on the island objective. The yet to be built airfields on Bougainville would support the "short-legged, sharpshooting," SBD Dauntless dive-bombers and TBF Avenger torpedo-bombers that were needed to sink Japanese ships and destroy the guns at the strategic stronghold of Rabaul. Rabaul was a strategic deep-water harbor that the Japanese captured in 1942, and fortified. The Bougainville campaign, utilizing maneuver warfare, bypassed all but 2,000 of 40,000 Japanese forces on the island to seize a beachhead of 6 by 8 miles at Cape Torokina. Cape Torokina was naturally defendable but mired in swamps and midway between the bulk of enemy forces on the north and south ends of the island. The landing on Bougainville started on 1 November 1943, and 31 TBFs and 8 SBDs completed pre-landing aviation fires, which were commended by the Commander of Southern Pacific Forces for timing, execution, and reducing resistance. The landing force would consist of the 3rd Marine Division (including 3rd Marine Regiment) and the 2nd Raider Regiment.[9] Robert Sherrod, a war correspondent who accompanied Marines from Tarawa to Okinawa, would later comment, "the audacious attack at Cape Torokina caught the Rabaul admirals napping; the landing was in the best hit-'em-where-they-ain’t tradition." The air war over the island of Bougainville would continue to intensify as significant Japanese air power from Rabaul, combined with reinforcement from enemy carriers, attacked the beachhead on Bougainville. On 8 November alone, more than a hundred Japanese Zeros and bombers attacked the Allied forces. The Allies lost only eight aircraft as compared to 26 Japanese planes. During an ill-conceived attack on nearby Allied ships, the Japanese lost another 41 aircraft on 11 November. Because of these losses, the Japanese pulled all carrier aviation out of the fight for Bougainville on 13 November. By 16 November, the Japanese had lost a total of 70 planes from Rabaul, and 121 from the carrier forces. From this point on, the air war over Bougainville would calm to small scale attacks that occurred mostly at night. On 9 December, ground crews from VMF-212 and VMF-215 arrived at Cape Torokina a day before completion of the first airstrip. On 21 December, MAG-24 came to Bougainville where the group commander (LtCol William McKittrick) assumed command of Air Operations Bougainville. Two days later the MAG-24 Service Squadron would arrive to help complete the construction of the Piva North airstrip (ultimately Bougainville would host three airfields; Cape Torokina, Piva North, and Piva South). By 5 Jan, the airfields at Bougainville were usable to start striking Rabaul. While the first two missions were unsuccessful, the third on 9 January knocked out the Tobera airfield and 21 Japanese fighters. Beginning 12 January, seven squadrons of SBDs and TBFs from Bougainville along with other allied medium and heavy bombers (over 200 in total) would bomb Rabaul every day. Typically the TBFs would keep the airfields surrounding Rabaul out of commission while the SBDs with their greater precision would destroy the anti-aircraft guns protecting the airfields. The next task for the aircraft based at Bougainville was the destruction of Japanese shipping. The first occurred on 14 January, and while not incredibly successful, it did result in 29 aircraft destroyed during the dogfights after the strike. The second, on 17 January, would result in the most successful shipping strike since November 1942 when 18 TBFs from VMTB-232 (MAG-24) supported by VMF-211 (MAG-24) reported 15 hits resulting in five Japanese ships sunk. Another attack on the 24th sent another five ships to the bottom. Between the two strikes, the allies also claimed 40 downed enemy aircraft and continued to attrite the Japanese airborne defense. The last significant Japanese air defense occurred on 19 Feb 1944 when 50 Japanese fighters met 140 TBFs, SBDs, F4Us, P-40s, and F6Fs. This final battle resulted in 23 enemy aircraft lost. Due to the loss, the Japanese would pull the majority of their air assets back to Truk on 20 February. By mid-March, the allies would complete strikes without fighter escort. The Rabaul bombing and isolation would continue for 44 months until mid-1945. During this time 10,000 Japanese personnel were killed, and the strategic stronghold of Rabaul would remain isolated from all Japanese lines of communication for the remainder of the war. Battle of Bougainville Perimeter (March 1944) While the allied forces, including MAG-24, continued to pulverize Rabaul the remaining Japanese forces on Bougainville under Gen Harukichi Hyakutake finally realized that there would be no more ground force invasions on the island. At the end of December, the Japanese troops finally started moving to attack the captured beachhead airfields near Cape Torokina. During this time the Marines of 1st Marine Amphibious Corps (including 3rd Marines) were relieved by the U.S. Army's Americal Division and continued the defensive position buildup. MAG-24 was assigned defense of the north sector around Piva Uncle and organized into two infantry type battalions of four companies each to mount the defense. Reinforcing each of the MAG-24 battalions was an Army heavy weapons company. During the battle, the combined allied forces of 27,000 personnel on Bougainville faced 15,000 Japanese infantry and the most field artillery the Japanese had managed to concentrate anywhere in the Pacific. During the battle, MAG-24 consisted of ten squadrons: VMF-211, 212, 215, 218, 222, 223, VMSB-235, 244, and VMTB-134, and 232. The attacks on the airfields began in earnest on 8 March 1944 and lasted until 24 March. Because of the attacks, all aircraft at Bougainville would be evacuated every night to Barakoma, Munda, or Green Island to return every morning dropping their bombs on enemy positions before landing for the first time. By 10 March 114 SBDs and 45 TBFs would be flying "almost continuously," and were noted for pinpointing the enemy artillery positions with increasing accuracy. During the next few days, the tempo of defensive strikes increased on the hills surrounding the Bougainville airfields. The Allies dropped 123 tons of bombs on 13 March, and 145 tons on the 14th. This increase in bombing quieted Gen Hyakutake's forces (known as "Pistol Pete") for a couple of days. The last attack by Japanese forces was on the night of 23–24 March which was thrown back only a few hours after it started but wounded 16 MAG-24 Marines during the melee. After 16 days of attacks, the Japanese had lost 5,469 men as compared to only 263 men in the allied forces (including MAG-24). General Hyakutake planned another offensive in May but ultimately canceled the operations when his rice rations fell to a third of pre-invasion rations by April and to nothing by September. All the while the ground crews of MAG-24 tenant squadrons were noted for their efficiency under fire. VMF-215 kept it plane availability at 95% despite a high rate of ulcers, dysentery, malaria, and fatigue. VMSB-244 suffered 10% casualties in ground echelon but claimed the highest availability on the island. The Commander of Air Solomons commended VMSB-235, which had six men wounded in shelling on 18 March, for "untiring efforts, unselfish devotion to duty... Their disregard of their own personal safety during the shelling of Bougainville airfields, in order that the aircraft assigned to them could operate, is worthy of the highest praise and admiration." Similar recommendations went to other MAG-24 units including: HqSq-24, SMS-24, VMF-218, VMF-223, VMTB-232, and VMTB-134. Preparation for the Philippines (October – December 1944) On 10 October 1944, while still on Bougainville, MAG-24 received a warning order: be prepared to provide Close Air Support to the U.S. Army and Allied forces in the Philippines. This warning order and mission initiated a formative period in which the Marine Corps Close Air Support doctrine was honed and implemented. While some early Close Air Support had been attempted and met with success in Nicaragua during the Interwar period, there was very little doctrine other than defining requirements and no structured development was completed prior to WWII. During Guadalcanal, Air Liaison Parties (ALPs) were improvised, trained on the island, and would only occasionally visit the front lines to observe targets. On New Georgia, the ALPs began briefing a day prior to action, offering occasional improvements. The Bougainville campaign itself marked the beginning of Close Air Support in the modern sense of the term, though it still met with suspicion from ground commanders. Three months before the Bougainville invasion a small ALP school was organized by the 3rd Marine Division Air Officer to teach capabilities and limitations, the procedures for requesting Close Air Support, and the details of air-ground communication. The school was small (only three pilots, and six radiomen) but it would pay dividends in increasing communication (and thus accuracy and lethality) during Bougainville. The most notable use of Close Air Support was the multiple attacks on "Hellzapoppin," ridge where according to the 3rd MARDIV historian "it was the air attacks which proved to be the most effective factor in taking the ridge... the most successful example of close air support thus far in the Pacific War." LtCol Keith McCutcheon, the OPSO of MAG-24 (and "head professor" according to war correspondent Robert Sherrod) would expand on previous Close Air Support development by creating a school and coherently assembling all doctrines and procedures. Starting on 14 October 1944, McCutcheon organized and taught 40 lectures which would be given to nearly 500 officers and gunners from both MAG-24 and MAG-32. Importantly, the instructors were then disseminated to other islands to teach the syllabus. The school placed its most significant stress on reliable, adequate, deliberate and thorough communications. The central tenet of the school was that "close support (sic) aviation is only an additional weapon to be employed at the discretion of the ground commander." This tenet was intuitively understood by the seasoned Marines aviators, most of whom had been infantry officers previously. After the academic portion, the formed ALPs had a chance to work out Close Air Support problems over terrain models, static radio nets and finally simulated training runs. They did this with the 37th Army Division, whom they would later support in the Philippines. Furthermore, during this period of schooling, the aviators began to furnish their own ALPs and radio jeeps with the same radio capability as the SBD Dauntless. These ALP jeeps would be attached at the battalion command or higher and directly control the aircraft providing Close Air Support. Previously the 5th Air Force (whom MAG-24 fell under) had furnished their own ALPs which were attached to a Division or higher; request and control were relayed through a centralized communication structure away from the front line. The ALP jeeps and front line control were unorthodox but not entirely new as both the Navy and Army had tried this tactic before. The Marine planners on Bougainville were passionate that given the future mission on the Philippines it would be more efficient and significantly increase the operational tempo to talk the planes onto the target with direct communication. Due to the successful isolation of Rabaul, the preparation for the Philippine campaign was unique in that it gave seasoned aviators a three-month period of training and specializing on the single mission of Close Air Support. This preparation would pay dividends in the Philippines. Luzon Campaign, Philippines (December 1944 – March 1945) On 12 December 1944, MAG-24 moved from Bougainville to stage at Milne Bay, New Guinea for further movement to the Philippines. On 11 January 1945 the MAG CO, Colonel Jerome, and OPSO LtCol McCutcheon, arrived on Luzon to pick the airfield site that eventually became Mangaldan airfield. U.S. Army engineers moved quickly with the construction of Magaldan airfield, and MAG-24 aircraft started arriving on 25 January 1945. For the campaign MAG-24 and MAG-32 would combine to form MAGSDAGUPAN (MAGSD). The first missions would occur on 27 January by VMSB-241 and by 31 Jan MAGSD would host seven squadrons and 174 SBDs. At first, the missions were different than the Close Air Support that MAG-24 had trained for under McCutcheon. The first targets were far behind front lines at San Fernando or Clark Field with the objectives being assigned the previous day using a cumbersome command and control process that required approval all the way up to the Sixth Army. For these first few missions once the Marine dive bombers were in the air no further ground control was furnished. Fortunately, on 31 January Gen MacArthur gave MAGSD opportunity to prove the utility of Close Air Support. General MacArthur ordered the 1st Cavalry division to make an audacious advance of 100 miles to Manila and free the internees at Santo Tomas. The assignment of MAGSD was a unique mission of guarding the 1st Cavalry Division flank with a standing nine plane patrol from dawn until dusk. With some "superior salesmanship and a determination to show the soldiers what Marine flyers, under proper front line control could do for them," the MAGSD was able to attach two Marine ALP jeeps to follow the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the 1st Cavalry. The standing nine plane patrol reconnoitered ahead of the flying column spotting the Japanese positions and routing the forces around ambushes. On 2 February 1945, a portion of the Cavalry was blocked by a Japanese battalion which occupied a ridge that was reported to withstand an entire division. The attached ALP was able to call the SBD patrol to complete multiple shows of force and allowed the Cavalry to route the Japanese without the SBDs firing a shot. The same day the SBD patrol completed an ad-hoc bombing run ahead of the 1st Cavalry line in which all bombs landed within a 200 by 300-yard area and left the target in shambles. Finally, the ALP demonstrated the increased speed of communication when a Regimental commander dashed to one of the MAG ALP jeeps to report a Japanese fighter in the area. An officer in the ALP pointed to a burning fighter 2,000 yards away which had been destroyed by two P-51s the ALP had vectored in. Within 66 hours the 1st Cavalry arrived in Manila, and the Marines of both MAG-24 and MAG-32 had proven their ability to make the innovative changes in Close Air Support work. The MAGs received commendations from both the Brigades and the CG of the 1st Cavalry. However, the division historian summed up the Marines contribution the best: "Much of the success of the entire movement is credited to the superb air cover, flank protection, and reconnaissance provided by the Marine Air Groups 24 and 32." Despite the successful dash to Manila, the ALPs of MAGSD still had a long way to go convincing the other Army commanders to make maximum use of the Close Air Support that Marine dive-bombers could provide. Ultimately the demonstration that won over one of the most skeptical Army commanders, General Patrick, was an attack on the Shimbu line east of Manila on 8 February 1945. General Patrick was visiting the position of the 1st Cavalry as they called an attack on a ridge that had been drilling heavy machine gun and mortar fire on his troops. Due to the standing order that air support could only fire outside of a 1,000 yardsan, the ALP called the attack on the reverse side of the slope. Marked with white phosphorus, seven SBDs unloaded their bombs accurately to the cheers of the men they were supporting. Afterward, the 1st Cavalry advanced unopposed to find eight machine gun positions, 15 mortar emplacements, and 300 dead. General Patrick was impressed and asked when he could get support like that. When asked about the standing 1,000-yard restriction he retorted, "I don't give a damn how close they hit." General Patrick would use the ALP further on 24 February when the 6th Infantry Division would mount a full attack on the Shimbu line. Capt McConaughy, the assigned ALP officer, stated that the close air support went to "perfection." The attacks were first at 1,000 yards, then 500 yards, and sometimes inside 500 yards. They would work all the tricks such as dummy drops to allow the American infantry to advance while the Japanese heads were down. Afterward, General Patrick insisted on Close Air Support and that all subordinate units submit accurate evaluations of air strikes so that "the air forces will continue to give this command an increasing number of support aircraft." Mindanao Campaign, Philippines (April – September 1945) Operations in the Luzon would start winding up mid-February 1945 when MAG-32 would move to the Southern Philippines in Mindanao. MAG-24 would follow suit at the beginning of April to join MAG-12, and MAG-32 to form MAGSZAMBOANGA (MAGZAM). During operations with MAGZAM, MAG-24 flew out of Titcomb airfield named after an ALP officer who was killed by sniper fire in the Luzon campaign. LtCol McCutcheon chose the location of Titcomb airfield during a daring reconnaissance during which he coordinated air support for Filipino guerillas and gained intelligence which allowed the ground forces in the area to land unopposed. This action netted McCutcheon the Silver Star. MAG-24 arrived on 17 April 1945 and resumed flight operations on 22 April. The campaign in Mindanao would improve Close Air Support to the point that the "infantry would come to rely on [it] to an extent rarely matched in operations anywhere in the Pacific." One example on 8 May, was the nearest Close Air Support mission yet when aircraft from VMSB-241 and 133 bombed a Japanese line only 200 yards away from friendly forces. The SBDs dropped approximately 5 tons of bombs and the Japanese position "simply disintegrated." Henry Chapin described the Philippine campaign as a "watershed" for Marine aviation. The previously "sketchy doctrine of close air support had been fleshed out, refined, and honed in combat." And for the most part, the Close Air Support became factory like; precise and efficient. In one example, every day, every hour, from 0800-1500 a flight reported to the 24th Division ALP. The Marines of MAGZAM received over 30 accolades from every level of Army command. However, it was the end of an era as the venerable SBD was officially retired in July 1945. In May 1945, VMSB-244 would receive the SB2C Curtis Helldiver which was 20 knots faster, carried rockets, and more bombs than the SBDs but in many other ways was inferior to the SBD. After the retiring of the SBDs, VMSB-244 would remain the only active squadron of MAG-24. In September 1945 MAG-24 would move with 1st Marine Aircraft Wing to Peiping China for occupation duty. Post World War II – Occupation of Peiping China (1945–1947) On 22 September 1945, 1st Marine Air Wing (1st MAW) started moving from the Philippines to China via Okinawa along with the 3rd Amphibious Corps (IIIAC). MAG-24 was at Nan Yuan Airfield in Peiping, China and had VMF squadrons flying the F4U-4 "Corsair," and F7F Tigercat along with multiple transport and observation aircraft directly attached to the Group such as the C-47 SkyTrain, C-46 Commando, SNB-3 Navigator, and OY-1 Sentinel. During World War II, China contained three different belligerents: the Nationalist Forces under Chiang Kai-Shek, the Communists under Mao Zedong, and the occupying Japanese and Korean forces. At the end of World War II, there were still over 630,000 Japanese and Korean forces remaining in China. The mission of the Marines in China as stated by the Secretary of the Navy Artemus Gates was "to accomplish the disarmament of the Japanese and to provide for their repatriation up to the point where ... the Chinese Nationalist government troops alone could carry out this mission. Unfortunately for the occupation force, this period would also be a decisive period in a continuing civil war between the Nationalist and Communist forces. The Marines were to abstain from active participation while cooperating with the Nationalist government. During the fall of 1945, the Marines were subject to increasing ambush, sabotage, and harassment from the Communist forces. Quickly after arriving at Peiping in November, 1st MAW was flying show of force patrols and frequently fired upon from the ground by small arms fire. The typical missions flown by 1st MAW and MAG-24 were reconnaissance, and air cover for the Marine infantry in addition to the show of force patrols. The statuses of the rail lines, in particular, were a common mission objective for the MAGs as they were subject to constant sabotage from the Communist forces. To reconcile the Communists and Nationalists, President Truman appointed General Marshall as his Special Representative to broker a peace between the two sides. In February 1946, he was able to arrange a cease-fire. However, by mid-March, the tenuous cease-fire was being openly violated, mostly by the Communists, although the pretense of brokering a peace deal would continue until the end of 1946. Additionally, the Communist forces received a significant amount of support from the Soviet Union who were still occupying parts of China. The Marshall brokered cease-fire and aid from the Soviets provided respite for allowing the Communist forces to increase their military position significantly. The Nationalists would follow suit by increasing the strength of their armies in Manchuria. By August 1946, parts of China would be in a state of war. Concurrently in the spring of 1946, the Marines in China would drawdown due to post-war decreases in end-strength and policies to return deployed personnel back to the U.S. By summer of 1946 most Japanese had been repatriated to their home islands, and the withdrawal of the Marines accelerated. During the summer, this accelerated withdrawal included the deactivation of an entire division and withdrawals of two of the three MAGS in 1st MAW. By July 1946, only the headquarters of 1st MAW, the attached transport and observation squadrons and fighter squadrons of MAG-24 would remain. The only missions left to the Marines were the guarding of strategic coal lines, and bridges and these missions were transferred to the Nationalist Forces as quickly as possible. By the end of 1946, President Truman ordered that the American participation in China ended when it was clear that the Nationalists and Communists would not reach a truce. MAG-24 would receive orders to deploy to Guam on 1 April 1947. Cuban Missile Crisis (October – November 1962) During the fall of 1962 MAG-24 would support the massive mobilization effort that resulted from the Cuban Missile Crisis. During the summer of 1962 the Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev significantly yet quietly increased the amount of assistance to the Cuban government. The support included 20,000 troops, 40 nuclear capable intermediate ballistic missiles, and 40 nuclear capable medium bombers the IL-28. The location of the missiles were 15 miles from Guantanamo Bay Naval Base (GTMO) and just 90 miles from the Florida coast. When operational, these arms would radically change the rivalry between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. The Soviet buildup was a response to the U.S. ballistic missile presence in Western Europe and particularly to the ballistic missiles present in Turkey. The U.S first learned of the existence of Soviet ballistic missiles on 14 October 1962 from photographs taken by a U-2 aircraft. Surprisingly President Kennedy was only briefed of the situation on 16 October. President Kennedy and his advisors discussed several early responses to the ballistic missile presence including an invasion, bombing the missile sites, and anaval quarantine (modified blockade). Concurrent to the President's decision the U.S. Armed Forces went to a war footing with an efficiency unseen since World War II. On 18 October, MAG-24 located in North Carolina started planning for VMF(AW)-531 to deploy to from North Carolina to Key West and ensuring that crews were proficient in the use of both the Sidewinder and Sparrow missiles. Additionally, MAG-24 started preparing VMA-533 for deployment aboard an aircraft carrier. On 20 October, both the MAG-24 and Marine Air Base Squadron 24 (MABS-24) COs departed for GTMO on a leader's reconnaissance. At GTMO, two Battalions were airlifted in on 22 October and a Battalion Landing Team from the Caribbean was at the ready. The same day some 3,000 dependents were evacuated from GTMO within hours. By the end of 22 October, the GTMO forces were increased by 5,000 personnel. In Key West, MABS-24 assumed supply and logistical support for MAG-14 and VMA-533, 20 A-4B aircraft, was transferred from MAG-24 to MAG-14. All in all, over 100,000 lbs of cargo was airlifted from North Carolina to Key West in 24 hours. President Kennedy addressed the nation on 22 October 1962 in a televised address. He alerted the country to the presence of the ballistic missiles in Cuba and that he had sent a letter to Khrushchev demanding the weapons be dismantled, warning the Soviets of the naval quarantine and the preparation for military force. The Soviets tested the blockade on 24 October and turned away. On 25 October further reconnaissance flights indicate that the ballistic missile sites were becoming operational. On the morning of 26 October Kennedy, anxious, states that only a U.S. attack on Cuba will remove the missiles but insists on giving the diplomatic channels more time. Fortunately, he receives a message from Nikita Khrushchev later on 26 October stating that he will remove the missiles if the U.S. does not invade. Another letter from the Soviets on 27 October demands that the U.S. ballistic missiles are also removed from Turkey. The same day a U-2 was shot down over Cuba, and the 35-year-old Air Force pilot became the only operational casualty during the crisis. On 28 October, President Kennedy accepts Khrushchev's letters promising not to invade Cuba and also to dismantle the ballistic missiles in Turkey (although the dismantling of the ballistic missiles would remain classified for many years). While the acceptance of the terms would bring the crisis to a close, it wouldn't be truly over until the Soviets removed their IL-28 bombers from Cuba on 20 November. While the Cuban missile crisis was unique in that it played out primarily between the President and Premier the mobilization of the U.S. Armed Forces to meet the threat was notable. By the time the U.S. and Soviets came to terms on 28 October all of 2nd Marine Division deployed with 40 ships. At Key West MAG-26, and MAG-32 (-) had joined M=Shortly after 28 October the 5th Marine Expeditionary Brigade was moved east with 18,000 Marines, 20 Ships, and included HMM-361, VMA-121, and VMGR-352. Overall, 400,000 American troops were mobilized to the meet the threat. Forty thousand of those troops were Marines and mobilized in only eight days. The current Commandant of the Marine Corps General David M. Shoup stated: "I couldn't be happier about our readiness in this crisis. This time we not only have been ready, we’ve been steady." Operation Desert Shield (August 1990 – January 1991) On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi Army invaded Kuwait capturing both the oil fields and capital due to territory disputes, alleged OPEC quota violations, and the significant debt that Iraq owed Kuwait. The international and U.S. condemnation of the invasion was quick. On 5 August 1990, then President Bush called the attack "naked aggression," and that "this shall not stand." By the 6th, Saudi Arabia had given the U.S. permission to deploy military forces in their country and The Pentagon began what would become Operation Desert Shield within hours. The 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing (3rd MAW) became the Aviation Combat Element that supported the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force (1st MEF) and based on OpPlan 1002-90 which envisioned a regional conflict and used initially for deployment and movement to the Persian Gulf. The threat presented by Saddam Hussein's Iraqi army dictated a potent fixed wing mix, followed by the anti-armor capability brought by the AH-1W Cobra. The first 3rd MAW proposal for fixed-wing forces included four F/A-18 Hornet squadrons, two AV-8B Harrier squadrons, two A-6E Intruder squadrons, and all of the Marine EA-6B Prowlers. By the start of hostilities, the total fixed wing aircraft in theater would nearly double that number and include the venerable OV-10 Bronco. The desire to keep unit integrity of aircraft and personnel was met with a harsh reality of previous operational commitments, squadrons transitioning and retiring aircraft (F/A-18A to F/A-18C), and G-limited aircraft (A-6E Intruder). The assortment of aircraft issues, including the typical pre-deployment personnel issues, resulted in the wholesale swap of aircraft and personnel to deploy the best mix of aircraft to Saudi Arabia. To meet the desired anti-armor capability HMLA squadrons were mixed to be Cobra heavy using a blend of 18 Cobras and six Hueys instead of the usual half and half mix. The swap of aircraft and personnel caused friction as the deployed forces started to have disparities in readiness and training between those squadrons that arrived first and those that came last. The assault support requirement was more modest for Desert Storm starting with three HMM squadrons flying the CH-46E, and three HMH squadrons flying a mix of CH-53Ds and CH-53Es. This too would nearly double once the build-up was complete to six HMM squadrons, and nearly five HMH squadrons including detachments. The CH-46E was showing its age in 1990; a transmission failure had reduced the maximum gross weight of the aircraft from 24,300 lbs to 22,000 lbs. The CH-46E was further constrained by the high pressure and density altitudes in the Persian Gulf region resulting in a standard combat load of eight personnel in each aircraft. The HMH squadrons became the desired choice to fulfill large troop movements. The assault support squadrons also had similar aircraft and personnel constraints, when compared to the fixed wing units, resulting in large scale swaps to quickly deploy aircraft. MAG-24, tapped on 12 August on to deploy as part of the 7th MEB was removed as a headquarters unit but would send all of its Hornet squadrons, and most of its rotary-wing squadrons forward. VMFA-235 the "Death Angels," had deployed to Nevada for Exercise Red Flag in July was ordered on 9 August to join 3rd MAW for deployment, and self-deployed to the Persian Gulf arriving on 22 August. The remaining MAG-24 F/A-18C squadrons also ordered to deploy arrived in the Persian Gulf on 19 December. VMFA-212 anticipating being assigned to the Gulf deployed first to MCAS Yuma to conduct all the pre-deployment training it could. MAG-24 also sent eight CH-53Ds from HMH-463 and 12 CH-46Es from HMM-165 which arrived via strategic air in the first week of September 1990. HMM-265 would also be assigned to deploy with the 5th MEB which would arrive after the transition from Desert Shield to Desert Storm. Once in Saudi Arabia, the Marine Air assets balanced required logistical mission sets and the final tasks to become combat ready. The Hornet squadrons had the added responsibility of standing Combat Air Patrol (CAP) to block any further Iraqi aggression. From deployment through mid-January when Desert Storm kicked off fixed wing assets concentrated on Night Vision Goggle operations, aerial gunnery, mass air strikes, and Air Tasking Order (ATO) rehearsals. Of particular importance to the deployed Hornet squadrons was the employment of HARM anti-radar missile which they would be employing for the first time. The assault support helicopters balanced the constant churn of logistics missions, range sweeps, and VIP flight along with their final preparations for combat. When not flying in general support of 3rd MAW the assault support helicopters concentrated on increasingly complex heliborne assault rehearsals. The final rehearsal, executed on 7 January 1991, launched two dozen CH-53s and CH-46s, eight AH-1Ws, a section of AV-8Bs and OV-10s, and finally two UH-1Ns for command and control. Operation Desert Shield would shift to Operation Desert Storm on 15 January. Operation Desert Storm (January - February 1991) Early in Desert Shield, by late October 1991, President Bush and his administration decided that economic sanctions would lead to "long-term stalemate," and that a ground campaign would be necessary to force Saddam Hussein out of Kuwait While President Bush would wait for the mid-term elections on 7 November to finish, the Secretary of Defense and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff were cleared to prepare the necessary build-up. The 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing participated in the four discrete phases of the Strategic Air Campaign. Phase I planned to gain and maintain air superiority, and destroy strategic Iraqi Command And Control (C2), chemical and biological delivery systems, and Iraqi supply and industrial bases. Phase II moved the air campaign to destroy similar systems as Phase I but specifically those Iraqi assets displaced into Kuwait. Phase III concentrated on battlefield preparation against the specific Iraqi forces that would oppose the ground campaign. Finally, Phase IV was the close air support necessary to support the ground scheme of maneuver to liberate Kuwait. Combat began on 17 January 1991 when in the early morning forty-six fixed wing Marine aircraft joined a plethora of coalition aircraft to destroy critical Iraqi command and control facilities. F/A-18s primarily flew the first Marine missions of Desert Storm because the aircraft could fly in the sanctuary above the Integrated Air Defense (IAD) threat and carried flares to protect against surface-to-air threats during bombing runs. The first missions were complex, precisely timed, had little to no external communications and were mostly at night utilizing aerial refueling. Additionally, the Hornets launched 100 AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missiles the first day, nearly half of the total expended during the entire conflict. Eventually, AV-8B Harriers and AH-1W/J Cobras which didn't have the necessary countermeasures for the IAD threat flew in support of the Air Tasking Order. The Harriers and Cobras were used to destroy Iraqi forces shelling and attempting to occupy the town of Khafji, a Saudi Arabian city near the Kuwait border. For action at Khafji, the AH-1Ws received a Distinguished Flying Cross for a nights work destroying observational posts and anti-aircraft sites while under intense fire. During this time the assault support helicopters were kept busy with an aerial resupply of ordnance in preparation of the ground campaign. Furthermore, on 23 January the CH-53s, the first of several artillery raids took place using 17 aircraft. Similar missions and attacks would continue until "G-Day," (24 February 1990) the designated day to commence the ground campaign. The first use of Marine aviation during the ground campaign was UH-1N Hueys, for C2 at the breach sites into Kuwait. The Marines pouring into the breach sites were attacked with Iraqi artillery and used counter battery radars to guide Harrier and friendly artillery fire to destroy 42 enemy artillery sites. Meanwhile, the Hornet squadrons were showing up on station using a "push CAS," system. The system assigned aircraft to "fast FAC," an F/A-18D two seated Hornet for control. Fast FAC would assign fixed wing assets to those units needing immediate CAS support, or to other known and suspected targets. Additionally, 3rd MAW added another F/A-18D for battlefield over-watch of positions, weather, and enemy concentrations of ground forces. As with all campaigns the "fog of war," settled. Noted friction points were Battle Damage Assessment, navigation in the early days of GPS (LORAN-C was the navigation system of choice), the always unknown of weather, and finally the Air Tasking Order (ATO). The ATO which disseminated via courier and Xerox machines would often not show up in time for proper planning at the squadron level. Most facets of Operation Desert Storm were a resounding success the failed large scale heliborne lift of Task Force X-Ray was a notable exception and of particular interest to a Rotary Wing MAG. Task Force X-Ray was to provide a blocking force and protect the flank of Task Force Papa Bear between the first and second obstacle belts just over Kuwait Border. X-Ray consisted of three Combined Anti-Armor Teams (CAAT) and a headquarters section consisting of 134 Marines and 40 vehicles (primarily M-151 Jeeps and Toyota pickups). The heliborne package consisted of 12 × AH-1W/Js, 6 × UH-1N, 20 × CH-46Es, and 13 × CH-53E/Ds. The Air Mission Commander was the Commanding Officer of HMM-165 (MAG-24). The mission was an event-driven, emissions controlled (EMCON), day mission on 24 February 1991. One of the specific criteria for the mission was that it launch in the daytime to avoid a night insert that crews were neither equipped nor qualified to carry out (one flight of CH-53Ds had no Night Vision Goggles at all). Despite the briefed daytime launch requirement, the mission launched at night due to delays and miscommunication with the ground forces. Once in the Objective Area, there was extreme confusion in communications as to the enemy presence in the Landing Zone, including an incident in which the Cobras were co-altitude as the Assault Support aircraft. Due to the fiasco in the Objective Area, the C2 aircraft called a mission abort. The abort resulted in another cascade of near mid-air collisions because of inadequate planning. Noted Operation Desert Storm historian LtCol Leroy Stearns stated that the Marines were "lucky on that night not to have lost a Marine." The failed lift did result in the roll-over of a CH-46E on takeoff from the Pick-up Zone, and a hard landing of a CH-53D on return to base. Factors that led to the failure were lack of oversight from higher headquarters, failure to complete a mission rehearsal, and the failure to adhere to the launch criteria. The ground campaign lasted a short four days from 24 to 28 February 1991. The culminating event for the Marine Corps was the capture of Kuwait International Airport early on the morning of the 27th by Task Force Shepherd. During the entire ground campaign, all 3rd MAW fixed-wing aircraft flew at surge rates in what amounted to four Hornets and four Harriers launching every 30 minutes. 3rd MAWs rotary wing aircraft remained equally as busy, and the helicopters crews spent far more time in the vicinity of the enemy than the fixed wing pilots. During the entire ground campaign, Marines found well stocked and un-damaged Iraqi units well entrenched, camouflaged and untouched by the three-week air campaign. Most Iraqi units surrendered after a token amount of resistance – they simply had no desire to die fighting over another country. MAG-24 Re-Designation as Aviation Support Element Kaneohe (30 September 1994 - 15 February 2002) Due to the planned reduction of the Marine Corps after the Cold War, also known as Base Re-Alignment and Closure (BRAC), MAG-24 was re-designated as Aviation Support Element Kaneohe (ASEK) on 30 September 1994.  The re-designation of MAG-24 was completed in conjunction with the deactivation of the 1st MEB Command Element, and re-designation of the 1st Brigade Service Support Group to the 3rd Combat Service Support Group.  The reduction was the result of a plan started in 1990 by the Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney to reduce military spending by 12% and the armed forces by 25% by 1996.  At the height of the cold war, the Marine Corps had a force of  199,525 Marines, this decreased slightly to 194,040 during Desert Shield/Desert Storm and rapidly declined to 174,158 by 1994 to its lowest point since 1960 of 172,641 in 1999.  The reduction was in large part due to the Soviet push towards peaceful reform and the inability of the Soviet forces to mount any challenge to U.S. interests.  In the summer of 1994, MAG-24 transferred all three of its F/A-18 “Hornet,” squadrons (VMFA-212, 232, and 235) to MAG-11 located at MCAS El Toro. Both of the remaining MAG-24 CH-46E squadrons were in the process of being transferred.  HMM-265 was transferred to MAG-36 in Okinawa, Japan by the end of 1994 and HMM-165 was transferred to MAG-16 in California in May 1996.  MWSS-174 deactivated on 8 Sep 1994.  Leading up to the MAG-24 re-designation ceremony HMH-463 "Pegasus," was the single CH-53D squadron attached to MAG-24.  During the ceremony, HMH-463 transferred half of its helicopters to form HMH-366 the “Hammerheads.”  Additionally, MALS-24 was re-organized as the Marine Air Logistics Element Kaneohe (MALSEK).  The deactivation of 1st MEB and subsequent reorganization (including the re-designation of MAG-24) was “necessary for the Marine Corps to meet its global requirements in the face of a reduced force structure in the post-cold war era, ” according to Commanding General of 1st MEB, R.F. Vercauteren. By 1996, the Aviation Support Element Kaneohe consisted of five squadrons and all 40 of the CH-53Ds in the Marine Corps inventory.  Those squadrons were: HMH-463 “Pegasus,” HMH-366 “Hammerheads,” HMH-362 “Ugly Angels,” HMH-363 “Lucky Red Lions,” and the training squadron HMT-301 “Wind Walkers.”  The ASEK continued to be a force in readiness in the Pacific supporting exercises and eventually beginning the Unit Deployment Program in Okinawa.  Beginning in September 2001, the Commanding General of 1st Marine Aircraft Wing (then MajGen Cartwright) started the process to return the ASEK to MAG-24(-). The justification for the return of MAG-24 was that the goals of the drawdown/BRAC in Hawaii were never fully realized, that the ASEK and its tenant units had been operating in both training and employment as a MAG, and finally that the change was necessary to prepare for the transition of the CH-53D to the MV-22.  The request was favorably endorsed as it was, in effect, a name change only.  The redesignation included no change to the ASEK mission statement (which hadn't changed in the transition from MAG to ASEK).  Furthermore, there was no increase in manpower, the addition of any of the other squadrons to form an Aviation Combat Element, enablers such as an MWSS, or even an S-2 department in the MAG headquarters.  The approval was so quick that the ASEK had no time to order a MAG(-) flag in time for the designation ceremony.  Instead, the commander of troops and future Executive Officer then LtCol Mark Dungan, broke out the old MAG-24 flag (with no minus) which had been on display in the ASEK commander’s office.  The ceremony was held on 15 February 2002, between Hangars 101 and 102 on Marine Corps Base Hawaii flight line. Operation Iraqi Freedom (Dec 2004 - May 2009) On 9 April 2003 the decisive fighting in the invasion of Iraq and Baghdad finished and ended Saddam Hussein's twenty-four-year reign.  The campaign, which lasted just over 30 days, was just the beginning of MAG-24 involvement in Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). Throughout the summer of 2003, violence in Iraq increased, especially in the Sunni populated areas.  As violence escalated, combined airpower was reinstated in the fall for the first time since the end of decisive fighting to combat the growing insurgency.  The early part of 2004 started with a temporary calm in violence but exploded, leading to the first and second battles of Fallujah in April and November, respectively.  The fighting in Fallujah was the most intense urban combat since the battle of Hue City in Vietnam nearly a half-century before.  The increased activity brought with it a need for more personnel. MAG-24 sent over 10 individual augments during the latter half of 2004.  In December 2004, HMH-363, the "Lucky Red Lions," sent a detachment of CH-53Ds to the 31st MEU. The 31st MEU was quickly sent to the middle east to finish combat training in Kuwait before supporting OIF. While in support of OIF, HMH-363 participated in desert flight operations, tactical missions, and raids while battling the constant sandstorms.  Of note, HMH-363 also assisted in the recovery of remains and aircraft in January 2005 when a CH-53E crashed in western Iraq, killing 30 Marines and a single sailor. Up to that date, it was the single deadliest event of OIF.  The detachment from HMH-363 returned to Hawaii in May 2005. It wasn't until March 2006 that MAG-24 had a constant presence of CH-53Ds supporting OIF. Starting preparation in the fall of 2005, HMH-463 trained in desert operations following the fall Weapons and Tactics Instructor course.  By 22 March 2005, HMH-463 "Pegasus" was deployed to Al Asad Airbase in the Anbar province of Iraq with eight aircraft and 170 Marines.   Most of the CH-53D mission in Iraq was general support of the Marines in the Area of Operations. Generally, daytimes missions were flown west of Al Asad to Forward Operating Bases such as Korean Village, Waleed, Trebil, Haditha Dam, Al Qa'im, Camp Rawah, and Bayji. nighttime missions were sent east of Al Asad to Al Ramadi, Baharia, Blue Diamond, Hurricane Point, Habanniyah, Camp Fallujah, Al Taqaddum, and Balad.  The Lucky Red Lions also participated in several raids in support of II MEF and the Multinational Coalition forces. Unfortunately, in September, a night raid resulted in a hard landing and the aircraft remaining in the objective. When the HMH-363 investigation and tactical recovery force was inserted, it was attacked and defended itself from the insurgency.  On 7 October 2006, HMH-463 "Pegasus" conducted a Relief in Place (RIP) and Transfer of Authority (TOA) taking over for the "Lucky Red Lions". The mission for HMH-463 remained the same as that for the HMH-363. During this time, II MEF concentrated on securing Al Ramadi from the insurgency, and Abu Masab al-Zarqawi was killed in an airstrike. Early in 2007 was also the period in which the civilian shooting of Haditha gained national media attention.  HMH-362 the "Ugly Angels," relieved "Pegasus," on 14 April 2007, after a relatively quiet deployment  The "Ugly Angels" started quickly conducting a night raid in April, which was the first since the "Pegasus," mishap raid in the fall.  Flying the same GS missions as HMH-363, HMH-362 also participated in several Aero Scout missions. The Aero Scout is a mission where suspicious vehicles or gatherings are investigated by inserting an already heliborne force to secure and question possible insurgents.  On 21 October 2007, HMH-362 was relieved by VMM-263 in what was the first operational deployment of the MV-22 "Osprey." MAG-24 had one more gap in OIF support until HMH-363 was slated to return to the Al Anbar province in September 2008. Real-world events conspired against the "Lucky Red Lions," and the squadron deployed nearly 100 days early. HMH-362 relieved HMH-363 in February 2008 and remained in Iraq until being transferred to Afghanistan and Operation Enduring Freedom in the late spring of 2008. Operation Enduring Freedom (2009-2012) Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) began on 7 October 2001. Seven years later, the beginnings of MAG-24 involvement started in March 2008 when the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) deployed to the Helmand Province along with 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (2/7).  On 29 April, Marines from 1st Battalion, 6th Marines, the Battalion Landing Team (BLT) from the 24th MEU stormed into the Garmsir District, located in the heart of the Helmand. This was the first U.S. operation in the area in years and re-started what would become a Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) campaign in the Helmand. Throughout the spring and fall, the BLT 1/6 and 2/7 would continue offensive operations until they rotated out in the fall of 2008. In February 2009, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates continued building momentum in the Helmand by ordering 8,000 Marines of the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB) to deploy. HMH-362 "The Ugly Angels," which had been stationed at Al Asad Air Base as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), was ordered to attach to MAG-40 the ACE for the 2nd MEB. Starting on 17 April, HMH-362 moved from Al Asad to Kandahar Air Base. To prepare for the massive influx of aircraft Marine Wing Support Squadron 371 and Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 5 began expanding the small airfield at Camp Bastion with AM-2 matting. Throughout May, the ramp space at the field was increased by 2.2 million square feet, which was the largest ever in a combat zone.  Once the ramp was completed, HMH-362 moved along with HMH-772 from Kandahar to Camp Bastion. Operation Khanjar, the first major operation for 2nd MEB, kicked off on 2 July 2009. Khanjar was an effort to secure the population from insurgents and foreign fighters ahead of local elections. During the operation, 4,000 Marines; and 650 Afghan National Police and Army were inserted into the area just south of the Marjah and Garmsir districts. MAG-40 and the 82nd Combat Air Brigade inserted more than 2,000 of the 4,000 by helicopter, making the operation the most massive heliborne movement since Vietnam. During the air movement, HMH-362 was the Air Mission Commander. For the rest of July and August, MAG-40 supported the resupply of forces conducting Operation Khanjar along with aerial resupply. In August, HMH-362 was relieved by HMH-463 "Pegasus." HMH-463 continued the campaign of disrupting insurgent intimidation and violence ahead of the elections participating in Operation Eastern Resolve II located at Nowzad, an insurgent hotbed located north of Camp Bastion. The buildup in the Helmand increased when, in December 2009, then-President Obama announced the "surge," a plan to send 30,000 troops to Afghanistan for up to 18 months. Immediately after that announcement, the MEB made plans to expand to a full MEF of 19,400 personnel.  Towards the end of HMH-463s rotation, on 13 February 2010, Pegasus participated in Operation Moshtarak, which was the largest joint operation in Afghanistan to that point occurring in Marjah and Nawa. In March 2010, HMH-363 "the Lucky Red Lions," relieved Pegasus and concentrated on General Support in support of the MEF battling the small lift capacity caused by the high summer temperatures and relatively high altitude found throughout the Helmand. During September, HMH-362 returned to Camp Bastion for the second time to relieve HMH-363. Additionally, in September 3rd Battalion 7th Marines (3/7) replaced the British in the Sangin area northeast of Camp Bastion.  The following January 2011, 1,400 Marines expanded into the "fishhook," region well south of the Garmsir district.  Both of these movements represented expansion into the previously held insurgent territory as the fighting in the central Helmand and the Garmsir district essentially ended with Operation Godfather on 14 January 2011. HMH-463 relieved HMH-362 on 10 March 2011, making it Pegasus' second rotation through the Helmand.  Operations within the Helmand continued regularly with continued pressure in the "Fishhook," near Khan Neshin castle and minor skirmishes in Nowzad.  Following the death of Osama Bin Laden, on 22 June 2011, then president Obama announced the planned withdrawal of 33,000 troops from Afghanistan by the summer of 2012. Pegasus deployment passed more or less without fanfare as Marines continued operations in the "Fishook." The Lucky Red Lions of HMH-363 relieved Pegasus on 17 September 2011. Unfortunately, on 19 January 2012, HMH-363 lost six Marines in a helicopter crash resulting from a catastrophic rotor blade failure.  During the early part of 2012, 2nd Battalion, 4th Marines pushed out from Sangin to clear Musa Qala while 3rd Battalion 7th Marines continued to work the Sangin area. HMH-362 arrived for their third rotation at Camp Leatherneck on 2 March 2012.   The Ugly Angels of HMH-362 continued providing general support in the Area of Operations and direct support of the Battalions throughout the Helmand. On 11 September 2012, the Ugly Angels departed the Helmand Valley and Afghanistan. All of the HMH-362 CH-53Ds were transported to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base and decommissioned. HMH-362 was deactivated as an HMH squadron on 30 November 2012. MAG-24 Commanding Officers MAG-24 Sergeants Major (Incomplete*) *The position of Sergeant Major was not routinely recorded in the Command Chronology until the mid-1980s and 1985 was the first time a Sergeant Major was included in the staff list. See also United States Marine Corps Aviation List of United States Marine Corps aircraft groups List of United States Marine Corps aircraft squadrons References Notes Bibliography Crowder, Michael J. (2000). United States Marine Corps Aviation Squadron Lineage, Insignia & History – Volume One – The Fighter Squadrons. Turner Publishing Company. . Tillman, Barrett. SBD Dauntless Units of World War 2. Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1998. . Web MAG-24's official website United States Marine Corps aircraft groups Military units and formations in Hawaii
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holliday%20junction
Holliday junction
A Holliday junction is a branched nucleic acid structure that contains four double-stranded arms joined. These arms may adopt one of several conformations depending on buffer salt concentrations and the sequence of nucleobases closest to the junction. The structure is named after Robin Holliday, the molecular biologist who proposed its existence in 1964. In biology, Holliday junctions are a key intermediate in many types of genetic recombination, as well as in double-strand break repair. These junctions usually have a symmetrical sequence and are thus mobile, meaning that the four individual arms may slide through the junction in a specific pattern that largely preserves base pairing. Additionally, four-arm junctions similar to Holliday junctions appear in some functional RNA molecules. Immobile Holliday junctions, with asymmetrical sequences that lock the strands in a specific position, were artificially created by scientists to study their structure as a model for natural Holliday junctions. These junctions also later found use as basic structural building blocks in DNA nanotechnology, where multiple Holliday junctions can be combined into specific designed geometries that provide molecules with a high degree of structural rigidity. Structure Holliday junctions may exist in a variety of conformational isomers with different patterns of coaxial stacking between the four double-helical arms. Coaxial stacking is the tendency of nucleic acid blunt ends to bind to each other, by interactions between the exposed bases. There are three possible conformers: an unstacked (or open-X) form and two stacked forms. The unstacked form dominates in the absence of divalent cations such as Mg2+, because of electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged backbones of the strands. In the presence of at least about 0.1 mM Mg2+, the electrostatic repulsion is counteracted and the stacked structures predominate. As of 2000, it was not known with certainty whether the electrostatic shielding was the result of site-specific binding of cations to the junction, or the presence of a diffuse collection of the ions in solution. The unstacked form is a nearly square planar, extended conformation. On the other hand, the stacked conformers have two continuous double-helical domains separated by an angle of about 60° in a right-handed direction. Two of the four strands stay roughly helical, remaining within each of the two double-helical domains, while the other two cross between the two domains in an antiparallel fashion. The two possible stacked forms differ in which pairs of the arms are stacked with each other; which of the two dominates is highly dependent on the base sequences nearest to the junction. Some sequences result in an equilibrium between the two conformers, while others strongly prefer a single conformer. In particular, junctions containing the sequence A-CC bridging the junction point appear to strongly prefer the conformer that allows a hydrogen bond to form between the second cytosine and one of the phosphates at the junction point. While most studies have focused on the identities of the four bases nearest to the junction on each arm, it is evident that bases farther out can also affect the observed stacking conformations. In junctions with symmetrical sequences, the branchpoint is mobile and can migrate in a random walk process. The rate of branch migration varies dramatically with ion concentration, with single-step times increasing from 0.3 to 0.4 ms with no ions to 270−300 ms with 10 mM Mg2+. The change in rate is correlated with the formation of the stacked versus the unstacked structures. Holliday junctions with a nick, or break in one of the strands, at the junction point adopt a perpendicular orientation, and always prefer the stacking conformer that places the nick on a crossover strand rather than a helical strand. RNA Holliday junctions assume an antiparallel stacked conformation at high magnesium concentrations, a perpendicular stacked conformation at moderate concentrations, and rotate into a parallel stacked conformation at low concentrations, while even small calcium ion concentrations favor the antiparallel conformer. Biological function The Holliday junction is a key intermediate in homologous recombination, a biological process that increases genetic diversity by shifting genes between two chromosomes, as well as site-specific recombination events involving integrases. They are additionally involved in repair of double-strand breaks. In addition, cruciform structures involving Holliday junctions can arise to relieve helical strain in symmetrical sequences in DNA supercoils. While four-arm junctions also appear in functional RNA molecules, such as U1 spliceosomal RNA and the hairpin ribozyme of the tobacco ringspot virus, these usually contain unpaired nucleotides in between the paired double-helical domains, and thus do not strictly adopt the Holliday structure. The Holliday junctions in homologous recombination are between identical or nearly identical sequences, leading to a symmetric arrangement of sequences around the central junction. This allows a branch migration process to occur where the strands move through the junction point. Cleavage, or resolution, of the Holliday junction can occur in two ways. Cleavage of the original set of strands leads to two molecules that may show gene conversion but not chromosomal crossover, while cleavage of the other set of two strands causes the resulting recombinant molecules to show crossover. All products, regardless of cleavage, are heteroduplexes in the region of Holliday junction migration. Many proteins are able to recognize or distort the Holliday junction structure. One such class contains junction-resolving enzymes that cleave the junctions, sometimes in a sequence-specific fashion. Such proteins distort the structure of the junction in various ways, often pulling the junction into an unstacked conformation, breaking the central base pairs, and/or changing the angles between the four arms. Other classes are branch migration proteins that increase the exchange rate by orders of magnitude, and site-specific recombinases. In prokaryotes, Holliday junction resolvases fall into two families, integrases and nucleases, that are each structurally similar although their sequences are not conserved. In eukaryotes, two primary models for how homologous recombination repairs double-strand breaks in DNA are the double-strand break repair (DSBR) pathway (sometimes called the double Holliday junction model) and the synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA) pathway. In the case of double strand breakage, the 3' end is degraded and the longer 5' end invades the contiguous sister chromatid, forming a replication bubble. As this bubble nears the broken DNA, the longer 5' antisense strand again invades the sense strand of this portion of DNA, transcribing a second copy. When replication ends, both tails are reconnected to form two Holliday Junctions, which are then cleaved in a variety of patterns by proteins. An animation of this process can be seen here. Double-strand DNA breaks in bacteria are repaired by the RecBCD pathway of homologous recombination. Breaks that occur on only one of the two DNA strands, known as single-strand gaps, are thought to be repaired by the RecF pathway. Both the RecBCD and RecF pathways include a series of reactions known as branch migration, in which single DNA strands are exchanged between two intercrossed molecules of duplex DNA, and resolution, in which those two intercrossed molecules of DNA are cut apart and restored to their normal double-stranded state. Homologous recombination occurs in several groups of viruses. In DNA viruses such as herpesvirus, recombination occurs through a break-and-rejoin mechanism like in bacteria and eukaryotes. In bacteria, branch migration is facilitated by the RuvABC complex or RecG protein, molecular motors that use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to move the junction. The junction must then be resolved into two separate duplexes, restoring either the parental configuration or a crossed-over configuration. Resolution can occur in either a horizontal or vertical fashion during homologous recombination, giving patch products (if in same orientation during double strand break repair) or splice products (if in different orientations during double strand break repair). RuvA and RuvB are branch migration proteins, while RuvC is a junction-resolving enzyme. There is evidence for recombination in some RNA viruses, specifically positive-sense ssRNA viruses like retroviruses, picornaviruses, and coronaviruses. There is controversy over whether homologous recombination occurs in negative-sense ssRNA viruses like influenza. Resolution In budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Holliday junctions can be resolved by four different pathways that account for essentially all Holliday junction resolution in vivo. The pathway that produces the majority of crossovers in S. cerevisiae budding yeast, and possibly in mammals, involves proteins EXO1, MLH1-MLH3 heterodimer (called MutL gamma) and SGS1 (ortholog of Bloom syndrome helicase). The MLH1-MLH3 heterodimer binds preferentially to Holliday junctions. It is an endonuclease that makes single-strand breaks in supercoiled double-stranded DNA. The MLH1-MLH3 heterodimer promotes the formation of crossover recombinants. While the other three pathways, involving proteins MUS81-MMS4, SLX1 and YEN1, respectively, can promote Holliday junction resolution in vivo, absence of all three nucleases has only a modest impact on formation of crossover products. Double mutants deleted for both MLH3 (major pathway) and MMS4 (minor pathway) showed dramatically reduced crossing over compared to wild-type (6- to 17-fold); however spore viability was reasonably high (62%) and chromosomal disjunction appeared mostly functional. Although MUS81 is a component of a minor crossover pathway in the meiosis of budding yeast, plants and vertebrates, in the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila, MUS81 appears to be part of an essential, if not the predominant crossover pathway. The MUS81 pathway also appears to be the predominant crossover pathway in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero-oligomeric structure (heterodimer) in yeast and humans. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The MSH4/MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products. An MSH4 hypomorphic (partially functional) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30% genome wide reduction in crossover numbers, and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes. Nevertheless, this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non-exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently. Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs. Use in DNA nanotechnology DNA nanotechnology is the design and manufacture of artificial nucleic acid structures as engineering materials for nanotechnology rather than as the carriers of genetic information in living cells. The field uses branched DNA structures as fundamental components to create more complex, rationally designed structures. Holliday junctions are thus components of many such DNA structures. As isolated Holliday junction complexes are too flexible to assemble into large ordered arrays, structural motifs with multiple Holliday junctions are used to create rigid "tiles" that can then assemble into larger "arrays". The most common such motif is the double crossover (DX) complex, which contains two Holliday junctions in close proximity to each other, resulting in a rigid structure that can self-assemble into larger arrays. The structure of the DX molecule forces the Holliday junctions to adopt a conformation with the double-helical domains directly side by side, in contrast to their preferred angle of about 60°. The complex can be designed to force the junctions into either a parallel or antiparallel orientation, but in practice the antiparallel variety are more well-behaved, and the parallel version is rarely used. The DX structural motif is the fundamental building block of the DNA origami method, which is used to make larger two- and three-dimensional structures of arbitrary shape. Instead of using individual DX tiles, a single long scaffold strand is folded into the desired shape by a number of short staple strands. When assembled, the scaffold strand is continuous through the double-helical domains, while the staple strands participate in the Holliday junctions as crossover strands. Some tile types that retain the Holliday junction's native 60° angle have been demonstrated. One such array uses tiles containing four Holliday junctions in a parallelogram arrangement. This structure had the benefit of allowing the junction angle to be directly visualized via atomic force microscopy. Tiles of three Holliday junctions in a triangular fashion have been used to make periodic three-dimensional arrays for use in X-ray crystallography of biomolecules. These structures are named for their similarity to structural units based on the principle of tensegrity, which utilizes members both in tension and compression. History Robin Holliday proposed the junction structure that now bears his name as part of his model of homologous recombination in 1964, based on his research on the organisms Ustilago maydis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The model provided a molecular mechanism that explained both gene conversion and chromosomal crossover. Holliday realized that the proposed pathway would create heteroduplex DNA segments with base mismatches between different versions of a single gene. He predicted that the cell would have a mechanism for mismatch repair, which was later discovered. Prior to Holliday's model, the accepted model involved a copy-choice mechanism where the new strand is synthesized directly from parts of the different parent strands. In the original Holliday model for homologous recombination, single-strand breaks occur at the same point on one strand of each parental DNA. Free ends of each broken strand then migrate across to the other DNA helix. There, the invading strands are joined to the free ends they encounter, resulting in the Holliday junction. As each crossover strand reanneals to its original partner strand, it displaces the original complementary strand ahead of it. This causes the Holliday junction to migrate, creating the heteroduplex segments. Depending on which strand was used as a template to repair the other, the four cells resulting from meiosis might end up with three copies of one allele and only one of the other, instead of the normal two of each, a property known as gene conversion. Holliday's original model assumed that heteroduplex DNA would be present on both chromosomes, but experimental data on yeast refuted this. An updated model by Matt Meselson and Charley Radding in 1975 introduced the idea of branch migration. Further observations in the 1980s led to the proposal of alternate mechanisms for recombination such as the double-strand break model (by Jack Szostak, Frank Stahl, and others) and the single-strand annealing model. A third, the synthesis-dependent strand annealing model, did not involve Holliday junctions. The first experimental evidence for the structure of the Holliday junction came from electron microscopy studies in the late 1970s, where the four-arm structure was clearly visible in images of plasmid and bacteriophage DNA. Later in the 1980s, enzymes responsible for initiating the formation of, and binding to, Holliday junctions were identified, although as of 2004 the identification of mammalian Holliday junction resolvases remained elusive (however, see section "Resolution of Holliday junctions," above for more recent information). In 1983, artificial Holliday junction molecules were first constructed from synthetic oligonucleotides by Nadrian Seeman, allowing for more direct study of their physical properties. Much of the early analysis of Holliday junction structure was inferred from gel electrophoresis, FRET, and hydroxyl radical and nuclease footprinting studies. In the 1990s, crystallography and nucleic acid NMR methods became available, as well as computational molecular modelling tools. Initially, geneticists assumed that the junction would adopt a parallel rather than antiparallel conformation, because that would place the homologous duplexes in closer alignment to each other. Chemical analysis in the 1980s showed that the junction actually preferred the antiparallel conformation, a finding that was considered controversial, and Robin Holliday himself initially doubted the findings. The antiparallel structure later became widely accepted due to X-ray crystallography data on in vitro molecules, although as of 2004 the implications for the in vivo structure remained unclear, especially the structure of the junctions is often altered by proteins bound to it. The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by Nadrian Seeman in the early 1980s. A number of natural branched DNA structures were known at the time, including the DNA replication fork and the mobile Holliday junction, but Seeman's insight was that immobile nucleic acid junctions could be created by properly designing the strand sequences to remove symmetry in the assembled molecule, and that these immobile junctions could in principle be combined into rigid crystalline lattices. The first theoretical paper proposing this scheme was published in 1982, and the first experimental demonstration of an immobile DNA junction was published the following year. Seeman developed the more rigid double-crossover (DX) motif, suitable for forming two-dimensional lattices, demonstrated in 1998 by him and Erik Winfree. In 2006, Paul Rothemund first demonstrated the DNA origami technique for easily and robustly creating folded DNA structures of arbitrary shape. This method allowed the creation of much larger structures than were previously possible, and which are less technically demanding to design and synthesize. The synthesis of a three-dimensional lattice was finally published by Seeman in 2009, nearly thirty years after he had set out to achieve it. References External links Conformational Change of Holliday Junction Analysis of branch migration activities of proteins using synthetic DNA substrates (a protocol) Molecular genetics DNA Chromosomes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlikosaurus
Erlikosaurus
Erlikosaurus (meaning "Erlik's lizard") is a genus of therizinosaurid that lived in Asia during the Late Cretaceous period. The fossils, a skull and some post-cranial fragments, were found in the Bayan Shireh Formation of Mongolia in 1972, dating to around 96 million and 89 million years ago. These remains were later described by Altangerel Perle and Rinchen Barsbold in 1980, naming the new genus and species Erlikosaurus andrewsi. It represents the second therizinosaur taxon from this formation (alongside Enigmosaurus and Segnosaurus) with the most complete skull among members of this peculiar family of dinosaurs. In contrast to most therizinosaurids, Erlikosaurus was a small member reaching nearly in length and in mass. It had a well-developed beak at the snout tip and toothed jaws that were used for its herbivorous diet. The feet ended in four toes with the first one articulated to the ankle—in contrast to the vestigial first toe of most theropods. Like other therizinosaurids, Erlikosaurus had a large gut for food processing, strong arms ending in elongated claws, and a backwards directed pelvis. Erlikosaurus is classified as a therizinosaur within the Therizinosauridae. Therizinosaurs were long-enigmatic dinosaurs with unclear relationships during the early years of research. Subsequent studies proved their true nature as theropodan dinosaurs and systematic position among maniraptorans. The beak and jaws of Erlikosaurus indicate a leaf-stripping feeding method characterized by the active use of the beak aided by the neck. Several differences with the sympatric Segnosaurus shows that these related genera were niche partitioned. Discovery and naming The holotype specimen, MPC-D 100/111, was found in layers from the Bayshin Tsav locality on the Bayan Shireh Formation, consisting of an exceptionally well preserved skull, a virtually complete right pes only lacking the proximal end of metatarsals II, III and IV, and an almost complete left humerus. Other remains include some fragmentary cervical vertebrae, however, the count is not specified and they were not illustrated. These findings were made during a Soviet-Mongolian expedition in the Ömnögovi Province in 1972. Eight years later, the genus and type species, Erlikosaurus andrewsi, was named and described (although very briefly) by paleontologists Rinchen Barsbold and Altangerel Perle in 1980, however, Barsbold was not indicated as the name-giver of this particular species. The generic name, Erlikosaurus, was taken from that of the demon king Erlik, from Turko-Mongolian mythology and the Greek (, meaning lizard). The specific name, andrewsi, is in honour to the American paleontologist Roy Chapman Andrews, who was the leader of the American Asiatic Expeditions from 1922 to 1930. Apparently, in the original description a left pes was claimed to be part of the holotype, however, this statement has not been mentioned again. Confusingly, in 1981 Perle again named and described the species as if it were new, but this time in more detail and spelling the generic name as a Latinised "Erlicosaurus". It is today widely accepted by most authors that the original name, Erlikosaurus, is valid. At the time of its discovery it was the only known therizinosaur (then called segnosaurs) for which a complete skull had been discovered, this helped shed light on a puzzling and poorly known group of dinosaurs. It still represents the most completely known therizinosaurian skull. In 2010, Gregory S. Paul challenged the validity of this taxon, arguing that Erlikosaurus may be synonymous with Enigmosaurus (named in 1983), since the remains of the latter were found in the same geologic formation, and only known from pelvic remains, whereas the pelvis in Erlikosaurus is unknown; this would make Enigmosaurus a junior synonym of Erlikosaurus. However, since the holotype hip of Enigmosaurus did not closely resemble that of the specimen in Segnosaurus as would be expected for the Segnosaurus-like remains of Erlikosaurus, and there is a considerable size difference, paleontologist Rinchen Barsbold disputed the alleged synonymy. Additional to this, the remains of Erlikosaurus and Enigmosaurus are known from upper and lower boundary, respectively. Consequently, Enigmosaurus and Erlikosaurus are generally considered separated genera. Description As the genus is only known from very fragmentary material, it has been problematic to determine the size of Erlikosaurus, especially as most of the vertebral column of the holotype is missing. The skull of the holotype specimen length is approximately long, indicating a very small individual. Overall, Erlikosaurus was a small-sized therizinosaurid, estimated to have reach about with a more lightly built than the ponderous Segnosaurus. In 2012 Stephan Lautenschlager and colleagues used theropod-specific equations to estimate the body mass of Erlikosaurus and other therizinosaurs. However, since the femur is unknown, they used bivariate regression analyses on log-transformed data for Erlikosaurus. The results ended up on a femoral length of and a weight of . Given the uncertainties of these estimates, they established an overall mass range between . Alternative estimations have suggested a maximum length of long, and a more conservative length of 4.5 metres and a weight of . Though Erlikosaurus largely lacks body remains, as a therizinosaurid it would have had a strong arm build with large claws, a broad and bulky torso, and an opisthopubic (directed backwards) pelvis. It is known that therizinosaurs were feathered animals based on the preserved feather impressions in specimens of Beipiaosaurus and Jianchangosaurus, so it is likely that Erlikosaurus was feathered as well. Skull The snout is moderately elongated, with a premaxilla featuring elongated nasal processes. A fine, vertical lamina of bone is connected rostrally to the medial margin of the premaxilla, indicating that when the animal was alive, a cartilaginous internasal septum was present. Additional to this, the premaxilla features lateral and medial foramina that are connected by a complex system of vascular canals, which pervades the structure of the premaxilla and is probably associated with the sensory branches of the neurovasculature and ophthalmic nerve supporting the rhamphotheca (beak). The maxilla is triangular in shape and preserves 24 alveoli, the teeth are homodont with coarse serrations. The dentary is wedge-shaped elongated and preserves 31 alveoli. In a dorsal view, it is U-shaped and flattened at the back with an expansion lying across. The lateral and ventral surfaces in the symphyseal region bears a series of foramina that measure in diameter. Isolated foramina are connected internally by a complex neurovascular canal. When restored, the skull measures long and the mandible is about . The well preserved braincase is very much complete, only missing the sphenethmoid-mesethmoid complex, whereas the laterosphenoids and orbitosphenoids are incompletely preserved in medial view. The bones around the braincase are strongly coossified, but the sutures between individual elements are not visible superficially, except for a few areas. However, these internal sutures can be traced in CT scans and therefore, braincase elements could be differentiated one from other. The restored brain of the specimen is somewhat elongated. The olfactory apparatus and the cerebral hemispheres are very notorious, with the olfactory tract being far larger than the actual brain. The cerebral hemispheres are large and broad. On the cerebral surface complex vascular grooves can be found, which are typically found in birds and mammals, as well as other dinosaurs. Lastly, the cerebellum is not very notorious as previous elements, it is elongated and stocky. Keratinous beaks, or rhamphothecae, are well documented among diverse groups within the Dinosauria. Ornithomimosaurs have solid evidence for it. However, this is not an indicative to suggest the lack of this anatomical feature in other groups. Several characteristics are indicative of a rhamphothecae, such as an edentulous premaxilla with a thin, tapering lower edge, the successive loss of maxillary and dentary teeth, a mandibular concavity in the lower side, the displacement of the lower surface in the dentary, and a rostral projection of the mandibular symphysis.In Erlikosaurus, the presence of a keratinous beak on the maxilla and premaxilla can be inferred by the presence of numerous neurovascular foramina on the rostral and lateral surfaces in the skull, furthermore, it bears all the mentioned features above, however, it is unclear the extension of the beak. The preserved rhamphotheca in specimens of Gallimimus and Ornithomimus evidences that the keratin sheath covered the premaxilla and overlapped it on the lower side by a few millimeters. In some extant birds, the rhamphotheca is typically restricted to the premaxilla and maxilla, although in some cases it partially covers the nasal process in some birds. Apparently, in Erlikosaurus the rhamphotheca covered the nasal process of the premaxilla. Postcranial skeleton Body remains of Erlikosaurus are very sparse compared to the cranial elements, consisting of a humerus, a right foot and some cervical vertebrae. The particular cervicals were not figured and counted but briefly described. The cervicals are platycoelus (slightly concave at both ends) with low neural arches. Being relatively robust, they have thick prezygapophyses and large parapophyses. Additional, the cervicals show some resemblance to those of Segnosaurus, however, being much smaller. The preserved right pes is virtually complete, only missing the proximal end of the metatarsals II, III and IV. It is shortened in length, with robust metatarsals that bear widened articular extremities, and form a non-compact metatarsus. The metatarsal I is the shortest in comparison, it measures long and expands the laterally extended proximal articular surface of the metatarsus. All of the remaining metatarsals, are somewhat equal in size, metatarsal II covers in length. The pedal digits are very peculiar in structure; the first digit is reduced in length, with all the remaining digits being nearly equal in length, however the fourth digit is very thin compared to the others. The phalanges of the three first digits are shortened, robust with comparable structure. The second and third phalanx of fourth digit are discoidal and stocky. Lastly, the unguals are recurved, exceptionally large, and strongly flattened laterally. Gregory S. Paul surmised that the long, slender claws of the feet were used for self-defence mechanism. The left humerus is the only preserved remain from the pectoral region. The humerus shows an elongated epiphyses and a relatively large deltoideal process. It is robust with an estimated length of . It has a reduced shaft. The proximal end of the humeurs is greatly broad. The humeral head features an articular surface that is convex and broad, in the middle it is reduced toward the margins. A prominent deltopectoral crest is present with the top located 1/3 at the length of the humerus from the proximal end. The articulation condyles for the radius and ulna are differentiated and divided by a shortened, furrow-like fossa and overall, they are very reduced in size. The fossa for the ulnar process is moderately deep and wide. The internal roughness of the head is prominent, as in the unrelated Dromaeosauridae. ClassificationErlikosaurus was by Perle assigned to the Segnosauridae, a group today known as the Therizinosauridae, confirmed by later cladistic analyses. Therizinosaurs were a strange group of theropods that ate plants instead of meat, and had a backward-facing pubis, like ornithischians. Also like ornithischians, their jaws were tipped by a broad rounded bony beak useful for cropping off plants. The relationships of therizinosaurs were quite complicated when the first members were discovered. As an example, the first known therizinosaur taxon, Therizinosaurus, was interpreted to represent turtle-like animals that used the elongated claws to feed on seaweed. However, in 1970, Rozhdestvensky proposed the idea that therizinosaurs (then known as segnosaurs) instead of being non-dinosaur creatures, they were in fact, theropods. Later, in 1980, segnosaurs were thought to be slow, semiaquatic animals, with this, Gregory S. Paul claimed that these controversial animals had no theropod characteristics and they were prosauropods with ornithischian adaptations, also, they shared evolutionary relationships. However, with the description of more genera such as Alxasaurus, Nanshiungosaurus, and the redescription of the skull of Erlikosaurus, more theropod evidence began to be supported. With the discovery and description of the feathered Beipiaosaurus, therizinosaurs were utterly recognized as theropods, and started to be reconstructed in an accurate, bipedal posture. Consequently, therizinosaurs are now classified as theropods, within the Coelurosauria. Lindsay Zanno was one of the first authors to examine in detail the relationships and affinites of therizinosaurs. Her work has been useful in many phylogenetic analyses. The cladogram below is the result of the phylogenetic analysis performed by Hartman et al. 2019 using the data provided by Zanno in 2010. Erlikosaurus occupied a very derived position in a clade with the two Nothronychus species: Paleobiology SensesErlikosaurus is poorly known from postcranial material, but the holotype skull became the focus of study in Computed Tomography (CT) scans that were published back in 2012 by the paleontologist Stephan Lautenschlager and Dr Emily Rayfield of Bristol University School of Earth Sciences, Professor Lindsay Zanno of the North Carolina Museum of Natural History and North Carolina State University, and Lawrence Witmer, Chang Professor of Paleontology at the Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine. Analysis of the brain cavity revealed that Erlikosaurus, and quite likely most other therizinosaurids, had well developed senses of smell, hearing, and balance, traits better associated with carnivorous theropods. The enlarged forebrain of Erlikosaurus may also have been useful in complex social behavior and predator evasion. These senses were also well-developed in earlier coelurosaurs and other theropods, indicating that therizinosaurs may have inherited many of these traits from their carnivorous ancestors and used them for their different and specialized dietary purposes. In 2019, Graham M. Hughes and John A. Finarelli analyzed the olfactory bulb ratio in modern birds and preserved skulls of several extinct dinosaur species to predict how many genes would have been involved in the olfactory strength of these extinct species. Their analysis found that Erlikosaurus had about 477 genes encoding its olfactory receptors and an olfactory bulb ratio of 40, indicating moderate senses of smell. The scores of Erlikosaurus were higher than most dromaeosaurids despite the herbivorous life-style in this taxon, and may reflect a transition to complex sociality and/or reduced visual capacities. Hughes and Finarelli pointed out that as dinosaurian lineages became larger, the size of the olfactory bulb increased, which may suggest olfaction as the main sensory modality in large-bodied non-avian dinosaurs. Feeding and bite force In 2013, Lautenschlager performed digital reconstructions for the cranial musculature in Erlikosaurus and found a relatively weak bite force compared to other theropods. As a whole, the adductor musculature of the jaws—which primarily function to close the jaws—generates a total force of 374 and 570 N but only a small portion is actually used when biting because the bite force starts to decline as the more the distance of the bite point is to the jaw joint. Lautenschlager found the lowest force at the snout tip with 43–65 N, and the highest at the last maxillar tooth region, with 90–134 N. Factors like the presence of a large gut to process vegetation and the lack of damage patterns on the teeth suggest that Erlikosaurus used only the tip of the snout and the premaxillary region to reach for soft foliage or fruits, and the lesser bite force for Erlikosaurus better served in leaf-stripping and plant-cropping feeding mechanism, rather than active mastication. In this study, Lautenschlager also suggested that Erlikosaurus may have been able to process mainly thin branches and plant matter based on Stegosaurus. Moreover, the comparably narrow width of the snout could indicate selective feeding in this therizinosaurid. Lastly, the branch‐stripping behaviour of Erlikosaurus may have been compensated by the postcranial musculature. During the same year, Lautenschlager and team made digital models of the skull of Erlikosaurus to test the function the rhamphotheca (keratinous beak), finding that this structure in the jaws acted as a stress-mitigating structure. They concluded that keratinous beaks are beneficial to enhance the stability of the skull making it less susceptible to bending and/or deformation during feeding. The well preserved jaws also allowed a study by the University of Bristol to determine how its feeding style and dietary preferences were linked to how wide they could open the mouth. In the study, performed by Lautenshlager and colleagues in 2015, it was revealed that Erlikosaurus could open its mouth to a 43 degree angle at maximum. Also included in the study for comparison were the carnivorous theropods Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus. From the comparisons, it was indicated that carnivorous dinosaurs had wider jaw gapes than herbivores, much as modern carnivorous animals do today. In 2016, using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and a Multibody Dynamics Analysis (MDA), the bite forces of Erlikosaurus, Plateosaurus and Stegosaurus were tested in order to estimate dietary habits. The resulting bite force for Erlikosaurus was between 50 and 121 N, with a skull characterised by high susceptibility to stress and deformation that indicates a feeding behaviour specialized in the active use of the beak. The results further support that Erlikosaurus relied on postcranial musculature to compensate the low bite force and to relieve stresses on cranial structure. Paleoenvironment The holotype of Erlikosaurus was unearthed from the Bayshin Tsav locality at the upper boundary of the Bayan Shireh Formation, in a quarry composed of gray sands with conglomerates, gravels, and gray claystones. Bayshi Tsav is thought to have been deposited by meandering rivers. The examination of the magnetostratigraphy of the formation seems to confirm that the entire Bayan Shireh lies within the Cretaceous Long Normal, which lasted only until the end of the Santonian stage. Moreover, calcite U–Pb measurements estimate the age of the Bayan Shireh Formation from 95.9 ± 6.0 million to 89.6 ± 4.0 million years ago, Cenomanian through Santonian ages. Fluvial, lacustrine and caliche-based sedimentation indicates a lesser semi-arid climate, with the presence of wet environments composed of large meanders and lakes. Largescale cross-stratification in many of the sandstone layers at the Bayn Shireh and Burkhant localities seems to indicate large meandering rivers, and these large water bodies may have drained the eastern part of the Gobi Desert. Numerous fossilized fruits have been recovered from the Bor Guvé and Khara Khutul localities. A vast diversity of fauna is known in the formation, compromising dinosaur and non-dinosaur genera. Fellow theropods include the large Achillobator, and the deinocheirid Garudimimus. Other herbivorous dinosaurs are represented by the ankylosaurs Talarurus and Tsagantegia, small marginocephalians Amtocephale and Graciliceratops, the hadrosauroid Gobihadros, and the sauropod Erketu. Other fauna include semiaquatic reptiles like crocodylomorphs and nanhsiungchelyid turtles. Coexistence with SegnosaurusErlikosaurus lived alongside a larger species of therizinosaurid in the Bayan Shireh Formation, Segnosaurus. In 2016, Zanno and colleagues re-examined the lower jaws and dentition of Segnosaurus making direct comparisons with those of Erlikosaurus in the process. They identified rather complex features in the dentary teeth of Segnosaurus, which are represented by the presence of numerous carinae (cutting edges) and folded carinae with denticulated front edges, and the enlargement of denticles (serrations). These traits together create a roughened, shredding surface near the base of the tooth crowns that was unique to Segnosaurus and suggest it consumed unique food resources or used highly specialized feeding strategies, with the addition of a higher degree of oral food processing than the sympatric—related species that lived in the same area at the same time—Erlikosaurus. On the contrary, the latter has very symmetrical teeth with moderate denticles. The respective indistinct and specialized dentition of Erlikosaurus and Segnosaurus indicates that these two therizinosaurids were separated by niche differentiation in food acquisition, processing, or resources. This conclusion is strengthened by the large difference in estimated body masses, which is up to 500%. In a 2017 study of niche partitioning in therizinosaurs through digital simulations, Lautenschlager found the straighter and more elongated dentaries of primitive therizinosaurs had the highest magnitudes of stress and strain during extrinsic feeding scenarios. In contrast, Erlikosaurus and Segnosaurus were aided by the down-turned tip of the lower jaws and symphyseal (bone union) regions, and probably also by stress and strain-mitigating beaks. The results also showed a difference in bite forces between Segnosaurus and Erlikosaurus, indicating the former would have been able to feed on tougher vegetation, while the overall robustness of the latter suggests greater flexibility in its manner of feeding. Lautenschlager pointed out the two taxa were adapted to different modes food acquisition, and that the difference in size and heights between the two therizinosaurids further separated their niches. While Segnosaurus was adapted to use its specialized dentition to procure or process food, Erlikosaurus mostly relied on its beak and neck musculature for cropping while foraging. In addition to these cranial differences, in 2019 Button and Zanno note that herbivorous dinosaurs followed two main distinct modes of feeding. One of these was processing food in the gut which is characterized by gracile skulls and relatively low bite forces, and the second was oral food processing, characterized by features associated with extensive processing such as the lower jaws or dentition. Segnosaurus was found to be in the former mode, whereas Erlikosaurus'' was more likely to fall in the second group, further supporting that these two therizinosaurids were separated by a well-defined niche differentiation. See also Timeline of therizinosaur research References External links Erlikosaurus restored 3D skull at Sketchfab (1) Erlikosaurus restored 3D skull at Sketchfab (2) Therizinosaurs Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia Fossil taxa described in 1980 Taxa named by Altangerel Perle Taxa named by Rinchen Barsbold
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Social%20Construction%20of%20Reality
The Social Construction of Reality
The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (1966), by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, proposes that social groups and individual persons who interact with each other, within a system of social classes, over time create concepts (mental representations) of the actions of each other, and that people become habituated to those concepts, and thus assume reciprocal social roles. When those social roles are available for other members of society to assume and portray, their reciprocal, social interactions are said to be institutionalized behaviours. In that process of the social construction of reality, the meaning of the social role is embedded to society as cultural knowledge. As a work about the sociology of knowledge, influenced by the work of Alfred Schütz, The Social Construction of Reality introduced the term social construction and influenced the establishment of the field of social constructionism. In 1998, the International Sociological Association listed The Social Construction of Reality as the fifth most-important book of 20th-century sociology. Concepts Social stock of knowledge Earlier theories (those of, for example, Max Scheler, Karl Mannheim, Werner Stark, Karl Marx, and Max Weber) often focused predominantly on scientific and theoretical knowledge, representing a limited sphere of social knowledge. Customs, common interpretations, institutions, shared routines, habitualizations, the who-is-who and who-does-what in social processes and the division of labor, constitute a much larger part of knowledge in society. “…theoretical knowledge is only a small and by no means the most important part of what passed for knowledge in a society… the primary knowledge about the institutional order is knowledge… is the sum total of ‘what everybody knows’ about a social world, an assemblage of maxims, morals, proverbial nuggets of wisdom, values and beliefs, myths, and so forth” (p. 65) Semantic fields The general body of knowledge is socially distributed, and classified in semantic fields. The dynamic distribution and inter dependencies of these knowledge sectors provide structure to the social stock of knowledge: “The social stock of knowledge differentiates reality by degrees of familiarity… my knowledge of my own occupation and its world is very rich and specific, while I have only very sketchy knowledge of the occupational worlds of others” (p. 43) “The social distribution of knowledge thus begins with the simple fact that I do not know everything known to my fellowmen, and vice versa, and culminates in exceedingly complex and esoteric systems of expertise. Knowledge of how the socially available stock of knowledge is distributed, at least in outline, is an important element of that same stock of knowledge.” (p. 46) Language and signs Language also plays an important role in the analysis of integration of everyday reality. Language links up commonsense knowledge with finite provinces of meaning, thus enabling people, for example, to interpret dreams through understandings relevant in the daytime. "Language is capable of transcending the reality of everyday life altogether. It can refer to experiences pertaining to finite provinces of meaning, it can span discrete spheres of reality...Language soars into regions that are not only de facto but also a priori unavailable to everyday experience."p. 40. Regarding the function of language and signs, Berger and Luckmann are indebted to George Herbert Mead and other figures in the field known as symbolic interactionism, as acknowledged in their Introduction, especially regarding the possibility of constructing objectivity. Signs and language provide interoperability for the construction of everyday reality: “A sign [has the] explicit intention to serve as an index of subjective meanings … Language is capable of becoming the objective repository of vast accumulations of meaning and experience, which it can then preserve in time and transmit to following generations… Language also typifies experiences, allowing me to subsume them under broad categories in terms of which they have meaning not only to myself but also to my fellowmen” (p. 35-39) Social everyday reality Social everyday reality is characterized by Intersubjectivity (which refers to the coexistence of multiple realities in this context) (p. 23-25): “Compared to the reality of everyday life, other realities appear as finite provinces of meaning, enclaves within the paramount reality marked by circumscribed meanings and modes of experience” (p. 25) This is in contrast to other realities, such as dreams, theoretical constructs, religious or mystic beliefs, artistic and imaginary worlds, etc. While individuals may visit other realities (such as watching a film), they are always brought back to everyday reality (once the film ends) (p. 25). Individuals have the capacity to reflect on these realities, including their own social everyday reality. This type of reflection is often referred to as reflexivity. But, crucially, even reflexivity must draw on some "source material" or be rooted in intersubjectivity. It has, thus, been suggested that: "As agents exercise their reflexive capacities, they bring with them a past consisting of social experiences accumulated or sedimented into stocks of knowledge that provide the requisite guidance for going about their lives and interpreting their social reality". Society as objective reality Institutionalization Institutionalization of social processes grows out of the habitualization and customs, gained through mutual observation with subsequent mutual agreement on the “way of doing things”. This reduces uncertainty and danger and allows our limited attention span to focus on more things at the same time, while institutionalized routines can be expected to continue “as previously agreed”: “Habitualization carries with it the important psychological gain that choices are narrowed… the background of habitualized activity opens up a foreground for deliberation and innovation [which demand a higher level of attention]… The most important gain is that each [member of society] will be able to predict the other's actions. Concomitantly, the interaction of both becomes predictable… Many actions are possible on a low level of attention. Each action of one is no longer a source of astonishment and potential danger to the other“ (p. 53-57). Social objective worlds Social (or institutional) objective worlds are one consequence of institutionalization, and are created when institutions are passed on to a new generation. This creates a reality that is vulnerable to the ideas of a minority which will then form the basis of social expectations in the future. The underlying reasoning is fully transparent to the creators of an institution, as they can reconstruct the circumstances under which they made agreements; while the second generation inherits it as something “given”, “unalterable” and “self-evident” and they might not understand the underlying logic. “…a social world [is] a comprehensive and given reality confronting the individual in a manner analogous to the reality of the natural world… In early phases of socialization the child is quite incapable of distinguishing between the objectivity of natural phenomena and the objectivity of the social formations… The objective reality of institutions is not diminished if the individual does not understand their purpose or their mode of operation… He must ‘go out’ and learn about them, just as he must learn about nature… (p.59-61) Division of labor Division of labor is another consequence of institutionalization. Institutions assign “roles” to be performed by various actors, through typification of performances, such as “father-role”, “teacher-role”, “hunter”, “cook”, etc. As specialization increases in number as well as in size and sophistication, a civilization's culture contains more and more sections of knowledge specific to given roles or tasks, sections which become more and more esoteric to non-specialists. These areas of knowledge do not belong anymore to the common social world and culture. “A society's stock of knowledge is structured in terms of what is generally relevant and what is relevant only to specific roles… the social distribution of knowledge entails a dichotomization in terms of general and role-specific relevance… because of the division of labor, role-specific knowledge will grow at a faster rate than generally relevant and accessible knowledge… The increasing number and complexity of [the resulting] sub universes [of specialized knowledge] make them increasingly inaccessible to outsiders (p. 77-87) Symbolic universes Symbolic universes are created to provide legitimation to the created institutional structure. Symbolic universes are a set of beliefs “everybody knows” that aim at making the institutionalized structure plausible and acceptable for the individual—who might otherwise not understand or agree with the underlying logic of the institution. As an ideological system, the symbolic universe “puts everything in its right place”. It provides explanations for why we do things the way we do. Proverbs, moral maxims, wise sayings, mythology, religions and other theological thought, metaphysical traditions and other value systems are part of the symbolic universe. They are all (more or less sophisticated) ways to legitimize established institutions. “The function of legitimation is to make objectively available and subjectively plausible the ‘first-order’ objections that have been institutionalized… Proverbs, moral maxims and wise sayings are common on this level… [as well as] explicit theories… symbolic processes… a general theory of the cosmos and a general theory of man… The symbolic universe also orders history. It locates all collective events in a cohesive unity that includes past, present and future.” (p. 92-104) Universe-maintenance Universe-maintenance refers to specific procedures undertaken, often by an elite group, when the symbolic universe does not fulfill its purpose anymore, which is to legitimize the institutional structure in place. This happens, for example, in generational shifts, or when deviants create an internal movement against established institutions (e.g. against revolutions), or when a society is confronted with another society with a greatly different history and institutional structures. In primitive societies this happened through mythological systems, later on through theological thought. Today, an extremely complex set of science has secularized universe-maintenance. “Specific procedures of universe-maintenance become necessary when the symbolic universe has become a problem. As long as this is not the case, the symbolic universe is self-maintaining, that is self-legitimating. An intrinsic problem presents itself with the process of transmission of the symbolic universe from one generation to another… [additionally] two societies confronting each other with conflicting universes will both develop conceptual machinery designed to maintain their respective universes… mythology represents the most archaic form of universe-maintenance… theological thought may be distinguished from its mythological predecessor simply in terms of its greater degree of theoretical systematization… Modern science is an extreme step in this development. (p. 104-116) Society as subjective reality Socialization Socialization is a two-step induction of the individual to participate in the social institutional structure, meaning in its objective reality. "The individual… is not born a member of society. He… becomes a member of society. In the life of every individual… there is a temporal sequence, in the course of which he is inducted into participation in the social dialectic" (p. 149) “By ‘successful socialization’ we mean the establishment of a high degree of symmetry between objective and subjective reality” (p. 163) Primary Socialization takes place as a child. It is highly charged emotionally and is not questioned. Secondary Socialization includes the acquisition of role-specific knowledge, thus taking one's place in the social division of labor. It is learned through training and specific rituals, and is not emotionally charged: “it is necessary to love one's mother, but not one's teacher”. Training for secondary socialization can be very complex and depends on the complexity of division of labor in a society. Primary socialization is much less flexible than secondary socialization. E.g. shame for nudity comes from primary socialization, adequate dress code depends on secondary: A relatively minor shift in the subjective definition of reality would suffice for an individual to take for granted that one may go to the office without a tie. A much more drastic shift would be necessary to have him go, as a matter of course, without any clothes at all. “The child does not internalize the world of his significant others as one of many possible worlds… It is for this reason that the world internalized in primary socialization is so much more firmly entrenched in consciousness than worlds internalized in secondary socialization…. Secondary socialization is the internalization of institutional or institution-based ‘sub worlds’… The roles of secondary socialization carry a high degree of anonymity… The same knowledge taught by one teacher could also be taught by another… The institutional distribution of tasks between primary and secondary socialization varies with the complexity of the social distribution of knowledge” (p. 129-147) Conversation Conversation or verbal communication aims at reality-maintenance of the subjective reality. What seems to be a useless and unnecessary communication of redundant banalities is actually a constant mutual reconfirmation of each other's internal thoughts, in that it maintains subjective reality. “One may view the individual's everyday life in terms of the working away of a conversational apparatus that ongoingly maintains, modifies and reconstructs his subjective reality… [for example] ‘Well, it's time for me to get to the station,’ and ‘Fine, darling, have a good day at the office’ implies an entire world within which these apparently simple propositions make sense… the exchange confirms the subjective reality of this world… the great part, if not all, of everyday conversation maintains subjective reality… imagine the effect…of an exchange like this: ‘Well, it's time for me to get to the station,’ ‘Fine, darling, don't forget to take along your gun.’ (p. 147-163) Identity Identity of an individual is subject to a struggle of affiliation to sometimes conflicting realities. For example, the reality from primary socialization (mother tells child not to steal) can be in contrast with second socialization (gang members teach teenager that stealing is cool). Our final social location in the institutional structure of society will ultimately also influence our body and organism. “…life-expectancies of lower-class and upper-class [vary] …society determines how long and in what manner the individual organism shall live… Society also directly penetrates the organism in its functioning, most importantly in respect to sexuality and nutrition. While both sexuality and nutrition are grounded in biological drives… biological constitution does not tell him where he should seek sexual release and what he should eat.” (p. 163-183) Reception In 1998 the International Sociological Association listed it as the fifth-most important sociological book of the 20th century, behind Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) but ahead of Pierre Bourdieu's Distinction (1979). Influence The Social Construction of Reality (SCR) is referenced by a very broad range of fields including law, social medicine, philosophy, political science, economics, management and gender studies. The book was influential in the creation of the field of social constructionism which has developed many subfields, though the concept of constructionism had entered sociology prior to the publication of SCR. Piaget used the term in his 1950 book, La construction du réel chez l’enfant. Scholars of social constructionism drew parallels between social constructionism and various post-structuralism and postmodern fields making these theories synonymous with the ideas presented in SCR, though these books did not reference SCR directly. However, the term social constructionism is used quite broadly; some uses are unrelated to the theory laid out in SCR, and the further a field is from sociology the less likely it is to cite SCR when discussing constructionism. See also Dramaturgy (sociology) Reality tunnel Notes References Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Garden City, NY: Anchor Books. ; (h.); (ib.); (h.) Charles Arthur Willard Liberalism and the Problems of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. 1966 non-fiction books American non-fiction books Books about public opinion Books about social constructionism Books by Peter L. Berger Books by Thomas Luckmann English-language books Sociology books Anchor Books books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confessions%20Tour
Confessions Tour
The Confessions Tour was the seventh concert tour by American singer-songwriter Madonna, launched in support of her tenth studio album, Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005). The tour began in Inglewood on May 21, 2006, and ended in Tokyo on September 21, visiting North America and Eurasia. Additionally, it marked Madonna's first concerts in Russia, Czech Republic and Denmark. Like past tours of the singer, it was divided into different thematic acts: Equestrian, Bedouin, Never Mind the Bollocks, and Disco. It received generally positive reviews, although Madonna's performance of her 1986 single "Live to Tell", which found her hanging on a giant mirrored cross wearing a crown of thorns, was met with strong negative reaction from religious groups; the performance at Rome's Stadio Olimpico was condemned as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church by religious leaders. Madonna responded saying that her main intention with the performance was to bring attention to the millions of children dying in Africa. Despite the controversy, the tour was a commercial success; tickets quickly sold out as soon as dates were announced, prompting organizers to add more. With a gross of over US$194.7 million ($ million in dollars) from 60 shows with 1.2 million spectators, Confessions surpassed Cher's Living Proof: The Farewell Tour (2002–2005) as the highest-grossing tour for a female artist. It was awarded Most Creative Stage Production at the Pollstar Concert Industry Awards as well as Top Boxscore from the Billboard Touring Conference and Awards. Additionally, it was recognized as the highest-grossing music tour per concert in the 2007 edition of the Guinness World Records. The concerts on August at London's Wembley Arena were filmed professionally and broadcast as a live special on NBC titled Madonna: The Confessions Tour Live; afterwards, it was released as a live album and on DVD under the title The Confessions Tour. Background In October of 2005, Madonna performed "Hung Up", the lead single from her then-upcoming tenth studio album, Confessions on a Dance Floor, at the MTV Europe Music Awards; she then brought-up the idea of a concert tour, saying that she wanted to revisit Australia, as she had not performed in the country for more than twelve years (since 1993's The Girlie Show tour). Following the album's release in November 2005, Madonna embarked on a promotional campaign and appeared on several European and American television programs, such as Wetten, dass..?, Entertainment Tonight and Access Hollywood. She also performed for fans at several smaller, more intimate venues in London, notably the KOKO and G-A-Y nightclubs. Later that month, Madonna, again, mentioned the possibility of touring during an interview with Billboard magazine, saying "if I go [on tour], it would be next summer. And it would be all-out disco, with lots of disco balls". In an interview with The Guardian, Madonna ultimately confirmed the tour for 2006, still deciding between "Confessions" Tour or "Confess Your Sins" Tour as its official title. Jamie King, who had worked with the singer on her previous concert tours—Re-Invention (2004) and Drowned World (2001)—told MTV that Madonna wanted to play smaller, intimate venues, like New York City's Roseland Ballroom, or the Wiltern Theatre in Los Angeles, saying "she likes things large, she likes things theatrical, but this time, being that [Confessions on a Dance Floor] is an intimate album, we want to try to make people have an intimate experience". Madonna, herself, said that she wanted "to do a little bit of everything", before moving-on to stadiums and arenas; that way, she deduced, she would not feel 'bored' during the performances. The tour was officially confirmed by Madonna on February 9, 2006, during a visit to The Ellen DeGeneres Show; she added, in another statement, that she wanted to "turn the world into one big dance floor". It was set to follow her appearance at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, which was described as a "warm-up" for the tour. Titled Confessions Tour, dates were published on the singer's official website on April 3, with concerts on cities in the US, Canada, Europe and Japan. It officially kicked off at Inglewood's Great Western Forum, on May 21, and ended at the Tokyo Dome on September 21. The venue for the singer's first concert in Russia was switched from a hilltop site overlooking the city to Moscow's Luzhniki Stadium because of crowd control fears. On July, halfway through the tour, Madonna's manager Guy Oseary announced that the Australian leg had been dropped. The singer released a statement on her website: Development Both Madonna and Jamie King confirmed the set list for the tour would include "a lot" of songs from Confessions on a Dance Floor; the former said she was interested in focusing on the new record, as she had already done the "old stuff" on the Re-Invention World Tour while, according to the latter, "people love it [the new album] and they want to hear it". King also said he wanted the tour to be "more interactive", thus he wanted to "put [Madonna] as close to her people — her fans, her dancers, her fellow supporters — as possible". Production was headed by Chris Lamb while decisions were made "by committee", with Madonna having the final word. According to lighting designer Roy Bennett, the show was "extremely theatrical and very big", comparing it to "being in a nightclub or a disco". The stage was twice the size of Re-Invention's and included three runways that lead off to B-stages out in front and to each side of the venue; the main and largest one was lighted and ended in a small dance floor, while the smaller side runways had fences on them. The stage came equipped with a semi-circular, hydraulic rising and rotating center-stage that had been used on Re-Invention, and three V9 LED screens that served as backdrops. Hung from above was a semi-circular LED "curtain" screen, that dropped down and covered the front of the center-stage during several numbers of the show to "add a 3D element", according to Bennett. Props included five disco balls hung from a central point that were lowered and raised for specific songs, a black mechanical saddle for "Like a Virgin" (1984); a narrow contraption of monkey bars, used for the performance of "Jump"; a crown of thorns supplied by Cotters Church Supply, a huge mirrored cross, and a massive fighting cage. The most expensive prop was a giant disco ball, from which the singer emerged at the beginning of each concert, encrusted with $2 million worth of Swarovski crystals. In total, 70 tons of equipment were used on top of the main stage; it took 2 private planes, 24 semi-trucks, 5 buses, 18 vans and cars to move the equipment from city to city. X-ray radiographies of the injuries Madonna suffered on a horse-riding accident were used as backdrops during the performance of "Like a Virgin". The troupe included Madonna's lifelong backup singer and dancer Donna De Lory, vocalist Nicki Richards, Yitzhak Sinwani from the London Kabbalah Centre, Monte Pittman on guitar, Stuart Price as keyboards player, and 12 dancers, including Sofia Boutella and parkour veteran Sébastien Foucan, with whom the singer took parkour lessons. The concert was divided into different thematic segments, a custom for the singer's tours: Equestrian, Bedouin, Never Mind the Bollocks, and Disco. Jean Paul Gaultier was in charge of creating the tour's wardrobe. Designer Arianne Phillips, who collaborated with Gaultier, expressed that they based on "everything from Saturday Night Fever to Starlight Express to Fame"; for the first act, the singer got the idea of incorporating a horse riding theme after one time when Gaultier took her to Paris' Zingaro theatrical horse show, which she "loved". Gaultier then decided to have the show's male dancers portray horses, with built-in saddles, harnesses and small saddle-like accoutrements perched on one shoulder. For Madonna's outfit, which included a black top hat with a horse's tail, he took inspiration from a look worn by Romy Schneider in Luchino Visconti's 1973 film Ludwig. According to the designer, Madonna had "strong opinions" about how the clothes had to be made to withstand the demands of the choreography. Other ensambles designed by Gaultier included a "Biblical Chic" off-the-shoulder blouse and velvet cropped pants accessorized with the crown of thorns; jodhpurs, blouses and jackets made from "luxurious" fabrics such as taffeta, duchesse, satin, Chantilly lace and silk chiffon. In keeping with the disco theme of Confessions on a Dance Floor, the designer also created a white suit based on the one worn by John Travolta on Saturday Night Fever (1977), a white one-shouldered unitard with ribbons of purple Swarovski crystals across the torso, similar to the one worn by the singers of ABBA; a white satin cape, lit from the inside, that had "Dancing Queen" embroidered on the back, and a pink sparkling jumpsuit. The tour's official poster used pictures taken by Steven Klein of Madonna during her promotional concert at London's G-A-Y. Paul Oakenfold was hired as the opening act for selected European dates. Concert synopsis The concert was divided into four segments: Equestrian, Bedouin, Never Mind the Bollocks, and Disco. It began with a video showing Madonna walking through a stable brandishing a riding crop, as dancers in leather bridles galloped throughout the three runways of the stage; then, a massive disco ball was lowered from the ceiling and opened like a flower bud to reveal Madonna inside, dressed in a skin-tight black riding outfit and wielding a crop. As she took her dancers' reins, she performed a mashup of "Future Lovers" and Donna Summer's "I Feel Love" (1977). The second number, "Get Together", saw Madonna writhing on the main catwalk. For "Like a Virgin", she rode a black leather-studded saddle while the backdrops depicted X-rays of her injuries. A steel monkey bars-like structure was lowered from the ceiling for "Jump"; Madonna sang while the dancers did parkour moves. Towards the end, the singer disappeared into the stage, giving way to an interlude called "Confessions", which featured three dancers narrating personal tragedies. The Bedouin act began with "Live to Tell"; Madonna sang suspended from a giant mirrored cross, wearing a crown of thorns, as a death toll of African AIDS victims counted down on the screen above her. She stepped down off the cross to perform "Forbidden Love", which saw two men dancing with each other as blood cells flashed on the backdrops. "Isaac" began with Yitzhak Sinwani playing the horn; then, a female dancer in an oversized Middle-Eastern burqa danced inside an enormous cage with the backdrops displaying sand dunes. On "Sorry", which was performed with dancers inside of the cage, Madonna recreated the dance-off scene from the song's music video. "Like It or Not" closed the act and saw Madonna dancing alone with a chair. Afterwards, a video interlude depicting images of Adolf Hitler, Dick Cheney, Tony Blair, Osama bin Laden, Richard Nixon, George W. Bush, and starving African children played on the screens. Set to a remixed "Sorry", it featured dancers krumping on the runways. "I Love New York" opened the Never Mind the Bollocks segment. The singer played electric guitar, decked out in a high-collared black leather jacket, and changed the song's line "Just go to Texas / Isn't that where they golf" to a derogatory term aimed at George W. Bush; the backdrops for the performance depicted the New York skyline. "Ray of Light" was also sung with guitar and starbursts flashing on the screens. It counted with six male dancers dressed in black suits and white ties doing a synchronized choreography. For "Let It Will Be", Madonna danced energetically across the stage on her own, then sat down for a stripped rendition of "Drowned World/Substitute for Love". "Paradise (Not For Me)" was done by the singer and Yitzhak Sinwani. She played acoustic guitar as images of Cherry blossoms flashed onscreen. The final segment, Disco, began with a video interlude of Madonna's past videos, set to a radio-style mashup of "Borderline", "Erotica", "Dress You Up", "Holiday", and The Trammps "Disco Inferno" (1976). Several dancers in roller skates then appeared skating on the runways. Madonna emerged on scene dressed in the white Travolta-inspired suit to perform "Music"; the song included a sample of her 1986 song "Where's The Party" at the beginning. For "Erotica", she stripped down the suit to reveal a white leotard with purple stripes; the song's remix featured lyrics from the original demo known as "You Thrill Me", and saw the singer and troupe dancing ballroom-style. The next song was a dance version of "La Isla Bonita", where the screens displayed clips of tropical islands. A "modernized" "Lucky Star" was performed by Madonna, Donna De Lory and Nicki Richards. Towards the end of the number, the song's beat slowly changed to that of "Hung Up", the concert's final number. This performance featured a sing-along with the audience and, at one point, confetti and golden balloons fell from the roof. The show ended as the phrase "Have you confessed?" appeared onscreen. Critical reception The Confessions Tour received generally positive reviews. Writing for The San Diego Union-Tribune, Don Chareunsy opined that Madonna's previous tours, Drowned World and Re-Invention, "were excellent concerts [...] but she stepped it up a few notches" for the Confessions Tour. Ben Wener from the Orange County Register reported that, "no one – but no one – stages elaborate eye-candy productions like Madonna", adding that the "highly impressive" Confessions Tour was "multimedia, cross-cultural preaching to the choir on a scale only U2 has reached lately". According to The Palm Beach Posts Leslie Gray Streeter, Confessions was "an exciting testament to energy, longevity and the sheer love of a beat". Slant Magazines Ed Gonzalez wrote that, "though spotty and compromised but often breathtaking, [Confessions] is something of a coup after the fierce but icy theatrics of her Drowned World Tour and the shrill aggression of her Re-Invention Tour", and noted that Madonna "risked a personal connection with her fans unseen since the Girlie Show". Entertainment Weeklys Chris Willman hailed it "two hours of unbridled horseplay - and fun", as well has her "most enthralling" concert, and gave it an A− grade. Brynn Mandel, from the Republican-American, noticed how, for two hours, "Madge kept her audience engaged, providing visual accompaniment as only she can to a list of hits, both recent and classic [...] only icons can deliver a show like this"; the author concluded by saying: "though nothing less has come to be expected of the Material Girl, she once again proved herself not just a singer but an entertainer extraordinaire". The Sunday Times said Confessions found Madonna "doing what she is best at, and doing it brilliantly". The Globe and Mails Matthew Hays considered Confessions an "example of the artist at her best: energetic, naughty, brazenly kitschy and wildly entertaining". Hays also wrote that the singer "seemed intent on proving something [...] that she still knows how to have fun [...] To accomplish that, she needed to captivate [...] to nod to her past while maintaining the aura of an artist whose best is before her [and] she delivered". Writing for PopMatters, Christian John Wikane concluded that, "even the most rabid anti-Madonna listener or cynical music lover would find elements of 'The Confessions Tour' impressive". The staff of the East Valley Tribune highlighted the singer's vocals, her "impeccable shape", and how "[Confessions] delivered on all sensory levels, [and] fans were not disappointed". According to Edna Gundersen from USA Today, "Madonna is as fit vocally as physically, effortlessly nailing tender passages or a demanding upper register after strenuous bump-and-grind workouts". The Boston Heralds Christopher John Treacy affirmed that, "although it's impossible to tell how much vocal management is going on during the more demanding, theatrical numbers, Madonna sounded rehearsed and on target" during the tour. For The Guardians Kitty Empire, the "finest moments in her set are all about physical movement", citing the performance of "Let It Will Be" as an example. Chris Willman also highlighted "Let It Will Be" as one of the best numbers, and deemed it "as rock & roll as anything Courtney Love will ever do". Ed Gonzalez praised the performances of "Get Together", "I Love New York", "Ray of Light", "Erotica" and "Lucky Star"; Brynn Mandel singled out the "requisite" "Like a Virgin", while Leslie Gray Streeter praised the "Music" number, included on the "delightful" and "campy" Disco segment. Writing for the Chicago Tribune, Greg Kot highlighted the gay themes included on "Forbidden Love"; "the intent was unmistakable, and moving. Madonna has been a gay icon since she emerged in the New York City clubs more than 20 years ago, and with gay rights once again under attack, her gesture did not go unnoticed". According to Wales Online, "we were promised a spectacle and that's what we got. While the songs were powerful, [...] it was the all-round theatrics of the performance that threatened to leave the audience speechless. [Madonna] was a ringleader on the stage drawing everyone into her world, if only for two hours". The Miami Herald concluded that, although Confessions "lacks the surprise of 2001's Drowned World Tour and some of the better tunes from 2004's Re-Invention Tour [...] [Madonna] seemed to be enjoying herself more on this one and so did we". Eric R. Danton, from the Hartford Courant, classified Confessions as a "club-friendly two-hour set, packed with throbbing beats and ethereal, trance-like vocals", but noted that the music was "almost incidental - it could have been piped in. This show was about production values, and though Madonna was the star, the stage was the true focal point". In a similar, albeit less enthusiast review, Greg Kot pointed out that, "nothing in Madonna's world, at least on stage, is less than expertly managed. And it gave most of the show the air of a somewhat joyless big production [...] A good time may have been had by all, but no real connection was made". Although Ben Wener praised the second segment, Bedouin, he was critical of what followed, concluding that only "Drowned World/Substitute for Love" and "Paradise (Not For Me)" evoked the "thought-provoking sentiments" from previous moments. Sandy Cohen from The Washington Post opined that Madonna "looked happiest when she was dancing, microphone at her side", and highlighted the numbers featuring Yitzhak Sinwani as the "most interesting". Although she singled out the "lively and festive" songs of the Disco section, Cohen ended her review on a mixed note: "the production was so tightly choreographed, it left little room for spontaneity. Even when Madonna flipped the crowd the bird, it felt scripted, not subversive". Matthew Hays noticed that Madonna sang some of her older hits, such as "Lucky Star", with "far less enthusiasm". Reviews for the concert in Denmark were mixed. It was referred to as "impressive" and "spectacular" by Berlingske Tidende, while other reviewers had "high praise" for the show's opening and closing, but said it lost its energy in the middle, where the singer slipped into a "robotic and boring act". The choice of venue was also criticized; according to The Copenhagen Post, "maybe some 10,000 of the 85,000 people who were there could see Madonna. The majority of the audience couldn't even see the screens that were put up". A negative review came from The Independents Simon Price, who panned the "crass, fatuous, mindless symbolism [with] precious little meaning", and the Never Mind the Bollocks act; "her attempts at being punky are embarrassing: falling to her knees with her guitar, looking less like Iggy, and more like Charlie Dimmock". Price also dismissed the singer's "attempts at being sexy [...] When she takes her top off, or shoves her hand inside her pants, I involuntarily think of the gran who gets her toes sucked in Little Britain". At the 2006 Pollstar Concert Industry Awards, Confessions was awarded Most Creative Stage Production. In 2015, Confessions was named the singer's third best concert tour by both The Advocates Gina Vivinetto and VH1's Christopher Rosa, with the latter calling it "one of Madge's most ambitious treks ever". Six years later, The Odyssey's Rocco Papa ranked it her second best tour, writing that it "offered a healthy mix of depth and fun, with a bit of politics thrown in for good measure [...] this tour saw a more mature Madonna, but one that still wanted to provoke and have fun". Controversy surrounding the performance of "Live to Tell" The tour's performance of "Live to Tell" (1986) faced strong reaction from religious groups, as it found Madonna wearing a crown of thorns while being raised on a mirrored cross, simulating a crucifixion; the backdrop screen flashed a running tally of the 12 million children in Africa orphaned by AIDS. German prosecutors in Düsseldorf threatened to sue her for blasphemy, with Protestant bishop Margot Käßmann expressing that "maybe the only way an aging superstar can attract attention is to offend people's religious sentiments", and encouraging people to "ignore" the singer. The Russian Orthodox Church and the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia (FJCR) described the number as amoral, and urged the public not to attend the concert in Moscow. The performance done at Rome's Olympic Stadium —located near the Vatican— was condemned as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church by religious leaders; Italian cardinal Ersilio Tonini considered it a "scandal created on purpose by astute merchants to attract publicity", while Mario Scialoja, president of the country's Muslim World League, said that "it's not the first time Madonna stages such an act. We deplore it". According to Riccardo Pacifici, spokesman for Rome's Jewish community, Madonna's actions were "a disrespectful act, and to do it in Rome is even worse". A spokesperson for the Catholic Church in England and Wales said believers would be offended by the number; "the crucifixion is at the heart of the story of God becoming man and suffering to redeem us. To use it as a stage prop is a banal perversion of that magnificent event". A pastor from North Denver defended the "powerful and very reverent performance" which "calls the world to take notice that there are 12 million children who are currently orphaned"; he also applauded Madonna for "trying to wake us up to [...] care for those who are most often forgotten". The singer stood by the number, claiming that Jesus wouldn't be mad at "the message I'm trying to send"; she also released a statement: I am very grateful that my show was so well received all over the world. But there seems to be many misinterpretations about my appearance on the cross and I wanted to explain it myself once and for all. There is a segment in my show where three of my dancers "confess" or share harrowing experiences from their childhood that they ultimately overcame. My "confession" follows and takes place on a Crucifix that I ultimately come down from. This is not a mocking of the church. It is no different than a person wearing a Cross or "Taking Up the Cross" as it says in the Bible. My performance is neither anti-Christian, sacrilegious or blasphemous. Rather, it is my plea to the audience to encourage mankind to help one another and to see the world as a unified whole. I believe in my heart that if Jesus were alive today he would be doing the same thing. My specific intent is to bring attention to the millions of children in Africa who are dying every day, and are living without care, without medicine and without hope. I am asking people to open their hearts and minds to get involved in whatever way they can. The song ends with a quote from the Bible's Book of Matthew: "For I was hungry and you gave me food. I was naked and you gave me clothing. I was sick and you took care of me and God replied, 'Whatever you did for the least of my brothers... you did it to me. Please do not pass judgment without seeing my show". Despite the controversy, critical reception towards the number ranged from lukewarm to negative; Leslie Gray Streeter, who gave the overall concert a positive review, opined that it "slowed down, in an unsatisfying way" in "preachy" performances such as "Live to Tell". The Mercury News Marian Liu felt that, "while visually stunning, the depiction wasn't anything new in the music world". Similarly, Greg Kot concluded that, "now that everyone from Kanye West to Madonna way back in the '80s has flirted with this particular brand of sacrilege, crucifixion just isn't what it used to be in the Shock and Awe department". The staff of Newsday wrote: "Was it tasteless? Was it offensive? One thing's for sure - it was one of the show's few dull points". Rick Massimo considered the number an example of the "jump-cut philosophy" that made the singer's previous Re-Invention World Tour a "weird mess". While Chris Willman chastised Madonna for trying "to make like Bono" and "channel[ing] global suffering", Ed Gonzalez was doubtful of her "sincerity" and named "Live to Tell" the tour's "one serious moral lapse". For the East Bay Times, the message came off as "deep as a bumper sticker [...] On one hand it was kind of fun just for the shock value. On the other, the stunt aspect and bad sound nearly obliterated the effect of a song that's so much better when standing quietly alone". Eric R. Danton deemed it "more funny than controversial", and compared it to a "press conference from Calvary as imagined by Monty Python". The Philadelphia Inquirer panned the performance for being "disappointingly static" and a "most desperate attempt to shock". One positive review came from Wales Online, who praised the "powerful" rendition. Commercial reception The Confessions Tour was commercially successful; after it kicked off, it was predicted to gross $190 million. The Daily Telegraph reported that, within the first four days of ticket sales, the singer had sold out 28 shows, including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami, Paris and London. The first two concerts at New York's Madison Square Garden sold out in 10 minutes, prompting organizers to add two more dates, which quickly sold out as well, leading to a fifth date being added. According to Le Devoir, Madonna sold 30,000 tickets in under 40 minutes in Montreal. The Guardian then reported that tickets for the first two concerts at London's Wembley Arena had also sold out within ten minutes of going on sale; fans crashed the singer's website and queued outside the venue in order to get a purchase. As a result, seven more dates were added. The single concert in Cardiff was estimated to have been attended by an audience of more than 60,000; Wales Online reported that fans went as far as to set up camp outside the box office. A second concert was added in Prague after tickets for the first one sold out in a record time of less than two hours; prices ranged from 3,060 to 5,010 Kčs. The single concert in Horsens, Denmark attracted 85,000 people and became one of the largest in the country. 37,000 tickets for the sole Moscow concert sold out in three days. Upon completion, Billboard, and tour producer Arthur Fogel, reported that Confessions had grossed over $194.7 million ($ in dollars) from 60 shows and had played to an audience of 1.2 million, becoming the highest-grossing tour ever for a female artist, and breaking the record previously held by Cher's Living Proof: The Farewell Tour (2002–2005); "Madonna has yet again delivered an incredible show for her fans, and the success of the tour is the ultimate statement [...] she absolutely belongs at number one", expressed Fogel. Additionally, the Confessions Tour earned Madonna a place in the 2007 edition of the Guinness World Records: highest-grossing music tour per concert. It won Top Boxscore at the 2006 Billboard Touring Conference and Awards. Broadcast and recording On July 21, Access Hollywood reported that NBC would broadcast the concerts at London's Wembley Arena as the network's first special with the singer; executive Kevin Reilly said that "Madonna is one of the greatest artists of our time and never fails to generate excitement [...] this is going to be a big event for television". According to CBS News, the Catholic League wrote a letter to NBC executives, urging that the crucifixion performance of "Live to Tell" be omitted from the special. When asked, Kevin Reilly said that the number would probably be included in the broadcast, adding that Madonna "felt strongly about it", he further explained: "We viewed it and, although Madonna is known for being provocative, we didn't see it as being inappropriate". Ultimately, the performance was cut from the transmission, albeit not entirely; different camera angles were used so that the singer would not be seen until she gets off the cross. Madonna: The Confessions Tour Live aired on November 22, one night before thanksgiving; ratings were low, with the special ending up fourth in its time slot. On January 30, 2007, it was released as a live album and DVD under the title The Confessions Tour; it received generally positive reviews, with AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine praising the "sonic cohesion that's about as stylized and chilly as its accompanying album". The Confessions Tour peaked at number fifteen on the United States' Billboard 200 albums chart and won a Best Music Film Grammy at the 50th ceremony. Madonna: Confessions, a photography book by Guy Oseary was released on October 1, 2008. It was created to "showcase[s] the provocative themes of [Madonna's] live performances"; all author proceeds were donated to Raising Malawi, Madonna's nonprofit organization. Set list Set list, samples and notes adapted per Madonna's official website, the notes and track listing of The Confessions Tour, and additional sources. Act 1: Equestrian "Future Lovers" / "I Feel Love" "Get Together" "Like a Virgin" "Jump" "Confessions" Act 2: Bedouin "Live to Tell" "Forbidden Love" "Isaac" "Sorry" "Like It or Not" "Sorry" Act 3: Never Mind the Bollocks "I Love New York" "Ray of Light" "Let It Will Be" "Drowned World/Substitute for Love" "Paradise (Not for Me)" Act 4: Disco "The Duke Mixes The Hits" "Music" "Erotica" / "You Thrill Me" "La Isla Bonita" "Lucky Star" "Hung Up" Shows Notes Personnel Adapted from the Confessions Tour program. Band Madonna – creator, vocals, guitar Donna De Lory - vocals Nicki Richards - vocals Yitzhak Sinwani - additional vocals Stuart Price - musical director, keyboards, programmer Marcus Brown - keyboards Monte Pittman - guitar Steve Sidelnyk - drums Dancers Addie Yungmee-Schilling-George - dance captain Jason Young - dance captain Charmaine Jordan - dancer Daniel "Cloud" Campos - dancer Leroy Barnes Jr. - dancer Levi Meeuwenberg - dancer Mihran Kirakosian - dancer Reshma Gajjar - dancer Sofia Boutella - dancer Steve Neste - dancer Tamara Levinson - dancer William Charlemoine - dancer Sébastien Foucan - parkour Victor Lopez - parkour Choreographers Jamie King - choreographer Richmond and Anthony Talauega - choreographers RJ Durell - choreographer Liz Imperio - choreographer Alison Faulk - choreographer Fred Tallaksen - roller skate choreographer April Corle - roller skate choreographer assistant Ralph Montejo - choreographer Boppendre - choreographer Laurie Ann Gibson - choreographer Gabriel Castillo - choreographer Wardrobe Jean-Paul Gaultier - designer Arianne Phillips - designer Crew Angela Becker - manager Guy Oseary - manager Arthur Fogel - tour producer Liz Rosenberg - publicist Jamie King - creative director Chris Lamb - production director Gina Brookee - make-up artist Andy LeCompte - hair stylist Giovanni Bianco - art direction, graphic design Steven Klein - tourbook photography, video projection Annika Aschberg - photography Johan Renck - "Hung Up" video stills director Jamie King - "Sorry" video stills director Christian Lamb - video projection director Dustin Robertson - video projection director Jeff Bertuch - Lighting FOH Tech References External links Madonna.com > Tours > Confessions Tour Official TV website NBC Madonna concert tours 2006 concert tours Music controversies Concert tours of the United States Concert tours of Canada Concert tours of the United Kingdom Concert tours of Italy Concert tours of Denmark Concert tours of France Concert tours of the Netherlands Concert tours of Russia Concert tours of the Czech Republic Concert tours of Japan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PACE%20Award
PACE Award
The PACE Award is an annual award from Automotive News. The focus of the award is an innovation (i) developed primarily by a supplier, (ii) that is new to the automotive industry, (iii) that is in use (e.g., used on a vehicle in production), and (iv) that "changes the rules of the game". Awards have been given for products, materials, processes, capital equipment, software and services. A panel of independent judges from industry, finance, research, and academia choose finalists from the initial applicants, make site visits to evaluate the innovation, and then gather to select winners, independent of the sponsors. Winners to date include suppliers from Japan, Korea, China, the US, Canada, Brazil, Germany, France, Italy, Poland and other European countries. Among the most awarded companies over the years are BorgWarner, Delphi Automotive, Federal-Mogul (acquired in 2018 by Tenneco), Valeo and PPG Industries as well as Robert Bosch GmbH, Gentex Corporation, and Siemens. Automotive News and Ernst & Young founded the program, which gave out the first awards in 1995 to celebrate innovation, technological advancement and business performance among automotive suppliers. The black-tie awards ceremony has been held just prior to the annual SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) convention in Detroit. The costs of the program (administration, judges out-of-pocket expenses, and the award ceremony) are paid by a combination of application fees and money from sponsors. For the 2019-20 the sponsors were Deloitte, APMA (the Ontario, Canada Automotive Modernization Program) and Invest Canada. Historically the annual award cycle began with gathering applications (through the end of summer, with online submissions); the selection of 30-35 finalists, who were announced at the auto industry's annual Global Leadership Conference in October at the Greenbrier; site visits by judges in November and December; the selection of winners in late January or early February; and the announcement of winners at a black tie event in Detroit in March or April. For the 2019-2020 award cycle PACE added recognition as a PACE Pilot, which targeted pre-commercial innovations, to try to capture the rise of innovations tied to safety, fuel efficiency, vehicle electrification and driving assist/driving automation. This award attempts to capture innovations earlier in the development cycle, e.g. when they show up in announcements at the Consumer Electronics Show. Due to the coronavirus pandemic, 2020 awards were made online. No decisions have been made on how the Awards process will adapt in 2020-21 in the face of the pandemic. Awards programs such as PACE are potential sources for studying the nature of technological change. One such attempt is in Smitka and Warrian (2017). In Chapter6, "Automotive Innovation Model and the Supply Chain: PACE Awards", they find that: "The results indicate that technology-pull is dominant, not technology-push. We do observe some innovation that seems to represent using new materials to implement a well-understood approach that was not previously cost-effective or otherwise was not used. We also find the occasional bright idea that in some cases could have been implemented decades ago, had anyone thought to try. However, overall we find that new vehicle technologies are responses to regulatory pressure to improve safety, limit emissions, and improve fuel efficiency." Similarly, David Andrea notes in Forbes that: "While the popular press is having an interesting debate on whether Detroit or Silicon Valley will have the greatest influence over the mobility revolution, the 2019 PACE awards are dominated by the suppliers with the deepest R&D capabilities and longest histories of commercializing innovation. Reviewing the finalists, it is interesting that the vast majority, 26 of the 31 come from what would be considered "traditional suppliers." And only 6 of the firms are located outside 100 miles of industry's Detroit epicenter. Perhaps this is the result of selection bias as the process to submit applications, meet with judges, produce promotional materials and the like is not small in budget of executive time and funds, two resources always in short supply in smaller firms or start-ups." Winners From 1997, citations describing the winning innovations are available on the Automotive News PACE Award web site. Winners for years not listed below, as well as citations that provide a one-paragraph overview of the innovation, can be found on the PACE Awards web site. 1995 AP Technoglass Company Dana Gentex Corporation Johnson Controls Philips Service Industries 1996 Cherry GmbH Delco Electronics Fayette Tubular Products Gage Products Company Progressive Tool and Industries Company (PICO) 1997 Robert Bosch GmbH Dana - Auto Mate 2 Gentex Corporation - Gentex Metal Reflector Johnson Controls - HomeLink Rapid Design Services 1998 Benteler International - Thermally Efficient, Air-Gap Manifold and Exhaust Tube Applications, Parts and Systems Cooper Automotive/Wagner Lighting - Chrysler Dakota and Durango Front Lamp Assembly and Related Manufacturing and Assembly Process Dürr AG - Radiant Floor Construction (RFC) Paint Oven Eaton Corporation - Eaton Spicer Solo Gentex Corporation - Aspheric Auto-Dimming Exterior Mirror Johnson Controls - CorteX 1999 ASHA Corporation - GERODISC (limited slip, hydro-mechanical coupling device) Benteler International - WIN88 Rear Twist Beam Axle Delphi Corporation - Stabilitrak Goodyear - run-flat tires Meritor - RHP Highway Parallelogram Trailer Air Suspension System Motorola - 32-bit engine management controller Stackpole Limited - high load-bearing Powdered Metal Parts Teleflex Automotive Group - Adjustable Pedal System 2000 Autoliv - ASH-2 inflationary device Delphi Delco Electronics Systems - Adaptive Cruise Control Gentex Corporation - Binary, Complementary Synthetic-White LED Illuminators The Gleason Works - Power Dry Cutting/UMC Ultima Axle Gear Manufacturing Lumileds - SnapLED PPG Industries - Powder Clearcoat Paint Rieter - Ultra Light acoustic vehicle treatment Siemens - keyless entry system 2001 Product Innovation: Hendrickson International - Integrated Front Air Suspension and Steer Axle System PPG Industries - Acoustic Coating Raytheon - Night Vision Tenneco - ASD (Acceleration Sensitive Damping) Information Technology/Internet: Delphi Automotive - Math Based Metal Removal (MBMR) software Quality Measurement Control - CM4D Analyze software system Management Practice: ZF Friedrichshafen - Ergonomically based job assignment employee rotation process in its Tuscaloosa, Alabama plant Manufacturing Process: Nucap Industries - NUCAP Retention System Europe: Robert Bosch GmbH - High Pressure Common Rail Open Category - Enduring Innovations: Shape Corporation - Tubular High Strength Swept Bumpers Open Category - Environmental: BASF - Integrated Process 2002 Product Innovation: Delphi Automotive - Quadrasteer Delphi Deco Electronics Systems - Passive Occupant Detection System, Generation II (PODS II) Goodyear - Wrangler maximum traction/reinforced, off-road tire (MT/R) PPG Industries - Transportation Coating - FrameCoat Electrocoating The POM Group - Direct Metal Deposition process Europe: Robert Bosch GmbH - Aerotwin windshield wipers ZF Getriebe GmbH Information Technology: Engineous Software - iSight software for process integration and design optimization 2003 Product Innovation: 3M - Solar Reflecting Film Delphi Automotive - MagneRide variable suspension damping Federal-Mogul Corporation - Wagner ThermoQuiet Brake Pads and Shoes Material Sciences Corporation - Acoustically engineered steel laminate Quiet Steel PPG Industries - Ceramic clearcoat paint Product Europe: Siemens VDO Automotive - Piezo Common Rail Diesel Direct Injection System Manufacturing Process & Capital Equipment: Bishop Steering Technology - Warm Forging Die and Integrated Automatic Precision Forging Cell Dürr AG - RoDip 3 electro-coating The POM Group - RapiDIES foam forming process Robert Bosch GmbH - Cassette Chrome Plating Process Information Technology & Services: Perceptron Inc. - AutoGauge FMS In-Process Measuring System 2004 Product Innovation: Delphi Delco Electronics Systems - Delphi Forewarn Back-up Aid and Side Alert Denso - Very High Pressure Solenoid Fuel Injection System Johnson Controls - Overhead Rail Vehicle Personalization System Visteon - Long Life Filtration Systems Product Europe: TRW Automotive - Active Control seatbelt retractor Process: BASF - ColorCARE software for controlling and comparing paint color DuPont - Wet on Wet Two Tone Products Filter Specialists - FERRX 5000 magnetic separation device to remove ferrous particles of the initial, e-coat, prior to the application of base coat paint Information Technology: AutoForm Engineering - DieDesigner Stamping FEA Simulation Geometry Generation Delphi Automotive - horizontal modeling and digital process design for CAD/CAM Motorola - VIAMOTO navigation system 2005 Product: Dura Automotive Systems - Racklift Window Lift System Gentex Corporation - SmartBeam Headlamp Dimming Microelectronics Solution Illinois Tool Works - Direct Fuel System (DFS) Multimatic - I-Beam Control Arm Tenneco - Kinetic RFS (Reverse Function Stabilizer) technology Valeo - Lane Departure Warning System Product Europe: Advanced Automotive Antennas - Fractal Antennas BorgWarner - DualTronic dual clutch transmission - more commonly known as Volkswagen Group's Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG) Siemens VDO Automotive - Information Systems Passenger Cars reconfigurable color head-up display Manufacturing Process & Capital Equipment: Siemens VDO Automotive - DEKA VII Low Pressure Electronic Gasoline Fuel Injectors Information Technology & Services: i2 Technologies - Optimal Scheduler software for auto assembly plants Innovative OEM Collaborator Awards: Chrysler with Dura Automotive Systems - Improved Window-Lift Systems Mercedes-Benz with Sick AG - Entry/Exit Light Curtain 2006 Product: Federal-Mogul Corporation - Monosteel Diesel Piston Illinois Tool Works - BosScrew Fastener Magneti Marelli - Software Flexfuel Sensor (SFS) for Flexible-fuel vehicles Osram Opto Semiconductors - Color on Demand interior lighting SKF - X-Tracker Asymmetric Hub Bearing Unit Product Europe: Preh Automotive - Windshield Defogging Sensor Tenneco - Low Cost, Low Weight Muffler Valeo - StARS Micro-Hybrd system Manufacturing Process & Capital Equipment: Dow Automotive - Betamate LESA Adhesive System PosiCharge - Battery Charging System Information Technology: CogniTens - OptiCell Non-Contact Measuring System for quality control inspection Innovative OEM Collaborator Awards: General Motors with PPG Industries - Color Harmony Process Ford with PosiCharge - Fast Charging Battery Technology 2007 Product: Alcoa - Dura-Bright Wheels with XBR Technology Autoliv - Safety Vent Airbag Federal-Mogul Corporation - HTA (High Temperature Alloy) Exhaust Gaskets Halla Climate Control Corp - Wave Blade Fan and Saw Tooth Shroud Valeo - Multi-Beam Radar (MBR) Blind-Zone Radar Sensor Product Europe: BorgWarner Turbo & Emissions Systems - BorgWarner Turbo & Emissions Systems Gasoline Turbocharger with Variable Turbine Geometry Federal-Mogul Corporation Goetze Diamond Coating (GDC) (Piston Ring Coating) Manufacturing Process & Capital Equipment: Behr GmbH & Co. KG - BehrOxal surface treatment for corrosion protection DuPont - DuPont EcoConcept paint and process Hirotec - E3 Hemming Press Information Technology: RTT USA - RTT DeltaGen visualization toolset Tenneco - Diesel Aftertreatment Predictive Development Process Innovative OEM Collaborator Awards: Porsche with BorgWarner Turbo & Emissions Systems - BorgWarner Turbo & Emissions Systems Gasoline Turbocharger with Variable Turbine Geometry Porsche with BorgWarner TorqTransfer Systems - BorgWarner High Energy ITM3e AWD System Volkswagen with DuPont - DuPont EcoConcept paint and process 2008 Product: Cummins - Cummins 6.7-liter Turbo diesel Dow Automotive - IMPAXX Energy Absorbing Foam Eaton Corporation - CRUTONITE Valve Alloy Gentex Corporation - Rear Camera Display (RCD) Mirror Magneti Marelli - Tetrafuel System for use with Gasoline, Ethanol or Compressed Natural Gas Xanavi Informatics Corporation and Sony Corporation - Around View Monitor (AVM) Product Europe: BorgWarner Turbo & Emissions Systems - Turbocharger with R2S Regulated Two-Stage Technology Continental AG - Direct Injection System for Gasoline Applications Valeo - Park 4U Semi-Automatic Parallel Parking Manufacturing Process & Capital Equipment: PPG Industries - Green Logic Paint Detackification Process Webasto - Panoramic Polycarbonate Roof Module Information Technology and Services: Delphi Automotive - Sirius Backseat TV Innovation Partnership Awards: Chrysler with Mahle GmbH - CamInCam Variable valve timing (VVT) camshaft Honda with Takata Corporation - Motorcycle Airbag System Nissan with Xanavi Informatics Corporation and Sony Corporation - Around View Monitor (AVM) 2009 Product: BorgWarner Morse TEC - Morse TEC CTA Camshaft Phasing System Eaton Corporation - Eaton Twin Vortices Supercharger - TVS Futuris Automotive - Tufted PET Carpet Magna Mirrors - BlindZone Mirror Product Europe: BorgWarner BERU Systems - Pressure Sensor Glow Plug (PSG) for Diesel Engines LuK GmbH & Co. - LuK Double Clutch for Double Clutch Transmissions TI Automotive - Saddle-Shaped PZEV Plastic Fuel Tank Manufacturing Process & Capital Equipment: Alcoa - Alcoa's Vacuum Die Casting (AVDC) for Lightweight Door Assemblies Henkel - Bonderite TecTalis Pre-treatment Process Information Technology & Services: Dassault Systèmes - DELMIA Automation digital manufacturing and production software solution Microsoft - Microsoft Auto Innovation Partnership Awards: Ford with BorgWarner Morse TEC General Motors with Futuris Automotive 2010 Product: Delphi Automotive - Electronically Scanning Radar Dura Automotive Systems - Horizontal Sliding Rear Window with Defrost Meridian Lightweight Technologies - Single Piece Cast Magnesium Liftgate Inner Panel PPG Industries - Super High Power Electrocoat TI Automotive - Dual Channel Single Stage (DCSS 39-50) Electric fuel Pump WABCO Vehicle Control Systems - OptiDrive Transmission Automation System Product Europe: Continental/NGK Insulators - Smart NOx Sensor Delphi Corporation Powertrain Systems Division - Delphi direct Acting Piezo Injector Federal-Mogul Corporation - Bayonet Connection System for Profile Wiper Blades ZF Getriebe GmbH - ZF 8HP 8 Automatic Transmission Manufacturing Process & Capital Equipment: Henkel - Aquence Autodeposition and Co-Cure Paint Process Dürr AG - EcoDryScrubber paint overspray retrieval system Federal-Mogul Corporation - DuraBowl Piston Reinforcement Process Federal-Mogul Corporation - High Precision Electro-Erosion Machining Johnson Controls/Nordenia Deutschland - molded polypropylene (PP) Thin Film Informatian Technology & Services: Siemens PLM Software - Teamcenter In-Vehicle Software (IVS) Management System Innovation PArtnership Awards: Bombardier Recreational Products with Robert Bosch GmbH - Vehicle Stability System (VSS) for a 3-Wheeled Vehicle Ford with Clarion Corporation of America - Next Generation Navigation System Ford with Dura Automotive Systems - Horizontal Sliding Rear window with Defrost Ford with Meridian Lightweight Technologies - Single Piece Cast Magnesium Liftgate Inner Panel 2011 Product: Delphi Automotive - Delphi Multec GDi Fuel Injector Federal-Mogul Corporation - EcoTough Piston Coating for Gasoline Engines Federal-Mogul Corporation - Low-Friction LKZ Oil Control Ring (Innovative Two-piece Oil Ring for Direct-Injection Gasoline Engines) Henkel - Terophon High Damping Foam Honeywell Turbo Technologies - Honeywell DualBoost Turbocharger for Medium Duty Diesel Engines Janesville Acoustics - Molded Fiber IP Closeputs with Integrated Lighting and Ducts Key Safety Systems - Inflatable Seat Belt System Mahle GmbH - Electrical Waste Gate Actuator Osram Opto Semiconductors GmbH - LED Headlamp Robert Bosch GmbH - Bosch P2 Parallel Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle System Schaeffler Technologies - Lightweight Balance Shaft with Roller Bearings Manufacturing Process: Takata Corporation - Vacuum Folding Technology Innovative Partnership Awards: Chrysler with Janesville Acoustics - Molded Fiber IP Closeputs with Integrated Lighting and Ducts Ford with Dassault Systèmes - Powertrain Digital Integration and Automation (PDIA) Ford with Key Safety Systems - Inflatable Seat Belt System 2012 Product: BorgWarner Turbo Systems - Turbocharger for Internal Combustion Engines with Low-Pressure Exhaust Gas Recirculation Delphi Automotive - Delphi L-Shape Crimp for 0.13 mm2 wire size Hendrickson Auxiliary Axle Systems - Complient Tie rod (CTR) Assembly and Damening System with PerfecTrak Technology Honeywell Turbo Technologies - High Temperature, Ball Bearing (HTBB) VNT Turbo Lear Corporation - Lear Solid State Smart Junction Box (S3JB) Magna Mirrors - Infinity Mirror with touch screen technology Methode Electronics Innovative TouchSensor Controls to Ford's MyFord Touch User Interface System Schaeffler Technologies - UniAir Fully Variable Valve Lift System Valeo - VisioBlade System (high-efficiency adaptive windshield washer system) Manufacturing Process: Delphi Automotive - Delphi Thermal Multi Port Folded Tube Condenser Federal-Mogul Corporation - Two-Dimensional Ultrasonic Testing for Raised Gallery Diesel Pistons (Manufacturing Process) Nalco Company - APEX Program-Sustainable Technology for Paint Detackification PPG Industries - B1 and B2 Compact Process Paint Technology 3M/Esys Automation - Robotic Production System with Wheel Weights for Precision Tire and Wheel Balancing Innovation Partnership Awards: Fiat Powertrain and Chrysler with Schaeffler Technologies - UniAir Fully Variable Valve Lift System Ford with Dana - Active Warm-up Heat Exchanger with Integrated Thermal Bypass Valve 2013 Product BorgWarner Turbo Systems - Regulated 3--turbocharger System (R3S) Brose North America - Hands-free Liftgate Opener Continental Interior Division, Body and Security - Tire Pressure Monitoring System (LocSync) Continental Chassis & Safety Division, ADAS Business Unit - 24GHZ ISM Band Short Range Radar Dana - Diamond Series Driveshafts Delphi Automotive - F2E Distributed Pump Common Rail System Federal-Mogul - Coating for Engine Bearings GPM GmbH - Electro-Hydraulic Controlled Flow (ECF) Water Pump Halla Visteon Climate Control Corporation - Metal Seal Fitting PPG Industries - Andaro Tint Dispersion Valeo - Air Intake Module with integrated Water Charge Air Cooler Manufacturing Process and Capital Equipment Federal-Mogul - Injection Molding of High Modulus Bonded Pistons used in High Pressure Transmissions Schuler Hydroforming Division - Hydroforming and Global Die Standardization Process Information Technology Hughes Telematics - Automotive Software Remote Update Technology Innovation Partnership Winners BMW with BorgWarner Turbo Systems - Regulated 3-turbocharger System (R3S) General Motors with Takata Corporation - Front Center Airbag Mercedes-Benz with Hughes Telematics - Automotive Software Remote Update Technology Toyota with Continental Chassis & Safety Division, ADAS Business Unit - 24GHZ ISM Band Short Range Radar Volkswagen with Valeo - Air Intake Module 2014 Product Autoliv Inc. - Vårgårda Sweden - "Green" Airbag Inflator BASF Corp. - Wyandotte. Mich. - Mold in Color High Touch, High Gloss Black Interior Door Switch Bezels BorgWarner Transmission Systems - Auburn Hills, Mich. - BorgWarner Stop/Start Accumulator Solenoid Valve (Eco-Launch™ Solenoid Valve) Continental Automotive - Chassis and Safety Business Unit - Auburn Hills, Mich. - Pressure Sensor for Pedestrian Protection (PPS pSAT) Delphi Automotive - Warren, Ohio - ErgoMate™ Mechanical Assist System Dow Automotive Systems - Auburn Hills, Mich. - BETAMATE™ Epoxy Structural Adhesive for Durable Bonding of Untreated Aluminum Federal-Mogul – Wiesbaden, Germany - High Performance Bearings Without Lead HELLA KGaA Hueck & Co. - Lippstadt, Germany - LED Matrix Beam Head Lights Robert Bosch LLC - Farmington Hills, Mich. - Spray Enhancements in Gasoline Direct Injection Enabled by Laser Drilling Schaeffler Group - Wooster, Ohio - Torque Converter with Centrifugal Pendulum Absorber Valeo - Driving Assistance Product Group - Bietigheim-Bissingen, Germany - Back-over Protection System ZF Friedrichshafen - Saarbrucken, Germany - Car Powertrain Technology Division - ZF's 9-speed Automatic Transmission Manufacturing Process and Capital Equipment ArcelorMittal and Magna-Cosma International - Chicago - Laser Ablation Process Henkel Corporation - Madison Heights, Mich. - BONDERITE® 2798™ Process for High Aluminum TI Automotive - Auburn Hills, Mich. - Adaptable Plastic Fuel Tank Advanced Process Technology (TAPT) for all vehicle powertrains Innovation Partnership Winners Ford for partnership on the high-gloss black interior door switch bezels with BASF Corporation General Motors for partnership on the Eco-Launch™ solenoid valve with BorgWarner Transmission Systems Honda R&D Americasfor partnership on the laser ablation process with ArcelorMittal and Magna-Cosma International Paccar for partnership on the BETAMATE™ structural adhesive for untreated aluminum with Dow Automotive Systems Tesla Motors for partnership on the Tegra® Visual Computing Module (VCM) with NVIDIA Corporation Volvo Car Corporation for partnership on the pedestrian protection airbag with Autoliv Inc. 2015 BorgWarner - Limited-slip differential for front-wheel drive >> Detailed citation ContinentalAG - Printed circuit board for transmission control units >> Detailed citation Continental Automotive Systems Inc. - Multiapplication unified sensor element >> Detailed citation Denso- Standardized HVAC unit >> Detailed citation Federal-Mogul- DuroGlide piston ring coating >> Detailed citation Federal-Mogul - MicroTorq seal for rotating shafts >> Detailed citation FTE automotive - 2Polymer hydraulic gear shift actuator >> Detailed citation GKN Driveline - Two-speed gearbox for electrified vehicles >> Detailed citation Magna Closures - PureView seamless sliding window >> Detailed citation Mahle - Evotec 2 lightweight piston >> Detailed citation Nvidia - Tegra visual computing module >> Detailed citation Osram Opto Semiconductors - Oslon black flat multichip family >> Detailed citation Sika Automotive - Adhesive for mixed material bonding >> Detailed citation Valeo Electrical Systems - Efficient alternator >> Detailed citation 2020 American Axle & Manufacturing, Detroit - Electric driveline Continental Structural Plastics, Auburn Hills, Mich. Subsidiary of Teijin- CarbonPro pickup box Delphi Technologies, Kokomo, Ind. - DIFlex-integrated circuit EJOT Fastening Systems, Wixom, Mich. - EJOWELD friction element welding Gentex Corp., Zeeland, Mich. - Integrated toll module Lear Corp., Southfield, Mich. - Xevo commerce and service platform Magna Exteriors, Troy, Mich. - Composite space frame Marelli, Auburn Hills, Mich. - h-Digi lighting module Mobileye REM Division, Jerusalem - Road Experience Management Schaeffler Technologies, Herzogenaurach, Germany - Compact coaxial transmission for e-axle Stoneridge, Novi, Mich. - MirrorEye camera monitor system Tenneco, Southfield, Mich. - IROX2 bearing coating Valeo, Bietigheim-Bissingen, Germany - XtraVue trailer See also List of motor vehicle awards International Engine of the Year Progressive Insurance Automotive X Prize RJC Car of the Year Ward's 10 Best Engines References External links PACE Award official site(1) PACE Award official site(2) PACE Awards at autonews.com Descriptions of Innovations of PACE Finalists and Award Winners Automotive accessories Motor vehicle awards
4613862
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive%20fruit%20fly
Olive fruit fly
The olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) is a species of fruit fly which belongs to the subfamily Dacinae. It is a phytophagous species whose larvae feed on the fruit of olive trees, hence the common name. It is considered a serious pest in the cultivation of olives. Until 1998, the fly had not been detected in the United States, and its range coincided with the range of the olive tree in the Eastern Hemisphere: northern, eastern, and southern Africa, Southern Europe, the Canary Islands, India, and western Asia. In the Western Hemisphere, it is currently restricted to California, Baja California, and Sonora. The olive fruit fly was first detected in North America infesting olive fruits on landscape trees in Los Angeles County in November 1998. It can now be found throughout the state of California. History In the final years of the 18th century, Italian scientist Giuseppe Maria Giovene (1753–1837), in his work Avviso per la distruzione dei vermi che attaccano la polpa delle olive (1792), provided some suggestions for peasants to effectively destroy the fly musca oleae, which infested the pulp of olive trees. Distribution and importance This species is associated with plants of the genus Olea. It is found throughout the Mediterranean basin and in South Africa. Since the late 1990s, it has also been present in California and may have spread throughout the area of olive cultivation in the Nearctic region. It is considered the most serious pest of olives in regions where it lives, significantly affecting both the amount and quality of production in most olive-growing areas. The impact of its attacks tends to worsen in the more humid and cooler growing areas, with significant variations depending on the variety grown, where it affects olive cultivars and areas that have hot summers and less drought. Morphology The egg is around 0.7 to 1.2 mm long, elongated, and slightly flattened in its stomach, with a small, white microfleece nodule, which is important for the respiration of the embryo. The larva is Caecilian and has a conical-cylindrical, narrow front. It develops through three stages (larva, first, second and third stage). The mature larva is 6–7 mm long, white-yellowish in colour, elongated, and subconical. The front sensors are bipolar and the second conic feature, the rear sensor, has eight sensilla. The cephalopharyngeal skeleton has very short dorsal and ventral apodemes, the hypostomal scleritis is triangular. It lacks a subhypostomal and the jaws are hooked. The oral lobes have 10–12 indents, preceded on each side by a sensory plate similar to the larva of the Ceratitis capitata. The frontal stigmas have 9–10 lobes. The three larval stages can be distinguished in different ways by their cephalopharyngeal structures. The different shapes of the frontal stigmas allow determination of the larvae of the second and third stages, while the larva at its first stage is metapneustic, equipped with one pair of posterior stigmas. The pupal stage takes place inside the puparium, an elliptical shell formed by the last exuvial transformation of the larva. The puparium is 3.5 to 4.5 mm long, varying in colour from creamy white to yellow-brown, when it is dry. The change in colour of the puparium can determine the age of the pupa. Adults are 4–5 mm long. In Italy, they are easily recognized in conjunction with other Tephritidae for the small dark spot at the apex of the wing and the length of the narrow, elongated anal cell. The adult male has a hardened wing at the top of the anal cell, which is longer than the female's. The third urite shows the pectorals. The adult female has a yellowish head with two strong circular spots under the antennae close to the compound eyes, whilst the eyes are bluish-green. The chest can show various specks instead of the typical bands and lines. The mesonotum is bluish-gray with three blackish longitudinal lines. The humeral callus and areas mesopleurali, metapleurali, and mesoscutello are ivory. The wings are hyaline, with part of the pterostigma with brown specks at the apex. The abdomen is light brown with variable colourings: typically there are pairs of blackish spots on the first to fourth urotergit, which often come together in bands. The ovipositor is clearly visible, partly invaginated in the seventh urite, which is always black. The length is 4–5 mm. In the Asian variety, the whole body of the mesonotum is yellowish with strong, visible dark lines. Life cycle The females lay their eggs in the summer when the olive is at least 7–8 mm in diameter. Egg-laying is done by making a puncture with the ovipositor into the skin of the olive, leaving only one egg in the hollow below. The bite has a characteristic triangular shape due to an optical effect. A puncture has a dark green colour, whilst older bites have a yellowish-brown colour as a result of wound healing. Hatching occurs over a variable period depending on weather conditions: from 2–3 days in summer, to about 10 days in autumn. The newly hatched larva initially digs a tunnel on the surface, but later moves deeper into the flesh to the core, which is not affected in any way. During larval development, two changes occur, which in turn increase the size of the larva. Around the third change, larvae at their third stage move toward the surface and prepare the exit hole for the adult, gnawing at the flesh to leave a thin surface layer. During this phase, the olive clearly shows signs of the attack because its appears darker in conjunction with the tunneling. On the surface, a circular hole due to the remaining residual skin becomes apparent. The pupae remain dormant in the hollow below, protected within the exuviae produced by the mature larvae. At maturity, the adult breaks the exuvia and emerges from the pupa. It breaks the skin surface left by the larva by force and leaves the exit hole. In late autumn and winter, its behaviour changes; the mature larva emerges from the olive and drops onto the ground, where pupation takes place. Adults are glycogenic and feed primarily on honeydew. Since their basic diet is low in protein, they are particularly attracted to materials that emit volatile nitrogenous substances, such as bird droppings, for purposes of supplementing their protein requirements. This behavior is important because it can be used in programs for the fly's control and monitoring by using attractants such as hydrolysate proteins and ammonium salts. Environmental needs The development cycle is closely linked to environmental conditions, in particular the climate and the state of the olives. Knowing these parameters, together with the monitoring of the population, is needed to implement effective pest management programs. The climate influences the cycle, especially with the temperature and less humidity. The duration of each stage is summarized below: The duration of young larva therefore varies from a minimum of 20 days to a maximum of 5 months in the overwintering generation. Temperature has an important role on the viability and rhythms of reproduction. Temperatures above 30 °C cause resorption of ovarian follicles by reducing the fecundity of females; a female lays two to four eggs on average per day in summer and 10-20 eggs in autumn. Persistent temperatures above 32 °C for several hours a day also cause mortality of over 80% of the eggs and larvae of that age. Low temperatures, therefore, have very limited effects because its activity is undermined by temperatures below 0 °C. Given ordinary climatic conditions, low temperatures and harsh winters clearly interfere with population dynamics only in the northernmost areas of olive vegetation. In general, the optimum temperatures for oviposition and larval development are between 20 and 30 °C, together with a need for humid weather. The second controlling environmental factor is the obvious characteristics of the olives and the phenological stage of the plant. Females receive sensory stimuli to denote the degree of receptivity of the olive, a phenomenon that allows them to choose the olive; before oviposition, the female first "analyses" the size, colour and odour and, it seems, the presence of certain bacterial species. They are especially frequent in summer, caused by the females with a sterile puncture to test the receptivity of the olive. The ethology of the fly has been paid particularly regard in recent years when analysing study control methods based on the use of prior insect repellents (copper, kaolin, etc.). Larval development is instead influenced by the consistency of the pulp and especially the size of drupe. In table olives, in fact, mortality of the larva is lower in summer because they can escape the lethal effects of high temperatures by migrating deeper. The consistency of the pulp is instead an intrinsic characteristic. Not even susceptibility of olive fruit fly attacks make much difference according to cultivar. Population dynamics Unlike other species, the succession of generations of the Bactrocera oleae is not markedly different for the scaling of ovipositioning and longevity of adults. Within a year, generally three to five generations occur, but in many years, a sixth generation can grow in the spring on the olive tree, but does not remain on the tree. The population size varies throughout the year, but with two peaks: the first in the middle of spring, at the development of the winter generation of adults, and the second, more intense, in early autumn when the olives are at the highest degree of receptivity, the temperatures drop slightly and the climate becomes wetter. In Sardinia, the larval population peaks typically occur during the months of April–May and September–October. Predisposing factors The predisposition to the flies' attacks is tied to several factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic. The main ones are climatic (temperature and rainfall), so marked differences can occur from year to year. However, other genetic or agronomic factors should not be overlooked. Ultimately, the environmental conditions favorable to fly attacks are: Conditions of moderate heat, with temperatures not exceeding 32-34 °C A humid climate Premature cultivation Mass or dual purpose cultivation Cultivation under irrigation Because of these factors, the incidence of olive fruit fly attacks increase, passing from the southern to northern areas, and coastal to inland regions. As for the season in general, the summer infestations are usually contained with the exception of cooler environment and more susceptible cultivars. On the other hand, infestation peaks happen from the months of September until cold weather arrives, especially with a rainy climate. Another unique factor is the relationship between the alternation of production, a phenomenon in which the olive tree is particularly susceptible, and the intensity of the attacks. The attacks are usually most intense in years of low production and high production. The cause of this behaviour is partly biological, partly agricultural. In low seasons following a high one, usually, a significant amount of olive residue is left on the plants from the previous year, so it has a higher population at its production peak in spring, and a higher reproductive potential occurring with more intense and earlier attacks. The attacked olives fall early in autumn and this causes a higher incidence of mortality during the winter. In the subsequent good year for the population of first generation olives, production is quite low, with modest reproductive potential. The attacks will therefore be later and help a mass-production. Damages The damages caused by the olive fruit fly are of two types: quantitative and qualitative. From a quantitative point of view, the damage is caused by larvae of second and especially third stages, by the removal of the significant proportion of the pulp which as a consequence results in reduction in the yield of olives. Part of the production is also lost due to premature falling of the attacked fruit. Olive bites and holes dug by the larvae in the initial phase do not have a significant impact on the yield. In table olives, however, the damage extends to the sterile punctures, which cause the variation in production. A qualitative aspect to be considered is the significant deterioration in the quality of the oil extracted from olives with a high percentage of attacks by larvae of the third stage. The oil obtained from infected olives has a high acidity level (expressed as oleic acid, from 2% to 10% depending on the percentage of the infestation) and a lower shelf life as it has a higher peroxide value. Secondarily qualitative impairments of varying severity derive from the olive fruit fly attacks due to the arrival of mold through the eclosions. This deterioration in quality is evident in significantly flawed oils obtained from olives harvested from the ground or stored for several days before pressing. Auxiliaries antagonised by the olive fruit fly Few natural enemies prey on the olive fruit fly, but they can play a significant role in containing populations in biological and integrated pest control. However, these biological factors by themselves cannot counterweigh the economic effects they cause, in particular due to the reproductive differences between flies and antagonists. In fact, they can manage the attacks of the olive fruit fly when its population is contained, but less so in the case of heavy infestations. The enemies of the fly that play a significant role are mostly parasitoids. Hymenoptera Ichneumonoidea Opius concolor (Braconidae) is an endoparasite of various Diptera Tefritidi including B. oleae. Naturally found in the African continent, after its discovery in 1910, it was introduced in many other regions; however, it is difficult to acclimate in the Italian regions, except, perhaps, Sicily. It is used as a replacement of the larvae Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly). Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea Pnigalio mediterraneus (Eulophidae) is one of the most active of the ectoparasitic larvae of B. oleae. Although polyphagous, its summer generations are usually associated with the fly. Eupelmus urozonus (Eupelmidae) is another polyphagous ectoparasite associated with olives and has two or three summer generations associated with the B. oleae larva. Come autumn, it moves to another Tefritide associated with the Dittrichia. It can be used as a replacement of the fruit fly. It has a definite activity as a hyperparasite against other parasitoids of the fly. Eurytoma martellii (Eurytomidae) is an ectoparasite of the B. oleae larvae, but not much information on its biology is known. In local contexts, it can become the most common antagonist of the fly. Cyrtoptyx latipes (Pteromalidae). is an ectoparasite of the B. oleae larvae. It is an antagonist of minor importance, as it is rare. Diptera Lasioptera berlesiana (Cecidomyiidae) is a predator of several insects, including B. oleae. This species contributes to containment of the first summer infestations. Control measures Background One of the first authors to describe the damage caused by the olive fruit fly is Girolamo Caruso, dean of the faculty in Pisa from 1872 to 1917, author of the famous monografo dell’olive. Caruso (chapter XV paragraph 14) calls the insect Dacus olea (Fabr.), providing other scientific names proposed by different authors in dialect: Musca oleae (Rossi, Lin., Gmelin, Fabr., Petagna, Olivier) Tephritis olea (Latr., Risso) Chiron, keirun, mouche de l'olive, the olive de ver, in southern France Olive fly, olive fruit fly, worm, olives, olive bug, pidocchina in various Italian regions It follows a detailed description of all stages of the lifecycle, focusing on the larvae and the damage caused by them. The remedies suggested are empirical. Among the undoubted merits of Caruso is that he suggested a designated control zone to farmers. Chemical pest management The chemical battle against the olive fruit fly can be implemented against larvae by using preventive treatments against adults. The treatments are carried out by spraying the olive trees with insecticides (dimethoate, deltamethrin, and phosmet). Dimethoate is commonly used for its effectiveness and relatively low cost. It may be preferable because it would leave few residues in olive oil, since it is water-soluble and would pass through the amurca. In the near future, legislative authorization for the withdrawal of use of dimethoate is to be implemented. Among the products with low impact, azadirachtin is a natural repellent extracted from the fruits of the neem tree. However, its effectiveness against the olive fruit fly has not yet been sufficiently tested. Among the organic insecticide literature, rotenone is also mentioned, but the use of this active ingredient, not readily available, must be authorized by established competent bodies after demonstrating the need for it. The larvicidal treatment is carried out according to the criteria of the scheduled pest management, pest management and integrated pest management. Scheduled pest management usually occurs with periodic preventive treatments from the period when the larvae appear during an average infestation (from midsummer in areas with higher incidence or in September in areas with lower incidence). The treatment is repeated on average every 20 days (in the case of dimethoate) or at the interval of active use. The downside to the scheduled treatment is the risk of carrying out unnecessary treatments. Pest management and integrated pest management is used if the problem exceeds the threshold. This can be estimated each week by noting the trend of the population of adults with the use of traps for monitoring or detecting the number of active infestation (bites and fertile mine of larvae I and II age). To be reliable, the system first requires a suitable response in the trial, because the intervention thresholds vary depending on the type of trap and the environment. In northern Sardinia, an intervention threshold – for cultivars of oil – was reliably evaluated, with a weekly catch of 10 adults per sticky trap in summer and 30 adults per trap in October. Further reliable information used is the sampling of olives to estimate the extent of infestation. In this case, the threshold for intervention of an active infestation is recommended between 10-15% on cultivars for oil production and 5% for table cultivars. Sampling is carried out weekly and taken randomly over a large area for an olive tree at head height. A sample is separated from samples of 100-200 olives, which are to detect the presence of live and uninfected eggs and larvae at first and second stages. The presence of eclosions, larvae and pupal third stages should not be counted because the damage has already occurred and the treatment would be worthless. The preventive treatments are carried out by spraying the olive grove with poisoned protein baits. The adults, being glycogenic, are attracted by nitrogenous substances necessary to supplement their low protein diet. The substances used as bait for the flies are protein hydrolysates and are poisoned with organophosphate insecticides (usually dimethoate). The treatment should be carried out by spraying only part of the canopy of the trees, preferably the highest point nearest the sun. The intervention threshold for adulticide treatments are quite low (two or three adults per trap per week). Recently, the introduction of ready-made protein baits containing Dow Agrosciences Spinosad®biological insecticide also are authorized in organic farming. Preventive treatments with baits have the advantage of requiring lower costs and have less environmental impact, also of preventing adult egg-laying and blocking the infestations directly. Generally, they are applied to only 50% of the canopy of plants, preferably facing south, with a diameter of 50–60 cm, with limited use of water. The main problem is they are not always effective. In general, the treatments with protein baits are effective in summer seasons in areas with low incidence, whilst from September–October, usually no larvicide treatments are needed. Among the recent preventive measures acquired, together with the idea of pest management and integrated pest management, the treatment with copper-based pesticides has also been cited. Copper, although a pesticide, was found to exert a repellent effect against flies; the females turn their attention instead to oviposition on untreated olives. The basis for this action would be the advance biocidal effect of copper against the symbiotic bacteria, interfering with the physiology of the digestive system of the larvae. These bacteria, which appear on the surface of plants and other materials, infest adult females and transmit them to their offspring through the egg. This bacterial population would have a preferential attraction against flies, which can explain the repellent action. Repellent action would take place by kaolin, also altering the perception of the olive colour of ripening by females. Overall, these measures should not be interpreted as solution methods, including on the basis of the information on the cases, as it is still limited. Nevertheless, they are interesting because they are compatible with biological control and integrated pest management, which, therefore may play a priceless role in a strategy for integrated pest management. Biological and integrated pest management control Biological pest management control, carried out so far with experiments on the Opius concolor, for now, offers only partial results and in any case is particularly costly. Biological pest management controls have recently been carried out on Bacillus thuringiensis, but in this case, the biological measures showed a limited effectiveness, mainly because of difficulty reaching deep inside the larva. Integrated pest management is a more effective option, as it uses the measures of nature by weathering (high summer temperatures) and natural enemies. Where appropriate, integrated pest management can be assisted with the release of parasitoids in late summer. The main criteria to be taken for the integrated pest management are: Choosing less susceptible cultivars Advance of collections, particularly for susceptible cultivars Use of insecticides with low environmental impact, in particular, wisely-used insecticides used for larvicide treatments should be excluded because they are harmful to useful insect fauna. Chemical treatment to be made only upon exceeding the intervention threshold Preventive treatment with poisoned protein baits Preventive treatments and repellents with copper-based products (Bordeaux mixture, copper hydroxide, copper oxychloride) Removal of entire production to prevent outbreaks of infestation in the spring Monitoring of climatic conditions Use of biotechnical pest management control methods Biotechnical pest management Biotechnical pest management is currently mostly practiced on experimental or pilot farms or as an adjunct to the use of integrated pest traps, according to the function. It can be divided into two types: Monitoring traps (trap-tests) are used to detect the trends of the population of adults to estimate the threshold. Their density depends on the type and how the trap is used. The traps are strewn with a sticky entomological plastic substance. Traps for mass trapping (trap mass) are used to capture adults in mass to remove the population to levels that keep infestations below the threshold. Their density must be high (one trap per plant with a sexual attraction and/or food). Mass trapping has so far given results comparable to those of the chemical pest management test implemented with the protein bait and only if implemented on a large scale. It therefore pays for pest management programs in the area, while not offering excellent results if done at enterprise level, especially on limited foundations. In the 1970s, not yet having discovered the fly pheromone, mass trapping tests were carried out using yellow traps, but this technique, requiring the placement of at least five traps per plant, was discarded as uneconomic, and had a strong negative impact on useful entomofauna. Until the 1990s, the traps that have offered the best results were hand-crafted, made of wood soaked in a potent and long-lasting insecticide concentrate. Among the various insecticides, the best results are obtained with deltamethrin. These traps have been carried out, mass-trapping for over a decade with about 130,000 plants in Sardinia with results comparable to those obtained with the adulticide treatments using the protein bait. Since the late 1990s, traps are commercially available on an industrial scale (Ecotrap) for the mass trapping of the olive fruit fly. The Ecotrap is triggered by using a form of double attraction: the pheromone of the olive fruit fly and the ammonium bicarbonate, with biocidal action carried out by deltamethrin. Despite the limited series of tests carried out in recent years in some areas of the Mediterranean regions, the results are judged to be positive. Three types of attractants are used in traps: Colour is used for its attractiveness in sticky traps. The adult olive fruit fly is attracted to the colour yellow. Since the yellow colour is not available, these traps can only be used for monitoring purposes. Pheromones, for example, 1,7-dioxaspiro-5,5-undecane, which a sex pheromone emitted by the female to attract the male. Because of its selectivity, it is ideal for mass trapping, but the traps baited with the pheromone only show results that are not very effective: the pheromone of the olive fruit fly is in fact very volatile, and three to four weeks after the maximum capacity, is substantially less effective. Until the 1990s, the devices using gradual release of the pheromone proved unsuitable and it was necessary to replace them every 30–40 days. Food attractants are volatile nitrogenous substances that attract the flies to search for protein supplements to their diet. Protein hydrolysates and ammonium salts may be used as attractants. The disadvantage of these are that their function is affected by atmospheric conditions (temperature and relative humidity). The best results are achieved by combining a protein hydrolyzed with an ammonium salt in the same trap , or a combination of an attractive food with the pheromone. Currently, sticky traps are the most reliable way of monitoring, as the thresholds calibrated with the traps have been extensively tested, whilst threshold assessments are still uncertain with chemiotropic traps. These are best suited, however, for mass trapping by combining two or three attractants, preferably one sexual and one food-based. References Bibliography External links Resources about the olive fruit fly from UC Davis olive fruit fly on the University of Florida / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site OliveOilSource U.S.A. Site. Online map net trapping updated in real time in France. Bactrocera Agricultural pest insects Olives Diptera of Africa Insects described in 1790
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace%20violence
Workplace violence
Workplace violence (WPV), violence in the workplace (VIW), or occupational violence refers to violence, usually in the form of physical abuse or threat, that creates a risk to the health and safety of an employee or multiple employees. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health defines worker on worker, personal relationship, customer/client, and criminal intent all as categories of violence in the workplace. These four categories are further broken down into three levels: Level one displays early warning signs of violence, Level two is slightly more violent, and level three is significantly violent. Many workplaces have initiated programs and protocols to protect their workers as the Occupational Health Act of 1970 states that employers must provide an environment in which employees are free of harm or harmful conditions. Epidemiology According to data from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2011 violence and other injuries caused by persons or animals contributed to 17% of all US occupational fatalities, with homicides contributing to 10% of the total. From 1992 to 2010, there were 13,827 reported workplace homicide victims, averaging over 700 victims per year, in the United States. Examination of the 2011 data shows that while a majority of workplace fatalities occurred to males, workplace violence disproportionately affects females. Homicides contributed to 21% of all occupational fatalities for women, compared to 9% for men. Of these homicides, relatives or domestic partners contributed to 39% of female homicide cases; male homicide cases were most likely to be perpetrated by robbers, contributing to 36% of male homicide cases. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ("OSHA") a department of the United States Department of Labor defines workplace violence as "any act or threat of physical violence, harassment, intimidation, or other threatening disruptive behavior that occurs at the work site. It ranges from threats and verbal abuse to physical assaults and even homicide." 2,000,000 US workers per year report workplace violence Most cases of workplace violence are non-fatal. From 1993 to 1999, an average of about 1.7 million people reported occupational violence. About 75% of these cases are considered simple assault, while 19% of cases are considered aggravated assault. Workplace violence is at epidemic proportions. "There used to be a time when an employee shooting someone in the workplace would be a shock. Now it's becoming common," states Kathleen M. Bonczyk, Esq. a researcher and expert on workplace violence prevention. Following a June 2017 shooting spree when a former employee returned to his Orlando, Florida workplace to murder five co-workers before committing suicide Kathleen M. Bonczyk, Esq. stated "You hear it again and again. People always say 'We didn't think it (workplace violence) would happen here,' but it can happen anywhere and anytime. It shouldn't be a question of if; employers should operate under the question of when." There are four categories used to classify workplace violence: worker on worker, personal relationship, customer/client, and criminal intent. Worker on worker violence occurs when two people of the same occupation are violent towards one another, either physically, verbally or emotionally. A common example of this is when one worker has some sort of authority over another, such as a supervisor position over a supervisee. Personal relationship violence at the workplace occurs when an employee's personal relationship is brought into the workplace and causes disruption for the employee, his/her co-workers, and possibly the customers of that business. Victims of personal relationship violence are typically women. Customer/client violence occurs when there is violence between a customer or client of a workplace and an employee. The violence could be performed by the customer onto the employee or vice versa. Finally, criminal intent violence in the workplace occurs when there is no relationship between the person committing the violent act and the workplace or its employees. The four categories listed above are further classified into three levels, depending on the situation. Level one includes signs such as the person bullying others, being rude or abusive, and uncooperative. At this level, one should carefully take note of the behaviors and report them to a supervisor. The supervisor may want to meet with the potential perpetrator to discuss his/her behaviors. Level two includes the potentially violent subject stating that he feels victimized and verbalizing threats, verbalizing wanting to hurt others, frequently arguing with others, seeking revenge, and refusing to follow workplace policies. In response to this behavior one should document observed behaviors, directly contact a supervisor, ensure that one's own safety is put first, and, if needed, contact first responders. The third level of workplace violence are currently violent situations such as threatening to harm one's self or others by either physical means or using weapons, demonstration of extreme anger, or destruction of property. In case of level three violence, one should ensure the safety of themselves followed by the safety of others, stay calm, cooperate with law enforcement, and leave the situation if possible. In the case of personal relationship violence, it is often hard to recognize levels one and two of violence because they typically occur outside of the workplace. Most personal relationship violence situations occur at level three, in which case the level three approach for handling the situation should be in place. Perline and Goldschmidt contend that the present definitions of workplace violence are simply descriptive and not based on motivation of the perpetrator. Understanding the motivation underlying these crimes is important in developing preventative strategies. Perline & Goldschmidt define two types of workplace violence: 1) Object-focused workplace violence is violence that occurs to obtain some object, such as money, drugs, jewelry, etc., and 2) non-object-focused violence, which is emotionally based, and mostly associated with anger. Anger generally requires frustration and perceived injustice. Mitigating anger or perceived injustice will mitigate or prevent a violent episode, and people can be angry without perpetrating violence. Whether or not anger results in violence depends, in part, on the potential perpetrator's focus, and associated risk factors (see below). Eight different types of focus that can result in WPV have been identified. (Table 1) The anger-focus model: 1) characterizes WPV according to the focus of the perpetrator; 2) allows for the gathering of separate statistics for object-focused crime and non-object-focused crime; and 3) shows that domestic violence, school shootings, terrorist activities, and non-object violence that occurs in the workplace are similarly motivated. Consequently, understanding the factors driving one type of non-object-focused violence should help us to develop strategies for mitigating the other types of non-object-focused violence. Thus, we can see that these crimes can be mitigated by reducing the frustration level of the potential perpetrator, reducing the level of the potential perpetrator's perceived injustice, or changing the focus the potential perpetrator to a more healthy focus. A very large percentage of non-object-focused perpetrators are either arrested, killed by police, or killed themselves after committing their violent act. If we consider suicide-by-cop, it has been suggested that somewhere between 25-50 percent of non-object-focused workplace homicides result in suicide. Suicide is virtually unheard of following an object-focused crime, it just doesn't make sense. Non-object-focused workplace violence is purposeful, occurs in stages, and is seldom if ever a spontaneous event. The five stages of non-object-focused violence that have been identified are: Anger Focus Pre-violence: fantasy, rehearsal, preparation, victim denigration and threat Violence: toward self, toward others, toward self & others, and toward environment Post-violence: resolution, and consequences. Thirty risk factors have been identified. Fourteen of these risk factors are social & situational; twelve are psychological, and four are behavioral. Signs of potential threats There is little information on what certainly causes workplace violence, however it is agreed that a combination of personal factors, workplace factors, and individual interactions contribute to violence in the workplace. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) recognizes the following behaviors as warning signs for potential perpetrators of workplace violence: decreased productivity or inconsistent work performance damage or destruction of company property obsession with weapons poor workplace relationships obsessive involvement with the job repeated direct or veiled threats increased mood swings paranoid, aggressive behavior interest in recently publicized violent events unwanted romantic interest in a co-worker refusal to accept criticism overreaction to company policies The National Safety Council also recognizes excessive use of drugs or alcohol as well as absenteeism, or change in job performance that is unexplained. Paying attention to these warning signs and reporting them may help prevent events of workplace violence. Prevention The United States Department of Labor's purpose is to " promote a safe environment for our employees and the visiting public, and to work with our employees to maintain a work environment that is free from violence, harassment, intimidation, and other disruptive behavior". Hemati-Esmaeili (2018) supports,“As worksites for healthcare providers and related occupations vary in purpose, size, and complexity, WVPP should be designed to specifically target the unique nature and varied needs of each organization” (par. 5) Therefore, the DOL has provided information in order to work towards their purpose of keeping the workplace safe for individuals. The information is provided in order to help the people of the workplace to be able to identify potentially harmful behaviors as well as recognize their responsibilities to prevent violent behavior. The DOL administered the Workplace violence program in order to help employees respond to and prevent workplace violence through better understanding. They have also identified seven key factors to help prevent workplace violence: Work Environment- As the work environment directly and heavily influences the employees and clients, it is crucial that the environment remains positive and open. This encourages better communication and positive attitudes in the workplace. Security- Additional safety measures such as security may help deter possible violent events from occurring. This could include security guards, cameras, or other technological machines such as metal detectors. Education- educating employees on current policies and procures as well as on possible warning signs of workplace violence. Performance / conduct indicators- ways to be aware of changes in employee behavior, such as absenteeism or change in performance. Employee support services- services available for employees to express concerns Early intervention- not letting symptoms go unnoticed or unresolved Take appropriate actions- notify authorities when needed It is also recommended that employers treat terminated employees with respect in order to avoid the feeling that they are being victimized. Additional precautions may be alerting security that there will be job termination that day. Responses According to the Department of Homeland Security in the situation of workplace violence, while staying calm, one should run, hide, or fight. It is suggested to only fight if there are no other safe options. In the event of having to handle a violent or potentially violent person, there are five steps to follow. First demonstrate concern for the employee and show that you care. Second, do not judge the person, but observe their behaviors. Third is to demonstrate empathy. Fourth is to engage in conversation with them, let them express what will help them. Finally, work with them to create a solution that will not put anyone at risk. Deadly examples Patrick Henry Sherrill, a 44-year-old mail carrier from Edmond, Oklahoma, was reprimanded after a heated argument with two supervisors on August 19, 1986. At approximately 7:00 the following morning, Sherrill showed up at the post office in his uniform. Over the course of the next 15 minutes, Sherrill went on a murderous rampage, gunning down any employee who crossed his path. After sealing off the exits, Sherrill ended up murdering fourteen coworkers and wounding six others. When police arrived at the post office, Sherrill turned the gun on himself. On November 5, 2009, Nidal Hasan, who was serving in the United States Army as a psychiatrist, fatally shot 13 people and injured more than 30 others at Fort Hood, near Killeen, Texas. The shooting produced more casualties than any other on an American military base. The United States Department of Defense and federal law enforcement agencies have classified the shootings as an act of workplace violence. In 2013, Lt. Gen. Dana K. Chipman described the attack as "the alleged criminal act of a single individual" rather than terrorism. In February 2015, the Army "determined that there was sufficient evidence to conclude Hasan "was in communication with [a] foreign terrorist organization before the attack," and that his radicalization and subsequent acts could reasonably be considered to have been "inspired or motivated by the foreign terrorist organization." David Burke was employed by USAir as a ticket agent until his supervisor, Raymond Thompson, fired him for theft. After Thompson refused to reinstate him, Burke showed up at Los Angeles International Airport on December 7, 1987, and purchased a ticket for Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771 to San Francisco International Airport. Burke smuggled a .44 Magnum onto the aircraft. Shortly after takeoff, the aircraft's cockpit voice recorder picked up the sound of gunshots. Then came the sound of David Burke's voice. The pilots were shot and the aircraft crashed into a hillside in San Luis Obispo County, killing all 43 people on board, including Burke and Thompson. At the crash site, an airsickness bag was found containing a message which Burke had written for his former supervisor. It read: "I asked for some leniency for my family, remember. Well, I got none. And you'll get none." At 6:45 a.m. on August 26, 2015, 41-year-old Vester Lee Flanagan, a disgruntled ex-reporter for Roanoke station WDBJ-TV, shot and killed two former colleagues live on television in Moneta, Virginia. At the time, 24-year-old WDBJ reporter Alison Parker was conducting an interview of local chamber of commerce executive Vicki Gardener as 27-year-old videographer Adam Ward filmed the interview on a live feed. Flanagan, who had been previously terminated from his position at WDBJ, captured the three via a body cam and appeared to wait until the piece was airing before he began shooting and emptied his Glock handgun of all bullets. Gardener who was also shot survived the attack. After the shootings, Flanagan fled the scene and later boasted about the attack on social media before committing suicide. On December 2, 2015, county health inspector Syed Farook and his wife, Tashfeen Malik, burst into a banquet room in San Bernardino, California where approximately 80 of Farook's co-workers were gathered to attend a holiday party as well as a company training session. Farook and Malik, who were dressed in military-style attire and armed with rifles, killed 14 people and injured 22 others. The couple also attempted to bomb the facility. Later, they were killed in a shoot-out with police. On February 26, 2016, 38-year old Cedric Ford who was employed as a painter at Excel Industries in Hesston, Kansas shot and killed three people and injured 14 other people. A co-worker reported that approximately two hours after the two men had clocked in for their shift at work that day, he saw Ford strapped up with his weapon and shooting at people in the factory's parking lot. On March 20, 2016, a 55-year-old retired state trooper with the Pennsylvania Turnpike system named Clarence Briggs of Newville, Pennsylvania returned to the roads he used to patrol prior to his retirement and attempted an armed robbery at a toll booth. Briggs shot and killed toll booth worker Danny Crouse, 55, and Ron Heist, 72, a security guard before he was shot and killed by the authorities. On April 8, 2016, workplace violence erupted at Lackland Airforce Base in San Antonio, Texas. At that time, the squadron's commanding officer was shot and killed by an airman who then killed himself. Thereafter, the facility went into lockdown mode. Soon after the shootings, it was reported that the incident was not a case involving terrorism but was workplace violence. The shooter was being escorted to a disciplinary hearing when he committed the murder-suicide. On May 4, 2016, a man who had been involuntarily terminated two weeks earlier from his position at Knight Transportation in Katy, Texas approximately 20 miles west of Houston returned to his former workplace armed with a shotgun and a pistol. Marion Guy Williams, 65, was reported to have said words to the effect of "You all ruined my life." Williams then shot and killed a 34-year-old supervisor Michael Dawid, injured two other employees and then killed himself. Aggression Dr. Arnold H. Buss, of the University of Texas at Austin (1961), identified eight types of workplace aggression: Verbal-passive-indirect (failure to deny false rumors about target, failure to provide information needed by target) Verbal-passive-direct ("silent treatment", failure to return communication, i.e. phone calls, e-mails) Verbal-active-indirect (spreading false rumors, belittling ideas or work) Verbal-active-direct (insulting, acting condescendingly, yelling) Physical-passive-indirect (causing others to create a delay for the target) Physical-passive-direct (reducing target's ability to contribute, e.g. scheduling them to present at the end of the day where fewer people will be attending) Physical-active-indirect (theft, destruction of property, unnecessary consumption of resources needed by the target) Physical-active-direct (physical attack, nonverbal, vulgar gestures directed at the target) In a study performed by Baron and Neuman, researchers found pay cuts and pay freezes, use of part-time employees, change in management, increased diversity, computer monitoring of employee performance, reengineering, and budget cuts were all significantly linked to increased workplace aggression. The study also showed a substantial amount of evidence linking unpleasant physical conditions (high temperature, poor lighting) and high negative affect, which facilitates workplace aggression. Individuals who resort to mass shootings at work often threaten to kill before any actual violence takes place. Risk assessments In the United Kingdom there is a legal obligation to complete risk assessments for both physical and psychosocial workplace hazards. Other countries have similar occupational health and safety legislation in place relating to identifying and either eliminating or controlling for hazards in the workplace. Workplace violence is considered to be a significant hazard in its own right. Regulation 3 of the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 states that, "every employer shall make a suitable and sufficient assessment of: The risks to the health and safety of his (or her) employees to which they are exposed whilst they are at work; and The risks to the health and safety of persons not in his employment arising out of or in connection with the conduct of him or his undertaking". Occupational groups at higher risk The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety lists the following higher risk occupations. Healthcare workers Correctional officers Social Services workers Teachers Municipal housing inspectors Public Works Employees Retail Workers Police Officers Health care workers are at high risk for experiencing violence in the workplace. Examples of violence include threats, physical assaults, and muggings. According to estimates of the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the rate of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses involving days away from work was 15.1 per 10,000 full-time workers in 2012. This rate is much higher than the rate for total private industries, which is 4.0 per 10,000 full-time workers. There are many contributing factors that can lead to health-care workers, specifically nurses, experiencing workplace violence. These factors can be divided into environmental, organizational, and individual psychosocial. A few environmental factors may include the specific setting, long waiting times, frequent interruptions, uncertainty regarding the patients' treatment, and heavy workloads. Organizational factors may include inefficient teamwork, organizational injustice, lack of aggression management programs, and distrust between colleagues. This may also include inadequate security procedures. Individual psychosocial factors may include nurses being young and inexperienced, previous experiences with violence, and a lack of communication skills and/or awareness of how to interpret aggressive situations.  Misunderstandings may also occur due to the communication barrier between nurses and patients.  A few examples of this are a lack of privacy for the patient, background noise, and the patient's condition being affected by medication, pain, and/or anxiety. See also Abusive supervision Going postal Occupational health psychology Occupational safety and health Workplace aggression Workplace bullying Workplace conflict References External links Workplace Violence News & Resources Before the Storm: Workplace Safety Webinar   Safety and Health Topics from www.osha.gov Violence on the Job, video from NIOSH Half of Large Employers Had Workplace Violence Incident in Last Year Workplace Violence Q&A - CCOHS Work and Family Researchers Network Workplace Violence, 1993-2009 Bureau of Justice Statistics Workplace Violence Against Government Employees, 1994-2011 Bureau of Justice Statistics Caring for Your Employees: Experts answer questions on preventing workplace violence Violence Occupational hazards Workplace harassment and bullying Occupational health psychology
4614548
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster%20Senior%20Cup%20%28rugby%20union%29
Leinster Senior Cup (rugby union)
The Leinster Senior Cup is a major rugby competition in Ireland, involving all senior rugby clubs in Leinster, i.e., clubs from Leinster competing in the All-Ireland League. From 2006 until 2016 it was known as the Leinster Senior League Cup during the period when the Leinster Senior League had been discontinued, but reverted to its traditional name for the 2016–17 season upon the revival of the Senior League. From 2011 to 2016 only the top senior teams competed and those in the lower divisions of the All-Ireland League competed for the Leinster Senior League Shield. History The Inaugural Leinster Challenge Cup The Leinster Challenge Cup competition was founded in the 1881–82 season. A meeting of the Leinster Branch of the Irish Rugby Football Union took place at John Lawrence's Rooms (Sports Outfitters) at 63 Grafton Street on Monday 31 October 1881. The meeting was chaired by William Joshua Goulding, Hon. President I.R.F.U. (1880–81) and was attended by representatives of Dundalk, Dublin University, Kingstown, Lansdowne, Phoenix, Rathmines School, and Wanderers Football Clubs. During the meeting questions were posed and answers given about the proposed All-Ireland Challenge Cup competition. Arising from this discussion, W.O. Neville (Dundalk proposed, seconded by H. Morrell (Dublin University), that a Leinster Challenge Cup be established to advance and encourage rugby football in Leinster. The Leinster Challenge Cup would be open to all clubs in Leinster affiliated to the Union. The meeting decided that a circular should be sent to all Leinster clubs inviting their participation and subscriptions to the Cup Fund. A further meeting of the Leinster Branch I.R.F.U. took place on Friday 11 November 1881 to consider the rules, dates of matches, drawing of rounds and other competition details. At this meeting a Challenge Cup Committee was formed. The closing date for entries to the inaugural Leinster Challenge Cup was set for Wednesday 30 November. The Challenge Cup Committee - C.B. Croker (Lansdowne), the first Hon. Treasurer of the Leinster Branch, G. Drought (Phoenix), F. Kennedy (Wanderers), first Hon. Secretary of the Leinster Branch, E.A. McCarthy (Kingstown), H. Morrell (Dublin University) and Richard M. Peter (Dundalk) - meet on Thursday 1 December to draw up the ties. The Committee decided on an entry fee of ten shillings per club, that all clubs entering the competition should guarantee a donation to the Cup Fund of at least two guineas, that all matches were to be played at Lansdowne Road, that the ground was to be engaged for several matches and that the proceeds of a 6d (six penny) gate were to be added to the Cup Fund. Clubs were allowed to nominate their own umpires. The Committee proposed to purchase, if possible, a Challenge Cup costing some £50. Through the press, the Committee encouraged lovers of the noble game to attend matches and to support the Cup Fund. The names of the five clubs which had entered, each of whom had guaranteed to donate £5 to the Cup Fund, were placed in a hat and drawn as follows: Match A: Dublin University v Phoenix, on the Wanderers Club portion of the Lansdowne Road grounds; Match B: Wanderers v Kingstown, on the Lansdowne Club portion of the grounds; Match C: Lansdowne, a bye. The first round ties were played on Saturday 10 December 1891, k.o. 2.45 pm, with two forty minute halves. The winner of Match A would play Lansdowne on Saturday 25 February 1882 for a place in the final. The Winner of Match B was to get a bye to the final, which would be played on Saturday 25 March 1882. The reasons for the long interval between the first and second rounds were Christmas holidays which extended into January and the International matches on 31 January (Wales), 7 February (England) and 14 February (Scotland). In the event of a Wanderers v Lansdowne meeting in the second round, the club captains would toss for choice of ground at Lansdowne Road. In the event of a draw at any stage, the Cup Committee would fix a date for a second match to be played, so as not to alter the existing rules of the game. The first round matches resulted in a win for Dublin University (5 goals, 2 tries) over Phoenix (nil) - a goal equals a converted try, while the Wanderers v. Kingstown match was a scoreless draw. The Wanderers v Kingstown tie was replayed on Thursday 23 February 1882. Kingstown won by a goal and a try to nil. The second round match between Dublin University v Lansdowne resulted in a win for Trinity by 2 goals (1 converted try, 1 dropped goal) and 2 tries to nil. On 18 March, in the presence of one of the largest attendances of spectators that has ever been seen on the ground, the inaugural Leinster Challenge Cup Final between Dublin University v Kingstown was won by Trinity by one goal to nil and the title of the premier club of the province for the season. Both clubs were photographed before the match by Messrs Robinson of Grafton Street. The members of the winning team were presented with silver crosses. The reports on the match do not mention presentation of the Challenge Cup to the DUFC Captain. In celebration the Trinity students living in Botany Bay in College lit an enormous bonfire with a pyrotechnic display of fireworks. The Cup appears to have been first presented to the winning captain in 1883. Leinster Senior Cup From 1882 through 1897 newspaper reports refer to this competition consistently as 'The Leinster Challenge Cup'. From 1898 through 2006, press reports refer to the competition as 'The Leinster Senior Cup'. How and why did this change in title come about? The change in reference title probably had more to do with semantics rather than any change(s) in the rules governing the competition. At a General Meeting of the Leinster Branch of the I.R.F.U. held in the Wicklow Hotel on 11 November 1888, a resolution was adopted to inaugurate a Leinster Junior Cup competition on the same basis as applied to the Leinster Challenge Cup. Following the Hon. Treasurer's report to the Annual General Meeting a month earlier, it had been proposed that the Leinster Branch purchase a 'Challenge Cup' for such competition. At the Leinster Branch A.G.M in October 1891, a motion that the 2nd XVs of Senior Clubs be allowed to compete in the Leinster Junior Cup was rejected. Essentially the same motion returned the Leinster Branch AGM in October 1895, but was amended to refer the matter to a subcommittee to draft rules to govern the proposed competition under which the latter might be approved and discussion adjourned to the next General Meeting. At the reconvened meeting in November 1895, delegates were informed that the original motion had been withdrawn because of intense opposition. The meeting then reconstituted itself as a special meeting to consider a new resolution "that a Cup be presented by the Leinster Branch for competition amongst Second Fifteens of senior clubs on a league basis". After much discussion and consideration of umpteen amendments and counter proposals, the final phrase of the original motion was amended to read "amongst Junior Clubs and Second Fifteens of senior clubs on a league basis". This was passed unanimously. Thus the Leinster Branch I.R.F.U. from the 1886–87 season now had a Leinster Junior Cup, the winners of which received a Challenge Cup, a Junior League Cup for Junior Clubs and the 2nd XVs of Senior Clubs, and a Leinster Challenge Cup, contested by Senior Clubs. Thus, to avoid confusion in reports of competitions, the Leinster Challenge Cup became referred to as the Leinster Senior Cup, the winners of which were presented with the original Challenge Cup. From 1940 to 1947 Old Belvedere completed the still unrivalled feat of winning the Leinster Senior Cup 7 consecutive times, narrowly losing their 8th consecutive final to Wanderers. This broke the next longest sequence of wins by Lansdowne from 1927 through 1931, who had broken the record of four consecutive wins by Dublin University from 1895 through 1898. Leinster Senior League Cup In recent times the competition declined in importance due to the introduction of the All-Ireland League in the 1990–91 season and the formation of a professional provincial team, Leinster, to compete in the Heineken Cup. Following the demise of the Leinster Senior League some time around 2006, the two competitions were combined as the Leinster Senior League Cup. From 2011-12 until 2015-16 senior teams from the lower divisions of the All-Ireland League have participated in the Leinster Senior League Shield instead of the League Cup. Thus competition inaugurated in 1882 continues to be contested by the strongest clubs in the province of Leinster. While the name of the competition has changed, the original Challenge Cup trophy is still presented. The Leinster Senior League Cup competition has evolved over the past decade. In 2006-07 the top 8 teams of 20 in the league progressed to quarter-finals. From season 2007-08 through 2010-11 there were five Pools of four teams; within each Pool the teams played each other once. The winner of each Pool plus the best three runners-up from the five pools on points (and points scored for and against difference) qualified for the quarter-finals. In seasons 2011-12 and 2012-13 there were two Sections A and B, with the winners and runners-up in each section qualifying for the semi-finals. The winner of Section A played the Runner-up of Section B in the semi-final and vice versa. In season 2013-14 the winners of the two Sections qualified directly for the final. In seasons 2014-15 and 2015-16 there were three Sections A, B and C; within each Section the clubs played each other once. The winner of each Section and the best runner-up on points (and points scored for and against difference) progressed to the semi-finals. Leinster Senior Cup From 2016 to 2017, the Senior League was revived, and the Senior Cup reverted to a knock-out format. The winners of the Leinster Senior League Cup compete with the other three provincial cup winners for the All-Ireland Cup. The Challenge Cup trophy The report of the 1883 Leinster Challenge Cup final in the Irish Times contains a description of the Challenge Cup: The Cup, which is a solid silver, and is very massive, is in the Etruscan style. The body is elegantly ornamented in the highest style of the silversmith's art. On one side is a view of a football field and pavilion, showing a scrummage in full progress. On the top of the lid there is a beautifully modelled figure in correct football costume in the art of "dropping". The cup stands on a handsome ebony plinth, around which are slung on chains four massive silver shields on which to inscribe the names of the successful clubs. The work has been executed by Messrs Edmond Johnston of Grafton Street and is finished in the style for which the house has become so justly celebrated. Edmond Johnston achieved renown as a silversmith for two works in particular. He made the Liam MacCarthy All-Ireland Hurling Cup in 1921. He worked on the restoration of the Ardagh Chalice and was given permission to make replicas of it which were exhibited at the expositions in Chicago in 1893, Paris in 1900 and Glasgow in 1901. An EJ intertwined was his maker's mark. Leinster Challenge Cup 1880s 1882 Dublin University 1 goal - nil Kingstown F.C. 1883 Dublin University 1 goal - nil Lansdowne (after replay) 1884 Dublin University 1 goal - nil Lansdowne 1885 Wanderers 1 try - nil Dublin University 1886 Dublin University 1 goal, 1 try to nil Lansdowne (after replay) 1887 Dublin University 2 goals - nil Wanderers (after replay & extra time) 1888 Wanderers 1 try - nil Dublin University(after replay) 1889 Bective Rangers 1 goal, 1 try - 1 goal Wanderers 1890s 1890 Dublin University 1 goal, 1 try - nil Lansdowne 1891 Lansdowne 3 goals - nil Dublin University Football Club 1892 Bective Rangers 6 - 0 Wanderers 1893 Dublin University 3 - 0 Lansdowne 1894 Wanderers 5 - 0 Dublin University (after extra time) 1895 Dublin University 15 - 0 Bective Rangers 1896 Dublin University 3 - 0 Old Wesley 1897 Dublin University 5 - 0 Old Wesley Leinster Senior Cup 1890s 1898 Dublin University 16 - 0 Lansdowne 1899 Monkstown 8 - 0 Lansdowne 1900s 1900 Dublin University 15 - 0 Wanderers 1901 Lansdowne 8 - 3 Dublin University 1902 Monkstown 3 - 0 Lansdowne 1903 Lansdowne 5 - 3 Dublin University 1904 Lansdowne 5 - 3 Clontarf 1905 Dublin University 22 - 11 Lansdowne 1906 Wanderers 3 - 0 Monkstown 1907 Dublin University 18 - 3 Wanderers 1908 Dublin University 8 - 6 Old Wesley 1909 Old Wesley 20 - 0 Blackrock College 1910s 1910 Bective Rangers 5 - 3 Wanderers 1911 Wanderers 9 - 0 Bective Rangers 1912 Dublin University 3 - 0 Bective Rangers 1913 Dublin University 10 - 3 Bective Rangers 1914 Bective Rangers 11 - 6 Dublin University 1915 No competition - World War I 1916 No competition - World War I 1917 No competition - World War I 1918 No competition - World War I 1919 No competition - World War I 1920s 1920 Dublin University 5 - 0 Wanderers 1921 Dublin University 5 - 0 UCD 1922 Lansdowne 15 - 5 Monkstown 1923 Bective Rangers 18 - 0 UCD 1924 UCD 12 - 3 Monkstown 1925 Bective Rangers 3 - 0 UCD 1926 Dublin University 11 - 3 UCD 1927 Lansdowne 8 - 0 Dublin University 1928 Lansdowne 13 - 0 Blackrock College 1929 Lansdowne 45 - 0 Monkstown 1930s 1930 Lansdowne 9 - 0 Bective Rangers 1931 Lansdowne 17 - 5 Wanderers 1932 Bective Rangers 11 - 3 UCD 1933 Lansdowne 6 - 4 UCD 1934 Bective Rangers 8 - 3 Blackrock College 1935 Bective Rangers 10 - 6 Dublin University 1936 Clontarf 16 - 8 Blackrock College 1937 Blackrock College 9 - 8 Clontarf 1938 UCD 5 - 3 Clontarf 1939 Blackrock College 17 - 3 Clontarf 1940s 1940 Old Belvedere 9 - 0 Clontarf 1941 Old Belvedere 3 - 0 Blackrock College (after replay) 1942 Old Belvedere 11 - 0 Wanderers (after replay) 1943 Old Belvedere 7 - 3 UCD 1944 Old Belvedere 6 - 3 UCD 1945 Old Belvedere 12 - 10 Clontarf 1946 Old Belvedere 16 - 11 UCD 1947 Wanderers 8 - 4 Old Belvedere 1948 UCD 4 - 0 Dublin University 1949 Lansdowne 11 - 9 Old Belvedere 1950s 1950 Lansdowne 6 - 0 UCD 1951 Old Belvedere beat Dublin University 1952 Old Belvedere beat Old Wesley 1953 Lansdowne 16 - 3 Wanderers 1954 Wanderers 15 - 12 Lansdowne (after replay) 1955 Bective Rangers beat Old Belvedere 1956 Bective Rangers beat Lansdowne 1957 Blackrock College beat Clontarf 1958 St. Mary's College beat Blackrock College 1959 Wanderers 13 - 6 Lansdowne 1960s 1960 Dublin University 14 - 11 St. Mary's College (after replay) 1961 Blackrock College 8 - 6 UCD (after replay) 1962 Bective Rangers 19- 6 Wanderers 1963 UCD 12 - 3 St. Mary's College 1964 UCD 11 - 6 Bective Rangers 1965 Lansdowne 9 - 6 Clontarf 1966 Terenure College 11 - 8 St. Mary's College 1967 Terenure College 6 - 5 UCD 1968 Old Belvedere 11 - 6 UCD 1969 St. Mary's College 14 - 11 Dublin University (after replay) 1970s 1970 UCD 14 - 3 Terenure College 1971 St. Mary's College beat UCD 1972 Lansdowne 16 - 10 UCD 1973 Wanderers 13 - 10 St. Mary's College 1974 St. Mary's College 9 - 3 Bective Rangers 1975 St. Mary's College 10 - 9 Old Wesley (after replay) 1976 Dublin University 10 - 6 Blackrock College (replay, extra time) 1977 UCD 9 - 6 Terenure College 1978 Wanderers 9 - 4 UCD 1979 Lansdowne 24 - 3 Terenure College 1980s 1980 Lansdowne 16 - 4 Blackrock College 1981 Lansdowne 7 - 6 Old Belvedere 1982 Wanderers 12 - 0 Bective Rangers (after replay) 1983 Blackrock College 13 - 6 Greystones 1984 Wanderers 29 - 4 UCD 1985 Old Wesley 13 - 6 Wanderers 1986 Lansdowne 15 - 9 Blackrock College 1987 St. Mary's College 13 - 12 Lansdowne 1988 Blackrock College 12 - 6 Dublin University 1989 Lansdowne 29 - 0 Terenure College 1990s 1990 Wanderers 9 - 3 Monkstown 1991 Lansdowne 13 - 9 Terenure College 1992 Blackrock College 12 - 6 Old Wesley 1993 St. Mary's College 12 - 6 Old Wesley 1994 Terenure College 12 - 8 Greystones 1995 St. Mary's College 29 - 3 Greystones 1996 Terenure College 17 - 7 Lansdowne 1997 Lansdowne 40 - 8 Bective Rangers 1998 Lansdowne 23 - 17 Skerries 1999 Clontarf beat DLS Palmerston 2000s 1999-00 Blackrock College 23 - 12 Old Belvedere 2000-01 Terenure College 38 - 7 Clontarf 2001-02 Clontarf 18 - 3 County Carlow 2002-03 County Carlow 23 - 11 DLS Palmerston 2003-04 County Carlow 23 - 19 DLS Palmerston 2004-05 St. Mary's College 26 - 7 DLS Palmerston 2005-06 Clontarf 23 - 16 St. Mary's College Leinster Senior League Cup 2000s 2006-07 Old Belvedere 19 - 16 Clontarf 2007-08 Clontarf 9 - 6 St. Mary's College 2008-09 Lansdowne 9 - 5 Clontarf 2010s 2009-10 St. Mary's College 9 - 3 Old Belvedere 2010-11 UCD 24 - 23 St. Mary's College 2011-12 Old Belvedere 16 - 3 Blackrock College 2012-13 St. Mary's College 32 - 20 Lansdowne 2013-14 UCD 23 - 18 Terenure College 2014-15 Clontarf 32 - 28 UCD 2015-16 UCD 23 - 13 Old Belvedere Leinster Senior Cup 2010s 2016-17 Lansdowne 33 - 26 Old Belvedere 2017-18 Lansdowne 53 - 22 Terenure College 2018-19 Lansdowne 49 - 22 Dublin University 2020s 2019-20 UCD 22 - 19 Clontarf 2020-21 Not held because of COVID-19 restrictions 2021-22 Terenure College 20 - 18 Lansdowne 2022-23 Terenure College 50 - 24 Clontarf 2023-24 Lansdowne 45 - 44 Terenure COllege Club statistics See also Connacht Senior Cup Munster Senior Cup Ulster Senior Cup References Rugby union competitions in Leinster Irish senior rugby competitions 1881 establishments in Ireland
4614625
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaumont%20College
Beaumont College
Beaumont College was between 1861 and 1967 a public school in Old Windsor in Berkshire. Founded and run by the Society of Jesus, it offered a Roman Catholic public school education in rural surroundings, while lying, like the neighbouring Eton College, within easy reach of London. It was therefore for many professional Catholics with school-age children a choice preferable to Stonyhurst College, the longer-standing Jesuit public school in North Lancashire. After the college's closure in 1967 the property was used in turn as a training centre, a conference centre and an hôtel; St John's Beaumont, the college's preparatory school for boys aged 3–13, continues, functioning in part as a feeder school for Stonyhurst. History of the estate The estate lies by the River Thames on the historic highway from Staines to Windsor, near Runnymede. It was originally known as Remenham, after Hugo de Remenham, who held the land at the end of the 14th century. The estate was then owned for a period by the Tyle family, and subsequently by John Morley, Francis Kibblewhite, William Christmas and Henry Frederick Thynne (clerk to the Privy Council under Charles II) in the 17th century. In 1714 Thomas Thynne, 2nd Viscount Weymouth, inherited the estate. In the mid-eighteenth century it was acquired by Sophia, Duchess of Kent. In 1751 the Duke of Roxburghe purchased the land for his eldest son, the Marquess of Bowmont and Cessford (then a boy at Eton College), and renamed it Beaumont in his honour. In 1786 Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of India, acquired Beaumont Lodge at the cost of £12,000. He lived at Beaumont for three years. In 1789 the estate was sold to Henry Griffith, an Anglo-Indian, who had the Windsor architect Henry Emlyn rebuild the house in 1790 as a nine-bay mansion with a substantial portico. History as a school In 1805 the Beaumont property was bought for about £14,000 by Henry Jeffrey Flower, 4th Viscount Ashbrook, a friend of George IV. After his death in 1847, his widow continued to reside there until 1854, when she sold it to the Society of Jesus as a training college. For seven years it housed Jesuit novices of the (then) English province and on 10 October 1861 became a Catholic boarding school for boys, with the title of St. Stanislaus College, Beaumont, the dedication being to St. Stanislaus Kostka. The 1901 census shows a John Lynch S.J. as headmaster. Resident at the date of the census were one other priest, three "clerks in minor orders" and a lay brother, 8 servants and 23 schoolboys including one American, one Canadian, one Mexican and two Spaniards; one of the latter was Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón, a Spanish royal prince. Joseph M. Bampton S.J., rector 1901–1908, replaced the traditional Jesuit arrangement of close supervision of pupils by masters of discipline with the so-called "Captain" system, or government of boys by boys – perhaps inspired by the reforms of Thomas Arnold at Rugby in the 1830s. Bampton's Captain system was adopted also at Stonyhurst and at sister Jesuit schools in France and Spain, and in 1906 Beaumont was admitted to the Headmasters' Conference. Beaumont thus became, along with Stonyhurst College in Lancashire and St Aloysius' College, Glasgow, one of three public schools maintained by the English Province of the Jesuits. Prominent men educated there included the architect Sir Giles Gilbert Scott OM FRIBA, the engineer Sir John Aspinall, and a number of members of the Spanish royal family. The Austrian monarchist intellectual Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn taught briefly at Beaumont in 1935–36, and from 1943 to 1946 A. H. Armstrong, later to become the world's leading authority on the ancient philosopher Plotinus, was a classics master at the college. In 1937 the Papal Envoy, Mgr Giuseppe Pizzardo, visited the college. During the Second World War one of the first doodlebugs destroyed an inn ("The Bells of Ouseley") close to the school. In 1948 John Sinnott S.J. was one of only two public school headmasters who detected a hoax letter by Humphry Berkeley, then a Cambridge student, purporting to come from a fellow-head H. Rochester Sneath (invited to lead an exorcism, Sinnott requested a packet of salt "capable of being taken up in pinches"). The "lovable but vague" Sir Lewis Clifford S.J., a Jesuit holding a New Zealand baronetcy, was rector between 1950 and 1956, when he was replaced by John Coventry S.J.; and in the early 1950s the late Gerard W. Hughes S.J., now known as a prominent writer on spirituality, taught there. On 15 May 1961 Queen Elizabeth II visited Beaumont to mark its centenary. Character of the school The main drive curves round an open field to a rendered 18th-century mansion known as the White House, most of the ancillary buildings being concealed by trees. The science laboratories were a single-storey 1930s block to the left of the main house. Other outbuildings ran backward from there, including the ambulacrum and tuck shop, but without obtruding unduly on the garden dominated by two specimen cedar trees and a war memorial by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott. Behind the war memorial, woodland ran down the edge of the estate, where there was a path leading to Windsor Great Park, much used by the pupils for walks and cross-country runs. In the angle between the woodland and the garden was the cricket pitch. A boathouse lay on the Thames just outside the gates, and playing fields for rugby football were a little further down river on Runnymede. Beyond the cricket pitch was a home farm which supplied the school with milk and other products, and beyond that St John's. As in other public schools, sport was important; indeed, an annual cricket match was played at Lord's against the Oratory until 1965. Moreover, Beaumont held a number of sporting and similar distinctions. Only two public schools, Eton and Beaumont, came to send both their First Eleven to Lord's and their First Eight to Henley; and the first black player at Lord's was a Beaumont boy. When Pierre de Coubertin visited England in the course of researching the basis of his new Olympic movement, the four schools he looked at were Eton, Harrow, Rugby and Beaumont. The Beaumont school Combined Cadet Force was the only one in the country to be affiliated to the Household Division – and had a Garter Star in the cap badge awarded by King George VI in recognition of the school's role in the Crown Land Battalion during WW2. The first motorist in England was the Hon Evelyn Ellis, who in 1885 drove a car from his home to Beaumont. Coco Chanel's nephew was a pupil, and the school blazer is said to have been the inspiration for the 1924 Chanel suit. Beaumont was easy to access from London, and, being where it was, rapidly developed an awareness of being the "Catholic Eton": a tag at the school was "Beaumont is what Eton was: a school for the sons of Catholic gentlemen" (similar claims have been made for the Oratory, Stonyhurst and Ampleforth). Although all the boys at Beaumont were boarders, the school's nearness to London meant that, unlike at Stonyhurst or Ampleforth, many parents could fetch boys away for weekends during term; the number of such "exeats" was limited. Prior to and during World War II, there were sufficient pupils to divide students into three separate Houses, Heathcote, Eccles and O'Hare, named after three previous Rectors. The respective 'House Colours' were brown, light blue and dark blue. However, Beaumont did not continue to be organised in such "Houses" as many British boarding schools are (cf Winchester, Harrow, or the fictional Hogwarts), but in various other ways: in this respect it resembled the other English Jesuit public school, Stonyhurst, but not St Aloysius' in Scotland. The main grouping was by year-class, the names of the classes being reminiscent of the medieval trivium: Rudiments, Grammar, Syntax, Poetry, and Rhetoric. There was also a broader age-division between the "Higher Line" and "Lower Line" (the cut-off being around the beginning of the sixth-form). Finally, all boys were on admission assigned either to be "Romans" or "Carthaginians": these two groups earned points during each term on the basis of the academic progress and behaviour of their members, and at the end of term there was a day's holiday at which the winning group earned a special tea (this last tradition lost force over the years and by the 1960s attracted little enthusiasm from the boys). Inevitably the school had its own song, put together in the late Victorian period in rather poor Latin: Concinamus gnaviter Omnes Beaumontani Vocem demus suaviter Novi, veterani; Etsi mox pugnavimus Iam condamus enses, Seu Romani fuimus, Seu Carthaginenses. Numquam sit per saecula Decus istud vanum: Vivat sine macula Nomen Beaumontanum! The school had its own arms, with the motto Æterna non-Caduca (The eternal, not the earthly). End of the school After the Second World War, the English Province of the Jesuits (which also had responsibilities in Rhodesia and British Guiana) suffered from an increasing shortage of priests. The financial viability of a school of only 280 pupils became more and more precarious. Moreover, by the 1960s the atmosphere of the Second Vatican Council was also lending weight to a feeling that the Order ought not to devote so large a part of its resources to the education of the better-off of the First World. A decision was therefore made in 1965 to close the school. It finally shut in 1967, amid a storm of protest from parents and old boys who had been contributing to an appeal to fund an extension of the laboratories. This led among some to the colloquialism "Pulling a Beaumont", referring to an ability to cause mass confusion and protest in seemingly benign circumstance. After the closure, most of the current pupils transferred to Stonyhurst. Immediately thereafter the building was borrowed for one academic year by the Loreto Sisters on account of delays to their new teacher training college. By the early 1970s, the building was owned by the British computer company ICL, which used it for many years as a training centre. In 2003 it was acquired by Hayley Conference Centres, which carried out much new building on the site with very extensive extensions and alterations, including the closure of the sweeping front drive. In 2008 Hayley restored the chapel as a function space. The property is now owned and operated by Principal Hotel Company under the brand name De Vere Beaumont Estate. A memorial to the dead of the South African War survives in the former Lower Line refectory. The old boys' association, known as the Beaumont Union, continues, largely through the efforts of Guy Bailey, a Beaumont old boy now resident in Monaco, with a bi-annual newsletter and an annual formal dinner at the East India Club in St. James' Square in London. The Beaumont Union also arranges an annual service each Remembrance Day at the Beaumont War Memorial. Members of the Beaumont Union and their families formed the London Beaumont Region of HCPT - The Pilgrimage Trust and are still involved with an annual pilgrimage to Lourdes, where the Beaumont crest hangs at the Le Cintra cafe in the rue Ste Marie. St John's Beaumont School For some years a preparatory division was accommodated at Beaumont, but was found unsatisfactory, and Fr Frederick O'Hare, the Rector from 1884, commissioned John Francis Bentley to design a new preparatory school. This was erected nearby; it opened on 25 September 1888 under the name of St John's Beaumont, and is still a lively and successful school. Other notes On 22 September 2007 cattle at Beaumont Farm were found with foot and mouth disease, in the course of the second outbreak following an escape of contamination from the Pirbright research establishment. The entire herd of 40 cattle was destroyed the same day. Notable old boys Raffaele Altwegg, cellist. Carlos Víctor Aramayo (1889–1981), Bolivian businessman, diplomat, editor of the newspaper La Razón, and winner of the Maria Moors Cabot prize for journalism in 1947. Sir John Audley Frederick Aspinall (1851–1937), British locomotive engineer. Edmund de Ayala (b.1896), vintner, House of Ayala. Ralph Bates (1940–1991), British actor. Fr. Charles Sidney Beauclerk SJ (1855–1934), Parish Priest of Holywell, North Wales, from 1890 to 1898. Francis Beckett, British writer/author. Count Quentin Michael Algar de la Bedoyere (b.1934), businessman, author and columnist for the Catholic Herald. Jaime de Borbón y de Borbón-Parma, called Duke of Madrid and known in France as Jacques de Bourbon, Duke of Anjou (27 June 1870 – 2 October 1931), the Carlist claimant to the throne of Spain under the name Jaime III and the Legitimist claimant to the throne of France under the name Jacques I. Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma (b.1940), French legitimist prince and Carlist claimant to the Spanish throne. Dr Noel Browne, Irish politician and Minister for Health. William F. Buckley Jr. (1925–2008), founder of the modern American conservative movement which laid the groundwork for the presidential candidacies of Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan. Hugh Burden (1913–1985), British actor. Paul Burden (1945-), British television journalist and financial news presenter. Michael Burgess (b.1946), Coroner to the Royal Household. Sir Henry Burke KCVO, CB, Garter King of Arms (1859–1930); grandson of the founder of Burke's Peerage. Captain Arthur Edward "Boy" Capel (1881–1919), CBE; British polo player. Bernard Capes (1854–1918), novelist. Ely Calil (b.1945), Lebanese-British businessman. Brigadier-General Edmund William Costello VC (1873–1949). Prince Réginald de Croÿ, (d.1961), the son of Prince Alfred Emmanuel de Croÿ-Solre, and a diplomat active in the Belgian Resistance in the First World War. John Bede Dalley (1876–1935), Australian journalist and writer. Nicholas Danby (1935–1997), British/US organist. Anthony Darnborough (1913–2000), British film producer and director. Admiral Sir Gerald Dickens, KCVO, CB, CMG (1879–1962); Director of Naval Intelligence between WWI and WWII. Peter Drummond-Murray of Mastrick (b.1929), Slains Pursuivant of Arms from 1981 to 2009. General Sir Basil Eugster, KCB, KCVO, CBE, DSO, MC (1914–1984); Colonel of the Irish Guards. Colonel Francis Fitzherbert-Stafford, 12th Baron Stafford (1859–1932), British army officer. Stephen Fitz-Simon (1937–1997), co-founder of the fashion business "Biba" with wife Barbara Hulanicki. Bernard Arthur William Patrick Hastings Forbes, 8th Earl of Granard, KP, GCVO, PC (1874–1948), known as Viscount Forbes from 1874 to 1889; Anglo-Irish soldier and Liberal politician, and Master of the Horse. General Cuthbert Fuller, DSO, CMG (b.1874). British Army engineering officer. Monsignor Alfred Newman Gilbey (1901–1998), writer and chaplain to Cambridge University. Sonnie Hale (1902–1959), British actor. Peter Hammill (b.1948), musician and founding member of the progressive rock band Van der Graaf Generator. Malcolm Hay (1881–1962); the last Laird of Seaton in Aberdeenshire; Director of Military Intelligence 1b in World War I; fundraiser for the relief of prisoners of war in Germany and Italy; historian and author (The Roots of Christian Anti-Semitism). Charles Heidsieck, son of Charles Camille Heidsieck, vintner. George Hennessy, 1st Baron Windlesham (1877–1953), soldier and Conservative politician. Christopher Hewett (1921–2001), British/US actor. Peter Holman (b. 1946), conductor and musicologist, founder of The Parley of Instruments. Sir Edward St. John Jackson, KBE, KCMG; Lt-Governor of Malta during World War II and Nuremberg War Trials board member. Sir Christopher William Kelly, KCB (b.1946); former British Permanent Secretary, Chairman of the Committee on Standards in Public Life from 2008 to 2013, and Chairman of the NSPCC. Sir John Knill, Bt (b.1856–1934); Lord Mayor of London in 1909–10 (the first Roman Catholic to hold the office since the Reformation). Desmond Knox-Leet (1923–1993), co-founder of perfumier Diptyque in Paris. Charles Laughton (1899–1962), British-born naturalised American citizen; film actor and director. Bernard Howell Leach, CH (1887–1979); world-renowned potter based in St Ives, Cornwall Professor Sir Anthony Leggett KBE, FRS (b.1938); winner Nobel Prize in Physics in 2003. Luis Federico Leloir (1906–1987), Argentine doctor and biochemist who received the 1970 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Peter Levi, FSA, FRSC (1931–2000); Oxford Professor of Poetry, author and critic. General Sir George Macdonogh, GBE, KCB, KCMG (1865–1942); Head of Military Intelligence in WWI. Edward Martyn (1859–1923), Irish playwright, co-founder and first President of Sinn Féin (1905–1908). Edward Molyneux (1891–1974), British fashion designer. Henry E. Morriss Jr., broker and owner of the North China Daily News. Owner of the 1925 Derby winner Manna. Prince Michael Obolensky of Russia, grandson of Tsar Alexander. Terence O'Brien (b.1936), New Zealand diplomat. Patrick O'Byrne (1870-1944), Irish republican revolutionary and Sinn Féin politician. George More O'Ferrall (1907—1982), film and television director. Sir George Ogilvie-Forbes, KCMG (1891–1954); British diplomat. Percy O'Reilly (1870–1942), Silver medallist for polo at 1908 Olympics. Alfonso de Orleans y Borbón (1886–1975), the Infante of Spain, and his younger brother Luís Fernando (1888–1945) were sent to England to be educated at Beaumont, where they remained from 1899 until 1904. Sergio Osmeña III (b.1943), Filipino politician. Gilbert Pownall, British architect responsible for the mosaics in the Lady Chapel at Westminster Cathedral, son of F. H. Pownall. Jean Prouvost (1885–1978), French Government minister, industrialist, and founder of the magazine Paris Match. Kynaston Reeves (1893–1971), British actor. Prince Michael Andreevich of Russia (1920–2008), eldest grandson of HIH Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich; Grand Prior and Imperial Protector of The Sovereign Order of the Orthodox Knights Hospitaller of St. John of Jerusalem. Anthony Rogers, Vice-President of the Court of Appeal, Hong Kong Sir Francis Cyril Rose Bt. (1909–1979); British artist and aesthete. Frank Russell, 2nd Lord Russell of Killowen, PC (1867–1946); Lord Justice of Appeal. Charles Ritchie Russell, 3rd Lord Russell of Killowen (1908–1986); Lord Justice of Appeal. Philippe de Schoutheete, Belgian diplomat and ambassador. Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, OM, FRIBA (1880–1960); British architect. Sir Reginald Secondé, KCMG, CVO (b.1922); HM British Ambassador to Chile, Romania and Venezuela. Sir Patrick John Rushton Sergeant KBE (b.1924); British financial journalist. Lt-Col. Edward Lisle Strutt, CBE, DSO (1874–1948); British soldier and mountaineer. Serjeant Sullivan, Irish and English lawyer (1872-1959) Colonel Sir Mark Sykes Bt. (1879–1919); soldier, co-author of the Sykes–Picot Agreement. Sir Hilary Synnott, KCMG (1945–2011); British diplomat and author. Edward Anthony Christopher Topham (d.1932), owner Aintree racecourse, Grand National handicapper and Clerk of the Course. Basil Tozer (1868-1949), English writer, author of horror stories and other works. Beauclerk Upington (1872-1938), son of Cape Colony PM, himself South African politician and MP. Baron Pieter-Yvo de Vleeschauwer (1925-2007), Belgian diplomat. Pierre de Vomécourt (1906–1986), founder of the first SOE network in occupied France during WWII. Freddie Wolff, CBE, TD (1910–1988); gold medallist in athletics in the 1936 Olympic games. Thomas F. Woodlock (1866–1945); editor of The Wall Street Journal and US Interstate Commerce Commission commissioner. Sir Philip de Zulueta (1925–1989), Private Secretary to the Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. References Bibliography David Hoy, SJ. The Story of St John's Beaumont 1888–1988, St. John's Beaumont, Old Windsor, 1987. External links De Vere Beaumont Estate St John's St John's Beaumont School website Profile on the ISC website Buildings and structures in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead Country houses in Berkshire Jesuit secondary schools in England Defunct schools in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead Defunct Catholic schools in the Diocese of Portsmouth Educational institutions established in 1861 Educational institutions disestablished in 1967 1861 establishments in England 1967 disestablishments in England Grade II* listed buildings in Berkshire Old Windsor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas%20Railway%20Station
Douglas Railway Station
Douglas railway station (Manx: Stashoon Raad Yiarn Ghoolish) is the main terminus of the Isle of Man Railway and is located at the landward end of the quay in Douglas, the capital of the Isle of Man. It was once the hub for now closed lines to Peel, Ramsey and Foxdale. Location The station is located on the southern side of the island's capital, Douglas, and is at the far landward end of the North quay close to the old town and finance centre. It has car parking available for railway patrons on the site of the former goods yard and departure platforms and is served by nearby bus services from many locations on the island. The current station buildings in red Ruabon brick were constructed between 1887 and 1913 replacing timber constructions established upon the opening of the line in 1873. The site was reclaimed from marshland, the nearby Lake Road attesting this fact. History The Isle of Man Railway Company bought the site in 1872, and diverted the Douglas River to the south side of the site to ease construction of its new station. The original station building was a 70' by 30' wooden structure with a zinc tiled roof located approximately where the present booking hall now stands. This accommodated booking office, general and ladies' waiting rooms, telegraph office, parcels office, porters' room and stationmaster's office. Beyond this were two platforms, with an engine release, and siding between them, whilst on the south side were two sidings and a goods shed and platform. A warehouse stood on the site of the later office building. North of the track leading from the station, there stood a three road stone building original constructed as a locomotive and carriage shed, with a small maintenance area, but soon repurposed as a locomotive shed and workshop for the growing railway. The opening of the Port Erin line brought a modest expansion of the station with additional platform faces being added south of the original departure platform, and north of the arrival platform. This created two island platforms, the northern one of which was used for Peel trains, the southern for Port Erin trains. In 1875 a three road iron carriage shed was provided about where the Bus Vannin parking area is today, and between this and the running lines a rudimentary ground frame was constructed to control trains entering and leaving the station. The Peel and Port Erin lines then left the station as two parallel single lines with only a single crossover between them which allowed trains from Peel to access the goods yard. By the mid-1880s it was clear that rail traffic had outgrown the modest original station, and that rebuilding was necessary. This commenced in 1887 with the construction of Offices, refreshment room and bar, and a new ladies' waiting room on the site of an old warehouse in the south east corner of the site. This was followed by a new booking hall and platforms (1891/2), a signal box (1892); a new carriage shed (1893); new workshop, locomotive shed, and carpenters' shop (1892–96); men's lavatory (1904); platform canopies (1909), and stables c.1913. This station remained largely intact until 1979 when the station was rationalized. The station, together with gateway and other structures, was listed on the Isle of Man's Registered Buildings in 1984. Buildings The main entrance to the station is via a grand archway at the junction of Peel Road and Athol Street. This has two gilt-topped turrets and clock tower, between which are a set of steps descending to the station. These gates are usually closed, but there is a smaller gate on the left side of the structure which provides pedestrian access from Athol Street and the financial district. A second entrance at the bottom of the hill from North Quay provides level/vehicular access to the station. Entering down the Peel Road steps, the visitor is faced with two large Ruabon brick buildings. The building ahead of the visitor, which is now used as the Customs House, was constructed as the railway's administrative offices in 1887, and also accommodated, on the ground floor, the Ladies' Waiting Room and lavatory, a licensed refreshment room, and bar. The building to the visitor's right is main station building which originally housed the booking hall, ticket office, parcels office, porters' room, stationmaster's office, to provide storage for millions of card tickets and railway records. This building was designed in 1888, but not constructed until 1891/2, following the abandonment of plans for a steam railway from Douglas, via Quarter Bridge to Onchan and Laxey. The present iron and glass canopy across the front of the building was added in 1909. It now houses a restaurant, installed during extensive interior works in 1991, the booking/stationmasters' office, and a tiny passenger waiting area. The former parcels office was adapted to provide management offices in 1979/80, but has been vacant since management were relocated following the completion of IOM Transport's Banks Circus Headquarters on the site of the carriage shed in 1999. The now vacant upper floor was added to the office area at the north end of the building in 1979, and involved the introduction of a staircase into the building which now divides the original ticket office into two. At the same time, the booking hall floor was sealed using a resin material slightly raising the floor level, and when the mezzanine and kitchen area were installed in 1990/1 a new wooden floor was laid on top of the original raising the floor level by a further 40mm. At the same time, the 1920s ticket window, and 1979 souvenir shop in the centre of the booking hall were removed. In recent years, the north end of the building has experience subsidence due to the presence of a main sewer at that end of the building, and there has been considerable deterioration of the disused office area at the north end of the building. In 2011, a major restoration scheme to underpin the north end of the building repair the roof, and possibly rebuild the old canopy over the circulating area was announced. Roof repairs were completed in 2013, but the rest of the scheme was subjected to a review, the results of which are discussed below. In the active part of the building, seating for the restaurant has increasingly encroached on the passenger facilities within the Booking Hall, and as of September 2014 there is no dedicated seating area for passengers apart from a handful of seats by the door out to the circulating area! Signal Box Built in 1892 and located at the station throat between the carriage shed and the workshops. The Points Box, as it was called locally, contained a 36-lever frame signal box was built by Dutton & Co., of Worcester, and supplied to the railway when the yard was further modified and the workshops were extended. The frame is a unique survivor of the 'drink-handle' type in which the handle of the lever also serves as the catch handle. The 'box features a set of characteristic wooden external steps that must be climbed to access the levers, with storage space beneath the timber-built top section, this would have housed all the linkage and control gear. The top section also features a three-quarter glazed section and integral fireplace, and bears a considerable resemblance to Dutton's signal boxes constructed for the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) about this time. From there the signalman on duty could command a view of the entire yard, controlling every traffic movement from passenger trains to complex shunting procedures. The one thing the signalman did not control was the staff and ticket single line safe-working, which in accordance with earlier practice remained the responsibility of the stationmaster. Douglas signal box lacked both telegraph and telephone when it was constructed, and it was not provided with a telephone until 1925 following an overrun accident in August of that year. Train to and from Peel and Castletown, and for shunting movements within the station were indicated to the signalman by a comprehensive whistle code. The Points Box remained in use until the summer of 1970 when the point work of the Port Erin arrival platform and its associated signals were disconnected. These points were then controlled with hand levers and the signals were placed permanently in the 'off' position so that trains could arrive and depart without the box being staffed, saving the associated wage costs. Thereafter, it was used only for more complicated shunting movements in which case it would be staffed by a member of the train crew or the stationmaster. The remainder was taken out of use in 1979/80 when the old Port Erin Platforms - 5 & 6 - were removed and the area cleared for parking. Since that time the building has been relocated to make way for the new transport headquarters and Bus Vannin garages in 1998, moving forward from its original site at the same time as the 1893 carriage shed was demolished. Today it remains out of use but is occasionally open to the public as part of annual transport festivals hosted by the railway. During these events the box is tended to and staffed by members of the Isle of Man Steam Railway Supporters' Association a local voluntary organisation. The box housed a number of special train headboards, paraffin signal lamps, tri-colour torches and well as some ancillary locomotive parts, but these items been relocated to the Bothy in front of the works/locomotive shed to allow work to commence on an interior restoration of the signal box to something close to its 1960 condition. The original frame has been replaced by a small panel in the stationmaster's office which controls the signals. This was installed in 1983, and controls the colour light home signal which guards the approach to Douglas station from Port Erin, and the two motor worked semaphore platform starters, which, as permission to depart is given by the stationmaster, function more like the train ready "OFF" indicators seen on mainland railway stations indicating that station work is complete, and the train can depart when it receives the right of way. Other structures The smaller building that now houses the public and passenger toilet facilities and storage areas was once also used as the railway's own stabling facilities and incorporated porters' accommodation. In more recent times the stables have become garages which are leased out, there being three in total. The fourth old stable has been converted into accommodation and was once used by the night watchman and as storage space. The old porters' rooms were converted into the railway's souvenir shop in 1993 as part of the Year Of Railways and remained as such until the 1999 season when the premises closed and the space was let to the tenants of the station restaurant for storage purposes. When open the shop stocked a range of railway and transport-related publications, videos and magazines as well as a large range of postcards and souvenirs, which are now located at the Isle of Man Railway Museum in Port Erin. What now forms the ladies and gentlemen's' toilets next door was once entirely devoted to the gentlemans' facilities whilst the ladies waiting room was within the administrative structure. This setup was amended when rationalisation of the whole site was carried out in 1979 resulting in the facilities provided today. The toilets are also utilised by customers of the station restaurant and when closed are gated across. At the entrance to the platform there is a shall wooden chalet structure which is used by station staff when checking tickets, it also houses various signage and cleaning equipment. This structure was installed in 1991 replacing an earlier version which was time-expired; this structure was originally in a varnished finish but as part of minor refurbishments in 2009 was painted into the standard maroon and cream livery. Platforms The existing platform was one of two installed in 1892 replacing the 1873 originals which were on a slightly different alignment. Both the original platforms, and the 1892 replacements were half-height, but latter were raised to full height about 1904. It should be noted the platforms are not quite perpendicular to the alignment of the booking hall. In 1909 iron canopies were erected covering the circulating area west of the main station building and both platforms for the majority of their length. These suffered from corrosion in the secondary structural members latterly, and were demolished during the initial rationalisation of the site in 1979-80. At this time too the former Port Erin platforms were demolished to make way for a bus parking area. The Port Erin platforms were situated to the south of the surviving ones. The platforms had tar macadam surfacing with stone edging. The platform edges themselves were picked out with whitewash from 1940 onwards., Initially this was due to the blackout, but it was found to be so helpful that the custom has been maintained ever since. The platform is accessed by passengers via a gate at the station end installed in the early 1980s. For many years this was usually kept closed between trains, but at the present time, the gate is usually left open but with a sign saying "Platform Closed" placed in the entrance. During the railway's annual transport festivals the platforms are occasionally open to the public for limited periods. The platforms are currently unnumbered, but in former times the northern face was number 1 and 3, and the southern 2 and 4 to assist passengers and porters in finding the Peel and Ramsey portions of combined trains to and from these destinations. The end of the platform features two semaphore signals, installed in 2005 themselves replacing two colour light signals - mounted on the 1892 Dutton post of the former Peel starting signal - that replaced original semaphores in 1983. The 2005 replacements originate from the Festiniog Railway in Wales. The platform also features cast iron lamp standards installed in 1991 when the station was refurbished, going on to win an Ian Allan Heritage Award, returning the surviving platform to something close to its mid Edwardian state. Prior to 1909, the platforms featured similar lamp posts, though these were lit by gas rather than today's versions which are electrically lit. The sloped end of the platform was modified in more recent times so that one side now features a more gradual slope which leads to the signal box and workshop facilities by way of a concrete catwalk installed in 2001 for health and safety purposes, a further pathway being connected to the foot of the signal box steps. Sheds Beyond the platforms stand the locomotive shed, machine shop, paint and carpenters' shops in two rubble stone buildings built in the 1890s. Beyond them is the modern carriage shed which was erected in 1999, on the site of a coal yard, replacing the 1893 original which was demolished to make way for the Bus depot and headquarters block adjacent. The locomotive shed is capable of holding up to 12 locomotives in addition to which the single road workshop can store up to five locomotives at any one time. This facility features overhead lifting gear which is capable of lifting locomotive boilers from the frames to carry out maintenance; there is also a static beam engine and wheel lathes located in this shed, which also houses the blacksmith and plant room to the rear, the former being converted from a stores area in 2001. The buildings to the rear of the locomotive sheds house the carpenters' shop and paint shop where all the in-house painting and signwriting is carried out by the railway's own staff. A smaller stone-built shed houses more storage facilities and atop this building are the two (now unused) water tanks for the shed complex which remain as a reminder of busier times. The side of the water tank base originally carried a large bracket signal governing entry into the station, but this was damaged and then removed c.1981. What once formed a gap between the sheds was covered over in 1999 to provide further secure accommodation for rolling stock and this has been constructed from corrugated metal and is used to house some of the railway's redundant items of rolling stock including one of two Empress Vans and frames off out of use locomotives. Goods Station The site of the present car park south of the station occupied the site of the Port Erin arrive and departure platforms, a carriage siding, and the former goods yard - Roads 5 to 11 in the old station layout. Road 7 was used to store spare carriages to strengthen Port Erin line trains, whilst 8 to 11 formed the station's goods department. Reflecting the character of the island's freight traffic, there was a large goods shed, transshipment platform, and cattle dock, but no specialized facilities for handling coal traffic as relative little domestic coal was handled by the railway. There was also a sunken siding to load manure cleared from the streets of Douglas, and sold, by the railway to local farmers, especially in the Santon area, until the 1920s. This area was used to store redundant stock after the end of goods traffic in the 1960s. Rationalisation and the Present Station Rationalisation of the station took place in two phases, the first in 1979/80, followed by a partial redevelopment of the site in 1998/9. Prior to 1979, the station had two island platforms and full length canopies and a four road goods yard, controlled by the signal box provided by Dutton in 1892. Behind (south) of the signal box stood a four road carriage shed that had been built in 1893 to replace a smaller shed of 1875. The northern "Peel" island platform served trains to Peel and Ramsey, and was largely disused after 1968, except as a parking area. The inner and outer ends of the two Peel platform faces were separately numbered in an attempt to reduce the confusion caused by combining the Peel and Ramsey trains into a single working as far as St John's. The southern "Port Erin" island platform was numbered 5 (arrival) and 6 (departure.) It was usually used for South line trains, but trains to/from Peel and Ramsey could (and occasionally did) use it due to the existence of a crossover between the single tracks to Peel and Port Erin by the water tower which also gave access to the good yard. The drastic rationalisation of the station started in early 1979 with the removal of the Peel platform canopy and most of that covering the Port Erin platform. The following winter saw the loss of the Port Erin platforms, the goods yard and the remaining platform canopies. Road 1 was modified to become a run round loop for the former Peel departure platform, and the access road to the engine shed was raised to form a platform face on to the new loop. The former course of the head shunt and Port Erin lines became part of the bus yard, creating a dirt road which divided the 1893 carriage shed and the signal box from the running line. At the same time, the Port Erin line was slewed northwards to connect with the stump of the former Peel line, and a new connection made to the carriage shed from the mainline facing trains approaching from Port Erin. The revised layout was resignalled in 1983 with movements within the station being protected by a colour light home signal located approximately halfway between the new carriage shed and Nunnery bridge. The semaphore starters at the end of platforms 1 and 3 were replaced by a pair of colour light signals mounted on the post of the old Peel line starting signal. In 1998/9, the 1893 carriage shed was demolished and replaced with a new shed on the opposite side of the line beyond the old paint shop to allow for the creation of a new bus maintenance facility and administrative building called Bank's Circus. Road 5 - the former Port Erin arrival line, which had been used for carriage storage since 1979, was removed to enlarge the car park, and was replaced with "Road 0" which is used for the storage of maintenance equipment such as ballast wagons, and flat wagons. This was on the site of the former road access to the works, and the 1980 platform on that site was removed. The familiar landmark of the grounded coach body in front of the works, which acted as a bothy and an oil store was removed in 1999, but returned in July 2013 and has since been partly restored and painted into Manx Northern Railway livery as No.2 (later renumbered F41, then N41 by the IMR). Site The station is sited on an area known as Lake Road (although technically this was lost during the more recent developments), so-called because the area was, until the arrival of the railway, swampland that was reclaimed to build the station other developments. The river now runs along the southerly side of the site. Where now stands the chain store was once a large timber yard operated for many years by Quiggin & Co., and this backed onto the railway's property. What now forms both car and bus parking areas was once the railway's large goods yard, and there was also another island platform which was removed in 1979 to make way for bus storage area.e Further up the yard towards its mouth are the sheds which are original. At the approach to the station is the junction of Bank Hill which runs alongside the station perimeter wall, now an office development dominates this site but it was until 1988 home to one of the island's smaller breweries. In recent times the north quay the adjoins the site has been partially pedestrianised and now has a number of restaurants and public houses as well as a selection of shops and boutiques. The large red brick office block that sits behind the station was erected in 1988 on the site of the former Clinch's Brewery, the tower of which was retained in the new development. The site is in the central part of the island's capital close to the financial district making it ideally suited for the commuter train services which since 2007 have been provided annually during the T.T. race period. Its location at the end of the inner harbour was ideal in the past when the railway carried cargo directly from ships that berthed nearby. Catering In the past the railway boasted its own tea rooms and bar, located in the ground floor of the administrative block which stands next to the station building itself. This building now houses the island's Custom House and no longer houses any railway staff. In later years following the nationalisation of the railway a basic cafe was provided in the booking hall and this was also home to the station shop which was operated by the volunteers of the Isle of Man Steam Railway Supporters' Association. When the interior of the booking hall was extensively redeveloped in 1991 (for which it won a prestigious Ian Allan Heritage Award for best preserved station in the British Isles) a mezzanine floor was added and a catering establishment known as Greens took up residence; this enterprise quickly establishing itself as the island's only dedicated vegetarian restaurant. In December 2010 it was announced that there would be new tenants be taking over the facility and by January 2011 it was announced that the facility was to rebranded as The Tickethall and following basic refurbishment it was opened that month. The new premises similarly cater for the vegetarian market at the same time as offering a number of fish dishes and breakfast items. They also work in conjunction with the railway's regular special events providing the catering for many of these throughout the year. The company that runs the facility also operates a similar restaurant and grill in the upper part of the town known as The Mailbox which is located in the former premises of the Isle of Man Post Office. Redevelopments The entire area has redeveloped in more recent times, and the "Banks Circus" headquarters were established here in 1999 providing the island's central bus garage and yard. A new carriage shed was also constructed at this time further up the yar and the signal box was relocated. The majority of the former goods yard is now given over to a Tesco store, which also utilised the reclaimed timber yard site which also boasted its own internal railway, Quiggin's Tramway, at one time. In August 2014, controversial plans were announced that would significantly alter the Booking Hall by removing the present kitchen and mezzanine, one of the original 19th century ticket hatches, and creating a two-story structure within the shell of the present building accommodating a restaurant, retail unit, and toilets. Railway and passenger facilities would be further reduced with the published plans showing only a small office being retained within the station building for the sale of tickets. Significantly, the plan eliminates any waiting area for passengers which is not a retail or food service area, and absorbs most of the circulating area as an outdoor seating area for the restaurant severely restricting movement to and from the platforms. Routes See also Isle of Man Railway stations Isle of Man Steam Railway Supporters' Association References James I.C. Boyd Isle Of Man Railway, Volume 3, The Routes & Rolling Stock (1996) Norman Jones Scenes from the Past: Isle of Man Railway (1994) Robert Hendry Rails in the Isle of Man: A Colour Celebration (1993) A.M Goodwyn Manx Transport Kaleidoscope, 2nd Edition (1995) Railway stations in the Isle of Man Buildings and structures in Douglas, Isle of Man Railway stations opened in 1873 Registered Buildings of the Isle of Man
4614988
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane%20McCutcheon
Shane McCutcheon
Shane McCutcheon is a fictional queer character from the American Showtime television drama series The L Word, and the sequel series L Word: Generation Q played by Katherine Moennig. Character development in The L Word Shane was originally billed to Moennig as "sexy" and "androgynous". Moennig told Michelle Kort from The Advocate that she had learned "a lot" from playing Shane. She has elements of realism because "life imitates art and art imitates life". The actress further explained that she related to certain aspects of Shane's storylines because she had previously experienced them. Moennig did not agree with labeling the character butch. Fellow cast member Leisha Hailey (who plays Alice Pieszecki) also disagreed and believed that Shane was more androgynous. During season four Shane became the guardian of her brother Shay McCutcheon (Aidan Jarrar). Moennig told Karman Kregloe from AfterEllen.com that Shane would return to her "wild ways" after producers decided that the storyline did not suit. Moennig compared Shane during season five to Where’s Waldo because "she’s popping up everywhere and she’s just out to have a good time." Ahead of the series debut in December 2003, a reporter from the PR Newswire wrote that Tammy Lynn Michaels had been cast as Shane's "jilted lover" Lacey, who proceeds to stalk her. Rosanna Arquette had signed up to play Cherie Jaffe, the wife of a studio head Steve Jaffe (James Purcell) who arrives as Shane's new client. The writer revealed that Shane would change "more than her haircut". Shane and Cherie's relationship was Moennig's favourite to work on and she attributed successful scenes to Arquette's acting techniques. Moennig believed that the relationship was so "fucked up" and it was fun to portray because it was also dysfunctional. Moennig said that during the second season Shane would attract a character with "a grounded sense of self, plus a lot of girlish insecurities". She explained "you're always attracted to someone you want to learn from". Erin Daniels who plays Dana Fairbanks added that "you see Shane struggle with actually having feelings, which really scares her". The character was revealed as Carmen de la Pica Morales (Sarah Shahi). Carmen easily becoming a fan favorite of Shane's girlfriends. The show's producer and writer Angela Robinson was quoted by The Advocate she believed Moennig and Sarah Shahi had "amazing chemistry". Series creator Ilene Chaiken added that Kate and Sarah were "hot together." In season four, Shane begins a relationship with Paige Sobel (Kristanna Loken). They meet after Shane's brother, Shay, makes friends with her son, Jared Sobel (Jackson Allan). Loken told The Advocate's Kort that Paige "hits" on Shane at a PTA meeting and "there it starts". Her character has been emotionally hurt by men she sees Shane as "a little wounded as well, and I think she likes that sensitivity about her, that vulnerability." Paige "comes on strong" and has confidence because she previously slept with woman. But she never had a same-sex relationship and sees Shane and thinks "I'm just going to go for it and see what happens." Through their relationship the series portrayed a storyline in which Paige tells her young son that she is in a lesbian relationship with Shane. Loken said that she was able to draw inspiration from her own childhood experiences with the issue. Loken said that Moennig had never worked with an actress who was taller than she was in sex scenes. She joked that they were unsure of who should be "on top" during the scenes. A friendship storyline developed for Shane and Jenny Schecter (Mia Kirshner). Mia Kirshner wanted their relationship to become romantic. Moennig believed that the friendship was sweet and humanized them both. She added that "it was one of the few times where a type of relationship really took its time to grow." Despite Shane initially being labelled as androgynous rather than butch, a sex scene between Shane and Paige in season four showed a fantasy in which they were depicted as a 1950s butch and femme couple, respectively, and in The L Word: Generation Q, she is referred to as "Uncle Shane" by Angelica Porter-Kennard. Storylines The L Word In season one, Shane's ex-girlfriend Lacey begins harassing her. She is angry because Shane would not commit to a relationship. Lacey puts up posters and hands out flyers to locals to expose Shane's promiscuity. Shane confronts Lacey and accuses her of being scared of being on her own. Instead of going to the police, Shane convinces Lacey to stop the harassment by sleeping with her one last time. Following that pseudo-fiasco, Shane lets her old friend Clive (Matthew Currie Holmes) move in with her. She used to work alongside Clive as a male prostitute. Shane works at a salon called Lather. Through Clive she meets Harry Samchuck (Colin Cunningham), who sends his Hollywood friend to have her hair cut by Shane. This gives her the opportunity to network and secure important and high-paying Hollywood clients. Unfortunately, Shane is forced to throw Clive out of her home when he steals items and money in order to pay for drugs. Shane begins an affair with her client Cherie, a lesbian gold digger who has a family. Cherie convinces her wealthy husband Steve to invest in Shane's salon. Steve begins to suspect that Shane is sleeping with his daughter, Clea Jaffe (Samantha McLeod). However, Clea is in love with Shane and exposes her mother's affair with Shane. Believing that Shane seduced and turned both his wife and his daughter gay, Steve threatens to murder Shane if she ever comes near his family again. Shane tells Cherie that she loves her, but she refuses to leave her rich lifestyle. Shane moves in with Jenny and Mark Wayland (Eric Lively). Arianna Huffington hires Shane to cut her hair and so Shane is introduced to her production assistant Carmen, who is also a lesbian. After sex, Shane says she is not interested in relationships, but Carmen pursues her believing otherwise. They discover that Mark has been taping their sex lives for a lesbian documentary. Hollywood producer Veronica Bloom (Camryn Manheim) hires Shane and gets her to manipulate potential clients because Shane is naturally good at talking to people. Shane convinces a woman to sign the rights to her life story to Veronica. Shane quits when she unhappy with her actions. Carmen begins a relationship with Jenny, though the entire thing is merely to make Shane jealous, which Jenny soon discovers, prompting her to break up with Carmen. At the same time, Shane is still afraid to commit to a relationship after what she went through with Cherie. However, Shane eventually gets together with Carmen and confesses her love. Carmen introduces Shane to her family, but pretends that they are friends. The family grows fond of Shane and attempts to set her up on a date. This prompts Carmen to come out, but her homophobic family, particularly her mother, reject her and cease contact. Shane is hired at Wax, a skateboarding shop with a hair salon. Cherie visits Shane and tells her that she has divorced Steve, gaining a large portion of his fortune, and is still interested in her. Carmen performs a DJ set at Wax and Def Jam watch her performance. Shane notices Carmen flirting with their employees and reacts by sleeping with Cherie. Carmen confronts Shane, who tells her that she finds monogamy hard to live with. Shane stops showing an interest in sex, Carmen then accuses her of punishing her. She then tells Shane that she has cheated on her in revenge. Shane grieves for her friend Dana Fairbanks (Erin Daniels) and asks Carmen to marry her, who later accepts. Shane finds her father, Gabriel McCutcheon (Eric Roberts) and discovers that she has a half-brother, Shay. Helena Peabody (Rachel Shelley) finances the wedding and they travel to Whistler, British Columbia, where same-sex marriage is legal. When she notices Gabriel cheating on his wife Carla (Sarah-Jane Redmond), Shane realises that she may do the same to Carmen and jilts her. Heartbroken, Carmen leaves Shane for good. Shane later attempts to make amends with Carmen, but she is forcibly escorted off the premises by Carmen's cousins, who tell her Carmen never wants to see her again. Shane does a drug binge with Cherie, and Carla abandons Shane's half-brother, Shay. Shane does not want to be responsible for Shay, but lets him stay because she does not want him to have a life in foster care like she did. Shane starts modelling underwear for Hugo Boss AG to pay medical bills for Shay's broken arm. He makes friends with Jared. Shane becomes close to Jared's mother, Paige, and after numerous failed attempts, they have sex. Gabriel returns to take Shay home. Realizing she will not win custody of Shay, Shane is forced to let him leave. Shane and Paige go in search of a new home to share, but for no apparent reason, Shane has sex with their realtor while looking at a house. Paige tells Shane she is fine with Shane sleeping around, but Shane, ashamed of her actions, tells Paige that she is not in love with her and ends their relationship. Wax is later set on fire. Though visibly shocked, Shane does not file a police report, and Paige and Jared disappear shortly afterwards. It is initially assumed that Paige was responsible out of revenge, but Shane later claims that she burned Wax down herself; it is left unrevealed if this was the truth, or if Paige was the culprit but Shane lied in order to protect her from potentially going to prison and leaving Jared motherless. Shane later has sex with a mother and her two daughters separately on one of the daughters' wedding day. The fall out causes Shane to abstain from sex. However, she ends up not being able to abstain for long, and has a threesome with Dawn Denbo (Elizabeth Keener) and her oppressed lover Cindi (Alicia Leigh Willis), the owners of the newest lesbian club Shebar. When she sleeps with Cindi without Denbo's permission, Denbo sets out for revenge. Denbo tells Shane and her friends that she will ruin their lives. She starts a turf war between Shebar and The Planet. Molly Kroll (Clementine Ford) develops an attraction to Shane and they sleep together. Her mother Phyllis Kroll (Cybill Shepherd) talks to Molly about Shane, and Molly refers to Shane as "uneducated", "easy" and not smart. Shane overhears their conversation, so Molly tries to convince Shane that she loves her. They attempt to make their relationship work, but Phyllis' intervention puts an end to it (ironically, Phyllis herself had persuaded Molly to spend time with lesbians in the hopes that she herself would become a lesbian and understand her mother's own homosexuality). When Jenny breaks up with Niki Stevens, (Kate French), Shane has sex with Niki on a balcony and Jenny interrupts them. Molly gives Jenny a letter addressed to Shane, but Jenny hides it. Shane makes a series of gestures to earn Jenny's forgiveness to no avail. Jenny tells Shane that it was she who broke her heart, not Niki, because of their long friendship. She reveals that she's in love with Shane. Jenny and Shane enter a relationship which Alice discovers and reveals to their friends. Jenny's behavior becomes more erratic than usual and this alienates her friends against her. Shane ignores her friends' pleas for her to dump Jenny because she feels an obligation to Jenny. Shane starts sleeping with Niki. Jenny tells her she does not care, but makes her feel guilty about it. Shane has a chance meeting with Molly, who informs her about the letter she gave Jenny. Shane finds the letter in Jenny's attic along with many of other objects taken from their friends, prompting her to decide to end her relationship with Jenny. At Bette and Tina's party, Jenny is found dead in the pool, having committed suicide. Interrogation tapes Following Jenny's death, each of the characters are interrogated by the police for their individual motives for murdering Jenny. Though Shane is unable to divulge any information, she confesses that she burned down Wax herself, not Paige. As the tapes were initially intended for Alice to be wrongfully convicted of murder and serve as the basis for a cancelled women in prison-like series titled The Farm starring Alice and a new cast of characters, the canonicity of the tapes' content is now uncertain with the production of The L Word: Generation Q, leaving it unknown if it was Shane or Paige who burned Wax down. The L Word: Generation Q Over ten years after Jenny's death, Shane moves to Los Angeles, where she is reunited with Bette and Alice. It is revealed in dialogue that she previously opened but sold hair salons in Paris and New York, and has bought a house in Los Angeles. She is also married to Quiara, but they are estranged. On Bette and Alice's insistence, Shane allows Sarah Finley, one of Alice's employees, to help assemble her new furniture. Finley does not charge Shane for the favour, and in return, Shane allows Finley to move in with her. After Bette's mayoral candidacy is threatened by one of her previous sex scandals, Shane gives Bette her support, and is initially against Bette appearing on Alice's talk show to explain her side of the story and win back the people's faith, but relents. In the process, Shane has a one-night stand with the flight attendant from her plane to Los Angeles. Later, after ignoring most of Quiara's messages, Shane is finally sent divorce papers. In her depression, she goes to a bar run by lesbian lovers, Lena and Tess. She buys it and turns it into a local gay bar, "Dana's", putting Tess and Lena in charge. Shane begins a romantic relationship with Lena, meaning Lena is cheating on Tess. When Tess finds out, she break up with Lena and is angry at Shane for cheating with her former girlfriend. Shane finally answers a text message from Quiara, her estranged wife. Shane later celebrates her 40th birthday but does not seem enthusiastic, especially when she finally signs the divorce papers. At the birthday party, however, Quiara attends, to Shane's shock. Though Quiara is aware that Shane has signed, she tells Shane that she is pregnant, and still wants to be with Shane even if it means that she will have sole responsibility of bringing up the child. Along with their friends, Shane attends Angelica's school play and notices that Angelica appears to have a crush on her friend, Jordi. She subsequently gives Angelica advice on how to admit her feelings, which results in Jordi returning them and the two of them sharing a kiss. Touched by the moment, Shane agrees to rekindle her relationship with Quiara, and kindly asks Finley to move out. Later on, Shane goes with Quiara to hear the baby's heartbeat for the first time, but Shane later claims that she felt no emotion whatsoever, which frightens her, though Quiara assures her that it will be fine. However, Quiara later suffers a miscarriage and loses the baby. Though devastated for Quiara, Shane expresses surprise when Quiara does not grieve and casually states that she will get inseminated again as soon as possible, leading Shane to realize that Quiara only got inseminated to get her to resume their relationship out of obligation and guilt. Shane's reaction leads Quiara to believe that Shane was relieved at the baby's death. Realizing that Shane will never truly accept parenthood, Quiara leaves Shane for good and returns her wedding ring. In her depression, Shane adopts a homeless dog. Reception Shane was featured in AfterEllen's list of "Top 50 Favourite Female TV Characters". Their writer claimed that there was not a woman on earth who could resist the "charms of The L Word's resident Lothario". Stating further that Shane "like her iconic shag — could not be tamed and that's just how we liked her: wild and free". Fergus Shiel from The Age said that Moennig showed star potential and grew "more assured and engaging with each episode". He added that to "convolute matters sexually" is what Shane does best. While Gordon Farrer from the publication branded Shane a "highly sexed androgynous hairdresser". The Advocate's Kort said that Shane was the "show's classic stud woman". Kort had previously described her as a "rakish "fuck 'em and leave 'em" hairdresser, [who] proved to be the biggest dyke heartthrob of season 1." Charlie McCollum of The Charleston Gazette said Moennig gave a "particularly compelling performance" as the "predatory Shane who loves sex but hates commitment". Gail Shister from The Seattle Times opined that Shane was modeled on "Warren Beatty's libidinous hairdresser" from the film Shampoo and added that "doesn't do relationships". Mary Foulk from About.com said that Shane and Cherie "sizzle"; adding that their intimate pool scene "almost makes you forgive the infidelity" against Carmen. References External links Character profile on Showtime The L Word characters Fictional characters from Texas Television characters introduced in 2004 Fictional hairdressers Fictional lesbians Fictional models American female characters in television
4615213
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy%20Godmother%20%28Shrek%29
Fairy Godmother (Shrek)
The Fairy Godmother is a fictional character in DreamWorks' Shrek franchise, voiced by actress Jennifer Saunders. Introduced as the main antagonist of the second film, the Fairy Godmother is the mother of Prince Charming, who Princess Fiona was originally intended to wed prior to meeting Shrek. She plots against newlyweds Shrek and Fiona's relationship, using her magic and potions in an attempt to trick Fiona into falling in love with her son. She believes that ogres do not live happily ever after. Fairy Godmother is loosely based on the stock fairy godmother character in fairy tales, specifically "Cinderella" and "Sleeping Beauty", serving as a parody of the common trope. The Shrek franchise is based on William Steig's children's book Shrek!, which mentions a witch who predicts that Shrek will meet a donkey and marry a princess uglier than himself. Early drafts of the first film included a character named Dama Fortuna, a witch from whom Fiona receives the potion that modifies her enchantment, forcing her to alternate between her human and ogre forms on a nightly basis. Originally intended to reveal Fiona's backstory via prologue, the scene was discarded because it was deemed too depressing by test audiences. Wanting to incorporate some more fairy tale elements into the sequel, writer Ted Elliot reimagined the witch as Fiona's bigoted fairy godmother. Saunders recorded her role in four days and also provided her character's singing voice. Fairy Godmother has received mostly positive reviews from film critics, who appreciated her humor and villainy, as well as Saunders' performance, which some critics compared to her Absolutely Fabulous character Edina Monsoon. Saunders' performance earned her a People's Choice Award for Favorite Movie Villain. Development Creation Although loosely based on William Steig's children's book Shrek!, the Shrek franchise differs greatly from its source material, particularly pertaining to its main characters. In Steig's story, a witch foretells that Shrek will marry a princess she describes as uglier in appearance than Shrek himself, prompting the ogre to pursue her. The witch also predicts that Shrek will meet a donkey, who will play a prominent role throughout his journey. Early storyboards for Shrek (2001) featured a witch named Dama Fortuna, a character originally intended to have been voiced by actress Linda Hunt. The character was written for a sequence entitled "Fiona’s Prologue", which was intended to depict Princess Fiona's backstory and disclose how she came to be imprisoned in the first place. Having originally been born an ogre to human parents who lock her away, Fiona escapes her tower and seeks assistance from the elderly "gipsy-like" fortune teller Dama Fortuna. In addition to teaching the princess about her past, the witch is responsible for giving Fiona a potion that alters her curse, initially offering her a choice between two potions, one of which promises to turn Fiona beautiful once consumed, while the other guarantees Fiona's happy ever after. After Fiona drinks the "Beauty" to find that she is still an ogre, Dama Fortuna explains that the potion allows her to become human during the daytime, only to revert to her ogre form each sunset until the spell is broken by true love's kiss. The prologue was ultimately discarded because test audiences deemed it too depressing, prompting Hunt's departure. While discussing potential ideas for a sequel, DreamWorks recalled that they had enjoyed incorporating traditional fairy tale concepts into the franchise, specifically a fairy godmother "who eventually turned out to be a bit of a trickster". In May 2001, Ted Elliott, screenwriter of the first Shrek film, confirmed that a bigoted version of the Dama Fortuna character would be written into the sequel. Thus, the idea of Dama Fortuna was resurrected, and Fiona's fairy godmother was conceived as a magical entity whose use of magic and potions do not always benefit Shrek and Fiona. Thus, the character is considered to be a parody of traditional fairy godmother characters. When developing Shrek Forever After (2010), the filmmakers wanted the film's villain, Rumpelstiltskin, to be as different as possible from previous Shrek villains. Compared to Fairy Godmother, Rumpelstiltskin was envisioned as a "ratty, childish, scummy man" to contrast with Fairy Godmother's eloquence as a businesswoman. Voice and characterization Fairy Godmother is voiced by English comedian and actress Jennifer Saunders. Saunders recorded her entire role in only four days over the course of one year. The actress found working on an animated film to be liberating and found the experience to have several advantages as an actor, describing voice acting as a "perfect" career "because you get all these perks ... but you don't have to do any of that other, you know, filming ... no one's going to say, 'That movie didn't work because Jennifer Saunders' voice wasn't good'". Saunders concluded that performing in Shrek 2 (2004) "has been one of my favourite jobs in the world", additionally appreciating that critics and viewers were not able to judge her physical appearance. Saunders recorded her dialogue solely opposite director Andrew Adamson, who temporarily fulfilled all other characters' roles during Saunders' sessions. Saunders elaborated, "You feel that you've just done some stuff, and they then go away and pull it all apart and make this fantastic thing. Everyone in the cast has the same experience of the film ... It's like you haven't really been in it". Decca Aitkenhead of The Guardian believes Saunders "must have been the obvious choice for the producers of Shrek 2, for this ambiguous sensibility is the very essence of the film - a Hollywood send-up of Hollywood". At Saunders' request, the filmmakers allowed her to record a line of her character promising to return despite her death scene, as Saunders insisted that they would surely want to bring back Fairy Godmother in further installments, but the decision to kill off the character remained.Saunders provided all of her character's singing, recording two songs for the film. Saunders sang the "Fairy Godmother Song", a scene that parodies Disney's animated film Beauty and the Beast (1991) by featuring dancing furniture. Saunders also recorded a cover of Bonnie Tyler's "Holding Out for a Hero" (1984) for the film's soundtrack, which her character performs towards the end of film. During the sequence, Fairy Godmother sings while lying atop a grand piano, referencing Michelle Pfeiffer's sultry rendition of "Makin' Whoopee" in the film The Fabulous Baker Boys (1989). As Saunders had recorded most of her part in isolation, it was not until the film's premiere at Cannes Film Festival that she met her castmates, including Antonio Banderas and Julie Andrews, who voiced Puss in Boots and Queen Lillian, respectively. The Dallas Observer journalist Robert Wilonsky found it interesting that Saunders, as opposed to Andrews, received two songs in the film. In terms of animation, Shrek 2 featured more human characters and complex costumes than its predecessor, among them the Fairy Godmother, who wears a floor-length one-piece gown. The final design was assembled using a combination of "an upper portion deformed by the character technical drawing and a lower section simulated by the clothing department". Christopher Fiduccia of Screen Rant believed Saunders closely resembled her character, describing their facial features as "pretty much identical". Saunders described her character as "an attractive blonde with blue eyes, a tan and a nice smile". Writing for Variety, Todd McCarthy wrote that the character's appearance consists of "stylishly swept-back gray hair, glasses perched skeptically down her nose and constantly whirring wings keeping her airborne like a hummingbird". Michael O'Sullivan, writing for The Washington Post, described Fairy Godmother as "as far from the benign, Disney-fied wand-waver as possible". Comparing the character to Sleeping Beauty's Maleficent, Beliefnet described Fairy Godmother as villainous despite her "sweet and motherly" outward appearance. Likening her to a stage mother by "looking to advance her own child’s status, and thereby her own, through cut-throat methods", the author observed that the character "fulfills wishes as a business, with little heed to consequences. She has her own ulterior motives and isn’t afraid to manipulate, threaten, or blackmail to reach her objectives". The author concluded that the character can be used as "an example of the negative effects of forcing our own goals onto someone who trusts us. If we manipulate them for our own ends, we violate that sacred trust, and rob them of their ability to follow their own best path". Josh Larsen of the Chicago Suburbs News wrote that the character behaves "like a magically powered plastic surgeon". The character's bubble motif references Glinda the Good Witch from The Wizard of Oz (1939). James Kendrick of Qnetwork.com deemed the character "a perfectly distilled satirical jab at corporate ruthlessness". Appearances Fairy Godmother first appears in Shrek 2 as the mother of Prince Charming, who had originally planned to rescue Fiona and become heir to the kingdom of Far, Far Away. Newly married Shrek and Fiona visit Far, Far Away to meet Fiona's parents for the first time, who are surprised to learn that Fiona has both married an ogre and remained one herself. When Fairy Godmother discovers that Fiona has married Shrek instead of Charming as originally intended, the character plots to manipulate Fiona into marrying her son, conspiring with Fiona's father King Harold to uphold a deal they had once made and kill Shrek in the process. Fairy Godmother also manages a potion factory, from which Shrek steals a potion in hope of becoming handsome to win his father in-law's approval. Shrek, Puss, and Donkey stop by her office and Shrek tells Fairy Godmother that Fiona is not feeling happy. She went to her library of Fairy Tales and for every book she went through she said "no ogres". She said to Shrek that ogres don't live happily ever after. Shrek got angry and insulted Shrek for pointing his dirty green sausages at her. She asks them to leave. After Shrek consumes the potion that turns both him and Fiona into attractive versions of themselves, Fairy Godmother tries to trick Fiona into believing that Charming is Shrek but she resists his new personality. Partnering with Charming and King Harold, Fairy Godmother instructs Harold to give Fiona a potion that, once consumed, will force her to fall in love with the first person she kisses, intending for it to be Charming. At Shrek and Fiona's wedding ball, Harold reveals that he intentionally did not give Fiona the potion. Angered, Fairy Godmother punishes Shrek and aims a blast from her wand at him, which is deflected by Harold who ultimately turns into a frog in the process and turns the Fairy Godmother into bubbles, killing her. Fiona chooses not to kiss Shrek in favor of the pair returning to their ogre forms so that she can remain married to the ogre she fell in love with. In Shrek the Third (2007), the Fairy Godmother was seen in a picture on Prince Charming's vanity that said "mommy's little angel". In Shrek Forever After, the Fairy Godmother was not seen but she was mentioned in a flashback when King Harold told Queen Lillian that Fairy Godmother said that true love's kiss can break Fiona's curse. Lillian told him she does not trust Fairy Godmother and thought that Rumplestiltskin could end Fiona's curse. The character also appears in the video game adaptations Shrek 2 (2004) and Shrek Forever After: The Video Game (2010). Reception Critical response Teen Ink hailed Fairy Godmother as "the perfect villain", while Angie Errigo of Empire described her as a fun character. ReelViews' James Berardinelli described Saunders' performance as "perfectly nasty". Hugh Hart of the San Francisco Chronicle believed Saunders had won most of the film's "big laughs", while JoBlo.com's Berge Garabedian described her as a "nice rendition" of the classic character. Dan DeMaggio of Metro Times wrote that the character was "forever stealing the show", describing her as "a cross between a Mary Kay cosmetics saleswoman and Angela Lansbury in The Manchurian Candidate". Joe Morgenstern, film critic for The Wall Street Journal, cited Fairy Godmother as an example of the film "match[ing] vivid vocal performances with engaging new characters". Sympatico's Angela Baldassarre cited Fairy Godmother as an appealing character who "provide[s] the fodder needed to make this the must-see comedy of the season." Jon Niccum, writing for the Lawrence Journal-World, reviewed that Fairy Godmother especially "adds flavor" to the film. Writing for Slate, film critic David Edelstein deemed Fairy Godmother a "remarkable creation, like the sugary/steely face of the modern Disney", while the Deseret News' Jeff Vice observed that the character constantly steals the scene from Shrek and Fiona. The Spinoff's Josie Adams considered Fairy Godmother "the only part of [the film] worth pissing yourself for." Writing for Game Rant, Victoria Rose Caister called the character a smart, fun villain who is "evil but also entertaining to watch and kind of likable." The Washington Post's Michael O'Sullivan wrote that Saunders "brings a deliciously nasty edge to her role". Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net wrote that the actress "delivers a fine performance", concluding, "If you liked her in Absolutely Fabulous, you’ll enjoy her in Shrek 2." Pete Vonder Haar of Film Threat observed that Saunders "seems to enjoy giving voice to the Fairy Godmother", preferring her over Charming. Kevin Lally of Film Journal International wrote that Saunders steals "the rest of the show ... bringing her Absolutely Fabulous haughtiness and wicked wit to the role", while Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail reviewed Fairy Godmother as some of Saunders' best work, hailing her character's entrance as "a gorgeous piece of animation". Also comparing Fairy Godmother to Saunders' Absolutely Fabulous character Edina Monsoon, The Guardian journalist Decca Aitkenhead described her as "an ambitious fag hag who bullies the royals as if they were her family in Ab Fab", believing that her performance, humor and delivery can only be rivaled by Eddie Murphy's Donkey. Variety film critic Todd McCarthy wrote that Saunders did "her best to elevate" the film via a performance he described as "worthy of the most cunning storybook characters." McCarthy also identified the addition of musical numbers to Saunders' performance as a bonus. Logan Raschke of The Daily Eastern News concluded the character "wouldn't be who she is if it wasn't for Jennifer Saunders (and fantastic writing)", describing the actress's portrayal as "stern, controlled and yet gentle when need be." The A. V. Club's Tom Breihan said Saunders "has audible fun" in the role. Christian website Crosswalk.com deemed some of Fairy Godmother's behaviour "objectionable" and "unnecessary", particularly the scene in which she "writhes on a piano, singing a sexy song." Despite believing that Andrews could have voiced the character well, Bill Beyrer of CinemaBlend felt that Saunders "did a bang up job", but found the character's appearance to be too realistic at times. In a more negative review, the San Francisco Chronicle film critic Mick LaSalle found the character too distracting from Shrek and Fiona's storyline, continuing, "The filmmakers invest too much time and faith in the idea of the fairy godmother as being wickedly amusing, but she's no Cruella De Vil, and the movie suffers." However, LaSalle enjoyed Fairy Godmother's performance of "Holding Out for a Hero" nonetheless. Michael Sragow, film critic for The Baltimore Sun, wrote that "Not even ... Saunders can add zing to the script's rough sketch of a sorceress", dismissing her as "a female impersonator caught in a female body, promoting specialties that are the fairy-tale equivalents of super-extreme makeovers." The Seattle Post-Intelligencer's Paula Nechak felt that Fairy Godmother grew "tedious", believing that she "exist[s] solely to drive the plot." While reviewing Shrek Forever After (2010), Beth Patch of the Christian Broadcasting Network expressed gratitude that Fairy Godmother was "no longer part of the cast", having been replaced by Rumpelstiltskin as the film's villain. Recognition Screen Rant ranked Fairy Godmother the third best DreamWorks villain, with author Matthew Wilkson attributing her high placement to her deceptively kind nature. The author crowned her "one of the most memorable villains in the history of Dreamworks". Saunders won Favorite Movie Villain at the 31st People's Choice Awards, one of five awards Shrek 2 won at the ceremony. Allison J. Scharmann, contributing to the Harvard Crimson, believed the "franchise would not be complete without the sequel’s introduction of Fairy Godmother". The Daily Edge ranked Fairy Godmother the seventh reason "we need to appreciate Shrek more than we already do", with author Rachel O'Neill describing the character as "a STUNNING villain" who is "constantly fixing all the problems the men in her life cause her". Bailey Rymes of Her Campus called Fairy Godmother the main reason she considers Shrek 2 the second best film in the series, describing her as an icon. Her Campus ranked Fairy Godmother the second "Top 10 Female Villains in Animation", with contributor Lilivette Domínguez writing, "instead of hating to love her, you love to hate her because she is a likable villain ... you can’t really hate her because she was smarter than everyone else". Entertainment Weekly recognized Fairy Godmother as one of "13 who have us under their spell". Ranking the Fairy Godmother's performance of "Holding Out for a Hero" as the best song in the Shrek franchise, Grace Kinnicutt of Odyssey wrote "Fairy Godmother's outfit? She's slaying it. The song? A banger ... what more could you ask for in such a song?" At the 90th Academy Awards in 2018, several fans compared actress Meryl Streep's red gown, up-do hairstyle and glasses to Fairy Godtmother's on social media. Fans also suggested that the actress play the character in a live-action adaptation of the film. References Female characters in animated films Film characters introduced in 2004 Animated characters introduced in 2004 Female film villains Fictional characters who use magic Fictional business executives Fictional fairies and sprites Fictional female businesspeople Shrek (franchise) characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.%20Heileman%20Brewing%20Company
G. Heileman Brewing Company
The G. Heileman Brewing Company of La Crosse, Wisconsin, United States, was a brewer that operated from 1858 to 1996. It was ultimately acquired by Stroh's. From 1872 until its acquisition, the brewery bore the family name of its co-founder and brewer Gottlieb Heileman. Background In 1858, Gottlieb Heileman, an immigrant from Württemberg, joined in a business venture with John Gund, an immigrant from Baden. Together, the pair founded The City Brewery in La Crosse, Wisconsin in 1858. The City Brewery produced beer at a modest rate, sticking to just local and regional production. The beer produced at the City Brewery primarily went to local hotels and bars. Because hotels and bars were their primary target, Heileman and Gund collaborated on the International Hotel, formerly the Augusta Hotel, which the pair bought and rebuilt after a fire in 1862. In 1872, however, the pair had a falling out due to several factors, foremost among them being Gund's desire to expand the brewery and Heileman's desire to stay local. Following the dissolution of the partnership, Gund bought Heileman's shares of the International Hotel and Heileman bought Gund's shares of the City Brewery. Gund went on to found the Gund Brewing Company whereas Heileman renamed the City Brewery the G. Heileman's City Brewery. History 1872–1920 The G. Heileman Brewery came to exist after the dissolution of the Gund/Heileman partnership in 1872. Still under Heileman's direction, the company remained a local brewery, producing only 3,000 barrels of beer a year for La Crosse and the surrounding community. In 1878, Heileman died. Because the company was family held, following Heileman's death, ownership passed on to his widow, Johanna Heileman, who was to control the company until their nine-year-old son, Henry, was ready to take over. With her brother-in-law as foreman in the brewery, the Heileman Brewery finally started expanding. By 1880 they were producing more than 7,000 barrels of beer. Eventually, Johanna's son-in-law, Emil T. Mueller, joined the family business. The three of them incorporated the company in 1890, calling it the G. Heileman Brewing Company – the name it held until its closing in 1991. Following the death of Henry Heileman, the heir to the company, in 1895, Mueller became vice president of the company, behind only Johanna, one of the first female CEO's in the history of the United States. It was also around the time of Henry's death that Heileman began developing their historic Old Style Brand. By 1902, the company was producing around 160,000 barrels of Old Style Lager. It was also that year that the company voted in a union, the last brewer in La Crosse to do so, allowing the company to expand even further. By 1915, Heileman had expanded to serving over 30 states. Johanna died in 1917, shortly after reaching 34 distribution states and only three years before Prohibition began in 1920. 1920–1933 Prohibition was signed into law officially on January 17, 1920, making it illegal to produce any beverage with more than half a percent of alcohol. Heileman quickly reorganized, dropping their Old Style Lager in favor of a new product, New Style Lager, which contained less than ½ a percent of alcohol. Heileman also began producing soda beverages and "malt tonics" with very little success – the company only sold 20,000 barrels in 1926. The company finally hit success with their production of barley malt syrup, legally sold as a sweetener but which they made with the intention of consumers using it in private beer-making. Thus, Heileman barely made it through Prohibition. Gund Brewery, founded after the Heileman/Gund partnership broke up, was unable to stay afloat during this time. A fire in September 1931 almost ran Heileman out of business, causing upwards of $50,000 in damages. The company continued to squeak by until President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Congress modified the meaning of the 18th Amendment by removing beer and light wines from the Federal Government's definition of "alcoholic beverages", after which Heileman resumed all beer-making operations. 1933–1971 Following the end of Prohibition, the Heileman family members sold their shares of the company to Paul Davis Company of Chicago in 1933, who formalized the company as The G. Heileman Brewing Company Incorporated; the new company president signed the very first stocks of Heileman that same year. Throughout the 1930s, the company continued to expand their facilities to accommodate increased production needs. There was a major upgrade in the mid 1930s following the creation of Special Export, Heileman's second house brew. Whereas Old Style Lager was only around 4% alcohol, Special Export was over 6%. There was a brief slowing in production during World War II, when the company was impacted by the rationing going on in the country. It was also during WWII that the company took a different approach to brewing and marketing. Heileman began producing several new labels, none of which were as well done as their previous two labels, Old Style Lager and Special Export. Previously, marketing campaigns stressed the quality of their products, but with the influx of labels, Heileman began focusing on the prices and consumer appeal. The focus away from quality led to a sharp decrease in sales by the end of WWII. Not only did marketing change, but a strike at the La Crosse Brewery in 1948 shut down operations down for three months. Roy E. Kumm took over as president in 1957. A long-time employee at Heileman, Kumm remembered Heileman's prior to World War II and wanted to return the company to that position. He developed the strategy that Heileman would follow for the next three decades: Expand to new markets Increase capacity Offer vastly different brands to appeal to a wide range of people. While a fire in 1959 caused over $100,000 in damages, and almost derailed Kumm's efforts, the company stayed on track. They continued to expand under Kumm by purchasing new breweries and labels. Kumm also introduced a German-style beer festival modeled on the Oktoberfest in Munich, and beer by that name to the La Crosse region to increase the sales of Heileman beers. The La Crosse, Wisconsin, Oktoberfest USA celebration was trademarked with the federal government that same year. Between the end of WWII and 1971, Heileman had jumped from 39th in the brewing industry to 15th. 1971–1987 In the 1960s, Heilemen hired Russell G. Cleary, Kumm's son-in-law. Following Kumm's death from stomach cancer in 1971, Cleary took over as president. Building on a strategy begun by his predecessors, Cleary accelerated an acquisition and consolidation effort in the 1970s and early 1980s. Through his efforts, Cleary was able to get Heileman stock traded at the New York Stock Exchange on May 23, 1973. During this period, the company owned several breweries in other states. Historic U.S. brewing names that were consolidated into G. Heileman during its final years include Black Label, Blatz, Blitz-Weinhard, Drewry's, Falls City, Grain Belt, Gluek Brewing, National Bohemian, Olympia, Rainier, Christian Schmidt, Jacob Schmidt, and Wiedemann. Several of the acquisitions were met with legal issues regarding the Sherman Antitrust Act, limiting monopolization of markets, despite a majority of industry analysts calling that many of Heileman's proposed acquisitions would only intensify, not monopolize, the industry. With such hostility towards Heileman when they tried buying other breweries, the company began expanding into different industries such as baking, snack foods, and mineral water, including a Heileman original, La Croix. By 1982 the brewing capacity in LaCrosse had been increased to 10 million barrels per year. The total brewing capabilities of Heileman, combined with acquired facilities, peaked at fourth place in 1983, behind Anheuser-Busch, Miller, and Stroh Brewery Company. The company at the time was making over 17 million barrels per year, with annual sales of $1.3 billion. After achieving the #4 market share position in 1983, Heileman's sales went unchanged throughout the middle years of the 1980s. Analysts pointed to extremely heavy and competitive marketing pressures during this period. In 1987 Australia-based corporate raider Alan Bond began a hostile leveraged buyout in an attempt to take over the company. Heileman's management repeatedly rebuffed his efforts, but Bond was ultimately successful when Cleary accepted the reality that even with the assistance of the courts (which had intervened to force a higher offer price) he'd only be able to negotiate the "best possible deal for employees, stockholders, and the city of La Crosse". 1987–1996 Bond, who already controlled the Tooheys name and almost 50% of the brewing industry in Australia, hoped to build a worldwide brewing combine. Lacking cash, he had financed the acquisition of G. Heileman with junk bonds. The collapse of Bond's over-leveraged financial empire led indirectly to the end of Heileman's existence as an independent brewer. Cleary stayed on as director for an additional two years before finally retiring from the company in 1989. As a direct result of the Alan Bond collapse, the G. Heileman Brewing Company declared bankruptcy in January 1991. The troubled firm sought salvation with an aggressive push into the malt liquor market. In a controversial move, company leadership developed a new brand of malt liquor to be named "Power Master". It was brewed with an ABV of 7.4%, significantly higher than existing malt liquor brands. Protestors cited Heileman's distribution and advertising strategies as evidence that the company was targeting the high-alcohol beverage toward urban African-Americans, especially in Chicago, one of Heileman's core markets. Catholic priest Father Michael Pfleger took a leading role in opposing Power Master, helping to organize a threatened boycott of one of Heileman's well established malt liquor brands, Colt 45, which, at the time, had an alcohol percentage of 5.6%. The Colt 45 boycott was called off in July 1991 when the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives succeeded in persuading Heileman to pull the "Power Master" brand from the market. Heileman continued to decline. After originally agreeing to a purchase price of $390 million in late 1993, the private equity firm Hicks, Muse bought the company in 1994 for $300 million. Two years later it sold Heileman to Detroit-based competitor Stroh Brewery Company, which assumed its outstanding debt. Overwhelmed by this and additional debt piled up absorbing other breweries, Stroh's failed. It was sold off in 1999, divvied up between Pabst and Miller, and the brand dissolved in 2000. The G. Heileman's brewery names, brands, and intellectual properties, ended up with Pabst, which oversaw the brewing of several well-known Heileman brands, including Old Style and Special Export, under the G. Heileman name. Breweries Throughout Kumm and Cleary's tenures as company president and CEO, they went on a campaign of acquisition and consolidations, resulting in Heileman's purchase of 16 breweries through the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Five of those breweries came with the purchase of the Carling Brewery plants and labels. However, the most breweries under the House of Heileman umbrella at any one time was thirteen (for a brief period in 1983). Brands Heileman introduced numerous beers under its own brand name, for both annual and seasonal consumption. Two of the best known are Old Style in 1902, and Special Export in 1934. Seeking to capitalize on contemporary trends, Heileman also debuted a sparkling water, La Croix, in 1981. Old Style Old Style was the first brand created by Heileman. Heileman purchased the trademarks for Golden Leaf in 1899, and to complement their lighter beer, the company created The Old Times Lager in 1900. Old Times Lager was changed to Old Style Lager after a lawsuit in 1902, and remained Old Style for the remainder of the brand's life. The company bought the rights to the Old Style label and a Grenadier holding a stein, for their advertisements, in 1905. Despite the trademark of the brand, several competitors created beers with similar sounding names, prompting Heileman to add a red triangle to their advertisements in 1914, indicating that anything without the red triangle is not genuine Old Style brand. Heileman had to discontinue Old Style Lager during Prohibition, opting for a new brand, New Style Lager, which they sold as a near-beer (beer that contains less than 0.5% alcohol). New Style, along with the malt syrups Heileman sold, got the company through Prohibition and Old Style Lager returned. The company continued with the Old Style Lager name for the next decade, changing the name of the brand in 1957 when Kumm became president. Instead of being called Old Style Lager, it was re-branded to be just Old Style. Throughout Kumm and his predecessor's terms as president, the brand was popular throughout Wisconsin, the Chicago metro area, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Michigan, and North Dakota. The brand was so popular in the Chicago area that it became one of the sponsors for the Chicago Cubs. Old Style debuted as the #71 beer on the list of top 100 beers by the Cold Cans podcast. Acquisitions Over the course of Heileman's history, and especially during Kumm and Cleary's times at the company, there was quite a bit of brand acquisition, totaling around 400 individual labels, falling under over 50 different brands. Below is a table of selected brands. King Gambrinus King Gambrinus is a legendary Germanic king and is regarded today as the Patron Saint and sometimes regarded as the guardian of beer and brewing, making him a prominent figure in the brewing industry. Heileman is one of the many breweries throughout the world that uses King Gambrinus as their mascot. Pabst Brewing Company is another American brewer to do so. Heileman's history with King Gambrinus goes back to 1939 when the company purchased a 15-foot, 2,000 pound statue of the figure from a failing brewery in New Orleans for $100. It was placed outside the brewery and remains there even today. The company commissioned a second statue of the King in the late 1970s, contracting local artist Elmer Petersen to create an eight-foot bronze. The second statue was finished and installed in front of the G. Heileman Corporate Headquarters in La Crosse, WI in 1980. It was named "King Gambrinus: Patron Saint and Guardian of Beer", and nicknamed "Gammy" by the Heileman employees to avoid confusion with the King Gambrinus statue outside the brewery. The original statue was vandalized in early 2015, so the City Brewery replaced it with an exact replica in September 2016. "Gammy" was put in storage after some weather related damage, but is in the process of being re-bronzed to make it more durable. Today As of 2021 G. Heileman's Brewing Company remains defunct. Its flagship brewery in La Crosse is owned and operated by the City Brewing Company, which purchased it from Pabst in 1999. City chose to use Heileman's name from 1858–1872. It does not have ownership rights over the intellectual property, including beer brand names, associated with the G. Heileman Brewing Company. It brews beer, including Old Style under contract, and packages bottled tea, soft drinks, and energy drinks. City's own labels are La Crosse Lager and Kul Light. World's Largest Six Pack In 1969 designer Roy Wilson and the G. Heileman Brewing Company constructed a set of metal tanks adjacent to their La Crosse brewery holding a total of 22,220 barrels of beer. These were used for inventory storage, and were painted to resemble a six-pack of Old Style, referred to by the brewery as the "World's Largest Six-Pack". As of 2021 City Brewing was still using them, with the Old Style paint job replaced by vinyl plastic sheaths printed to resemble City's own La Crosse Lager. In August of 2023, Pabst announced that the brewing of Old Style would return to the City Brewing factory in November. With the return of the brewing, the World's Largest Six Pack also got an update. The metal tanks were given a new vinyl plastic stealth that now resembles what an Old Style can look like when you purchase one. See also Beer in Milwaukee List of defunct breweries in the United States Notes External links Return of the World's Largest Six Pack 1858 establishments in Wisconsin 1996 disestablishments in Wisconsin American companies established in 1858 Food and drink companies disestablished in 1996 Food and drink companies established in 1858 Beer brewing companies based in Wisconsin Defunct brewery companies of the United States History of Wisconsin La Crosse, Wisconsin Pabst Brewing Company
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Hunter%20%C3%97%20Hunter%20characters
List of Hunter × Hunter characters
The Hunter × Hunter manga series, created by Yoshihiro Togashi, features an extensive cast of characters. It takes place in a fictional universe where licensed specialists known as Hunters travel the world taking on special jobs ranging from treasure hunting to assassination. The story initially focuses on Gon Freecss and his quest to become a Hunter in order to find his father, Ging, who is himself a famous Hunter. On the way, Gon meets and becomes close friends with Killua Zoldyck, Kurapika and Leorio Paradinight. Although most characters are human, most possess superhuman strength and/or supernatural abilities due to Nen, the ability to control one's own life energy or aura. The world of the series also includes fantastical beasts such as the Chimera Ants or the Five great calamities. Protagonists Gon Freecss is an athletic, naïve, and friendly boy. Having spent a lot of time in the woods as a child, he gets along very well with animals and has superhuman senses such as heightened sense of smell and sight, as well as very keen taste. Raised by Mito, Gon wants to become a Hunter in order to find his father, Ging, who is a Hunter as well. During the Hunter Exam Gon befriends Killua Zoldyck, Kurapika and Leorio Paradinight. After successfully becoming a licensed Hunter, Gon and Killua learn about Nen from Wing and later train further under Biscuit Krueger. After becoming one of the first people to beat Greed Island, and helping to stop the Chimera Ants, Gon meets his father.. Following the meeting with his father, Gon decides to return to Whale Island and reunites with Mito . Killua Zoldyck is initially introduced as a cheeky, cheerful and mischievous kid who befriends Gon during the Hunter Exam. His ruthlessness and aptitude in killing show the other side of him — deadly, violent, and bloodthirsty. A member of the famous Zoldyck Family of assassins, Killua has been trained to be an assassin since birth and conditioned to possess extreme tolerance for poison, electricity and overall pain. Although Killua fails during his first Hunter Exam by killing an opponent due to his elder brother Illumi's influence, he attends the exam again the following year, earning his license by eliminating all other applicants in the very first trial. Killua and Gon learn about Nen from Wing and later train further under Biscuit Krueger. He becomes one of the first people to beat Greed Island, helps stop the Chimera Ants, and uses his sibling Alluka's special abilities to heal the dying Gon. As Gon is about to meet Ging, Killua decides to part ways and travel the world with Alluka . Conflicting with Killua's predisposition to kill is his unyielding loyalty to his new friends, as Killua puts them before himself without a single complaint. His greatest flaw is initially his fear of those seemingly more powerful than him, a result of Illumi's instructions to be extremely cautious and only engage in combat if victory is absolutely certain. Showing great promise from birth, he possesses extraordinary agility and strength as a one-man killing machine. Killua has mastered many killing techniques at a tender age and is set to be one of the best assassins his family has ever produced. His Nen type is Transmutation, which he utilizes by altering his aura into electricity. His Hatsu involves various uses of electricity to increase his physical capabilities, such as , which allows him to move at immeasurable speeds. Killua is a popular character with fans, coming in first place in the series' first two popularity polls. Kurapika is the sole survivor of the , a race with treasured irises that turn scarlet in times of anger or emotional turmoil. Four years before the series, the entire Kurta clan was eradicated by a criminal group known as the Phantom Troupe, who desecrated the Kurta's bodies by stealing their scarlet eyes, thereafter selling them on the black market. He participates in the Hunter Exam alongside Gon, Leorio and Killua in order to become a Blacklist Hunter and gain the resources to take vengeance for his people and retrieve their eyes. Despite his morals, Kurapika is not above adjoining himself to society's underworld — he aligns himself with the Nostrade mafia family as soon as the opportunity presents itself, and soon becomes head of Nostrade's bodyguards. Normally intelligent, quick-thinking and levelheaded, upon sight of a spider, the symbol of the Phantom Troupe, he becomes enraged. He kills Uvogin, causes Pakunoda's death, and seals Chrollo Lucilfer's Nen. He is later invited to join the Zodiacs as the "Rat" at Leorio's recommendation, and only accepts upon being told that Tserriednich Hui Guo Rou has the last batch of eyes that he needs to retrieve. This leads to his accompanying Woble Hui Guo Rou to the Dark Continent as her bodyguard. Kurapika's Nen type is Conjuration. However, when his eyes turn scarlet, he becomes a Specialist. He conjures a unique weapon — five chains, extending from each finger on his right hand. His ring finger, , has a ball on the end used for dowsing and normal defensive and offensive purposes. Kurapika entered into a Nen contract for the chain on his middle finger, ; in order to have an unbreakable chain that will fully incapacitate members of the Phantom Troupe, he offered his life should he use it on anyone other than its members. His thumb chain, , heals any injury with the crucifix on the end. His little finger, , stabs an enemy's heart, allowing Kurapika to issue a command, which kills the enemy if not followed. His index finger, , uses the syringe on the end to extract someone's aura and Nen ability. His specialist ability, , allows him to utilize 100% of all types of Nen but shortens his lifespan by one hour every second he uses it. When he uses his index finger with Emperor Time activated, it turns into , a dolphin-like figure only he can see that allows him to use the stolen ability, informing him on its basic details, and grant the stolen ability to someone else (who then sees Stealth Dolphin as well) for a single use. Kurapika was inspired by the Ohmu in Hayao Miyazaki's Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind. Kurapika is a popular character with fans, coming in second place in the series' first two popularity polls. Leorio Paradinight is a teen that looks like a young adult who befriends Gon, Kurapika and Killua during the Hunter Exam. After losing a friend to a curable illness he could not afford the treatment for, Leorio decides to become a Hunter, seeking the large financial gains of the profession to become a doctor and treat the impoverished for free. Though he is often outshone by the genius combat abilities of Gon and Killua, Leorio is rather talented. After becoming a licensed Hunter, Leorio assists his friends in their encounter with the Phantom Troupe from the sidelines. He resurfaces while Gon is hospitalized and enters the running to become the next Chairman of the Hunter Association, finishing in second place. Leorio is later invited to become a member of the Zodiacs as the "Boar" and joins their expedition to the Dark Continent. When the Black Whale finally sets sail, Leorio starts working at the medical facility on the third deck under Cheadle Yorkshire. Killua suspects that Leorio's Nen type is Emission after seeing him teleport a punch across a room with a wormhole. Leorio is a popular character with fans, coming in fifth and sixth place in the series' first two popularity polls. Antagonists Hisoka Morow is a magician and serial killer who combines magic tricks with violence, and delights in battling those he considers strong to the point of sexual arousal. He is deceitful, playful, and narcissistic by nature, acting only in his own self-interest. In the manga, his sentences typically end with a suit symbol. Hisoka takes an interest in Gon and his friends after encountering them during the Hunter Exam, letting them live so that they grow into more worthy opponents. Although he is initially positioned as an antagonist due to his affinity towards murder, he occasionally acts as a comrade to Gon, when it suits his own interests. Hisoka is revealed to be member number four of the Phantom Troupe, although he only joined for a chance to fight their leader, Chrollo Lucilfer. He leaves the group when Chrollo's Nen is sealed by Kurapika and sets out to find a way to break the seal. Having succeeding in this task, Hisoka dies after fighting Chrollo in Heavens Arena, but revives himself, and goes on a killing rampage against the Phantom Troupe. Hisoka is currently believed to be on board the Black Whale, where he is being hunted by the Phantom Troupe and the Xi-Yu and Cha-R mafia families. Hisoka's Nen type is Transmutation, allowing him to change the type or properties of his aura. He most often uses , which gives his aura the properties of both rubber and gum. He also uses , which allows him to reproduce the texture of his choice on any flat surface; such as making a handkerchief appear to be skin. Hisoka is a popular character with fans, coming in fourth and fifth place in the series' first two popularity polls. Phantom Troupe The , also known as the , is a gang of thieves with a 13 membership ever-changing roster. New entrants to the organization are chosen by their leader Chrollo, and those who kill a member may take their place. Each member bears a numbered tattoo of a 12-legged spider. Chrollo and the founding members of the Phantom Troupe originated in the slum , the residents of which do not exist in any official records, an ideal recruiting ground for criminal organizations. Although they mainly steal and kill, they occasionally do philanthropic work. Currently, after he murdered two of their members following his defeat by Chrollo, the Phantom Troupe are on board the Black Whale hunting down Hisoka for revenge. Chrollo Lucilfer is the founder and leader of the Phantom Troupe, bearing the number 0, and is considered by its members as irreplaceable despite putting the Troupe before himself. Surprisingly, Chrollo is right in the middle in terms of the Troupe's physical strength, at seventh place. Chrollo led the genocide of the Kurta Clan, which resulted in its sole survivor Kurapika vowing to punish all of the Spiders. After meeting in Yorknew City, Chrollo is afflicted by Kurapika's ability which forbids the use of his own Nen as well as any contact with his subordinates. Some time later, Hisoka acquires an exorcist to remove Kurapika's seal in order to finally challenge Chrollo to a fight. Chrollo wins the match and seemingly kills him. After Hisoka reveals himself to still be alive and begins killing off members of the Troupe, he and the rest of the Spiders board the Black Whale. His Nen type is Specialization and his ability allows him to directly steal and use the abilities of other Nen users, which he stores in a Conjured book. Chrollo came in fourth place in the series' second popularity poll. Bonolenov Ndongo is covered in bandages and wears boxing gloves, and bears the number 10 in the Troupe. These bandages cover up a large number of holes throughout his body. During the Chimera Ant arc, he fights with the other members of the Phantom Troupe against the Chimera Ants. His physical power ranks eighth among the Troupe. Bonolenov is a descendant of the , a small wild tribe that was chased out of their lands by development. When males of the Gyudondond tribe reach the age of three, they are circumcised and needles are inserted in various parts of their body. Over time, these needles are replaced with thicker sticks, and the holes are stabilized with bamboo stalks or stones. Using these holes, Gyudondond males are able to create a variety of sounds through air flow. They are called , the dancing warriors, and fulfill the role of shamans and performers in their tribe. Before combat, they use their bodies to play songs of battle. The Gyudondond believe that the more beautiful a sound that is played, the greater the spirit it can summon. Bonolenov uses the various songs he makes as a medium to materialize different effects (from an armor and spear to a scaled-down planet Jupiter) through his Conjuration Nen ability, titled . Feitan Portor is one of the original members hailing from Meteor City and bears the number 2 in the Troupe. He's physically the fifth strongest member in Troupe. He is attired in what one would expect from a bandit—dark clothes partnered with a skullhead scarf that covers his mouth. He seldom speaks, but when he does, it is full of grammatical errors, giving the impression that he is not speaking in his native tongue. During the Phantom Troupe's fight with Chimera Ants, Feitan reverts to his native language, shown with Chinese characters. After Feitan's victory over Zazan in Meteor City, he is crowned temporary leader of the Phantom Troupe. Feitan's movements are incredibly fast, being able to leave afterimages of his body. He wields an umbrella that conceals both a sword and a gun. He later appears on the Black Whale with Phinks, Franklin, and Nobunaga. His Nen type is Transmutation. His ability transforms the injuries he has received from his enemy into an attack. The more pain he receives, the stronger his attack. Currently, only has been revealed, a miniature sun that burns anyone around him, even allies, as shown by the rest of the Phantom Troupe fleeing the scene when he uses it. Only Feitan is unaffected by the attack, presumably because of the armor that is formed on him. Feitan came in tenth place in the series' second popularity poll. Franklin Bordeau is very large, with multiple facial scars similar to that of Frankenstein's monster, and bears the number 7. He ranks fourth in physical power among the Troupe and is among the original members hailing from Meteor City. Franklin, along with the rest of the Phantom Troupe, is aboard the Black Whale. Franklin's Nen type is Emission. His ability is called and allows him to shoot countless bullets composed of Nen from his fingertips, which he modified into guns himself. Kortopi is short in stature with a thick and messy mane of hair covering his entire head, obscuring everything except for an occasional glimpse of his left eyeball. He is the weakest in the Troupe in raw physical power. In fact, his Conjuration Nen abilities suggest that he is not involved in combat, but rather theft and subterfuge. His Nen ability is called , which allows him to make perfect copies of any object by touching it with his left hand and producing the copy with his right. He can make copies of living humans, but they will be immobile and lifeless. The copies vanish after 24 hours have passed. He is also able to know the exact location of any copy he has created by touching the original object. Kortopi is the first of the Phantom Troupe members killed by Hisoka after his defeat to Chrollo. Machi Komacine is incredibly loyal to Chrollo and is one of the original members from Meteor City, bearing the number 3. Physically, she is the strongest woman in the Troupe and the sixth strongest overall. Hisoka seems to have an occasional interest in her. She has an extremely keen intuition (the other members claim that she has never been wrong). Machi's Nen type is Transmutation. Her ability forms her aura into thread, the strength of which is inversely proportional to its length: a thread as long as the diameter of the Earth would be as strong as cotton, but a one millimeter-long thread can lift a ton. It can be used to track people, and also to stitch severed limbs back on. Machi came in seventh place in the series' second popularity poll. Nobunaga Hazama has a similar appearance to ronin warriors in Edo period Japan, complete with a long katana that he uses with great finesse and skill, and bears the number 1 in the Troupe. Nobunaga specializes in combining nen with the use of his katana. His best friend is Uvogin, and the two bring out the best of each other in combat. Seeing some of Uvogin's personality in Gon, he expresses interest in having Gon join the Troupe, though Gon adamantly refuses. Nobunaga ranks ninth in physical power among the Troupe, and is one of the original members. Nobunaga is on the Black Whale with the rest of the Troupe, hunting for treasure and Hisoka. He, along with Feitan, Phinks, and Franklin, thrash three unruly passengers to gain seating in the cafeteria. Once the thugs submit to them, he asks them how they can get to the second floor. His Nen type is Enhancement. Nobunaga came in 14th place in the series' second popularity poll. Pakunoda is an original member of the Phantom Troupe from Meteor City. She is fully loyal to Chrollo, even going against the Troupe in order to help him. She is killed by Kurapika's Judgement Chain in the climax of the Phantom Troupe arc by purposefully violating the restrictions placed upon her. Her body is buried in the Troupe's Yorknew hideout. Pakunoda's Nen type is Specialization. Her main ability is to read the memories of people she touches by asking specific questions, a form of Psychometry. Her secondary ability, , allows her to conjure these memories into the shape of a bullet which she fires into people's heads, thereby giving them that information. She is 11th in physical strength. Phinks Magcub uses his hands in battle, which has been shown to be extremely powerful. He is one of the original Phantom Troupe members from Meteor City, wears an Egyptian Pharaoh-like outfit in battle and bears the number 5. Phinks seems to get along best with Feitan, and is almost always seen partnered with him both in and out of combat. As with the rest of the Phantom Troupe, Phinks boards the Black Whale. Phinks, along with Feitan, Franklin, and Nobunaga, confront and thrash three unruly passengers. His Nen ability is called , the strength of which is dependent upon how many times he rotates his arm; the more rotations, the more powerful his attack will be. In terms of physical strength, Phinks is ranked second among the Troupe members. Nen type: Enhancement. Shalnark is member number 6 of the Phantom Troupe, and from his appearance, seems to be a normal man. However, he is one of the most intelligent and quick-thinking members in the group, being highly adept at using computers and information gathering. Shalnark is also a licensed Hunter, so he has access to potentially useful information for the Phantom Troupe. He ranks tenth in physical power. Shalnark is the second member killed by Hisoka after he decides to wipe out the Phantom Troupe following his defeat by Chrollo. Shalnark's Nen type is Manipulation. His main ability, , allows him to completely control the actions of others remotely using his cell phone after sticking a specialized antenna into their bodies. His secondary ability involves applying the antenna upon himself and putting his body on autopilot, resulting in an enhanced state with enough power to devastate most opponents. However, he dislikes this ability because he is subject to immense muscle pain for days after its use, and, as he retains no memory or control over what transpires, he can not derive any pleasure or satisfaction when he uses it to win a fight. Shalnark came in 17th place in the series' second popularity poll. Shizuku Murasaki is extremely forgetful, even an airhead at times, which, along with her quiet appearance, causes opponents to underestimate her abilities. She is left-handed, and the 12th strongest physically of the Troupe's 13 members. Shizuku is number 8, a replacement for a previous member. Shizuku's Nen type is Conjuration. She conjures the Nen vacuum , which can aspirate anything that she considers nonliving that isn't Nen-made, and regurgitate the last thing inhaled. Shizuku came in 11th place in the series' second popularity poll. Uvogin is one of the original members of the Troupe from Meteor City. Out of all, he is the strongest in terms of raw physical power. Direct hits from bullets, sniper rounds, and even anti-tank rockets do not cause visible damage to him. Like all of the Troupe, he never hesitates to kill, and particularly enjoys combat against skilled opponents. Although he prefers to fight alone, Uvogin is stronger when fighting with a partner, usually Nobunaga, as he fights better when there is someone else to protect (although he never admits this). Seeking revenge on Kurapika for capturing him after his battle with the Shadow Beasts, Uvogin tracks him to the hotel where Neon Nostrade and the rest of her bodyguards are staying. They fight one-on-one in a small canyon on the outskirts of Yorknew City. Kurapika eventually captures Uvogin with his Chain Jail, and questions him about the location and abilities of the other Phantom Troupe members. Uvogin refuses to answer any questions. Kurapika pierces Uvogin's chest with his Judgement Chain ability, giving the condition to answer all questions truthfully, in a last-ditch attempt to threaten him. Uvogin refuses for the final time, and is instantly killed, with his body buried by Kurapika soon after. He is the 11th member of the Troupe and his Nen type is Enhancement. His Nen ability is which allows him to focus his aura into his fist, causing a massive explosion upon impact. Uvogin came in 12th place in the series' second popularity poll. Kalluto Zoldyck is the youngest member of the Zoldyck Family, androgynous in appearance and wearing a feminine kimono. He is initially introduced accompanying his mother during Gon's retrieval of Killua, and later helps his family in the assassination of the Ten Mafia Dons who placed bounties on the Phantom Troupe. Kalluto joins the Troupe as Hisoka's replacement, bearing the number 4, during their entrance into Greed Island. During the Phantom Troupe's assault on Zazan's palace in Meteor City, Kalluto reveals he joined them with the intention of retrieving his brother Killua His Nen ability, , uses a hand fan to control paper confetti that is sharp enough to cut metal. Kalluto came in 14th place in the series' first popularity poll. Illumi Zoldyck is Killua's eldest brother, an experienced and expert assassin who played a part in Killua's training and upbringing. He and his father raised Killua to thrive on killing and to be incapable of friendship, although Illumi planted a needle in Killua's brain to compel him to flee from unwinnable fights as his way of protecting him. During the 287th Hunter Exam, using special pins to change his facial structure, disguising himself as , Illumi became a licensed Hunter and possibly manipulated Killua into disqualifying himself. After learning of and removing Illumi's needle from his brain, Killua later acts against his brother when he attempts to kill their sibling Alluka for the good of their family. Illumi also has a complex friendship with Hisoka, being hired by him to join the Phantom Troupe as their number 11 and kill him. Illumi is a Manipulation-type Nen user and his Nen ability allows him to use his needles to manipulate corpses or alter his body form. His other Nen ability is called , giving him the ability to manipulate people with his needles. Illumi came in sixth and eighth place in the series' first two popularity polls. Genthru is a player of Greed Island and a member of a large group of other allied players in the game. A founding member of the group, he has worked as an informer recruiting new members for the last five years. His secret identity is that of the Greed Island , working with his partners and . He reveals that he placed a Nen time bomb on every member of the allied group using his ability , so that he can blackmail them for all the specified slot cards they hold. However, Genthru does not keep his promise and detonates all the Nen time bombs killing all the members of the allied group except Abengane. He then rejoins Sub and Bara to continue collecting the rest of the specified slot cards in order to win the game. However, he is challenged and defeated by Gon in a one-on-one match (while Killua and Biscuit draw away his teammates and defeat them separately). Genthru is also able to create detonations in his hands when he grabs something using . Chimera Ants are an invasive species of insect that originate from the Dark Continent, extremely dangerous and ranked as quarantined due to their voracious appetites. Chimera Ant queens possess an entirely unique method of reproduction known as : reproducing asexually while imbuing her offspring with the genetic traits of whatever she ate. To take advantage of the genes of a particular species, a Chimera Ant queen has been known to feed until the fodder species is driven to extinction. One mutated Chimera Ant Queen in particular targets humans, leading to the creation of humanoid Chimera Ants who desire individualism and develop the ability to use Nen. These human Chimera Ants also possess the genetic memories of their "past lives", some only having trace memories while others are their original selves reborn. Following the death of the Queen, the colony disburses with a majority following the King Meruem while others attempt to create their own colonies. Only a few of the humanoid Chimera Ants survive and are allowed to live among humans, classified as a new species of magical beast. Chimera Ant Queen The Chimera Ant is the first Chimera Ant to be seen in the series, having mysteriously mutated to about two meters tall instead of her kind's typical height of ten centimeters. She first appears having washed up injured on the shores of the autonomous region of Neo-Green Life (or simply NGL), a small insular nation located on an island known as the Mitene Union. Driven by her reproductive instincts to give birth to a Chimera Ant King with ideal traits, the Queen immediately begins to feed on small mammals and aquatic life in order to give birth to soldier ants to bring her larger prey in greater amounts. When one brings her two-human children to feed on, she notes them to be more nourishing than her previous prey and becomes obsessed with human as nourishment, sending her soldiers to concentrate on gathering more humans to feed on. NGL's status as neo-Luddite enables the Queen's offspring to be unopposed before their activities are eventually learned by the outside world. The Queen is fatally injured when the Chimera Ant King forces his own premature birth, damaging her organs with massive blood loss. Despite receiving treatment from Hunters, she dies while naming her son as Meruem. But upon her death, the Queen is revealed to have birthed a twin sister to Meruem, who is later revealed to be Kite reborn as a Chimera Ant. Meruem is the Chimera Ant and the most powerful of the Queen's offspring. Forcing himself out the womb at the cost of the Queen's life, Meruem is arrogant with little sense of identity aside from his supposed destiny and preconceived notions of his kind's superiority over humans. Meruem leaves the N.G.L. with his Royal Guards in search of a place to establish his colony, taking over the Republic of East Gorteau. Pitou manipulates the corpse of East Gorteau's dictator Ming Jol-ik to order a mandatory gathering of the entire population for a national rally, so they can secretly sort to find Nen users who will be used as food. They also use Pitou's ability to manipulate the people, forming an army of soldiers under their control. The Hunter Association mobilizes an extermination team to infiltrate the East Gorteau palace and assassinate Meruem, composed of a selected team of professional Hunters. Meruem takes an interest in strategy games, defeating champion-level players by learning their battle tactics after disrupting the flow of their playing style. However, he is unable to overcome the skill of a seemingly dimwitted blind girl named Komugi in Gungi, the local game she reigns over. As Meruem finds himself unable to beat her, he begins showing respect and care for Komugi while questioning his own violent methods of ruling. As such, the King wavers between his human emotions and animal instincts, ultimately deciding to compromise by taking over the planet for the Chimera Ants, but sparing humans and leaving them to live in reservations. Meruem's faltering leaves him vulnerable, experiencing fear for the first time when Netero detonates the bomb in his body as a last resort. Near death, Meruem survives and regenerates by feeding on the cells of Pouf and Youpi, acquiring their abilities as well. The King suffers temporary memory loss before recovering his memories of Komugi. But Netero's suicide attack ultimately takes Meruem's life due to the bomb's residual poison, spending his final moments playing with Komugi before dying in her arms. Meruem's Nen ability, , allows him to take in the aura of other creatures he consume, making him stronger in the process. Royal Guards The Royal Guards are a trio of elite Chimera Ants whose objective is protecting Ants of the royal caste. They originally serve the Queen, who personally named them, until the King is born, after which they switch loyalties and follow him to the Republic of East Gorteau. The Royal Guards include Neferpitou, Shaiapouf, and Menthuthuyoupi. Neferpitou , also known as , is a cat-humanoid Chimera Ant and the firstborn of the Royal Guards. Pitou is one of the first Chimera Ants to fully utilize Nen with enough skill to be recognized by even Netero as a superior combatant. Pitou shows a knack for medical/surgical procedures, prodding and manipulating Pokkle's brain in order to have the human divulge everything he knows about Nen to the Ants. As a Specialist-type Nen user, Pitou's ability heals injuries, while can manipulate bodies regardless if they are alive or dead. Pitou is referred to in the manga using male pronouns, while the anime elects to use gender-neutral pronouns as well as male pronouns. After being born, Pitou engaged Kite when he, Gon, and Killua almost reached the nest. Pitou killed Kite after he had Killua and Gon escape, reanimating his corpse as a training dummy for the other chimera ants before the Hunters acquired it. Later confronted by Gon and deeming him a potential threat to Meruem, Pitou exploits the boy's hopes that Kite was still alive to get him away from Komugi to kill him without endangering the girl. But upon revealing Kite's fate, Pitou's head is completely destroyed when Gon forcibly aged himself at the cost of his ability to use Nen. But Pitou's corpse is briefly reanimated by a more potent Terpsichora for the purpose of killing Gon, severing the boy's arm before being damaged beyond repair. Shaiapouf , also known as , is a butterfly-humanoid Chimera Ant and one of the Royal Guards. He is the most cunning of the three, though his temperament and love for Meruem causes him to covertly defy the King's orders in order to prevent his humanization. Having wholeheartedly devoted himself to protect Meruem while seeing humans as inferior, Pouf is grossly disturbed by the King's obsession with Komugi whom he views as a threat to their plans to the point of making attempts on the girl's life. Pouf's Nen ability spreads scales from his wings into the air allowing him to read opponents' psychological states. When inhaled the scales have a hypnotic effect on the human populace, keeping them in place to be sorted at the palace. His other ability allows Pouf to break up his body into clones of various sizes down to nanosize. Following the blast from Netero's bomb, Pouf runs to Meruem and allows him to feed on his own cells to save the King's life. Pouf dies from the poison he was exposed to at ground zero of the bomb. Menthuthuyoupi , also known as , is the third of the Chimera Ant Royal Guards. Youpi is the largest of the three and the only non-human hybrid among them, mixed with the genes of a magical beast instead. He is the most straightforward of the Royal Guards and possesses a strength that comes from complete selflessness and devotion to the King. Youpi's body can metamorphosize, such as forming wings to fly or additional arms for combat. After feeling extreme mental stress, he learns his Nen ability can billow large quantities of his aura into his body and release it in a destructive explosion. Through his fights with the Hunters, Youpi comes to respect them and Nen to the point of letting them live. Following the blast from Netero's bomb, Youpi runs to Meruem and allows him to feed on his own cells to save the King's life. Youpi dies from the poison he was exposed to at ground zero of the bomb. Others Colt is an eagle-humanoid Chimera Ant squadron leader with wings, talons, and a beak. He is among the first Chimera Ants to be born by the Queen following her change to an all-human diet, later revealed to be a reincarnation of her first human victim who died attempting to protect his younger sister from Chimera Ants. Colt projects a loyal and formal attitude, being one of the few squad leaders who always gives all the humans they kill to the Queen as food. When the Queen is grievously injured as a result of Meruem's birth, Colt surrenders to the Hunters in order to secure medical attention for her and even offers his own organs to save her life. Soon after the Queen's death, Colt finds another offspring on her corpse. He vows to protect her and a tearful Morel promises to protect Colt and the infant from harm on the condition that they never eat humans. After the battle, it is revealed that she is Kite reborn as a female Chimera Ant. Meleoron is a chameleon-humanoid Chimera Ant squadron leader and an eccentric pacifist who dislikes fighting or killing, admitting that his fighting strength is on par with a lowly soldier ant. Leaving the colony following the death of Peggy by Meruem, Meleron gradually regained the memories of his past life as a human named and that Peggy was originally his foster father. This motivates him to swear revenge on the King and he teams up with Gon, whom he deems an ideal ally for this purpose. Meleoron's Nen ability renders himself invisible and undetectable by smell, sound or even touch as long as he holds his breath. His other ability, allows him to use Perfect Plan on anyone he is touching. Ikalgo , having wished he was born a squid, is an octopus-based Chimera Ant. Although he attacked Killua first, Killua stops him from committing suicide as he could imagine them being friends, and in return Ikalgo later saves the boy's life. Ikalgo can turn two of his tentacles into an air gun, can manipulate corpses with his Nen ability , and can use the corpse's Nen abilities as well. When manipulating a corpse he can use to fire special fleas from his gun. Having actually become friends, Ikalgo allies with Killua and the Hunters and is tasked with finding and escaping with Palm during the assault on the palace. Welfin is a Chimera Ant squadron leader resembling a humanoid wolf and possessing a powerful sense of smell. In his previous life, Welfin was a childhood friend of NGL leader Gyro named , who was captured while defending Gyro's base and fed to the Queen. Welfin became a follower of Meruem with ulterior motives in improving his own status. His Nen ability is which conjures a back-mounted organism armed with missiles that implant centipedes that grow from feeding on the victim's defiance. While Welfin uses it for negotiation purposes, the missiles attacking if his target lies when asked a question or defies an order, the Hatsu can be deactivated when he is in a state of fear. Following his encounter with Ikalgo, Welfin begin to question himself. He later played a role in restoring Meruem's memory by uttering Komugi's name in fear for his life, the immense dread Welfin experienced causing him to age as a result. After the battle, Welfin joins Hina and Bizef in seeking out Gyro in Meteor City. Bloster is a Chimera Ant squadron leader resembling a humanoid lobster. Bloster believes he used to be a former resident of NGL much like Gyro and Welfin. At the end of the Chimera Ant crisis, Bloster decided to stay with a Chimera Ant peon named in a village, in which an inhabitant of the village named recognizes her as , Haruna's daughter despite being a Chimera Ant. Bloster is an Emission-type Nen user, his Nen ability allows him to emit powerful blasts from his pincers. Leol is a Chimera Ant squadron leader resembling an anthropomorphic lion, albeit with tiger-like stripes. Originally named , he was a lion in a past life. Leol is among the Chimera Ants who eat humans meant for the Queen, and later develops an interest in Nen users. After the Queen's death, he sets out to form his own colony, but flees from Hunters back to the King's side. Leol's Nen ability is , an iPod-like device that stores Nen abilities he can borrow from people indebted to him for the duration of an hour. During Morel and Knov's primary infiltration of the King's palace in East Gorteau, Leol faces Morel in combat. He assumes to be victorious after submerging Morel in an underground church using a stolen ability, but dies from carbon dioxide asphyxiation as part of Morel's cunning strategy to remove all oxygen in the church. Cheetu is a cheetah-like Chimera Ant squadron leader with unparalleled speed, allowing him to dodge bullets with ease and rapidly punch experienced Hunters before they can even move. He is among the Chimera Ants who eat humans meant for the Queen. Compared to the other Chimera Ants, Cheetu is very simpleminded and egotistical with no agenda of his own while simply content with being the fastest. After the Queen's death, Cheetu leaves NGL and heads to the east before being impeded by Morel and Knuckle. Although he is tagged with Knuckle's A.P.R., Cheetu flees out of range, halting the interest-accruing. The ordeal convinces Cheetu that he needs something other than pure speed and has A.P.R. exorcized by Hirin before getting a new Nen ability. He confronts Morel again, with the new ability transporting them to a limited-sized area for a game of tag, but is defeated by being psychologically tricked. Cheetu quickly develops another new Nen ability on the spot, a combined crossbow and claws, but is again tricked before fleeing. He is later seen boasting about yet another new ability, but is crushed to death by Silva Zoldyck from above. Yunju is a centaur-like Chimera Ant squadron leader with a snake tongue who leads two other soldiers known as and . Yunju is a sadistic Chimera Ant who preys upon humans and even treating them as pet dogs. He was eventually killed by Kite while Gon and Killua defeated his two soldiers. Zazan is a scorpion-humanoid Chimera Ant squadron leader that resembles an extremely buxom, attractive woman with a scorpion's stinger tail, whose murderous subordinates include her doting right hand . While gathering humans for the Queen, Zazan captures Pokkle and brings him to the colony. Following the Queen's death, Zazan leaves NGL to start her own colony in Meteor City and turns a large number of humans there into subservient minions with her Nen ability . When the Phantom Troupe attack her hive, Zazan is forced to discard her beauty for power as a last resort against Feitan by ripping off her tail to transform into a strong crocodilian monster with a super-hard hide. But she is ultimately incinerated by Feitan's Nen ability. Pike is an officer under Zazan's command. He is a humanoid-like spider Chimera Ant resembling an elderly man. He is extremely loyal to Zazan, often wanting to be praised by the squadron leader although he is quite simple-minded and stubborn. During their raid on Meteor City, he was killed by Shizuku. Pike's Nen ability is which allows him to shoot a durable, sticky web to ensnare his target and according to him, , the physically strongest squadron leader can't break it. Boki is a soldier working for Zazan.. He is a beetle Chimera Ant whose head vaguely resembles Ultraman. Boki uses his Nen ability to control another Chimera Ant named . He was eventually killed by Shalnark during their invasion in Meteor City. Boki's Nen type is Manipulation and his ability allows him to control his target with a video game joystick. Rammot is an officer under Colt's command, a humanoid Chimera Ant with the genetic traits of a rabbit and a shrike. Prone to acting on his own, Rammot attacks Gon and Killua to defend his food, and is losing before being saved by Colt while vowing brutal revenge on the two youths. But the boys' attack inadvertently activated Rammot's aura and made him the first Chimera Ant to utilize Nen, making him briefly arrogant until meeting Neferpitou with renewed loyalty to the colony as hits the other Ants to awaken their Nen. Rammot later decides to get his revenge after the Queen's death, targeting Killua first before being decapitated once the boy removes Illumi's needle from his brain. Rammot's Nen type is Enhancement. His Nen ability allows him to turn his feathers into sharp feathers. Ortho Siblings The are a pair of Chimera Ant siblings. Despite believing that they have killed Killua with their Nen ability and went to the unconscious body of the boy to confirm it, he immediately beheaded them. He reveals to the siblings that he is aware that the last dart is aimed at his head and uses his new Nen ability called Godspeed to avoid the last dart. The two share the Nen ability which works when the sister conjures a tag on someone, which cannot be removed until the game ends. The brother can then start the game by throwing darts, which will conjure a fish-like dart on the target's body. The game can take extreme risk if the brother fails to score the last hit, all the damage accumulated to their target will be redirected to themselves. Koala is a koala-humanoid Chimera Ant who was a soldier in Meleoron's squad. In his former human life, Koala was a professional hitman, a profession that he continued after being reborn as a Chimera Ant. He typically kills his victims by shooting them in the head. In the aftermath of Meruem's death, he comes into contact with Kite, now a Chimera Ant as well. Koala explains how Kite looks exactly like a red-haired girl that he killed out of mercy. Feeling guilt for his actions, Kite demand that he live out the rest of his life with her as penance, which he accepts. Hunter Association The is a non-governmental organization responsible for the testing and licensing of —a person that has proven themselves through rigorous examination to be an elite member of humanity and who specializes in finding rare creatures, secret treasures, and other individuals. With the passing of the examination, a Hunter is awarded a license which bestows a number of benefits on the licensee. This results in massive registration numbers for the annual licensing exam with an extremely high failure rate. Isaac Netero is the Chairman of the Selection Committee for the Hunter Exam. Presiding over it, he has final authority over every stage of the examination and is assisted by his secretary , who helps organize the Hunter Exam and presents the successful candidates with their license. Netero claims to have been the strongest Nen user in the world over 50 years ago. Over 60 years ago, Netero spent four years rigorously training every day in order to express gratitude to the martial arts. He eventually attained enlightenment, giving him the ability to punch faster than the speed of sound and the power of the bodhisattva Guanyin. Netero is also the Grand Master of the style of Kung fu. Netero leads the team hired to exterminate the Chimera Ants, but after losing an arm and a leg and unable to inflict any significant damage on Meruem, he commits suicide by detonating bomb implanted in his own body. Survivors of the bomb's blast are eaten alive from the inside by poison, and can contaminate others. Isaac Netero is the father of Beyond Netero, whose existence was kept secret until his death. Zodiacs The are the high council of the Hunter Association composed of 12 top Hunters personally selected by Chairman Netero. They have a code name based on a sign of the Chinese zodiac, and are tasked to decide the nature of Netero's succession after his death. Out of loyalty to the chairman, most alter their behavior, physical traits, and even their legal names based on the animal each represents. With Beyond Netero and Kakin intent on an expedition to the Dark Continent, the Zodiacs travel with them as chaperones hired by the V5, a group of the five most powerful nations of the world. They also aim to explore it before Beyond, as asked by Chairman Netero. Ging Freecss is a Double Star Ruins Hunter and Gon's father and motivation to become a Hunter. He left Whale Island to become a Hunter before he turned 12 years old, only returning ten years later to ask his grandmother to take care of Gon for a while. But Mito felt him unfit to parent and gained custody of Gon, and Ging never returned again. He is the main creator of the Greed Island video game, and is also the one who captured and placed Razor in the game. A member of the Zodiacs, his code name is the "Boar" and he is one of the only two members who do not mimic their corresponding animal. At the end of the chairman election, Ging at last meets Gon. He tells Gon to apologize to Kite and about the meaning of adventure before they once again part ways. He then resigns from the Zodiacs and joins Beyond Netero's expedition to the Dark Continent, buying his way into second-in-command in name only. Ging claims that he does not want to see Gon because he is too ashamed of himself for being absent in Gon's life due to his own selfishness, and challenges his son to find him. Despite that he seems confident in Gon's abilities and knows him better than anyone; he knew Gon would become a Hunter and left a memory card for Greed Island and a recorded message with Mito to give to him once he did, and knew Gon would eventually recover from his hospitalization. All information about Ging is classified even in the official Hunter database. He is Kite's teacher and also inspired Satotz to become a Hunter. Chairman Netero once told Biscuit that Ging is one of the top five best Nen users in the world. Ging tied with Silva for 15th place in the series' first popularity poll. Pariston Hill is a Triple Star Hunter and Vice Chairman of the Hunter Association. A member of the Zodiacs, his code name is the "Rat", and like Ging, he does not alter his physical appearance to match his animal. Pariston was personally chosen by Netero to be Vice Chairman because he is difficult to work with and not a yes man. Similar to Netero and Ging, he wants to have fun above all else, and throughout the chairman election suggests and agrees to terms that put him at a disadvantage as he neither wants to win nor lose. Pariston claims to feel happiness when people hate him and that he is compelled to hurt the things he holds dear. Within the Zodiacs, he is the sole extreme left patriot. He has the support of Temp Hunters, a pejorative term for Hunters who work government jobs subcontracted through the Association, via suspected kickbacks. Pariston is the eventual winner of the 13th Hunter Chairman Election. However, he immediately appoints Cheadle his Vice Chairman and resigns from his new position. He then leaves the Zodiacs and joins Beyond Netero's expedition to the Dark Continent, although Ging also joins and buys him out of his position as second-in-command. Cheadle Yorkshire is a woman from the Zodiacs code named the "Dog". She is a Triple Star Hunter, a doctor, and jurist known as the Disease Hunter. She is generally shown as an intelligent person. In the chairman election, Cheadle repeatedly comes in second or third place, until she asks her supporters to vote for Leorio instead in order to prevent Pariston from winning. Pariston wins but gives his position to her because he only wanted to have fun. After she officially becomes chairman, Cheadle accepts the resignations of Ging and Pariston and the Zodiacs chaperone Beyond Netero's trip to the Dark Continent. On the expedition, she is a part of the science team and directs the center medical care facility on the third deck. Mizaistom Nana , code named the "Ox", is a Double Star Crime Hunter and said to be a man with common sense. He is also a lawyer and manages a private security company. Within the Zodiacs, he, Cheadle, Botobai and Ginta constitute the moderate conservative faction and often work together. At the end of the chairman election, Mizaistom asks his supporters to vote for Cheadle in order to prevent Pariston from winning. On the expedition, he is a part of the intelligence team and devotes his attention to decks three and four, where the crime rate is much higher than expected. His ability uses blue cards to admit people to his "courtroom", yellow to immobilize them, and red to dismiss them from the courtroom. Botobai Gigante , code named the "Dragon", is a Triple Star Hunter. He is the most senior member of the Zodiacs and was close to Netero. He is a public prosecutor, military analyst, and Terrorist Hunter. Within the Zodiacs, he, Cheadle, Mizaistom and Ginta constitute the moderate conservative faction and often work together. On the expedition, he is a part of the defense team. He and Mizaistom help the royal troops and private security to maintain order and handle the criminal issues on the Black Whale, with Botobai also acting as a court official. Kanzai , code named the "Tiger", is a hot-tempered bodyguard and Treasure Hunter. He has a short temper as shown when he easily gets mad when Pariston and Hisoka tease him. Within the Zodiacs, he, Gel and Saccho constitute the liberal/apolitical faction and often work together. On the expedition, he is a part of the defense team and stands guard over Beyond's cell with Saccho and Saiyu. Pyon , code named the "Rabbit", is a linguist, interpreter and Paleograph Hunter. She appears to be proficient in technology, as she is often seen on her phone or a laptop. Within the Zodiacs, she, Cluck and Saiyu constitute the reform faction and often work together. During the later rounds of the chairman election, Pyon acts as master of ceremonies. On the expedition, she is a part of the intelligence team and makes software to recognize any ancient languages they might encounter on the Dark Continent. Gel , code named the "Snake", is a woman with a calm attitude. She has the ability to change her arms into a snake which she uses to briefly threaten Pariston when he suggests the Zodiacs to make him the Chairman without election. Within the Zodiacs, she, Kanzai and Saccho constitute the liberal/apolitical faction and often work together. She is a coroner, pharmacist and Poison Hunter. On the expedition, she is a part of the science team. Cluck , code named the "Chicken", is one of the most short-tempered members in the Zodiacs. She appears to have the power to manipulate birds, as shown when she delivers all Hunters ballots for the election. Within the Zodiacs, she, Pyon and Saiyu constitute the reform faction and often work together. She is a musician, dancer, and Botanical Hunter. On the expedition, she is a part of the flora/fauna team and plans to collect intelligence and plants after landing. Saccho Kobayakawa , code named the "Horse", is a Double Star Problem Hunter. He appears to be very strict about the rules, and is known as the "Worry Hunter". He is a detective and handyman. Within the Zodiacs, he, Kanzai and Gel constitute the liberal/apolitical faction and often work together. On the expedition, he is a part of the intelligence team and stands guard over Beyond's cell with Kanzai and Saiyu. Ginta , code named the "Sheep", is a ranger and Poacher Hunter. He seems to be very sensitive when it comes to Netero's death, but he gets very mad when Pariston suggests himself to be chairman without an election. Within the Zodiacs, he, Cheadle, Mizaistom and Botobai constitute the moderate conservative faction and often work together. On the expedition, he is a part of the flora/fauna team. Saiyu , code named the "Monkey", is a man whose appearance is reminiscent of the Monkey King. A Bounty Hunter and martial artist, he also has a staff as his weapon. His ability consists of three Nen Monkeys; See No Evil robs an opponent of their sight if the attack connects, Hear No Evil robs them of their hearing, and Speak No Evil robs them of their speech. Within the Zodiacs, he, Pyon and Cluck constitute the reform faction and often work together. He is Pariston's informant within the Zodiacs. On the expedition, he is a part of the defense team and stands guard over Beyond's cell with Kanzai and Saccho. Examiners The Hunter Exam is divided into several stages, each one overseen by an experienced hunter. In the first shown exam in the series, the first examiner is , who tests the candidates' stamina by leading them on a marathon of unknown length through a tunnel and a swampland filled with uniquely dangerous creatures. The second stage of the exam is administered by two Gourmet Hunters, and . Although Menchi fails all of the candidates due to her stubbornness, Netero pressures her into giving the candidates an alternative test. The third stage is overseen by Bounty Hunter and prison warden , testing the candidates in different aspects of group dynamics, both in a communal and individual front. Chairman Netero organizes the final stage as a one-on-one fighting tournament, where the winner must get his opponent to admit defeat. In a twist, contestants pass the exam after winning only one fight with the loser advancing to the next round, meaning only one examinee will fail. Satotz came in seventh and 22nd place in the series' first two popularity polls. Examinees The examinees that took part in the 287th annual Hunter Exam, the year the series' main characters took the exam. Hanzo is an 18-year-old shinobi who has trained in the art of ninjutsu since he was born. He decided to become a Hunter in order to find the elusive Hermit's Scroll. In the second test of the exam, featuring cooking, he is the only one to know what sushi is, as it is a dish from his home country, Japan. In the final test of the Hunter Exam, Hanzo is put against Gon in a fight where one of them must admit defeat. Despite his speed, strength, and battle experience easily exceeding that of Gon, Gon refuses even after Hanzo breaks his arm. Noting the lack of hate in Gon's eyes after this act, Hanzo realizes he actually has come to like him. He willingly bows out of the battle, giving Gon the victory needed for him to pass the exam. Hanzo wins and passes the exam himself when he threatens the same to Pokkle in his next match, becoming a licensed Hunter. It is later stated by Wing that Hanzo learned Nen after the Hunter Exam. Hanzo later reappears in the Dark Continent arc as part of Kurapika's party and becomes a bodyguard of prince Momoze. Ordered by her mother to protect Marayam instead of Momoze, a furious Hanzo blames himself when Momoze is killed and vows to make the murderer pay. Hanzo came in eighth and 16th place in the series' first two popularity polls. Tonpa is nicknamed the "Rookie Crusher" by candidates with more experience taking the exam. He has taken the exam for 35 consecutive terms, never managing to pass. He often brags of his experience to those taking the exam for the first time and offers them a helping hand. This is merely subterfuge, as he takes a perverse pleasure in sabotaging their attempts to get the license. This time around, he trails Gon, Killua, Kurapika, and Leorio while attempting various means to foil their advancement. In order to do this, he uses methods like spiking drinks with a strong laxative and being contradictory simply to delay progress in a time-sensitive arena. He also attends the following Hunter Exam, where he, along with everyone else, is defeated by Killua. Pokkle is an accomplished archer that carries a bow and quiver of arrows wherever he goes. The arrows are tipped with a potent tranquilizer that, even with a small nick, induces paralysis for any person for up to a week. Pokkle's aim is to become a successful hunter of undocumented fantastic beasts. He passes the exam and becomes a licensed Hunter. Pokkle is then seen in N.G.L. with Ponzu and several others before their group is attacked by Chimera Ants. Pokkle is poisoned by Zazan and brought to the colony to be fed to the Queen, but, using a hidden antidote, is able to restore some movement and hide before the Chimera Ants start searching for him for his knowledge on Nen. However, the newly born Neferpitou senses Pokkle hiding and he is subjected to his brain being prodded by the Royal Guard to divulge everything he knows about Nen before being killed. Pokkle's Nen ability, , creates a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right; red arrows burst into flames on contact and orange are his fastest. Pokkle came in 12th and 18th place in the series' first two popularity polls. Ponzu is one of the 24 that managed to enter the fourth stage of the Hunter Exam. She fights using chemical weapons, a wide variety of toxins, and prefers to set traps instead of fighting head on. Her secret weapon lies within her round cap, carrying neurotoxic bees under the surface that emerge and attack her enemies when she is threatened. During this stage, her bees instinctively end up killing Bourbon after she falls into his trap. Ponzu is rescued by Gon, but her badge is taken when she is unconscious so Leorio can pass, causing her to fail the exam. She also attends the following Hunter Exam, where she, along with everyone else, is defeated by Killua. Ponzu is then seen in N.G.L. with Pokkle and several others before their group is attacked by Chimera Ants. The group is killed by Zazan's squad, but she escapes long enough to send one of her bees with a message to the strongest Hunter nearby, who happens to be Kite. She is shot and eaten moments later by a gun-wielding Chimera Ant. Ponzu came in ninth place in the series' first popularity poll. Chimera Ant Exterminators With the infestation of man-sized Chimera Ants within N.G.L., the Hunter Association sends an official team to investigate and contain the threat. The extermination team is led by none other than Chairman Netero himself. Netero handpicks those who are to accompany him, causing significant political bickering within the Hunter Association. Morel Mackernasey is a Hunter and member of the team tasked with exterminating the Chimera Ants. A tough yet very compassionate man with long hair and sunglasses, he is Knuckle Bine and Shoot McMahon's master, and acknowledged by Netero to be about equal to himself. He uses a giant smoking pipe and the smoke produced by it as his weapons. With his Nen ability , Morel creates smoke puppets that act independently from him once commands are issued. Morel shows himself as an experienced and resourceful fighter, such as in his fight against Leol wherein he uses his pipe as a snorkel to allow himself to breathe underwater, and in doing so suffocates his opponent with emitted carbon dioxide. After the Chimera Ant incident is resolved, Morel is expected to be promoted to Triple Star Hunter. Knov is a Hunter and member of the team tasked with exterminating the Chimera Ants. An intelligent man dressed in glasses and a suit, he is Palm's master and a target of her affections, and acknowledged by Netero to be about equal to himself. Knov's Nen ability is similar to teleportation in that he creates portals to a Nen dimension. Inside this four-floor Nen mansion, he can store items or people. While others can only exit from a predetermined place, Knov can use his master key to exit from any previously set portal he wants. While infiltrating Meruem's palace solo in order to place portals, Knov sees Shaiapouf's aura, which frightens him so much that he suffers a severe nervous breakdown. When he later returns to save the injured during the attack, his black hair has turned white from the psychological trauma. Knuckle Bine is a Beast Hunter and Morel's pupil. Despite appearing to be an aggressive man, Knuckle is very compassionate and easily moved to tears. He also gets along well with animals, having the habit of taking care of abandoned pets. Knuckle's Nen ability is , where by lending some aura to his opponent via a punch, he attaches a small indestructible Nen-creature called or A.P.R. for short. It follows the opponent wherever they go and grows each successive time Knuckle hits them and by 10% interest on the borrowed aura every ten seconds. The opponent pays Knuckle back by hitting him, but he will not take damage until the debt is fully paid, and if the aura count exceeds their total remaining aura, the opponent goes bankrupt. At this point A.P.R. transforms into or I.R.S. for short, which attaches itself and forces the debtor into Zetsu unable to use Nen for 30 days. A drawback is that A.P.R. can only be activated on a single person at a time. Shoot McMahon is an Unidentified Beast Hunter with one arm and Morel's pupil. Shoot's Nen ability is and involves manipulating a cage and three disembodied hands that levitate. Shoot can shrink and seal off what is hit by his hands, in the cage. He has a timid personality and is often afraid of taking advantage of opportune times to attack his enemy. In the fight against Youpi during the extermination team's raid on East Gorteau, Shoot becomes inspired by Gon, and by facing adversity is able to overcome his timidness and fight without concern for his life. Palm Siberia is the pupil of Knov, for whom she has affections. In order for her to accompany Knov on the extermination, Gon and Killua must defeat Knuckle and Shoot within one month, so Palm contacts Biscuit to train them further. On most occasions, she appears disheveled and stressed, exuding a frightening aura. However, she is depicted as quite beautiful when dressed up. She develops a crush on Gon, but is unable to further their relationship. Palm can see the location of anyone she has seen with her own eyes by using a small mermaid crystal ball relic fed by her blood. Palm is sent into the Chimera Ant King's palace undercover as a secretary to Director Bizeff, the man who actually ran East Gorteau behind the scenes, in order to lay eyes on the King and Royal Guards and track them. She is captured and transformed into a Chimera Ant-hybrid, with the Nen ability creating defensive outfits from her hair wrapping over her body. Killua manages to help Palm regain her memories and return to the side of the Hunters. Palm's clairvoyant ability reformed into , which enables her to see the last three people seen by her right eye in the crystal ball on her forehead when she covers that same eye. Others Kite is the very first Hunter introduced in the story. A student of Ging Freecss, Gon's father, he traveled to Whale Island three years prior to the start of the series looking for leads in order to pass his final test, find Ging. After saving Gon from a foxbear, Kite revealed to him that his father is alive and the best Hunter there is, inspiring Gon to follow in his father's footsteps. After completing Greed Island Gon runs into Kite again, who, after finding Ging, is in the middle of a biological survey searching for new species in the country of Kakin. He is leading a team of young would-be Hunters named Banana Kavaro, Lin Koshi, Monta Yuras, Podungo Lapoy, Spinner Clow, and Stick Dinner. His Nen ability is where a clown-head randomly chooses a number from 1 to 9 and summons respective weapons, which he can not put away until he uses. Kite is killed by Neferpitou and his body rebuilt into a manipulated puppet to train the Chimera Ants. He is captured by Knuckle and Shoot, with Gon vowing to save him and get revenge. It is later revealed that Meruem's twin sister found on the Queen's corpse is Kite reborn as a female Chimera Ant. Ging claims that Crazy Slots has a number that only comes up when Kite "really doesn't want to die" and suspects this is the reason he is "alive". While named Reina by Colt, Kite quickly matured while regaining the memories and personality of her former human male self and helps snap Gon out of his depression. Kite also forces , the koala-humanoid Chimera Ant hitman, to become her subordinate as penitence for the death of a girl whose physical appearance Kite has assumed as a Chimera Ant. Kite came in tenth place in the series' first popularity poll. Izunavi , named in the 2011 anime, is a Hunter and Kurapika's Nen teacher. Izunavi teaches him about Nen and informs him of the ability to make Contracts that strengthen the abilities based on how strict the limitation the user places. He reappears in the Dark Continent arc as part of Kurapika's party, becoming a bodyguard of prince Tyson. Izunavi came in 24th place in the series' second popularity poll. Melody is a Music Hunter and is the kind and understanding member of Neon's bodyguards. She is always ready to listen to anyone's confessions and has the gift to put people at ease. As Leorio notes, she is one of the very few characters who have made Kurapika open up to them. Melody's physical appearance is in sharp contrast to her kind soul. Due to effects of the "Sonata of Darkness", a musical piece said to have been written by Satan himself, casting on whoever listens to it a great curse, her body is short and her right arm disfigured. One night, Melody and her friend were drunk, and her friend played the Sonata. Its power was so great, that upon hearing only the first movement of the flute solo, Melody was disfigured. Her friend was not so lucky; his entire body was disfigured like Melody's arm and he died after playing it. Melody gained her Nen abilities in exchange. Melody's goal is to find the Sonata of Darkness and destroy it. Melody has the ability to Emit her aura to people to soothe fatigue when she plays an instrument. Melody also has a very sharp sense of hearing and can tell a person's psychological state just by listening to their heartbeat. For example, she knows when people are lying or when someone has completely lost his/her temper. Melody reappears in the Dark Continent arc as part of Kurapika's party, becoming a bodyguard of prince Kacho. Melody was inspired by Nausicaä and Yupa in Hayao Miyazaki's Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, or possibly Ashitaka from Princess Mononoke instead of Yupa. Melody came in 20th place in the series' second popularity poll. Basho is one of Neon Nostrade's new bodyguards, hired along with Kurapika. When first introduced, he is quick to underestimate Kurapika, but after Kurapika's display of his Dowsing Chain, he grows respect for him. Basho returns in the Dark Continent storyline as part of Kurapika's infiltration party, becoming a bodyguard of prince Luzurus. His Nen ability is called , wherein Basho writes a haiku describing a condition on a piece of paper (such as "Anything I hit will explode"), which then comes true. Zoldyck Family Zeno Zoldyck is Killua's grandfather and Silva's father. A witty old man, his advancing age has not dampened his quick thinking and speed in battle. Zeno wears alternating signs on his garb that say either "A Kill a Day" or "Never Retire". He appears to be on good terms with Chairman Netero, who hires Zeno for the initial assault on the palace in East Gorteau in order to catch the Chimera Ants off guard. He noticeably hesitates in the battle when he realizes the King has come to care for the safety of a human prisoner. Zeno favors Killua more than his other grandchildren. Zeno is a Transmutation-type Nen user, and his first Nen ability allows him to emit Nen blasts with the palm of his hand. allows him to transmute his aura to resemble a dragon. The Dragon Head can work both as a transportation and an offensive ability. With , Zeno can use the precise motion of his hands to control the Dragon Head. Zeno can then use to shatter the Dragon Head into hundreds of smaller auras in order to rain down from the sky. Zeno came in ninth place in the series' second popularity poll. Silva Zoldyck is Killua's father. A silent, pensive figure, Killua's interaction with him seems limited. He allows Killua to go along with Gon on their journey to find his father, but only because he sees it as a crucial step in his development as the head assassin of the Zoldyck Family. During the auction in Yorknew City, Silva and Zeno are both hired by the Ten Dons to assassinate the Phantom Troupe, but withdraw from the job when their clients are killed due to a job taken by Illumi, Maha, and Kalluto. This was Silva's second time fighting Chrollo Lucilfer, and according to Killua, he previously killed an unknown member of the Phantom Troupe. Silva later appears amid the assault on the Palace in East Gorteau, killing Cheetu on the way to pick up his father. Silva tied with Ging for 15th place in the series' first popularity poll, and placed 13th in the second. Kikyo Zoldyck is Killua's mother. She was injured attempting to prevent Killua from running away from home to take the Hunter Exam, although she is proud of Killua for doing so. She seems to be slightly paranoid and is cautious of Killua's friends. Kikyo is looking forward to Killua excelling in assassination and anticipates that one day, he will continue the family business. According to Illumi, Killua is her favorite son. Kikyo came in 13th place in the series' first popularity poll. Milluki Zoldyck is Killua's second eldest brother and an obese figure who possesses a strong aversion to performing any kind of physical activity. He seems to be a sort of otaku, since his room is covered with figurines from various anime, manga and video games. Milluki is talented in hacking computer systems, as Killua asks him to hack a memory card from Ging. He was also injured during Killua's escape. Milluki is in charge of torturing Killua as punishment, but does not have the drive to carry it out very long as he becomes physically exhausted. After being tipped off by Killua on the whereabouts of a Greed Island cartridge, Milluki's excitement results in one of the rarer moments in which he makes an outside expedition in search of the game, he himself states that he had not left the mansion in eight years. However, he is unable to win a copy and leaves in frustration. Alluka Zoldyck is the second youngest sibling of Killua. While the other members of the Zoldyck family refer to Alluka as male or as an object, Killua, who is the closest to Alluka, states that Alluka is female. Alluka is a dark child with the ability to grant wishes and a second personality, named by Killua. Once a person grants three requests made by Alluka, Nanika grants their wish. The bigger the wish, the bigger Alluka's demands will be for the next person. If four of Alluka's demands are refused in a row, at least two people, the refusee and their closest friend/love, will die. A larger wish requires more deaths in the next round when the demands are refused; dying in the order of the amount of time they have spent with the refusee. Once people die in refusal, the demands "reset" to the lowest difficulty level. Because Alluka's power is considered too dangerous, Alluka is locked up alone in a room full of toys. Fearing that Killua will ask Alluka's help to save Gon's life, Illumi asks for Hisoka's help in searching for and killing Alluka, as Alluka poses a grave danger to the entire Zoldyck family in the case of Killua getting killed by Alluka's power. Killua eventually has Alluka cure Gon without consequence, as he can make demands of Nanika without paying a price. After Gon is healed, Killua demands Nanika not grant anyone else's wishes and starts traveling together with Alluka. The caption to a standalone illustration of Alluka in Volume 33 of Hunter × Hunter reads "Ai. I'm from the Dark Continent", possibly suggesting that Alluka's power is due to the Gaseous Life-form: that humans brought back from the Dark Continent. Maha Zoldyck is the oldest living member of the Zoldyck family. He is the grandfather of Zeno and has only made non-speaking appearances. During the events of Yorknew City, Maha assisted his great-great-grandsons in asssassinating the Ten Dons of the Mafia Community. Greed Island players is a video game created by Ging Freecss and ten of his friends for the "Joystation" video game console in 1987, exclusively for Hunters who know Nen. Only 100 copies were made that sold for 5.8 billion jenny (the currency of Hunter × Hunter), the highest ever for a video game. The game seemingly transports its players' physical bodies into "the world" of Greed Island (though it is actually an isolated island that exists in the real world), only releasing them when they die (at which point they die in real life too), when they win, or when they use a special card in the game that lets them out. Biscuit Krueger is a Double Star Stone Hunter who Gon and Killua team up with in Greed Island. Although she appears to be a little girl, her true form is actually that of a massive and extremely muscular 57-year-old woman several times the size. Biscuit stays in this young girl form because she hates her actual appearance, but receives a tremendous power boost when she transforms back to her real appearance. Her goal in Greed Island is to obtain a gem found only in the game, Blue Planet. She becomes Gon and Killua's second teacher, and is also the teacher of Wing, the man who first teaches Nen to Gon and Killua. After the events of Greed Island, Biscuit later helps Gon and Killua train for their battles against Knuckle and Shoot during the Chimera Ant arc. She later joins Kurapika's party at Killua's request during the Dark Continent arc, becoming a guard of prince Marayam. Tsezguerra is an experienced Single Star Jackpot Hunter. He is hired by multibillionaire to beat Greed Island and to test the people who want to enter the game in order to earn the 50-billion-jenny prize money offered by Battera. He and his team ally with Gon, Killua, Biscuit, Hisoka and Goreinu to take part in the dodgeball game against Razor. He and his team later engage Genthru's in a game of chase in order to buy time for Gon to train against Genthru and for Killua to heal his injuries. Nickes is a Greed Island player and the leader of his own group consisting of numerous other players including Abengane and Genthru, which they will attempt to work together in beating the game. However, after Genthru revealed himself to be the Bomber and placed a bomb on them, he was later killed along with most of his members. Abengane is an exorcist; a Nen user with the ability to remove Nen "curses" or attacks placed onto himself or others. The Nen Beasts he summons to eat the Nen curses placed on himself, attach themselves onto him until he fulfills the original condition for removing the curse or the original caster dies. As one of the players hired by Battera to complete Greed Island, the Phantom Troupe and Hisoka find Abengane in the game and hire him to remove the curse placed on Chrollo by Kurapika. Goreinu is a Greed Island player who allies with Gon's party in the dodgeball game against Razor. His Nen ability is to form two gorillas out of Nen. He seems to control the gorillas and can quickly swap the position of them with his own or also with someone other, friend or foe. He later joins Tsezguerra's team and is the one who gives Gon, Killua, and Biscuit the remaining cards needed to win Greed Island. Razor is one of the Game Masters and a creator of Greed Island. Razor was told by Gon's father not to hold back against his son should he ever come to Greed Island. Razor is a key person in getting one of the hardest cards in the game; the challengers must confront Razor and his 14 devils in a group of 15 people, and defeat them in different sporting events. It is learned that the 14 devils were not his allies, but Razor's own ability to emit 14 Nen creatures at will. He is defeated in a dodgeball game by Gon's allied party (consisting of Gon, Killua, Biscuit, Hisoka, and several other players hired by Battera). Razor reveals to Gon that he is a death row convict captured by Ging and brought to the island. Kakin is a kingdom located in the middle of the Azian Continent that experienced quick economic growth after shifting from social imperialism to a parliamentary democracy 30 years ago in what was called the "Most Silent Revolution in History". Since then it has sought to expand its influence internationally and after announcing an expedition to the Dark Continent, the V5 offer Kakin a seat among them, extending the council to six countries and renaming it the V6, in order to gain control over the expedition and its spoils, as well as to prevent possible predicaments. All of the ruler's legitimate children receive the official title of "prince", regardless of sex, and are ranked according to their order of birth, although the ranks grant few special privileges over each other and act mostly as a means to address them. The illegitimate children, on the other hand, are forbidden from appearing in public or taking part in the kingdom's politics and have their faces slashed with razors twice, leaving scars as proof of their lower status. To choose its next ruler, a deadly game among the princes is being held to decide the rightful successor on board the giant Dark Continent transport ship titled the Black Whale No.1, a fact that is hidden from the public. The princes each acquire a , a parasitic Nen Beast that feeds on their aura and metamorphoses into a form and ability based on their disposition, that they can not see or control via the Seed Urn Ceremony before boarding the ship. Guardian Spirit Beasts created from the same "vessel" do not kill each other and do not directly attack other hosts. Royal Family Nasubi Hui Guo Rou is the ruler and king of Kakin and sponsor of Beyond Netero's expedition to the Dark Continent. A charismatic and enthusiastic man on the outside, Nasubi hides a cold and ruthless side from the public as he shows no remorse in having his own children killed in the succession game. He has eight wives and 14 legitimate children. Benjamin Hui Guo Rou is the first prince of Kakin and Nasubi's eldest son with his first wife, . Although a very strong and aggressive man, when reasoned with using relevant information he is flexible but stern, and always makes sound judgements. He has no qualms about killing his own siblings and seems to have a rivalry with Tserriednich, his sibling from the same mother. As Deputy Military Adviser of the Kakin Royal Army, Benjamin is able to order some of his personal guards to protect the other princes. These guards have authorization to kill in self-defense if they feel threatened, and are secretly tasked with learning people's Nen abilities. He was already a Nen user before the succession game began. His ability allows him to inherit the Nen abilities of people upon their death, as long as they were members of his private army who graduated from Kakin's Royal Military Academy and swore loyalty to him.. Camilla Hui Guo Rou is the second prince of Kakin, Nasubi's eldest daughter and first child with his second wife, . While charming, she is sadistic and answers to no one but her father. She orders her mother to get close to and kill Halkenburg. Her Nen ability, , is a giant cat Nen Beast that activates after death and fully resurrects Camilla by taking the life of her killer. Her Guardian Spirit Beast, which has a silhouette resembling that of a tree with breasts for its crown, is a Manipulator with a coercive-type ability that takes complete control of a target once certain conditions are met. Zhang Lei Hui Guo Rou is the third prince of Kakin and Nasubi's only son with his third wife, . While a diplomatic pacifist who takes pleasure in luxury, he allied himself with the Xi-Yu crime family as he believes a true king should make use of both the light and the dark sides of society. By his own admission he has a tendency to worry more about what happens after he becomes king than about the hurdles to reach the crown. His Guardian Spirit Beast is a Conjurer that produces a coin on a daily basis. The possessor of a coin can gain various abilities after fulfilling certain conditions. Zhang Lei estimates that handing out the coins would manifest their power once he is king, making him ironclad when it happens, yet apparently useless to the holder until then. Tserriednich Hui Guo Rou is the fourth prince of Kakin and Nasubi's second son with Unma. A rather erudite and placid man on the outside, Tserriednich is actually a sociopath who indulges himself with grotesque acts of cruelty and murder and possesses a vast collection of human body parts, including several scarlet eyes from the Kurta clan. He sends two guards to attend Kurapika's Nen lessons, telling them to kill everyone should they fail to learn Nen in two weeks. , one of his private guards, is ordered by Tserriednich to teach him Nen, and although she tries to drag it out as long as possible fearing what an evil man like him could do with it, he is revealed to be an extremely fast learner. A Specialist, Tserriednich's Nen ability allows him to see ten seconds into the future allowing events to play out as an illusion to all nearby while acting independently. His Guardian Spirit Beast resembles a horse with feminine facial features, a long extendable neck, four fingered hands, and high heel shoes. The beast hides another face inside its mouth and has the ability to curse anyone who lies to him by creating wounds on their face, which develop into a rash should that person lie to him again. Additionally, Tserriednich develops his own Nen Beast separate from his Guardian Spirit Beast. Tubeppa Hui Guo Rou is the fifth prince of Kakin and Nasubi's second daughter with Duazul. Tomboyish compared to her sisters, she values modesty and is analytical of her competition as she intends to kill off her older siblings while reprieving her younger siblings once gaining the throne. Tubeppa offers to form a truce with Woble if Kurapika will tell her guard captain everything about Nen. Her Guardian Spirit Beast, a giant frog with wheels, is a Transmuter that can synthesize any drug within its body and possesses a collaborative type ability that requires a "research partner". Tyson Hui Guo Rou is the sixth prince of Kakin and Nasubi's only child with his fourth wife, . Izunavi is selected as her bodyguard. A stout and plump woman, she prefers handsome men as her bodyguards and encourages them to read her Book of Tyson, which reflects her ideals of world peace and which she treats as scripture. Her Guardian Spirit Beast, a giant heart with four wings and a single eye, is an Emitter with a diffusive levy type ability where it produces smaller Nen Beasts called that attach themselves to whoever receives her book, collecting aura from them and bestowing happiness in return. The degree of happiness received depends on how thoroughly one has read the Book of Tyson with severe consequences to whoever breaks the one and only taboo of Tyson's teachings. Luzurus Hui Guo Rou is the seventh prince of Kakin and Nasubi's third child with Duazul. He made a failed attempt for some of his bodyguards to take part in the Hunter Exam before the ship's departure. Basho is selected as his bodyguard and the two bond over smoking drugs. His centipede-like Guardian Spirit Beast is a Conjurer that applies pseudo-coercive manipulation in setting traps by materializing whatever the target desires as bait. Salé-salé Hui Guo Rou is the eighth prince of Kakin and Nasubi's only child with his fifth wife . He seems to be a womanizer and a wild hedonist to the point of proudly disregarding the succession war and holding a party to his mother's dismay. He is the second Prince to die after his Guardian Spirit Beast is eaten by the Nen ability of one of Benjamin's men that infiltrated his detail, so that a second infiltrator could kill him. Salé-salé's Guardian Spirit Beast, resembling a floating ball with several faces, is a Manipulator whose ability is tied to his libido. It spews a gas which when inhaled increases one's goodwill towards Salé-salé. A target that has inhaled a certain amount of the gas becomes a carrier with a clone of Salé-salé's Guardian Spirit Beast above them, infecting others. Halkenburg Hui Guo Rou is the ninth prince of Kakin and Nasubi's fourth child with Duazul. A prodigy student who entered university at age 15, he is considered the most gifted of the heirs and by many the most suited to become the next ruler. However, he openly criticizes the royal family. Unlike his siblings, Halkenburg has no intention on continuing with the succession battle and tells his father he will not participate. In his second confrontation with his father, he learns the harsh truth, that the only way for him to end the succession war is by winning. His Guardian Spirit Beast, a feathered ogre-like Enhancer that implants pinions to boost his followers' physical abilities, awaken his Nen ability to transmit the aura of a follower into another person to place them in a trance-like state until that follower is killed. Kacho Hui Guo Rou is the tenth prince of Kakin and Nasubi's first daughter with his sixth wife, . Melody is selected as her bodyguard. Appearing rude and selfish on the outside, this is actually an act to appear tough and to ensure that her bodyguards side with her twin sister Fugetsu if forced to choose between them. She cares about Fugetsu and convinces her that they should work together to win the succession game, enlisting Melody's help to orchestrate an escape plan. This plan fails as Kacho is killed by a mysterious force preventing any princes from leaving. Her Guardian Spirit Beast awakens upon her death, assuming Kacho's form per its ability , which would had also been triggered by the death of her sister, to protect Fugetsu until she dies. Fugetsu Hui Guo Rou is the 11th prince of Kakin and Nasubi's second daughter with Seiko, making her Kacho's twin sister. Unlike her sister, she is shy and kind. Her Guardian Spirit Beast creates doors that act as portals allowing her to travel instantly between two points. She attempts to escape along with Kacho, but is forced to use her portal to retreat as a mysterious force prevents her from leaving while later joined by her twin's Guardian Spirit Beast. Momoze Hui Guo Rou is the 12th prince of Kakin and Nasubi's first child with his seventh wife, . Hanzo is selected as her bodyguard. Her Guardian Spirit Beast is mouse-like and was one of the Beasts to attack Woble's bodyguards. After Sevanti orders some of Momoze's bodyguards to protect Marayam instead, including Hanzo, Momoze is strangled to death in her sleep by one of her remaining guards, making her the first prince to die in the succession war. King Nasubi has her body composed and placed in a grave inside a mysterious room where 13 more empty graves are arranged in a circle. Marayam Hui Guo Rou is the 13th prince of Kakin and Nasubi's second child with Sevanti. Biscuit is selected as his bodyguard. Sevanti orders some of Momoze's bodyguards to protect Marayam instead, claiming he is scared and more important. Woble Hui Guo Rou is the 14th prince of Kakin, Nasubi's youngest child and only child with his eighth wife, . She is forced to participate in the succession game despite being a newborn baby. Oito hires Kurapika to protect her and her daughter during the succession game. Two hours in, all of their initial bodyguards are killed by Guardian Spirit Beasts except Kurapika and , a Hunter hired by Pariston to search the Dark Continent with Beyond. Like the other princes, they are then given a royal armed guard by Benjamin, but are additionally given two more guards from Zhang Lei. Kurapika temporarily gives Oito the Nen ability by using his Stealth Dolphin ability, which she uses to control a cockroach to learn the guards and Guardian Spirit Beast of prince Marayam and witness Momoze's death, before it is killed by Tserriednich's Spirit Beast. As a result, Oito's own ability to use Nen is awakened and she begins training to use it. Mafia Xi-Yu The mafia family is run by its boss , Nasubi Hui Guo Rou's illegitimate half-brother. is the underboss of the family. Based on level four of the Black Whale, their benefactor is Zhang Lei and they control human trafficking and goods distribution. The Xi-Yu are trying to find Hisoka before the Phantom Troupe, in order to prevent a large scale incident on board. Heil-Ly The mafia family is run by its boss , Nasubi Hui Guo Rou's illegitimate daughter with a mistress. Based on level three of the Black Whale, their benefactor is Tserriednich and they intermediate between the wealthy and the black market. Morena's Nen ability allows her, as number zero, to infect up to 22 other people through her saliva. These infected level up and increase their power by killing people; at level 20 they develop their own Nen ability, and at 100 they become a new number zero and can infect others to form their own community. Cha-R The mafia family is run by its boss , Nasubi Hui Guo Rou's illegitimate half-brother. is the underboss of the family. Based on level five of the Black Whale, their benefactor is Luzurus and they control all commodities. The Cha-R are trying to find Hisoka before the Phantom Troupe, in order to prevent a large scale incident on board. Other characters Mito is the woman who raised Gon and does not want him to become a Hunter. Despite being Ging's cousin, Gon refers to her as his aunt and considers her his "real mom". Although Mito never told Gon that Ging was a Hunter, he grew up believing both his parents died in a car accident, the boy learned about it from Kite three years prior to the series. She later reveals to him that ten years after Ging left Whale Island, he returned with Gon as an infant and asked their grandmother to take care of him for a while, but Mito felt him unfit to parent and gained custody of the boy. In the 1999 version of the anime and novelization, Mito is made into the sister of Gon's mother, making Ging her brother-in-law. Wing is an assistant master of the Shingen-Ryu style of Kung fu whose pupil is Zushi. He meets Gon and Killua at the Heavens Arena and eventually teaches them Nen. Although he initially lies to them about Nen, he changes his mind when they advance to the 200th floor of Heavens Arena, realizing they could die or be badly injured by the other Nen users. For the next several months he teaches them the basics of Nen, after which he announces they have passed the secret final requirement for being a Hunter. He does however somewhat fear their immense potential. Wing's teacher was Biscuit Krueger, who incidentally later becomes Gon and Killua's second teacher. Wing makes an appearance at Isaac Netero's funeral and at the first round of the 13th Hunter Chairman Election. He was last seen checking up on Gon at the hospital. His Nen type is Enhancement. Wing came in 11th and 15th place in the series' first two popularity polls. Heavens Arena fighters The is a large tower combat arena where combatants fight to ascend on higher floors for rewards. It is said to be the fourth tallest building the world, towering for over and has a total of 251 floors. Zushi is a young boy who studies Shingen-Ryu Kung fu and Nen under the tutelage of Wing, whom Gon and Killua meet in the Heavens Arena. He is a formidable fighter and a prodigy in his own right, however, he is quickly surpassed by Gon and Killua. According to the results of his water divination, Zushi is a Manipulator. Zushi came in 21st place in the series' second popularity poll. Sadaso is a Heavens Arena fighter from the 200th floor whose notable characteristic is his missing left arm and a ruthless desire to pick upon fighters new to Nen. He and two other fighters were eagerly wanting to fight Gon and Killua. Zadaso then uses his Nen ability to take Zushi hostage into forcing Gon to fight them at the 29th of May, although Killua interferes, eventually giving them a free win. However, during the 10 minutes before he could fight, Killua appears behind him and threatened him for his fraud, causing him to flee and never return to Heaven's Arena. Sadaso is a Transmutation-type Nen user and his ability allows him to transmute an enormous left arm to restrain his targets. Like his two other lackeys, Sadaso's Nen ability is based on his missing body part. Gido is a Heavens Arena fighter from the 200th floor whose notable characteristic is his missing lower body, thus he has a metal prosthetic to compensate for his loss. He, Sadaso, and Riehvelt are wanting to challenge both Gon and Killua. Although he initially won against Gon during their match on May 11, Gon would later win against him in a rematch. Gido is an Enhancement-type Nen user. Gido can use to order his Nen-enhanced tops to surround his opponents. causes Gido to spin like a top while enveloped by aura. This ability is considered to be his most powerful one. throws multiple spinning tops in rapid succession directly to his enemies, making it hard to avoid. Riehlvelt is a Heavens Arena fighter from the 200th floor whose notable characteristic is his paralyzed limbs, thus he sits on a modified wheelchair. Riehvelt was eventually disqualified from Heaven's Arena after a total of four losses against both Gon and Killua. He uses two whips called the which can emit 1,000,000 volts of electricity. Riehvelt's Nen ability is called which he propels himself at accelerated speeds by using a burst of his aura. Kastro is a prominent and talented fighter in the Heavens Arena. He hangs out on the 200th floor of the Heavens Arena with the intent on building enough wins to become a Floor Master. His only loss is to Hisoka, so he trains rigorously to improve his Nen. After accumulating nine out of the ten required wins to become a Floor Master, he challenges Hisoka to a rematch. While he appears to have the upper hand at first, Hisoka realizes that Kastro has been working in tandem with a doppelgänger created through his Nen. Hisoka then performs an illusion using Nen to throw off Kastro, which leaves an opening for Hisoka to kill him. Kastro's undoing is in the type of Nen ability that he has chosen. Although he was born as an Enhancer, Kastro's ability completely ignores his strengths and uses Conjuration and Manipulation. Furthermore, his conjured doppelgänger is also flawed in that although Kastro gets dirtied from blows dealt to him, it remains spotless in combat due to it being merely a reflection of what he sees of himself, thus making it easy to distinguish between the two. Nostrade Family The Nostrade Family is the mafia family that Kurapika joins in order to find information concerning his people's stolen Scarlet Eyes. It is headed by , and by using the fortunetelling ability of his daughter Neon, Light managed to greatly increase his position in the mafia community, to the point where even the Ten Dons seek his daughter's advice. Before entering the underground auction several bodyguards are hired to protect Neon, including Kurapika, by Dalzollene. After the Phantom Troupe attack on the auction, several of the bodyguards are killed, including Dalzollene, which allows Kurapika to become the lead bodyguard. Neon Nostrade is the only daughter of the head of the Nostrade family, Light Nostrade. Using her Nen ability, , she predicts the future through quatrain fortune tellings which are always accurate, but slightly cryptic due to their use of abstract references to future events. Neon is spoiled; she receives everything she demands by threatening to cease the use of her ability for her father's benefit. Neon is also very involved with the occult and is an avid collector of rare human flesh, such as the Scarlet Eyes of the Kurta Clan. Neon cares very little about anything else other than her collection; even the death of her head bodyguard, Dalzollene, causes her no grief. However, when a family attendant is heartbroken, Neon offers to leave Yorknew City, despite not having obtained the auction items she desired. She loses her Nen ability when Chrollo steals it from her. It is later revealed that her ability disappeared from Chrollo's book, implying that she died. Neon came in 23rd place in the series' second popularity poll. Dalzollene is a dedicated leader of Neon Nostrade's bodyguards and Kurapika's direct superior. He is killed by Phinks, as the Troupe infiltrates a Nostrade compound in order to rescue a captured Uvogin. Dalzollene is seen wielding a katana inscribed with runes. In the anime, he manages to pierce Uvogin by 5 millimeters with the katana. Squala is one of Neon Nostrade's bodyguards. During the job interview for new hires, he was one of the two moles planted alongside the applicants in order to test their strength. He is also in a romantic relationship with Eliza, one of Neon's female attendants. Squala is later beheaded by Nobunaga. His Nen ability gives him the capacity of manipulating dogs, being able to communicate with them through whistles and give them complex orders, such as guarding or spying. Baise is one of Neon Nostrade's new bodyguards, hired along with Kurapika. She is one of the three bodyguards sent to buy what Neon wants in the Yorknew City underground auction, but everyone is consequentially murdered by the Phantom Troupe that night. She is killed by Shizuku during the massacre. A Manipulator, her Nen ability gives her the ability to make anyone she kisses her slave for 180 minutes. Shachmono Tocino is a senior member of Neon Nostrade's bodyguards and a Hunter. Tocino along with Squala are one of the moles planted alongside the applicants in order to test their strength. During the night in the Underground Auction, Tocino is one of the people killed by Franklin's Nen ability. Shachmono Tocino is an Emission-type Nen user. His ability is called which summons doll-like balloons. Each can be given an order and can be mistakens as humans, however a thorough analysis on their behavior can give away their identity. Bobobo is a death row convict known for committing multiple acts of rape, murder, and robbery. He is one of the pirates terrorizing Soufrabi as part of the Greed Island's in-game event. He is killed by Razor as a consequence for violating the taboo by hinting that the video game is part of the real world. Gyro is the king and founder of the Neo-Green Life Autonomous Region (NGL), whose goal is to spread evil throughout the world. In his childhood, Gyro was abused by his alcoholic father, despite considering him as a god. After the cruel revelation that his father never cared nor loved him, Gyro killed his own father and stole his money. In his later life, he developed the D2 drug and became the kingpin of NGL. During the invasion of the Chimera Ants in the NGL, Gyro was killed along with his friend, Zaiqahal. Despite being reborn as a Chimera Ant, Gyro's willpower and pride allowed him to retain his human memories and left the Queen's hive in order to reestablish his own kingdom. Welfin believes that Gyro is currently situated in Meteor City with he, Hina, and Bizeff deciding to head there to find him. Ming Jol-ik is the former dictator who rules the Republic of East Gorteau. A double of him secretly succeeded his place. During the Chimera Ant crisis, Meruem kills the double and Neferpitou uses their Nen ability to manipulate the double's corpse to announce a national rally for the "Selection." His name is an anagram for Kim Jong-il. Komugi is a blind girl from the Republic of East Gorteau and reigning world champion of , a board game created in the country. When Meruem took over East Gorteau he challenged numerous expert game players and beat them at their specialties, however, Komugi is the only one he is unable to beat. Komugi ends up influencing Meruem into becoming more human-like while her exposure to him awakens her ability to use Nen, improving her Gungi skills. During the raid on the palace of East Gorteau, Komugi is severely injured as a result of Zeno's ability and is healed by Pitou. After Meruem is fatally poisoned from Netero's bomb, she stays beside him during his final moments and dies herself minutes later from exposure to him. Nearby their hands, a white Gungi piece with "General" and a black Gungi piece with "Shinobi" can be seen, referring to the relationship between Komugi and Meruem respectively. Beyond Netero is Isaac Netero's son who took part in an expedition to the Dark Continents decades earlier, but after it ended in failure, his father forbade him from making another attempt as long as he lived. After Isaac's death, Beyond reveals himself to the public and enlists the support of King Hui Guo Rou of Kakin to assemble another expedition, facing fierce opposition from the world's five most powerful nations (known as the V5) that deem the Dark Continent a forsaken place. However, he makes a deal with the V5 and the Hunter Association, agreeing to continue the expedition under constant vigilance from the Zodiacs, with any discovery belonging to them. For the expedition, Beyond hired a group of Temp Hunters through Pariston, which Ging becomes the second-in-command of in name only. References Hunter × Hunter manga Entire series Togashi, Yoshihiro. ハンター×ハンター [Hunter × Hunter] (in Japanese). 36 vols. Tokyo: Shueisha, 1998–present. Togashi, Yoshihiro. Hunter × Hunter. 36 vols. San Francisco: Viz Media, 2005–present. Individual volumes Other sources External links Official Hunter x Hunter manga site Official Viz Hunter x Hunter manga page Hunter × Hunter characters Lists of anime and manga characters