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4565924	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doaba	Doaba	Doaba, also known as Bist Doab or the Jalandhar Doab, is the region of Punjab, India that lies between the Beas River and the Sutlej River. People of this region are given the demonym "Doabia". The dialect of Punjabi spoken in Doaba is called "Doabi". The term "Doaba" or "Doab" is derived from Persian (do āb "two water") meaning "land of two rivers". The river Sutlej separates Doaba from the Malwa region to its south and the river Beas separates Doaba from the Majha region to its north. Scheduled castes form more than 40% of the population in Doaba. This area is also called the NRI Hub of Punjab as a consequence of the migration of a significant percentage of Doabias. The Doaba region is also where historically, much of the Punjabi diaspora in western countries such as Canada (especially in the Greater Vancouver area and also Toronto (Brampton)), and the UK traces its roots. Districts of Doaba Doaba comprises the following districts: Hoshiarpur Kapurthala Jalandhar Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar Sub-divisions Traditionally, Doaba was subdivided into Manjki, Dona, Dhak, Sirowal, Kandi and Bet areas. The boundaries between Dona, Manjki and Dhak are not well defined and this article gives an outline of the areas which fall within the sub divisions of Doaba. For instance, the division between Manjki and Dhak is the Grand Trunk Road. Even though the Manj held land to the east of this road (around Bara Pind), people generally refer to this area as Dhak for ease of reference. According to local people, each area developed a sub culture. This influenced people to arrange marriages within the local sub division. These considerations however are now not taken into account. Manjki Manjki includes a large part of Nakodar tehsil, western parts of Goraya sub tehsil, Noormahal sub tehsil and western parts of Phillaur tehsil. The villages of Jandiala Manjki, and Bundala lie in Manjki. The south east of Phagwara also falls within Manjki. However, it is not clear which area is covered in the Phagwara tehsil. However, there is a reference by Ibbetson to Bara Pind and 12 villages to the south of Phagwara being held by Manj Rajputs. It is not clear if the area takes its name from the Manj tribe which once held the track around Nakodar or the name is related to the condition of the land. However, the Manj Rajputs did hold a large tract in the south west of Jallandhar district stretching between Talwan, Nakodar and Malsian (to the west of Nakodar city). On this basis, it is unlikely that the name derives from the condition of the land and is more likely to be linked to the Manj Rajputs. Traditionally, the area to the west of Grand Trunk Road is considered to be Manjki and accordingly, any references to other areas need to be investigated. The lines between the subdivisions are not clear cut but are general guides. The Manjki was one of the most developed areas of Punjab owing to its proximity to the established city of Jalandhar and its locality to the Sutlej bearing fertile soil for the relatively consistent plaine. After 1947, this region experienced large scale emigration to Northern nations such as the UK, Canada and the US and consequently has the highest NRI count in the Indian Punjab Region. As a result of these developments, there has been considerable NRI investment into this area of Punjab which has resulted in comparative economic prosperity in this region. A Large Muslim tribe of Arains was settled in Doaba region before 1947 especially in Jalandhar district and All Punjab. The Arains were mainly settled in Phagwara, Nakodar, Kotla Nihang, Daulatpur and Noorpur. They were landholders of big agricultural tracts in the region. After partition almost all Arain population migrated from Jalandhar to Faisalabad (formerly Lyallpur), Bahawalpur, Rawalpindi and Lahore districts of Pakistan. In the present day, Hinduism and Sikhism predominate as the main religions of the region. Before partition, the area had a sizeable Muslim majority, which led to the Muslim League hoping that the Jalandhar division would be allotted to Pakistan. The majority of Muslims of this area after partition moved to the Faisalabad (formerly Lyallpur) district of Pakistan, though a small minority opted instead for the urban centers of Lahore and Rawalpindi. A reasonable number of Sikhs and Hindus from the Lyallpur district were relocated in the Doaba region, especially in Manjki. Dhak The area known as Dhak includes the eastern part of Phillaur tehsil and Nawanshahr district. The Grand Trunk road separates the Dhak area from the Manjki area. The middle part of Phagwara tehsil is in Dhak. The region is referred to as Dhak as there was an abundance of Dhak trees in this area in the past. A Dhak tree is also known as Palah and is classed as the Butea Monosperma tree. There are many villages in Phagwara tehsil alone which incorporate the word Dhak, such as Dhak Palahi, Dhak Dhadoli, Dhak Chachoki. Indeed, Palahi is so called as the area was covered by a Dhak forest. Although Phagwara tehsil includes the Dhak area, the type of soil has traditionally been midway between clay loan or loamy clay and therefore the traditional main crop rotations were maize-wheat, paddy-wheat, sugarcane-wheat, and fodder-wheat, cotton-wheat. However, the current crop rotations in Punjab as a whole have altered to keep up with changes in ground conditions. Dona The word 'Dona' means that the soil is formed of two constituents, sand and clay, with sand predominating. The area to the south of the river Beas falls within Dona. This area is formed by a part of the Kapurthala district. Due to the type of soil in Dona, the main crop rotations traditionally being followed were: groundnut-wheat, groundnut-fallow, maize-wheat, cotton-wheat, and fodder-wheat. However, as elsewhere, the crop rotations alter according to current ground conditions. Bet The portion of Doaba that lies in the area between the river tract falling between the Beas and Black Bein is called "Bet". Any area near a river is also called Bet and therefore, there are Bet areas in all area of Punjab which adjoin a river. The soil in Bet is clay loam or loamy or clay, and therefore the main crop rotations traditionally being followed were: paddy-wheat, maize-wheat, fodder-wheat, and toria-wheat. Sirowal The north eastern part of Phagwara tehsil lies in the Sirowal (also called Sirwal) region. Bhogpur and Adampur Blocks of Jalandhar district also lie in Sirowal, in fact Bhogpur was known as Bhogpur Sirwal. Hoshiarpur district blocks 1 and 2 lie in Sirowal and incorporates the village of Singriwala and the surrounding area. Sirowal also includes the sub tehsil of Mahilpur. The name Sirowal is derived from "Siraan", a Punjabi word for channels of water bursting out from the ground due to high water table and pressure, which was very true of Sirowal in the past before excessive use of tubewells brought the water table down. Sirowal possesses the characteristics of the Bet area. The numerous hill streams coming down from Hoshiarpur district keep the soil moist all the year round. Some of these streams are silt laden and at first deposit fertile soil though their later deposits are more and more sandy. Due to the existence of these drainage channels patches and stratas of hard clay are also to be found. Accordingly, the areas through which the seasonal streams flow is classed as Sirowal. Such streams are called choes in Punjabi and include the Nasrala choe which merges with the white (chitti) Bein. Kandi The area lying below the mountains is called Kandi and runs across eastern portions of Hoshiarpur, Balachaur tehsil of Nawanshahr and District Una of Himachal Pradesh.Nurpur bedi of rupnagar. Kala Sanghian Small town in doaba on the border of Jalandhar and Kapurthala. Places Phagwara Phagwara was built by Shah Jahan as a market town. Over time, some people of Phagwara started farming and Phagwara took on a rural character. Phagwara Sharki covers the original rural Phagwara, which now is only covered by the area surrounding Sukhchainiana Gurdwara (Sukhchain Nagar) where some people continue to farm the land. Phagwara is an industrial city and is popular for garment shopping. It is also home to the Lovely Professional University. Jalandhar City Jalandhar, previously known as Jullundur, is a city in Jalandhar District in the state of Punjab, India. It has an urban population of almost a million, and another million live in the rural areas outside the city. Jalandhar City is made up of Jalandhar Town and its 12 Basties and 12 Kots (also known as Mohallas. Jallandhar also had 12 gates. With the passage of time, the identity and location of the basties, kots and gates is difficult to ascertain. According to the local people, however, the known Basties are: Basti Danishmandan, originally Ibrahimpur, founded by Ansari Sheikhs from Kaniguram in A.D.1606. Basti Sheikh Darvesh, popularly called Basti Sheikh, originally Surajabad, founded by Sheikh Darvesh and Ansari Sheikh from Kaniguram in A.D.1614 Basti Guzan, founded in the reign of Shah Jahan by Burki Pashtuns of the Ghuz section, discipline of Sheikh Darvesh. They first settled in Jalandhar, then in Basti Sheikh. Subsequently, they purchase lands from Lodhi Afghans, Saiyads and Sheikhs, and built a bazar of their own. Basti Bawa Khel, originally called Babapur, was founded in A.D. 1620-21 by Burki Pashtuns of the Baba Khel section. Basti Pirdad is an offshoot of Basti Baba Khel. Basti Shah Kuli and Basti Shah Ibrahim are also Burki Pashtun settlements of Shah Jahan's reign. Basti Mithu Sahib appears to have been founded a little later than Basti Sheikh Darvesh by Mian Mithu Sahib, a Khalil Mattezai Pathan from the neighbourhood of Peshawar. Basti Nau, adjoining Basti Shah Kulli, was founded after the Sikh conquest of the region in 1759. The known Kots are: Kot Kishan Chand Kot Lakhpat Rai, earlier known as Kot Daulat Khan Kot Sadat Khan Kot Achhi Kot Chimbian Kot Pakshian Kot Bahadur Khan Kot Mohammad Amin now known as Shivraj Garh Kot Sadiq Kot Badal Khan Kot Fazal Karim Kot Asman Khan The original gates are: Balmiki Gate, Neela Mahal Gate, Jaura Gate, Khingran Gate, Saidan Gate, Phagwara Gate, Sheetla Gate, Khodian Gate, Dehalvi Gate, Shah Kuli Gate, Lahore Gate Over time. many of the Bastis and Kots have been developed to form Jalandhar City. After 1947, Bhargav Camp, Model Town, Model House, Central Town, Preet Nagar, Old Jawahar Nagar, Subhash Nagar, Lajpat Rai Nagar, Shakti Nagar, New Jawahar Nagar and Adarsh Nagar and several other small residential colonies were built. Chahar Bagh and Pucca Bagh existed prior to 1947 but were extensively developed after that date. Of late, new estates have been developed in neighbouring villages. Jalandhar District The Jalandhar District is home to the Phillaur fort, Gurdwara Talhan Sahib and Devi Talab Mandir. The Wonderland Theme Park is off the Jalandhar to Nakodar Road near Lambra. Nakodar Nakodar is a city with a rich history and is home of the following: Religious places Guru Ravidas gurudwara Khuralgarh Guru Ravidas Gurudwara Chak Hakima Dera Guru Ravidas Sherpur Dhakkon Baba Mall Ji Malri Nawa Nanaksar Thath, Balanda Jagdambey Dham (Devi Talab Mandir) Dera sachkhand Ballan Sri Sudarshan Mandir Malri Sahib Gurudwara Nanaksar Sahib Gurudwara Mata Jamba Jain Mandir Mata Chakarshvari Davi Jain Mandir AadiNath Jain Mandir Nanaksar Sahib, (Ballan wala) Pracheen Shivalaya Mandir 2913 Katra Missran, Nakodar Jagan Nath Mandir (Baba Charen Das) Jogipeer Chahal* Popular Historical Places The Tomb of Mohammed Mommin The Tomb of Haji Jamal Gugga Jahar Vir Mandir Baba Sahas Chand Boparai Kalan Kartarpur Kartarpur was founded by the fifth Sikh Guru Arjan Dev Ji during his time spent in Doaba. One of the earliest Guru Granth Granth Sahib Ji is kept in Kartarpur. The town is also home to the woodwork industry. A lot of scheduled castes population is lived there and worked in furniture industries. It is also a reserved assembly seat. Nurmahal Nurmahal was built on a place where an ancient town, called Kot Kahlur, was located which was proven by the bricks and many coins found beneath the soil of this town. It is believed that the ancient city was abandoned or destroyed around 1300 for an unknown reason. Nurmahal is named after Noor Jahan, the wife of Mughal emperor Jahangir (1605–1627) as she was brought up here, and is thought to have spent her childhood here. The town then came under the rule of Talwan Rajputs and Ranghars before the East India Company gained control. Major point of tourist interest in Nurmahal is the Mughal Serai constructed by Noor Jahan. This historical monument is looked after by the Archaeological Department. The whole structure of the sarai is in the form of quadrangle consisting of 140 cells, spread over the four sides of the structure. Phillaur The Naru Rajputs, sent by Rai Shahr, occupied this town when Shahr's son Ratan Pal left Mau and settled in Phillaur. The old serai was converted into a fort by Maharaja Ranjit Singh and is now being used as Police Training Academy (PTA). The popular Hindu hymn, Jai Jagdish Hare was composed by local scholar Shardha Ram Phillauri from Phillaur some time in the 1870s. The exact date is not known. Shardha Ram Phillauri also wrote what is generally considered to be the first novel in Hindi. There is a memorial commemorating him. Hoshiarpur Hoshiarpur is called the land of "choes", some 39 "choes", (seasonal rivulets), which bring floods in the monsoon season. The area is known for wooden and ivory handicrafts. Ivory has now been replaced by synthetic alternatives. It is situated in the Sivalik Hills, which are foothills of the Himalayas. Hoshiarpur is also known as doors to Himachal and Himalayas and is best short cut to go to Jammu & Kashmir via Hoshiarpur it saves a lot of time as well as fuel. The Takhni Rehmapur Sanctuary is situated in Hoshiarpur district. Dholbaha houses important archaeology sites. Dasuya The town is referred to in the ancient Indian epic, the Mahabharata, as being the seat of king Virata. In recognition of this, Dasuya is still referred to as Virat Ki Nagri today. Kapurthala Kapurthala (Punjabi: ਕਪੂਰਥਲਾ) is a city in Punjab state of India. It is the administrative headquarters of Kapurthala District. It was the capital of the Kapurthala State, a princely state in British India. The secular and aesthetic mix of the city with its prominent buildings based on French and Indo-Saracenic architecture self-narrate its princely past. It is also known as city of Palaces & Gardens and is home to the Jagatjit Palace. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district was carved out of Hoshiarpur and Jalandhar districts of Punjab on 7 November 1995, as the sixteenth district of Punjab State named from the headquarters town of Nawanshahr. Nawanshahr town is said to have been built by an Afghan Military Chief, Nausher Khan. Previously it was called "Nausar" but with the passage of time, the town came to be known "The Nawanshahr". Nawanshahr has been the stronghold of the Muslim Ghorewaha Rajputs allied to King Akbar via kinship ties, and numerous clans of Sainis and Jats. The district is home to Khatkar Kalan, where we can find Shaheed Bhagat Singh's museum located near Banga. Music and Dance Classical Sham Chaurasia gharana is a gharana (musical heritage) in Hindustani classical music, known for the singing of vocal duets, most notably represented in modern times by the brothers Salamat Ali Khan and Nazakat Ali Khan. The gharana is centered at a village of the same name in the Hoshiarpur district of Punjab (India); variant spellings include Shamchurasi. Dance Traditional folk dance popular throughout Doaba is Giddha dance by women. Although there are no men's folk dances, since the 1947 partition, Bhangra has taken root in the region. The style of traditional folk singing by men, called "dohay" needs to be studied to determine its style and to ascertain its existence. "Dohay" in Doaba were sung by men when working on the field and were similar to bolyan. Fairs and Festivals Fairs The Basant fair in Kapurthala is held at Shalamar Bagh annually. An annual Dussehra mela is held in Lakhpur. Panchhat and Talhan hold annual Vaisakhi mela. The Baba Sodal Mela is organised to pay homage to Baba Sodal, who was an accomplished personality of Punjab. In Bhadon month, the fair is organised on the 14th day of Sukla Paksh (bright half of the lunar month) and is attended by thousands of devotees. As per the legend of Baba Sodal, he was born into Khatri Caste in Jalandhar and became a famous saint. There are various rituals associated with the Baba and people visit the pond in Jalandhar, which is the place of his Samadhi. People take a dip in the pond, especially the ladies, who pray for seeking the blessings of the baba for protecting their families and keeping them prosperous. Festivals Doabis celebrate the Punjabi festivals of Lohri, Basant Kite Festival (Punjab), Maghi, Vaisakhi, Holi, Holla Mohalla, Diwali, Raksha Bandhan, Dussehra and Teeyan. See also The Punjab Doabs Majha Malwa Poadh References Regions of India Regions of Punjab, India Plains of India Landforms of Punjab, India
4566059	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian%20S.%20Carr	Julian S. Carr	Julian Shakespeare Carr (October 12, 1845 – April 29, 1924) was an American industrialist, philanthropist, and white supremacist. He is the namesake of the town of Carrboro, North Carolina. Early life Carr was the son of Chapel Hill merchant John Wesley Carr and Eliza P. Carr (née Eliza Pannell Bullock). Carr was from a prominent North Carolinian planting family and was a cousin of Governor Elias Carr and of Mary Hilliard Hinton. His father owned slaves. He entered the University of North Carolina (today the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) at the age of sixteen, in 1862. His studies were interrupted in 1864 by service as a private in the Confederacy, serving with the Third North Carolina Cavalry. Career After the war, Carr became a partner in the tobacco manufacturing firm W. T. Blackwell and Co. in nearby Durham. His business acumen led to the firm's becoming known worldwide through its recognizable Bull Durham trademark. Carr became one of the state's wealthiest individuals, engaging in successful textile, banking (Durham's First National Bank), railroad, public utility (Electric Lighting Company), and newspaper endeavors. In 1909, Carr purchased the Alberta Cotton Mill from Thomas F. Lloyd in what was then called West End, North Carolina, by Chapel Hill. In 1913, after agreeing to extend electricity to the town, it was named Carrboro in honor of him. In the 1970s, the mill, abandoned for many years, was restored and opened as Carr Mill Mall. Politics National Carr was nominated for Vice President of the United States by delegates from North Carolina (and one from Montana) at the 1900 Democratic National Convention, at which he gave a speech. He served as a delegate to the 1912 convention. Bolstering white supremacy in North Carolina Julian Carr had a significant role in bolstering white supremacy in North Carolina during the era of Jim Crow. He publicly endorsed the Ku Klux Klan, opposed the 15th Amendment (1870) giving the vote to African-American men, and promoted racial unrest and turmoil in the late 19th century to defeat an interracial "Fusion" political party. Carr promoted his racial views through the News & Observer newspaper, which he bought, setting up white supremacist Josephus Daniels as its editor. He celebrated the Wilmington Massacre of 1898, in which an elected government was overthrown by force (the only such incident in American history), and where at least 60 black North Carolinians were murdered. In numerous speeches, he suggested that African Americans were better off enslaved and celebrated violence, even lynching, against black citizens. In 1880 he was nominated for lieutenant governor. Carr was an unsuccessful candidate in the 1900 Democratic primary for senator, running on a platform of white supremacy. Carr was the largest single donor to the Silent Sam monument to Confederate alumni on the UNC-Chapel Hill campus. At its dedication in 1913, Carr addressed the crowd, urging vigorous support for white supremacy. He bragged of an incident when he was 19 years old, "less than ninety days perhaps after my return from Appomattox", in which he performed the "pleasing duty" of horse-whipping an African-American "wench" "until her skirts hung in shreds", because he said she had "publicly insulted and maligned a Southern lady". This passage received a great deal of attention starting in 2011, after it was rediscovered in the university archives by a graduate student in history (Adam Domby) and published in the campus newspaper, the Daily Tar Heel. It contributed significantly to the discontent that culminated in the toppling of the statue August 20, 2018. Philanthropy Carr was instrumental in the founding of Duke University (where the history building on East Campus was named after him from 1930 to 2018). As Trinity College struggled to overcome postwar dependency on uncertain student tuition and church donations, interested Methodist laymen were crucial to its survival. Carr's name first appears in college records signing a note to forestall foreclosure on a mortgage due in 1880. Carr was elected a trustee of Trinity College in 1883, and over the course of the decade acted as benefactor and administrator of the struggling institution that was eventually renamed Duke University. He engineered the selection of John F. Crowell as the institution's new president, and along with Washington Duke won support to remove the school from its rural setting in Randolph County, North Carolina to Durham. The move was made possible by Carr's gift of of land for the site. Carr was noted in Volume VI of The History of Woman Suffrage for his encouragement of the formation of the Equal Suffrage League of North Carolina: "At this time, when it was far from popular to stand for this cause, Judge Walter Clark, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; Gen. Julian S. Carr, Archibald Henderson, Wade Harris and E.K. Graham acted as an Advisory Committee and gave freely of their time and money to help the League." A long-time advocate for the welfare of Confederate veterans, the "high-private," as he liked to refer to himself, was Commander-in-Chief of North Carolina's United Confederate Veterans. At the 1913 dedication of the Confederate Monument (later known as Silent Sam) on the campus of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Carr gave a speech wherein he credited the Confederate soldiers of having "saved the very life of the Anglo Saxon race in the South," and as a consequence, "the purest strain of the Anglo Saxon is to be found in the 13 Southern States," after which he ended his speech by relating a personal anecdote when he was 19 years old of having soon after the war "horse-whipped a negro wench until her skirts hung in shreds" in Chapel Hill for having "publicly insulted and maligned a Southern lady," and having performed this "pleasing duty" in front of a garrison of 100 Federal soldiers after she sought protection at the university. General Jule, as he was known, served as the representative for the Methodist Episcopal Church South to the United States Food Administration during World War I. Carr was instrumental in the Western education of Charles Soong and the financing of Soong's Shanghai Bible-publishing business, who later was active in Sun Yat-Sen's attempts to establish a modern republic in China. Though it is largely forgotten today, Carr was a major financial backer of the Chinese Revolution. Legacy The city of Carrboro, North Carolina. Carr Hall, at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Carr paid the entire cost of this building, erected in 1900 as a dormitory. When new it was described as "one of the stateliest buildings on its [UNC-CH] beautiful campus", but in 2017 it was "a decrepit administrative office building". The building was renamed in 2020. "Duke University's Carr Building is a different story. Its original name, in 1927, was "Classroom Building". It was renamed "Carr Building" in 1930. In 2018 the original name of Classroom Building was restored (see below). A building at the Durham School of the Arts, originally Central Junior High School, was named for Carr. On August 24, 2017, in addition to prohibiting the Confederate flag, the Board of the Durham Public Schools voted unanimously to remove Carr's name from the building. The Durham chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy is named the Julian S. Carr Chapter. In 1945, the 100th anniversary of his birth, Governor R. Gregg Cherry proclaimed October 12, 1945, as Julian S. Carr Day in North Carolina. On that day, an editorial in the Durham Sun said that "Named for him are a great many things, churches, a factory, a library, a Sunday School class, a host of children whose parents admired the man, and, now, Durham's Central Junior High School." A portrait of him hangs in the house of the UNC System President Personal life He married Nannie Graham Parrish, daughter of Colonel D.C. Parrish, in 1873. They had four sons and two daughters. Their main residence, Somerset Villa, was "an ornament to Durham". The Carrs owned a secondary residence, a plantation in Hillsborough called Poplar Hill. Later in life, he was known as "General Carr," the unofficial rank having been bestowed by the state veterans' association due to his long service in veterans' affairs and generosity toward widows and their children. In 1923, UNC bestowed an honorary degree upon Julian Carr. Julian Carr died at his daughter's home in Chicago on April 29, 1924. Conflicting assessments Carr supported white supremacy and the Ku Klux Klan, spoke favorably of the murder of African Americans that occurred during the Wilmington Massacre of 1898, which he called a "grand and glorious event", and celebrated lynchings. As early as 1889 Carr had been described as "the foremost man in North Carolina", his name "a household word". When running for Senator in 1900, an editorial said that "with a large purse. a liberal heart and a ready hand, he has contributed more to the educational and charitable institutions of North Carolina than any other man in the state." At the centennial of his birth in 1945, President of the North Carolina College for Negroes (today's North Carolina Central University) James E. Shepard was quoted as having said that "I have never known the first time for him to fail to give to any enterprise which he thought would benefit the colored people or to lend his influence in their behalf… He put his time and money into the effort to establish that institution, and no call upon him was ever made in vain. I have known scores and scores of colored people who were the recipients of his kindness and generosity. I, too, was a recipient of the same. I never knew a cause, as stated above, to be in vain. I have never known a colored person too poor or ignorant who went to General Carr for assistance who did not receive the same." In 1962, Durham mayor W. F. Carr (a nephew) described him as "a philanthropist without stint, a soldier without fear, a churchman without apology, a citizen without self-interest, a leader without tyranny, a follower humble enough to follow good leaders." He added that "he contributed liberally of his wealth to churches, schools, and universities, including the stately Methodist church on Chapel Hill Street, and the Trinity Methodist Church in up-town Durham; Trinity College (Duke since 1934), Davidson, Wake Forest, Saint Mary's, Elon, Greensboro College and the North Carolina College for Negroes." He was chairman of the board of trustees of the latter, today North Carolina Central University. In 1999, University of North Carolina alumnus Sam Shaefer opined in the Raleigh News & Observer that Carr ... over the course of his life vigorously promoted and fought for some of the worst causes in human history – racial chattel slavery, racial segregation and white supremacy, and the restriction of political power to a small class of wealthy people. In our present, when we are faced with the enormity of the consequences of the ideology of racism, the monstrosity of unfettered capitalism, and active threats to the realistically very weak institutions of democracy that we hold on to, the idea of venerating Carr is the worst kind of apologia. During the dispute about that University's Silent Sam confederate monument, Peter Coclanis, Albert R. Newsome Distinguished Professor of History at UNC-Chapel Hill, and William Sturkey, Assistant Professor of History at UNC-Chapel Hill, disagreed in a series of op-ed pieces in the Herald-Sun. Coclanis opined that "Carr, alas, was an ex-Confederate, and a man of his times, whose personal 'allusion' during a 1913 address in Chapel Hill—uttered when he was 67 years old—has made him a reviled figure among many people today. This is unfortunate and somewhat unfair in my view, however one feels about Silent Sam.... People are more than the worst thing they have done in their lives." Sturkey responded that Coclanis ... inaccurately portrays Carr as an otherwise generous philanthropist, unfairly vilified over a single bad moment or poor choice of words. * * * Julian Carr’s broader body of work indicates a long career of vile and violent white supremacism.... In the broader view, Carr’s life was filled with abhorrent activities and rhetoric that are not only deplorable today, but were illegal and belligerent in his own time. Carr committed treason against the United States of America, advocated the murder and disfranchisement of African Americans, and helped lead a racially divisive and violent political campaign that shattered democracy in North Carolina for over 60 years. Julian Carr was not merely 'a man of his times,' but rather an architect of his times. He was an enemy of enlightenment and democracy whose rhetoric and actions, both then and now, cast dark shadows over the civil and political life of the state and retard our ability to move forward from the legacies of slavery and Jim Crow. In the final piece, Coclanis wrote I do not disagree with Sturkey's contention that Carr was a white supremacist and thus racist by our standards. That said, I fail to understand his larger point. The vast majority of white southerners – indeed, white Americans – during the period in which Carr lived were white supremacists and racists by our standards. The vast majority did not, however, make pioneering innovations in business, did not bring about profound changes in the economy, and did not provide opportunities for generations of people (some of whom were African-American) to raise their living standards. Carr was exceptionally philanthropic to numerous causes and institutions.... History is tragedy, not melodrama, and all of us have feet of clay. Martin Luther, especially in his later writings, was clearly anti-Semitic; Martin Luther King Jr. was a notorious philanderer and a plagiarist to boot. George Washington was a slave-owner; Abraham Lincoln was by our standards racist and white supremacist. Do they deserve to be disappeared too? Pace Mr. Sturkey, the answer is no. These men were four of the greatest beings in our history. Though hardly in their league, Julian Carr, on balance, was a force for good and deserves honorable remembrance too. Removal of Carr's name "'Carr-washing' has become a popular trend in Durham and Chapel Hill, as Julian Carr's name is taken off buildings, such as the Durham Performing Arts Center. His self-presentation, at the dedication of the Confederate Monument (Silent Sam) as proud to use violence to maintain white supremacy, has sparked a movement. The speech has been quoted at Black Lives Matter Movements, and secondhand sources say it was referenced at the University of Virginia march. Carr's slave count is undocumented other than those who labored for his companies, but his White Supremacist ties are undeniable." The Durham Board of Education voted to remove Julian Carr's name from a building (the former Central Junior High School, mentioned above) at the Durham School of the Arts and to adopt a new dress code specifically prohibiting items that "intimidate other students on the basis of race." Mentioned were the Confederate flag, the Nazi swastika, and Ku Klux Klan symbols. The Duke University History Department, after the toppling of Silent Sam and the attention it gave to Carr's words, asked that Carr Hall, which houses the department, be renamed. Duke President Vincent Price called for a formation of a committee of students and faculty to examine options for a new understanding of Carr, his white supremacy, and his early support for Duke University. The committee held three meetings and sought comments from the Duke community, the "vast majority" of which favored renaming. On December 1, 2018, on the recommendation of the committee, the board of trustees voted to remove Carr's name from the building and temporarily returned the Hall to its original name, "Classroom Building", until a new name is decided upon. A petition has circulated calling for the town name of Carrboro to be changed. According to Alderwoman Jacquie Gist, "Changing Carrboro's name is not a realistic option", but the town of Carrboro is planning to erect a plaque "acknowledging namesake Julian Carr's racist remarks". In July 2020, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill's Carr Hall was renamed the "Student Affairs Building." References Further reading External links Julian Shakespeare Carr Papers at Wilson Special Collections Library of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 1845 births 1924 deaths American bankers American chief executives of manufacturing companies American city founders American manufacturing businesspeople American philanthropists American tobacco industry executives Duke University people North Carolina Democrats People from Chapel Hill, North Carolina Businesspeople from Durham, North Carolina People of North Carolina in the American Civil War University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni Suffragists from North Carolina History of racism in North Carolina Wilmington insurrection of 1898 North Carolina culture American proslavery activists Confederate States Army soldiers American slave owners Julian 19th-century American far-right politicians 20th-century American far-right politicians Chapel Hill-Carrboro, North Carolina White American culture in North Carolina
4566412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text%20and%20rubrics%20of%20the%20Roman%20Canon	Text and rubrics of the Roman Canon	The text and rubrics of the Roman Canon have undergone revisions over the centuries, while the canon itself has retained its essential form as arranged no later than the 7th century. The rubrics, as is customary in similar liturgical books, indicate the manner in which to carry out the celebration. The two most recent revisions of the text and rubrics of the canon have been the insertion of the name of Saint Joseph on 13 November 1962 by order of Pope John XXIII and the more general revision of 3 April 1969 under Pope Paul VI, which made some modifications in the text, but somewhat more significant changes in the rubrics. Although the latter revision was published in the Order of Mass issued along with promulgation of the revision, it was in the following year that the edition of the Roman Missal containing the revised Roman Canon along with three newly composed eucharistic prayers was issued. This revision of the Roman Canon will be referred to in this article as the 1970 text. Both the 1962 and the 1970 revisions of the canon are authorized for public liturgical use in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, that of 1970 in the form of Mass in general use, that of 1962 in the form permitted under certain conditions in Traditionis custodes by Pope Francis. This article does not deal with the significance and history of this Eucharistic Prayer (see History of the Roman Canon), but only with the text and rubrics of the Canon from the Te igitur to the final doxology, omitting consideration of the Preface and the Sanctus. The English translation used in this article is that in the 1902 English version of Nicholas Gihr's The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass (1902), originally published in German in 1877. The current official English translation (2011) is under copyright, but is available on many sites on the Internet. Audibility of recitation The 1962 canon, according to the Ritus servandus in celebratione Missae, IX, of the 1962 Roman Missal, is spoken in a tone described as silentio, a word that in the context of liturgy is officially translated into English as "quietly". The English version of Nicholas Gihr's book on the Mass translates secreto as "silently", but explains that it means that the canon is to be said not in absolute silence but "in a voice so subdued that the celebrant may hear himself, but not be heard by those around him". However, the rubrics of the canon indicate that, when saying the phrase "Nobis quoque peccatoribus", he raises his voice a little (elata aliquantulum voce), while the final "Per omnia saecula saeculorum is to be spoken understandably (intelligibili voce). Audible recitation of the whole 1962 Roman Canon was permitted in 1967. Such post-1962 permissions are not envisaged in the authorization granted by Pope Benedict XVI's Summorum Pontificum. The General Instruction of the Roman Missal, which covers the ground previously occupied by the Ritus servandus of pre-1970 editions, states: "The nature of the 'presidential' texts demands that they be spoken in a loud and clear voice and that everyone listen with attention." In addition, in a Mass with a congregation, "it is very appropriate that the priest sing those parts of the Eucharistic Prayer for which musical notation is provided". The whole of the 1962 canon and of the preceding offertory prayers was recited aloud by newly ordained priest(s), along with the ordaining bishop, in the Mass of their ordination. The words of consecration in particular were to be said "slowly and rather loud". The canon was also recited jointly by the ordaining bishop and by the bishop he ordained in the rite of episcopal ordination. These were the only concelebrations admitted within the Latin Church at that time. That by newly ordained priests was limited in that they received communion only under the form of bread, reception from the chalice being reserved for the bishop. Different reasons are proposed to explain why from the seventh century, beginning in Gaul, priests in the West came to pray the Roman Canon inaudibly for all but themselves. According to Elizabeth Harrington, "by the late 800s it came to be considered too holy to be heard by the people and was prayed in a low voice". The spread of the practice from East Syria, where it had originated, to the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire is witnessed to by Emperor Justinian's legislation against it in 565, a time when it was still unknown in Rome. Uwe Michael Lang proposes another factor for its adoption in the West: the impossibility for the priest of making his voice heard in the vast Roman basilicas and other large churches. Te igitur While the 1962 and 1970 texts are identical, the 1962 rubrics indicate that the priest, who has joined his hands at the Sanctus, extends them, raises them a little and again joins them. Then, bowing profoundly before the altar, he speaks the words of the prayer as far as "rogamus et petimus", at which point he kisses the altar and joins his hands in preparation for making the sign of the cross three times over host and chalice together at the words "haec dona, haec munera, haec sancta sacrificia illibata". He says the rest of the prayer with hands extended within the limits then indicated for that posture: neither higher nor wider than the shoulders, with fingers joined and palms facing each other. According to the 1970 rubrics, the priest simply begins the prayer with hands extended in an unspecified way and at the word "benedicas" makes a single sign of the cross over host and chalice, the only time in the whole course of the Roman Canon that he makes the sign of the cross over either, in contrast to the 1962 rules, which have the priest do so 25 times within the Canon, 15 of them after the consecration. The 1962 Ritus servandus in celebratione Missae laid down that in praying for the Pope the priest should bow his head at the mention of the Pope's name, as at the name of Jesus (bowing towards the cross) or of the Blessed Virgin Mary or another saint (bowing toward their image, if present). The 1970 rules require such a bow only "when the three Divine Persons are named together and at the names of Jesus, of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and of the Saint in whose honour Mass is being celebrated" and do not specify the direction of the bow. In the 1970 text a footnote after "et Antistite nostro N." indicates that at that point mention may be made of the coadjutor bishop or auxiliary bishops. The oldest texts of the Roman Canon mention only the Pope. The addition of the local bishop and "all the worshippers of the orthodox, catholic, and apostolic faith" (not limited to clergy) is found in manuscripts from the mid-ninth century on, often with the mention of the civil ruler ("et rege nostro"). Because of the diversity of religious attitude of civil rulers in the 16th century, Pope Pius V omitted mention of the king in the Roman Missal that he issued in 1570 in response to the decrees of the Council of Trent. The omission of the king's name led to a probibition in France of Pius V's Missal, while Philip II of Spain (1556–1598) obtained authorization for mention of his name in his kingdom, as did Emperor Napoleon III of France in 1855. In English-speaking lands the practice was in evidence in the 19th century. Editions of the Roman Missal continued to be printed in various places with "et rege nostro N.", such as one in Naples in 1853, only a few years before the overthrow of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The practice continued in Austria and Hungary until well into the 20th century. Neither the 1962 nor the 1970 editions of the Roman Canon show any trace of it. Commemoration of the living At the indication "N. et N.", a rubric states that the priest joins his hands and prays briefly for those for whom he intends to pray. Older manuscripts of the Roman Canon had "qui tibi offerunt" ("they offer it") without the preceding "pro quibus tibi offerimus vel" ("for them we offer you ... or"). Like Fortescue who also views the phrase as a later addition, Bradshaw and Johnson see as significant this addition of an originally alternative phrase that later became part of the fixed text: without it, the persons named were those who offered; with it, it was the priest who offered for them, a step towards considering irrelevant the actual presence of laypeople at the celebration of Mass. "Sacrifice of praise" is a phrase taken from Psalm 49/50:23. The word "salus" can refer either to bodily health or to spiritual salvation. In a concelebrated Mass, it is appropriate that this prayer and the following one (the Communicantes) be assigned to one or other concelebrant to pronounce alone with hands extended. Communicantes In the 1962 Canon, the priest joins his hands at the conclusion of this prayer, as with all prayers that conclude with "Per (eundem) Christum Dominum nostrum", and extends them again at the start of a following prayer. The words "et beati Ioseph, eiusdem Virginis Sponsi" ("blessed Joseph, Spouse of the same Virgin") were added by Pope John XXIII in 1962. In the 1970 Canon, it is optional to say the bracketed parts: the names of saints from James (the brother of John) to Damian, and the conclusion "Per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen." Also to be noted with regard to such conclusions is that in the 1962 Canon whenever the Lord Jesus Christ has previously been mentioned, the word "eundem", meaning "the same" is added between the "Per" and "Christum" of the conclusion. In the 1970 Canon, "eundem" is eliminated regardless of whether or not Christ is previously mentioned. In manuscripts and early editions of the Roman liturgy, the variations that on certain feasts replaced the normal Communicantes prayer were given immediately after the proper preface of the feast and were distinguished from the preface by the heading "Infra Actionem", which meant "within the canon". This custom was maintained in the original Tridentine edition of the Roman Missal and in later editions printed before 1962. In these editions the normal text of the prayer is also headed Infra Actionem. Adrian Fortescue explains the presence of this heading within the Canon by saying that the heading was by then looked on as the title of the prayer in any of its forms and was therefore added also to the normal text of the prayer. The 1962 edition no longer printed the by then reduced number of variants of the Communicantes prayer with the prefaces and placed them instead within the Canon after the standard form of the prayer. The surviving proper Communicantes were five: for Christmas and its octave; Epiphany; the period from the Easter Vigil to the following Saturday; the Ascension of the Lord; and from the Vigil of Pentecost to the following Saturday. Those in the 1970 Roman Missal are the same five, but are designated for "the Nativity of the Lord and throughout the Octave"; "the Epiphany of the Lord"; "from the Mass of the Easter Vigil until the Second Sunday of Easter"; "the Ascension of the Lord"; and "Pentecost Sunday". Hanc igitur The 1970 text differs from that of 1962 only in omitting a comma and in bracketing the conclusion, which the priest may either say or omit. In either case he joins his hands after the preceding words, grege numerari. In the 1962 Canon, the priest holds his hands spread out over the offerings during this prayer, a gesture that Prosper Guéranger likened to that of the Old Testament priest who thereby consecrated to God and removed from profane use an animal for sacrifice or laid on the scapegoat the iniquities of the people. Others also linked the Hanc igitur prayer to the scapegoat ceremony. Michael Witczak sees the gesture rather as indicating the object of an epiclesis. The gesture, whatever meaning it may have had, was a late introduction into the Canon, appearing for the first time in the fifteenth century and limited to the Roman Rite, not being accepted in the Carmelite Rite and the Dominican Rite. Its use at the Hanc igitur prayer was not carried over into the 1970 Canon, in which the chief celebrating priest says the prayer with hands extended as usual, and in which a similar gesture by all the celebrating priests occurs during the following Quam oblationem prayer. A special mention of the newly baptized is inserted in the Hanc igitur prayer at the Easter Vigil and throughout the Octave of Easter. Quam oblationem In the 1962 Canon, the priest says the prayer with hands joined, except while making five signs of the cross to accompany the five adjectives benedictam etc. In the 1970 Canon, the priest recites the prayer while extending his hands over the offerings while reciting it, as he does where the other three eucharistic prayers have an explicit pre-consecration epiclesis. That the Roman Canon has an epiclesis in this prayer is one of five existing opinions; the other opinions are: that the preceding Hanc igitur prayer, during which the 1962 canon has the priest extend his hands over the offerings, is the epiclesis; that the epiclesis is the Supplices te rogamus prayer after the words of institution; that the Roman Canon has no epiclesis; and that the mere gesture of the imposition of hands is a silent epiclesis. From the Quam oblationem prayer to the Supplices te rogamus prayer, inclusive, two prayers that have been likened respectively to a pre-consecration and a post-consecration epiclesis, the words of the Canon are spoken or sung by all the concelebrants together. Qui pridie Of the words that the 1962 text attributes to Jesus, it puts in large print only the five words "Hoc est enim Corpus meum" (which it calls "the words of consecration") and does not include in the words of Jesus the phrase "quod pro vobis tradetur"; the 1972 text includes this phrase and prints in large type all the words it attributes to Jesus, beginning with "Accipite et manducate ex hoc omnes". The actions and words of Jesus in these accounts are not exactly those that any one of Gospels gives in speaking of the Last Supper. None of them mentions Jesus' raising his eyes to heaven, but Pope Benedict XIV states that it is a tradition that Christ did so, as He did at the miracle of the loaves and fishes as noted in the Synoptic Gospels' accounts of the feeding of the five thousand. The mention of Jesus' raising his eyes to God at the Last Supper is also found in the text of the ancient anaphora of the liturgy of the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions. In recounting the Last Supper, Mark has "Take; this is my body"; Matthew has "Take, eat; this is my body"; Luke has "This is my body, which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me".; and the First Epistle to the Corinthians has "This is my body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me". The word "enim" ("for") has been added, apparently by analogy with the words spoken at the consecration of the chalice. As directed by the rubrics in all versions of the Roman Canon, the priest accompanies with similar actions the words about taking and looking up, but does not break or distribute the bread at this point. The 1962 Canon has him make the sign of the cross over the host at the word "benedixit". Except in the original 1570 edition of the Roman Missal, the rubrics of the Canon down to 1962 direct him to bow his head at the words "tibi gratias agens". The 1970 rubrics direct the priest to bow slightly while reciting all the words of Jesus and to pronounce them "clearly and distinctly, as the nature of these words requires". The 1962 Ritus servandus tells him instead to put his elbows on the altar as he recites, with head bowed, only the words "Hoc est enim Corpus meum", referred to as "the words of consecration", and to hold the host with his thumbs and index fingers alone, keeping the other fingers extended and joined together. In the 1962 Canon, the priest, immediately after pronouncing "the words of consecration", genuflects in adoration of the consecrated host, rises and "shows it to the people" ("ostendit populo") − the action commonly called the elevation, since the Ritus servandus tells the priest to raise it as high as he comfortably can − after which he replaces it on the corporal, keeps his thumbs and index fingers joined, and then genuflects again. From this point, until his hands are ritually washed at the ablutions after communion, he keeps his thumbs and index fingers joined except when he touches the host. The reason is that lest any crumb of the consecrated host may have remained between his fingers. In the 1970 Canon, the priest shows the host to the people immediately after the consecration, replaces it on the paten and genuflects in adoration, and has no obligation to keep thumbs and index fingers joined. At Maundy Thursday, the Qui pridie prayer adds the phrases "pro nostra omniumque salute" ("for our salvation and the salvation of all") and "hoc est hodie" ("that is today") thus: "Qui pridie, quam pro nostra omniumque salute pateretur, hoc est, hodie, accepit panem ..." The General Instruction of the Roman Missal, which applies to the 1970 Canon, states: "A little before the Consecration, if appropriate, a server rings a small bell as a signal to the faithful. The minister also rings the small bell at each elevation by the Prest, according to local custom." The signal preceding the Consecration is not mentioned ìn relation to the 1962 Canon, but its Ritus servandus directs that a server, while lifting the rear of the priest's chasuble during the elevations, should with his right hand ring a bell three times or continuously. This direction was not in the original Tridentine Roman Missal, being inserted only in 1604. Simili modo The words attributed to Jesus regarding the chalice are based on Matthew 26:27−28, "Drink of it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins"; Mark 24:24, "This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many"; Luke 22:17−20, "Take this, and divide it among yourselves. [...] Do this in remembrance of me. [...] This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood"; and 1 Corinthians 21:25, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me." Adrian Fortescue remarks that two elements of what is attributed to Jesus, "et aeterni" and "mysterium fidei", "are not in the New Testament at all". The Letter to the Hebrews does have the prayer, "May the God of peace who brought again from the dead our Lord Jesus, the great shepherd of the sheep, by the blood of the eternal covenant (Vulgate: in sanguine testamenti aeterni) equip you with everything good" On "mysterium fidei", see the following section. In the consecration of the chalice, as in the consecration of the bread, the 1962 Roman Canon prints in large letters only some of the words that it attributes to Jesus: it presents in the same type as the narrative account the initial phrase, "Accipite et bibite ex eo omnes", and the final phrase, "Haec quotiescumque feceritis, in mei memoriam facietis". The 1962 Canon separates the latter phrase from the other words of Jesus by an action that excludes them from the act of consecration, instructing the priest to say it when already genuflecting before the chalice in adoration. The exclusion was still more obvious in the original 1570 edition of the Tridentine Roman Missal, which had the priest say the phrase after adoring the chalice and while displaying the chalice for the veneration of the people ("surgit et ostendit populo: dicens. Haec quotiescumque feceritis, in mei memoriam facietis"). The 1970 Canon treats all the words that it ascribes to Jesus as having equal dignity. It replaces the statement, "Haec quotiescumque feceritis, in mei memoriam facietis" ("As often as you do these things, ye shall do them in remembrance of me"), with the instruction, "Hoc facite in meam commemorationem" ("Do this in memory of me"). Mysterium fidei The 1962 and earlier forms of the Roman Canon included among the words attributed to Jesus in connection with the consecration of the chalice the phrase "mysterium fidei" (1 Tim. 3:9). It has been suggested that this was an anti-Manichaean addition by Pope Leo the Great (440-461), insisting on the goodness of material things: the material blood of Christ and the material elements used in the Eucharist. Another proposed explanation is that originally the phrase was not spoken by the priest but was a calling to attention by the deacon. In the 1970 Roman Canon, the phrase "Mysterium fidei", removed from the context of the words of Jesus, is said or sung by the priest after consecrating the chalice, showing it to the people, and genuflecting in adoration. It serves as an introduction to the acclamation by the people. The people respond by acclaiming: Mortem tuam annuntiamus, Domine, et tuam resurrectionem confitemur, donec venias. (We proclaim your Death, O Lord, and profess your Resurrection until you come again.) Or: Quotiescumque manducamus panem hunc et calicem bibimus, mortem tuam annuntiamus, Domine, donec venias. (When we eat this Bread and drink this Cup, we proclaim your Death, O Lord, until you come again.) Or: Salvator mundi, salva nos, qui per crucem et resurrectionem tuam liberasti nos. (Save us, Saviour of the world, for by your Cross and Resurrection you have set us free.) Of these acclamations, the first two are closely based on Saint Paul's comment in , "As often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes", making explicit the reference to the resurrection of Christ implicit in the comment. The third derives from the third antiphon which the Roman Missal prescribes that the choir chant while the Blessed Sacrament is brought to the altar after the Veneration of the Cross during the Good Friday Liturgy. The Good Friday antiphon is Salvator mundi, salva nos, qui per crucem et [sanguinem redemisti] nos [auxiliare nobis te deprecamur Deus noster]. (Save us, Saviour of the world, for by your Cross and [Blood you have redeemed] us; come to our aid, we beseech you, our God.) Unde et memores This prayer is an anamnesis, a solemn recalling, immediately after the Words of Institution, of Christ's death and resurrection (cf. 1 Corinthians 11:26), to which the Roman Canon adds a mention of his ascension. The 1962 rubrics, but not those of 1970, prescribe that, at the mentions of the words "hostiam", "Panem" and "Calicem", the priest make five signs of the cross over the consecrated bread and wine, the first of a total of fifteen to be made after the consecration. Supra quae The earliest attestation of the Roman Canon is in the De sacramentis of Ambrose (c. 340 – 397). At that time the prayer Supra quae came after what is now the following prayer, Supplices, and the two formed a single prayer, a structure corresponding exactly with that of the Anaphora of St Mark, which demonstrates that "the Roman canon, too, has had a history involving an evolution, development and reworkings". Supplices te rogamus The 1962 and 1970 texts differ only in the 1970 bracketing of the conclusion and the omission in it of the word "eundem". In the 1962 rubrics, the priest, bowing profoundly, places his joined hands on the edge of the altar until the mention of the altar, at which point he kisses it, and then makes the sign of the cross over the consecrated host at the word "Corpus" ("Body"), over the chalice with the consecrated wine at the word "Sanguinem" ("Blood") and finally over himself. In the 1970 rubrics, the priest says this prayer bowing with joined hands until the phrase "omni ... gratia repleamur" ("may be filled with every grace and heavenly blessing"), which he says standing erect and signing himself with the sign of the cross. Scholars disagree on whether, in spite of the lack of explicit mention of the Holy Spirit, this prayer can be considered an epiclesis (cf. what is said above with regard to the Quam oblationem prayer) and who is the "Angel" mentioned in it. Commemoration of the dead The 1970 text differs from that of 1962 only in bracketing the prayer conclusion and in not including in the conclusion the word "eundem". Both the 1962 and the 1970 rubrics direct that, after the words "dormiunt in somno pacis" ("rest in the sleep of peace"), the priest joins his hands and prays briefly for the dead for whom he wishes to pray. In a concelebrated Mass, this prayer is said by an individual concelebrant. Writing in 1908, Adrian Fortescue noted: "At the final clause "Per eumdem", etc., the priest not only folds his hands but bows the head — a unique case in the Roman Rite, for which there has not been found any satisfactory explanation. Benedict XIV quotes from Cavalieri a mystic reason — because Christ bowed His head when He died, and we here think of the dead. The rubric occurs in Pius V's Missal." The peculiarity of this rubric was noted also by Prosper Guéranger: "The Priest terminates the Prayer, in the usual manner: Per eumdem Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. Besides this, there is a special rubric which bids him bow his head whilst saying these concluding words, which is not prescribed in the case of closing other prayers." The rubric of which they speak was still present in the 1920 typical edition of the Roman Missal, but was omitted in the 1962 edition and has not been included in the Vatican II editions. Nobis quoque peccatoribus Apart from a minuscule matter of punctuation, the texts differ only in the bracketing of the saints not mentioned in the New Testament and whose names the priest may in the 1970 form choose either to include or to omit. The full list consists of John the Baptist, seven male and seven female saints. The rubrics in all forms of the Roman Canon indicate that the priest who recites the prayer (a concelebrant in a concelebrated Mass) strikes his breast when saying the first three words, "Nobis quoque peccatoribus", and that he then continues with hands extended. Concelebrants also strike their breast at the same words. These are the only words between the Sanctus and the closing "Per omnia saecula saeculorum" that, in the 1962 Canon, the priest speaks audibly enough to be heard by anyone other than himself ; even then he does so only "raising his voice a little", and only at Low Mass. In the 1970 Canon every word is to be spoken "in a loud and clear voice" and "it is very appropriate that the priest sing those parts for which musical notation is provided". Per quem haec omnia This short prayer, spoken by the principal celebrant in a concelebrated Mass, grammatically continues the preceding prayer, whose final "Per Christum Dominum nostrum" is not followed by a concluding "Amen.". The 1962 rubrics instruct the priest to make the sign of the cross over host and chalice together when saying each of the three verbs "creas, sanctificas, vivificas". Per ipsum The 1970 Canon indicates that the "Amen" response should be given by the people. The 1962 Canon does not specify. According to the 1970 rubrics, the priest sings or recites the prayer while raising the chalice and the paten with the host. If a deacon participates, he raises the chalice while the priest raises the paten with the host. The ceremonial of the 1962 rubrics is more complex: the priest uncovers the chalice, genuflects, takes the host between his right thumb and forefinger and, holding the chalice in his left hand, with the host makes the sign of the cross three times from lip to lip of the chalice, while saying inaudibly: "Per ipsum, et cum ipso, et in ipso"; he then with the host makes the sign of the cross twice in the space between him and the chalice, saying: "est tibi Deo Patri omnipotenti, in unitate Spiritus Sancti"; next he raises chalice and host slightly, while saying: "omnis honor et gloria"; finally he replaces the host on the corporal, covers the chalice with the pall, genuflects, stands up, and says in a voice that can be understood or sings: "Per omnia sæcula sæculorum." See also Canon of the Mass History of the Roman Canon Mass Pre-Tridentine Mass Tridentine Mass Mass of Paul VI English Missal Notes References External links Text of Vatican II Missale Romanum, third edition Official English translation of Vatican II Order of Mass, hosted by Universalis Publishing Ltd Official English translation of Vatican II Roman Canon arranged for printing as a booklet Black-and-white reproduction (rubrics appear in black) of the 1962 editio typica of the Missale Romanum. The canon begins at p. 299 Benziger iuxta typicam printing of the 1962 Missale Romanum English translation of the 1962 Ritus servandus in celebratione Missae Adrian Fortescue: Canon of the Mass (1908) Adrian Fortescue: Liturgy of the Mass (1910) Catholic liturgy Eucharist Anaphoras (liturgy)
4566760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development%20management%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom	Development management in the United Kingdom	Development Management, formerly known as planning control, or development control, is the element of the United Kingdom's system of town and country planning through which local government or the Secretary of State, regulates land use and new building, i.e. development. It relies on a "plan-led system" whereby development plans are produced, involving various stages of public consultation prior to being adopted. Subsequently, development that requires planning permission, which is granted or refused with reference to the development plan as the starting point, then other material considerations are taken into account. The term "development management" is often abbreviated to DM. There are 421 local planning authorities (LPAs) in the United Kingdom (although in Scotland, where local authorities are unitary in nature, they are known simply as 'planning authorities'). Generally they are the local borough or district council or a unitary authority. Development involving mining, minerals or waste disposal matters is dealt with by county councils in non-metropolitan areas. Within national parks, it is the national park authority that determines planning applications (although in Scotland the situation is sightly different, whereby the Cairngorms National Park Authority only has the power to call-in and determine certain applications which it deems to be of importance to its objectives). History When the UK's systems of town and country planning were established by the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 and, in Scotland, the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947, it was generally expected that the great majority of new built development would be undertaken by the public sector: Local authorities, New Town Development Corporations, and the then-new National Health Service, for example. In those cases the commissioning body would grant itself planning permission for the proposals concerned. However, a separate system to grant or withhold planning permission for the small amount of development which would be undertaken by the private sector was also required. This was the origin of the modern system of planning control. In fact this expectation was entirely mistaken as, by the mid 1950s, the rate of private sector development was vastly exceeding that of the public sector. In modern times, development, including that by government departments and local authorities requires planning permission, and is subject to the same process of scrutiny as any private developer. An increasing range of developments are permitted development - a form of planning permission granted nationally or locally by Order in advance. In recent years, planning has become a key means of delivering a number of the government's objectives relating to climate change, reducing carbon emissions, access to housing and improving the supply of housing, enhancing biodiversity and a number of other emerging priorities. Although these are addressed via the process of formulating local planning policies for the area of each LPA on a local basis, as far as the public are concerned it is development control and the process of determining planning applications which is the most evident part of the planning system as a whole. Note that within the United Kingdom, any significant development may require a variety of different consents from different agencies before commencement, such as approval of construction materials and methods under the relevant Building Regulations). The term "development control" is out of favour and development management is preferred as it implies a more cooperative process, though in reality the difference is sometimes difficult to distinguish. There is after all a limit to the level of cooperation possible if proposals are unacceptable. Scope of development management The UK is distinguished from most countries in that the lawful occupier of any land or buildings will not only have title to their land (a freehold, leasehold, or licence from the actual land owner), but also requires planning title for any buildings on the land, or uses to which the land and buildings are put. Planning title (usually referred to as "planning permission") was granted for all pre-existing buildings and uses in 1948. Since that date planning permission has been required for all new development. A grant of planning permission relates to the land or building(s) concerned. With a few rare exceptions it is not specific to the person, organisation or firm who obtained the permission. "Development" in UK planning law is defined as the carrying out of any building, engineering, mining or other operations in, on, over or under land, or the making of any material change in the use of any buildings or other land. Certain types of development are specifically excluded from the definition of development, such as routine building maintenance and repair. Many categories of minor development are classified by legislation as "permitted development" (PD). These are in effect granted an automatic planning permission by law, rather than requiring any specific application for planning permission. Another way of looking at it is that Permitted Development is a form of nationally approved planning permission. Although still defined as "development" these works (may) avoid a need to engage with the planning system and can be undertaken by land owners as a right. More recent changes to PD rules require some element of contact with the LPA before implementation - for example prior notification. Uses of land and buildings are classified into "use classes" and any change from one use class to another use class is automatically a "material change of use" amounting to development. Some small scale changes between use classes are nevertheless "permitted development" and hence do not require planning permission, subject to any site specific restrictions. Certain types of use or activity do not fall into a specific use class and are termed "sui generis". Any change of use to or from "sui generis" use requires planning permission. In practice most uses are a composite of several uses so that, say, a factory might well have an ancillary office and perhaps storage uses, all within the same premises. In such a case however the primary use would be that of a factory (use class B1 or B2). There is a separate system of control over alterations to buildings which are listed as being of architectural or historic interest ("listed buildings"). Alterations to such a building that affect its architectural or historic character, inside or outside, require "listed building consent" (and may also require planning permission if the scope of the proposed alterations or development is above that classified as permitted development). It is an offence to carry out works without the necessary listed building consent. The owner of a listed building can also be compelled to keep it in a good state of repair to safeguard its architectural or historic significance. Trees and woodland which are of particular importance to local amenity or ecology may be made the subject of a tree preservation order (TPO). Unless those trees are dead, dying or dangerous, then consent is required before their removal, and generally a replacement tree may be required. If development is carried out without planning permission then the LPA may take "enforcement action" to have the building removed, the land reinstated, or at least undertake the minimum measures required to remove the harm arising. Generally, a retrospective application for planning permission would be invited if there is a reasonable likelihood of it being permitted, and action taken if planning permission is refused or the development incapable of being made acceptable. Almost all planning permissions are granted conditionally and enforcement action can also be taken to secure compliance with the conditions imposed. Unauthorised development can be the subject of a "stop notice" if there is an urgent need to prevent further harm. Call-in by Secretary of State Under Section 77 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, the Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government has the power to call in any planning application for his or her determination, taking it out of the hands of the local planning authority. The Caborn principles are the established criteria for such a decision, which in practice is only rarely used. Principles of development management Development Plan and Local Development Framework Applications for planning permission must by law be decided in accordance with relevant policies within the Development Plan prepared and published by the LPA, "unless other material considerations indicate otherwise". Development management is therefore "policy led". From 2006, in England, each area's Development Plan is to be replaced by a Local Development Framework (LDF). These involve a large measure of community and public involvement in preparing the new local planning policies by which applications will be decided in future years. Therefore, while the process for local plan preparation maybe appear to be distant from making day-to-day decisions it is vital in making sure the 'rulebook' says the right things. The planning policies expressed in the LDF deal with a wide range of local issues including promoting more energy efficient transport facilities, highway proposals and highway safety, ensuring an adequate supply of land for housing and other uses, safeguarding areas of countryside, and safeguarding important landscapes or sites of historic, ecological or scientific importance. More specific policies usually promote best practice in building design as a reflection of local traditions and priorities. The interests of sustainability are built into LDFs, not only in terms of energy efficiency, but also in promoting economic growth, regeneration, and the fostering of strong and inclusive communities. Whatever their local priorities, LDFs are a key policy document for all local authorities, enabling them and other local agencies to engage in spatial planning for their local area on an inclusive and "joined up" basis. Design and Access Statement Planning applications for most major developments must be accompanied by a Design and Access Statement. This is not just a description of the development, but also explains how the design was arrived at, what local planning policies have been observed, how any public engagement has been reflected in the design, and how relevant principles of good design have contributed to the proposal. Commercial issues may well have been paramount, but this document enables the lay public to understand how the proposal evolved, and acts as a check upon the quality of the decision making process which led to that proposal by the developer concerned. Most are written at the end of the process and are of limited value. Isochrone maps may be included. Material considerations The issue of what might be a material planning consideration in deciding any given case can be complex. This issue has never been legislated upon by Parliament and consists entirely of judge-made law arising out of numerous cases decided by British courts. In short, they are planning issues relevant to the specific case. What is material to one application may not be material to another. The decision maker needs to choose, subject to challenge in the courts. A local or Government planning policy is most likely to be material and issues of public safety or amenity can be in any given case. An important point is that planning control is concerned only with the broad public interest, rather than protecting any person's private interests. Competition between businesses is not a planning consideration; neither is the developer's profit motives, or any supposed loss of value to nearby properties or loss of view. Private covenants over land or anything regulated by other legislation are also incapable of being a material consideration in deciding a planning application. In deciding on a planning application LPAs have a duty to start with the development plan and then have regard to all of the material planning considerations. However, while they cannot choose to simply ignore a relevant issue, provided they behave reasonably they are entitled to decide how much weight should be given to competing priorities. If planning permission is to be refused, or if enforcement action is to be taken against unauthorised development, then the LPA must give reasons in writing which show "demonstrable harm to interests of acknowledged importance". Unpopularity is not grounds for refusal of planning permission. A proper reason for refusal of planning permission must be based on the tangible harm which would be brought about by the proposal, as reflected in a relevant policy or other matter relating to planning, and in order to protect the public interest. Similarly, if a condition is to be imposed on the grant of any planning permission, compliance with that condition should be essential to make acceptable a development which would otherwise be unacceptable (i.e. refused planning permission). Appeals against decisions A decision made by an LPA is subject to a right of appeal in the event of refusal of planning permission, the taking of enforcement action, imposition of an onerous or improper condition on a granted planning permission, or the failure of the LPA to determine the application within a timely period ("non-determination"). The right of appeal applies only to the applicant/developer who is aggrieved by the decision of an LPA. Third parties such as a member of the public who disagrees with the decision of an LPA to grant planning permission do not have any right of appeal. Planning appeals in England and Wales are administered and decided by the Planning Inspectorate PINS, which is an executive agency of the UK Government. In Scotland appeals are determined by the Scottish Government Directorate for Planning & Environmental Appeals (DfPEA), and in Northern Ireland appeals are determined by the Planning Appeals Commission. An Inspector (in England and Wales), Reporter (in Scotland), or Commissioner (in Northern Ireland) investigates the question and decides to uphold or overturn the decision of the LPA. The decision is based on a fresh look at the case considering the representations that have been made by each party. A planning inspector (or equivalent) may find fault with the reasoning of the LPA but still dismiss the appeal based on their own reasoning of the issues and planning policies which are relevant to the case. In England around 65% of planning appeals uphold the original decision of the LPA. Public involvement in development management The public have a right to be consulted before any planning application is decided by the LPA. Land owners immediately adjoining the application site are usually notified, a public notice may be posted in nearby streets, and sometimes a notice is published in the local press. Planning applications must be decided in a timely manner and only 21 days is normally allowed by law for the public to express their views. Planning applications can be viewed on the LPA's website and comments can be submitted by email. Delegated powers and committees Most planning applications are decided by an authorised senior officer of the LPA - under what are known as "delegated powers". Only major or controversial applications are decided by elected councillors meeting as a Planning Committee of the authority concerned. The agenda of the committee meeting with a report by planning officers on each planning application is usually published at least five working days before the meeting. The report on any planning application should contain a description of the development, a fair summary of any public comments received, state the relevant planning policies which have a bearing on the decision and a discussion of the issues raised – all leading to a recommendation to either grant or refuse planning permission. The elected Planning Committee may act on the advice of their professional planning officers, or occasionally may take a different view. Planning Committee are under the same requirement as officers to determine applications development plan first and also considering material considerations. Members may need to temper the views of their constituents with a clear judgement of the planning merits of the case. Applications should not be determined on the basis of their popularity of unpopularity. The committee may refuse planning permission for development even if their own professional planning officers have recommended that planning permission be granted, or allow an application that officers recommend should be refused. However this must be based on a planning judgement of relevant matters. Refusal of an application, whether by committee or under delegated powers, may be challenged by an appeal through the Planning Inspectorate. Objectors to a successful application have no right of appeal, except by a legal challenge to the courts, although for some significant applications (e.g. involving major policy matters) the Secretary of State may be asked to "call in" an application for review. Subject to making arrangements in advance, many LPAs will invite applicants and members of the public to address the Planning Committee before making their decision. However, the Committee is "a meeting conducted in public", rather than "a public meeting"; although given an opportunity to speak at the outset of the meeting, members of the public will not be allowed to join in the committee's debate. There are a number of LPAs that still do not permit the public or the applicant to speak at the committee meeting at all. There are often different views as to what constitutes “fairness” in deciding planning applications. Many public objections to new development are explicitly based on a perception of unfairness that developers and landowners should be allowed to profit, while near neighbours, the local environment or the community as a whole do not. More specific objections may also be given, but this apparent unfairness is the fundamental of many if not most public objections to new development. The process of development and re-development is seen as an immediate cost or inconvenience to those living nearby, and any benefits are invariably to the community as a whole, over a wider geographical area, and over time. The most obvious beneficiaries of any development are those who will later live or work within it but their views are not heard when a planning application is being decided. Even a well managed LPA, making decisions in light of published planning policies and after extensive public consultation, will still attract accusations of unfairness. Public influence Unless a member of the public raises one or more material planning considerations which were not apparent beforehand, it is unusual for public views to override the relevant planning policies when the decision is made. The importance of public opinion is in adding flavour to the issues from the point of view of the decision maker. Applications cannot be determined on the basis of s popularity contest. They can be influential in deciding how much "weight" to give to different material considerations. Unpopular proposals often attract well orchestrated public opposition and it is not unusual for an LPA to receive multiple copies of the same pre-written letter of objection from a large number of people, or petitions with numerous signatures. It is not unknown for LPAs to receive letters of objection to a proposal with fake names and addresses in an effort to increase the level of apparent public opposition to a planning application. Some objectors to a development will also write to their Member of Parliament or to other people who are mistakenly believed to have influence over the outcome of a planning application but MPs will scrupulously avoid seeking to influence the proper functioning of a democratically elected LPA. Although members are democratically elected, they should not decide applications on the basis of strength of public opinion, but according to planning law. If there are no substantial planning grounds for refusing an application, a planning inspector at appeal could well order the LPA to pay costs if its actions are shown to be both unreasonable and put the other side to unnecessary costs. The conduct of an appellant is similarly liable. The most effective methods of influencing the outcome of a planning application is to make written representations to the LOA and to one or more of the elected councillors who form the LPA, whose contact details are readily available on the LPA's website. Local councillors who are also members of the LPA's Planning Committee may be reluctant to meet with applicants or members of the public in person in order to prevent subsequent allegations of bias or pre-determination when the Planning Committee comes to make a decision. Conflicts of interest Councillors who are members of a Council's Planning Committee are subject to different restrictions regarding conflicts of interest, depending on the country of the United Kingdom, and to a Code of Conduct which may be statutory or locally decided. In England, councillors are required to register Disclosable Pecuniary Interests and to declare them when they are engaged. They cannot speak or vote when they have such a conflict of interest. In Scotland, the relevant standards are decided by the Scottish Parliament and patrolled by the Standards Commission for Scotland. In Wales, councillors are required to register certain interests, to declare them when they are relevant to a decision, and to withdraw from the meeting if they have a prejudicial interest. Most LPAs are receptive to public complaints and seek to learn from them. The great majority of public complaints about planning matters concern an alleged error in procedure, rather than the outcome of a permitted development as later built. A member of the public whose complaint is well founded and who has suffered genuine injury or injustice as a result of maladministration can also pursue their complaint at the national level through the Local Government Ombudsman. Predetermination Both in Planning Committees and when taking other decisions, councillors are also required to avoid bias in the form of predetermination. There is much case law on this, and the present position (following the decision of the Court of Appeal in Persimmon Homes Teesside Limited v. Lewis 2008) is that whilst Members may have a predisposition to a view on a particular application, they must not have predetermined it in the sense that they come to the decision with their mind closed to the arguments of fellow members and the advice of the Officers. This causes difficulty, because members of the public, action groups etc. not only ask Councillors to listen to their views, but also try to persuade them to commit for or against a Planning Application in advance, without understanding that if they do so there will be a risk of a legal challenge to the decision if those taking it have predetermined their position. Proposed reforms to system Historically most decisions on planning applications have been framed around the question of whether the proposed development is “bad enough to warrant being refused planning permission”. The thrust of recent reforms to the planning system as a whole has been to raise the game of both developers and their advisors, along with LPAs, so that the question becomes “is the proposed development good enough to deserve planning permission”. In reality the test is a more neutral "Is it acceptable in planning terms"? The requirement to prepare a Design and Access Statement (D&A) for most significant developments, requires applicants to explain or justify their proposals in those terms. The objective was that a living document would evolve through the design process leading to better thought through proposals. This culture change has only been partly successful as applicants often see it as one more task to get through and tend to have D&As drawn up after completion of design work to 'tick the box'. The policy intention of the UK Government and most LPAs is that new developments should contribute positively to their surroundings, rather than merely avoid doing unacceptable harm. LPAs make extensive use of electronic systems for reasons of efficiency and also to encourage transparency. Almost all have their own website and electronic document management systems where planning applications can be viewed and commented upon, along with local planning policy documents viewed and a wide range of other relevant sources. Provided that architectural drawings and other supporting documents are in electronic form then planning applications should ideally be submitted on-line, either via the LPA's website or via the UK-wide "planning portal" website which provides a nationwide clearing house on planning information and facilities. LPAs are under constant pressure to improve the speed, efficiency and quality of decision making. Applicants are usually advised to engage in discussion with the LPA before finalizing any planning application in order to research the relevant planning policies and other local issues. LPAs vary in their attitude to pre-application discussion but the advantage is to front load the process, and reduce the formal planning application closer to a “rubber stamp”. In the past developers often submitted a planning application as the start of what was expected to be a lengthy process of negotiation with the LPA. Attitudes have now changed and few LPAs will agree to accept significantly amended proposals after submission of the application since this would require them to restart public consultations and so delay their decision. Along with the requirement to prepare well written and complete documentation with the original submission this puts the onus increasingly on the applicant to get their proposal right first time. About half a million planning applications are submitted throughout the UK each year. Of those around 60% relate to “householder applications” – that is for extensions or alterations to an individual's house. A much larger number of householder proposals are classed as permitted development and do not require a planning application to be made. Only about 30% of householder planning applications are significantly altered before being granted, or are actually refused permission as unacceptable. This raises the issue of whether the time of LPAs is being well spent when such types of minor development could be codified and either excluded from planning control altogether, or subject to a much simpler regime of control. Among other things this would free resources for more important work in implementing local planning policies which would be of wider public benefit. The UK Government periodically prepares new legislation along these lines. See also English land law Town and country planning in the United Kingdom Development management (Scotland) Listed building Scheduled monument Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England Conservation area (United Kingdom) Land Utilisation Survey of Britain (1930) References External links UK Government Planning Portal Town and country planning in the United Kingdom Housing in the United Kingdom
4567188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Odera%20Oruka	Henry Odera Oruka	Henry Odera Oruka (1 June 1944, Siaya County – 9 December 1995, Nairobi) was a Kenyan philosopher who is best known for "Sage Philosophy". It was a project started in the 1970s in an attempt to preserve the knowledge of the indigenous thinkers in traditional African communities. Life and work Henry Odera Oruka was born on 1 June 1944 in Masiro-Nyang'ungu, Ugenya, Siaya County . After his advanced level studies in Kenya, he went to Uppsala University in Sweden. There he registered for a BSc programme in the Faculty of Mathematics–Natural Science and studied meteorology, Geography, and Geodesy. He later added Philosophy to his studies because of his interest in the subject. Upon graduating in Science and Philosophy (a year ahead of his class), he opted to drop science and continue with his studies in philosophy. He moved to Wayne State University in the United States of America for his master's degree where he completed his studies and eventually obtained a PhD. His dissertation on the theme of "Freedom" (written in 1970) was later refined and published as Punishment and Terrorism in Africa in 1976. From October 1970 until his death on 9 December 1995, he taught philosophy at the University of Nairobi. The majority and dominant staff at the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies which had been launched in 1969 at the University of Nairobi were priests and lay theologians. They had little time for "African Philosophy" as they harbored doubts about the ability of Africans to think logically. After years of a sustained and bitter struggle spearheaded by Odera Oruka, Philosophy was separated from Religion at the university in July 1980 and he was appointed the Founder-Chairman of the new Department of Philosophy. Unfortunately for the department, the death of Odera Oruka was accompanied with a marked decline in the international profile of Philosophy at the University of Nairobi. The discipline that Odera Oruka worked so hard to separate from Religion has since been merged with Religion once again. Odera Oruka was the founder-president of the Philosophical Association of Kenya (PAK); the founding-director of the International Institute of Environmental Studies(IIES), Nairobi; a member of the Kenya National Academy of Sciences (KNAS); the secretary-general of African Futures Studies Association (AFSA); the secretary-general of the Afro-Asian Philosophical Association (AAPA); vice-president of the Inter-African Council of Philosophy (IACP); a member of the executive committee of both the Federation International de societe philosophique (FISP) and World Futures Studies Federation. On June 3, 1993, he received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Humanities from Uppsala University. Personal life Odera Oruka was married twice. His first wife, the late Millicent Achien'g, bore him three children: Owiso Odera (the deceased Hollywood actor), Sheila Odera (Veteran Actress/Model and Accountant), and Sharon Odera(deceased). He had two children with his second wife, Olivia Phoebe Ayoma, namely Ronnie Omuga and Peter Oruka Odera (an International relations practitioner). Basic philosophical beliefs Three philosophical approaches can be seen in Oruka's works: Socio-economic deprivation Poverty and hunger in Africa are the greatest constraints to mental development and creativity. But, rather than complaining about imperialism, colonialism, foreign cultural domination etc., the remedy should be looked for by a process of self-national examination and critique. Cultural racial mythology The fight against cultural and racial mythologies was one of his main topics. He differentiated two types of myths: Myths about the level of civilisation and nobility of some races as opposed to the backwardness and slave mentality of others. The second myth is about the philosophic-scientific gifts of certain races and the corresponding lack in other races, Africa always being on the ungifted and uncivilised side of the scale. Illusion of appearance He divided the meaning of appearance into three parts. In the first part, he describes a reliance on outward appearance as a disease of most people in the society. The second meaning is appearance as it is manipulated by business tycoons and others in power to boost their rank and influence. In the third part, the philosophical level, appearance becomes an obstacle to intellectual activity. This type of appearance is prominent in the field of education, where people are taught styles rather than substance. The result is not knowledge but prejudice, racism, tribalism, sexism and irrational indifference to other cultures. This prompted him to analyse concepts to arrive at generally accepted truth rather than relying on mere appearance. The existence of an independent African philosophy There has been considerable (and often acrimonious) debate about the pre-Western existence of an independent African philosophy and what its nature might be. Odera Oruka identified four trends or approaches in this discussion. Ethnophilosophy Describes the worldview or thought-system of particular African communities as philosophy. This type of philosophy sees the African way of thinking as "communal thought" and describes its emotional appeal as one of its unique features. Examples of those holding this position are: Placide Tempels, Leopold Sedar Senghor, John S. Mbiti, and Alexis Kagame. Nationalistic-Ideological philosophy Consists of works of founding-fathers and statesmen in Africa, whose social-political theories were based on traditional African socialism and family values. Among them were: Kwame Nkrumah, Sekou Toure, Julius Nyerere, and Kenneth Kaunda. Professional philosophy This is the position generally taken by professionally trained students or teachers of philosophy. They reject Ethnophilosophy and instead adopt a universalistic point of view. In their opinion, African philosophy should be approached with the same forms of critical analysis applied to mainstream Western philosophy. A descriptive approach, by itself, is more appropriate to the field of anthropology and applies different standards to African thought. Philosophers belonging to this trend include: Kwasi Wiredu, Paulin Hountondji, Peter O. Bodunrin, and Odera Oruka. Philosophic Sagacity Philosophic Sagacity is Odera Oruka's research project begun in the early 1970s designed to preserve the philosophical thoughts of traditional Kenyan sages. The basic principle of Philosophic Sagacity is that in both traditional and modern Africa there exist women and men, illiterate and literate, who commonly engage in philosophical reflection on various problems of human life and nature in general. Unlike ethnophilosophy, which emphasises communal thinking, Philosophic Sagacity searches for individual thinkers in the traditional community. These "sages" express and defend their philosophical thoughts and opinions on various issues of nature and human life. Some of these thoughts even if not philosophical in the strict sense could nevertheless constitute raw data for technical philosophical reflections by professional or trained philosophers. Oruka wanted to point out that there is and was a philosophy in Africa in the fullest sense of the word: a philosophy that deals with daily human problems and issues which are common to every human being, such as the existence of a Deity, life, knowledge, death etc. Such issues are not the sole domain of literate people but are usually best addressed by the few who can "transcend" the communal way of thinking. Though some have often equated "Sage Philosophy" with "Philosophic sagacity," Odera Oruka did not. Odera Oruka distinguished between two wings of Sage Philosophy: (1) being the folk or popular sagacity, and (2) being the philosophic sagacity. While the former expresses well known communal maxims, aphorisms and general common sense truths, the latter expresses the thoughts of wise men and women that transcend popular wisdom and attain a philosophic capacity. Hence whereas all instances of philosophic sagacity locate within sage philosophy, not every instance of sage philosophy constitute philosophic sagacity. The novelty of Odera Oruka's project is to be found in philosophic sagacity since the folk sagacity dimension of sage philosophy would be a fallback to ethnophilosophy. The method Odera Oruka and his colleagues went with tape recorders into villages of different ethnic communities in Kenya to engage those who were thought by their own communities to be wise. The discourses were held in the native language of the presumptive wise men or women. Each "wise statement" was challenged by the interlocutors. If the person had a philosophical frame of mind he/she would be able to offer rational answers to the objections or requests for clarification. If he/she had not, he/she gave unsatisfactory answers or perhaps was unable to reply. It was believed by this method true philosophy could be separated from popular wisdom. Criticisms of Philosophic Sagacity Philosophic Sagacity is not philosophy is the main argument of D. A. Masolo. Based on Socratic method, his analysis shows how frequently tradition and opinion are based on insufficient reasoning. For him, true philosophy relies on analysis, definition, and explanation. Pre-Socratic knowledge has no place in strict philosophy. Philosophic sagacity, he believes, falls into the category of pre-Socratic philosophy. Both fail in a consistent attitude towards, and practice of, rational explanation, despite the presence of the "sage" and the discourse with him/her. A mere discussion of a topic does not have the high degree of abstraction, conceptual analysis, and relation which, according to him, are the essence of strict philosophy. Masolo also objects to the Afrocentric perspective inherent in Odera Oruka's approach to treating pre-literate African men and women as proto-philosophers. This appears to be a misunderstanding. For Odera Oruka, Philosophic Sagacity lies between ethnophilosophy and professional philosophy and is simply a starting point in determining the nature of African Philosophy. In his essay, "The Philosopher and the Sage: On the Question of African Philosophy", Peter O. Bodunrin rejects Odera Oruka's notion that philosophic sagacity is philosophy because, for him, literacy is a necessary condition for philosophical reflections. His second, related, objection is one common to anthropology: the influence of the observer. If a philosopher interviews a "sage", is the result really the work of the "sage" or a joint product? Who is the actual creator of the "philosophy"? Odera Oruka responded to such thought by pointing out that thinking normally precedes writing and that the intent of the discourses is to produce raw material, to be used by the philosopher in his effort to prove that true philosophy exists on African soil. Anthony Oseghare, a PhD student of Odera Oruka, makes a distinction between sagacity and knowledge. Both involve the acquisition and usage of skills, but they are not identical. Sagacity involves wisdom of a practical nature which is achieved through experience. It has a broader meaning than knowledge. Within sagacity too, there is a sagacity that stops with common sense and a sagacity that transcends common sense. Oseghare's critique, unlike Masolo's and Bodunrin's, is not negative but meant to clarify and enhance Odera Oruka's project. A point worth noting is the distinction between sages and prophets. They could be confused in that both are concerned with efforts to resolve problems that affect human society. It is also true that a sage can be a prophet and a prophet can be a sage but the critical fact is that they are not identical. The basic difference – according to Odera Oruka – is that the prophet claims to predict the future based on past experience, whereas a sage is concerned with fundamental issues of ethics and other questions of immediate importance. A sage has the ability to offer insightful solutions to practical issues. Sages have existed in every society as custodians of its culture and values, regardless of literacy. After Odera Oruka's death philosophers who have continued to push the agenda of sagacity include Kenyan born scholars F. Ochieng'-Odhiambo and Oriare Nyarwath together with American Gail Presbey. Ethics Lesser known are Odera Oruka's contributions to ethical questions, such as protection of the environment and the justification of foreign aid. In his article "The Philosophy of Foreign Aid" Odera Oruka responded to Garret Hardin's "Life Boat Theory". Hardin argues against helping poor nations because they will believe their problems are being solved, the population will grow, and the "boat" will sink. Odera Oruka gave three possible reasons to justify foreign aid: charity (common decency), promoting international trade, and historical rectification. He later added another argument: the "right to a human minimum". In his article "Parent Earth Ethics" Odera Oruka uses the metaphor of a family of six children with varying degrees of wealth and poverty to explain his argument. These six children have some things in common and each has his/her own individual talents and possessions. He made the following distinctions: Rule One: Parental Debt Principle (a.) Family Security Rule (b.) Parental Debt Rule (c.) Individual Family Survival Rule Rule Two: The Individual Luck Principle (a.) Personal Achievements Rule (b.) Personal Supererogation Rule (c.) Public Law Rule The entire system cannot be detailed within the scope of this article but, from the above outline, the main points are as follows: The Parental Debt Principle occurs prior to the Individual Luck Principle. Under normal circumstances, if the first rule comes into conflict with anything in the second rule, the first rule takes priority. This is "the ethics of common sense". If the wealth and security of the community comes in conflict with personal luck or achievements, the former prevails over the latter. This type of ethics can be applied to both environmental concerns and the redistribution of wealth. Works Ochieng'-Odhiambo, F: African Philosophy: An Introduction, Consolata Institute of Philosophy Press (1997) Odera Oruka, Henry: Ethics, Nairobi University Press (1990) Odera Oruka, Henry: Philosophy, Humanity and Ecology, African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS) Press, (1994) Odera Oruka, Henry: The Philosophy of Liberty, Standard Textbooks Graphics and Pub. (1996) Odera Oruka, Henry: Practical Philosophy, East African Educational Publishers (1997) Odera Oruka, Henry: Punishment and Terrorism in Africa: Problems in the Philosophy and Practice of Punishment, 2nd ed. Kenya Literature Bureau (1985) Odera Oruka, H: Oginga Odinga: His Philosophy and Beliefs, Initiatives Publishers (1992) Odera Oruka, Henry: Sage Philosophy: Indigenous Thinkers and Modern Debate on African Philosophy (Philosophy of History and Culture, Vol. 4), E. J. Brill (1990) Odera Oruka, Henry: Trends in Contemporary African Philosophy, Shirikon Publishers (1990) Odera Oruka, Henry and Masolo, D. A. (Eds.): Philosophy and Cultures, Proceedings of 2nd Afro-Asian Philosophy Conference, Nairobi, October/November 1981, Bookwise Ltd. (1983) See also Luo people of Kenya and Tanzania References Further reading English, Parker & Kalumba, Kibujjo M (Eds.):African Philosophy: A Classical Approach, Prentice Hall (1996) Graness, Anke & Kresse, Kai (Eds.): Sagacious Reasoning: Henry Odera Oruka in Memoriam, Peter Lang (1997) Hallen, Barry:A Short History of African Philosophy, 2nd ed. Indiana University Press (2009) Imbo, Samuel Oluoch: An Introduction to African Philosophy, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers (1998) Masolo, D. A: African Philosophy in Search of Identity, Indiana University Press (1994) External links African Sage Philosophy entry by Gail M. Presbey in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy "An African Savant: Henry Odera Oruka" article by F. Ochieng'-Odhiambo in Quest Vol. IX No. 2/Vol X No. 1 (December 1995/June 1996): 12–11. "Weep Not ... Philosophers Never Die" article by G. E. M. Ogutu in Quest Vol. IX No. 2/Vol. X No. 1 (December 1995/June 1996): 5–11. "Interview with Professor Henry Odera Oruka" conducted by Kai Kresse in Quest Vol. IX No. 2/Vol. X No. 1 (December 1995/June 1996): 22–31. "Odera Oruka's Philosophic Sagacity" article by Godwin Azenabor in Thought and Practice (New Series) Vo. 1. No. 1 (June 2009): 69–86. 1944 births 1995 deaths 20th-century Kenyan philosophers Kenyan ethicists Kenyan philosophers Social philosophers Wayne State University alumni
4567536	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/509th%20Composite%20Group	509th Composite Group	The 509th Composite Group (509 CG) was a unit of the United States Army Air Forces created during World War II and tasked with the operational deployment of nuclear weapons. It conducted the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in August 1945. The group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah. It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets. Because it contained flying squadrons equipped with Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers, C-47 Skytrain, and C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite", rather than a "bombardment" formation. It operated Silverplate B-29s, which were specially configured to enable them to carry nuclear weapons. The 509th Composite Group began deploying to North Field on Tinian, Northern Mariana Islands, in May 1945. In addition to the two nuclear bombing raids, it carried out 15 practice missions against Japanese-held islands, and 12 combat missions against targets in Japan dropping high-explosive pumpkin bombs. In the postwar era, the 509th Composite Group was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946 and the only one equipped with Silverplate B-29 Superfortress aircraft capable of delivering atomic bombs. It was standardized as a bombardment group and redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group, Very Heavy, on 10 July 1946. History Organization, training, and security The 509th Composite Group was constituted on 9 December 1944, and activated on 17 December 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah. It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, who received promotion to full colonel in January 1945. It was initially assumed that the group would divide in two, with half going to Europe and half to the Pacific. In the first week of September Tibbets was assigned to organize a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon by airplane against targets in Germany and Japan, then command it in combat. Because the organization developed by Tibbets was self-sustained, with flying squadrons of both Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite" rather than a "bombardment" unit. On 8 September, working with Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr.'s Manhattan Project, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend Army Air Field, Kansas, and Mountain Home Army Airfield, Idaho, because of its remoteness. On 14 September 1944, the 393d Bombardment Squadron arrived at Wendover from its former base at Fairmont Army Air Base, Nebraska, where it had been in operational training (OTU) with the 504th Bombardment Group since 12 March. When its parent group deployed to the Marianas in early November 1944, the squadron was assigned directly to the Second Air Force until creation of the 509th Composite Group. Originally consisting of twenty-one crews, fifteen were selected to continue training, and were organized into three flights of five crews, lettered A, B, and C. The 393d Bombardment Squadron was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Classen, who like Tibbets had combat experience in heavy bombers, commanding a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress with the 11th Bombardment Group. The 393d Bombardment Squadron conducted ground school training only until delivery of three modified Silverplate airplanes in mid-October 1944 allowed resumption of flight training. These aircraft had extensive bomb bay modifications and a "weaponeer" station installed. Initial training operations identified numerous other modifications necessary to the mission, particularly in reducing the overall weight of the airplane to offset the heavy loads it would be required to carry. Five more Silverplates were delivered in November and six in December, giving the group 14 for its training operations. In January and February 1945, 10 of the 15 crews under the command of the Group S-3 (operations officer) were assigned temporary duty at Batista Field, San Antonio de los Baños, Cuba, where they trained in long-range over-water navigation. The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron, the other flying unit of the 509th, came into being because of the highly secret work of the group. The organization that was to become the 509th required its own transports for the movement of both personnel and materiel, resulting in creation of an ad hoc unit nicknamed "The Green Hornet Line". Crews for this unit were acquired from the five 393d crews not selected to continue B-29 training. All those qualified for positions with the 320th chose to remain with the 509th rather than be assigned to a replacement pool of the Second Air Force. They began using C-46 Commando and C-47 Skytrains already at Wendover, and in November 1944 acquired three C-54 Skymasters. The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron originally consisted of three C-54 and four C-47 aircraft. In April 1945 the C-47s were transferred to the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit and two additional C-54s acquired. The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was constituted and activated on the same dates as the group. Other support units were activated at Wendover from personnel already present and working with Project Alberta or in the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit, both affiliated with the Manhattan project. Project Alberta was the part of the Manhattan Project at Site Y in Los Alamos, New Mexico, responsible for the preparation and delivery of the nuclear weapons. It was commanded by U.S. Navy Captain William S. Parsons, who would accompany the Hiroshima mission as weaponeer. On 6 March 1945, concurrent with the activation of Project Alberta, the 1st Ordnance Squadron, Special (Aviation) was activated at Wendover, again using Army Air Forces personnel on hand or already at Los Alamos. Its purpose was to provide "skilled machinists, welders and munitions workers" and special equipment to the group to enable it to assemble atomic weapons at its operating base, thereby allowing the weapons to be transported more safely in their component parts. A rigorous candidate selection process was used to recruit personnel, reportedly with an 80% "washout" rate. Not until May 1945 did the 509th Composite Group reach full strength. The 390th Air Service Group was created as the command echelon for the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron, the 1027th Air Material Squadron, and its own Headquarters and Base Services Squadron, but when these units became independent operationally, it acted as the basic support unit for the entire 509th Composite Group in providing quarters, rations, medical care, postal service and other functions. The 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was unique in that it provided depot-level B-29 maintenance in the field, obviating the necessity of sending aircraft back to the United States for major repairs. On Tinian the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing's "C" and "D" Service Centers, where it performed provided depot-level ("third echelon") maintenance for the entire 313th Bombardment Wing when it was not engaged in 509th activities. The 393d Bombardment Squadron's maintenance section was re-organized as a "combat line maintenance" section (also called PLM, or "production line maintenance," a technique developed by the Air Transport Command in India for "Hump" aircraft) to maximize use of personnel for first and second echelon maintenance. Overseas movement With the addition of the 1st Ordnance Squadron to its roster, the 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom deployed to Tinian. The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron kept its base of operations at Wendover. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel of Project Alberta, and two representatives from Washington, D.C., the deputy director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee. Two anecdotes illustrate the level of security affecting the 509th's personnel and equipment. En route to Tinian on 4 June 1945, the B-29 that became The Great Artiste made an intermediate stop at Mather Field, near Sacramento, California. The commanding general of the base allegedly attempted to enter the aircraft to inspect it and was warned by a plane guard who aimed his carbine at the general's chest that he could not do so. A similar incident occurred to a Project Alberta courier, 2nd Lieutenant William A. King. King was escorting the plutonium core of the Fat Man implosion bomb to Tinian, strapped to the floor of one of the 509th's C-54s. On 26 July 1945 it made a refueling stop at Hickam Field, Hawaii. The commander of a combat unit returning to the United States learned that the Skymaster had only one passenger and attempted to enter the C-54 to requisition it as transport for his men. He was prevented from doing so by King, who aimed a .45 caliber automatic pistol at the colonel. The 509th transferred four of its 14 training Silverplate B-29s to the 216th AAF Base Unit in February 1945. In April the third modification increment of Silverplates, which would be their combat aircraft, began coming off the Martin-Omaha assembly line. These "fly-away" aircraft were equipped with fuel-injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible-pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements. The remaining 17 Silverplate B-29s were placed in storage. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert pumpkin bombs before Tibbets declared his group combat-ready. The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group, consisting of 44 officers and 815 enlisted men commanded by Major George W. Westcott of the Headquarters Squadron, received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men commanded by Group Intelligence Officer (S-2) Lieutenant Colonel Hazen Payette, flew by C-54 to North Field, Tinian, between 15 and 22 May. It was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945, marking the group's official change of station. Project Alberta's "Destination Team" also sent most of its members to Tinian to supervise the assembly, loading, and dropping of the bombs under the administrative title of 1st Technical Services Detachment, Miscellaneous War Department Group. Equipment and crews The air echelon consisted of the members of the 393d Bombardment Squadron. The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron remained at Wendover. It began deploying from Wendover 4 June 1945, with the first B-29 arriving at North Field on 11 June. The group was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing, whose four groups had been flying missions against Japan since mid-February, but for security reasons their permanent base area was near the runways on the island's north tip, several miles away from the main installations in the center of Tinian. The 509th, after spending most of June in an area previously occupied by the Seabees of the 18th Naval Construction Battalion, took over the 13th Naval Construction Battalion Area just west of North Field's Runway D, a self-contained base with 89 Quonset huts, a huge storage warehouse, a consolidated mess hall, chapel, administrative area, theater, and other amenities. Each crew was required to attend the 313th Bombardment Wing's week-long "Lead Crew Ground School" on its arrival. The ground school indoctrinated combat crews in procedures regarding air-sea rescue, ditching and bailouts, survival, radar bombing, weather, wing and air force regulations, emergency procedures, camera operation, dinghy drills, and other topics related to combat operations. Two of the group's bombers were not delivered by Martin-Omaha until early July. They remained at Wendover until 27 July to act as transports for two of the Fat Man assemblies. Because of their geographical isolation from the combat crews of other groups, rigidly enforced security measures, and exclusion from participation in regular bombing missions, crews of the 393d Bombardment Squadron were resented and ridiculed as "lacking in discipline" and having a "soft life". The official history of the Army Air Forces characterized the ridicule as "epitomized in a satirical verse entitled Nobody Knows, with a recurring refrain, 'For the 509th is winning the war.'" The group was assigned tail markings of a circle outline (denoting the 313th Wing) around an arrowhead pointing forward, but at the beginning of August its B-29s were repainted with the tail markings of other XXI Bomber Command groups as a security measure, because it was feared that Japanese survivors on Tinian were reporting the 509th's activities to Tokyo by clandestine radio. The Victor (identification assigned by the squadron) numbers previously assigned the 393d aircraft were changed to avoid confusion with B-29s of the groups from whom the tail identifiers were borrowed. Victor numbers 82, 89, 90, and 91 (including the Enola Gay) carried the markings of the 6th Bombardment Group (Circle R); Victors 71, 72, 73, and 84 those of the 497th Bombardment Group (large "A"); Victors 77, 85, 86, and 88 those of the 444th Bombardment Group (triangle N); and Victors 83, 94, and 95 those of the 39th Bombardment Group (square P). Although all of the B-29s were named as shown, the only nose art applied to the aircraft before the atomic bomb missions was that of Enola Gay. With the exceptions of Victors 71 and 94, the others were applied some time in August 1945. Luke the Spook was not named until November 1945, and it is not known if nose art was ever applied to Jabit III. Combat operations After ground training for the combat crews, the 509th began operations on 30 June 1945, with a calibration flight involving nine of the B-29s on hand. During the month of July and the first eight days of August the thirteen bombers of the 393d Bombardment Squadron flew an intensive training and mission rehearsal program that consisted of: 17 individual training sorties without ordnance, 15 practice bombing missions between 1 and 22 July against airfields on Japanese-held Truk, Marcus, Rota, and Guguan in which 90 B-29 sorties dropped 500- and 1000-pound bombs to practice radar and visual bombing procedures, 12 combat missions between 20 and 29 July against targets in Japan dropping high-explosive pumpkin bombs, in which 37 B-29 sorties delivered conventional-bomb replications of the Fat Man: four on 20 July, three on 24 July, two on 26 July, and three on 29 July. Some 27 sorties were made visually and 10 by radar, striking 17 primary targets, 15 secondary targets, and five targets of opportunity. Two other aircraft did not drop their bombs: one jettisoned its pumpkin bomb into the sea near Iwo Jima, and the Strange Cargos bomb came loose from the bomb rack and plunged through the closed bomb bay doors while the bomber was still on the ground. One B-29 incurred minor battle damage in the attacks. Flying at put them above the effective range of flak. Each pumpkin bomb mission was conducted by a formation of three aircraft in the hope of convincing the Japanese military that small groups of B-29s did not justify a strong response. This strategy proved successful, and Japanese fighters only occasionally attempted to intercept the 509th Composite Group's aircraft. 7 component-tests between 23 July and 8 August involving rehearsal drops of four inert Little Boy gun-type fission weapons and three Fat Man assemblies, and a practice mission on 29 July to Iwo Jima in which an inert Little Boy was unloaded and then reloaded to rehearse the contingency plan for using a back-up bomber in an emergency. To accustom the Japanese to small groups of American bombers, training flights consisted of three planes that dropped a single bomb before returning to base. It was hoped that they would be allowed to carry out their job without any Japanese opposition. While this training was taking place, the components of the first two atomic bombs were shipped to Tinian by various means. For the uranium bomb code-named "Little Boy", fissile components consisted of a cylindrical target and nine washer-like rings that made up the hollow cylinder projectile. When the bomb detonated, these would be brought together to create a cylindrical core. The uranium-235 projectile and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on 16 July aboard the cruiser , arriving 26 July. The Little Boy pre-assemblies were designated L-1, L-2, L-3, L-4, L-5, L-6, L-7 and L-11. L-1, L-2, L-5 and L-6 were expended in test drops. L-6 was used in the Iwo Jima dress rehearsal on 29 July. This was repeated on 31 July, but this time L-6 was test dropped near Tinian by Enola Gay. L-11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb. On 26 July three C-54s of the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron left Kirtland Army Air Field, each with three of the uranium-235 target rings, and landed at North Field on 28 July. The components for the bomb code-named the Fat Man arrived by air the same day. The bomb's plutonium core (encased in its insertion capsule) and the beryllium-polonium initiator were transported from Kirtland to Tinian by C-54 in the custody of Project Alberta couriers. Three Fat Man high explosive pre-assemblies designated F31, F32, and F33 were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s, two from the 509th and one from the 216th AAF Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving 2 August. The B-29s were Luke the Spook and Laggin' Dragon of the 509th, and 42-65386, a phase 3 Silverplate of the 216th AAF Base Unit. F33 was expended during the final rehearsal on 8 August, and F31 was the bomb dropped on Nagasaki. F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal. The final item of preparation for the operation came on 29 July 1945. Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting Chief of Staff of the United States Army, since General of the Army George C. Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with the President. The order designated four targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, and Nagasaki, and ordered the attack to be made "as soon as weather will permit after about 3 August." Atomic bomb missions The mission profile for both atomic missions called for weather scouts to precede the strike force by an hour, reporting weather conditions in code over each proposed target. The strike force consisted of a bombing aircraft, with the aircraft commander responsible for all decisions in reaching the target and the bomb commander (weaponeer) responsible for all decisions regarding dropping of the bomb; a blast instrumentation aircraft which would fly the wing of the strike aircraft and drop instruments by parachute into the target area; and a camera ship, which would also carry scientific observers. Each mission had an additional "spare" aircraft pre-positioned on Iwo Jima to take over carrying the bomb if the strike aircraft encountered mechanical problems. The six combat crews of the Hiroshima mission were briefed on their targets, operational flight data, and the effects of the bomb on 4 August 1945. Their pre-mission briefing on 5 August, under the terms of Operations Order No. 35, covered details on weather and air-sea rescue. The Order described the bomb to be used as "special". Special Mission 13, attacking Hiroshima, was flown as planned and executed without significant problems or diversion from plan. Enola Gay took off at 02:45, overweight and near maximum gross weight. Arming of the bomb began eight minutes into the flight and took 25 minutes. The three target-area aircraft arrived over Iwo Jima approximately three hours into the mission and departed together at 06:07. The safeties on the bomb were removed at 07:30, 90 minutes before time over target, and 15 minutes later the B-29s began a climb to the bombing altitude. The bomb run began at 09:12, with the drop three minutes later, after which the B-29s immediately performed steep diving turns. The detonation followed 45.5 seconds after the drop. Primary and "echo" shock waves overtook the B-29s a minute following the blast, and the smoke cloud was visible to the crews for 90 minutes, by which time they were almost away. Enola Gay returned to Tinian at 14:58. Special Mission 16 was moved up two days from 11 August because of adverse weather forecasts. Weather also dictated a change in rendezvous to Yakushima, much closer to the target, and an initial cruise altitude of instead of , both of which considerably increased fuel consumption. Pre-flight inspection discovered an inoperative fuel transfer pump in the aft bomb bay fuel tank, but a decision was made to continue anyway. The plutonium bomb did not require arming in flight, but did have its safeties removed 30 minutes after the 03:45 takeoff (all times Tinian; Nagasaki times were one hour earlier) when Bockscar reached of altitude. When the daylight rendezvous point was reached at 09:10, the photo plane failed to appear. The weather planes reported both targets within the required visual attack parameters while Bockscar circled Yakushima waiting for the photo plane. Finally the mission proceeded without the photo plane, thirty minutes behind schedule. When Bockscar arrived at Kokura 30 minutes later, cloud cover had increased to 70% of the area, and three bomb runs over the next 50 minutes were fruitless in bombing visually. The commanders decided to reduce power to conserve fuel and divert to Nagasaki, bombing by radar if necessary. The bomb run began at 11:58. (two hours behind schedule) using radar; but the Fat Man was dropped visually when a hole opened in the clouds at 12:01. The photo plane arrived at Nagasaki in time to complete its mission, and the three aircraft diverted to Okinawa, where they arrived at 13:00. Trying in vain for 20 minutes to contact the control tower at Yontan Airfield to obtain landing clearance, Bockscar nearly ran out of fuel. While the Nagasaki mission was in progress, two B-29s of the 509th took off from Tinian to return to Wendover. The crews of Classen in the unnamed Victor 94, and Captain John A. Wilson in Jabit III, together with ground support crews, were sent back to the United States to stage for the possibility of transporting further bomb pre-assemblies to Tinian. Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for shipment on 13 August and use on 19 August, with three more available in September and a further three in October. Groves ordered that all shipments of material be stopped on 13 August, when the third bomb was still at Site Y. Post atomic bomb operations After each atomic mission the group conducted other combat operations, making a series of pumpkin bomb attacks on 8 and 14 August. Six B-29s visually attacked targets at Yokkaichi, Uwajima, Tsuruga, and Tokushima on 8 August, bombing two primary and three secondary targets with five bombs. Seven aircraft visually attacked Koromo and Nagoya on 14 August. Some Punkins (Crew B-7, Price) is believed to have dropped the last bombs by the Twentieth Air Force in World War II. After the announcement of the Japanese surrender, the 509th Composite Group flew three further training missions involving 31 sorties on 18, 20 and 22 August, then stood down from operations. The group made a total of 210 operational sorties from 30 June to 22 August, aborted four additional flights, and had only a single aircraft fail to take off. Altogether, 140 sorties involved the dropping of live ordnance. Some 60 flights were credited as combat missions: 49 pumpkin bomb and 11 atomic bomb sorties. Three B-29s (Full House, Straight Flush, and Top Secret) flew six combat missions each. Crews A-1 (Taylor) and C-11 (Eatherly) flew the most combat missions, six (including one atomic mission) each, while six other crews each flew five. Only the late arrivals (A-2 [Costello] and C-12 [Zahn]) did not participate in any combat missions, although Costello's B-29 was used by another crew for weather reconnaissance of Nagasaki on the second mission. Including training and test flights, crews B-8 (McKnight) and C-13 (Bock) flew the most missions, with 20 total (5 combat). Crew B-7 (Price) is the only crew to fly all of its missions (18 total, 5 combat) in its normally assigned aircraft, Some Punkins. The 509th Composite Group returned to the United States on 6 November 1945, and was stationed at Roswell Army Airfield, New Mexico. Colonel William H. Blanchard replaced Tibbets as group commander on 22 January 1946, and also became the first commander of the 509th Bombardment Wing. It was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command when it was formed on 21 March 1946. The 715th and 830th Bombardment Squadrons were assigned to the 509th on 6 May 1946, and the group was redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group, Very Heavy on 10 July. The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was inactivated on 19 August. At Roswell, the 509th became the nuclear strike and deterrence core of the Strategic Air Command, and was the only unit capable of delivery of nuclear weapons until June 1948, when B-50 Superfortresses were initially deployed. The 509th itself converted to the B-50 in 1950, and transferred its Silverplate B-29s to the squadrons of the 97th Bombardment Wing at Biggs Air Force Base, Texas. Organization Depictions The training and operations of the 509th Composite Group were dramatized in a Hollywood film, Above and Beyond (1952), with Robert Taylor cast in the role of Tibbets. The story was retold in a partly fictionalized made-for-television film Enola Gay: The Men, the Mission, the Atomic Bomb (1980), with Patrick Duffy portraying Tibbets. The operations of the 509th Composite Group were treated to a lesser extent in the docudrama The Beginning or the End (1947), with Barry Nelson as Tibbets. Lineage Established as 509th Composite Group on 9 December 1944 Activated on 17 December 1944 Redesignated: 509th Bombardment Group, Very Heavy, on 10 July 1946 Redesignated: 509th Bombardment Group, Medium, on 2 July 1948 Inactivated on 16 June 1952 Redesignated 509th Operations Group''' on 12 March 1993 Activated on 15 July 1993 Source: Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group (ACC) Assignments Second Air Force, 17 December 1944; 315th Bombardment Wing, 18 December 1944; 313th Bombardment Wing, c. June 1945; Second Air Force, 10 October 1945; 58th Bombardment Wing, 17 January 1946; Fifteenth Air Force, 31 March 1946 Source: Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group (ACC) Stations Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, 17 December 1944 North Field, Tinian, 29 May 1945 Roswell Army Airfield, New Mexico, 6 November 1945 Source: CampaignsAir Combat, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign'' Air Offensive, Japan Eastern Mandates Western Pacific Source: Honors Department of the Air Force Special Order GB-294, dated 2 September 1999, awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award (with Valor) to the 509th Composite Group for outstanding achievement in combat for the period 1 July 1945 to 14 August 1945. Notes Footnotes Citations References Further reading External links Atomic Heritage Foundation 509th Composite Group Page, Atomic Heritage Foundation National Museum of the USAF B-29 Superfortress fact sheet 509 Manhattan Project Nuclear warfare Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Composite groups of the United States Army Air Forces Bombardment groups of the United States Army Air Forces in the Japan campaign Military units and formations established in 1944 Bombardment groups of the United States Air Force 1944 establishments in Utah 1946 disestablishments in New Mexico
4567589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20and%20the%20International%20Criminal%20Court	United States and the International Criminal Court	The United States is not a state party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Rome Statute), which founded the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2002. , 123 states are members of the Court. Other states that have not become parties to the Rome Statute include India, Indonesia, and China. On May 6, 2002, the United States, in a position shared with Israel and Sudan, having previously signed the Rome Statute formally withdrew its signature and indicated that it did not intend to ratify the agreement. United States policy concerning the ICC has varied widely. The Clinton administration signed the Rome Statute in 2000, but did not submit it for Senate ratification. The George W. Bush administration, the U.S. administration at the time of the ICC's founding, stated that it would not join the ICC. The Obama administration subsequently re-established a working relationship with the Court as an observer. Rome Statute Following years of negotiations aimed at establishing a permanent international tribunal to prosecute individuals accused of genocide and other serious international crimes, such as crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the recently defined crimes of aggression, the United Nations General Assembly convened a five-week diplomatic conference in Rome in June 1998 "to finalize and adopt a convention on the establishment of an international criminal court". On 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted against the treaty were Iraq, Israel, Libya, China, Qatar, Yemen, and the United States. U.S. President Bill Clinton originally signed the Rome Statute in 2000. Signature of a treaty provides a preliminary endorsement, but a treaty that is signed but not ratified is not legally binding. Signing does not create a binding legal obligation, but does demonstrate the State's intention to examine the treaty domestically and consider ratifying it, and it obliges the State to refrain from acts that would counter or undermine the treaty's objective and purpose. Clinton stated that he would not submit it to the Senate for advice and consent for ratification until the U.S. government had a chance to assess the functioning of the Court. He nonetheless supported the proposed role of the ICC and its objectives: After the Rome Statute reached the requisite 60 ratifications in 2002, President George W. Bush's administration sent a note to the U.N. Secretary-General on May 6, 2002. The note informed the Secretary-General that the U.S. no longer intended to ratify the Rome Statute, and that it did not recognize any obligation toward the Rome Statute. In addition, the U.S. stated that its intention not to become a state party should be reflected in the U.N. depository's list. This is because signatories have an obligation not to undermine the object and purpose of a treaty according to Article 18 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, also sometimes referred to as the good faith obligations. According to American Non-Governmental Organizations Coalition for the International Criminal Court, the U.S. could engage with the Court by reactivating its signature to the Rome Statute by submitting a letter to the Secretary-General. Particular U.S. ratification contingencies A treaty becomes part of the municipal law of a nation only when the treaty has been ratified, accepted, or acceded to. In the U.S., the Constitution gives the President power to negotiate treaties under the Treaty Clause of Article Two. The President must then submit a treaty to the Senate for advice and consent for ratification, and the Senate must approve the treaty by a two-thirds majority before it can take effect. The Senate may submit amendments, reservations, or explanations to the President regarding the treaty. Once ratified, treaties are generally self-executing—at least from the perspective of other nations—as the ratifying state fully binds itself to the treaty as a matter of the public international law and of national honor and good faith. In the U.S., however, a treaty does not immediately become effective as U.S. domestic law upon entry into force, which occurs only if the treaty is self-executing. In Foster v. Neilson 27 U.S. 253 (1829), the U.S. Supreme Court explained that treaties are self-executing if accompanying legislation is not necessary for implementation. A treaty requiring additional action is not self-executing; it would create an international obligation for the U.S., but would have no effect on domestic law. (Id. 314-315). However, entrenched provisions of municipal law—such as the constitution of a state party or other fundamental laws—may cause the treaty not to be fully executable in municipal law if it conflicts with those entrenched provisions. Article Six of the U.S. Constitution contains the Supremacy Clause, which gives all treaties ratified in accordance with the Constitution the effect of federal law. In the U.S., if a treaty is found to be self-executing it will preempt inconsistent state law and previous legislation. This issue was addressed by the U.S. Supreme Court in Ware v. Hylton 3 U.S. 199 (1796), where it found that the treaty at issue was self-executing and struck down an inconsistent state law. (Id. 284). However, a treaty cannot preempt the Constitution itself (as held in Reid v. Covert 354 U.S. 1 (1957)). Thus, in order for a treaty to be executable within the United States, it might be necessary for the Constitution to be amended. Otherwise, treaty provisions could potentially be found unconstitutional and consequently be struck down by the courts. An example of an instance where this occurred outside the U.S. is when the Republic of Ireland ratified the Rome Statute. The Irish government's response was to hold a national referendum on the issue in 2001, after which the government amended their Constitution to bring it into effect. The question of whether the Rome Statute would require amendments to the U.S. Constitution to be brought into effect is a matter of debate within the United States. However, many scholars and experts believe that the Rome Statute is compatible with the U.S. Constitution. US criticism and support of the ICC Lack of due process The ICC has been criticized for absence of jury trials; allegations of retrials allowed for errors of fact; allegations that hearsay evidence is allowed; and allegations of no right to a speedy trial, a public trial, or reasonable bail. Supporters of the ICC say that the ICC Statute contains the due process rights found in the U.S. Constitution and now well recognized in international standards of due process in Article 67 Rome Statute, with the exception of the right to jury trial. Military justice Former U.S. State Department Legal Advisor Monroe Leigh has said: The U.S. has adopted forms of war crimes and crimes against humanity within its military courts. The military courts have jurisdiction over all military personnel abroad and any accompanying civilians. Further, the U.S. has adopted crimes of genocide within its domestic system and conscription of child soldiers. Incompatibility with the U.S. Constitution The Heritage Foundation, a U.S.-based conservative think tank, issued the following: United States participation in the ICC treaty regime would also be unconstitutional because it would allow the trial of U.S. citizens for crimes committed on U.S. soil, which are otherwise entirely within the judicial power of the United States. The Supreme Court has long held that only the courts of the United States, as established under the Constitution, can try such offenses. This statement refers to several issues. The first is the trial of U.S. citizens by the ICC and implies that the Court does not have the power to try Americans for crimes committed on U.S. territory. The second refers to due-process issues. Critics argue that, because the U.S. Constitution permits the creation of only one Supreme Court, participation with the International Criminal Court violates the U.S. Constitution. However, the Court is not a creation of the U.S.; instead, it functions internationally. Further, the U.S. has participated in various international courts including the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, the Nuremberg trials, and the tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. The Congressional Research Service's Report for Congress states the ICC is not "an instrumentality of the U.S.". Therefore, it does not threaten to supplant the Constitutional authority of the U.S. Supreme Court. Other views The Heritage Foundation has stated that: The true measure of America's commitment to peace and justice and its opposition to genocide and war crimes lies not in its participation in international bureaucracies like the ICC, but in its actions. The United States has led the fight to free millions in Afghanistan and Iraq. It is a party to many human rights treaties and, unlike many other nations, abides by those treaty commitments. The U.S. has led the charge to hold violators of human rights to account, including fighting hard for imposing Security Council sanctions on the Sudanese government until it stops supporting the militia groups that are committing genocide in Darfur and helps to restore order to the region. The U.S. polices its military and punishes them when they commit crimes. In every practical way, the U.S. honors the beliefs and purposes underlying the ICC. In a 2005 poll of 1,182 residents of the United States by the Chicago Council on Global Affairs and the Program on International Policy Attitudes at the University of Maryland, 69% favored U.S. participation in the ICC. On a candidate questionnaire during the 2004 Senate race, Barack Obama was asked: Should the United States ratify the 'Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court'? If not, what concerns do you have that need to be resolved before you would support joining the court? Prior to ratification, what should the United States relationship with the Court be, particularly in regards to sharing intelligence, prosecuting war criminals, and referring cases to the U.N. Security Council? Obama answered: "Yes[.] The United States should cooperate with ICC investigations in a way that reflects U.S. sovereignty and promotes our national security interests." Senator John McCain, the Republican presidential candidate in the 2008 elections, said on January 28, 2005: "I want us in the ICC, but I'm not satisfied that there are enough safeguards." He also later stated: "We should publicly remind Khartoum that the International Criminal Court has jurisdiction to prosecute war crimes in Darfur and that Sudanese leaders will be held personally accountable for attacks on civilians." Senator Hillary Clinton said as a candidate in the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries on February 13, 2005: Clinton later added: Consistent with my overall policy of reintroducing the United States to the world, I will as President evaluate the record of Court, and reassess how we can best engage with this institution and hold the worst abusers of human rights to account. Representative Ron Paul, a Republican presidential candidate in the 2008 elections, said on April 8, 2002: Bill Richardson, the Governor of New Mexico, said in 2007 while campaigning for the 2008 Democratic nomination: "We must repair our alliances ... renew our commitment to International Law and multilateral cooperation ... this means joining the International Criminal Court." Dennis Kucinich, Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives and a presidential candidate in the 2004 and 2008 elections, said on April 26, 2007: John Edwards, the former Senator and the Democratic Vice-Presidential candidate in 2004, called for America to be part of the court when campaigning for the 2008 Democratic nomination, saying: We should be the natural leader in ... these areas ... when America doesn't engage in these international institutions, when we show disrespect for international agreements, it makes it extraordinarily difficult when we need the world community to rally around us ... we didn't used to be the country of Guantanamo and Abu Ghraib. We were the great light for the rest of the world, and America needs to be that light again. Benjamin B. Ferencz, an investigator of Nazi war crimes after World War II and the Chief Prosecutor for the United States Army at the Einsatzgruppen trial, one of the twelve "subsequent Nuremberg trials" held by the U.S. authorities, later became a vocal advocate of the establishment of an international rule of law and of an International Criminal Court. In his first book, published in 1975 and entitled Defining International Aggression-The Search for World Peace, he argued for the establishment of an international court. Presidential positions George W. Bush The position of the Bush administration during its first term in office was to unalterably oppose U.S. ratification of the Rome Statute, believing Americans would be unfairly treated for political reasons. Moreover, the Bush administration actively pursued a policy of hostility towards the Court in its international relations, exceeding merely staying out of the statute, instead following the provisions of the American Service-Members' Protection Act, in seeking to guarantee that U.S. citizens be immune to the court and to thwart other states from acceding to the statute without taking U.S. concerns into account. The U.S. vigorously pressed states to conclude "Article 98 agreements," bilateral immunity agreements (BIAs) with the U.S. that would guarantee its citizens immunity from the court's jurisdiction, threatening to cut off aid to states that refused to agree. However, Bush administration officials tempered their opposition to the ICC in the administration's second term, especially after the departure of John Bolton from the Bush administration. The United States did not oppose using the ICC to prosecute atrocities in Darfur, Sudan, as evidenced by the U.S. abstention on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1593 referring the Darfur situation to the ICC for prosecution. In a statement, the State Department's Legal Adviser John Bellinger stated: "At least as a matter of policy, not only do we not oppose the ICC's investigation and prosecutions in Sudan but we support its investigation and prosecution of those atrocities." In addition, the U.S. House of Representatives, in a resolution, acknowledged the ICC's authority to prosecute war crimes in Darfur. Barack Obama The Obama administration stated its intent to cooperate with the ICC. Cooperation with the Assembly of States Parties of the ICC was a key component of the Obama administration's first National Security Strategy. On November 16, 2009, the Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues, Stephen Rapp, announced that he would lead the U.S. delegation to the ICC's annual meeting of the Assembly of States Parties in The Hague. He told journalists "Our government has now made the decision that Americans will return to engagement at the ICC." The U.S. participated as an observer. This was the first time the U.S. had a delegation attend the ICC's annual meeting of the Assembly. In response to a question from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton remarked that the U.S. will end its "hostility" towards the court. In addition, Susan Rice, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, in her first address to the Security Council expressed U.S. support for the court's investigation in Sudan. These statements coupled with the removal of sanctions to the BIAs signaled a positive shift in the U.S. cooperation with the Court. The Obama administration made no formal policy decision on the ICC or the status of the BIAs, and did not state an intention to rejoin the Rome Statute or submit the treaty to Senate ratification. The administration sent a large delegation to the Review Conference of the Rome Statute in Kampala, Uganda in May and June 2010. The outcome from Kampala included a successful assessment of the Rome Statute system of international justice, the announcement of numerous formal pledges by countries to assist the court, and the adoption of amendments on war crimes and the crime of aggression. The U.S. co-sponsored a side event with Norway and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) on building the capacity of the DRC's judicial system to address atrocity crimes. The U.S. announced two pledges at Kampala, and was the only non-State Party to make a pledge. The U.S. formally committed to building the legal capacity of certain countries to prosecute atrocity crimes themselves, and to assisting the ICC in its investigation and prosecution of the leaders of the Lord's Resistance Army, a rebel group originating from Uganda and led by Joseph Kony. The Conference adopted two sets of amendments. The administration believes that the outcome on both is in accord with important U.S. interests. The Conference adopted a definition for the crime of aggression, the conditions under which it would exercise jurisdiction, and a roadmap for the eventual activation of jurisdiction after January 1, 2017. The U.S. initially raised concerns about the definition, but accepted it after other countries agreed to attach a set of detailed understandings to the resolution adopting the amendments. Under the amendment, the ICC will be, first, unable to prosecute individuals of a non-state party, and second, state-parties will have the opportunity to opt out of aggression jurisdiction if they so wish. Speaking about the past and future of U.S.–ICC relations in light of the Review Conference, Harold Koh, Legal Adviser of the State Department, declared in 2010: After 12 years, I think we have reset the default on the U.S. relationship with the Court from hostility to positive engagement. In this case, principled engagement worked to protect our interest, to improve the outcome, and to bring us renewed international goodwill. Donald Trump In September 2018, President Donald Trump criticized the Court before the United Nations. In his speech condemning globalism and the over reach of international agencies, he drew parallels between the court and the United Nations Human Rights Council. So the United States took the only responsible course: We withdrew from the Human Rights Council, and we will not return until real reform is enacted. For similar reasons, the United States will provide no support in recognition to the International Criminal Court. As far as America is concerned, the ICC has no jurisdiction, no legitimacy, and no authority. The ICC claims near-universal jurisdiction over the citizens of every country, violating all principles of justice, fairness, and due process. We will never surrender America’s sovereignty to an unelected, unaccountable, global bureaucracy. In April 2019, the United States revoked the visa of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, in anticipation of a later investigation into possible war crimes committed by U.S. forces during the War in Afghanistan; the investigation was authorized in March 2020. In June 2020, Donald Trump authorized sanctions against ICC in retaliation for the aforementioned case. His Secretary of State Mike Pompeo called it a "kangaroo court". Joe Biden On April 2, 2021, President Joe Biden lifted the Trump-era sanctions against Bensouda and Phakiso Mochochoko, head of the ICC's Jurisdiction, Complementarity and Cooperation Division. Secretary of State Antony Blinken issued a statement maintaining the country's "longstanding objection to the Court’s efforts to assert jurisdiction over personnel of non-States Parties such as the United States and Israel"; however, he added that "our concerns about these cases would be better addressed through engagement with all stakeholders in the ICC process rather than through the imposition of sanctions". Although not a member, Biden has welcomed the ICC's decision for the arrest warrant of the President of Russia Vladimir Putin and the Russian Commissioner for Children's Rights Maria Lvova-Belova on March 18, 2023 during the Russian invasion of Ukraine after it was discovered that Russia had deported children from Ukraine. American policies towards the ICC The United States and many advocates for the ICC have long been at odds over the Court's statute, accountability, and jurisdiction. Although these differences have not been resolved, two recent actions have refocused international and domestic attention on America's policy toward the ICC. The first was enactment of the "Nethercutt Amendment", which extended prohibitions on assistance to ICC parties beyond those already in place under the American Service-Members' Protection Act (ASPA). The second is the debate over whether or not the U.N. Security Council should refer the genocide in Sudan to the ICC for investigation. American Service-Members' Protection Act In 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the American Service-Members' Protection Act (ASPA), which contained a number of provisions, including authorization of the President to "use all means necessary and appropriate to bring about the release of any U.S. or allied personnel being detained by, on behalf of, or at the request of the International Criminal Court", and also prohibitions on the United States providing military aid to countries which had ratified the treaty establishing the court. However, there were a number of exceptions to this, including NATO members, major non-NATO allies, and countries which entered into a BIA with the United States not to hand over U.S. nationals to the Court, as well as any military aid that the U.S. president certified to be in the U.S. national interest. In addition, ASPA contained provisions prohibiting U.S. co-operation with the Court, and permitting the President to authorize military force to free any U.S. military personnel held by the court, leading opponents to dub it "The Hague Invasion Act". The act was later modified to permit U.S. cooperation with the ICC when dealing with U.S. enemies. It has been argued that the act was a measure created to protect Americans from ICC jurisdiction or prosecution. On October 2, 2006, President Bush issued waivers of the International Military Education and Training (IMET) prohibitions with respect to 21 nations. Foreign Military Financing (FMF) restricted under ASPA were not affected by the 2006 waivers or the ASPA amendment. On October 17, 2006, Bush signed into law an amendment to ASPA as part of the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 removing IMET restrictions for all nations. On November 22, 2006, Bush issued ASPA waivers with respect to the Comoros and Saint Kitts and Nevis, followed by a similar waiver with respect to Montenegro on August 31, 2007. On January 28, 2008, Bush signed into law an amendment to the ASPA to eliminate restrictions on FMF to nations unwilling to enter into BIAs shielding U.S. nationals from the jurisdiction of the ICC. Section 1212 of HR 4986 effectively gutted from ASPA all of the provisions which threaten nations with the loss of military assistance of any kind for refusing a BIA. Criticism of ASPA The effects of the ASPA were severely criticized by the Defense Department. While speaking before the U.S. House Committee on Armed Services regarding the FY 2006 Budget, U.S. Army General Bantz J. Craddock, Commander of the U.S. Southern Command, made strong statements on the impact of ASPA on military operations and cooperation in Latin America. He explained that the ASPA was creating a void of contact that is being filled by other extra-hemispheric actors, including China. Vice Admiral Lowell Jacoby made similar statements during a hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee. In addition, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Air Force General Richard Myers, testified at the Senate Appropriations Defense Subcommittee on April 27, 2005, that the ASPA has reduced foreign troop training opportunities and hurt the government's ability to fight terrorism abroad as an "unintended consequence". The Nethercutt Amendment Former Representative George Nethercutt's "Nethercutt Amendment" to the Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act suspends Economic Support Fund assistance to ICC States Parties who refused BIAs with the U.S. or were not provided a Presidential waiver. The funds affected support initiatives including peacekeeping, anti-terrorism measures, democracy-building, and drug interdiction. The language of the amendment allowed presidential exemptions for NATO, MNNA (major non-NATO allies), and Millennium Fund countries. The Nethercutt Amendment differed from former anti-ICC provisions of the ASPA by imposing economic aid cuts instead of military aid cuts. Cutting economic assistance is a far more damaging act because, in many countries, it intended to bolster local economies instead of national defense. In addition, existing status of forces agreements (SOFAs) and other bilateral agreements already provide full U.S. jurisdiction over U.S. personnel and officials serving abroad. The appropriations bill containing the controversial amendments were adopted for FY 2005, FY 2006, and FY 2008. Congress did not pass a foreign operations appropriations bill or any other bill containing the Nethercutt provision for FY 2007. On December 17, 2007, the U.S. Congress approved HR 2764, a comprehensive Consolidated Appropriations Act which reinstates the so-called Nethercutt provision cutting off Economic Support Funds (ESF) to nations unwilling to enter into BIAs or so-called Article 98 Agreements shielding U.S. nationals from the jurisdiction of the ICC. President Bush signed the bill into law on December 26, 2007, and it became Public Law 110–161. However, by mid-2009, Congress had removed all the IMET restrictions and failed to renew the Nethercutt Amendment. Bilateral Immunity Agreements (BIAs) Article 98 of the Rome Statute prohibits the ICC from requesting assistance or the surrender of a person to the ICC if to do so would require the state to "act inconsistently" with its obligations under international law or international agreements unless the state or the third-party state waives the immunity or grants cooperation. The U.S. has interpreted this article to mean that its citizens cannot be transferred to the ICC by any state that has signed a bilateral agreement with the U.S. prohibiting such a transfer, even if the state is a member of the Rome Statute. The U.S. actively pressured states to conclude such so-called Article 98 agreements, otherwise known as bilateral immunity agreements (BIAs). The Bush Administration claimed that the BIAs were drafted out of concern that existing agreements—particularly the status of forces agreements or status of mission agreements (SOFAs or SOMAs)—did not sufficiently protect Americans from the jurisdiction of the ICC. Until 2008, the ASPA and the Nethercutt Amendment required the cessation of ESF to those states which had ratified the Rome Statute unless they signed a BIA (though they could be exempted from this if they were a member of NATO or a major non-NATO ally). ESF entails a wide range of governance programs including international counter-terrorism efforts, peace process programs, anti-drug trafficking initiatives, truth and reconciliation commissions, wheelchair distribution, and HIV/AIDS education, among others. In March 2006, Condoleezza Rice said that blocking military aid to those seeking to fight terrorism is "sort of the same as shooting ourselves in the foot". Mali, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, and Kenya publicly rejected signing BIAs in 2003, and subsequently saw their development aid funding cut by more than 89 million dollars. According to the Coalition for the International Criminal Court, as of 2006, 52 countries had "rejected U.S. efforts to sign bilateral immunity agreements (BIAs), despite unrelenting U.S. pressure and the threat and actual loss of military assistance". By Spring 2006, such agreements had been accepted by approximately one hundred governments and were under consideration by approximately eighteen more. By 2009, with Obama in office, the laws cutting aid unless BIAs were no longer in place; the Nethercutt Amendment had not been renewed, and the restrictions mandated in the ASPA had already been repealed under Bush. As of that year, 102 BIAs had been signed, though it was not clear how many were legally binding, and the U.S. had ceased pursuing more agreements. Romania was one of the first countries to sign an Article 98 agreement with the United States. In response to Romania's action, the European Union requested that candidate countries not sign Article 98 agreements with the United States until the EU ministers had met to agree upon a common position. In September 2002, the Council of the European Union adopted a common position, permitting member states to enter into Article 98 agreements with the United States, but only concerning U.S. military personnel, U.S. diplomatic or consular officials, and persons extradited, sent to their territories by the United States with their permission; not the general protection of U.S. nationals that the United States sought. Furthermore, the common position provided that any person protected from ICC prosecution by such agreements would have to be prosecuted by the United States. This was in agreement with the original position of the EU, that Article 98 agreements were allowed to cover these restricted classes of persons but could not cover all the citizens of a state. United Nations Security Council Resolutions In July 2002, the United States threatened to use its Security Council veto to block renewal of the mandates of several U.N. peacekeeping operations, unless the Security Council agreed to permanently exempt U.S. nationals from the Court's jurisdiction. The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, said that the U.S. proposal "flies in the face of treaty law", risks undermining the Rome Statute, and could end up discrediting the Security Council. Initially, the United States sought to prevent prosecution of personnel on U.N. missions by any country except that of their nationality. The Security Council rejected that approach, and the United States made use of a provision of the Rome Statute that allowed the Security Council to direct the ICC not exercise its jurisdiction over a certain matter for up to one year. The United States sought the Security Council to convey such a request to the ICC concerning U.S. personnel on United Nations peacekeeping and enforcement operations. Further, the U.S. sought to have that request renewed automatically each year. (If renewed automatically each year, then another Security Council resolution would be required to cease the request, which the United States could then veto, which would effectively make the request permanent.) ICC supporters argued that the Rome Statute requires that, for the request to be valid, it must be voted upon each year in the Security Council. Therefore, an automatically renewing request would violate the Statute. By international law, questions regarding the interpretation of the U.N. Charter may only be interpreted by the U.N. Security Council. The U.N. Charter requires that all U.N. members abide by the decisions of the Security Council, so only ICC members who are not also U.N. members are not bound. Other members of the Security Council opposed this request; however, they were increasingly concerned about the future of peacekeeping operations. The United Kingdom eventually negotiated a compromise, whereby the United States would be granted its request, but only for a period of one year. A new Security Council vote would be required in July each year for the exclusion of peacekeepers from ICC jurisdiction to be continued. All members of the Security Council eventually endorsed United Nations Security Council Resolution 1422. NGO supporters of the ICC, along with several countries not on the Security Council (including Canada and New Zealand), protested the legality of the resolution. The resolution was made under Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter, which requires a "threat to international peace or security" for the Security Council to act; ICC supporters have argued that a U.S. threat to veto peacekeeping operations does not constitute a threat to international peace or security. In such a case, the U.N. Charter states that the Security Council will determine if the Security Council's actions conformed with the U.N. Charter. A resolution to exempt citizens of the United States from jurisdiction of the ICC was renewed in 2003 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1487. However, the Security Council refused to renew the exemption again in 2004 after pictures emerged of U.S. troops torturing and abusing Iraqi prisoners in Abu Ghraib, and the U.S. withdrew its demand. See also Command responsibility Human rights in the United States List of war crimes Nuremberg principles International Criminal Court and the 2003 invasion of Iraq United States war crimes References Further reading Paul D. Marquardt, "Law Without Borders: The Constitutionality of an International Criminal Court," 33 Colum. J. Transnat'l. L. 74, 76 (1995). Roy S Lee, ed. (1999). The International Criminal Court: The Making of the Rome Statute. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Madeline Morris, ed. (2001). "The United States and the International Criminal Court", Law and Contemporary Problems, Winter 2001, vol. 64, no. 1. Accessed January 2, 2008. Michael P. Scharf (1999). "The Politics behind U.S. Opposition to the International Criminal Court", Brown J. World Aff., Winter/Spring 1999, vol. VI, p. 97. Jason Ralph (2007). Defending the Society of States. Why America Opposes the International Criminal Court and its Vision of World Society, Oxford University Press. Rebecca Hamilton (2011). Fighting for Darfur: Public Action and the Struggle to Stop Genocide, Palgrave Macmillan, Chs. 5, 11. External links Objections to the ICC under the U.S. Constitution and International Law The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction: Risking Judicial Tyranny by Henry Kissinger A reply to Henry Kissinger's paper by Benjamin B. Ferencz, a former Prosecutor at the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials Why Bilateral Agreements with the U.S. are not valid under Art.98 of ICC Statute by Derechos.org American Justice and the International Criminal Court Remarks by John R. Bolton, Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security, at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, D.C. on November 3, 2003 U.S. Policy Regarding the International Criminal Court Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, Updated April 26, 2006 Human rights in the United States International Criminal Court Foreign relations of the United States
4567893	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakuh%C5%8D%20Sh%C5%8D	Hakuhō Shō	) is a former professional sumo wrestler (rikishi) from Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Making his debut in March 2001, he reached the top makuuchi division in May 2004. In May 2007, at the age of 22, he became the second native of Mongolia, and the fourth non-Japanese overall, to be promoted to the highest rank in sumo, yokozuna. In 2009, he broke the record for the most wins in a calendar year, winning 86 out of 90 bouts, and repeated this feat with the same record again in 2010 when he established the second longest winning streak in sumo history. He also holds the record for the most undefeated tournament championships at sixteen, which is eight more than any other sumo wrestler in history. He was the only active yokozuna from 2010, following the retirement of his rival and fellow Mongolian Asashōryū, until 2012 with the promotion of fellow Mongolian Harumafuji. In March 2021, he became the only active yokozuna once again following the retirement of his rival and fellow Mongolian Kakuryū until the promotion of fellow Mongolian Terunofuji four months later. In January 2015, he broke Taihō's long-standing record by winning his 33rd top division championship, the most in the history of sumo. He holds the records for most wins in the top division, achieved in May 2016, and most career wins, achieved in July 2017. He was the longest-serving yokozuna of all-time, having surpassed Haguroyama's record in 2019, and fought his 1000th bout as a yokozuna in July 2020. He acquired Japanese citizenship in 2019. Hakuhō retired from professional sumo at the end of September 2021, closing out a 20-year career in the sport. Sumo commentator John Gunning noted that Hakuhō left an unmatchable legacy, while a columnist for the Washington Post called him the "greatest figure in sports, maybe ever." Early life and sumo background Like many of his countrymen in professional sumo, Hakuhō belongs to a family in the Mongolian wrestling tradition. His father Jigjidiin Mönkhbat won a silver medal in freestyle wrestling at the 1968 Summer Olympics, his country's first ever Olympic medal, and held the highest ranking in Mongolian wrestling, "Darkhan Avarga" (meaning "Undisputed Champion"), which is the Mongolian equivalent of yokozuna. Davaajargal did not however have any formal training in Mongolian wrestling himself, as his father wished him to try other sports, and he concentrated on basketball as a child instead. However, at an early age he would be seen reading sumo magazines, and when his father asked him why he liked sumo so much, he responded by saying he wanted to be as big as a sumo wrestler one day. At that time he was considered below average in size. He went to Japan in October 2000 when he was fifteen years old, invited by pioneering Mongolian wrestler Kyokushūzan. Because he weighed only , no sumo training stable (heya) was prepared to accept him. Hearing this, Kyokushūzan asked heya master Miyagino-oyakata to intercede, and Davaajargal was accepted to Miyagino stable on the last day of his two-month stay in Japan, 24 December 2000. He was given the ring name (shikona) Hakuhō, with haku meaning "white" and hō, meaning the Chinese mythological bird Peng. His shikona also emulates that of former yokozuna Taihō. Hakuhō made his professional debut at the March tournament (honbasho) in Osaka in 2001 despite having no previous wrestling experience. His weight increased steadily as he rose in the ranks reaching the second highest jūryō division in January 2004, and the top makuuchi division in May of the same year. In his very first top-division tournament, he scored twelve wins against three losses and was awarded a special prize (sanshō) for Fighting Spirit. He also enjoyed great success in subsequent tournaments, winning a gold star (kinboshi) for defeating yokozuna Asashōryū in November 2004 while still at the lowest makuuchi rank of maegashira. This tournament also saw him finish as runner-up for the first time. He achieved a rapid promotion to the rank of komusubi in January 2005 and sekiwake only one tournament later. His progress was delayed by an injury which forced him to take leave (zen-kyu) from the Nagoya tournament in 2005. His ōzeki promotion came in March 2006 after a 13–2 record, which included a playoff for the championship (which he lost to Asashōryū) and also earned him two special prizes for Outstanding Performance and Technique. This gave him a three tournament record of 35 wins against ten losses. His promotion was confirmed just a few weeks after his twenty-first birthday, making him the fourth youngest wrestler to reach ōzeki in modern sumo history. Ōzeki At his first tournament as ōzeki in May 2006, with Asashōryū absent, Hakuhō won his first championship (yūshō) with a 14–1 record, defeating Miyabiyama in another playoff. After another strong performance (13–2) in July, in which he finished as runner-up to Asashōryū and defeated him on the final day, Hakuhō was denied promotion to yokozuna, despite the Japan Sumo Association's chairman Kitanoumi saying before the tournament that he would be considered if he posted 13 wins. Hakuhō told an interviewer that he had expected to be promoted. An uncharacteristically poor 8–7 showing in September put an end to any immediate promotion hopes. An injury sustained in training prevented him from participating in the November tournament, putting him at risk for demotion (kadoban) in January 2007, when he scored a respectable ten wins on his return to the ring. Promotion to yokozuna In March 2007 Hakuhō won his second championship in Osaka and a third championship in the very next tournament in May, with a perfect 15–0 (zenshō) record. Winning two consecutive championships satisfies the de facto requirements for promotion to the top rank in sumo. On the day following the tournament, the Yokozuna Deliberation Council unanimously recommended his promotion to yokozuna which was formally announced by the Japan Sumo Association on 30 May 2007. He had become yokozuna at the age of 22 years and two months – only Kitanoumi and Taihō had been younger when they were promoted. He performed his inaugural ring-entering ceremony (dohyō-iri) at the Meiji Shrine (in the lesser-used Shiranui style) on 1 June. He performed the ceremony at the Kokugikan during Kyokushūzan's retirement ceremony (danpatsu-shiki) on 2 June. Yokozuna 2007 Hakuhō's first tournament as a yokozuna was in July 2007. His 25 match winning streak was brought to an end by Kotomitsuki on the 10th day, and further losses to Kotoōshū and Chiyotaikai put him out of contention for the title. He finished the tournament with an 11–4 record. Hakuhō's first tournament championship as a yokozuna came in September 2007 with a 13–2 record, triumphing over Chiyotaikai on the last day. His second title as a yokozuna, and fifth overall, came in the following tournament in November with a 12–3 score. He lost to Kotomitsuki on the final day but the championship had already been decided earlier in the day when his only challenger Chiyotaikai pulled out through injury. His yokozuna rival Asashōryū missed both these tournaments through suspension. 2008 In the January 2008 tournament, he faced the returning Asashōryū on the final day with both wrestlers having a 13–1 score. In a bout lasting nearly a minute, Hakuhō defeated Asashōryū, winning his 6th championship with a 14–1 record. In the March 2008 tournament the two yokozuna met once again to decide the title and this time Asashōryū got his revenge, with Hakuhō finishing as runner-up. In the May 2008 tournament, he won his first nine consecutive bouts. On the 10th day, however, he lost to Ama for the fourth time in their last five meetings, injuring his ankle in the process. Subsequent losses to Kotoōshū (the eventual winner of the tournament) and Kotomitsuki put him out of contention for the championship. He finished on 11–4, losing to Asashōryū on the final day in a match that sparked scandal after the two yokozuna nearly came to blows when Asashōryū gave Hakuhō an extra shove after the bout was over. Both wrestlers were given a warning over their conduct by the Japan Sumo Association. In July 2008, with Asashōryū pulling out through injury he won his seventh championship without a serious challenge, securing victory by the 13th day: the first time this had been achieved since January 2005. He finished the tournament unbeaten; his second zenshō-yūshō. Although he lost on day five of the September tournament, he still dominated all other opponents and secured another championship on the 14th day. He finished the tournament with a 14–1 record. In the November tournament Hakuhō was once again the sole yokozuna participating. He lost his opening bout to Aminishiki and his 12th day bout to Ama. Both Hakuhō and Ama finished with a 13–2 record and the eventual play-off was won by Hakuhō, handing him his fourth yūshō of the season and ninth in total. 2009 In the January 2009 tournament Hakuhō defeated Asashōryū on the final day in their first meeting since May, handing his fellow yokozuna his first defeat of the tournament and leaving both men with identical 14–1 records. Hakuhō was however beaten in the subsequent playoff. Hakuhō defeated Asashōryū again in the March tournament, this time capping off an undefeated 15–0 championship, his third zenshō-yūshō and his tenth championship overall. In May he extended his winning run to 33 regulation bouts, the best since Asashōryū's 35 in 2004, until he was defeated by Kotoōshū on Day 14. He recovered to beat Asashōryū on Day 15 to finish at 14–1, but he lost the playoff bout to Harumafuji who claimed his first championship. In July he won his eleventh championship, finishing one win ahead of Kotoōshū with another 14–1 score. He almost pulled off his twelfth championship in the following September tournament. One win behind Asashōryū for most of the tournament after giving away his first kinboshi in a year (to Shōtenrō) he forced a playoff by beating his rival on the final day, but then lost in the succeeding playoff bout. This was a very similar scenario to his loss to Asashōryū in the preceding January tournament. Regardless of this loss, he still managed to become the first makuuchi wrestler ever to win fourteen or more bouts in five consecutive tournaments. He also became the first wrestler ever to lose three makuuchi playoffs in one year. After the tournament he was diagnosed with ligament damage in his left elbow; however surgery was not required. On 28 November, the fourteenth day of the Kyushu basho, he clinched his twelfth tournament championship and broke Asashōryū's 2005 record for most bouts won in a calendar year, which had stood at 84. He defeated Asashōryū the following day to secure his fourth career zenshō-yūshō and set his 2009 record total at 86 wins. This was also his fourteenth consecutive yūshō or jun-yūshō (winner or runner-up) performance, another record. 2010 In the opening tournament of the year Hakuhō's 30 bout winning streak was ended by Baruto on Day 7, and he suffered consecutive losses to ozeki Harumafuji and Kaiō on Days 12 and 13 to concede the title to Asashōryū by Day 14. He gained some consolation by beating his yokozuna rival for the seventh straight time in regulation bouts on the final day to finish the tournament on 12–3. Hakuhō expressed his shock at the retirement of Asashōryū in February, following allegations his fellow yokozuna had assaulted a man in a drunken brawl outside a nightclub during the previous tournament. Fighting back tears he said, "I don't want to believe it. I was honoured to wrestle in the same era as him." After getting regularly beaten by Asashōryū earlier in his career, Hakuhō came to completely dominate him, winning all of their last seven regulation matches (excluding two tournament-playoff defeats) and finishing with a 14–13 record over his greatest rival. He won the Osaka tournament in March with a perfect 15–0 record, his fifth undefeated score and thirteenth championship overall. After his victory he spoke of the extra pressure now that he was sumo's lone yokozuna and his relief at the win. Hakuhō wrapped up his fourteenth championship in May by Day 13 (his earliest yūshō win since July 2008) and went on to record his sixth zenshō-yūshō, the first time he has achieved this in consecutive tournaments. With the win, he equalled the number of yūshō won by yokozuna Wajima, and to commemorate this he switched to wearing Wajima's trademark gold coloured mawashi. In July 2010 a special committee reviewing the extent of illegal gambling within sumo revealed that Hakuhō had bet several tens of thousands of yen on hanafuda Japanese card games with his fellow wrestlers twice a year or so. However, the committee said that he would not be punished as it was not considered a serious offence. He nonetheless appeared along with nearly 80 other wrestlers at a press conference and apologised to sumo fans for his actions. On the 14th day of the Nagoya tournament he won his 46th consecutive bout, surpassing Taihō's 45, behind only Chiyonofuji's 53 and Futabayama's 69 as the longest winning run since the beginning of the Shōwa era. He clinched his fifteenth yūshō on the same day, and on the final day he secured his third consecutive 15–0 record, the first wrestler ever to achieve this. However, he did not receive the Emperor's Cup or any other trophy, as the Sumo Association decided to withdraw them in response to the gambling scandal. Hakuhō commented, "I hope we will not have a tournament like this ever again." On Day 6 of the Aki basho in September he equalled the 53-bout winning streak of Chiyonofuji with a win over Kotoshōgiku, and surpassed it the following day by pushing out Kisenosato in front of the first sell-out crowd of the tournament so far. He said afterwards that he felt "I really repaid my debt of gratitude" to the former Chiyonofuji. He secured his fourth consecutive yūshō on the fourteenth day when rank-and-filers Yoshikaze and Takekaze suffered defeats, and he moved to 14–0 (and 61 consecutive wins) by beating Kotoōshū. Asked about Futabayama's record of 69 wins, set in the two tournament a year era from 1936 to 1939, he responded, "It is truly amazing that he was able to continue winning for almost three years." Former Sumo Association Kitanoumi estimated that Hakuhō had a possibility of "about 80 percent" of breaking the record, which he would achieve on the eighth day of the November tournament. Hakuhō wrapped up the Aki basho by defeating Harumafuji to achieve his fourth perfect record in a row. This was also his eighth zenshō-yūshō overall, equalling the record held jointly Futabayama and Taihō. On the first day of the November 2010 tournament, Hakuhō defeated Tochinoshin, tying the consecutive wins record of Tanikaze with 63. However, on the following day his run was finally brought to an end when he was defeated by Kisenosato. This was only the fifth time in his yokozuna career that Hakuhō has been defeated by a maegashira, and Kisenosato is the first to earn more than one kinboshi from him, having previously upset him in September 2008. However, Hakuhō won all his remaining bouts and defeated maegashira Toyonoshima in a playoff to win the championship. He finished the year on 86 wins in regulation matches, equalling the record he set in 2009. At a press conference following his victory, he revealed that having his winning run halted before breaking Futabayama's record affected him so badly that he considered withdrawing from the tournament. On 21 December he was awarded the Japan Professional Sports Grand Prize, receiving the Prime Minister's Trophy from Naoto Kan. 2011 In the January 2011 tournament in Tokyo he was surprisingly beaten by Kisenosato for the second time in a row but he secured his eighteenth championship on the fourteenth day. In doing so Hakuhō became only the third man after Taihō and Asashōryū to win six consecutive tournaments. During the May "technical examination tournament" Hakuhō notched up his 500th win in the top division, with a victory over Kitataiki on Day 5. He achieved this total with the loss of just 99 top division bouts since his debut in May 2004 – a winning percentage of 83%. He was defeated by Harumafuji on Day 13 but went on to win his seventh straight championship, equalling Asashōryū's record, despite losing to Kaiō on the final day. Hakuhō was defeated on the eleventh day of the July 2011 tournament by sekiwake Kotoshōgiku and his quest for a record eighth straight yūshō ended on Day 14 when he was beaten by Harumafuji to drop two wins behind. He also lost his final day match to Baruto to finish on 12–3, his poorest result since January 2010. Nevertheless, it was still enough for runner-up honours, his twelfth. He was defeated by Kisenosato for the third time in five meetings on Day 12 of the September tournament and then lost to Kotoshōgiku for the second time in a row the following day. However he rallied to beat Baruto on Day 14 and then Harumafuji on the final day to clinch his twentieth tournament championship. On 25 November 2011, he won his 21st tournament title in Fukuoka, moving to 13–0 with none of his rivals scoring better than 10–3. He finished the tournament on 14–1, his only loss coming to Baruto on the final day. 2012 Hakuhō finished second to Baruto in the opening tournament of 2012, losing to Kakuryū, Harumafuji and Kotoōshū. He did however maintain his record of finishing runner-up or better in his last 26 tournaments. In the March basho, Hakuhō won his twenty-second yūshō after beating Kakuryū in a playoff, finishing with a 13–2 record. Hakuhō's only losses came to Kakuryū on the 9th day and Kisenosato on the 13th day. Kakuryū had entered the final day of the tournament one match ahead of the yokozuna but lost to Gōeidō, and Hakuhō beat Baruto to force a playoff. This marked the first time a wrestler had come from one win behind to claim the yūshō on the final day since Asashōryū defeated Hokutōriki in a playoff in May 2004. With this victory Hakuhō drew level with Takanohana in fifth place on the all–time list of most top division tournament championships. In the May 2012 tournament Hakuhō fractured his left index finger in an opening day loss to Aminishiki, and he dropped further matches to Toyohibiki, Gōeidō and Toyonoshima on Days 7, 8 and 9 to stand at only 5–4 after nine days. However he then won five bouts in a row and was even in with an outside chance of claiming the yūshō until it was announced that Kotoōshū was withdrawing on the final day and giving Tochiōzan an automatic twelfth win. Hakuhō's defeat by Harumafuji on Day 15 meant he finished on 10–5, his worst ever score as a yokozuna and the first time since his debut at the rank, 29 tournaments ago, that he failed to be at least the runner–up. After losing to Harumafuji on the last day in both the July and September tournaments (as well as maegashira Tochiōzan in September) and seeing his fellow Mongolian claim the yūshō in both and earn promotion to yokozuna himself, Hakuhō came back to win his 23rd championship in November, losing only to Kotoōshū on Day 11. He also finished as the wrestler with the most wins in the calendar year for the sixth consecutive time, a record. His victory was also his sixth straight Kyushu tournament triumph, the best run since Chiyonofuji's record eight in a row from 1981 to 1988. 2013 Hakuhō finished joint runner up on 12–3 in the opening tournament of 2013, giving up a kinboshi to Myōgiryū on Day 3 and also losing to Kotoōshū and Harumafuji. However he captured his 24th title in the Haru basho in March, remaining undefeated for the whole fifteen days. This was his first zenshō-yūshō since his record winning streak of 2010 and also the ninth of his career, breaking the all-time record he had shared with Taihō and Futabayama. It also drew him level with Kitanoumi in fourth place on the list of most career championships, behind only Asashōryū with 25, Chiyonofuji with 31 and Taihō with 32. Hakuhō also recorded his 650th win in the top division in this tournament, moving him into eighth place all-time. In the May tournament he won his 25th championship, equaling Asashōryū's mark. By again recording an undefeated tournament record, his final two victories coming over Kisenosato and Harumafuji, he increased his winning streak to 30 bouts. Hakuhō extended his streak to 43 bouts by winning his first 13 matches in the Nagoya tournament in July, assuring himself of his 26th tournament victory with two days to spare. He was finally defeated by Kisenosato on Day 14, and also lost to Harumafuji on the final day. He won his fourth tournament in a row, and the 27th of his career, in the Aki basho in September, losing only one bout to Gōeidō. In November he went into a final day showdown with his fellow yokozuna Harumafuji, with both men tied on 13–1. Harumafuji won this bout to claim his sixth championship, with Hakuhō having to settle for his 17th second-place result. He finished the year with 82 wins out of 90 bouts, a record that has only been bettered by himself (twice) and Asashōryū. 2014 Hakuhō won the first tournament of 2014. After going undefeated in his first 14 matches, Hakuhō lost to Kakuryū on the final day. As Kakuryū had a 14–1 record, this prompted the two to again meet in a tie-breaking bout. After losing 20 minutes prior, Hakuhō won his twenty-eighth yūshō by defeating Kakuryū in this tie breaker. In the March tournament, Hakuhō was bested by Kakuryū and finished runner-up, tied with Gōeidō at 12–3. He returned in May to win his twenty-ninth yūshō with a record of 14–1, only losing once to Gōeidō. He then won his thirtieth yūshō with a 13–2 record in July, becoming only the third man in history to have 30 or more top division championships. On Day 14 of the September tournament, he defeated the up-and-coming Ichinojō, who he was tied with at 12–1. The following day, Hakuhō clinched the championship, winning his third tournament in a row, and the 31st of his career, having lost only one bout, to Gōeidō. It also drew him level with Chiyonofuji in second place on the list of most career championships. In the next tournament in Fukuoka, he continued his dominance, again losing only one bout (against Takayasu on day six) and taking the championship to tie him with Taihō for the most championships in sumo history, defeating fellow yokozuna Kakuryū with a yorikiri push-out, for a 14–1 record and his 32nd Emperor's Cup. Hakuhō finally was able to fulfill a promise he had made during a visit to Taihō just two days before his death in January 2013 and equal the record, which had stood for over 40 years. After an emotional presentation ceremony Hakuhō remarked, "I could achieve this accomplishment because the soul of the Japanese and the god of sumo gave a mandate to my efforts". 2015 Hakuhō broke Taihō's record in the opening tournament of 2015, clinching the championship on the 13th day by defeating Kisenosato, and maintaining a perfect score into the final days. Hakuhō finished the tournament with a perfect score of 15–0 while all contenders had at least four losses. Sumo Association chairman Kitanoumi commented, "Nobody can touch Hakuho... I’d like to see him go for 40 titles. If he keeps going the way he is, that’s a possibility." He was however criticized for turning up an hour late to his press conference the next day, having reportedly been out drinking until 7am celebrating his victory. In Osaka in March Hakuhō won his sixth consecutive championship, a feat only achieved four times previously (twice by Taihō, once by Asashōryū and once by himself). His 36 bout winning streak was brought to an end by Terunofuji on Day 13, but he won all his other matches to finish one ahead of Terunofuji on 14–1. During this tournament he also overtook Chiyonofuji to move into second place on the all-time list of most wins in the top division, behind only Kaiō. In May he lost on the opening day of a tournament for the first time in three years, to Ichinojo. He ended up finishing runner-up to Terunofuji on 11–4, thus ending his hopes of equalling his and Asashōryū's record of seven straight championships. However, he won his 35th title in Nagoya in July, finishing two wins ahead of the rest of the field on 14–1. In September Hakuhō lost to Okinoumi and Yoshikaze on the first two days, and then announced that he would miss the rest of the tournament owing to an injury which was diagnosed as tendinitis in the left quadriceps. After withdrawing from a tournament for the first time since 2006 Hakuhō said "I couldn’t get any power. I apologize to everyone. I can’t step into the ring with half-hearted feelings". His withdrawal brought to an end his run of 722 consecutive matchdays competing as a yokozuna and 51 consecutive tournaments with a score of 10–5 or better, both records. On his return in November he appeared to be in dominant form and won his first twelve matches, but defeats in the last three days to Harumafuji, Terunofuji and Kakuryū saw him end the tournament in a three-way tie for second place. His most unusual win came on day 10 when he used the rarely-seen nekodamashi ("cat trick") technique to defeat Tochiōzan. 2016 In January 2016 Hakuhō won his first ten matches but then lost to Kotoshōgiku, the eventual winner of the tournament, on Day 11. He also lost his last two bouts to Kisenosato and Harumafuji to end with a 12–3 record and a tie for second place. This result meant he had gone three tournaments without winning the championship for the first time since 2012. In March he lost to Takarafuji on the first day, but won his remaining fourteen matches to take his 36th championship. His win was poorly received as he employed a henka (sidestep at the initial charge) to defeat Harumafuji on the final day and clinch the title. Speaking after the match Hakuhō said that he had never planned to win with a henka "and I feel really bad about that." On the opening day of the May tournament in Tokyo he equalled Kaiō's record of 879 top division wins, and surpassed it the next day by gaining revenge over Takarafuji who had defeated him in the previous tournament. He secured his 37th championship on the fourteenth day when his only challenger Kisenosato fell to his second loss, and he rounded off the tournament by defeating Kakuryū with a rare backward pivot throw (utchari) to ensure a 29th consecutive victory and a perfect 15–0 record. His winning streak of 33 bouts was brought to an end on the 5th day of the July 2016 tournament when he lost once again to Takarafuji. He finished the tournament with a mediocre 10–5 record, hampered by an injury to his right big toe. He struggled to recover from his injuries and on 8 September he announced that he would miss the whole of the upcoming tournament explaining "I’m sorry to the fans. I want to work on healing in time for the autumn regional tour and the Kyushu Basho". After undergoing surgery on his toe injury Hakuhō returned to action at the November tournament. On the third day he became only the third wrestler, after Chiyonofuji and Kaiō, to reach 1000 career wins. Afterwards he admitted to nerves having fallen short of his target with a 10–5 record in July and then having to sit out the September tournament, and expressed relief that he was "finally able to do it." Hakuhō went on to get an 11–4 record in November. 2017 In the opening tournament of 2017 Hakuhō lost on Day 8 to maegashira Arawashi (a rare example of him losing to a wrestler he had never fought before) and komusubi Takayasu on Day 9. After being defeated on the last two days by Takanoiwa and tournament winner Kisenosato, he finished in a share for third place. This marked the first time in Hakuhō's yokozuna career that he had gone four tournaments without winning the championship. He pulled out of the March tournament on the fifth day because of toe and thigh injuries. The May 2017 tournament saw Hakuhō ranked as a yokozuna on the banzuke for the 59th time, putting him level with Chiyonofuji in second place on the all-time list. He won the summer tournament or Natsu Basho, with a zenshō, a perfect 15–0 score. Hakuhō entered the July tournament in Nagoya with two long-standing records in view: he needed nine wins to equal Chiyonofuji's career mark of 1045 and eleven to match Kaiō's all-time record of 1047. His task was made somewhat less challenging when Kakuryū, Kisenosato and Terunofuji withdrew with injuries in the first week. He drew level with Chiyonofuji with a win over Kagayaki on day nine and moved ahead of the late yokozuna by beating Chiyoshoma (a pupil of Chiyonofuji) on the following day. After an upset loss to Mitakeumi on day 11 he recovered to beat Tamawashi and Takayasu to break Kaiō's all-time record. He entered the final day one win ahead of the maegashira 8 Aoiyama and clinched his 39th title with a win over Harumafuji. After receiving his trophy he said "I lost on the 11th day, but the way I turned back the tide after that was in my head so I was able to get on the ring relaxed today. To be able to break Kaio's 1,047 record and Chiyonofuji's 1,045 mark at the same tournament is gratifying. I'd like to go back to my hometown and rest up tomorrow but the thing in my head right now is 1,000 wins in makuuchi." Hakuhō missed the September 2017 tournament because of a knee injury, meaning three yokozuna were absent from the start of a tournament for the first time since the beginning of the Shōwa era. He said at an exhibition in October that he would like to continue wrestling until the 2020 Summer Olympics which will be held in Tokyo. He returned in November to win the tournament with a 14–1 record. He was the only yokozuna to complete the tournament and secured the yūshō on the fourteenth day when his only challengers, maegashira Hokutofuji and Okinoumi, both lost. Hakuhō's only defeat was to Yoshikaze on Day 11, after which he appealed to the ringside judges to declare the match a false start and initially refused to climb back on the dohyō and accept the loss. Following his 40th career championship Hakuhō commented on his fellow Mongolians Harumafuji and Takanoiwa, who were both absent from the tournament after Harumafuji assaulted Takanoiwa during drinks with other wrestlers in Tottori the previous month, saying "I want Harumafuji and Takanoiwa back in the dohyō." Hakuhō, who was present at the alleged assault, promised to investigators to "tell them exactly what I saw." On 20 December 2017 the Sumo Association announced that he was being docked all of his salary for January 2018, and half for February, for failing to act when Takanoiwa was attacked. Fellow yokozuna Kakuryū was docked just his January pay. The chairman of the Yokozuna Deliberation Council said, "Hakuho and Kakuryu were not able to stop the incident from happening and being taken too far. Their responsibility should not be taken lightly. They should be given a strong warning." 2018 Hakuhō pulled out of the January 2018 tournament on Day 5 after injuring his left big toe in a defeat to Yoshikaze the previous day. He also lost to Hokutofuji on Day 3, the first time he has lost to maegashira ranked wrestlers on consecutive days since his promotion to yokozuna. He was ranked as a yokozuna for the 64th time on the March 2018 banzuke, breaking the previous record of 63 tournaments as a yokozuna held by Kitanoumi. However, his stablemaster announced that he would sit out the tournament because ligament damage in the left big toe required three weeks of recovery time. On 9 April 2018 his father Jigjidiin Mönkhbat died. He returned to competition at the Natsu tournament in May, finishing with an 11–4 record. He withdrew on Day 4 of the July tournament at the beginning of the day's bouts, due to a right knee injury. On 22 September 2018, the 14th day of the Aki Basho, Hakuhō created history by winning his 41st Emperor's Cup and scoring his 1000th victory in sumo's top makuuchi division. The following day he completed the tournament undefeated, the 14th time he had achieved a zensho-yusho, extending his own record. His victory also meant he had won at least one top division championship for 13 consecutive years, beating the previous record of 12 held by Taihō. He withdrew from the regional tour following the September tournament because of a recurrence of his right knee injury and underwent surgery on 18 October. He confirmed on 8 November that he was withdrawing from the November tournament because of persistent pain in the knee. This is the first year since 2006 that he has won only one tournament in a calendar year. 2019 Hakuhō won his first ten matches in January 2019, but then lost three in a row to Mitakeumi, Tamawashi and Takakeishō. He withdrew from the tournament on Day 14, with his stablemaster revealing that Hakuhō injured his right knee on Day 4 and his left ankle on Day 5. It was his 11th career withdrawal, and his fifth in the last seven tournaments. At the March 2019 tournament, which was the last in the Heisei era, Hakuhō won his 42nd top division yūshō with a perfect 15–0 record, his 15th zenshō-yūshō of his career. He sealed his perfect record with a hard-fought shitatenage victory over Kakuryū on the final day. Interviewed after his triumph he said "I entered sumo at the tournament in Osaka, and now I’m here as we ring out the end of the Heisei era, so Osaka has a special place in my heart. I am a creature of this era. Nine years ago in Nagoya, I received a letter from the emperor. This Heisei era means everything to me." Despite appearing to be in pain from an arm injury he then led the crowd in a tejime, a clapping ceremony to mark the end of the era. This was seen as a breach of etiquette as the tournament ceremonies had not yet concluded, and after criticism by the Yokozuna Deliberation Council Hakuhō and his stablemaster apologized to the Sumo Association. Hakuho was issued an official reprimand by the Sumo Association the following month for his actions. Hakuhō revealed on 31 March that the injury suffered in the March tournament was a muscle tear in his upper right arm, and that he had opted for rest rather than surgery. He only performed the yokozuna dohyo-iri ceremony during the spring tour, and on 9 May his stablemaster confirmed that he would be sitting out the Natsu tournament as he had only begun basic training routines. He resumed full training at the beginning of June, and shortly before the Nagoya tournament declared himself fit to enter. In the July tournament Hakuhō was defeated by Ichinojō and Kotoshōgiku but still had a chance to force a playoff on the final day against Kakuryū, who led him 13–1 to 12–2 on the leaderboard. However Kakuryū won the match, his third victory over Hakuhō in their last five meetings, and Hakuhō finished as runner-up alongside maegashira Terutsuyoshi. It was his first runner-up performance since January 2016. He withdrew from the September 2019 tournament on the second day with a fractured finger. He returned in November 2019 and won the tournament with a 14–1 record, three wins ahead of the rest of the field. He told reporters after the tournament that he had feared he might never win another title, as his doctor had warned his March arm injury might never completely heal. He also said he was aiming for 50 championships before retiring. In December Hakuhō was nominated by Sumida, one of Tokyo's wards, to be a torchbearer for the 2020 Olympics. 2020 Hakuhō withdrew from Day 4 of the January 2020 tournament, with his stablemaster citing a fever and inflammation of his lower back. He had suffered consecutive defeats to maegashira Endō and Myōgiryū. Having pulled out of four tournaments in 2018 and three in 2019, he has not completed two tournaments in a row since May and July 2017. At the March 2020 tournament, Hakuhō won his 44th top division yūshō with a 13–2 record. On the last day he faced fellow yokozuna Kakuryū with both having a 12–2 score, the first time in seven years that two yokozuna had faced each other in the final match of the tournament with an identical record. His victory took place in a virtually empty arena due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the first time since 1945 that a tournament had been held without paying spectators. Hakuho withdrew from the July tournament due to an injury sustained to his right knee late in the tournament; he subsequently had endoscopic surgery on the knee and missed both the September and November tournaments as a result, the first time since his debut that he has missed two consecutive tournaments. Following the November 2020 basho, Hakuhō - along with fellow yokozuna Kakuryū - were issued warnings by the Sumo Association's Yokozuna Deliberation Council due to lack of participation in recent sumo tournaments. This is the middle of three notices that the council can issue between a letter of encouragement and a recommendation for retirement. It is the first time in history that warning notices have been issued. 2021 The Sumo Association announced on 5 January 2021 that Hakuhō tested positive for COVID-19. He had reported a loss of the sense of smell the day before. The news broke with just five days until the scheduled start of the January 2021 Tournament. Therefore he was absent from the tournament. Hakuhō left hospital on 14 January to continue his recovery at home. The whole of the Miyagino stable also sat out the tournament. Upon the release of the March 2021 banzuke Hakuhō became the first wrestler to spend 100 straight tournaments in makuuchi from his top division debut (without ever falling to jūryō). After winning his first two bouts of the March tournament, Hakuhō withdrew after doctors informed him that he needed surgery on his right kneecap requiring approximately two months of rehabilitation, meaning that Hakuhō would miss the May 2021 basho. Miyagino Oyakata said that Hakuhō would decide whether or not to continue competing based on his results in the July tournament. He underwent endoscopic surgery on 19 March. This was same knee that had also been operated on in August of the previous year. On 29 March, the Yokozuna Deliberation Council upheld the warning that was first issued to Hakuhō following the November 2020 tournament. The council announced it would revisit the issue at the end of the July 2021 tournament, which Hakuho referred to as "make or break" for his continued participation in active competition. Following the retirement of Kakuryū, Hakuho was the sole yokozuna listed on the May 2021 banzuke. This marked the first time since September 2012 that there was only one active yokozuna, and uniquely, Hakuhō was also the sole yokozuna on that occasion. He formally withdrew from the May tournament on May 7, due to his knee surgery, making it the sixth straight tournament he would fail to complete. Mounting a comeback in July 2021, Hakuhō went undefeated for the first 14 days of the competition and faced ōzeki Terunofuji, who was also undefeated and vying for yokozuna promotion, in the final match of the tournament. Hakuhō defeated Terunofuji to win his 45th top division championship and secure his 16th zenshō. Hakuhō expressed relief after the match, saying that he did not expect to win the basho with a perfect record at his age. His yūshō win at the age of 36 years and four months surpassed that of fellow yokozuna Chiyonofuji, who won his final championship at 35 years and five months. Speaking to reporters the next day, Hakuhō said, "The prospect for retirement was looming large, right before me, so I fired myself up more than before." Hakuhō did not take part in practice sessions for the September 2021 tournament and gave no indication that he was ready to compete. In the event he was withdrawn from the tournament along with the rest of Miyagino stable after two wrestlers tested positive for COVID-19. It was the second time in 2021 that the stable had to withdraw from a basho because of a coronavirus outbreak. Retirement Reports emerged after the September 2021 tournament that Hakuhō intended to retire, with his long-standing knee injuries leading him to believe he could no longer complete a 15 day tournament. Japan Sumo Association board member Shibatayama confirmed that Hakuhō's retirement papers had been received on 27 September, and that a meeting would be scheduled to approve Hakuhō's acquisition of the Magaki elder stock, which Hakuhō had discussed his hopes to acquire back in March 2021. In April 2021 a committee outside of the Sumo Association had declared that the ichidai-toshiyori system, in which exceptional yokozuna are given special one-generation elder status and allowed them to keep their shikona after retirement, did not in fact exist. This was controversial as it was seen to be aimed at Hakuhō, who would have been the first wrestler since Takanohana in 2003 to be given the honour. The Sumo Association's Board of Directors officially finalized Hakuhō's retirement on 30 September. Unusually, before approving Hakuhō's acquisition of the Magaki stock the Sumo Association required him to sign a pledge that he would carry out the duties of an elder and that he would not act in ways that went against the "spirit of the way of sumo." At a press conference held the following day, Hakuhō told reporters that he was filled with a sense of relief. He said that he had made the decision to retire after achieving double-digit wins at the July tournament in Nagoya, and waited for the right time because of several factors, including Terunofuji's promotion to yokozuna, the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games, and the COVID-19 outbreak that prevented his stable from competing in the September basho. He was assigned to the Guidance and Promotion Department of the Sumo Association, until the division of duties was decided again in February 2022. When the banzuke for the November 2021 tournament in Fukuoaka was released, there were only 41 wrestlers in the top division instead of the usual 42. Hakuhō's retirement announcement on September 30 had come after the banzuke committee meeting to draw up the new rankings, but an extra wrestler from jūryō was not promoted and instead Hakuhō's name was effectively blanked out from the yokozuna spot he would have occupied. Hakuhō was seen at this tournament in the Sumo Association's blue security uniform, as it is customary for new oyakata to start out as a tournament security guard. Hakuhō's danpatsu-shiki (retirement ceremony) was held at the Ryōgoku Kokugikan on 28 January 2023. Billed as "The Retirement Ceremony of Hakuho Sho and the Succession of the Name Miyagino" (白鵬引退宮城野襲名披露) when it was announced in September 2022, Hakuhō viewed the ceremony as repaying the fans that had supported him ever since his retirement. Accompanied by ōzeki Takakeishō and sekiwake Hōshōryū, serving as the tachimochi (sword bearer) and tsuyuharai (dew sweeper) respectively, Hakuhō performed his last yokozuna dohyō-iri, or ring entering ceremony. About 300 people took turns to cut the ōichōmage bun, with former Miyagino stablemaster Chikubayama making the final cut. The ceremony was also marked by the performance of a , a ceremonial dance for good omens, by the leading actor of kabuki's Ichikawa house, Ichikawa Danjūrō XIII. Prior to the ceremony, there had been speculation that Hakuhō was intending to open a stable of his own in Tokyo, but he decided to remain at Miyagino stable. On 28 July 2022 the Japan Sumo Association announced that he had inherited the Miyagino elder stock and would become the head coach of the stable, as the then Miyagino-oyakata (former Chikubayama) would reach the mandatory retirement age of 65 in August 2022. The two swapped elder names, with the former Miyagino becoming Magaki-oyakata and staying on as a consultant. Hakuhō had already recruited several wrestlers himself while still an active wrestler, including former maegashira , popular lightweight Enhō and Ishiura, and the high Mongolian-born Hokuseihō. Miyagino continued to recruit high-potential wrestlers, particularly in amateur circles. In September 2022, former amateur-yokozuna Kihō became the first wrestler recruited by Hakuhō since taking over the Miyagino name. In December of the same year, Miyagino recruited one of the stars of amateur competitions, two-time high school titleholder and corporate champion Hakuōhō. Nicknamed 'Reiwa Monster', Hakuōhō achieved record-breaking promotions and achievements in the space of just 7 months since his official debut as a professional wrestler. With 's promotion to jūryō after the July 2023 tournament, Miyagino successfully raised three new sekitori after only a little over a year at the head of his stable. At a career conference in September 2023, Miyagino made no secret of his hopes to train two yokozuna himself during his coaching career. Fighting style Hakuhō had a straightforward but effective style, reminiscent of yokozuna Takanohana. He has been called the "quintessential all-round sumo wrestler" because of his strength in both grappling and pushing techniques, and his ability to read and respond to his opponent's intentions. However, he said he did not have a special or favourite kimarite, and that "the only thing I am very good at is yorikiri (force-out)". This technique, the most common kimarite in sumo, was used by Hakuhō to win 28% of his matches. He favoured the migi-yotsu position, meaning his right hand was inside and his left hand outside his opponent's arms, and he became famous for his left hand outside grip. He also regularly employed uwate-nage, or outer-arm throw. While meeting foreign journalists in April 2009, Hakuhō said he was studying the techniques of the 35th yokozuna Futabayama, a wrestler whom he greatly admires, in particular his go-no-sen approach to the tachi-ai or initial charge. He also tried to use Wakanohana I's trademark move of yobimodoshi, or pulling body slam, in his own bouts. Hakuhō was criticized for giving his opponents an unnecessary final shove after the bout was already over (dameoshi). He did this on Day 4 of the March 2016 tournament in his win over Okinoumi and again on Day 8, when he sent Yoshikaze crashing into the ring side judge Izutzu Oyakata, fracturing Izutzu's left femur and putting him out of action for three months. Hakuhō was warned by the head of the judging committee, Isegahama Oyakata, who said, "he has to understand completely that (such) redundant finishing blows are dangerous." Hakuhō apologized, calling his actions "inexcusable... Even I have weaknesses in the ring that I want to correct." Speaking after his tournament victory in May 2016 he commented, "I don’t know why but when I get into the ring, I turn into a different Hakuho. I think there are two Hakuhos. I'm gentler when I'm not in the ring." The Yokozuna Deliberation Council criticized him in January 2018 for using slaps to the face (harite) and leading with the forearm and elbow (kachiage) at the tachi-ai, moves they considered beneath the dignity of a yokozuna. Hakuhō continued to use these tactics, however, and was condemned once again by the Council after his championship-clinching win over Terunofuji in July 2021. Hakuho responded to criticism of his style in this match and in the previous day's win over Shōdai, in which he stood far back at the tachi-ai and kept his distance throughout the match, by saying he was trying to protect his weak right knee. Personal life In February 2007 Hakuhō married Sayoko Wada, then 22 years old, a Japanese university student and glamour model, after a three-year relationship. The wedding ceremony took place at Meiji Shrine. The couple have four children. In July 2017 he was reported to be considering taking Japanese citizenship, which is required to stay in the Japan Sumo Association as an elder after retirement. This would involve giving up Mongolian citizenship, which Hakuhō was reportedly reluctant to do while his father Jigjidiin Mönkhbat was still living. After Mönkhbat's death in April 2018 Hakuhō's mother denied that her husband had been opposed to the idea and said she felt Hakuhō's change in nationality was inevitable. It was reported in April 2019 that Hakuhō had begun the process by applying for renunciation of his Mongolian citizenship, and he announced in September 2019 that he had acquired Japanese citizenship. He chose to change his legal name to his shikona, Hakuhō Shō. Other activities Since 2011 Hakuhō has hosted the Hakuhō Cup, an annual amateur sumo event for elementary to middle school children from both inside and outside Japan, held at the Ryōgoku Kokugikan. List of records On 4 December 2021 Hakuhō was recognized by Guinness World Records for the following records: Most top division championships: 45 Most career wins: 1187 Most top division wins: 1093 Most undefeated championships: 16 Most tournaments ranked as yokozuna: 84 Hakuhō also holds a number of other records, such as most wins as yokozuna (899), most consecutive wins in the 6 tournaments per year era (63, absolute record is 69) and most wins in a calendar year (86, achieved twice). In October 2022 he set the Guinness World Record for creating 104 tegata hand prints in one minute. Career record See also List of yokozuna List of sumo tournament top division champions List of sumo tournament top division runners-up List of sumo tournament second division champions Glossary of sumo terms List of past sumo wrestlers List of sumo record holders List of sumo elders List of non-Japanese sumo wrestlers References External links Hakuhō Cup official website 1985 births Living people Mongolian emigrants to Japan Mongolian sumo wrestlers Japanese sumo wrestlers Naturalized citizens of Japan Sportspeople from Ulaanbaatar Tibetan Buddhists from Mongolia Yokozuna World record holders
4568156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th%20Battalion%20%28Australia%29	11th Battalion (Australia)	The 11th Battalion was an Australian Army battalion that was among the first infantry units raised during World War I for the First Australian Imperial Force. It was the first battalion recruited in Western Australia, and following a brief training period in Perth, the battalion sailed to Egypt where it undertook four months of intensive training. In April 1915 it took part in the invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula, landing at Anzac Cove. In August 1915 the battalion was in action in the Battle of Lone Pine. Following the withdrawal from Gallipoli, the battalion returned to Egypt where it was split to help form the 51st Battalion. In March 1916, the battalion was deployed to the Western Front in France and Belgium where it took part in trench warfare until the end of the war in November 1918. The battalion was disbanded in 1919, but since 1921 has been re-activated and merged several times as a reserve unit, initially as the 11th Battalion (City of Perth Regiment), which fought a brief campaign against the Japanese on New Britain during World War II. Other units that have maintained the traditions of the original 11th Battalion include the 11th/44th Battalion (City of Perth Regiment), 'A' (City of Perth) Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment and the current 11th/28th Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment. World War I Formation The 11th Battalion was formed on 17 August 1914, less than two weeks after the declaration of war on 4 August, and was among the first infantry units raised during World War I for the all-volunteer First Australian Imperial Force. Along with the 9th, 10th and 12th Battalions, it formed Colonel Ewen Sinclair-MacLagan's 3rd Brigade, which was assigned to the 1st Division. The first battalion raised in Western Australia, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James Lyon-Johnston, the 11th concentrated at Blackboy Hill, Western Australia. Drawing personnel from around the state with the majority coming from Perth and the goldfields, recruits came from all elements of society, with the majority being former labourers and agricultural workers or miners. Seventy-three percent of original enlistments were Australian-born, with the remaining recruits being mainly English-born with smaller numbers coming from other parts of the British Isles. By 24 September it had reached its authorised strength of 1,023 officers and other ranks. On formation, the battalion consisted of eight rifle companies, designated 'A' to 'H', and a headquarters company with signals, transport, medical and machine-gun sections. The majority of the battalion's non-commissioned officers were long-serving Citizens Forces soldiers or regular personnel. Some had previously fought in South Africa during the Boer War and others had previously served in the British Army. Rudimentary training was undertaken at Bellevue, Western Australia, and at the end of October it sailed from Fremantle on the and . Originally bound for the United Kingdom, where they were to complete training, after stopovers in the Cocos Islands and Colombo, their orders were changed due to concerns about overcrowding in training camps in the United Kingdom and at the start of December, the battalion arrived at Mena Camp in Cairo, Egypt. There, the battalion's eight companies were reorganised into the four that existed under the British Army establishment and further training was undertaken. The battalion remained in Egypt until early March 1915 when it sailed on and from Alexandria to the island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea, in preparation for the Landing at Anzac Cove. Gallipoli Landing at Anzac Cove On 24 April 1915, the battalion disembarked from Suffolk and boarded , which was bound for Gallipoli in the Dardanelles. At 4:30 on the morning of 25 April, 'A' and 'C' Companies of the battalion landed at North Beach, north of Ari Burnu Knoll, a mile south of Fisherman's Hut, on the left flank of the first wave. Under heavy machine gun and rifle fire, the battalion stormed the cliffs, driving the Turks back. However, the battalion became disorganised during the landing and mixed with other units. Small sections of the battalion were engaged in firefights all along the Australian front. Major Edmund Drake-Brockman, one of the battalion's senior officers, tried to sort the scattered men into their battalions: 9th on the right, 10th in the middle and 11th on the left. Meanwhile, the second half of the battalion landed further north of the first wave, directly under heavy machine-gun fire from Turks fully prepared and alerted by the first wave. Over the next few days, the battalion dug in on the first and second ridges under heavy fire from the Turks. Casualties were heavy, but a defensive line was established. On 30 April, the battalion was withdrawn and moved into reserve on the beach. The next day, it reoccupied its section of the front. At this stage, the battalion was 450-strong. By 1 May, 30 officers and 940 other ranks from the battalion had landed. Raid on Gaba Tepe On 4 May 1915, a party of 100 men from the battalion, led by Captain Raymond Leane and a detail of engineers, launched an unsuccessful attack on a Turkish fort at Gaba Tepe, which was being used to observe artillery fire onto Australian positions around Anzac Cove. The Turks opened heavy fire on the party which was forced to withdraw. The Australians lost four killed, including an officer, and 19 others were wounded. The raid was the AIF's first of the war. At this point, the battalion estimated that it had suffered 38 killed, 200 wounded and 197 missing. On 15 May, the battalion received 244 reinforcements, bringing its total strength to 23 officers and 723 other ranks. In the early morning on 19 May, Turkish forces launched an attack against the left flank of the Australian lines, which developed into a major battle along the whole Australian front. The attack was repulsed with heavy losses. The 11th Battalion suffered nine killed and eight wounded, mainly from shrapnel. One Turkish officer and five soldiers surrendered. On 21 May, a truce was declared and a burial party from the 12th Battalion was sent out. However, it was fired at by the Turks and as a result burial parties were discontinued. A similar truce was declared on 24 May. A line was drawn halfway between the two lines and each side sent out parties to bury the dead and collect equipment. Lone Pine On 27 July 1915, after two weeks in reserve, the battalion relieved the 12th Battalion at Tasmanian Post, on the right on the Australian front line. On 31 July, a party of around 200 men led by Leane were ordered to capture a section of Turkish trenches in front of the battalion's position. After engineers detonated three mines prepared near Turkish communications trenches, the storming party captured the Turkish trench following a bayonet charge, with the loss of one officer and 36 other ranks killed. Seventy-three other members of the battalion were wounded during the attack, including Leane, who was mentioned in despatches. Turkish casualties were estimated by the battalion to be 60 killed. On 6 August, the battalion held off a fierce Turkish counterattack on the trench, which became known as "Leane's Trench" during the Battle of Lone Pine. Heavy casualties were sustained on both sides. The battalion suffered 41 killed, 94 wounded and 19 missing. By the end of the month, the 11th Battalion's strength, despite having received six batches of reinforcements, had fallen to just over 500 men, approximately half its authorised strength. The following month, command of the battalion passed to Leane when Lyon-Johnston took over as brigade commander. As the health of the men deteriorated, the battalion's strength fell further to just over 300. The arrival of winter in October brought heavy rain and even harsher conditions. Withdrawal In November, the battalion supported the 5th Light Horse around "Chatham Post" until it was withdrawn, with the 9th Battalion, from Anzac Cove. The withdrawal had been planned for the 14th, but due to bad weather this was delayed until the night of the 16/17 November 1915. From Anzac Cove, it sailed to Lemnos where it recuperated at Sampi Camp, following seven months in the trenches. The battalion's war diary records particularly bad weather on Lemnos during this period, noting "Mudros seems a most unsuitable place to send troops for a rest". During this rest period, the battalion reported its first and only case of diphtheria, following which the whole brigade was quarantined. On 17 December, the battalion's last casualty of the campaign, a soldier named Private Hayes, died from meningitis. The battalion lost a total of 353 men killed during the campaign. Western Front In early 1916, the battalion sailed to Alexandria on the Empress of Britain. From Alexandria, it travelled by train to bivouac at Tall al Kabir. At this time, the battalion received 367 reinforcements from Australia before undertaking defensive duties around Gebel Habieta, guarding the Suez Canal. In February, the AIF was re-organised and expanded. This saw the veteran battalions split to provide cadres for new battalions and as a part of this process, the 11th Battalion provided personnel to the 51st Battalion, by transferring the even numbered sections to the new battalion. At this time, the battalion received four Lewis Guns for organic direct fire support. On 30 March 1916, as the AIF's infantry divisions were transferred to Europe, the battalion sailed from Alexandria aboard the HMT Corsican. It arrived at Marseilles, France, on 5 April and then moved by train to Flêtre where it was billeted until the 19th when it moved to Sailly, where it commemorated Anzac Day on 25 April. In mid-May, after a period of acclimatisation and training to prepare them for the European battlefield, the 11th Battalion moved up to the front line around Petillon in the Fleurbaix sector, with a strength of 27 officers and 929 other ranks. A further draft of reinforcements, totalling 69 men all ranks, arrived on 25 May, and on 30 May the battalion had its first experience of combat on the Western Front. Late that evening, German artillery bombarded the Allied line around the Cordonnerie salient, before infantry launched a raid on the 11th Battalion's trenches. In the fighting that followed the 11th Battalion lost four men captured, 37 killed and 70 wounded. Pozières and Mouquet Farm Throughout June, the 11th Battalion was placed in support of the front as it was brought back up to strength. At this time, the battalion's organic fire support was increased by the addition of two extra Lewis Guns. The following month, they moved to the Somme and were committed to the fighting around Pozières. After arriving at Albert on 19 July amidst a gas attack, the battalion spent the next couple of days preparing to attack, working to improve trenches and cache stores, during which they were subjected to heavy artillery bombardment. The attack was put in just before midnight on 23 July and was a costly success. Amidst heavy casualties, the 11th Battalion took the forward German trenches and amidst the confusion of the fighting advanced beyond their limit of exploitation, entering Pozières and moving beyond where they became embroiled in close quarters fighting. After capturing five artillery pieces, the battalion's officers and non-commissioned officers eventually managed to regain control of the advance and the battalion was brought back into a defensive line along their first objective. At dawn, patrols from the battalion entered the village again and cleared out the cellars beneath the battered remains of the village's buildings, capturing over 40 prisoners. During the night of 24/25 July, the Australians attacked again, but after establishing a new defensive line, the 11th was forced to withdraw after suffering heavily from both friendly and enemy shelling. In the morning of 25 July, further casualties were sustained by German artillery. German infantry then launched a counterattack on the battalion's right, but the Australians managed to hold their ground. They remained in the line throughout the day, before the 19th Battalion arrived as part of the 5th Brigade's relief of the 3rd Brigade. Having lost 19 officers and 512 other ranks killed, wounded or missing, the battalion had suffered the most of all the 3rd Brigade's battalions and was moved back to Berteaucourt to be rebuilt. After re-organising, in mid-August the 11th Battalion moved to La Boisselle where they were placed into brigade reserve. Just before dawn on 21 August, about 200 men from the 11th took part in an attack around Mouquet Farm; casualties amounted to 20 killed and 40 wounded and afterwards the battalion was moved to Belgium. The 11th Battalion spent the remainder of 1916 in the Ypres sector, in Flanders, but was moved back to the Somme at the end of the year as the worst winter in 40 years descended on the front. Louverval In early 1917, the Germans fell back towards the Hindenburg Line in an effort to shorten their lines and move into prepared positions. As the Allies pursued the withdrawing Germans, in late February the 11th Battalion captured Le Barque, conducting mopping-up operations before advancing to Thilloy where they fought a minor engagement before being relieved by the 3rd Battalion, having lost 12 killed and 30 wounded during the fighting and a further 10 men killed and 13 wounded by artillery. Sickness also took a heavy toll during this time due to the bad weather. In March, Lieutenant Colonel Rupert Rafferty took over as commanding officer and the following month, as the Allied line was pushed further forward towards the Hindenburg Line, the 11th Battalion played a supporting role during the 3rd Brigade's attack around Boursies, before occupying the front around the village of Louverval. On 15 April 1917, during the Battle of Lagnicourt, Lieutenant Charles Pope, of 'A' Company, was in command of an important picket post on the right of the battalion's positions outside Louverval, with orders to "hold the position at all costs". The Germans attacked the position with overwhelming numbers and surrounded the post. Having used up their ammunition, the remainder of the post charged with fixed bayonets into the surrounding German positions. Pope's body was later found with those of his men, having killed 80 Germans. Pope was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross, Australia's highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy. Bullecourt and the Third Battle of Ypres In early May, the 11th Battalion moved to Norieul, where they occupied a recently captured portion of the German line. A couple of days later, during the Second Battle of Bullecourt, their position was attacked by German "shock troops". In response to the attack, supporting artillery was called down, and the attack repulsed. The Germans laid down a heavy bombardment in retaliation. An attack was ordered, but the order was rescinded when the senior officer in the forward trench, Major Aubrey Darnell, expressed concerns about the state of the soldiers in the assault wave. The Germans then put in another attack, which was once again turned back, before the 11th launched a limited counterattack and regained the ground that had been lost. The battalion, having lost 68 men killed, two captured and 140 wounded, was down to a strength of just over 400 men. They were relieved and then moved back to Bapaume, where they received a draft of over 100 reinforcements. Over the next couple of months, the battalion was rebuilt, reaching a strength of 44 officers and 1,002 other ranks by late August. The following month they were committed to the Third Battle of Ypres. Their first attack came around Glencorse Wood on 20 September, during which the 11th Battalion lost 46 killed and 100 wounded, before moving to Westhoek Ridge in early October. Another move saw them transferred to Broodeseinde Ridge, where they conducted a raid on German positions around Celtic Wood on 6/7 October in concert with the 12th Battalion. The following day, the 11th Battalion moved to a position on "Anzac Ridge", before later moving to Zonnebeke at the end of the month where they suffered heavy casualties from German artillery. Throughout November and the first part of December, the battalion remained out of the line, resting around Bologne, before returning to the front around Messines in late December, remaining there over New Years. The battalion's strength during this time was 32 officers and 687 other ranks. German Spring Offensive and the final Hundred Days In early 1918, after the capitulation of the Russian Empire the Germans, having moved the bulk of their forces to the Western Front, launched the Spring Offensive, striking against the British forces in the Somme. The initial onslaught pushed the Allied forces back and the Australian divisions, which had been merged into the Australian Corps, were thrown into the line in an effort to stem the tide. In early March, the 11th Battalion moved to the Hollebeke sector, where they were subjected to gas attacks before being sent south to Amiens at the start of April, joining the rest of the 1st Division in defence of Hazebrouck in the middle of the month. For the next couple of months the battalion rotated through the line in a defensive role as the German offensive was blunted. In June, as the Allies sought to regain some of the initiative, they undertook a series of Peaceful Penetration raids. On 2 June, the 11th Battalion attacked Mont de Merris, which resulted in the capture of a large amount of German equipment and over 200 prisoners for the loss of 16 men killed and 74 wounded. A lesser attack was launched on the German trenches opposite the battalion on 22 June. Around this time, a small group of US soldiers was attached to the 11th Battalion to gain experience. The following month, the battalion captured Gerbedoen Farm before supporting the 10th Battalion's successful attack on Merris. On 8 August, the Allies launched their own offensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, around Amiens. The 11th Battalion did not take part in the opening phase of the offensive, moving to Hamel and establishing themselves in a defensive position around Harbonnieres. On 10 August, the battalion was committed to a strong attack around Lihons; although successful, the attack lasted three days and resulted in heavy casualties, including 58 killed and 140 wounded. On the night of 12/13 August, the 11th was withdrawn to the support line just behind the front. Later, they were moved to Vaire and then Cerisy, before supporting the 9th and 12th Battalions around Chuignolles and Proyart on 23 August and then around Chuignes and Cappy two days later, where further losses were experienced. The 11th Battalion's final attack came against the Hindenburg Outpost Line on 18 September when they launched a three-company attack around Fervaque Farm and Carpeza Copse near Villeret. Despite being severely understrength – each company had an average strength of just 76 men – they advanced over and took over 120 prisoners and large quantities of German equipment, for the loss of 18 men killed. Further casualties came on 24 October when German aircraft attacked the battalion headquarters, killing a number of officers, including Darnell, who was the acting commanding officer. The heavy casualties that the Australians had suffered during the final year of the war, and the decrease in volunteers arriving from Australia, meant that the battalion was desperately understrength. In October, they were withdrawn from the line for rest and reorganisation, at the insistence of the Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes. At this time, the battalion was reorganised into a two-company structure. In early November, the battalion prepared to return to the front around St. Quentin, but before they could return to the fighting, an armistice came into effect, bringing the war to an end. By the end of the war, a total of over 9,000 men had served in the 11th Battalion, of which 1,115 were killed and 2,424 wounded. Members of the battalion received the following decorations for their service during the war: one Victoria Cross, one Companion of the Order of the Bath, two Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George, seven Distinguished Service Orders, one Officer of the Order of the British Empire, 30 Military Crosses and one Bar, 25 Distinguished Conduct Medals with one Bar, 96 Military Medals with two Bars, three Meritorious Service Medals, 85 Mentions in Despatches and seven foreign awards. Following the armistice, the 11th Battalion was moved to Chaelet, in Belgium, where the demobilisation process began. The battalion's personnel were slowly repatriated to Australia, while those that waited undertook training to prepare them for civilian life. On 6 February 1919, the 11th Battalion was amalgamated with the 12th, to form the 11th/12th Battalion; a further amalgamation occurred on 27 March when the 11th/12th merged with the 9th/10th Battalion, forming the 3rd Australian Infantry Brigade Battalion. A short time later, the battalion disbanded. The 11th Battalion's final commanding officer was Major Jack O'Neil, an original member of the battalion who had been appointed a company sergeant major during the battalion's formative period at Blackboy Camp. Inter war years and World War II In 1921, following the conclusion of the demobilisation of the AIF, the government undertook a review of Australia's military requirements and the part-time military force, the Citizens Forces, was reorganised to perpetuate the numerical designations of the AIF units. As a result, the 11th Battalion was reformed in Perth, drawing personnel and lineage from the 2nd Battalion, 11th Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion, 51st Infantry Regiment. Upon formation, the battalion was assigned to the 13th Brigade, and inherited the battle honour of "South Africa, 1899–1902", which it bore for the 1st and 2nd Battalions, West Australian Infantry. In 1927, territorial designations were introduced and the battalion adopted the title of the "Perth Regiment"; it was also awarded battle honours for World War I, receiving a total of 23. Its motto at this time was Vigilans. Upon establishment, the Citizens Forces units were manned through both voluntary and compulsory service; but, in 1929–30, following the election of the Scullin Labor government, the compulsory service scheme was abolished and the Citizens Forces was replaced with an all volunteer "Militia". As a result of the economic pressures of the Great Depression the number of volunteers fell, and consequently a number of infantry battalions had to be disbanded or amalgamated. The 11th Battalion was one of those amalgamated, being joined with the 16th Battalion in 1930 to become the 11th/16th Battalion. The two units remained linked until 1 October 1936, when the 11th Battalion (City of Perth Regiment) was re-formed in its own right, as part of an expansion of the Militia due to concerns about war in Europe. During World War II, like most Militia units, the 11th Battalion performed garrison duties for most of the war. It was mobilised for war service at Melville, Western Australia, in December 1941. In the early part of the war, the battalion remained in Western Australia, and was assigned to the 4th Division, as part of the 13th Brigade, before later moving to the Northern Territory in 1943, where the 13th Brigade was deployed to defend Darwin, replacing the 3rd Brigade. Later in 1943, the battalion was gazetted as an AIF battalion, after more than 65 percent of its personnel volunteered to serve outside Australian territory. As the threat to Darwin passed, its garrison was reduced and the 13th Brigade was reorganised to prepare it for operations in the Pacific. The battalion, along with the rest of the 13th Brigade, was later transferred to the 5th Division and saw service against the Japanese during 1945 in the New Britain Campaign. Due to the large size of Japanese forces on New Britain, the Australian campaign was focused mainly upon containment. After landing at Jacquinot Bay the battalion was based around the Tol Plantation and conducted patrolling operations to restrict the Japanese to the Gazelle Peninsula. Little contact was made and actual combat was limited; the battalion's casualties amounted to three dead and four wounded. Following the end of the war, the 11th Battalion occupied Rabaul, before being disbanded on 11 April 1946. Post World War II In 1948, Australia's part-time military force was re-raised in the guise of the Citizens Military Force. At this time, the 11th/44th Battalion (City of Perth Regiment) was formed. From 1960, following a reorganisation of the Army that saw the adoption of the Pentropic divisional establishment, the 11th/44th was reduced to a company-sized element and 'A' (City of Perth) Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment maintained the traditions of the 11th Battalion. The following year, the 11th Battalion was awarded the 15 battle honours that had been earned by the 11th and 2/11th Battalions during World War II. A separate 11th Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment was reformed in 1966, being formed through a designation of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment. Ten years later, the battalion was reduced to an independent company and in 1987, the 11th Independent Rifle Company was amalgamated with the 28th Independent Rifle Company to form the current 11th/28th Battalion, Royal Western Australia Regiment. Alliances The 11th Battalion held the following alliance: United Kingdom – Royal Sussex Regiment (approved in 1925). Battle honours The 11th Battalion received the following battle honours: Boer War South Africa, 1899–1902 (inherited). World War I Somme 1916–18, Pozières, Bullecourt, Ypres 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Lys, Hazebrouck, Amiens, Albert 1918, Hindenburg Line, Epehy, France and Flanders 1916–1918, ANZAC, Landing at ANZAC, Defence of ANZAC, Suvla, Sari Bair, Gallipoli 1915, Egypt 1915–16. World War II North Africa 1940–41, Bardia 1941, Capture of Tobruk, Derna, Greece 1941, Brallos Pass, Crete, Retimo, South-West Pacific 1944–45, Liberation of Australian New Guinea, Matapau, Abau–Malin, Wewak, Wirui Mission. References Citations Bibliography External links 11th Battalion's War Diary – Australian War Memorial Infantry units and formations of Australia 11 Military units and formations established in 1914 Military units and formations disestablished in 1987
4568424	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann%20Graf	Hermann Graf	Hermann Graf (24 October 1912 – 4 November 1988) was a German Luftwaffe World War II fighter ace. He served on both the Eastern and Western Fronts. He became the first pilot in aviation history to claim 200 aerial victories—that is, 200 aerial combat encounters resulting in the destruction of the enemy aircraft. In about 830 combat missions, he claimed a total of 212 aerial victories, almost all of which were achieved on the Eastern Front. Graf, a pre-war football player and glider pilot, joined the Luftwaffe and started flight training in 1936. He was initially selected for transport aviation but was subsequently posted to Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51—51st Fighter Wing) in May 1939. At the outbreak of war he was stationed on the Franco–German border flying uneventful patrols. He was then posted as a flight instructor stationed in Romania as part of a German military mission training Romanian pilots. Graf flew a few ground support missions in the closing days of the German invasion of Crete. Following the start of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Graf claimed his first aerial victory on 4 August 1941. He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross after 45 victories on 24 January 1942. It was during the second summer of the eastern campaign; however, that his success rate dramatically increased. By 16 September 1942 his number of victories had increased to 172 for which he was honored with the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. At the time of its presentation to Graf it was Germany's highest military decoration. On 26 September 1942 he shot down his 200th enemy aircraft. By then a national hero, Graf was withdrawn from combat operations and posted to a fighter pilot training school in France before being tasked with the setting up of a new special unit: Jagdgeschwader 50 (JG 50—Fighter Wing 50). Its mission was as a high-altitude unit to intercept the de Havilland Mosquito intruders. In November 1943 Graf returned to combat operations. He was appointed Geschwaderkommodore (Wing Commander) of Jagdgeschwader 11 (JG 11—11th Fighter Wing) and claimed his last and 212th aerial victory on 29 March 1944. He was severely injured during that encounter and, after a period of convalescence, became Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 52 (JG 52—52nd Fighter Wing). He and the remainder of JG 52 surrendered to units of the United States Army on 8 May 1945, but were turned over to the Red Army. Graf was held in Soviet captivity until 1949. After the war he worked as an electronic sales manager and died after a long illness in his home town of Engen on 4 November 1988. Early life Hermann Anton Graf was born on 24 October 1912 in Engen in what was then the Grand Duchy of Baden near Lake Constance and the border to Switzerland, the son of Wilhelm Graf (1878–1937), a farmer, and his wife Maria, née Sailer (1877–1953). He was the third of three children, with two older brothers, Wilhelm Wilhelm (1904–1981) and Josef Wilhelm (1909–1981). His father fought in and survived World War I as an artillery soldier, being awarded the Iron Cross. Postwar, the Weimar Inflation crisis of 1923 wiped out virtually all the family savings, and as a result, from a very early age, Graf had to work. As a young boy, Graf was an avid footballer. He started with his local football club DJK Engen and later became a goalkeeper at FC Höhen. In his teens, he was selected to join a group of talented young players trained by Sepp Herberger. Herberger was a forward in the Germany national football team from 1921–25, and later head coach of the German 1954 FIFA World Cup-winning team. However, a broken thumb ended Graf's early hopes for a professional football career. Graf finished his Volksschule (primary school) in 1926 at the age of thirteen. Without the means to fund a higher education, Graf applied for an apprenticeship. For the next three years, he worked as a locksmith's apprentice at a local factory. A locksmith had a low income, so when offered work as an apprentice clerk, he gladly accepted a change in career. Amateur pilot and joining the Luftwaffe Graf saw his first aircraft when he was twelve years old. This sight created a conflict between his passion for football and a new obsession with flying. From 1930, he worked at the Engen town hall and saved all his money to buy a glider. Before his 20th birthday, he provided a homemade glider to the new Engen Sailplane Club. Every Sunday he would go out to the nearby Ballenberg mountain until a heavy crash destroyed his glider in the fall of 1932. In 1935, after Adolf Hitler officially revoked the Treaty of Versailles, Graf applied for flight training in the newly created Luftwaffe. Graf was accepted for the Luftwaffes A-level pilot training school in Karlsruhe on 2 June 1936. This training included theoretical and practical training in aerobatics, navigation, long-distance flights and deadstick landings. He graduated to the B1 school in Ulm-Dornstadt on 4 October 1937. The B courses included high-altitude flying, instrument flights, night landings and training to handle an aircraft in difficult situations. He subsequently completed his B2 training in Karlsruhe on 31 May 1938. After graduating from the B2 school Graf was, at the age of 26, initially thought to be too old for fighter pilot training and was selected for the C school for transport pilots. On 31 May 1939, Graf passed officer-candidate training at Neubiberg. Because the fighter force was in dire need for new officers, Unteroffizier (a rank equivalent to sergeant) Graf was then transferred to 2. Staffel (2nd squadron) of I./Jagdgeschwader 51 (I./JG 51—1st group of the 51st fighter wing) at Bad Aibling . At this time I./JG 51 was equipped with one of the leading fighter aircraft of the time, the Messerschmitt Bf 109E-1. Graf, who had never flown a modern fighter aircraft before, ended his first flight in a Bf 109 with a crash. When I./JG 51 was briefly reequipped with the Czech-built Avia B-534 biplane in July 1939, it gave Graf an opportunity to prove his flying expertise as well as to restore his self-confidence. World War II 1939–1940 When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, I./JG 51 was stationed by the French border at Speyer and Graf was promoted to Feldwebel (a higher grade of sergeant). The unit immediately exchanged the Avia B-534 biplanes for Bf 109s and was tasked to protect Germany's western border. During this period of the so-called "Phoney War", Graf flew 21 combat sorties without firing his guns and was still considered an unreliable pilot. On 20 January 1940, his Gruppenkommandeur (Group Commander) Hans-Heinrich Brustellin had Graf transferred to Ergänzungs-Jagdgruppe Merseburg, which was a training unit for new fighter pilots to receive tactical instruction from pilots with combat experience. This unit was commanded by Major Gotthard Handrick, the 1936 Olympic gold medalist in the modern pentathlon and former commander of Jagdgruppe 88 of the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War. While at this training unit, Graf was promoted to Leutnant (equivalent to second lieutenant) on 1 May 1940. At Merseburg, Graf met and befriended two other pilot trainees, Alfred Grislawski and Heinrich Füllgrabe, with whom he would later spend much of his combat career. Their time spent in the unit meant they missed the air combat of the Battle of France and Battle of Britain. On 6 October 1940, Handrick was appointed Gruppenkommandeur of III./Jagdgeschwader 52 (III./JG 52). Handrick had some influence on the personnel rotation within his Gruppe and had Graf and Füllgrabe transferred to 9./JG 52 with him, where they rejoined Grislawski. Service in Romania and invasion of Greece The rise of General Antonescu in Romania in 1940 led to a reorganization of his country's armed forces. In this, he was supported by a military mission from Germany, the Luftwaffenmission Rumänien (Luftwaffe Mission Romania) under the command of Generalleutnant (equivalent to major general) . Handrick's III./JG 52 was transferred to Bucharest in mid-October and temporarily renamed I./Jagdgeschwader 28 (I./JG 28) until 4 January 1941. Its primary task was to train Romanian Air Force personnel. Here, the trio of Graf, Füllgrabe and Grislawski was joined by Ernst Süß, and later by Leopold Steinbatz and Edmund Roßmann. The airmen of 9./JG 28 spent a couple of relaxing months in Bucharest, outside the close scrutiny of Berlin. Graf even managed to play football when a Luftwaffe team played against Cyclope Bucharesti at the Bucharest Sports Arena before 30,000 spectators. During its time in Romania, the unit was witness to a major earthquake in November and an abortive civil war in January. In March 1941, III./ JG 52 flew several sorties as aerial cover for the German 12th Army as it crossed the Danube into Bulgaria in preparation for the German intervention in the Greco-Italian War and its Balkan Campaign. During that operation, Graf's unit was kept back to defend the strategically vital Ploiești oilfields from Allied bombing raids, which never eventuated. In May, Graf was able to organise a second soccer international against a Romanian army team. For this, he called upon Herberger, now manager of the national team. Herberger arranged for several of the German squad to play, including an international debut by Fritz Walter. With Graf in goal, it was Walter who scored a hattrick in the 3–2 win. In the third week of May 1941 a detachment of III./JG 52, including Graf, was transferred to southern Greece to support Operation Merkur, the German invasion of Crete. The unit flew mostly ground attack and anti-shipping missions during the fortnight it was based there but Graf did not engage in any aerial combat. War against the Soviet Union By mid-June, III./JG 52 was back together in Bucharest and re-equipped with the new, more powerful Bf 109F-4 model. The Gruppe was not involved in most of the fighting in the opening phases of Operation Barbarossa as it was once again kept back to defend Ploiești and the Romanian ports from Soviet bombers. The pilots’ mood was not helped when Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, criticised the unit on 4 July for its lack of success compared to virtually all the other Jagdgruppen. On 1 August, after German advances had removed the threat of Soviet air attacks on Romania, the unit was transferred to the front line and the major Luftwaffe airbase at Belaya Zerkov in the Ukraine south of Kiev. Graf achieved his first victory in the early hours of 4 August when his squadron was escorting a Junkers Ju 87 dive-bombing strike, shooting down one of a pair of attacking Polikarpov I-16 fighters. Despite his success, he was reprimanded by his squadron leader, because he had broken formation and forgotten to arm his guns before firing. His second victory was achieved the next day, although Graf was lucky to get away unscathed – landing his aircraft riddled with bullet holes. As the German ground forces advanced across the Ukraine in August and September, the air units of JG 52 kept pace – constantly moving on to forward airbases. The Gruppe was involved in providing cover for the southern crossings over the Dnieper, the capture of Poltava, the First Battle of Kharkov and then crossing the Perekop isthmus into the Crimea. They often flew three or four missions a day when weather permitted. By the end of October Graf was mastering his flying technique, becoming adept at low-level flying, and had achieved 20 victories. The rains arrived in November, turning the airfields to mud and limiting air operations and the number of serviceable aircraft. Graf's unit was moved forward to Taganrog to support the battle for Rostov. Once the snow arrived, freezing the ground, operations picked up again. In heavy combat over and around the see-saw battle, Graf had doubled his score to 42 by the end of 1941, making him one of the Gruppe’s leading pilots. On New Year's Day 1942, III./JG 52 was transferred to the relative comfort of the large Kharkov-Rogan airfield, with its closed hangars. The blizzard conditions (often getting down to −20 °C overnight) made flying virtually impossible. On 24 January, Graf was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for his victories to date. Soon after, he was sent on rotation back home on leave. Within a month, his regular wingman, Steinbatz, was also awarded the Knight's Cross for a similar score. Returning to his unit in mid-March, he soon achieved his 50th victory. On 23 March, he was promoted to Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 9./JG 52 after his predecessor was shot down behind enemy lines and taken prisoner. The rains returned in April, bringing the muds of the rasputitsa. Aerial activity virtually stopped as both sides took the opportunity to regroup. At the end of the month, III./JG 52 transferred to the Crimea, where Erich von Manstein's 11th Army was laying siege to Sevastopol. The 11th Army also faced Soviet forces on the Kerch Peninsula. Red Army forces had conducted amphibious landings there on 26 December 1941 and had strong air cover. At this time, Graf was competing with Leutnant Gerhard Köppen of 7./JG 52 (with 72 victories) as the Gruppe’s top pilot. They were constantly flying extra missions to outdo each other. On 30 April 1942, Graf had his best day to date. In seven missions over fourteen hours, he shot down six enemy aircraft to take his tally to 69. Exhausted, he then missed a day but on 2 May he exceeded that feat with seven victories from six missions. It was at this time that his squadron got the famous moniker, the "Karaya Staffel", from a record that Süß would incessantly play at the airfield and hum along to in the air. On 5 May, Köppen (with his score at 85 victories) was shot down over the Sea of Azov and was last seen being shelled by nearby Soviet artillery. The ground offensive for Kerch opened on 8 May but almost immediately, III./JG 52 (with Graf on 90 victories) was sent back to Kharkov, to counter a major Soviet offensive there. The air conflict was intense and in the first two days (13–14 May 1942), Graf shot down thirteen aircraft, which included his 100th victory. He became the seventh Luftwaffe pilot to achieve that milestone. It is an illustration of his dominance within his Gruppe, and the Luftwaffe tactical doctrine of ace versus wingman. In the first six months of 1942 Graf alone accounted for a quarter of all the aircraft shot down by III./ JG 52 It was the culmination of a remarkable seventeen days since his return to the front in which he had shot down 47 aircraft. He was awarded the Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross on 17 May 1942 for achieving 104 victories. Only two days later, his score now at 106, he was notified that he was also to receive the Swords to his Knight's Cross. On 24 May, Graf and Leutnant Adolf Dickfeld of 7./JG 52, flew to the Eastern Front headquarters at Rastenburg in Poland (the Wolf's Lair), for the official Oak Leaves and Swords presentation by Adolf Hitler the next day. Dickfeld was presented with the Oakleaves, having been awarded it on 19 May for achieving 101 victories after he shot down eleven aircraft on 18 May. Following that, Graf was sent back to Germany on four weeks leave, during which he made a number of public appearances. While he was on leave, his long-time wingman and friend, Steinbatz, was killed on 15 June when his plane crashed after being hit by anti-aircraft fire. Steinbatz had been awarded the Oakleaves to his Knight's Cross on 2 June, and was posthumously awarded the Swords to his Knight's Cross for his 99 victories – the first non-commissioned officer in the Wehrmacht to be so honored. Towards Stalingrad By the time Graf returned to active duty at the end of July, III./JG 52 had re-equipped with the Bf 109G, and was back at Taganrog in the south. On the ground, the German Army's summer offensive, Fall Blau, was underway, and the city of Rostov, gateway to the Caucasus, had fallen. In mid-August, III./JG 52 moved forward to provide air cover as the army tried to establish bridgeheads across the Kuban River to capture the Black Sea ports. Geschwaderkommodore Gordon Gollob, of nearby JG 77, was temporarily appointed to command JG 52, after Major Herbert Ihlefeld, was severely wounded in a take-off accident. Gollob rivalled Graf for highest scoring pilot on the Eastern Front. On 14 August, both pilots had 120 victories. Soon after, Graf led a detachment of experienced aces from III./JG 52 reassigned to JG 3 to cover the assault on Stalingrad. The detachment came under the command of Hauptmann Wolf-Dietrich Wilcke from JG 3. Initially Graf was based at Tuzov and then Pitomnik west of the city. He and his colleagues no longer faced obsolescent aircraft, as they had in the south. The city was critical to both sides. It was strongly defended and became the focus of intense air battles. Graf's victories quickly mounted, reaching 140 by the end of August. In September, he shot down 62 enemy aircraft. On 4 September 1942, he became the second pilot to reach their 150th victory – downing a Yakovlev Yak-1. This came just 6 days after Gollob achieved the same milestone. Many times, he was lucky to get back to base uninjured. His aircraft was routinely shot up by enemy pilots or anti-aircraft fire. The fastest-scoring ace of the Luftwaffe, he was now shooting down several planes each day. The three fighters he downed on 9 September took him to 172 victories, which made him the top-scorer in the Luftwaffe. For this, he was awarded the Diamonds to his Knight's Cross. He became the fifth member of the Wehrmacht to receive this award, which at that time had only been awarded to Luftwaffe personnel. Within the space of eight months, he had received all four levels of the Knight's Cross – Germany's highest military decoration. He was also soon promoted to Hauptmann (Captain). The next day tempered this achievement. Despite shooting down two more aircraft, it was the first time he had lost his wingman. Unteroffizier Johann Kalb had to bail out over the Volga River and was captured by Soviet troops. On 17 September he claimed three more victories but a 20mm Soviet cannon-shell went through his canopy, narrowly missing his head. On 23 September, he scored a remarkable ten victories in three missions, taking him to 197. On 26 September, he became the first pilot in aviation history to claim 200 enemy aircraft shot down. The 62 victories he claimed in that single month (of September) remain a record unbeaten in aviation history. Elevated to hero status by the Luftwaffe, he was promoted to Major on 29 September and forbidden from flying further combat missions. The whole of JG 52 gathered at Soldatskaja to congratulate him before he flew back to Berlin a few days later. Fighter pilot instructor—Jagdgruppe Ost For the next few months, after home leave, Graf was sent on propaganda tours across Germany. He was also able to meet the Germany national football team and went to several of their international matches. On 28 January 1943 Graf took command of Ergänzungs-Jagdgruppe Ost (Fighter Training Group East) based in occupied France. Here newly trained fighter pilots destined for the Eastern Front received their final training from experienced Eastern Front pilots. The main base was at St. Jean d'Angély north of Bordeaux on the Atlantic coast although Graf spent most of his time at the Toulouse-Blagnac Airport. Graf selected a Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A-5 aircraft for his personal use and lavishly decorated it. Without the stress of aerial combat, Graf was again able to indulge his other great passion: soccer. In response to political humiliation caused by de Havilland Mosquito bombing raids into Germany, Hermann Göring ordered the formation of special high-altitude Luftwaffe units (Jagdgeschwader 25, commanded by Ihlefeld and Jagdgeschwader 50, under Graf) to combat these attacks. In mid-March, Graf was ordered to Berchtesgarden, Hitler's alpine retreat, where he received his instructions from Göring personally. Graf was permitted to choose his personnel. He transferred his old friends, Grislawski, Süss and Füllgrabe, from III./ JG 52, as well as a number of football players serving as administrators in his JGr Ost training unit. While in Berlin organizing the necessary transfers, Graf was introduced to the young film actress, Jola Jobst, whom he later wed. The new assignment was then delayed for two months for political reasons. Graf was to run one final pilot-training program: the latest draft of Spanish volunteers heading to the Eastern Front – the 4th Escudrilla Azul (4th Blue Squadron). From 18 May to 6 June 1943, the pilots received three weeks of specialized fighter pilot training for the Soviet conditions. Defense of the Reich On 11 June 1943, Graf arrived at the Wiesbaden airfield to set up his new unit. Remaining elements were drafted out of Jagdgruppe Süd . The unit would be equipped with the new Messerschmitt Bf 109 G-5, a high-altitude variant of the Bf 109 G-6. It was equipped with a pressurized cockpit and armed with extra underwing cannons or rockets. Delivery of the aircraft was delayed but in the meantime, Graf was able to shoot down a Mosquito intruder. Graf's focus also went back to football. He invited Sepp Herberger, coach of Reich's football team, to Wiesbaden to train his team for a day. During this visit, Herberger encouraged Graf to use his influence to save Germany's best footballers from frontline duty. Subsequently, Graf brought in players from the Germany national football team as administrators, drivers and mechanics – men like Hermann Eppenhoff, Hermann Koch, Alfons Moog, Franz Hanreiter and Walter Bammes. Graf also requested Fritz Walter, who later captained the West German World Cup team of 1954. Walter's transfer was more difficult. For this, Graf had to submit his request directly to Generaloberst (Colonel General) Friedrich Fromm, the commander of the Ersatzheer (Reserve Army). The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) daylight bombing offensive over Europe commenced in January 1943. It was having an increasing impact. By July, they were able to reach deep into Germany and demanded more and more attention from the Luftwaffe. At the end of the month, against an 800-bomber raid on Kassel, Graf claimed his first four-engine bomber. His unit received the first twelve Bf 109 G-5 planes in July 1943. With one of these aircraft he managed to reach an altitude of . The unit was finally declared combat ready on 31 July 1943, albeit with only nineteen aircraft and made up of a single, three-squadron, Gruppe. Graf's football team, the Roten Jäger (Red Hunters), was also ready and played its first game on 4 August 1943, with Graf as goalkeeper. This football team followed Graf in his command postings for the remainder of the war. The unit's first major interception was fairly inauspicious – a bomber raid on the Ruhr on 12 August. Graf was greatly annoyed that no enemy aircraft were shot down. On 15 August 1943, Graf's unit was officially named Jagdgeschwader 50 (50th Fighter Wing). On 17 August, the USAAF Eighth Air Force raided Regensburg, attacking the Messerschmitt factories there. This time JG 50 was far more successful. It was based almost right in the raid's flightpath and claimed 11 bombers shot down for the loss of two of their own pilots. It was mooted that JG 50 would be equipped with the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket fighter. The Me 163 was being tested by Major Wolfgang Späte's test unit Erprobungskommando 16 (16th Test Commando) at Peenemünde and Rechlin in the summer of 1943. Following a visit to the test unit, Graf also learned about the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter. He returned to JG 50 full of optimism. The unit's regular role was extended to bomber interception, and Graf's Mosquito, the first victory for the unit, ironically proved to be the only one shot down by JG 50. After the heavy losses of the Regensburg raid, the USAAF was unable to immediately mount further unescorted deep raids into Germany. This allowed some respite for JG 50. Its next major action was 6 September. Graf shot down two of the four four-engined bombers claimed, even though he had to crash-land his aircraft. Wing commander of JG 1 and JG 11 The Allied bomber offensive was taking its toll of experienced leaders. On 8 October 1943, Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant Colonel) Hans Philipp, the second pilot after Graf to reach 200 air victories, and Geschwaderkommodore (Wing Commander) of Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG 1 – 1st Fighter Wing), was killed in action. The next day, while still officially remaining in command of JG 50, Graf was appointed acting Geschwaderkommodore of JG 1 and transferred to Jever. Graf appointed Grislawski (then Staffelkapitän [Squadron leader] of 1./ JG 50) as acting Kommodore in his absence. The Eighth Air Force flew their second raid on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943. Although costly to the attackers (77 heavy bombers were destroyed by either German fighters or by the anti-aircraft fire for the loss of 46 German fighters), Göring was not satisfied. On 23 October, Graf and Major Anton Mader, Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 11 (JG 11 – 11th Fighter Wing, the other home-defense day-fighter unit) were summoned to a meeting of the fighter commanders with Göring at Deelen Air Base near Arnhem. The night before, 6,000 civilians had been killed in a bombing raid on Kassel. En route from Jever, Graf and Mader were nearly shot down by a flight of two Mosquitos over the North Sea Coast, while flying in an unarmed Messerschmitt Bf 108 Taifun. Several days after the October meeting, JG 50 was disbanded and its personnel absorbed into I./Jagdgeschwader 301, a Wilde Sau night-fighter unit. While operational, JG 50 had claimed 45 Allied four-engined bombers. Graf was promoted to Oberst (Colonel) and on 11 November, appointed Geschwaderkommodore (Wing Commander) of JG 11, when Mader was transferred to JG 54 in the Leningrad sector. Aside from Grislawski, who was kept on as Staka (the squadron commander) of 1./ JG 1, he managed to take his soccer players and friends with him. Sunday 20 February marked the start of "Big Week" – six consecutive days of concentrated bombing by the USAAF designed to overwhelm the German defences. JG 11 was heavily involved and Graf shot down a B-24 Liberator for his 208th victory on 24 February. His 209th aerial victory, west of Berlin on 6 March, was over another B-24 Liberator, of the 453d Bombardment Group. It was actually an Herausschuss (separation shot) – a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from its combat box and which the Luftwaffe counted as an aerial victory. On 29 March, Graf shot down two P-51 Mustangs that were making a fighter sweep ahead of their bomber stream. Chased and harried by the rest of their squadron, he tried to ram another before bailing out. Landing heavily, he broke both knees and fractured his arm. These would prove to be his final air victories. Prompt attention from the JG 11 medic saved Graf from losing his arm. From April to early July he spent time recovering in a hospital in his home-town of Engen. On 24 June, he married Jobst, whom he had been seeing over the past year. Wing commander of JG 52 During his convalescence, he was visited by the General der Jagdflieger (General of Fighters), Generalleutnant Adolf Galland, who offered Graf command of his old unit, JG 52. Graf accepted with the proviso that his Roten Jäger football team went with him. Once criticized for its low scoring rate early in the war, it was now the pre-eminent Geschwader, with over 10,000 victories. His return was celebrated with a welcome dinner at its headquarters in Kraków, southern Poland, on 20 September 1944. He was officially appointed on 1 October. Ongoing weakness in his left arm kept Graf on the ground. In the two years since he had left the Eastern Front, the quantity and quality of the Soviet pilots had greatly improved, as had their equipment. For the remainder of the war he oversaw his three separated fighter groups shuttled up and down the front, in emergency responses to each new Soviet offensive. Several times the crews had to evacuate as Soviet tanks and artillery were shelling their airfield. The German fuel crisis severely curtailed the amount of flight-time. Consequently, the November total for the wing of only 369 Soviet aircraft shot down was the lowest monthly total of the eastern campaign. As the winter weather got worse, the lull allowed Graf to organise a football match between his Roten Jäger and a local Kraków team, watched by 20,000 German soldiers. In December, both Erich Hartmann and Gerhard Barkhorn, Graf's best pilots, returned to active duty. Within a month, they both achieved their 300th victories. On New Year's Day, the Luftwaffe's western command launched Operation Bodenplatte, against Allied air forces based in the Low Countries. It was an unsuccessful attempt to support the Battle of the Bulge offensive. For the failure, Göring fired Galland as General of the Fighters. In response, a meeting of senior Geschwadern commanders, in early January (including Graf), agreed to approach Göring and demand major changes. When confronted, Göring was furious and immediately demoted all the fighter leaders aside from Graf, who stayed as Kommodore of JG 52 because of the unit's exemplary war record. Göring told Graf he needed him against the imminent Soviet attack. The major Soviet Vistula-Oder offensive began in January which saw a number of the fighter units transferred from Reich Defence to defend the Eastern Front. JG 52 was based in and around Breslau defending the vital Silesian industrial region with intercept and ground attack missions. An enormous effort managed to briefly stall the Soviet advance. The Luftwaffe flew 2500 sorties on 1 & 2 February alone. On 25 January, Hans-Ulrich Rudel destroyed his 500th tank while his unit was based with JG 52. In the middle of this, Erich Hartmann was ordered to report for jet-training with Galland's new JV 44. Strong protests by both Graf and Hartmann had this order rescinded. In mid-April, the siege of Berlin began and on 17 April, Hartmann claimed his 350th victory. On 21 April, Graf's unit began its deployment towards Deutsch Brod roughly 80km away from the city of Brno. General Hans Seidemann, commander of Luftwaffenkommando VIII, wanted to make a last stand in the Alps. Graf disobeyed Seidemann's order for him and Erich Hartmann to fly to the British sector to avoid capture by the Soviets. He also refused to abandon his ground-crew and fly with his pilots to join Seidemann in the alpine redoubt. Instead, he led the 2,000 unit-personnel and fleeing local citizens on a march through Bohemia to cross the Moldau River (the nominal Allied stop-line). Once there, he surrendered his unit to the 90th US Infantry Division near Písek on 8 May 1945 and became a prisoner of war (POW). Prisoner of war Graf's unit was interned for over a week with more than 30,000 other disarmed soldiers in a primitive camp with minimal food and sanitation. Following the letter of the Allied agreement, units fighting on the Eastern Front were to become Soviet prisoners. Graf and most of the JG 52 personnel were handed over by the American forces to the Soviet Union on 15 May 1945. On 20 August, he and other senior Luftwaffe officers, including Hartmann and Hans Hahn, were moved to POW Camp No. 150 in Gryazovets, northeast of Moscow. This was a (relatively) more comfortable confinement than the regular labour camps and intended to provide a more sympathetic environment for high-profile prisoners. When Graf was found not to be malleable for their purposes, the Soviet regime put him on trial for war-crimes. However, when insufficient evidence could be produced, the charges were dropped. Erich Hartmann however, was found guilty and sentenced to 25 years of forced labour. On 8 December 1945, Graf was moved to POW Camp No. 27 in Krasnogorsk, Moscow. The author, Musciano, mentions that he was subject to solitary confinement for extended periods, but that he had his final order hidden in his shoe and would re-read it to keep his sanity. Whereas German POWs in Allied camps were progressively released in 1946–1947, the Soviets mainly released their prisoners in 1948–1949. Graf's release was finally approved late in 1949 and he was transferred to Repatriation Camp No. 69 (Heimkehrerlager Gronenfelde) near Frankfurt (Oder) in East Germany on 25 December 1949. By 3 January 1950, he was back in his home town of Engen, in the French Occupation Zone. This relatively early release was perceived by many to have been due to collaboration with his Soviet captors, something for which his fellow pilots criticized him, especially following a 1950s book by fighter ace and fellow Soviet POW, Hans Hahn, entitled "I Speak the Truth" (). This led to Graf's exclusion from post-war Luftwaffe veterans' associations. In 1971 Graf made his own statement to the newspaper, "Bild am Sonntag", saying that he, along with others including Hartmann, had briefly joined the BDO (an anti-Nazi group of German ex-officer prisoners) as a way to survive the psychological deprivation of the imprisonment. Bergström et al. say this is borne out by the Russian RGVA archive of Graf's POW file which makes no mention of extended co-operation with pro-Soviet groups(the BDO was disbanded after only a few months). (Hahn's account was corroborated by Siegfried Knappe who described Graf as someone who did everything the Russians asked of him out of fear.) Later life Like many veterans, Graf initially had a hard time finding work, but his connections in the football community helped him. Herberger introduced Graf to Roland Endler, a welding manufacturer ("Elektro-Schweiss-Industrie GmbH") from Neuss. Endler also became president of the FC Bayern Munich football club between 1958 and 1962. Endler employed Graf as a salesman in his company, and Graf eventually advanced to branch leader in Baden-Württemberg and Sales Manager. The link to Bayern Munich allowed him to enjoy his long love of football, although his injuries never let him play competitively again. He did however, return to flying, joining the Zürich branch of the Swiss Aero Club in 1951. Shunned by many veterans, he did remain friends with of a number of his former comrades from the JG 52, in particular Alfred Grislawski. His marriage with Jobst soon collapsed and they divorced. He married twice thereafter and his third wife, Helga Schröck (whom he married in May 1959), gave birth to a son, Hermann-Ulrich, in 1959, and a daughter, Birgit, in 1961. In 1965, Graf was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, a condition that seemed to affect many former high-altitude flyers and which caused his health to slowly deteriorate. Graf died in his hometown of Engen on 4 November 1988. Summary of career Aerial victory claims According to US historian David T. Zabecki, Graf was credited with 212 aerial victories. He claimed these aerial victories in 830 combat missions, 10 on the Western Front which included six four-engined-bombers and one Mosquito, and 202 on the Eastern Front. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 206 aerial victory claims, plus six further unconfirmed claims. This figure includes 202 aerial victories on the Eastern Front and four four-engined bombers on the Western Front. Awards Wound Badge in Silver Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe (9 December 1941) Combined Pilots-Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds Romanian Pilots Badge Crimea Shield Romanian Knight of Order of the Crown (23 May 1941) Iron Cross (1939) 2nd Class (9 August 1941) 1st Class (31 August 1941) Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Bronze (15 May 1941) in Silver (25 August 1941) for 65 missions in Gold (10 November 1941) for 112 missions German Cross in Gold in April 1942 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds Knight's Cross on 24 January 1942 as Leutnant of the Reserves with 9./Jagdgeschwader 52 for 42 victories 93rd Oak Leaves on 17 May 1942 as Leutnant of the Reserves and Staffelkapitän of 9./Jagdgeschwader 52 for 104 victories. 11th Swords on 19 May 1942 as Leutnant of the Reserves and Staffelkapitän of 9./Jagdgeschwader 52 with 106 victories. 5th Diamonds on 15 September 1942 as Oberleutnant of the Reserves and Staffelkapitän of 9./Jagdgeschwader 52 for 172 victories. Dates of rank Commands Notes References Citations Bibliography . Originally published in German in 1974, and then in English in 1977 as The Last Chance – The Pilots' Plot Against Goering. . Further reading 1912 births 1988 deaths Luftwaffe pilots German World War II flying aces Recipients of the Gold German Cross Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds German prisoners of war in World War II held by the Soviet Union German glider pilots Neurological disease deaths in Germany Deaths from Parkinson's disease People from Engen People from the Grand Duchy of Baden Military personnel from Baden-Württemberg
4568492	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltwell%20Park	Saltwell Park	Saltwell Park is a Victorian park in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England. Opened in 1876, the park was designed by Edward Kemp and incorporates the mansion and associated grounds of the Saltwellgate estate owner, William Wailes, who sold his estate to Gateshead Council for £35,000. Upon opening, it became known as "The People's Park". The park was expanded in 1920 when the council purchased the adjacent gardens to the Saltwell Grove estate and added these to the park. This extended the park's total size to . Towards the end of the 20th century, the park had fallen into disrepair, but between 1999 and 2005, it was subject to a £9.6 million restoration project, funded collaboratively by the Heritage Lottery Fund and Gateshead Council and is now host to around 2 million visitors per year. The park is split broadly into three sections. Saltwell Grove, the southern section, is an area of grassed open space with a bandstand to the western corner. The central area contains the centrepiece of the park – Wailes's former home, the Grade II listed Saltwell Towers and its surrounding belvedere walls. These have been fully restored and are now a visitor centre. There are also three war memorials, a yew-tree maze, a dene and an area containing several species of caged animals known as Pet's Corner. The largest section of the park is the Northern Fields section which contains a four-acre boating lake with a wooded island at its centre, as well as three bowling greens and two pavilions. Saltwell Park has been presented with numerous awards in recent years, including being named "Britain's Best Park" in 2005 and Civic Trust Park of the Year in 2006. It has won a Green Flag award every year since 2006 and in 2013 it was re-listed as one of fifty-five Green Heritage sites in the UK. The park has been a social hub for over a century; an annual public bonfire night display was first held in 1883, a circus in 1886 and the park hosted the Holidays at Home programme during World War II. Today the bonfire display has grown into one of the largest in Tyne and Wear and is attended by thousands of people every year. In October 2012, Saltwell Park was the site of the first British Legion Field of Remembrance in North East England. It also plays a role in local sport and recreation; it has hosted a fundraising day in support of Sport Relief, a Race for Life for a number of years and in November 2012 a "green gym" was installed at the park – one of only two in Gateshead. Conception and opening At the turn of the 19th century, Gateshead was beginning to expand but, save a smattering of industrial elements mainly at Sheriff Hill and at the south shore of the River Tyne, the town and its surrounds were mostly agricultural and most of the town was covered by large, private estates. The largest of these was the Saltwell estate, which consisted of around of land in a broad quadrangle between the Team Valley and the villages of Bensham and Low Fell. In 1805 this estate was broken up into a number of smaller properties including Saltwell Cottage. By 1856 Saltwell Cottage had become the Saltwellside estate and was in the hands of William Wailes, a native of Newcastle upon Tyne who had become one of the leading exponents of stained glass in England. In 1856 Wailes commissioned the design of a grand Victorian mansion for his family to live at Saltwellside. Work began in 1859 and continued until 1871 when Wailes' Saltwell Towers was finally completed. Saltwell Towers was a large, eclectic mansion in red brick with Gothic turrets and mock battlements. While Wailes was building Saltwell Towers, Gateshead was expanding and industrialising. The resultant air pollution, poor social conditions and general shortage of clean drinking water in the town led to concern about public health and gave rise to calls for the creation of public parks. One such call was made in 1857 when the editorial of the local newspaper, the Gateshead Observer, demanded that a park be built at Windmill Hills. In 1861, the owners of ten acres of land at Windmill Hills approached the town council and offered the land free of charge so long as it was used as a place of recreation for the people of Gateshead. The land was formally conveyed on 18 November 1861 and the opening of the first public park in Gateshead was celebrated by the closing of workplaces and a day of holiday in the town. Gateshead Council subsequently considered other sites for a second park, but it was discouraged by the high prices being asked by the estate owners at Redheugh and Shipcote. The Shipcote estate was owned by Sir Walter James, who was approached by a council park committee in 1874 and asked how much would be required to purchase at least part of his estate. Whilst negotiations were ongoing, James' offer to sell part of his estate at £650 per acre was met by fierce criticism from members of the public and the council began to seek an alternative to the Shipcote proposal. The town clerk wrote to William Wailes to ask if he would be willing to sell his Saltwellside estate. On 11 November 1874, Wailes replied that the council could have his entire estate for £32,000, and in March 1875 James told the park committee that he did not wish to compete with Wailes but that he would offer a subscription if the council went ahead at Saltwellgate. Later that month the park committee formally opened talks with Wailes and, after various proposals were considered and rejected, in September 1875 the council decided to buy the entire Saltwellgate estate for an increased total price of £35,000 after securing a loan for the full amount from the Local Government Board. The agreement was formalised two months later and included a provision to lease Saltwell Towers back to Wailes for the remainder of his life. Having obtained the Saltwellgate estate, the council contacted local ornithologist and landscaper John Hancock and asked him to submit designs for the new park. When Hancock refused, citing the pressure of his existing work, the park committee retained Edward Kemp at four guineas a day until his plans were submitted and approved in February 1876. Kemp's plans were implemented over a period of years by borough surveyor James Bowyer at a cost of around £11,000. Original plans to officially open the park on Whit Monday 1876 were not realised, and the park was never officially opened, but nonetheless, public usage began in late 1876. Design and layout Saltwell Park is located within a residential area around south of Gateshead town centre on land which slopes towards the Team Valley in the west. It is a broad rectangle with boundaries at East and West Park Roads, Saltwell View and Saltwell Road South. The original site purchased from Wailes was joined by the gardens of a late 19th century villa at East Park Road known as Saltwell Grove (or "The Grove") after these were purchased by Gateshead Council in 1920. The park today constitutes around of land in total. The park is split into three sections – southern, central and northern areas – and the entire park is bordered by perimeter shrubs, plants and trees. The southern Saltwell Grove area is demarcated from the central section by an old stone wall running in a west–east direction which formed the park's original southern boundary and is, according to a Gateshead Council document, an "important feature in the history and development of the park". This section consists largely of open space, meandering pathways skirting the perimeter, a bandstand and some flowerbeds. Entrances to this section of the park are to the west at Saltwell Road and to the extreme south-east corner. The central section comprises Saltwell Towers and its grounds and is some in total area. Saltwell Towers is located in the middle of the central section of the park and it is surrounded to the south by its accompanying walls, walkways and ha-ha. An enclosed rose garden lies to the east of the building and to the west there is a maze and a dene through which a stream runs into a lily-pond at an entrance to the park at Saltwell Road South. The approach from the southern section is a large grassed area replete with paths which wind towards a footbridge to the Towers, which is used for general leisure activities and picnicking and is home to a stone-built war memorial. The entrance to the footbridge is the site of a bronze war memorial which sits in the centre of a roundabout surrounded by bedding flowers. The footbridge was built in 2003 and is also a war memorial. The northern section of the park constitutes of land and can be accessed either by external entrances at the north-eastern corner of the park and West Park Road or internally from the central section through the dene or from Pets Corner. The north-eastern entrance consists of a pair of imposing gateposts and the view from this access point sweeps across the entire northern section of the park. The eastern perimeter of this section is a terraced walkway known as the Broadwalk with adjacent, banked bedded planting. A central path from the Broadwalk splits a large grassed area almost neatly in half and leads to a lake and two child's play areas. A path circles the perimeter of the lake and seating is placed at the fringe of the lake at various points. To the south of the lake are three bowling greens and to the north are tennis courts. These cannot be seen from the lake due to a screen of plants. The plants within the screen are typical of those bedded throughout the park, which include French marigolds, roses, tulips, phlomis, sedum and silver dust. Principal attractions There are eleven listed buildings in Saltwell Park. Saltwell Towers, former home of William Wailes and later to lawyer Joseph Shipley (founder of the nearby Shipley Art Gallery), was the seat of the former Saltwellgate estate and has been described by a BBC report as a "fairytale mansion". The building is a dark red and yellow brick construction with asymmetrical towers, tall chimney stacks and corner turrets. It has been used for a number of purposes, including as a hospital during the First World War and as a museum from 1933 to 1969, but was then abandoned and fell into considerable disrepair. However, after a £3 million, five-year refurbishment programme was completed in 2004, the building was officially reopened as a visitors centre in the presence of Wailes' great-great-grandson. Saltwell Towers today includes a cafe, some pieces of local art, an exhibition on the history of the park and also a stained glass centrepiece commissioned from a local artist. A Gateshead Blue Plaque in commemoration of Wailes was installed in 2005. The mansion was protected in 1973 as a Grade II listed building, along with the two storey, sandstone belvedere walls which surround the west and south of the mansion. These are replete with stairs and corner battlements and the entire walls are conjoined by a walkway which is open to the public. A stable block is at the north-west of Saltwell Towers, built in 1871 in the same style as the mansion in red brick and with a slate roof. This is a Grade II listed building and is now an educational area for schools and local community groups. Also to the north-west of Saltwell Towers is the Charlton Memorial Drinking Fountain, a stone and granite fountain inscribed in memory of George Charlton, the mayor of Gateshead between 1874 and 1875. This is Grade II listed, as is the 'Salte Well' at the west entrance to the central section of the park. The latter is dated 1872 and is a sandstone construction with a basin in the central alcove. Midway along the Broadwalk in the north section of the park is a Grade II listed bronze statue of Alderman John Lucas, mounted on a sandstone plinth and granite base. Built in 1902, it was paid for by public subscription. The wrought iron gates and accompanying stone piers which greet visitors at the north-eastern entrance to the park are also Grade II listed. There are three war memorials in the park. There is a Boer War memorial in the central section of the park around 100 metres south of Saltwell Towers. This consists of a bronze angel perched on a granite plinth and dated 1905. A modern Durham Light Infantry memorial was unveiled on 12 July 1981 by the mayor of Newcastle. This takes the form of a sandstone wall with adjoining flanking walls which create a small ornamental garden. There are three plaques and a description commemorating men of the battalion who died in battle between 1900 and 1945. The third war memorial is the bridge adjoining the lawned, central gardens to the belvedere walls of Saltwell Towers. This timber footbridge, long and wide, is named the Primosole Bridge and is a copy of the original Edwardian bridge which once crossed the ha-ha. The name is carved onto a low stone wall which runs alongside and an inscription commemorates the men of the Durham Light Infantry who died whilst crossing the original Primosole Bridge during Operation Fustian in the Second World War. The principal feature of the northern section of the park is a boating lake. This has been in situ since a tender to install a lake with an island in the centre was accepted in August 1880. An approach to Joseph Swan to illuminate the lake received no response, but a further approach to John Hancock to design the lake edge was more successful; the lake edge today still follows Hancock's original design. Model boating has been a fixture of the lake since 1886 and the Saltwell Park Model Boat Club is the latest organisation to use the lake for this purpose. The island in the centre of the lake was in 1909 home to a bandstand, and visiting performers were required to travel by boat to the island, but the bandstand was moved to the Saltwell Grove section of the park in 1921. During the summer months, visitors can hire rowing boats and pedalos for use on the lake. The lake has long been inhabited by mallards and tufted ducks and it is also home to several other species of wildfowl, including swans, Canada and barnacle geese, coots and moorhens. Common pochard and grebe also inhabit the lake in winter after migrating from Russia and central Europe. Kingfishers are also reported to have returned to the lake after a lengthy absence. There have been animals kept in Saltwell Park since June 1877 – initially, these included monkeys, deer and a raccoon. Caged animals are still kept in the north-east of the park in an area called "Pets Corner", where there are a peacock and peahen, pheasants, rabbits and guinea pigs kept in a pair of aviaries built in 1880 and paid for by John Elliot, then chief constable of Gateshead. The aviaries are stone and wrought iron, octagonal constructions which were listed at Grade II by English Heritage in 1973. A bandstand was erected in 1876 and was subsequently replaced in May 1895 by an octagonal, red-brick, cast-iron and wood structure which was first sited in the northern fields. This was then moved to the island in the lake and moved again to Saltwell Grove. It was taken down and rebuilt at Beamish Museum in 1978, where it remains in use and has been designated a Grade II listed building. The present bandstand is in the Saltwell Grove area and is used every Sunday during the summer months by brass bands. In the western shadow of Saltwell Towers there is a maze, built in 1877 by Wailes for his family's use. The maze was replanted with yew trees as part of the 2005 regeneration project to the original plans laid by Wailes. Also renovated was Saltwell Dene, a picturesque wooded area with a stream, bridges, cascades and a lily pond which inspired local artist Thomas Miles Richardson to paint a watercolour of it in the 19th century. Saltwell Dene was the final part of the 21st century restoration project to be completed, reopening to the public in March 2005. At either end of the Broadwalk there are two wooden shelters whilst the centre of the Broadwalk is marked by the Almond Pavilion. The pavilion was opened in 1881 and was a refreshment pavilion for decades before it fell into disrepair; by the 1980s it was derelict and it was then completely destroyed by fire. It has been fully reconstructed, including a replica of the original clock tower, and is once more a refreshment kiosk with new toilet facilities. It offers panoramic views into the northern fields and across the boating lake. An oriental garden was opened in 2011 to mark the twenty-year anniversary of the twinning arrangement between Gateshead and Komatsu. This includes a gravel pond, waterfalls and stone lanterns. The park is also host to three well-used bowling greens, replete with their own pavilion (the Avenue Green Pavilion) and a rose garden. Various other attractions have been installed and subsequently removed from the park, including a paddling pool, a museum and, from 1982 to 1993, a retired and modified Vickers Viscount 701 airplane. The aircraft had its wings cut short and was marked "Saltwell Airways". Awards and usage Upon opening, Saltwell Park was also called 'The People's Park' and the name is still used locally today. Today, the park is a green lung in the centre of the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead which attracts over two million visitors a year. In 2005 it was named "Britain's Best Park". In 2006 the park was chosen as Civic Trust Park of the Year and received a Gold Laurel Award from the Institute of Maintenance and Building Management. The park has won a Green Flag Award every year since 2006 and was in 2013 re-listed as one of fifty-five Green Heritage sites in the UK. The park has long been a hub of local social activities and events. A public firework display was first held in 1883, the first circus was hosted in 1886 and the Holidays at Home programme was conducted there during World War II – from September 1942 to the end of the war, families and American G.I.s could enjoy donkey rides, dancing, brass bands and gymnastic events. A bonfire night fireworks display has been held at the park for many years, one of three public displays in Gateshead (the other two are at Barmoor in Ryton and Oliver Henderson Park in Leam Lane). This event has grown into one of the largest displays in Tyne and Wear and is attended by thousands of people. In October 2012, Saltwell Park was the site of the first British Legion Field of Remembrance in North East England. Around ten thousand crosses were planted in Saltwell Grove. An Enchanted Parks event was hosted for the seventh consecutive year in December 2012. This is a collection of winter-themed visual arts, sculpture and interactive features which attracts around 14,000 visitors every year. An annual sculpture day has been held at the park for twenty-seven years and members of the public are invited to build themed sculptures under the supervision of local professionals. The 2012 renewal, themed "Wonders of the World", was held in Saltwell Grove and attracted hundreds of families. Saltwell Park has hosted a Race for Life – a national fundraising event for women only, organised by Cancer Research UK – for a number of years. The course has been attempted by over 8,000 competitors in the last three years, with the latest renewal held in May 2012. On 21 March 2010 the park hosted a fundraising day in support of Sport Relief, a bi-annual charity event organised by the BBC. Three fun runs around the boating lake attracted over 4,000 participants in total, including Jayne Middlemiss, Andrew Hayden Smith and Futureheads guitarist David Craig. Local athletics club Saltwell Harriers have hosted an annual race in and around Saltwell Park since 1911. Named the Ronnie Walker Saltwell Road Race since 2010 in honour of the long-standing club president, it is the oldest road race in England. 1984 Olympic silver medallist Mike McLeod won the race for 16 consecutive years between 1974 and 1990. In November 2012 a "green gym" was opened at the park. Fitness equipment was installed near the tennis courts in the Northern Fields section of the park and is available for use by the public free of charge. This is one of only two such outdoor public gyms in Gateshead, the other being opened simultaneously at Windy Nook Nature Reserve. A Parkrun takes place every Saturday morning at 9 am starting and finishing at the South Pavilion. As well as physical health, the park is now home to the Recovery College Collective, a peer led mental health charity offering informal drop ins and creative workshops. Notes References External links Map of Saltwell Park Urban public parks Parks and open spaces in Tyne and Wear Gateshead
4569663	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut%20Lent	Helmut Lent	Helmut Lent (13 June 1918 – 7 October 1944) was a German night-fighter ace in World War II. Lent shot down 110 aircraft, 102 of them at night. Born into a devoutly religious family, he showed an early passion for glider flying; against his father's wishes, he joined the Luftwaffe in 1936. After completing his training, he was assigned to the 1. Squadron, or Staffel, of Zerstörergeschwader 76 (ZG 76), a wing flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine heavy fighter. Lent claimed his first aerial victories at the outset of World War II in the invasion of Poland and over the North Sea. During the invasion of Norway he flew ground support missions before he was transferred to the newly established Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 (NJG 1), a night-fighter wing. Lent claimed his first nocturnal victory on 12 May 1941 and on 30 August 1941 was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for 22 victories. His steady accumulation of aerial victories resulted in regular promotions and awards. On the night of 15 June 1944, Major Lent was the first night fighter pilot to claim 100 nocturnal aerial victories, a feat which earned him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds on 31 July 1944. On 5 October 1944, Lent flew a Junkers Ju 88 on a routine transit flight from Stade to Nordborchen, south of Paderborn. On the landing approach one of the engines cut out and the aircraft collided with power lines. All four members of the crew were fatally wounded. Three men died shortly after the crash and Lent succumbed to his injuries two days later on 7 October 1944. Childhood, education and early career Lent was born on 13 June 1918 in Pyrehne, district of Landsberg an der Warthe, Province of Brandenburg, Germany (now Pyrzany, Lubusz Province, western Poland) and christened Helmut Johannes Siegfried Lent. He was the fifth child of Johannes Lent, a Lutheran minister and Marie Elisabeth, née Braune. Helmut Lent had two older brothers, Werner and Joachim, and two older sisters, Käthe and Ursula. His family was deeply religious; in addition to his father, both of his brothers and both grandfathers were also Lutheran ministers. From Easter 1924 until Easter 1928, Lent attended the local public primary school at Pyrehne. His father and oldest brother Werner then tutored him at home in preparation for the entrance examination at the public secondary school at Landsberg. In February 1933, Helmut joined the Jungvolk, the junior branch of the Hitler Youth. From March 1933, he acted as a youth platoon leader, or Jungzugführer (1 March 1933 – 1 April 1935) and flag-bearer, or Fähnleinführer (1 April 1935 – 9 November 1935) until he left the Jungvolk to prepare for his diploma examination. Helmut passed his graduation examinations at the age of seventeen on 12 December 1935. On 2 February 1936, he began the eight-week compulsory National Labor Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst) at Mohrin. He joined the military service in the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker on 1 April 1936, against the wishes of his father. His military training began on 6 April 1936 at the 2nd Air Warfare School (Luftkriegsschule 2) at Gatow, on the south-western outskirts of Berlin. He swore the National Socialist oath of allegiance on 21 April 1936. Flight training began on Monday, 7 August 1936 at Gatow. His first flight was in a Heinkel He 72 Kadet D-EYZA single engine biplane. Lent logged his first solo flight on 15 September 1936 in a Focke-Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz. By this time, Lent had accumulated 63 flights in his logbook. In conjunction with flight training, the students also learned to drive motorcycles and cars and during one of these training exercises, Lent was involved in a road accident, breaking his upper leg badly enough to prevent him from flying for five months. This did not adversely affect his classroom training and on 1 April 1937, after taking his commission examination, he was promoted to Fähnrich. On 19 October 1937 Lent completed his flight training and was awarded the A/B License. He earned his wings on 15 November 1937. On 1 February 1938, he was promoted to Oberfähnrich (first ensign), and on 1 March 1938 to Leutnant. By this time, he had made 434 flights in eight different types of aircraft and had accumulated 112 hours and 48 minutes flying time, mostly in daylight flights, in single engine training aircraft. After leaving Gatow, Helmut Lent was posted to the Heavy Bomber Crew School, or Große Kampffliegerschule at Tutow, in northeast Germany. He spent three months training as an observer (1 March 1938 – 30 May 1938). Prior to completing this course, Lent was run over by a car, resulting in a broken lower jaw, concussion, and internal bleeding. On 1 July 1938, Lent was posted to the 3rd Group of Jagdgeschwader 132 "Richthofen" (III./JG 132), flying on 19 July 1938 for the first time after his injuries. At the beginning of September, Lent's squadron, 7./JG 132, relocated to Großenhain near Dresden, in preparation and support of the annexation of Czechoslovakia. Lent flew a number of operational patrols in this conflict until his Staffel relocated again to Rangsdorf on 29 September 1938. After the tension over the occupation of the Sudeten territories eased, Lent's unit began a conversion to the Messerschmitt Bf 108 Taifun. On 1 November 1938 III./JG 132 moved to Fürstenwalde, between Berlin and Frankfurt an der Oder, and was renamed II./JG 141, and Lent was posted to the 6th Squadron. II./JG 141 changed its designation to I./Zerstörergeschwader 76 (I./ZG 76) on 1 May 1939 at the same time relocating to an airfield at Olmütz, Czechoslovakia. The group was being re-equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 110, and Lent made his first flight in the Bf 110 on 7 June 1939. Lent was granted his Luftwaffe Advanced Pilot's Certificate (Erweiterter Luftwaffen-Flugzeugführerschein), also known as 'C'-Certificate, confirming proficiency on multi-engine aircraft, on 12 May 1939. While converting to the Bf 110, Lent did not have a regular wireless operator (Funker) in the rear gunner's seat, but on 14 August 1939 he was accompanied in M8+AH for the first time by Gefreiter Walter Kubisch. During the prelude of World War II on 25 August 1939 I./ZG 76 deployed to an airfield at Ohlau to the southeast of Breslau. World War II World War II began at 04:45 on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces crossed the Polish border. Helmut Lent, flying a Bf 110 marked M8-DH, took off from Ohlau, at 04:44 to escort Heinkel He 111 bombers on a mission over Kraków. Invasion of Poland The German plans for the invasion of Poland were conceived under the codename Fall Weiss (Case White). This operation called for simultaneous attacks on Poland from three directions, the north, the west and the south, beginning at 04:45 on the early morning of 1 September 1939. On this morning Helmut Lent, with Kubisch as his wireless operator and rear gunner, escorted a formation of Heinkel 111 bombers of I. and III./Kampfgeschwader 4 (KG 4) attacking the airfields at Kraków in support of the southern prong of the German attack. At 16:30 on 2 September 1939, the second day of the German attack, Lent took off in the direction of Łódź and claimed his first aerial-victory of the war, shooting down a PZL P.11. At this point of the campaign the Bf 110s switched from bomber escort to ground-attack since the Polish Air Force was all but defeated. In this capacity Lent and Kubisch destroyed a twin-engined monoplane on the ground on 5 September and another aircraft, a PZL P.24, on 9 September. On 12 September 1939 he was attacked by a Polish aircraft which shot out his starboard engine. Lent made a forced landing behind German lines. He flew five more missions during the Polish campaign, destroying one anti-aircraft battery. For his actions in the Polish campaign Lent was awarded one of the first Iron Cross 2nd Class () of World War II on 21 September 1939. I./ZG 76 relocated to the Stuttgart area on 29 September 1939 to defend the western border against the French and British, who had been at war with Germany since 3 September 1939. From early October to middle December I./ZG 76 operated from a number of airfields in the Stuttgart and Ruhr areas before relocating north to Jever on 16 December 1939. Battle of the Heligoland Bight During the first month of the war the Royal Air Force (RAF) mostly focused its bomber attacks against anti-shipping operations on the German Bight. RAF bombers mounted a heavy attack against shipping off Wilhelmshaven on 18 December 1939 in what became known as the Battle of the Heligoland Bight. Twenty-four twin-engine Vickers Wellington from No. 9 Squadron, No. 37 Squadron and No. 149 Squadron formed up over Norfolk heading for the island of Heligoland. Two aircraft aborted the mission due to mechanical defects, but the remaining 22 pursued the attack and were spotted by a Freya radar on the East Frisian Islands. Helmut Lent was ordered to intercept and engage the attacking bomber force and after refuelling—Lent had just landed at Jever from an armed patrol—claimed three Wellingtons, two of which, shot down at 14:30 and 14:45, were later confirmed. The two aircraft were both from No. 37 Squadron, captained by Flying Officer P.A. Wimberley and Flying Officer O.J.T. Lewis respectively, and both crashed in the shallow sea off Borkum. It is likely that his third claim may have been No. 37 Squadron Wellington 1A N2396, LF-J, piloted by Sergeant H. Ruse, which crash-landed on the sand dunes of Borkum. Lent was refused the victory over Wimberley, as the Wellington was attacked by Lent after it had already been badly damaged and was about to crash. The Wellington was credited to pilot Carl-August Schumacher. His success as a fighter pilot over the North Sea had made him a minor national hero. Exploits such as those at Heligoland made good news stories for German propaganda machine. Consequently, he attracted fan mail—mainly from young girls and women—among them Elisabeth Petersen. Lent replied to her letter, and he and Elisabeth met on a blind date at the Reichshof hotel in Hamburg, after which they enjoyed a skiing holiday in Hirschegg in February 1940. Norwegian Campaign and Battle of Britain On 8 April 1940 eight aircraft of 1./ZG 76, under the command of Staffelkapitän Werner Hansen, deployed northward from Jever to Westerland on Sylt in preparation for operation Weserübung, the invasion of Norway. The German plan for the attack called for an amphibious assault on the Norwegian capital, Oslo, and six major ports from Kristiansand in the south to Narvik in the north. Simultaneously, Junkers 52 (Ju 52) transport aircraft would drop parachute troops to secure Oslo's Fornebu airport. Additional Ju 52s were scheduled to arrive at Fornebu twenty minutes after the parachute drop, by which time the airfield had to be in German hands. 1./ZG 76 was to provide air cover and ground-attack support for both waves. Eight Bf 110 Zerstörer of 1./ZG 76 took off at 7:00 in the morning, planning to synchronise their arrival at Fornebu with the parachute drop at 8:45. The distance from Westerland to Fornebu meant that this was a one-way operation; the Bf 110s could not hold enough fuel for the return trip. Their fuel was calculated to provide them 20 minutes flying time over Fornebu, and the pilots would have to land at Fornebu once the airfield had been seized. On the early morning flight to Fornebu, Lent engaged and shot down a Norwegian Gloster Gladiator. While the Ju 52s transporting the German paratroops came under heavy fire, Lent's Rotte engaged the enemy ground positions. Lent's starboard engine caught fire, forcing him to land immediately. With Kubisch manning the movable machine gun, Lent negotiated the capitulation with the Norwegian ground forces and the airfield was in German hands. At 18:50 the same day, Lent and his Staffelkapitän Werner Hansen took off again from Fornebu in undamaged Bf 110s. During the 40-minute flight, they came across a RAF Short Sunderland flying boat, serial number L2167, from No. 210 Squadron RAF which they shot down together; Hansen received credit for the "kill". Helmut Lent was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class () on 13 May 1940 before he was transferred to Trondheim on 18 May. He claimed his second aerial victory of the Norwegian campaign on 27 May over a RAF Gloster Gladiator from No. 263 Squadron RAF, piloted by Flight Lieutenant Caesar Hull. On 2 June 1940 Lent and his wingman Thönes claimed a Gladiator each. The flight lasted 5 hours and 46 minutes and their opponents were again from No. 263 Squadron, aircraft serial number N5893 piloted by Pilot Officer J.L. Wilkie, and N5681 piloted by Pilot Officer L.R. Jacobsen. He claimed his seventh victory overall and final of the Norwegian theatre of operations on 15 June 1940 over a No. 254 Squadron RAF Bristol Blenheim, piloted by Pilot Officer P.C. Gaylord. On 1 July 1940 Lent was promoted to Oberleutnant and on 13 July 1./ZG 76 was relocated to Stavanger/Forus. Helmut Lent briefly participated in the Battle of Britain when on 15 August 1940 twenty-one Bf 110s from I./ZG 76 escorted He 111 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 26 (KG 26) on their attack on Yorkshire and the Newcastle/Sunderland area. I./ZG 76 lost seven aircraft on this mission and it was Helmut Lent's 98th and final mission as a Zerstörer pilot. Night fighter career By June 1940 RAF Bomber Command penetrations of German airspace had increased to the level at which Hermann Göring decreed that a night-fighter force should be formed. The officer tasked with its creation was Wolfgang Falck, Gruppenkommandeur of the I./Zerstörergeschwader 1 (ZG 1). The night-fighter force began to expand rapidly, with existing units being divided to form the nucleus of new units. By October 1940 Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 (NJG 1) comprised three Gruppen, while Nachtjagdgeschwader 2 (NJG 2) and Nachtjagdgeschwader 3 (NJG 3), were still forming. It was during this period that Helmut Lent reluctantly became a member of the night-fighter force. At the end of August Lent wrote home, "We are currently converting to night fighting. We are not very enthusiastic. We would sooner head directly for England." Lent completed night fighter training at Ingolstadt in south-western Germany, and was appointed squadron leader, or Staffelkapitän, of the newly formed 6./NJG 1 on 1 October 1940. The squadron was based at Deelen Airfield, located north of Arnhem in the Netherlands. On the night 11–12 May 1941, Lent claimed his first nocturnal aerial victories against two Wellington IC bombers from No. 40 Squadron RAF on a mission against Hamburg. BL-H (serial number R1330) was shot down at 01:40 near Süderstapel and BL-Z (R1461) at 02:49 near Nordstrand. On 1 July 1941, he took command of 4./NJG 1, stationed in the Netherlands at Fliegerhorst (airfield) Leeuwarden, north of Arnheim, on the Friesland coast. From this position in the so-called German Bight, the squadron patrolled the North Sea coast, and could intercept Allied night-time bombing missions, what Nazi propaganda called terror attacks, which were conducted from England. By the end of the war, the 4./NJG 1 was one of the most successful Nachtjagdstaffeln—a squadron of a night fighter wing—of the Luftwaffe. Other members included such night fighter pilots as Oberleutnant Helmut Woltersdorf, Leutnant Ludwig Becker (44 victories, KIA February 1943), Leutnant Egmont Prinz zur Lippe-Weißenfeld (51 victories, killed in a flying accident in the Netherlands in March 1944), Leutnant Leopold Fellerer (41 victories), Oberfeldwebel Paul Gildner (46 victories, killed in a flying accident at Fliegerhorst Gilze-Rijen in the Netherlands in February 1943), and Unteroffizier Siegfried Ney (12 victories, KIA February 1943). On 30 August 1941, Lent received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () for seven daytime and 14 night victories. On 1 November 1941, Lent became acting Group Commander Gruppenkommandeur of the newly formed II./NJG 2. On 1 October 1942, II./NJG 2 was renamed and became IV./NJG 1. Lent's first aerial victory as a Gruppenkommandeur, his 20th night-time, and his last in 1941, came during the night of Friday 7 November to Saturday 8 November. He shot down a Wellington 1C heading for Berlin, which came down near Akkrum. The six-man crew of the bomber, X9976 of No. 75 (New Zealand) Squadron, was killed in action. This achievement earned Lent a reference in the Wehrmachtbericht (his first of six in total), an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht. To be singled out individually in the Wehrmachtbericht was an honour and was entered in the Orders and Decorations' section of one's Service Record Book. Lent was promoted to Hauptmann on 1 January 1942. Later that year, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves () on 6 June 1942, at which time his total stood at 34 nocturnal victories plus seven day-time victories. The award was presented at the Führerhauptquartier on 28 and 29 June, his tally standing then at 39 nocturnal and seven day-time victories. Lent also held the distinction of achieving the first Lichtenstein radar-assisted air victory in a Dornier Do 215B-5 night fighter. Lent flew Dornier Do 215B-5 code R4+DC regularly on Himmelbett missions because of its five-hour endurance. Lent claimed at least four victories in this machine. By the end of 1942, Lent had 56 victories and was the top German night-fighter ace. He was promoted to Major on 1 January 1943 and appointed Geschwaderkommodore of NJG 3 on 1 August 1943 at Geschwader Headquarters at Stade, west of Hamburg. After 73 kills, of which 65 were claimed at night, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords () on 2 August 1943 and notified by telegram on 4 August. The Swords were presented to him at the Führerhauptquartier at Rastenburg on 10/11 August 1943. In January 1944, Lent downed three so-called "heavies"—four-engined strategic bombers—in one night, but his aircraft was damaged by return fire, requiring a forced landing. He used only 22 cannon shells to down two bombers on the night of the 22–23 March 1944, and fired only 57 rounds in seven minutes against three Avro Lancasters on 15–16 June. Promoted to Oberstleutnant, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds () in recognition of his 110 confirmed air kills, the first of two night-fighter pilots to be awarded the decoration. The second was Heinz-Wolfgang Schnaufer, who, with 121 aerial victories, became aviation history's leading night-fighter pilot. Personal life All German officers were required to obtain official permission to marry; however, this was usually a bureaucratic formality. When Lent decided to marry Elizabeth Petersen, his admirer from Hamburg whom he had met on a blind date, his case was more complicated. 'Elisabeth Petersen' was in fact Helene (Lena) Senokosnikova, who had been born in Moscow in April 1914. She had been afraid to reveal her true identity, since Russians were not popular in the Third Reich, but after a thorough investigation into her background and racial ancestry, she received her German citizenship on 15 March 1941. They were married on 10 September 1941 in Wellingsbüttel, Hamburg. The marriage produced two daughters. Christina was born on 6 June 1942; the second, Helma, was born on 6 October 1944, shortly after her father's fatal crash. Both of Helmut's older brothers, Joachim and Werner, as members of the Confessing Church (German: Bekennende Kirche), encountered trouble with the Nazi Party. The Confessing Church was a movement within German Protestantism during Nazi Germany that arose in opposition to government-sponsored efforts to unify all Protestant churches into a single pro-Nazi German Evangelical Church. Werner Lent, an adherent of the Confessing church, was arrested for the first time in 1937 after preaching an anti-Nazi sermon. In June 1942, his brother Joachim was arrested by the Gestapo after reading the so-called Mölders letter from the pulpit. The Mölders letter was a propaganda piece conceived by Sefton Delmer, the chief of the British black propaganda in the Political Warfare Executive (PWE) to capitalise on the death of Germany's fighter ace Werner Mölders; this letter, ostensibly written by Mölders, attested to the supreme importance of his Catholic faith in his life—by implication, placing faith above his allegiance to the National Socialist Party. Death On 5 October 1944, Lent flew his Junkers Ju-88 G–6, coded D5+AA, from Stade to Paderborn. His crew included his long-time radio operator Oberfeldwebel Walter Kubisch, the member of a Propagandakompanie (Wehrmacht Propaganda Troops) Leutnant Werner Kark in the aerial gunner position, and Oberleutnant Hermann Klöss, second radio operator. Lent was on his way to visit the Geschwaderkommodore of the NJG 1, Oberstleutnant Hans-Joachim Jabs, to discuss operational matters. Shortly before the arrival at Paderborn/Nordborchen, the airfield had come under attack by the United States Army Air Forces, leaving craters on the runway. An emergency makeshift runway was cleared and marked out for Lent, but an overhead electrical cable was overlooked. During the landing approach, the left engine of the plane failed, causing the wing to dip. Lent was unable to keep the plane steady and it struck high-voltage cables and crashed. All four members of the crew sustained serious injuries but were rescued alive. Kubisch and Klöss succumbed to their injuries on the same day, Kark on the next morning and Lent himself died two days later on 7 October 1944. Lent's state funeral was held in the Reich Chancellery, Berlin, on Wednesday 11 October 1944. Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring took the salute at Lent's coffin, which was draped in the national flag of the Nazi Germany. Ahead of the coffin, carrying Lent's honours and decorations on a velvet cushion, marched Oberstleutnant Werner Streib, the Inspector of Night Fighters. Six steel-helmeted officers, all recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, escorted the coffin on its caisson and stood as guard of honour during the ceremony: Oberstleutnant Günther Radusch, Oberstleutnant Hans-Joachim Jabs, Major Rudolf Schoenert, Hauptmann Heinz Strüning, Hauptmann Karl Hadeball and Hauptmann Paul Zorner. On 12 October 1944 Lent and his crew were interred in a single grave in the military cemetery at Stade. Commemoration A number of Helmut Lent's awards were auctioned at Sotheby's, London, on 18 July 1966. The items were bought in one lot by an anonymous bidder for the total sum of £500. The purchaser was Adolf Galland, the former General der Jagdflieger, acting on behalf of the West German Ministry of Defence. The awards were sold by Helmut Lent's elder daughter Christina after consultation with her mother, Lena, who was in urgent need for money to pay for an operation. The Federal Ministry of Defence presented the collection to the Wehrgeschichtliches Museum Rastatt, Germany. In 1964, West German Army Aviation Corps installation in Rotenburg (Wümme), Lower Saxony was named the Lent Barracks, or Lent-Kaserne, on a recommendation of Lent's former superior. In 2014, the Bundeswehr decided to rename the facility as Lent was no longer considered to be an appropriate namesake. The process, which is expected to finalise in end 2015, involves 1,500 soldiers and 250 civil employees of the site and was initiated by the commander Oberstleutnant Edmund Vogel in early 2015. In September 2016 the district administrator Herrmann Luttmann, member of the moderate right-wing Party CDU stated "No substantial evidence has been found that indeed Helmut Lent was a supporter of the Nazi regime". Luttmann will therefore recommend to keep the name to the local government. Lars Klingbeil, member of the Bundestag and of the Defence Committee has signalled that the German armed forced would adhere to the decision made on local level despite all controversies. "It's long overdue to rename the last barracks named after Wehrmacht officers," Professor Johannes Tuchel, head of the German Resistance Memorial, told Bild am Sonntag. "Officers like Schulz, Lent and Marseille fought in Hitler's war and were part of Nazi propaganda." The barracks should be renamed after soldiers who resisted the Nazi regime, he said. "Those who fought for human rights and the rule of law cannot be commemorated enough." Historian Wolfram Wette concurs with this opinion, citing the tradition directive of 1982. Historian Sönke Neitzel has the opinion that the Bundeswehr should keep the name of Lent, who was not a Nazi but only a value-oriented person who followed his Christian image of humankind (christlichen Menschenbild), even if no Wehrmacht soldier came out of the war completely clean. Despite this, Neitzel thinks that except for the case of Erwin Rommel, in five years no Bundeswehr barracks will retain the name of a Wehrmacht man any more, since soldiers do not want to risk their careers to defend names unwanted by the Ministry of Defence. On 18 March 2018, the Bundeswehr released the latest regulations on military tradition () which stipulates that "The Bundeswehr does not maintain a tradition of people, troop units and military institutions in German (military) history who, according to today's understanding, have acted in a criminal, racist or inhuman manner." Based on these regulations, it was decided that the Lent Barracks would be renamed. Following an inquiry submitted by the Left Party on 8 October 2019, the Cabinet of Germany responded that members of the Lent Barracks had proposed renaming the barracks after forester and Freikorps officer Johann Christian von Düring. On 8 June 2020, the barracks was officially renamed the Von-Düring Barracks. Summary of career Aerial victory claims Lent is officially credited with 111 victories in 507 flights. The total includes 103 victories at night, during which he destroyed 59 four-engine bombers and one Mosquito, among other types. Lent received a posthumous promotion to Oberst (Colonel). Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found documentation for 111 aerial victory claims, including seven as a Zerstörer pilot and 104 as a night fighter pilot, plus three further unconfirmed claims. The majority of his victories were claimed with detailed geographical locations. However, two of his victories were claimed in a Planquadrat (grid reference), for example "QE-PE". The Luftwaffe grid map () was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about . Awards Pilot's Badge (15 November 1937) Sudetenland Medal Narvik Shield (30 January 1941) Wound Badge (1939) in Black (14 July 1941) in Silver (22 December 1943) Iron Cross (1939) 2nd class (21 September 1939) 1st class (11 May 1940) Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe (Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe) on 26 June 1941 Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Destroyer Pilots in Gold Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Nightfighter Pilots in Gold with Pennant "300" Combined Pilots-Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds German Cross in Gold on 9 April 1942 as Hauptmann in the II./Nachtjagdgeschwader 2 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds Knight's Cross on 30 August 1941 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 6./Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 98th Oak Leaves on 6 June 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II./Nachtjagdgeschwader 2 32nd Swords on 2 August 1943 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the IV./Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 15th Diamonds on 31 July 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of the Nachtjagdgeschwader 3 Promotions Notes References Citations Bibliography External links 1918 births 1944 deaths German Lutherans Luftwaffe personnel killed in World War II German World War II flying aces Military personnel from the Province of Brandenburg People from Gorzów County Recipients of the Gold German Cross Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds 20th-century Lutherans Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1944 Hitler Youth members Reich Labour Service members Accidental deaths in Nazi Germany
4570670	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Bates%20%28baseball%29	Billy Bates (baseball)	William Derrick Bates (born December 7, 1963) is an American former professional baseball second baseman and pinch runner who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Milwaukee Brewers and the Cincinnati Reds. In 29 career games, Bates had a batting average of .125 with six hits, two runs batted in (RBI), 11 runs, and eight stolen bases. Though his defensive position was at second base, the Reds primarily used Bates as a pinch runner. After he scored the winning run in Game 2 of the 1990 World Series, Bates never played in MLB again. Born in Houston, Bates attended the University of Texas and, in his freshman season, won the 1983 College World Series as a part of the Texas Longhorns baseball team. For the next two seasons, Bates was named to the College Baseball All-America Team, a team composed of the best collegiate baseball athletes in America. Drafted by Milwaukee in the fourth round of the 1985 MLB draft, he rose through the Brewers' farm system helping several of his minor league teams win their respective league titles. He made his MLB debut in 1989, after Milwaukee's starting second baseman Jim Gantner was injured. A trade in 1990 sent Bates to Cincinnati, where the Reds used him primarily as a pinch runner at the end of the regular season and into the postseason. Facing the Oakland Athletics in the World Series, Bates reached base on a pinch hit single against Dennis Eckersley and later scored the winning run in Game 2 as the Reds swept the Athletics four games to none. Following the World Series championship, the Reds re-signed Bates on a one-year contract, and he played for their Triple-A team. He spent the next year with the Chicago Cubs Triple-A affiliate, and last played exhibition baseball in 1995. After retiring, he worked as an equipment supplier in the oil and gas industry in Houston. Early life William Derrick Bates was born on December 7, 1963, in Houston, Texas. The son of a paint foreman, he was the youngest of seven siblings. He attended Aldine High School, where he played baseball as an infielder and pitcher, basketball as a guard, and American football as a running back. In his junior year, the Aldine Mustangs defeated the Dickinson High School Gators 34–7 to win the Region III football championship; in the game, Bates recorded 93 yards on 14 carries. In baseball, the Texas High School Coaches Association named Bates as an All-Star to their South Team in June 1982. According to Bates, as a senior, Sam Houston State University and "several smaller schools" recruited him for baseball. After his senior season, a scout for the Houston Astros stated Bates would never play major college baseball, and suggested he attend a junior college. When the Philadelphia Phillies selected him in the eighth round of the 1982 MLB draft, Bates became the second player ever to be drafted out of Aldine. Instead of signing a professional contract with the Phillies, who offered Bates $38,000 or $38,500 to sign with the team (equivalent to $102,000 or $103,000 in 2020), Bates chose to attend the University of Texas at Austin. Collegiate career Bates enrolled at the University of Texas at Austin, and started at second base in his first year. The 1983 Longhorns finished the regular season with a 61–14 win–loss record and were ranked as the number one team in the nation by Collegiate Baseball Magazine. Though the College World Series (CWS) followed a double-elimination format, the Longhorns, who defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs to represent the Central Regional in the CWS, remained undefeated and beat the Alabama Crimson Tide 4–3 to win the championship. After the series, Bates was named to the World Series All-Tournament team, composed of the best players from the series, and writers for Baseball America (BA) named him to their honorary first-team Freshman All-America team. He finished the season with a .296 batting average for the Longhorns. During his sophomore season, Bates was named an American Baseball Coaches Association (ABCA) first-team All-American; with the accomplishment, Bates became the second Longhorn second baseman ever to make an All-American team, and the first since Pat Rigby in 1962. Texas finished with a 60–14 record and lost 3–1 to the Cal State Fullerton Titans in the final game of the 1984 CWS. Bates recorded 36 steals over the regular season and batted .272. His 62 walks and 74 games played both led the Longhorns. In 1985, Bates was a co-captain of the Texas team with David Denny, and was named a BA and an ABCA All-American with a .361 batting average as Texas finished at a 64–14 mark. In a June 1 CWS game against the Arizona Wildcats, Bates switched from hitting left to hitting right-handed in the middle of the game, and walked in the 7th inning and scored the game-tying run, and, in the 8th inning, hit a double that scored the go-ahead run. On June 5, in a game against the Miami Hurricanes, Bates hit two home runs, one from the right-hand side and one an inside-the-park home run from the left-hand side, as the Longhorns won 8–4; his two home runs tied a record for most home runs in a single CWS game. In a game against the Arkansas Razorbacks on June 8, Bates hit a triple in the bottom of the tenth inning and scored the winning run on a Doug Hodo single as the Longhorns defeated the Razorbacks 8–7. In the CWS finals, Texas lost twice against the Hurricanes, who advanced to the series from the loser's bracket, and lost the series. Over his career with the Longhorns, Bates batted .312 with a fielding percentage of .969. Texas head coach Cliff Gustafson called Bates the best second baseman who played under him up to and including 1985. In 1996, a panel of sixty coaches, Division I Baseball Committee chairs, and media who covered the CWS named Bates to their all-decade team for the 1980s. , Bates held the Texas Longhorns record for most career triples, with 20, most triples in a single season, with 13, and most runs scored in a single season, with 100. On June 3, the Milwaukee Brewers drafted Bates in the 4th round of the 1985 MLB draft. An anonymous scout outside the Brewers organization called Bates "confusing", and said "if you just put the stats on, and forget he's , , he's done remarkable things. But we go on percentages." Professional career Rise to the majors Bates began playing professionally for the Class A-Advanced Stockton Ports, a Brewers farm team which competed in the California League (CL). Though the Ports had seven future MLB pitchers on their roster, the team only had two future MLB position players: Bates and LaVel Freeman, who played in two games for the Brewers in 1989. Under manager Tom Gamboa, the Ports finished with an 82–63 record and reached the CL playoffs, which consisted of four teams playing in two best-of-five game series; the two winners advanced to play for the League championship. In the first series, the Ports defeated the Modesto A's, three games to one. In the championship, Stockton faced the Fresno Giants; with a 2–1 series lead, Stockton lost the final two games, and the Giants won the California League title. Bates batted .298, tied for fourth-best on the team, with 18 stolen bases in 59 games played. In 1986, the Brewers promoted Bates to the Double-A El Paso Diablos. Bates' eight home runs and 75 runs batted in (RBI) became the highest of his career at any professional level. The Diablos finished the regular season with an 85–50 record as Bates led the club with 23 stolen bases but was caught stealing 10 times, also a team high. In the playoffs, the Diablos defeated the Jackson Mets four games to none to win the Texas League championship. Bates set a league record with three stolen bases in a single postseason game. Before the 1987 season, Bates attempted to make the Brewers' Opening Day roster by playing in Milwaukee's spring training camp. A writer for the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel noted there was "a lot of recent publicity" around Bates, and another Journal Sentinel reporter said he "impressed many with his play". The Brewers sent Bates to their minor league camp in Peoria, Arizona, in March. He spent the entire season playing in Triple-A for the Denver Zephyrs of the American Association (AA) and played in 130 games, the second most on the Zephyrs to Brad Komminsk's 135. In a May 30 game against the Indianapolis Indians, Bates hit the game-winning single in the bottom of the 9th inning. He was named the AA's All-Star second baseman, and finished the season batting .316 with 51 stolen bases, second most in the AA to Gary Thurman of the Omaha Royals, who stole 58. His 117 runs scored also led a Denver club that won its final 11 games to finish 79–61, one game ahead of the Louisville Redbirds for the best record in the AA. In the league championship series, Denver lost to the Indians four games to one. Before the 1988 season, a prediction in the Fort Worth Star-Telegram stated that Bates might make the Brewers if Paul Molitor ended up as a third baseman or a designated hitter. In a Brewers' spring training game in early March, Bates committed two errors against the Chicago Cubs in the 11th inning, as the Cubs scored the winning run without recording a hit, but his 4th or 5th-inning single scored two runs. Bates was again cut from the MLB roster before the start of the 1988 season, as Milwaukee manager Tom Trebelhorn named Molitor as the Brewers' starting second baseman. Now in Triple-A, Bates had a five-RBI game against the Iowa Cubs on April 12 in a Zephyrs victory. In a June game against the Toledo Mud Hens, Bates hit a single and a double, with two walks and two runs scored, in a 5–1 Zephyrs win. Hindered throughout the season by a leg injury, Bates hit .258 with 29 stolen bases, a loss of 22 from a season ago, as the Zephyrs finished 72–62. Milwaukee Brewers After the 1988 season, the Brewers invited Bates to their spring training camp as a non-roster invitee as the 1989 season approached. Bates competed for a utility infielder position along with Gus Polidor, Edgar Díaz, and Juan Castillo, though Bates stated that he had played at shortstop and third base the previous year and Trebelhorn said he could contribute more in Triple-A. When 12-year Brewer second baseman Jim Gantner re-signed with the club, Bates was demoted to Denver, and the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel predicted that he would remain there due to his limited defensive versatility. Bates began the season with the Zephyrs and in July was named to the Triple-A All-Star Game. In a game against the New York Yankees on August 15, Gantner tore the medial collateral ligament in his left knee and was placed on the disabled list. Bates was called up as his replacement, though Milwaukee's general manager Harry Dalton stated he would aim to acquire a second baseman with MLB experience for the spot. Dalton said that Bates was expected to join Milwaukee by the start of the game on August 16, adding "he won't be in the starting lineup, but he could play if necessary". Bates made his MLB debut on August 17 as a part of a double switch against the Boston Red Sox: when Dan Plesac replaced Tony Fossas as the pitcher, Bates entered the game for Polidor. Wade Boggs hit a ground ball to Bates, but Bates committed an error that allowed Boggs to reach base and Dwight Evans to advance to third base. No runs were scored in the inning and the Brewers won 8–4. Bates made his first career start two days later, and his first MLB hit came on August 20 when he reached base on an infield single. After his hit, Bates stole second base, and scored on a single by Robin Yount. While he was running out a base hit on August 22, Bates slipped on wet grass and suffered a separated right shoulder. The Brewers placed him on the 15-day disabled list; as a replacement, Milwaukee acquired Ed Romero from the Atlanta Braves. Bates returned to the team for three more games in September before the end of the season. Over seven MLB games, he batted .214 with three hits, three runs, and two steals; in Triple-A, Bates batted .273 with a slugging percentage of .322. In late March, Bates was listed as the starting second baseman on Milwaukee's depth chart for the 1990 MLB season, although Dale Sveum was competing for the spot as well. Bates started at second on Opening Day against the Chicago White Sox, and despite a 2–1 Brewers' loss, Bates' play was complimented by Milwaukee Journal Sentinel writer Michael Bauman. Facing the Red Sox on April 14, Bates hit his only MLB extra base hit, a double, in the eighth inning, but committed two errors on defense. He later scored the go-ahead run on a Gary Sheffield double in a 9–5 Milwaukee victory. His second and final MLB RBI occurred on April 18: Rob Deer scored on his single, after Bates entered the game in the 6th inning to replace Sveum, who had been hit by a pitch an inning earlier. By April 27 Bates was hitting .103 over 29 at bats, as Molitor came off the DL and was expected to take over at second: Seth Livingstone of The Telegraph called the switch "merciful". Four days later, Bates was demoted to Denver, where he was the team's all-time leader in steals. After batting .327 in 25 games with the Zephyrs, he was acquired along with Glenn Braggs by the Cincinnati Reds for Ron Robinson and Bob Sebra on June 9, 1990. Reds general manager Bob Quinn said he made the trade because, though "we felt comfortable with our pitching staff, we didn't feel comfortable with the right-handed hitters off the bench". Bates later stated he repeatedly asked the Brewers to trade him. Cincinnati Reds When he arrived with the Reds organization, Bates was assigned to the Triple-A Nashville Sounds of the AA. In a play-in game to determine the leader of the AA Eastern division, and thus the team that qualified for the playoffs, the Sounds defeated the Buffalo Bisons when Chris Jones hit a double that scored Bates in the eighteenth inning. The Sounds lost the ensuing series against the Western-champion Omaha Royals three games to two; Bates' season was not over, as the Reds added him to their MLB roster. For the Sounds, Bates batted .280 with 12 stolen bases and no home runs over 73 games played. In his Cincinnati debut on September 11, Bates came into the game as a pinch runner and scored on a Billy Doran hit. Doran, a second baseman, was hospitalized with back pain and spasms on September 29. Doctors performed an operation on October 3, which would hold him out of postseason play as Cincinnati won the National League (NL) West. In a move that surprised Bates, who had prepared to return to his Houston residence after the Reds' last regular-season game, the club added him to their postseason roster. He finished the regular season with eight appearances for the Reds, the majority of which came as a pinch runner. In the 1990 NL Championship Series, the Reds faced the Pittsburgh Pirates in a best-of-seven game series. In Game 1, with the Reds down 4–3 in the bottom of the ninth inning, manager Lou Piniella put Bates in the game as a pinch runner for Ron Oester on first base. Eric Davis, at second, tried to steal third, and Bates followed to second; while Davis was safe, Pirates catcher Mike LaValliere threw Bates out by three feet. The Reds failed to score that inning and lost the game. Bates' next postseason appearance came in Game 3, when he pinch ran for Joe Oliver and scored a run as the Reds won 6–3. Cincinnati ultimately defeated the Pirates and moved on to the World Series, where they would play the Oakland Athletics for the league championship. In Game 1, the Reds defeated the Athletics 7–0. Bates did not play. In Game 2, after nine innings, the game remained tied, 4–4. Dennis Eckersley pitched for the Athletics for the bottom of the tenth, when Bates entered the game to pinch hit. Hitting coach Tony Pérez told him to "put the ball in play" and "run like Hell". Eckersley pitched Bates to an 0–2 ball–strike count when he hit the ball weakly to the third baseman and beat out an infield single; it was Bates' first hit against a right-handed pitcher in his MLB career. Chris Sabo advanced Bates to second on a single, and Oliver scored Bates on another single to win the game. Bates called the situation a "dream come true". The Reds defeated the Athletics four games to none and became World Series champions. Bates did not play in either of the last two games. As with all players on the World Series champion Reds, Bates received a World Series ring and visited the White House. Later career In January, Bates signed a one-year contract to stay with the Reds. In spring training, Cincinnati sent Bates to their minor league complex for reassignment to a team in the Reds' farm system. He started the season in Triple-A. Doran, still with a back injury, went on the DL in May, but Bates was not able to take his spot due to a back injury of his own. He played the entire 1991 season for the Sounds, where he batted .242 over 49 games with one stolen base out of three attempts, as the team finished with a 65–78 record. The Reds did not re-sign him. On May 7, 1992, Bates signed a contract with the Chicago Cubs and played for the Iowa Cubs, Chicago's Triple-A affiliate. Over 91 games played, he hit .241 with 62 hits and two stolen bases as Iowa finished 51–92. From 1992 to 1994, he worked for his father-in-law in a Houston pipe fabrication business. In February 1995, the Brewers invited Bates to their spring training camp as a possible replacement player due to the 1994–1995 MLB strike. When the strike ended, Bates returned to his wife and children in Houston instead of continuing his career elsewhere, citing physical reasons for his retirement. While playing in MLB, Bates stood at and weighed . He batted left-handed, and threw right-handed. In 29 career games, Bates had a batting average of .125 with six hits, two runs batted in (RBI), 11 runs, and eight stolen bases. Personal life In 1984, Bates was on the preliminary roster for baseball at the Olympic games, but did not make its final roster. He was a physical education major at the University of Texas in 1985. His teammates taunted him about his height: in Bates' first Milwaukee spring training camp, players threw a cap on the ground and addressed it as if it were Bates. During the MLB off-season, he worked as a substitute school teacher in Houston. Before the 1990 World Series, Bates raced against an unchained cheetah in a promotional event for the Cincinnati Zoo at Riverfront Stadium. The premise of the event was to show that a cheetah could defeat a human (with a five-second head start) in a race. The cheetah was supposed to chase a toy, but about halfway through the race, Bates' hat fell off, and instead, it went after the hat; Bates won the race. In 1991, Bates participated in the University of Texas' Varsity–Alumni game, a game between varsity baseball players and alumni players. In 2000, the University of Texas inducted him into their Men's Athletics Hall of Honor. , Bates lived in Houston and worked for an equipment supplier in the oil and gas industry. References External links Video of Bates scoring the winning run in Game Two of the 1990 World Series Baseball players from Houston 1963 births Living people Major League Baseball second basemen Texas Longhorns baseball players Stockton Ports players El Paso Diablos players Denver Zephyrs players Milwaukee Brewers players Nashville Sounds players Cincinnati Reds players Iowa Cubs players All-American college baseball players
4571275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Xaver%20Richter	Franz Xaver Richter	Franz (Czech: František) Xaver Richter, known as François Xavier Richter in France (December 1, 1709 – September 12, 1789) was an Austro-Moravian singer, violinist, composer, conductor and music theoretician who spent most of his life first in Austria and later in Mannheim and in Strasbourg, where he was music director of the cathedral. From 1783 on Haydn’s favourite pupil Ignaz Pleyel was his deputy at the cathedral. The most traditional of the first generation composers of the so-called Mannheim school, he was highly regarded in his day as a contrapuntist. As a composer he was equally at home in the concerto and the strict church style. Mozart heard a mass by Richter on his journey back from Paris to Salzburg in 1778 and called it charmingly written. Richter, as a contemporary engraving clearly shows, must have been one of the first conductors to actually have conducted with a music sheet roll in his hand. Richter wrote chiefly symphonies, concertos for woodwinds, trumpet, chamber and church music, his masses receiving special praise. He was a man of a transitional period, and his symphonies in a way constitute one of the missing links between the generation of Bach and Handel and the '1st Viennese school' . Although sometimes contrapuntal in a learned way, Richter's orchestral works nevertheless exhibit considerable drive and verve. Until a few years ago, Richter’s music "survived" with recordings of his trumpet concerto in D major, but recently a number of chamber orchestras and ensembles have taken on many of his pieces, particularly symphonies and concertos, into their repertoire. He was also on friendly terms with Haydn and Mozart. Biography 1709–1739 Origins and education Franz Xaver Richter was probably born in Holleschau (now Holešov), Moravia (then part of the Habsburg monarchy, now the Czech Republic), although this is not entirely certain. There is no record of his birth in the Holleschau church register. In his employment contract with the Prince Abbot of Kempten it says that he hailed from Bohemia. The musicologist Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg has Richter being from Hungarian descent and on his Strasbourg death certificate it says: "ex Kratz oriundus". Although his whereabouts until 1740 are nowhere documented, it is clear that Richter got a very thorough training in counterpoint and that this took place using the influential counterpoint treatise Gradus ad Parnassum by Johann Josef Fux; Richter may even have been Fux's pupil in Vienna. Richter's lifelong mastery of the strict church style which is particularly evident in his liturgical works but also shines through in his symphonies and chamber music, is testimony to his roots in the Austrian and south German Baroque music. 1740–1747 Vize-Kapellmeister in Kempten On April 2, 1740, Richter was appointed deputy Kapellmeister (Vize-Kapellmeister) to the Prince-Abbot Anselm von Reichlin-Meldeg of Kempten in Allgäu. Reichlin Meldeg as Prince Abbot presided over the Fürststift Kempten, a large Benedictine Monastery in what is now south-western Bavaria. The monastery certainly would have had a choir and probably a small orchestra (rather a band, as it was called then), as well, but this must have been a small affair. Richter stayed in Kempten for six years but it is hard to imagine that a man of his education and talents would have liked the idea of spending the rest of his life in this scenically beautiful but otherwise completely parochial town. In February 1743 Richter married Maria Anna Josepha Moz, who was probably from Kempten. Twelve of Richter's symphonies for strings were published in Paris in the year 1744. It is assumed that Richter left Kempten already before the death of Reichlin-Meldeg in December 1747. 1747–1768 Singer and Cammercompositeur in Mannheim Just how much Richter must have disliked Kempten can be deduced from the fact that in 1747 his name appears among the court musicians of the Prince elector Charles Theodore in Mannheim – but not as music director or in any other leading function but as a simple singer (bass). Obviously Richter preferred being one among many (singers and orchestra combine numbered more than 70 persons) in Mannheim to acting deputy Kapellmeister in a small town like Kempten. Because of his old fashioned, even reactionary music style Richter was not popular in Mannheim. The title awarded to him in 1768 as Cammercompositeur (chamber composer) seems to have been merely an honorary one. He was slightly more successful as a composer of sacred music and as music theoretician. In 1748 the Elector commissioned him to compose an oratorio for Good Friday, La deposizione dalla croce. It is sometimes concluded that this oratorio was not a success as there was only one performance and Richter was never commissioned to write another one. Richter was also a respected teacher of composition. Between 1761 and 1767 he wrote a treatise on composition (Harmonische Belehrungen oder gründliche Anweisung zu der musikalischen Ton-Kunst oder regulären Komposition), based on Fux's Gradus ad Parnassum – the only representative of the Mannheim School to do so. The lengthy work in three tomes is dedicated to Charles Theodore. Among his more notable pupils were Joseph Martin Kraus, probably Carl Stamitz and Ferdinand Fränzl. After 1768 Richter's name disappears from the lists of court singers. During his Mannheim years Richter made tours to the Oettingen-Wallerstein court in 1754 and later to France, the Netherlands and England where his compositions found a ready market with publishers. It seems clear from Richter's compositions that he did not really fit in at the Mannheim court. Whereas his colleagues in the orchestra were interested in lively, energetic, homophonic music that focused on drive, brilliancy and sparkling orchestral effects gained from stock devices, Richter, rooted in the Austrian Baroque tradition, wrote music that was in a way reminiscent of Handel and of his teacher Fux. Thus, when in 1769 an opening at Strasbourg's cathedral became known Richter seems to have applied right away. 1769–1789 Maitre de Chapelle de Notre-Dame de Strasbourg In April 1769 he succeeded Joseph Garnier as Kapellmeister at Strasbourg Cathedral, where both his performing and composing activities turned increasingly to sacred music. He was by then recognized as a leading contrapuntist and church composer. Johann Sebastian Bach's first biographer, composer and musicologist Johann Nikolaus Forkel, wrote about Richter in 1782: "Ist ein sehr guter Contrapunktist und Kirchenkomponist." ("Is a very good contrapuntist and church composer.") In Strasbourg Richter also had to direct the concerts at the Episcopal court (today Palais Rohan); in addition to that he was for a time also in charge of the town concerts which were held at regular intervals. The main part of Richter's sacred music was composed during his Strasbourg years. He was active as a composer until his last year. During his last years Haydn's favourite pupil Ignaz Pleyel served as his assistant at the cathedral. In 1787 he visited Munich, where he met Mozart's father Leopold one last time. In Munich he met most of his former colleagues of the Mannheim court orchestra who by then had moved to Munich to where the court had been transferred. From 1783 on, and due to Richter's advanced age and declining health, Joseph Haydn's favourite pupil Ignaz Pleyel served as his assistant. He would succeed him at the post after his death. Richter died, aged 79, at Strasbourg, in the year of the French Revolution. Thus he did not have to witness his deputy Ignaz Pleyel being forced to write hymns to praise the supreme being and the death by guillotine of Jean-Frédéric Edelmann, a gifted composer from Strasbourg. 1770 Richter meets Marie Antoinette In 1770 Marie Antoinette, future queen of France, on her way from Vienna to Paris passed through the Alsatian capital, where she stayed at the Episcopal Palace, the Palais Rohan. Richter composed a motet, Audin pulsantur, for this occasion. Richter, who almost certainly directed the church music when Marie Antoinette went to mass the next day, witnessed the earliest stages of historical events that would later contribute to the downfall of the French monarchy. The prelate who greeted Marie Antoinette on the steps of the cathedral, probably in Richter's presence, was the same Louis Rohan who would later, duped by a prostitute impersonating Marie Antoinette, trigger the Affair of the Diamond Necklace. Several historians and writers think that this bizarre episode undermined the trust of the French in their queen and thus hastened the onset of the French Revolution. But Richter did not live to see this. What he saw was Strasbourg all dressed up to greet the Dauphiness: "The city of Strasburg was in gala array. It had prepared for the dauphiness the splendours it had displayed 25 years before for the journey of Louis the Well-beloved. (...) Three companies of young children from twelve to fifteen years of age, habited as Cent-Suisses, formed the line along the passage of the princess. Twenty-four young girls of the most distinguished families of Strasbourg, dressed in the national costume, strewed flowers before her; and eighteen shepherds and shepherdesses presented her with baskets of flowers. (...) On the following day (May 8, 1770) Marie Antoinette visited the cathedral. By a strange coincidence the prelate who awaited her with the chapter at the entrance to felicitate her, and who greeted her "the soul of Maria Theresa about to unite itself to the soul of the Bourbons", was the nephew of the bishop, that prince, Louis de Rohan, who was later to inflict upon the dauphiness, become queen, the deadliest of injuries. But in the midst of the then so brilliant prospect who could discern these shadows?" 1778 Richter meets Mozart Both Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father Leopold knew Richter. Mozart would have met him still as a boy on his Family Grand tour in 1763 when the Mozart family came through Schwetzingen, the summer residence of the Elector Palatinate. Mozart met him once again in 1778 on his way back from Paris when he was headed for the unloved Salzburg after his plans to gain permanent employment in Mannheim or Paris had come to naught. In a letter to his father, dated November 2, 1778, Mozart seems to suggest that the by then elderly Richter was something of an alcoholic: "Strasbourg can scarcely do without me. You cannot think how much I am esteemed and beloved here. People say that I am disinterested as well as steady and polite, and praise my manners. Everyone knows me. As soon as they heard my name, the two Herrn Silbermann [i. e. Andreas Silbermann and Johann Andreas Silbermann] and Herr Hepp (organist) came to call on me, and also Kapellmeister Richter. He has now restricted himself very much ; instead of forty bottles of wine a day, he only drinks twenty! ... If the Cardinal had died, (and he was very ill when I arrived,) I might have got a good situation, for Herr Richter is seventy-eight years of age. Now farewell ! Be cheerful and in good spirits, and remember that your son is, thank God ! well, and rejoicing that his happiness daily draws nearer. Last Sunday I heard a new mass of Herr Richter's, which is charmingly written." However, Mozart was not one to laud lightly. The epithet "charmingly written" can be taken at face value and from someone like Mozart this was high praise indeed. Early Symphony The Adagio and Fugue in G minor for Strings (1760) is one of Franz Xaver Richter's symphonies, which features the learned style in 18th century orchestral works. His experience in churches also contributes to his sophisticated contrapuntal style in his orchestral works. The first movement begins with the tonic key, G minor, entitled Adagio and fugue, and it distinguishes from later sonata form by Haydn and Mozart. The opening material is quite different from the primary theme in symphonies by Mozart and Haydn. First, the opening material is not highly melodically recognizable and easy to grasp for the audience. One could call it primary key area instead of the primary theme. It is in highly learned style with a lot of sequential passages. The music progresses until m. 23 when it reaches a structural V chord in the first section after an augmented sixth chord (m. 25) is emphasized (Example A). Again the music is still in the tonic key area when the fugue begins. The fugue subject is in g minor, and the answer is in d minor. The music goes to B-flat major for the first time in m. 60 after a V–I motion. The B-flat major passage starts another sequence until m. 67. The third tonal area in this piece is C major, starting after a French augmented sixth chord resolving to a dominant chord (G-B-D) in m. 120. A cadence on C major is elided in m. 217, the bass progresses to a D-G motion, sitting on the tonic key G minor in m. 222. Overall, the first movement includes two sections, Adagio (which can be seen as an introduction to fugue) and a fugue (in fugue form), which is very different from the sonata-allegro form composed by Mozart and Haydn. As Jochen Reutter acclaims, Franz Xaver Richter's compositional idiom "changed from a late Baroque sound to a tonal language which reached the threshold of the Classical style. He was influenced by the 18th-century learned style and he adapted the Mannheim symphonic style with his own differentiated instrumentation." Also according to Reutter, "his [Richter's] works from this period include such conservative traits as fugal techniques, Baroque sequences and the frequent use of minor tonality." As shown in this work Adagio and Fugue in G minor for Strings, the first movement is almost entirely based on various kinds of sequences and fugal style. This early symphony makes an intriguing subject for a scholarly study of early symphonies. Works (overview) Orchestral Symphonies (approximately 80 are extant) Thereof: Grandes Symphonies 1-6 (Paris 1744)[Now published by Artaria Editions] Thereof: Grandes Symphonies 7–12 (Paris 1744)[Now published by Artaria Editions] Several concertos for flute and orchestra, oboe and orchestra, and trumpet and orchestra Sacred music Kempten Te Deum for soli, choir and orchestra (1745) 39 Masses La Deposizione della Croce (Oratorio, 1748) Numerous motets and psalms. Chamber music Sonate da camera Op. 2 Nr. 1-6 (sonatas for harpsichord, flute and violoncello) Seven String Quartets, Op. 5 Nr. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5b, 6 (1757) Notes and references Sources Blume, Friedrich, Hrsg. Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik. Ungekürzte elektronische Ausgabe der ersten Auflage. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1949–1987. Forkel, Johann Nikolaus. Musikalischer Almanach für Deutschland auf das Jahr 1782. Leipzig: Im Schwickertschen Verlag, 1781. Funck-Brentano, Frantz. The Diamond Necklace. Translated by H. Sutherland Edwards. London: Greening & Co. LTD, 1911. Goncourt, Edmond et Jules de. Histoire de Marie Antoinette. Paris: G. Charpentier et Cie., 1884. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. The Letters of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Edited by Ludwig Nohl. Translated by Lady Wallace (i.e. Grace Jane Wallace). Vol. 1. 2 vols. New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1866. Randel, Don Michael, ed. The Harvard Biographical Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1996. Riemann, Hugo. Handbuch der Musikgeschichte. Die Musik des 18. und 19. Jahrhhunderts. Zweite, von Alfred Einstein durchgesehene Auflage. Bd. II. V Bde. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1922. Rocheterie, Maxime de la. The Life of Marie Antoinette. Translated by Cora Hamilton Bell. Vol. 1. 2 vols. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1895. Slonimsky, Nicolas, ed. Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians. 5th Completely Revised Edition. New York, 1958. Alfried Wieczorek, Hansjörg Probst, Wieland Koenig, Hrsg. Lebenslust und Frömmigkeit – Kurfürst Carl Theodor (1724–1799) zwischen Barock und Aufklärung. Bd. 2. 2 Bde. Regensburg, 1999. Discography (selection) Grandes Symphonies (1744), Nos. 1–6 (Set 1) (Helsinki Baroque, Hakkinen) NAXOS 8.557818 Grandes Symphonies (1744), Nos. 7–12 (Set 2) (Helsinki Baroque, Hakkinen) NAXOS 8.570597 Sonate da camera (1764): Nos. 1–3 (Fred, Peltoniemi, Hakkinen) NAXOS 8.572029 Symphonies (London Mozart Players, Bamert) Chandos Seven String Quartets, Op. 5 (1757) (casalQuartet) Solo Musica SM 184 (2014) External links Artaria Editions providing a biography and editions of Richter's works NAXOS Records providing a biography and discography of NAXOS Richter recordings Sheet Music from Schott Publishers 1709 births 1789 deaths String quartet composers 18th-century Austrian male musicians 18th-century classical composers Austrian Classical-period composers Austrian male classical composers Austrian people of Moravian-German descent Czech Classical-period composers Czech male classical composers People from Holešov Musicians from the Margraviate of Moravia
4571598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragan%20Obrenovi%C4%87	Dragan Obrenović	Dragan Obrenović (born 12 April 1963) is a former Bosnian Serb senior officer and commander in the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and the Bosnian Serb Army (VRS). In 2001, Obrenović was indicted for war crimes and crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague for his involvement in implementation of the VRS leadership's plan to kill the mostly Bosniak civilians and prisoners of war in the Srebrenica genocide during the Bosnian War in July 1995. In 2003, Obrenović pleaded guilty to one of the counts of persecution and in exchange agreed to allocute to his crime and witness for the prosecution he was sentenced to 17 years in prison. He served out his sentence in Norway and would be eligible for release in April 2018. He was released by orders from the ICTY in 2012 for good behaviour. The decision to release him was made in September 2011 but was kept a secret until May 2012. He was deported from Norway in 2012, after his release from prison. Early life and education Obrenović was born on 12 April 1963 in the village of Rogatica on Matino Brdo, in the Rogatica municipality in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. He attended primary school in Rogatica and secondary school at a military gymnasium in Belgrade. Upon graduation at age of 18, Obrenović attended the military academy for ground forces of the JNA, specializing in armored and mechanized units. He graduated in 1986 at the age of 23, receiving a commission as an officer. Career Obrenović's first assignment was a tank platoon command at the Jastrebarsko garrison in Croatia. After six months he was promoted to tank company commander in the same brigade. This post he held until 1990 when he was promoted to deputy command of the armored battalion. In October 1991, during the Croatian War of Independence, the JNA started its withdrawal from Croatia and Obrenović's unit was relocated to the Dubrava Airport in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, where he was promoted to acting commander of the armored battalion. On 28 February 1992, his battalion was relocated to Mali Zvornik and Zvornik when the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina began to deteriorate as well. Role in the Yugoslav wars JNA attack on Zvornik In early April 1992, with the international community rapidly approaching recognition of the independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina along former Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito's old boundaries, Serbia-controlled JNA forces began preparations to invade and conduct ethnic cleansing campaigns in the Bosanski Šamac, Prijedor, Vlasenica and Zvornik regions of the Drina Valley in Eastern Bosnia. Until this point, the Bosnian Muslim (Bosniak) population in the city of Zvornik enjoyed a 59.4% majority. Captain Dragan Obrenović appeared on public radio to assure the citizens of that area that the JNA's only mandate was to protect all citizens of Yugoslavia: "There is no reason for panic. The JNA, as a legal military force, is here disable those that would eventually try to threaten the security of all citizens and the entire nation." Five days later the JNA, including Obrenović's battalion, launched a massive simultaneous assault, starting with the attack by the Serb Volunteer Guard paramilitary forces on Bijeljina. The attacks soon spread to Foča, Zvornik, Bosanski Šamac, Vlasenica, Prijedor, Brčko, and was punctuated by the blockading of the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo to the southwest. Non-Serbs had their property confiscated, were deported en masse, and many men of military age or of political, community, religious or cultural importance were murdered on sight or in mass executions in villages such as Kozarac, Gornja Grapska in Doboj, the Hotel Posavina in Brčko, the Crkvina warehouse in Bosanski Šamac, and detention centers such as the Brčko Partizan sports hall. Many other non-Serb men were interred at infamous concentration camps such as Omarska and Keraterm, while the women, children and elderly fled south toward the towns of Srebrenica and Žepa. Transfer to the VRS On 19 May 1992, two weeks after the JNA established a total blockade of the Bosnian capital and began the now-infamous Siege of Sarajevo, the JNA began withdrawing from Bosnia while personnel and equipment from the second military district remained behind to be absorbed into the forming Bosnian Serb rebel army. Obrenović's unit was relocated the following day to the garrison in the Vršac municipality in Serbia. On 1 December 1992 he was given orders to report to the newly formed Army of Republika Srpska (VRS). Obrenović reported to Crna Rijeka, whereupon he was appointed acting Chief of Staff of the 1st Zvornik Infantry Brigade under the 17th VRS Corps at Tuzla. Initially, the armored vehicles still carried the emblems of the JNA and it was only later that they sported the Bosnian Serb flag and badges showing the Bosnian Serb coat-of-arms. At the same time, the members of the units - officers and soldiers alike - had been wearing Bosnian Serb badges on their uniforms from the beginning. In April 1993 Obrenović was promoted to the post of permanent Chief of Staff of 1st Zvornik Infantry Brigade. On 16 April 1995 Obrenović was wounded in his left leg during combat operations. He was evacuated and underwent surgery as well as extensive post-operative treatment. A few months later, a commander and another officer visited him at his house while he was still on sick leave, asking him to interrupt his leave and return to brigade command, as preparations were under way to attack the besieged Srebrenica enclave, then designated a United Nations-protected "safe area". Srebrenica was a base of operations for largely ethnic Bosniak Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) 28th Mountain Division - an undisciplined, untrained, poorly armed and totally isolated Bosnian government force, now leaderless after Naser Orić and most of his staff left Srebrenica on the orders from Sarajevo. Obrenović returned to duty at Zvornik Brigade command on 1 July. VRS attack on Srebrenica Believing that the UN-protected enclaves of Srebrenica and Žepa were never demilitarized, and that they hid what amounted to "five or six brigades" of ARBiH troops and weapons, the VRS Main Staff ordered the Drina Corps command to undertake an operation codenamed Krivaja '95. On 2 July 1995 Obrenović's brigade was given operational orders related to the operation. Detailed orders from Drina Corps regarding his brigade's involvement arrived later that same day. Obrenović drafted Zvornik Brigade deployment details, and a combat group of command and two battalions were set up. The 1st Battalion comprised the Podrinje attachment and the mobile combat group called Drina Wolves. The 2nd Battalion comprised one intervention platoon from all battalions except the fifth, then split into two companies. Captain Vinko Pandurević was in command of the whole brigade involvement. His deputy, Captain First Class Milan "Legenda" Jolović, commanded the Wolves. Ambushes on the ARBiH/civilian exodus column From 4 to 15 July 1995 Obrenović acted as deputy commander of the Zvornik Brigade while the commander was gone to Srebrenica during the assault. Obrenović later testified that he heard about fall of Srebrenica on 11 July. At 05:00 on 12 July Obrenović's Gucovo group reported communication intercepts indicating large foot column of Bosniaks had formed, comprising parts of the ARBiH 28th Division as well as thousands of desperate refugees, and was heading northeast toward the city of Tuzla in the Bosnian government-held territory. At 07:00 Obrenović had a conversation with duty officer of Captain First Class Radika Petrović, commander of the 4th Battalion of the Bratunac Brigade who briefed him on the details of the column passing between his area near Buljin and the Milići Brigade. Obrenović had concerns that the customary travel vector might bring the column close to engaging with Zvornik Brigade forces just north of the village of Jaglići. Obrenović went to the 7th Battalion headquarters in Memići to deal with an impending attack by the ARBiH 2nd Corps from Tuzla. Needing more information on this column, Obrenović sent his assistant commander for intelligence affairs, one Captain Vukotić, to the 4th Battalion command in the Kajica village in Šekovići, and asked him to seek direct details on this column. Two VRS units in the area meanwhile blockaded the column; one battalion of the Protection Regiment in Kasaba and part of the units of the 55th Engineering Battalion in Konjević Polje. One company from Zvornik MUP were also present with one more preparing to head there. Obrenović received orders from Drina Corps to assist traffic regulation in Konjević Polje, he sent a detachment of a half squad of traffic police to assist. Later on he began receiving requests for trucks and buses for transport in Potočari, where thousands of unarmed Bosnians were captured by the Serb forces at the base of UN Dutchbat peacekeepers. He received more intel reports regarding the disposition of prisoners to be interrogated as well as predictions on movement of the column. Early on the evening of 12 April he got word from Vukotić that units of the 28th Division were carrying out a penetration and evacuation through this space and that practically the entire area was overwhelmed by people from this column. There was also a second VRS blockade in front of the column between Kravica, Konjević Polje and near an asphalt road in Nova Kasaba. Small groups (about 150 men) from column broke through and were reaching Glogova and Cerska, so Obrenović was tasked to take all necessary measures in order to protect the elements of combat deployment of the brigade as well as populated Serb villages in the territory of Zvornik. At midnight on 12 July Obrenović set out with some units north of Liplje to organize an ambush of forward components of 28th Division. The ambush was laid, but no ARBiH units arrived. Leaving some troops at Snagovo, Obrenović and the rest returned to Zvornik. When he arrived at brigade headquarters, he was informed that the column had been stopped on the road from Kravica, Konjević Polje, to Milići, and that there were no troops in their area. Shortly thereafter he received word from intercept groups that chatter was picking up in the area stretching from Cerska toward Kamenica, despite Drina Corps' reassurance that there was no troop presence there. 28th Division radio intercepts showed that their security slipped up and the Serbs were able to learn that their numbers were 1,000-1,500 in that area. Later on 13 July Obrenović strengthened the units that had stayed up there providing the ambush, and he decided to organise a provisional unit, grouping squad and platoon from the units at his disposal: 15 soldiers from the engineers company, five or six soldiers from the staff command, and about 15 to 20 soldiers from the logistics battalion, a remaining platoon from the 5th Battalion, and an intervention platoon; this formed a unit with the strength of a company. Captain Milan Marić from the operations sector was made commander. Obrenović sent the military police platoon to perform reconnaissance of the Drinjača River canyon by the village of Glodi, concluding that the column would likely use the two bridges there. An ambush team was assembled from military police platoon at Široki Put and the other at Džafin Kamen, another military platoon, and the rest of the ambush team from above the village of Liplje. The column, which also went through a mine field and artillery shelling, would be ambushed by the Drina Wolves near Nova Kasaba on 13 July and then again by the VRS near Snagovo the next day. Mass executions Around 19:00 on 13 July Obrenović was contacted by Lieutenant Drago Nikolić, security officer of the Zvornik Brigade, regarding prisoners being transported to Zvornik. Obrenović suggested the use of the Batković concentration camp to the north, and was told that the Red Cross and UNPROFOR knew about Batković, and these prisoners were to be shot and buried in the Zvornik area. At 14:00 on 14 July Obrenović was at Snagovo when Major Zoran Jovanović brought in a reinforcement company, along with the information that Colonel Ljubiša Beara, officer in charge of the VRS security service, had transported an abnormally large number of prisoners in buses to Zvornik. That same day Obrenović overheard a call for two engineers to be released from battle lines to build a road; suspicious of someone doing the engineers a favor, Obrenović checked on the message and was told that the engineers were needed in Zvornik because of a task being carried out by Beara, Popović, and Nikolić. Obrenović knew that this must involve mass burials; he released the two engineers and ordered his aides to refrain from discussing the issue. Throughout the next days, Obrenović spent most of his time trying to find a solution for the column problem, but he also released further military police and infantry personnel from battle lines to assist with the execution of prisoners, and supplied earth moving machinery from his engineering battalions to dig mass graves. Throughout the day on 14 July members of the Military Police Company of Obrenović's Zvornik Brigade guarded and blindfolded approximately 1,000 non-Serb men and boys detained at the school in Grbavci. In the early afternoon of 14 July 1995 VRS personnel transported these prisoners from the school at Grbavci to a nearby field, where personnel including members of the 4th Battalion of the Zvornik Brigade ordered the prisoners off the trucks and summarily executed them with automatic weapons. That night, members of the Zvornik Brigade Engineering Company used heavy equipment to bury the victims in mass graves at the execution site, while the executions continued. On the evening of 14 July lights from the engineering machinery illuminated the execution and burial sites during the executions. In the early hours of 15 July 1995 VRS personnel from the Zvornik Brigade, including drivers and trucks from the 6th Infantry Battalion of the Zvornik Brigade, transported the surviving members of the group of approximately 1,000 prisoners from the school in Petkovci to an area below the Dam near Petkovci. They were assembled below the Dam and summarily executed by VRS or MUP soldiers with automatic weapons. VRS personnel from the Engineering Company of the Zvornik Brigade used excavators and other heavy equipment to bury the victims while the executions continued. Later that day, at Zvornik Brigade headquarters, Obrenović spoke with Chief of Operations Dragan Jokić briefly at 11:00 and discussed the problem with the burials of those executed and the guarding of prisoners still to be executed, as well as orders to not make records of any sort regarding the executions and burials. Obrenović and his troops took part in three very fierce close quarters battles with the 28th Division during this time, and around 40 Serb troops were killed with over 100 wounded at Baljkovci, where the forward part of the column broke through the front line. Obrenović met with Colonel Dragomir Vasić and other officers. The idea was suggested of opening a corridor to Muslim territory and flushing the column and any stragglers towards it. It appealed to those present, to avoid casualties and relieve the threat the column posed on the security of Zvornik as well as the rear of their front lines. Attempts to discuss the matter with Obrenović's immediate superior on the phone were unsuccessful, and the General Radomir Miletić, acting Chief of General Staff of the VRS, rebuffed the idea and chastised Obrenović for using an insecure line. It was then that Obrenović was informed that General Radislav Krstić, Drina Corps deputy commander, was now the commander. Obrenović telephoned General Krstić and explained the threat to Zvornik that the 28th Division column posed. Krstić assured him that Pandurević, "Legenda" and his men were on their way to Zvornik. Colonel Vasić related security problems with prisoners in Bratunac. Because of lack of space, prisoners captured in Srebrenica had to be housed overnight in parked buses; they grew agitated later in the night and began rocking the buses. Police Colonel Ljubomir Borovčanin, commanding officer of the Special Police Brigade, indicated dissatisfaction that civilian police were being used to guard buses in Bratunac, and was determined for that not to be the case with the prisoners in Zvornik. Special Police officer Miloš Stupar related that more than 1,000 prisoners packed into a warehouse in Kravica had rebelled, and one had killed a Serb guard, sparking an all-out Serb assault on the prisoners in the warehouse with grenades and automatic weapons fire, killing almost all of them. Obrenović then spoke with his superior, Vinko Pandurević, who had just arrived at Zvornik Brigade headquarters. He briefed him about the execution operations, which were depleting both manpower and equipment resources and diluting their ability to deal with the column. He discussed issues regarding the burial of execution victims as well as the guarding of those waiting to be executed. Pandurević expressed curiosity as to why Civil Defense wasn't doing the burials as initially planned. The commander then expressed disappointment that the column hadn't yet been cut off and destroyed. Obrenović repeated his suggestion to give the column an escape route, and his commander retorted "who has the right to barter using Serbian land?" In the afternoon on the 15th, Obrenović met with Lazar Ristić at the 4th Battalion's forward command post in Baljkovice. He asked him why, if Ristić had been unable to provide reinforcements to him earlier, he was able to send men to Milorad Trbić to assist with guarding prisoners in Orahovac. Ristić claimed to have been unaware that executions were going to be taking place, and upon learning of this had tried to remove his men from the area when Drago Nikolić stopped them and promised them new uniforms if they would stay and continue to help kill the prisoners. The word of the executions by this time was spreading everywhere. Obrenović was briefed that there was a group at Orahovac from the Drina Corps Military Police assisting with the executions. An elderly man attached to the Rear Services of 4th Battalion related to him that he had heard that Drago Nikolić had personally taken part in the execution and that he could not believe what had happened. That evening and all that night, the ARBiH 28th Division cut off the 4th Battalion's communications lines and transport routes and mounted another attack. Obrenović and his troops extracted from Baljkovice the next day, having lost 40 soldiers to the enemy. On 16 July, at 14:00, VRS troops opened an escape corridor and began sweeping operations to drive the 28th Division forces through it. The corridor was closed four hours later at 18:00 that same day. On the afternoon of 16 July Obrenović was sent to the 6th Battalion Rear Services commander, Ostoja Stanišić. He was told by Stanišić that his deputy had been wounded and that Ljubiša Beara had brought prisoners to the nearby school in Petkovci. Stanišić was evidently angry as the last group of prisoners were not taken to the dam to be executed, but were cut down right there at the school and that his men had to clean up the mess at the school, including the removal of the bodies to the dam. Obrenović was briefed that, while the 10th Sabotage Detachment from Vlasenica took part in the executions, together with selected soldiers from Bratunac, the Zvornik Brigade’s 6th Battalion trucks and personnel were utilised to transport the corpses from the school, which were buried in a mass grave at the dam. On 17 July VRS personnel from the "R" Battalion of the Zvornik Brigade took most of approximately 1,200 prisoners from the school in Pilica and retrieved approximately 500 bodies of the victims from the Pilica Cultural Center and transported them to the Branjevo military farm, where the living prisoners were executed by the members of Bratunac Brigade and the 10th Sabotage Detachment, among them Dražen Erdemović, while the Engineering Company of the Zvornik Brigade buried the victims in a mass grave. At noon on 18 July Obrenović was ordered by Pandurević to report to and brief three senior officers from the Drina Corps Main Staff regarding the corridor opening for the column. He met Colonel Sladojević; Colonel Trkulja, who was in charge of the armoured units at Main Staff; and military police chief Colonel Stanković after their meeting had already begun. After the description of the operation, Obrenović was grilled on the VRS capabilities and weaknesses. He later complained that they believed "we never put up resistance to the 28th Division and just let them through". The senior officers were surprised to hear of the stiff Serb losses in the region. Obrenović was dismissed from the meeting before it was finished. The same day (18 July), a captured Bosnian soldier managed to kill a Serb soldier and wound a number of others before being killed. Drina Corps commanders then ordered that their units should no longer risk taking prisoners, and at that point VRS troops shot the surrendering Bosnians on sight more frequently and stopped bring captives in for processing. That same day, troops from the 16th Brigade of the 1st Krajina Corps, re-subordinated to the command of the Zvornik Brigade, captured ten stragglers from the column and summarily executed them on spot at a place near Nezuk. On 21 July the no-prisoners order was rescinded for the Zvornik Brigade by Pandurević, who ordered that all prisoners should be transported to facilities and processed according to normal procedures. On 22 July four men from the column were captured by Zvornik Brigade troops and turned over to the brigade's security personnel to be interrogated and then executed. "Everything is going according to plan" On 19 July the following conversation between Obrenović and Drina Corps commandant General Radislav Krstić was intercepted: RK: Is that you, Obrenović? DO: Yes. RK: Krstić here. DO: How are you General, sir? RK: I'm great, and you? DO: Thanks to you I am too. RK: Way to go, Chief. And how's you're health? DO: It's fine, thank God, it's fine. RK: Are you working down there? DO: Of course we're working. RK: Good. DO: We've managed to catch a few more, either by gunpoint or in mines. RK: Kill them all. God damn it. DO: Everything, everything is going according to plan. Yes. RK: Not a single one must be left alive. DO: Everything is going according to plan. Everything. RK: Way to go, Chief. The Turks are probably listening to us. Let them listen, the motherfuckers. DO: Yeah, let them. Wounded prisoners at "Standard" On 20 July Obrenović was ordered to inspect the clinic at "Standard" (converted Novi Standard shoe factory) in Karakaj, and brief the hospital staff regarding the prisoners being treated there on the orders of a colonel in the Medical Corps. He discovered that the Serb wounded were being housed in close proximity to the enemy wounded, and instructed the staff not to allow anyone into the room. He informed them that prisoners would be transported to Bijeljina as they recovered. On 23 July, at 08:00, Pandurević called the Drina Corps to resolve the issue of prisoners at the clinic. Obrenović received word from the Drina Corps that Colonel Popović would be coming to deal with the prisoners which suggested that they would likely not live to see Bijeljina. Military policemen took the prisoners away early one morning and shot the prisoners dead at an established execution site. Obrenović was later told that Popović had passed an order from General Ratko Mladić to Drago Nikolić that these patients had to be executed and that Popović had acted as a courier. After the massacre Obrenović was the Chief Of Staff of the 1st Zvornik Infantry Brigade until 8 August, when he acted as Brigade commander in Pandurević's absence. During this time General Krstić visited Zvornik and requested that Obrenović take him to the soldiers in the field who had been involved in the most fierce fighting. Obrenović decided to take him to the men in the trenches of the right flank of the 7th Battalion. Next to a trench one of the soldiers was listening on a transistor radio to the broadcast account of a survivor from one of the executions. General Krstić ordered that the radio be switched off, ordering them to not listen to enemy radio. He asked Obrenović if he had issued orders that enemy radio should not be listened to and Obrenović said that he had not. Obrenović later asked Krstić why the killing of so many ordinary people took place, saying that even if they were all chickens that were killed, there still had to be a reason. Krstić asked Obrenović where he had been. When Obrenović answered that he'd been at the field at Snagovo as ordered, Krstić cut the conversation short. Between August and November 1995, VRS soldiers took part in a large scale operation to cover up the murders and executions committed in the zone under the responsibility of the brigades from Zvornik and Bratunac. The bodies were exhumed from their graves at the army farm in Branjevo, and also from Kozluk, the headquarters of the "Drina Wolves" where approximately 500 prisoners were killed by them on 15 July, from the dam close to Petkovci, from Orahovac and from Glogova, to be transferred to secondary mass graves. Personnel and earth moving machinery from the Zvornik Brigade were used extensively throughout these operations. Obrenović later testified that on 20 October he learned that several members of the brigade’s engineering unit, military police and Drago Nikolić participated in the re-burial of those prisoners executed in July 1995. Popović brought in others to help, including units from the Drina Corps Military Police, who secured the area and traffic where the re-burials were taking place. Some Zvornik Brigade engineers were involved in the loading of bodies from the primary graves. Both Popović and Beara oversaw the re-burial operation, but were wearing civilian clothes. After the wars On 30 April 1996 Obrenović was promoted to the post of commander of the 303rd Motorized Brigade. Four months later the 303rd was absorbed into the 505th, and he retained his post as commander. It was around this time that SFOR detected some explosives under unknown conditions (possible a cache of mines, which was common) which triggered a VRS internal investigation. During this investigation, Jokić accused Obrenović of working for SFOR. Obrenović requested relief from his commandant due to the ensuing friction. Jokić was subsequently transferred to the command of 5th Corps at Sokolac. Arrest, trial and release On 16 March 2001 General Dragan Obrenović was indicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague for complicity in genocide, extermination, persecution, and two counts of murder. On 15 April 2001, at 14:30, three armed men and one woman abducted Obrenović in the town of Kozluk. He was bundled into a vehicle that quickly sped away from the scene before shocked witnesses. Town police units caught up with the vehicle in short order, only to learn that the abductors were SFOR personnel with UN investigators. Obrenovic was transferred that same day to the Hague, he entered not-guilty pleas across the board at his arraignment on the 18th. He initially pleaded not guility. On 20 May 2003 Obrenović entered a plea agreement with the ICTY prosecutor's office. He pleaded guilty to one count of persecution, and in exchange for truthful allocution to his role in the massacre and his testimony against his co-accused (his indictment was to be joined with that of four others on 27 May) he was promised a reduced sentence. On 10 December 2003 Obrenović was sentenced to 17 years in prison, with 969 days credit for time served. In 2003, Obrenović said: I find it very hard to say this truth. I am to blame for everything I did at that time. I am trying to erase all this and to be what I was not at that time. I am also to blame for what I did not do, for not trying to protect those prisoners. Regardless of the temporary nature of my then-post. I ask myself again and again, what could I have done that I didn't do? Thousands of innocent victims perished. Graves remain behind, refugees, destruction and misfortune and misery. I bear general part of the responsibility for this. There is misfortune on all sides that stays behind as a warning that this should never happen again. My testimony and admission of guilt will also remove blame from my nation because it is individual guilt, the guilt of a man named Dragan Obrenović. I stand by this. I am responsible for this. The guilt for which I feel remorse and for which I apologise to the victims and to their shadows. I will be happy if this contributed to reconciliation in Bosnia, if neighbours can again shake hands, if our children can again play games together, and if they have the right to a chance. I will be happy if my testimony helps the families of victims, if I can spare them having to testify again and thus relive the horrors and the pain during their testimony. It is my wish that my testimony should help prevent this ever happening again, not just in Bosnia, but anywhere in the world. It is too late for me now, but for the children living in Bosnia now, it's not too late and I hope that this will be a good warning to them. On 7 May 2012 Aftenposten reported that Obrenović had at some point been released from jail, having served nine years. Obrenović served his time at Kongsvinger minimum-security jail Publicly redacted court orders explain why the early release order was issued. Personal life Obrenović is married to an economist with whom he had a son in 1997. References External links The killing fields of Zvornik, bosnia.org.uk; accessed October 25, 2016. Trial Watch: Dragan Obrenovic, trial-ch.org; accessed October 25, 2016. 1963 births Army of Republika Srpska soldiers Bosnia and Herzegovina people imprisoned abroad Bosnian genocide perpetrators Living people Officers of the Yugoslav People's Army People convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia People deported from Norway People from Rogatica Prisoners and detainees of Norway Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina convicted of crimes against humanity
4572311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-2%20jacket	A-2 jacket	The Type A-2 leather flight jacket is an American military flight jacket originally invented and developed for and closely associated with World War II U.S. Army Air Forces pilots, navigators and bombardiers, who often decorated their jackets with squadron patches and elaborate artwork painted on the back. Sometimes casually referred to as a bomber jacket, its original designation was "Jacket, Pilot's (summer)", and its wartime usage was limited neither to pilots nor to bomber crews. History The Type A-2 flying jacket was adopted as standard issue by the U.S. Army Air Corps as the successor to the Type A-1 flying jacket on May 9, 1931, per specification number 94-3040. The U.S. Army Air Forces Class 13 Catalog listed the garment as "Jacket, Flying, Type A-2". It describes the jacket's construction as "seal brown horsehide leather, knitted wristlets and waistband (skirt)." Broadly similar in construction to the A-1, it replaced the A-1's buttoned front and pocket flaps with a zipper and hidden snap fasteners (although the first three A-2 contracts retained the pocket buttons). The A-1's stand-up knitted collar, which buttoned closed, was supplanted in the A-2 by a shirt-style leather collar, with hidden snaps at the points and a hook-and-eye latch at the throat. Stitched-down shoulder straps were also added to the design. Sizes were listed as ranging in even numbers from 32 through 54. The A-2 was replaced by the AN6552 (AN-J-3) per a specification 94-3040 reference document dated May 24, 1943, and declared "Limited Standard", meaning replacements were available. The April 1944 USAAF catalog for ordering supplies does not list the AN-J-3 as an option, but both the A-1 and A-2 are listed (the A-1 for $4.00 and the A-2 for $8.12). The lack of AN-J-3 replacements may explain why three U.S. A-2 contracts were granted in Dec. 1943, or after the A-2 jacket was officially replaced. (The lack of AN-J-3 replacements may also explain why flying jackets were purchased in Australia by the Department of the U.S. Army in June 1943. These "V505" jackets have been shown to be used by some members of the U.S. Fifth Air Force.) Design and construction Although the actual design would vary slightly depending on the manufacturer, and even among contracts within a single manufacturer, all A-2 jackets had several distinguishing characteristics: a snap-flap patch pocket on either side that does not have hand warmer compartments (hands in pockets were considered unfit for a military bearing), a shirt-style snap-down collar, shoulder straps (or Epaulets), knit cuffs and waistband, a back constructed from a single piece of leather to limit stress on the garment, and a cotton inner lining with a leather hang strap (not a loop) and military spec tag attached just below the back collar. Prior to World War II the collar was sewn to a neckband or "stand" like those found in dress shirts, a time-intensive operation. Wartime contracts generally had "simple attached" collars, sewn directly to the back panel and rolled over, although Rough Wear and Perry continued using the collar stand throughout. Similarly, most pre-war (and some wartime) A-2s had inset sleeves, attached at a better attitude for body movement. This too was time-intensive and gave way to "flat attached" sleeves whose bottom seams met up with the body side seams. A-2s were initially constructed of horsehide, which was either vegetable- or chrome-tanned. Some later A-2s were made from goatskin (as was the Navy G-1 jacket) and others from cowhide (which can be very difficult to tell from horse if tanned identically). All Spiewak and Doniger jackets are of goat, as are many Cable, Dubow, Bronco, Perry, and Rough Wear examples. Wartime-issued A-2 jackets appear in a wide range of color tones and hues, although all are based on two distinct colors: Seal (dark brown to almost black) and russet (pale red-brown to medium brown). Most lighter russet jackets were darker seal re-dyed during the war to cover scuffing and discoloration although some contracts, like the Aero Leather 21996, were dyed seal right from the start. Original knit cuffing typically matched the leather or came close, but exceptions exist, such as Aero Leather's eye-catching rust-red cuffing on seal brown hide. The A-2 was one of the early articles of clothing designed expressly to use a zipper. Zippers were made of steel or brass, and some were nickel plated. Known zipper suppliers were Talon, Crown, Conmar, and Kwik, with Talon providing the majority of zippers used in wartime A-2 construction. Until about 1940, Talon zippers with riveted or grommeted metal bottoms were used. Unlike modern, loose-fitting jackets, the original A-2 looks to us today a rather trim-fitting jacket. Period photos and films reveal a jacket which could be worn fitted and sharp looking or a bit baggy and loose in the body. It was designed to fit the thinner male of the time- original A-2 jackets worn by modern men may seem a bit snug in the shoulders. This is particularly true of pre-war contract garments such as the 1933 Werber and the 1938 and 1940 Aero Leathers. Period photos and films show that the A-2 was typically worn over a shirt, or a shirt and flight suit; airmen were more likely to switch to a sheep-lined jacket or, later, an electrified flight suit for wintertime or high-altitude operations. Manufacturers There were many manufacturers of A-2 jackets during the 1930s and 1940s whose product showed a wide range of quality, workmanship, and fit characteristics. All contracts used a cotton lining, though various replacements were made over the years. The first three (3) contracts had button pocket flaps, while all the rest were snapped pockets beginning with Werber order number 33-1729. Manufacturers included civilian clothing producers such as David D. Doniger & Co., makers of the popular MacGregor brand outerwear, as well as leather-goods companies like J.A. Dubow Mfg., whose chief peacetime product was baseball mitts. Rough Wear manufactured the A-2 under several different contracts, each varying slightly in color and style. Wartime use The A-2 jacket was awarded to an Army Air Forces officer upon completion of basic flight training, and always before graduating to advanced training. No standard system of distribution was used, though generally airmen lined up in front of boxes containing jackets of various sizes and given the appropriate size jacket by the base quartermaster. A-2s were exclusive to commissioned officers until early in World War II, when also issued to enlisted aircrews. The airman's A-2 was a treasured item and was worn with as much pride as his wings. As airmen progressed through various duty stations, they often added and removed squadron patches, rank marks, and occasionally elaborate artwork depicting the type of aircraft they flew or a copy of the artwork painted on their airplane. Bomber crews often added small bombs to the right front of their jackets, indicating the number of missions they had flown. As a result, many jackets ended up with numerous stitch marks as patches of various sizes were removed and replaced when the owner changed units. Unlike Navy aviators, who often wore the patches of every squadron they had ever flown with, AAF personnel could only display the patch of their current assignment. The emblem of the Army Air Forces was often sewn, painted, or applied by decal on the left shoulder, while the shield of the specific Air Force (5th, 8th, etc.) was often displayed on the right. Despite the A-2s becoming a symbol of the American pilot, in 1943 General H. H. "Hap" Arnold canceled any further leather jacket contracts in favor of newer cloth-shell jackets like the B-10 and B-15. Needless to say, Arnold's popularity with his airmen was not improved by his decision. Even after the transition to cloth, existing units could still order replacement A-2s, keeping production going well into 1944. And it was impossible to prevent airmen from continuing to obtain and wear the style – as demonstrated by the large number of photos clearly showing Korean War pilots of F-82s and F-86s still wearing the original A-2 issued to them a decade earlier, or newer jackets made to fit their current sizes. Fighter pilots, who often had heated cockpits, could wear the A-2 into combat more easily. Some jackets had a map of the mission area sewn into the lining, which could be used (in theory) for navigation if shot down. Some jackets (famously, those from the China Burma India Theater, and of the Flying Tigers) had a "Blood chit" sewn on the lining or outer back, printed on cloth, which promised certain rewards to civilians who aided a downed airman. In certain ETO units and possibly elsewhere a prerogative of the fighter ace was a red satin lining which was added on confirmation of his fifth aerial kill. Early wartime pictures show entire bomber crews outfitted with A-2s, although they probably weren't too valuable at altitude in a bomber. The pilot and copilot had primitive cabin heat on some aircraft and would wear the A-2, while the rest of the bomber crew usually wore heavier fleece-lined Type B-3 or ANJ-4 (and later B-9 and B-11 parkas), which were warmer and better suited to long hours in the severe cold. However, period photos show A-2s worn by crew underneath heavy outer garments, and candid on-base photos often show crewmen of all ranks in A-2s. A warm and comfortable mouton collar was an addition authorized in mountainous C-B-I commands. Theater-made jackets Throughout the War, as the A-2s popularity grew, so too did the demand for it. Only aircrewmen could obtain A-2 jackets through regular channels, although a few celebrated nonflying officers like Gens. MacArthur and Patton and Maj. Glenn Miller also procured and wore them. A small "cottage industry" soon appeared, especially in England, to make A-2-style jackets for GIs (including many airborne infantry troops) who otherwise could not get one. This was especially true after the Army stopped purchasing new leather jackets in mid-1943, and disappointed airmen were sent to war in the less desirable cloth jackets, or were unable to replace A-2s they had lost or damaged. As a result, some war-era jackets used by World War II airmen are clearly not true to original AAF specifications, though this makes them no less historic. Survivors Original wartime issued A-2 jackets are rare but not unavailable. The value of such originals ranges widely depending on condition, known history, patches and artwork, and even size. Most originals used a sizing system considerably smaller than today's comparable sizes, with only 2- of "slack" over the tagged chest size. In other words, an original size 42 might be closer to a modern 40 or even a 38, depending on the manufacturer. Original World War II era jackets sell at auction for between $800 and $8,000, with wearable examples generally running $1,000 and up. The National Museum of the United States Air Force has a collection of original A-2 jackets, most donated by the families of Air Force pilots. No fewer than fifty are on display at any time throughout the Museum, including many historic jackets such as Brig. Gen. James Stewart's A-2 (a Rough Wear contract 42-1401), an A-2 from the AVG "Flying Tigers," and another worn by one of the few U.S. pilots to get airborne during the attack on Pearl Harbor. Modern Air Force A-2 With the exception of a very brief period from 1979 to early 1981 the U.S. Navy never stopped issuing its G-1 leather flying jackets to Navy, Marine, and Coast Guard flight crews. This meant that an entire generation of Air Force pilots and flight crews had missed out on an opportunity not lost to their Naval comrades. Years of effort by U.S. Air Force personnel to get the A-2 jacket reissued finally succeeded when the Air Force began issuing them again in 1988, a decision that may have been influenced by the popularity of the film "Top Gun", and the military apparel it popularized. The first Air Force A-2 contract was awarded to Avirex, but all subsequent contracts from 1988 to 1998 were awarded to Neil Cooper USA, now U.S. Wings of Ohio. The modern Air Force A-2 is authorized for wear by Air Force aircrews and missileers who have completed their mission qualifications. The latest design differs from the original design in several ways: it is looser-fitting, made only from goatskin, and produced in only a medium seal brown color (though many older, fitted jackets are still in use). Unlike the World War II era pilots, modern Air Force pilots are not permitted to paint their A-2 jackets or disfigure them in any way. The official explanation for this is that the paint is flammable and could pose a fire hazard. The goatskin used in today's A-2 is treated with a special fire retardant chemical. The crewmember's name tag is mounted on the left breast, with the Major Command, HQ USAF, or Combatant Command shield are on the right, attached with Velcro. No patches are permitted to be sewn directly onto the jacket as they were during World War II. In 1996 Neil Cooper USA was awarded a contract from the Defense Supply Center, Philadelphia (DSCP), to redesign the A-2 jacket to be more functional and to improve the fit. Side entry pockets were added to the patch pockets and inside wallet pockets were added. The fit was enlarged via extra pieces under the arms and on the sides. The neck clasp was also eliminated. These modifications were previously carried out by the member themselves at popular places around the world like Pop's Leather in Turkey, or in the numerous shops in Korea. Now that these modifications are part of the official issue, only "Blood Chits" and other internal linings are added by the aircrew themselves. In 1999 Avirex was again awarded a contract to make A-2 jackets. In 2000 they began producing the "21st Century" A-2 using the updated pattern Neil Cooper USA had designed. In 2006, HQ USAF required all A-2 jackets to be "Berry Amendment" compliant. This means that all materials used in the jacket must be of American origin. Goat skins used are required to have been born and bred in the U.S., and the leather tanned in the U.S. (All jackets made by Cooper Sportswear, and the jackets made by Avirex in 1999, were made of goatskin imported from Pakistan). Reproductions Just as a cottage industry appeared during the war to meet the need for A-2 jackets, so too does such an industry still exist today. Because the A-2 never went out of style, production of it never really ceased. Over the years it has varied in style and accuracy relative to the original war-era design, but it has remained visible in popular movies and TV shows of the 1950s and 1960s. In the mid-1970s several small companies catering to purists began undertaking the job of designing and constructing somewhat authentic reproductions. Duplicating wartime patterns, often obtained through "reverse engineering" from dissected originals, but using incorrect hides that are veg tanned and aniline dyed, originals were chrome tanned and pigment dyed, all-cotton thread, and even actual the World War II-era-old stock Talon zippers, they have effectively recreated a wartime-era jacket that can be worn daily without fear of damaging a valuable original. Some manufacturers have even gone so far as to reproduce the particular details of specific World War II A-2 production contracts. The rarest and most desirable A-2, the Goldsmith 31-1897, has even been recreated based upon photographic evidence as a survivor has not been found. Popularly priced (approximately US $500 and below) A-2 jackets today only approximate the authentic style, with oversized shoulders and sleeves intended for layering loose clothing underneath, non-spec hand and pen pockets, and softer materials like lambskin. A-2s made today by U.S. Air Force contract manufacturers tend to fit younger, fitter men with v-shaped torsos, and some former pilots have found that their old A-2s no longer fit them. In the media A-2 jackets can be seen in many movies, as they came to represent the American fighting man just as much as the P-51 Mustang and M1911 pistol. Seeing legendary actors such as Gregory Peck and John Wayne on the big screen wearing A-2s only reinforced their popularity. By the 1950s the A-2 was moving into the role of the motorcycle jacket, which would soon evolve into its own distinct style. The jacket worn by Henry Winkler in the role of "Fonzie" in the TV show Happy Days was a variation of the A-2 jacket. In the 1960s and 1970s the A-2 reappeared in a new crop of big budget World War II films such as The Great Escape and Patton, as well as being the wardrobe of choice for Bob Crane's character of Colonel Hogan in the popular TV series Hogan's Heroes. This same jacket, manufactured by the studio's costume department, had previously been worn by Frank Sinatra in the film Von Ryan's Express. The bomber jacket has made appearances in non-war films, as well. A teenage C. Thomas Howell wears a black A-2 for nearly the entire length of the classic horror film The Hitcher. Dwight Schultz' character H. M. Murdock on 1980s TV show The A-Team wore an A-2 Jacket with a tiger printed on the back along with the words 'DA NANG 1970'. His character wore the jacket throughout the show's 5 seasons. Also, in the anime Hetalia: Axis Powers, the character America is most always seen wearing an A-2 jacket with the number '50' on the back in white. Arnold Schwarzenegger also appeared an wearing A-2 with police badge in his new 2013 movie The Last Stand. From the 1980s to the present, the A-2 became a popular presidential garment. Beginning with Ronald Reagan and continuing to Joe Biden, every President and in certain cases, some Vice-Presidents have been seen adorned with the jacket at military installations. See also Cooper A-2 jacket G-1 military flight jacket MA-1 bomber jacket References Jackets United States Air Force uniforms Military equipment introduced in the 1930s
4572427	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adri%C3%A1n%20Gonz%C3%A1lez	Adrián González	Adrián González Savín (born May 8, 1982), also known by his nicknames "A-Gon" and "Titán", is a Mexican-American former professional baseball first baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Texas Rangers, San Diego Padres, Boston Red Sox, Los Angeles Dodgers, and New York Mets. González was born in the United States, but was raised in Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico, until 1990, when he returned to the United States. He played for Mexico in the 2006, 2009, 2013, and the 2017 editions of the World Baseball Classic and the 2020 Olympic Games. González was the first overall pick in the 2000 MLB draft by the Florida Marlins. He was traded to the Rangers, and made his MLB debut with them in 2004. He was traded to the Padres after the 2005 season, where he was an All-Star selection three times and a two-time Gold Glove Award winner. He was traded to the Red Sox after the 2010 season, and was traded to the Dodgers in August 2012. After playing for the Dodgers throughout the 2017 season, he was traded to the Atlanta Braves, but was released without playing for them. He then played for the Mets, who released him during the 2018 season. Early life Adrián González was born in San Diego, California to David and Alba González, both Mexican natives. González is the youngest of three boys; his brothers are David Jr. and Edgar, a former big leaguer. After his birth, his parents moved the family to Tijuana, where his father owned an air-conditioner business. The three boys grew up playing baseball in Mexico, where their father had been a member of the Mexico national baseball team. In 1990, the family returned to the United States, settling in Bonita, California. While Adrián was drafted by the Florida Marlins out of high school, his brother Edgar Gonzalez attended San Diego State University and was selected by the Tampa Bay Rays in the 30th round of the 2000 draft. Edgar debuted in the major leagues as a utility man with the San Diego Padres in 2008, joining his brother as a teammate. In 2012, David and Alba González were named George and Barbara Bush Little League Parents of the Year. In November 2012, González was honored as one of 30 "exemplary citizens" by the mayor of Tijuana in an official ceremony. González was projected to be a late first-round pick out of Eastlake High School in Chula Vista, California; however, his stock increased with his senior-year performance. In his senior year, he hit .645 with 13 home runs and 34 runs batted in. Professional career Florida Marlins (2000–2003) In June 2000, González became the first infield position player to be drafted first overall since Alex Rodriguez in 1993. He was given a $3 million signing bonus by the Florida Marlins. While in the Marlins organization, González played with the Gulf Coast League Marlins, Kane County Cougars, Utica Blue Sox, Portland Sea Dogs (2002), Albuquerque Isotopes (2003), and Carolina Mudcats (2003). With the Single-A Kane County Cougars in his second professional season, González hit .312 with 17 home runs and 103 RBIs in 127 games. As a result, he was selected by the Midwest League as its Most Valuable Player and Prospect of the Year. He also played in the All-Star Futures Game. Texas Rangers (2004–2005) After a wrist injury, the Marlins felt González would be hindered swinging the bat, so they included González in a June 2003 trade with the Texas Rangers, along with Ryan Snare and minor leaguer Will Smith, to acquire relief pitcher Ugueth Urbina to aid their championship drive. González played with the Rangers' Class-AA team, the Frisco RoughRiders, until he made his major-league debut against the Seattle Mariners on April 18, 2004. He was hitless in three at-bats. He recorded his first base hit on April 20 against Ramón Ortiz of the Anaheim Angels and his first home run on April 25 off Kevin Jarvis of the Seattle Mariners. He played in 16 games for Texas in 2004 and in 43 games in 2005, with a combined batting average of .229 and 7 homers. San Diego Padres (2006–2010) 2006 After the season, González was traded to the San Diego Padres along with pitcher Chris Young and outfielder Terrmel Sledge. In return, the Rangers received Adam Eaton and Akinori Otsuka. Originally seen as an eventual replacement for Ryan Klesko at first base, González was given the job when Klesko underwent shoulder surgery. With extended playing time at first base in 2006, González continued to improve his hitting and defense. On July 23, 2006, he was named the NL Player of the Week. In his first full season, he led the Padres in batting average (.304) and home runs (24). He was the first player in Petco Park history to have more than one multiple home run game. He was named the Padres MVP for 2006. 2007 On March 31, 2007, González agreed to a $9.5 million, four-year deal, with a club option for $5.5 million in 2011. In the 2007 season, he led the Padres in home runs again, with 30, and had a team-high 100 RBIs. He led all Major League first basemen with 161 games and a career-high 46 doubles. 2008 In the 2008 season, González finished with a .279 average and once again led the Padres with 36 home runs and 119 RBIs. He was elected to the 2008 MLB All-Star Game as a reserve. He went 1 for 3 with a single and a sacrifice fly, scoring Miguel Tejada of the Houston Astros. He won his first Gold Glove Award in 2008 at first base. González set career highs in games played (162), home runs (36), RBI (119), runs scored (103), walks (74), and slugging percentage (.510). He was named the Padres MVP for the second time. 2009 González played winter ball in the Mexican Pacific League with the Venados de Mazatlán. In the 2009 Caribbean Series, he led his team past the Dominican Republic's Tigres del Licey with a record-setting 3 home runs on February 4. González hit 23 homers, leading Major League Baseball in that category through May 2009 despite playing his home games at Petco Park, which Padres statisticians describe as an "extreme pitcher's park." On May 18, González was described as being one of the two most underrated players in the National League according to a poll of Major League executives and managers conducted by MLB.com. On June 1, González was named the NL Co-Player of the Week for the second time in his career. During that week, González hit four home runs, tallied 10 RBIs, and had a 1.000 slugging percentage. González was elected to the 2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game after voting by fellow players, managers and coaches. He subsequently participated in that year's Home Run Derby where he hit two home runs in the first round. On August 1, González finished 6-for-6 with three RBI as the Padres topped the Milwaukee Brewers 13–6. González's six hits are the most by any Padre in a nine-inning game. Three others have accomplished the feat, but did it in extra-inning contests. González hit five singles and a double. He led the majors in walks in 2009 with 119 and set a Major League record with eight consecutive multi-walk games, a record which still stands . He also hit 40 home runs for the first time in his career. He was named the Padres team MVP for 2009, his third time honored. 2010 González started the 2010 season playing well. On May 24, he was named the NL Player of the Week for the fourth time in his career. On June 2, González hit a walk-off grand slam in extra innings to lead his team toward a 5–1 victory over the New York Mets. In July, González was elected to participate in his third consecutive All-Star game. During the 2010 season, González had 176 hits in 591 at-bats, good for a .298 batting average, his highest since hitting .304 in his first season with San Diego (2006). He had 93 walks and 114 strikeouts. His 93 walks put him in third place in the NL behind only Prince Fielder (114) and Albert Pujols (103). He finished with 31 home runs and 101 RBI, the third time in his career he had 100 RBI or more. González played in 160 games on the year, tying him with Rickie Weeks for 5th in the NL. He scored 87 runs on the season, compiling 302 total bases, which also tied him with Weeks, for 6th in the NL. González was named team MVP for the third consecutive year and the fourth time overall with the Padres. Boston Red Sox (2011–2012) On December 6, 2010, González was traded to the Boston Red Sox for a package of right-handed pitcher Casey Kelly, first baseman Anthony Rizzo, outfielder Reymond Fuentes, and a player to be named later, later determined to be Eric Patterson. On April 15, 2011, González and the Red Sox agreed to a seven-year contract extension worth $154 million through the 2018 season. On June 19, 2011, González hit his 1,000th career hit: a triple off of Milwaukee Brewers pitcher Yovani Gallardo. On July 3, 2011, González was selected to represent the Red Sox at the 2011 All-Star Game in Arizona along with teammates Josh Beckett, Jacoby Ellsbury, David Ortiz, Kevin Youkilis, and Jon Lester. González hit a home run in the game and was responsible for the only run for the American League. Additionally, Ortiz selected González as one of three sluggers to join him in the Home Run Derby, where he finished second to Robinson Canó. González tied a record for most home runs in the final round of the home run derby at 11, which was then surpassed by the victor Cano. González was named AL Player of the Month for June 2011 with a .404 average (40 for 99) – the best in the Majors for that month. After placing second in the 2011 Home Run Derby, González faced a home-run slump until he hit five home runs in ten at-bats on August 23–25. He appeared on the cover of baseball video game MLB 12: The Show. On November 21, the AL MVP ballots came out, with González in seventh place and his teammate Ellsbury in 2nd, both losing to Detroit Tigers ace Justin Verlander. In 2012, González appeared in 123 games with the Red Sox, hitting .300 with 15 homers and 86 RBI. Los Angeles Dodgers (2012–2017) 2012 On August 25, 2012, González was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers (along with Josh Beckett, Nick Punto and Carl Crawford) and $11 million in cash for James Loney, Iván DeJesús Jr., Allen Webster and two players to be named later (Jerry Sands and Rubby De La Rosa). In his first at bat with the Dodgers that same day, he hit a three-run home run against the Miami Marlins. In 36 games with the Dodgers, he hit .297 with 3 homers and 22 RBI. 2013 In the 2013 season, González appeared in 157 games for the Dodgers and hit .293 with 22 home runs and 100 RBI. He was a candidate for the final vote at the 2013 Major League Baseball All-Star Game but did not get selected to the game. In the 2013 NLCS Game 5 against the St. Louis Cardinals, González went 3 for 4 with 2 home runs. The Dodgers would eventually lose the series in six games. 2014 González finished the 2014 season with 116 RBI, the most in all of Major League Baseball. He was the Dodgers' nominee for the Hank Aaron Award, after hitting 27 home runs in 159 games. However, his batting average of .276 was the lowest of his career. He finished up the season by winning the Silver Slugger Award as the best hitting first baseman in the NL and also won several awards for his defense at first base, including the Gold Glove Award, Fielding Bible Award and Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award. 2015 González opened the 2015 season with five home runs in the first three games of the season, including three on April 8 against Andrew Cashner. He was the first MLB player to hit five home runs in the first three games of the season. By homering in his fifth consecutive game, dating back to the end of the 2014 season, he tied the team record, which he shares with Roy Campanella (1950), Shawn Green (2001), Matt Kemp (2010), and Joc Pederson (2015). He won the player of the week honors as a result of that performance. He was also awarded with the National League player of the month award for April as he hit .383 with eight home runs and 19 RBI in the month. He recorded his 1,000th career RBI when he hit a two-run home run off Julio Teherán of the Atlanta Braves on May 26. Gonzalez was selected to the 2015 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, the first Dodger first baseman selected since Nomar Garciaparra in 2006. He finished the 2015 season by hitting .275 in 156 games with 28 home runs and 90 RBI, the lowest RBI total he had since 2006. 2016 González played for the Mexico national baseball team in the World Baseball Classic qualifiers during spring training in March 2016. The team was managed by his brother Edgar. On June 22, 2016, during a game against the Washington Nationals, Gonzalez made a highlight-reel catch after a ball in foul territory deflected off Chase Utley's glove and off Gonzalez's leg. On August 7, 2016, González hit his 300th career home run against the Boston Red Sox. On the season he appeared in 156 games, with a .285 batting average, 18 homers and 90 RBI. It was the fewest home runs he had hit in a season since 2012. 2017 On May 5, 2017, González was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to right elbow soreness. It was the first time in his MLB career that González was put on the DL. González recorded his 2,000th career hit with a double off Johnny Barbato of the Pittsburgh Pirates on August 22. González dealt with lingering back issues during the 2017 season, which caused him to spend half the season on the disabled list and as a result lost playing time to rookie Cody Bellinger at first. For the 2017 season, González only appeared in 71 games, batting .242/.287/.355 with 30 RBIs. He was shut down for the season in September and did not appear on the Dodgers playoff roster. In his final at-bat with the Dodgers, Gonzalez hit a home run against the Padres, giving him the rare distinction of having homered in both his first and last at-bats with the team. On December 16, 2017, the Dodgers traded González, Charlie Culberson, Scott Kazmir, Brandon McCarthy, and cash considerations to the Atlanta Braves for Matt Kemp. Immediately following the trade, the Braves designated González for assignment, then released him two days later. González waived his no-trade clause to facilitate the trade, which he did because he wanted to test free agency. New York Mets On January 18, 2018, González signed a one-year contract with the New York Mets. On June 10, 2018, the Mets granted González his unconditional release. In 54 games with the Mets, he batted .237/.299/.373; he had just three hits in his final 27 at bats with the team. Mariachis de Guadalajara On March 30, 2021, González announced his return to baseball and officially signed with the Mariachis de Guadalajara of the Mexican League. On July 19, González announced that he would retire from professional baseball following the conclusion of the Mexican League season. In 43 games for Guadalajara, González batted .340/.412/.531 with 6 home runs and 41 RBI. He officially announced his retirement from professional baseball on February 5, 2022. Personal life González and his wife Betsy reside in the San Diego County community of La Jolla. They have two daughters. The couple created The Adrián and Betsy González Foundation, which is focused on empowering underprivileged youth in areas of athletics, education and health. As one of his charitable endeavors, González paid for the refurbishing of the baseball field in the Tijuana sports complex where he played as a youth. González is a Christian and engraved on his bats is "PS 27:1" for verse 1 from Psalm 27. González has spoken about his faith saying, "I don't want to be remembered in baseball. I want to be remembered as a good witness for Christ. ... I'm just trying to use this platform to bring people to Christ." See also List of first overall Major League Baseball draft picks List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award References External links 1982 births Living people Baseball players from San Diego Major League Baseball first basemen American League All-Stars National League All-Stars National League RBI champions Gold Glove Award winners Texas Rangers players San Diego Padres players Boston Red Sox players Los Angeles Dodgers players New York Mets players Baseball players from Chula Vista, California American baseball players of Mexican descent Utica Blue Sox players Gulf Coast Marlins players Kane County Cougars players Portland Sea Dogs players Carolina Mudcats players Albuquerque Isotopes players Frisco RoughRiders players Oklahoma RedHawks players Venados de Mazatlán players 2006 World Baseball Classic players 2009 World Baseball Classic players 2013 World Baseball Classic players 2017 World Baseball Classic players Silver Slugger Award winners People from Bonita, California Rancho Cucamonga Quakes players Oklahoma City Dodgers players Mariachis de Guadalajara players Baseball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics Olympic baseball players for Mexico Major League Baseball broadcasters Los Angeles Dodgers announcers Eastlake High School (Chula Vista, California) alumni
4572582	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood%20obesity	Childhood obesity	Childhood obesity is a condition where excess body fat negatively affects a child's health or well-being. As methods to determine body fat directly are difficult, the diagnosis of obesity is often based on BMI. Due to the rising prevalence of obesity in children and its many adverse health effects it is being recognized as a serious public health concern. The term 'overweight' rather than 'obese' is often used when discussing childhood obesity, as it is less stigmatizing, although the term 'overweight' can also refer to a different BMI category. The prevalence of childhood obesity is known to differ by sex and gender. Classification Body mass index (BMI) is acceptable for determining obesity for children two years of age and older. It is determined by the ratio of weight to height. The normal range for BMI in children vary with age and sex. While a BMI above the 85th percentile is defined as overweight, a BMI greater than or equal to the 95th percentile is defined as obesity by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Obesity is further categorized as class 1 obesity with BMI at or above the 95th percentile to 119% of the 95th percentile, class 2 obesity with a BMI 120 to 139% of the 95% percentile and class 3 obesity which is 140% or greater of the 95th percentile. The CDC has published tables for determining this in children. The US Preventive Service Task Force reported that not all children with a high BMI need to lose weight though. High BMI can identify a possible weight problem, but does not differentiate between fat or lean tissue. Additionally, BMI may mistakenly rule out some children who do have excess adipose tissue. It is therefore beneficial to supplement the reliability of a BMI diagnosis with additional screening tools such as adipose tissue or skin fold measurements. Effects on health Psychological The first problems to occur in obese children are usually emotional or psychological. Obese children often experience bullying by their peers. Some are harassed or discriminated against by their own family. Stereotypes abound and may lead to low self-esteem and depression. Physical Childhood obesity however can also lead to life-threatening conditions including diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep problems, cancer, and other disorders. Some of the other disorders would include liver disease, early puberty or menarche, eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia, skin infections, and asthma and other respiratory problems. The early physical effects of obesity in adolescence include, almost all of the child's organs being affected, gallstones, hepatitis, sleep apnoea and increased intracranial pressure. Overweight children are also more likely to grow up to be overweight adults. Obesity during adolescence has been found to increase mortality rates during adulthood. A 2008 study has found that children who are obese have carotid arteries which have prematurely aged by as much as thirty years as well as abnormal levels of cholesterol. Long-term effects Children who are obese are likely to be obese as adults. Thus, they are more at risk for adult health problems such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, several types of cancer, and osteoarthritis. A large population based study showed that adolescents who were overweight or obese had a 2.2 times risk of sudden death and a 3.5 times increased risk for death from coronary heart disease or stroke in adulthood as compared to normal BMI peers. Another study showed that those with an elevated BMI in childhood and adulthood were at an elevated risk of certain chronic medical conditions including a 5.4 times increased risk of diabetes, 2.7 times increased risk of hypertension, and 1.8 times increased risk of elevated LDL cholesterol (a cholesterol-based measure of risk of atherosclerosis) in adulthood. However, in children or adolescents with elevated BMI who reduce their BMI to normal levels, these risks are decreased to a similar level as those with normal BMI in childhood and adulthood. One study showed that children who became obese as early as age 2 were more likely to be obese as adults. According to an article in The New York Times all of these health effects are contributing to a shorter lifespan of five years for these obese children. It is the first time in two centuries that the current generation of children in America may have a shorter lifespan than their parents. Causes Childhood obesity can be brought on by a range of factors which often act in combination. "Obesogenic environment" refers to a mixture of environmental factors that are permissive of obesity, especially for those who are genetically predisposed. The greatest risk factor for child obesity is the obesity of both parents. This may be reflected by the family's environment and genetics. Other reasons may also be due to psychological factors and the child's body type. A 2010 review stated that childhood obesity likely is the result of the interaction of natural selection favouring those with more parsimonious energy metabolism and today's consumerist society with easy access to energy dense cheap foods and less energy requirements in daily life. Factors include the increase in use of technology, increase in snacks and portion size of meals, and the decrease in the physical activity of children. A study found kids that use electronic devices 3 or more hours a day had between a 17- 44% increased risk of being overweight, or a 10- 61% increased risk of obese (Cespedes 2011). Childhood obesity is common among children from, low-income, African American and Hispanic communities. This is mainly because minority children spend less time playing outside the house and staying active. Some contributors to childhood obesity is that parents would rather have their children stay inside the home because they fear that gang, drug violence, and other dangers might harm them. Genetics Childhood obesity is often the result of an interplay between many genetic and environmental factors. Polymorphisms in various genes controlling appetite and metabolism predispose individuals to obesity when sufficient calories are present. Over 200 genes affect weight by determining activity level, food preferences, body type, and metabolism. Having two copies of the allele called FTO increases the likelihood of both obesity and diabetes. As such, obesity is a major feature of a number of rare genetic conditions that often present in childhood: Prader–Willi syndrome with an incidence between 1 in 12,000 and 1 in 15,000 live births is characterized by hyperphagia and food preoccupations which leads to rapid weight gain in those affected. Bardet–Biedl syndrome MOMO syndrome Leptin receptor mutations Congenital leptin deficiency Melanocortin receptor mutations In children with early-onset severe obesity (defined by an onset before ten years of age and body mass index over three standard deviations above normal), 7% harbor a single locus mutation. One study found that 80% of the offspring of two obese parents were obese in contrast to less than 10% of the offspring of two parents who were of normal weight. The percentage of obesity that can be attributed to genetics varies from 6% to 85% depending on the population examined. Family practices In the recent decades, family practices have significantly changed, and several of these practices greatly contribute to childhood obesity: With a decreasing number of mothers who breast-feed, more infants become obese children as they grow up and are reared on infant formula instead. Fewer children go outside and engage in active play as technology, such as television and video games, keeps children indoors. Rather than walking or biking to a bus-stop or directly to school, more school-age children are driven to school by their parents, reducing physical activity. As family sizes decrease, the children's pester power, their ability to force adults to do what they want, increases. This ability enables them to have easier access to calorie-packed foods, such as candy and soda drinks. The social context around family meal-time plays a role in rates of childhood obesity Social policies Different communities and nations have adopted varying social practices and policies that are either beneficial or detrimental to children's physical health. These social factors include: the quality of school lunches the emphasis of schools on physical activity access to vending machines and fast-food restaurants prevalence of and access to parks, bike paths, and sidewalks government subsidies for corn oil and sugar advertising of fast-food restaurants and candy prices of healthy and unhealthy foods access to fresh, healthy, and affordable food Advertising Advertising of unhealthy foods to children increases their consumption of the product and positive attitudes (liking or wanting to buy) about the advertised product. Children's critical reasoning (the ability to understand what an advertisement is and the aim of advertising to buy the product) is not protective against the impact of advertising, and does not appear to be fully developed during adolescence. In some nations, advertising of candy, cereal, and fast-food restaurants is illegal or limited on children's television channels. The media defends itself by blaming the parents for yielding to their children's demands for unhealthy foods. Socioeconomic status It is much more common for young people who come from a racial or ethnic minority, or for those who have a lower socioeconomic status, to be overweight and to engage in less healthy behaviors and sedentary activities. Prevention Schools play a large role in preventing childhood obesity by providing a safe and supporting environment with policies and practices that support healthy behaviors. At home, parents can help prevent their children from becoming overweight by changing the way the family eats and exercises together. The best way children learn is by example, so parents should lead by example by living a healthy lifestyle. Screening for obesity is recommended in those over the age of six. Both physical activity and diet can help to reduce the risk of obesity in children from 0 to 5 years old; meanwhile, exclusive physical activity can reduce the risk of obesity for children aged from 6 to 12 years old, and adolescents aged from 13 to 18 years old. The implementation of strategies to improve childcare services such as preschools, nurseries, daycare, and kindergarten on healthy eating, physical activity, and obesity prevention shows little effect on a child's diet, physical activity, and weight status. Maternal Body Mass Index Maternal body mass index (BMI) is an important predictor of childhood obesity. Mothers with pre-pregnancy obesity, as defined by BMI ≥30 kg/m2, are known to have children that have higher growth rates and more likely to have obesity. Dietary The effects of eating habits on childhood obesity are difficult to determine. A three-year randomized controlled study of 1,704 3rd grade children which provided two healthy meals a day in combination with an exercise program and dietary counsellings failed to show a significant reduction in percentage body fat when compared to a control group. This was partly due to the fact that even though the children believed they were eating less their actual calorie consumption did not decrease with the intervention. At the same time observed energy expenditure remained similar between the groups. This occurred even though dietary fat intake decreased from 34% to 27%. A second study of 5,106 children showed similar results. Even though the children ate an improved diet there was no effect found on BMI. Why these studies did not bring about the desired effect of curbing childhood obesity has been attributed to the interventions not being sufficient enough. Changes were made primarily in the school environment while it is felt that they must occur in the home, the community, and the school simultaneously to have a significant effect. A Cochrane review of a lower fat diet in children (30% or less of total energy) to prevent obesity found the existing evidence of very low to moderate quality, and firm conclusions could not be made. Calorie-rich drinks and foods are readily available to children. Consumption of sugar-laden soft drinks may contribute to childhood obesity. In a study of 548 children over a 19-month period the likelihood of obesity increased 1.6 times for every additional soft drink consumed per day. Calorie-dense, prepared snacks are available in many locations frequented by children. As childhood obesity has become more prevalent, snack vending machines in school settings have been reduced by law in a small number of localities. Some research suggests that the increase in availability of junk foods in schools can account for about one-fifth of the increase in average BMI among adolescents over the last decade. Eating at fast food restaurants is very common among young people with 75% of 7th to 12th grade students consuming fast food in a given week. The fast food industry is also at fault for the rise in childhood obesity. This industry spends about $4.2 billion on advertisements aimed at young children. McDonald's alone has thirteen websites that are viewed by 365,000 children and 294,000 teenagers each month. In addition, fast food restaurants give out toys in children's meals, which helps to entice children to buy the fast food. According to a 2010 report, 40% of children aged 2 to 11 asked their parents to take them to McDonald's at least once a week, and 15% of preschoolers asked to go every day. To make matters worse, out of 3000 combinations created from popular items on children's menus at fast food restaurants, only 13 meet the recommended nutritional guidelines for young children. Some literature has found a relationship between fast food consumption and obesity. Including a study which found that fast food restaurants near schools increases the risk of obesity among the student population. Whole milk consumption verses 2% milk consumption in children of one to two years of age had no effect on weight, height, or body fat percentage. Therefore, whole milk continues to be recommended for this age group. However the trend of substituting sweetened drinks for milk has been found to lead to excess weight gain. Legal Some jurisdictions use laws and regulations in an effort to steer children and parents towards making healthier food choices. Two examples are calorie count laws and banning soft drinks from sale at vending machines in schools. In 2017 the Obesity Health Alliance called on the United Kingdom government which would be formed after that year's general election to take measures to reduce childhood obesity, for example by banning advertisements for unhealthy foods before 9:00 pm and banning sports sponsorship by manufacturers of unhealthy foods. The failure of Theresa May's then incumbent government to cut sugar, fat and salt content in foods was criticised by health groups. Health experts, the health select committee and campaigners described Conservative plans over childhood obesity as, "weak" and "watered down". Physical activity Physical inactivity of children has also shown to be a serious cause, and children who fail to engage in regular physical activity are at greater risk of obesity. Researchers studied the physical activity of 133 children over a three-week period using an accelerometer to measure each child's level of physical activity. They discovered the obese children were 35% less active on school days and 65% less active on weekends compared to non-obese children. Physical inactivity as a child could result in physical inactivity as an adult. In a fitness survey of 6,000 adults, researchers discovered that 25% of those who were considered active at ages 14 to 19 were also active adults, compared to 2% of those who were inactive at ages 14 to 19, who were now said to be active adults. Staying physically inactive leaves unused energy in the body, most of which is stored as fat. Researchers studied 16 men over a 14-day period and fed them 50% more of their energy required every day through fats and carbohydrates. They discovered that carbohydrate overfeeding produced 75–85% excess energy being stored as body fat and fat overfeeding produced 90–95% storage of excess energy as body fat. Many children fail to exercise because they spend long periods of time engaging in sedentary activities such as computer usage, playing video games or watching television. Technology has a large factor on the children's activeness. Researchers provided a technology questionnaire to 4,561 children, ages 14, 16, and 18. They discovered children were 21.5% more likely to be overweight when watching 4+ hours of TV per day, 4.5% more likely to be overweight when using a computer one or more hours per day, and unaffected by potential weight gain from playing video games. A randomized trial showed that reducing TV viewing and computer use can decrease age-adjusted BMI; reduced calorie intake was thought to be the greatest contributor to the BMI decrease. Technological activities are not the only household influences of childhood obesity. Low-income households can affect a child's tendency to gain weight. Over a three-week period researchers studied the relationship of socioeconomic status (SES) to body composition in 194 children, ages 11–12. They measured weight, waist girth, stretch stature, skinfolds, physical activity, TV viewing, and SES; researchers discovered clear SES inclines to upper class children compared to the lower class children. Childhood inactivity is linked to obesity in the United States with more children being overweight at younger ages. In a 2009 preschool study 89% of a preschoolers' day was found to be sedentary while the same study also found that even when outside, 56 percent of activities were still sedentary. One factor believed to contribute to the lack of activity found was little teacher motivation, but when toys, such as balls were made available, the children were more likely to play. Home environment Children's food choices are also influenced by family meals. Researchers provided a household eating questionnaire to 18,177 children, ranging in ages 11–21, and discovered that four out of five parents let their children make their own food decisions. They also discovered that compared to adolescents who ate three or fewer meals per week, those who ate four to five family meals per week were 19% less likely to report poor consumption of vegetables, 22% less likely to report poor consumption of fruits, and 19% less likely to report poor consumption of dairy foods. Adolescents who ate six to seven family meals per week, compared to those who ate three or fewer family meals per week, were 38% less likely to report poor consumption of vegetables, 31% less likely to report poor consumption of fruits, and 27% less likely to report poor consumption of dairy foods. The results of a survey in the UK published in 2010 imply that children raised by their grandparents are more likely to be obese as adults than those raised by their parents. An American study released in 2011 found the more mothers work the more children are more likely to be overweight or obese. Developmental factors Various developmental factors may affect rates of obesity. Breast-feeding for example may protect against obesity in later life with the duration of breast-feeding inversely associated with the risk of being overweight later on. A child's body growth pattern may influence the tendency to gain weight. Researchers measured the standard deviation (SD [weight and length]) scores in a cohort study of 848 babies. They found that infants who had an SD score above 0.67 had catch up growth (they were less likely to be overweight) compared to infants who had less than a 0.67 SD score (they were more likely to gain weight). Additionally, breastfeeding for less than 6 months, compared to 6 months or more, has been shown to result in a higher growth rate and higher BMI at 18, 36, and 72 months of age. A child's weight may be influenced when he/she is only an infant. Researchers also did a cohort study on 19,397 babies, from their birth until age seven and discovered that high weight babies at four months were 1.38 times more likely to be overweight at seven years old compared to normal weight babies. High weight babies at the age of one were 1.17 times more likely to be overweight at age seven compared to normal weight babies. Medical illness Cushing's syndrome (a condition in which the body contains excess amounts of cortisol) may also influence childhood obesity. Researchers analyzed two isoforms (proteins that have the same purpose as other proteins, but are programmed by different genes) in the cells of 16 adults undergoing abdominal surgery. They discovered that one type of isoform created oxo-reductase activity (the alteration of cortisone to cortisol) and this activity increased 127.5 pmol mg sup when the other type of isoform was treated with cortisol and insulin. The activity of the cortisol and insulin can possibly activate Cushing's syndrome. Hypothyroidism is a hormonal cause of obesity, but it does not significantly affect obese people who have it more than obese people who do not have it. In a comparison of 108 obese patients with hypothyroidism to 131 obese patients without hypothyroidism, researchers discovered that those with hypothyroidism had only 0.077 points more on the caloric intake scale than did those without hypothyroidism. Psychological factors Researchers surveyed 1,520 children, ages 9–10, with a four-year follow up and discovered a positive correlation between obesity and low self-esteem in the four-year follow up. They also discovered that decreased self-esteem led to 19% of obese children feeling sad, 48% of them feeling bored, and 21% of them feeling nervous. In comparison, 8% of normal weight children felt sad, 42% of them felt bored, and 12% of them felt nervous. Stress can influence a child's eating habits. Researchers tested the stress inventory of 28 college females and discovered that those who were binge eating had a mean of 29.65 points on the perceived stress scale, compared to the control group who had a mean of 15.19 points. This evidence may demonstrate a link between eating and stress. Feelings of depression can cause a child to overeat. Researchers provided an in-home interview to 9,374 adolescents, in grades seven through 12 and discovered that there was not a direct correlation with children eating in response to depression. Of all the obese adolescents, 8.2% had said to be depressed, compared to 8.9% of the non-obese adolescents who said they were depressed. Antidepressants, however, seem to have very little influence on childhood obesity. Researchers provided a depression questionnaire to 487 overweight/obese subjects and found that 7% of those with low depression symptoms were using antidepressants and had an average BMI score of 44.3, 27% of those with moderate depression symptoms were using antidepressants and had an average BMI score of 44.7, and 31% of those with major depression symptoms were using antidepressants and had an average BMI score of 44.2. Several studies have also explored the connection between Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and obesity in children. A study in 2005 concluded that within a subgroup of children who were hospitalized for obesity, 57.7% had co-morbid ADHD. This relationship between obesity and ADHD may seem counter-intuitive, as ADHD is typically associated with higher level of energy expenditure, which is thought of as a protective factor against obesity. However, these studies determined that children exhibited more signs of predominantly inattentive-type ADHD rather than combined-type ADHD. It is possible, however, that the symptoms of hyperactivity typically present in individuals with combined-type ADHD are simply masked in obese children with ADHD due to their decreased mobility. The same correlation between obesity and ADHD is also present in adult populations. Existing underlying explanations for the relationship between ADHD and obesity in children include but are not limited to abnormalities in the hypo-dopaminergic pathway, ADHD creating abnormal eating behaviors which leads to obesity, or impulsivity associated with binge eating leading to ADHD in obese patients. A systematic review of the literature on the relationship between obesity and ADHD concluded that all reviewed studies reported ADHD patients were heavier than expected. However, the same systematic review also claimed that all the evidence supporting this connection was still limited and further research is still necessary to learn more about this connection. Given the prevalence rates of both obesity and ADHD in children, understanding the possible relationship between the two is important for public health, particularly when exploring treatment and management options. Direct intervention for psychological treatment of childhood obesity has become more prevalent in recent years. A meta-analysis of the psychological treatment of obesity in children and adolescents found family-based behavioral treatment (FBT) and Parent-Only Behavior treatment to be the most effective practices in treating obesity in children within a psychological framework. Management Obesity in children is treated with dietary changes and physical activity, often through an intensive counselling and lifestyle changes program. At least sixty minutes of daily moderate to high intensity aerobic physical activity is recommended for all children (regardless of BMI). Dieting, including caloric restriction or very low calorie diets, and missing meals should however be discouraged, as it is associated with psychological harm, risks of dietary or nutritional deficiencies and a risk of developing eating disorders later in life. The benefit of tracking BMI and providing counselling around weight is minimal. Brief primary care weight management interventions (e.g. delivered by a physician or nurse practitioner) have only a marginal positive effect in reducing childhood overweight or obesity. Lifestyle Exclusive breast-feeding is recommended in all newborn infants for its nutritional and other beneficial effects. Parents changing the diet and lifestyle of their offspring by offering appropriate food portions, increasing physical activity, and keeping sedentary behaviors at a minimum may also decrease the obesity levels in children. If children were more mobile and less sedentary, the rate of obesity would decrease. Parents should recognize the signs and encourage their children to be more physically active. By walking or riding a bike, instead of using motorised transport or watching television, will reduce sedentary activity. Medications As of 2023 there are several anti-obesity medications which are approved by the FDA for the treatment of obesity in adolescents. These medications are only recommended for use in conjunction with an intensive behavioral and lifestyle counselling program. Orlistat is a lipase inhibitor which prevents the absorption of fats after meals. It is approved in children 12 years and older, but it's use is often limited due to adverse reactions of bowel urgency, fecal incontinence, flatulence and it may cause deficiencies in fat soluble vitamins. Phentermine is an amphetamine analogue which is used as an appetite suppressant, it may be used for up to 12 weeks at a time in adolescents 16 years and older. Possible adverse reactions include headache, nausea, palpitations, elevations in blood pressure, restlessness or insomnia. Phentermine is also available in combination with topiramate extended release and the combination approved for use in adolescents 12 years and older. Topiramate is an anticonvulsant, but has been shown to cause weight loss. Phentermine-topiramate XR has similar possible side effects as phentermine and users should be on contraception due to the risk of teratogenic effects of the medication. Liraglutide and semaglutide are glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists which are approved for the treatment of obesity in adolescents 12 years and older. Liraglutide is a once daily injection and semaglutide is a once weekly injection. They are thought to work by delaying gastric emptying, decreasing appetite and increasing satiety. Possible side effects of liraglutide or semaglutide include gastrointestinal distress including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, abdominal discomfort or indigestion. Liraglutide and semaglutide should not be used in those with a personal or family history of medullary type thyroid cancers as they may increase the risk of these types of tumors. And their use is further contraindicated in those with acute kidney injury, gallbladder disease or a history of pancreatitis. Setmelanotide is approved for children 6 years or older with certain types of secondary obesity. It may cause skin hyperpigmentation or other dermatologic effects as well as gastrointestinal side effects, with rare instances of depression and suicidal ideation. Metformin is often used off label in children or adolescents with obesity, and has been found to cause a 1.1 decrease in the BMI. A Cochrane review in 2016 concluded that medications might reduce BMI and bodyweight to a small extent in obese children and adolescents. This conclusion was based only on low quality evidence. Surgery Bariatric surgical procedures are increasingly used amongst adolescents with severe adolescent obesity to promote weight loss. Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding showed greater weight loss than lifestyle management in a small study. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and vertical sleeve gastrectomy are two surgical procedures currently used in adolescent obesity with varying sucess rates. The two types of procedures have shown a 26% weight loss from baseline at 5 years with an 86% remission rate in diabetes and 68% hypertension remission rate. Of those adolescents who lost weight after bariatric surgery, 60% maintained at least a 20% weight loss at 5 year follow up and 8% had regained most of the pre-surgical weight. Lack of pre-surgical weight loss is associated with an increased risk of weight gain after bariatric surgery. Other risks of bariatric surgery in adolescents may include nutrient deficiencies (including vitamin B12, folate and iron), the risk of bone mass loss, and a questionable risk of alcohol use disorders later in life. Epidemiology From 1980 to 2013, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children increased by nearly 50%. Currently 10% of children worldwide are either overweight or obese. In 2014, the World Health Organization established a high-level commission to end childhood obesity. With more than 42 million overweight children around the world, childhood obesity is increasing worldwide. Since 1980, the number of obese children has doubled in all three North American countries, Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Although the rate of childhood obesity in the United States has stopped increasing, the current rate remains high. In 2010, 32.6 percent of 6- to 11-year-olds were overweight, and 18 percent of 6- to 9-year-olds were obese. Canada The rate of overweight and obesity among Canadian children has increased dramatically in recent years. In boys, the rate increased from 11% in the 1980s to 30% in the 1990s. Brazil The rate of overweight and obesity in Brazilian children increased from 4% in the 1980s to 14% in the 1990s. In 2007 the prevalence of children overweight and childhood obesity was 11.1% and 2.7% in girls, 8.2% and 1.5% in boys, respectively. United States The rate of obesity among children and adolescents in the United States has nearly tripled between the early 1980s and 2000. It has however not changed significantly between 2000 and 2006 with the most recent statistics showing a level just over 17 percent. In 2008, the rate of overweight and obese children in the United States was 32%, and had stopped climbing. In 2011, a national cohort study of infants and toddlers found that nearly one-third of US children were overweight or obese at 9 months and 2 years old. In a follow-up study, infant weight status (healthy and obese) was strongly associated with preschool weight status. Australia Since the onset of the 21st century, Australia has found that childhood obesity has followed trend with the United States. Information garnered has concluded that the increase has occurred in the lower socioeconomic areas where poor nutritional education has been blamed. Research A study of 1800 children aged 2 to 12 in Colac, Australia tested a program of restricted diet (no carbonated drinks or sweets) and increased exercise. Interim results included a 68% increase in after school activity programs, 21% reduction in television viewing, and an average of 1 kg weight reduction compared to a control group. A survey carried out by the American Obesity Association into parental attitudes towards their children's weight showed the majority of parents think that recess should not be reduced or replaced. Almost 30% said that they were concerned with their child's weight. 35% of parents thought that their child's school was not teaching them enough about childhood obesity, and over 5% thought that childhood obesity was the greatest risk to their child's long-term health. A Northwestern University study indicates that inadequate sleep has a negative impact on a child's performance in school, their emotional and social welfare, and increases their risk of being overweight. This study was the first nationally represented, longitudinal investigation of the correlation between sleep, Body Mass Index (BMI) and overweight status in children between the ages of 3 and 18. The study found that an extra hour of sleep lowered the children's risk of being overweight from 36% to 30%, while it lessened older children's risk from 34% to 30%. A 2018 Cochrane review on the impact of physical activity, diet and other behavioral interventions for improving cognition and school achievement in children and adolescents found that school and community-based programs as part of an overall prevention program were beneficial. Obese children and adolescents are more likely to become obese as adults. For example, one study found that approximately 80% of children who were overweight at aged 10–15 years were obese adults at age 25 years. Another study found that 25% of obese adults were overweight as children. The latter study also found that if overweight begins before 8 years of age, obesity in adulthood is likely to be more severe. A study has also found that tackling childhood obesity will not necessarily lead to eating disorders later in life. A review of secular trends in the number of overweight or obese children have come to the conclusion that prevalence had increased during the past two decades in the most industrialised countries, apart from Russia and Poland, and in several low-income countries, especially in urban areas. Prevalence doubled or tripled between the early 1970s and late 1990s in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, the UK, and the USA. By 2010, more than 40% of children in the North American and eastern Mediterranean WHO regions, 38% in Europe, 27% in the western Pacific, and 22% in southeast Asia were predicted to be overweight or obese. However, that 2006 review pre-dates recent data, which, although still too soon to be certain, suggest that the increase in childhood obesity in the US, the UK, and Sweden might be abating.3–5 A British longitudinal study has found that obesity restricted to childhood has minimal influence on adult outcomes at age 30. The study also found that, while obesity that continues into adulthood has little influence on men's outcomes, it makes women less likely to have ever been employed or to currently have a romantic partner. A 2017 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that childhood obesity in the United States increases medical costs by $1,354 a year (in 2013 dollars). Notable cases Dzhambulat Khatokhov, Russian boy weighing at 2 years old, and at 13 years old, named the world's heaviest child in 2003 by Guinness World Records. Jessica Leonard, American girl weighing at 8 years old, lost most of the weight. Arya Permana, Indonesian boy weighing at 11 years old, lost most of the weight. See also International Journal of Pediatric Obesity Task Force on Childhood Obesity Classification of childhood obesity Obesity and the environment Social influences on fitness behavior Social stigma of obesity Sugary drink tax EPODE International Network Transport: Active mobility Children's street culture Children's street games Cycling mobility Home zone / Play street Obesity and walking Student transport Walking bus Footnotes Further reading Laura Dawes, Childhood Obesity in America: Biography of an Epidemic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. External links
4572690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation%20in%20Toronto	Transportation in Toronto	Transportation in the Canadian city of Toronto forms the hub of the road, rail and air networks in the Greater Toronto Area and much of southern Ontario. There are many forms of transport in the city, including railways, highways, and public transit. Toronto also has an extensive network of bicycle lanes and multi-use trails and paths. Railways Toronto is a major rail transportation hub in Canada and central North America, with most commercial rail freight operations carried out by two Class I railways, Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway. Both companies operate major yards and intermodal facilities in various parts of Toronto to serve manufacturing and logistics customers. Although at one time, both railways saw most of their operations based out of the waterfront area, over time they have shifted to facilities in suburban Toronto or adjacent municipalities. Most waterfront trackage has been scaled back and abandoned in favour of real-estate development, with the remaining main lines in this area being almost the exclusive domain of passenger carriers. Significant portions of the railway network in the City of Toronto have been sold by the commercial railways to GO Transit, the provincial commuter rail operator. Toronto is served by inter-city Via Rail to other Canadian cities and Amtrak's daily New York City trains through Union Station, a grand neoclassical structure in the heart of the city's downtown, which is shared with GO Transit's commuter trains. The Union Pearson Express, an airport rail link from Toronto Pearson International Airport to Union Station and the central business district, started operation on June 6, 2015. It was completed in time for the 2015 Pan American Games. Bus terminals GO Transit operates all of its commuter bus services into and out of downtown Toronto from the Union Station Bus Terminal, a terminal owned and operated by GO Transit and adjacent to Union Station. This bus terminal was opened in 2020, replacing an earlier Union Station GO Bus Terminal. GO Transit also operates the Yorkdale Bus Terminal at Yorkdale Shopping Centre and several terminals at subway stations, including Finch Bus Terminal, Scarborough Centre Bus Terminal and York Mills Bus Terminal. Most intercity coach services operate out of the new Union Station Bus Terminal after relocating from the decommissioned Toronto Coach Terminal at Bay and Dundas in 2021. Intercity coach companies operating services out of the Union Station Bus Terminal include Ontario Northland, Megabus, TOK Coachlines, Rider Express, Flixbus, and Greyhound Lines. Highways There are a number of freeways that serve both the city proper and the Greater Toronto Area. Bisecting the city from west to east across its inner suburbs, Highway 401 (or simply, "the 401") acts as a bypass of the downtown core, and is both the busiest and widest highway in Canada. At its interchange with Highway 400, where it spans 18 lanes, it sees over 400,000 vehicles on an average day, making it one of the world's busiest highways. At the western edge of the city, the 401 meets Highway 427, an important north–south artery between Toronto Pearson International Airport and the Gardiner Expressway. It mainly serves the airport and the western suburbs outside the city of Toronto. In the same area, the short length of Highway 409 connects the airport directly to the traffic flow of the 401. Moving east, the 401 then intersects Highway 400, which leads north to Barrie, the recreational areas of Ontario's "Cottage Country" and beyond, to the northern reaches of the province. East of the 400, the 401 meets Allen Road, and then the Don Valley ParkwayHighway 404, before continuing eastwards out of Toronto into the suburbs of Pickering, Ajax, Whitby, and Oshawa. The Allen Road is an expressway from Eglinton Avenue to Sheppard Avenue north of the 401. The Don Valley Parkway is a north–south expressway that links downtown Toronto to the 401. Beyond the 401, this route is known as Highway 404, and connects the more distant outer suburbs of Markham, Richmond Hill, Aurora, and Newmarket to the 401. The Gardiner Expressway (or colloquially, "the Gardiner") roughly follows the northern shore of Lake Ontario, and connects the western suburbs to the downtown core. West of Highway 427, the Gardiner becomes Queen Elizabeth Way (often called the QEW, or simply "The Q.E."), which heads towards Hamilton, Niagara Falls, and Fort Erie (and the Canada–United States border in the vicinity of Buffalo). Highway 407 ETR is not located within Toronto proper, but is a major highway in the Greater Toronto Area that acts as a secondary bypass around the northern end of the city, stretching from Burlington in the west to Pickering in the east. It is an electronic toll road with no physical toll booths, instead depending on automatic recognition of vehicle plates or electronic toll collection. Roads Toronto has 9500 roads or 5200 kilometres across the city. Toronto is largely built on a grid-based road system with a few notable exceptions. These include streets such as Davenport Road and Vaughan Road, which follow an old native trail, while others, such as Kingston Road, were originally constructed to link Toronto with other settlements in Ontario. The street network downtown mostly consists of a dense network of four-lane arterial and collector roads typical of an older North American city. Outside the downtown core, most arterial roads have two or three lanes of traffic in each direction. Toronto's road system was mainly designed for vehicular traffic, and is quite easy to navigate. There are some anomalies; for example, Lawrence Avenue and St. Clair Avenue are both split into two sections by the Don Valley, and, in the case of St. Clair Avenue, the drive between the two sections is almost 15 minutes. Roads sometimes change names, and the 1998 Amalgamation has caused some doubling in road names, although this is usually confined to smaller, more residential, roads. The main north–south arteries, from west to east, are Kipling Avenue, Islington Avenue, Royal York Road, Jane Street, Keele Street / Weston Road, Dufferin Street, Bathurst Street, Avenue Road / University Avenue, Yonge Street, Bayview Avenue, Leslie Street, Don Mills Road, Victoria Park Avenue, Warden Avenue, Kennedy Road, McCowan Road, Markham Road, and Morningside Avenue. The main east–west arteries, from north to south, are Steeles Avenue, Finch Avenue, Sheppard Avenue, Wilson Avenue / York Mills Road / Ellesmere Road (the latter two connected by Parkwoods Village Drive), Lawrence Avenue, Eglinton Avenue, St. Clair Avenue, Bloor Street / Danforth Avenue, Dundas Street, Queen Street West and East, and Lake Shore Boulevard / Kingston Road. Roads in Toronto are often potted with potholes due to freezing and thawing in the winter-spring seasons. On average, there are 100 major potholes reported with a high of 1000. Potholes are repaired by city crews. Full paving is done by contractors when the need arises. Toll roads From 1820 to 1896, tolls were collected on roads leaving the old city boundaries: Yonge and King Yonge and College/Carlton Yonge Street and Bloor Street Yonge Street at Gallows Hill Queen Street West and Ossington Avenue No Toronto roads have been tolled since 1896; the closest is Highway 407 in Durham Region, York Region and Peel Region; the expressway runs northeast, north and northwest of the city, respectively. Public transportation Within the city, the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) operates an extensive system of subways, buses, and streetcars, covering of routes. A single flat fare applies for any trip within the city regardless of distance or transfers required with the exception of contracted routes that travel outside of the city and downtown express routes. The TTC is the third busiest transit agency by ridership in North America (after the Mexico City Metro and New York City's New York City Transit Authority). Buses and streetcars The rest of the city is primarily served by a network of about 150 bus routes, many of them forming a grid along main streets. Most bus routes connect to one or more subway stations, save a few routes that serve bus depots or GO stations. A more distinctive feature of the TTC is the streetcar system, one of the few remaining in North America with a substantial amount of in-street operation. The city of Toronto has the largest streetcar system in the Americas. Metro rail The backbone of the TTC is a subway system with two lines, Line 1 Yonge–University and Line 2 Bloor–Danforth, running along principal streets and connecting Toronto's outlying areas with its downtown core. Commuter rail Inter-regional commuter rail and bus service is provided by GO Transit. GO trains and buses connect the city to the rest of the Greater Toronto Area. Ontario Northland Motor Coach Services operates buses to destinations in northern Ontario. Airports Toronto Pearson International Airport Toronto's primary airport is Toronto Pearson International Airport (YYZ), straddling Toronto's western boundary with Mississauga. Pearson's air traffic is over 41million passengers in 2015, and it is the world's largest originator of air traffic into the United States. It is the busiest airport in Canada and is the largest hub for Air Canada. It is the world's 15th busiest airport by flights as of 2014. Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport (Island Airport) The city also has a small commercial airport, the Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport (YTZ), commonly known as the "island airport" on Toronto Island, southwest of downtown. The airport is used for civil aviation, medevac flights, and regional airlines using STOL-type turboprop aircraft. Since 1984, regional carriers have included City Express, Jazz Air and since 2006, Porter Airlines. Airport access is via a short ferry ride or tunnel. 508,574 passengers used the airport in 2008, making it the busiest one-airline served airport in the world. In 2009 it surpassed Thunder Bay International Airport to become the 3rd busiest air facility in Ontario (after Toronto-Pearson and Ottawa International) serving 770,000 passengers, and growing to handle 2.3million passengers in 2014. Nearby airports The Hamilton International Airport is an alternate, relief airport to Pearson. Situated in Hamilton, southwest of Toronto, it is also a terminus for low-cost carrier, charter airline, and cargo traffic. Travellers from Toronto to the United States alternatively travel from Buffalo Niagara International Airport, located outside of Buffalo, New York, United States. The lower airfares offered for U.S. destinations make travelling from Buffalo a cost-effective alternative, despite the time needed to make the trip by motor vehicle from Toronto. There are a number of other general aviation airports in and around the city, including Buttonville Municipal Airport, Markham Airport, Oshawa Airport, Brampton Airport, and Burlington Air Park (also known as Burlington Executive Aerodrome). Cycling Cycling in Toronto has improved over the years as the residents and municipal government have become more interested in it as a form of transportation. Toronto has a major program in place to dramatically expand the network through on-road separate bike lanes, with the goal of having any cyclist in the city proper within a five-minute ride of a designated bike route. The network includes a planned 500 km of on-street bike lanes, and another 250 km of off-road paved trails. To date, only a small portion of the network has been built. Gaining approval to put in the on-street bike lanes has proven to be a serious problem, and less than 90 km of the planned 500 km have been set up so far. The small coverage also reduces the overall usefulness of the network, as many of the lanes do not connect with each other (see Metcalfe's Law). In 2011, the Public Bike System Company launched a bicycle sharing system known as BIXI. The system was renamed Bike Share Toronto after it was taken over by the Toronto Parking Authority. Two major off-road paved trails along the Don and Humber river valleys provide a backbone for transport on the east and west side of the downtown area. However, both trails are non-continuous and quite narrow in areas, making them unsuitable as major transport routes. The two trails are ostensibly connected together via a lakeside route, but due to a massive build-out of this area during the 1990s, the "trail" through much of the downtown area exists in name only. Nevertheless, Toronto has an extensive bicycle culture. The municipal government encourages bicycle use through its Toronto Bike Plan. An extensive City of Toronto Bicycle Map is available from the City of Toronto free of charge as well as from their website. All TTC buses have bicycle racks attached to their fronts since 2013. Bicycles are allowed on the subway outside of the morning and evening rush hours. Since the late 2000s, the Toronto-Niagara Bike Train Initiative has helped connect Toronto cyclists with Niagara Region bike trails via Via Rail. Walking A 2013 study by Walk Score ranked Toronto the 2nd most walkable city in Canada. In addition to surface-level paths and sidewalks, a network of underground pedestrian tunnels are used to connect the various buildings in Downtown Toronto. Known as PATH, it was intended to alleviate pedestrian traffic of downtown's sidewalks. Underground pedestrian tunnels were used in Toronto since 1900, although the construction of the larger PATH network did not commence until the 1960s. Spanning more than , with of retail space, the PATH network is recognized as the world's largest underground shopping complex by the Guinness Book of World Records. Ferries The principal ferry service to the Toronto Islands is provided by the city's Parks, Forestry and Recreation division. Ferries run year-round from the Toronto Ferry Docks at the foot of Bay Street to Hanlan's Point, Centre Island, and Ward's Island. A high-speed passenger/vehicle ferry service across Lake Ontario to Rochester, New York was launched on June 17, 2004, using the vessel Spirit of Ontario I under the marketing term "The Breeze". After experiencing a financing-caused service interruption, it returned to service June 30, 2005, under the ownership of the City of Rochester and operated by Bay Ferries Great Lakes Limited, using the marketing term "The Cat". After an unprofitable summer of operation mostly due to delays, and despite adequate ridership, the newly elected Mayor of Rochester announced on January 10, 2006, that the service would be discontinued and the city would sell the ship, which was purchased by UK-based Euroferries Ltd, for service across the English Channel. It was finally sold in April 2007 to the German company Förde Reederei Seetouristik (FRS) for a ferry service between Spain and Morocco across the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Spirit of Ontario I was renamed HSC Tanger Jet II and later as HSC Dolphin Jet, crossing the Kattegat between Aarhus and Kalundborg in Denmark. The International Marine Passenger Terminal at 8 Unwin Avenue in the Port Lands, built to accommodate multiple visits per day by The Breeze, is currently only used a couple of times a year to accommodate visiting cruise ships. The Toronto Ferry Company's private ferry operation was taken over by the Toronto Transit Commission in 1927. The Royal Canadian Yacht Club has operated its two private ferries, the Hiawatha and Kwasind, for over a century. The city also operates a ferry service to take passengers to and from the Billy Bishop Island Airport with its terminal at the foot of Bathurst Street. Future prospects and concerns The regional population of Toronto is expected to reach 7million people within the next 10 years, up from the current 5.5million, making it one of the fastest growing metropolitan areas in North America. Over the last couple of decades, traffic volumes has been increasing steadily in the Greater Toronto Area. However, road and transit investments have not kept pace with the growth in demand. Urban sprawl is a major factor: some commuters travel significant distances within the city and the surrounding GTA for employment. Downtown-to-suburb and suburb-suburb commutes have been increasing as well, which existing public transit services are not organized to efficiently accommodate. This contributes to congestion, adding to travel times and causing smog. Congestion in the GTA is estimated to cost the economy between 6 and 11billion dollars each year. One study found that the average commute time in GTA exceeds that of 19 larger or comparably sized cities. Other studies comparing international cities show that Toronto residents on average spend the most time commuting to work in North America and sixth-most overall in the world. In March 2004, the Ontario government announced the creation of the "Greater Toronto Transit Authority" (GTTA - not to be confused with GTAA, acronym for the Greater Toronto Airport Authority), renamed Metrolinx in December 2007, with the goal of facilitating improved integration between the city and suburban transport systems. One key element to this integration would be a single fare system, called Presto, to improve the convenience of transfers between different transit agencies. On March 23, 2006, the Government of Ontario announced funding for the extension northward of the TTC's Spadina Subway Line to the York University campus and beyond into the proposed Vaughan Metropolitan Centre in neighbouring Vaughan, York Region. When completed, it will be the first extension of the TTC subway system beyond the current post-1998 municipal border of Toronto. However, Toronto's existing transportation network, particularly public transit, have not kept up with the growth of the city. In the past decade, issues concerning transit funding and expansion have become political football. For example, in 2007, Metrolinx is provided $8.4billion of funding to construct four light rail lines throughout the city, including light rail lines along Eglinton Avenue, Finch Avenue West, and Sheppard Avenue East, as well as a line replacing Line 3 Scarborough, all of which are expected to be completed and in operation by 2020. However, by 2017, political interference from provincial and municipal levels of government, funding cuts and delays meant that no lines will be complete by 2020, with no official opening date set for the initial phase of the Line 5 Eglinton. Funding for the daily operations of the TTC have become chronically low with the removal of provincial funding by the premier Mike Harris in the late 90s, leaving the City of Toronto as the sole source of operational subsidies. See also Toronto Transit Commission GO Transit Metrolinx References
4572965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostel%3A%20Part%20II	Hostel: Part II	Hostel: Part II is a 2007 American horror film written and directed by Eli Roth, serving as a sequel to Hostel (2005). It is the second installment in the Hostel film series. The film stars Lauren German, Roger Bart, Heather Matarazzo, Bijou Phillips and Richard Burgi, while Jay Hernandez briefly reprises his role from the first film. It was produced by Mike Fleiss, Roth, and Chris Briggs, with Boaz Yakin, Scott Spiegel, and Quentin Tarantino serving as executive producers. The plot follows three American female art students in Rome who are directed to a Slovak village where they are eventually kidnapped and taken to a facility in which rich clients pay to torture and kill other people. After the significant box office receipts of Hostel, Roth conceived a sequel set directly after the events of the first film, opting to include three female protagonists to "up the ante." Filming took place in the fall of 2006 in Prague at Barrandov Studios, with additional photography occurring in Iceland and Slovakia. Banned from theatrical release in several countries, Hostel: Part II had its world premiere at the Museum of the Moving Image in New York City on June 6, 2007, and was released theatrically in the United States two days later, on June 8. The film earned less than its predecessor at the box office, grossing $17 million in the United States by the end of its theatrical run, whereas the original made $19 million in its opening weekend alone. Prior to its theatrical release, a workprint of the film leaked on the Internet, and one publication at the time claimed it was the "most pirated film ever", which Roth suggested was a factor in the film's box office returns. Plot Following the events of Hostel (2005), Paxton suffers from PTSD and lives in seclusion with his girlfriend, Stephanie. After an argument where Stephanie denounces Paxton's paranoia as exaggerated and "insufferable", she wakes to find his headless corpse in their kitchen. Soon after, an unmarked box containing Paxton's severed head is delivered to the Elite Hunting Club's boss, Sasha Rassimov. In Rome, three American art students, Beth, Whitney, and Lorna, are convinced by Axelle, a nude model they are sketching, to join her on a luxurious spa vacation in Slovakia. The four check into a hostel, where the desk clerk surreptitiously uploads their passport photos to an auction website ran by the Elite Hunting Club. American businessman Todd and his best friend Stuart win the bids on Whitney and Beth, and excitedly travel to Slovakia. Later that night, at the village's harvest festival, Lorna is invited by Roman, a Slovakian local, to join him on a boat ride. After being taken to a secluded area downstream, Lorna is kidnapped, and awakens to find herself having been stripped naked, bound, and gagged Lorna is hung upside down. Another woman enters the room, disrobes, and lies naked beneath Lorna, before using a long scythe to repeatedly slash Lorna's back, torso, and eventually her throat, all whilst reveling in her dripping blood. Meanwhile, Beth, Whitney, Axelle, and a local man, Miroslav, head to a spa to relax. Beth falls asleep, and wakes up alone and without her belongings. While looking for her friends, she is pursued by several men and flees the spa. In the woods, she is ambushed by a gang of violent gypsy street children, but is saved by Sasha and Axelle; after both ladies leave, Sasha executes one of the boys as punishment. Later, at Sasha's remote mansion, Beth is pursued by the men from earlier, whom she realizes are associated with Sasha and Axelle. Looking for a hiding place, she discovers a room filled with human trophy heads (one of which is Paxton's) before being captured, taken to an abandoned factory and tied up in a room. Beth is soon joined by Stuart, who is supposed to kill her, yet appears reluctant to do so. In another room, Todd terrorizes Whitney with a power saw, but loses his nerve after accidentally partially scalping her without killing her. Horrified, Todd tries to leave, but is informed that he must kill Whitney before leaving. Todd refuses and tries to leave anyway, but the guards release attack dogs, which tear Todd apart. The Elite Hunting Club then offers the maimed Whitney to the other clients to kill, including an elderly Italian man who is eating Miroslav alive. Stuart, after learning of Todd's death, shows Beth the pictures of the maimed Whitney to frighten her, then accepts the club's offer, leaves Beth, and beheads Whitney. Meanwhile, Stuart, who has now officially made up his mind, prepars to torture and kill Beth, explaining that she bears an extremely close resemblance to Stuart's wife, whom Stuart hates but has never had the opportunity to kill. Stuart then begins to torture her, but Beth is able to seduce him into untying her from the chair. Stuart attempts to rape her, but she fights him off and chains him to the chair. Sasha and the guards arrive at her cell, where Beth offers to buy her freedom with part of her inheritance, and though Stuart tries to outbid her, Sasha reveals that he knows that Stuart cannot afford to do so. After Sasha tells Beth that she must kill someone before leaving, she cuts off Stuart's entire genitalia and leaves him to bleed to death, an act that gives pause to even the jaded guards. Satisfied, Sasha gives Beth an Elite Hunting tattoo, making her an official member. That night, Axelle is lured by the Gypsy street children into the woods, where Beth ambushes and beheads her. Shortly after, the children start playing football with Axelle's severed head. Cast Production Casting Roth sought Lauren German for the lead role based on her performance in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003). "Lauren has a sense of humor, but she can also handle those horrific, intense moments," explained Roth. "I needed an actress who would be so vulnerable and so likeable, but then really strong when she needs to be. Even though Lauren probably weighs ninety pounds soaking wet and looks like a princess, you feel like she's kicking ass." Bijou Phillips was cast as Whitney after impressing Roth with her audition. For the part of Lorna, Roth had Heather Matarazzo in mind from the beginning; she flew to Los Angeles to read for the part, unaware that Roth was meeting to offer it to her. Vera Jordanova was cast as Axelle, a female antagonist, while former Slovak Minister of Culture and actor Milan Kňažko was given the role of Sasha, the Russian mafia member and ringleader of the torture factory. "The fact that Sasha was Russian was one of the reasons I accepted this role," Kňažko joked. "We Slovaks are still a little bit angry over the occupation of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet army." To play Stuart and Todd, the American businessmen who are "emblematic of the more extreme sides of human nature and the dark shadow of First World materialism," Roth cast Roger Bart and Richard Burgi. Filming Principal photography began on September 11, 2006, in Prague's Barrandov Studios. Much of the tunnel sequences in the torture factory were filmed in sets constructed at the studio, while additional photography took place in and around Prague. The unnamed village where the protagonists stay and attend the harvest festival is Český Krumlov, located in the Czech Republic's South Bohemian Region. The brick-and-mortar exteriors of the factory were constructed by production designer Robert Wilson King, and based on real abandoned factories he and Roth had toured abroad. Roth shot scenes for the film in the brothel Big Sister, and the spa sequence was shot on location at the Blue Lagoon near Reykjavík in Iceland. The special effects in the film were created by Greg Nicotero and Howard Berger, who had worked with Roth on the previous film. Actress Phillips claimed that her torture sequence, which entails her being scalped by a power saw, required around forty-five setups. "I don't think I could do something like this again," she stated in a 2007 interview. "I'm glad that I had the experience, and I love my job, but we went into places that I didn't know existed, and I don't need to do that again." Matarazzo's elaborate murder sequence required the actress to hang upside down, nude, with her hands chained to her back. Matarazzo performed the scene herself, and was hung upside down in five-minute intervals over a period of two days. Release Marketing and press Lionsgate devised several one sheet posters for the film in late 2006 and early 2007, the first of which consisted merely of a closeup of what appeared to be torn flesh. This poster, released in December 2006, yielded complaints from American theater patrons, and it was removed from theaters. A second poster, released in February 2007, showed a side profile of actress Bijou Phillips nude, holding her own severed head. The two posters were subsequently combined, with the image of Phillips superimposed over the first poster. A third poster, showing Matarazzo hanging upside down, was also released. On May 11, 2007, the final one sheet was released, which showed Roger Bart standing in a darkened corridor, holding a power drill in front of his groin. To promote the film's upcoming release, Lionsgate screened the first five minutes of Hostel: Part II before select screenings of Bug, which opened on May 25, 2007. On June 6, 2007, the film was given an advance screening at the Museum of the Moving Image, and featured a Q&A session with Roth afterward. Censorship The film has been restricted to adults in most countries. However, it has been cut in Germany, and the "German Extended Version" (in which Lorna's torture and death scene is still not shown completely) has subsequently been banned in Germany. A court in Munich ruled the release of the film (in its cut or uncut form) to be punishable by law. The film was banned outright in New Zealand upon submission to the ratings board, after the distributor refused to make cuts in order to receive an R18 certificate. However, it would later receive a release in edited form in New Zealand on DVD in 2008. On October 8, 2007, the film was cited in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom as an example where stills from the film could be illegal to possess under the proposed law to criminalise possession of "extreme pornography". MP Charles Walker claimed that although he had never seen the film, he was "assured by trusted sources" that "from beginning to end it depicts obscene, misogynistic acts of brutality against women." The British Board of Film Classification passed the film uncut with an 18 certificate. Censorship of the film received some backlash from the public: Writer and attorney Julie Hilden defended the film, both critically and artistically, in her essay "Why are critics so hostile to Hostel: Part II?", published after the film's theatrical release. In it, Hilden wrote, "Many of the visceral depictions of violence in these [types of] movies conveyed strong messages that no viewer could miss. Ironically, these messages, especially in the Hostel films, are typically anti-violence." Reception Box office Hostel: Part II was released in Australia June 7, 2007. It was released in the United States the following day, June 8, where it opened at number 6 at the box office, and earning $8.2 million during its opening weekend on 2,350 screens, averaging $3,490 per theater. The film grossed a total of $17.6 million domestically. It was released three weeks later in the United Kingdom on June 29. Internationally, the film grossed $18 million, making for a total worldwide gross of $35.6 million. The film grossed less than half of what its predecessor did, released during a period the Los Angeles Times characterized as a "slump" for horror films. Comparatively, the original opened at #1 with $19 million ($2 million more than Hostel: Part IIs final gross) and went on to make over $47 million. Leading up to the film's June 8 release in the United States, pirated DVD copies of a rough cut of the film surfaced among street vendors. Director Eli Roth blamed the piracy for the film's lower-than-anticipated box office results. In a 2007 article, the New Zealand publication Newshub stated that Hostel: Part II was the most-pirated film of all time, having been illegally downloaded on the Internet by millions of users. Critical response Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 44% based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Offering up more of the familiar sadism and gore, Hostel: Part II will surely thrill horror fans." On Metacritic, the film had a weighted average score of 46 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale. Several critics compared the film's production value and plot positively to its predecessor. In The Hollywood Reporter, Michael Rechtshaffen said the film was "a step up in virtually every aspect, from production values to its better focused storytelling and more fully developed characters." Similarly, Total Film described the film as a "superior beast" compared to the first film, with a "stupefying" technical advancement, a "satisfying" plot, and main characters who are "fun to hook up with." Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News also thought the film was "smarter and tougher than its predecessor." Some film critics believed the film commented on wider geopolitical themes. Anthony Quinn, writing for The Independent, speculated that the film may offer a "subversive" commentary on American values. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly believed the businessman ethos and auction-style bidding process in the film is similar to the real-life practices of the sex trafficking industry. In a retrospective assessment of the film in 2017, Mike Thorn of The Film Stage praised Hostel: Part II, citing perceived geopolitical undercurrents and its doubled narrative perspective as primary reasons: "By extending its narrative reach to include the Hostel "clients" as well as its prisoners, Part II deepens its moral and political insights. The audience is asked not only to empathize with the victims, but also to recognize its own complicity as spectators." By contrast, Nathan Lee of The Village Voice believed the film was "too goofy to disturb, too silly to scare" and described critics who saw a deeper meaning in the film as "bamboozled pseudo-intellectuals." Criticism of the film focused on how similar it was to its predecessor, as well as its lack of depth. In The Guardian, Phelim O'Neill awarded it three stars out of five but wrote that the film was "virtually identical to the first outing" and that "everything, save the bloody third act, is handled in a rudimentary fashion." Jamie Russell of the BBC gave it the same rating but wrote that the plot similarity to the first film "elicits déjà vu" and that "Eli Roth returns with more bucks but less imagination. Laura Kern of The New York Times described the main characters of the film as "fractionally more tolerable than the moronic frat boys of Part 1" and wrote that Roth had "mastered the cheap sadism-as-entertainment gross-out." Mark Kermode of The Observer wrote, "Eli Roth should be slapped and sent to bed with no supper until he promises to stop squandering the promise of Cabin Fever on infantile tripe like this. Sadly, his ongoing association with Quentin Tarantino, who once again 'presents' this drivel, merely brings out his worst, arrested-adolescent fanboy tendencies." In Leonard Maltin's annual publication rating movies, the film is given a BOMB rating, commenting, "Dreary, to say the least." Accolades The film was nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards in the field of "Worst Excuse for a Horror Movie" and "Worst Prequel or Sequel", but both were lost to I Know Who Killed Me and Daddy Day Camp. Heather Matarazzo was nominated for Best Supporting Actress at the 2007 Fright Meter Awards. Sequel In June 2008, it was announced that Scott Spiegel, one of the executive producers of both Hostel and Hostel: Part II, was in talks to write and direct a third film in the series. In July 2009, Eli Roth confirmed that he would not be directing Hostel: Part III. Unlike the previous installments, the film takes place in the United States, in Las Vegas, Nevada. Hostel: Part III was released directly to DVD on December 27, 2011 in the United States. References External links (archived/inactive) 2007 films 2007 horror films 2000s horror thriller films American films about revenge American horror thriller films American sequel films American splatter films 2000s Czech-language films 2000s English-language films Films about cannibalism Films directed by Eli Roth Films produced by Eli Roth Films scored by Nathan Barr Films set in Slovakia Films shot in the Czech Republic Films shot in Iceland Films shot in Monaco Films shot in Slovakia Films with screenplays by Eli Roth 2000s Italian-language films Lionsgate films Obscenity controversies in film Film controversies in the United Kingdom Film controversies in Germany Film controversies in Ukraine Film controversies in New Zealand Censored films Slovak-language films Splatterpunk 2000s American films
4572982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Bingham%20%28soldier%29	Richard Bingham (soldier)	Sir Richard Bingham (1528 – 19 January 1599) was an English soldier and naval commander. He served under Queen Elizabeth I during the Tudor conquest of Ireland and was appointed governor of Connacht. Early life and military career Bingham was born in Dorset to Richard Bingham and his wife Alice Coker, daughter of Thomas Coker, and was the eldest of three brothers. Little is known of his early life, but he had embarked upon a military career before turning twenty, despite his small stature. He took part in Protector Somerset's Scottish expedition in 1547. A decade later, he served with the Spanish against the French at the Battle of St. Quentin. In October of the following year, 1558, he took part in a naval expedition in the Western Isles in Scotland. In the Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War, Bingham fought under John of Austria (Don Juan de Austria) on the side of the Spaniards and Venetians. During this campaign, he was engaged in efforts to save the island of Cyprus, and at the crucial naval Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571. The next two years were spent in the Low Countries, relaying intelligence to the queen's principal secretary, Lord Burghley. In 1576 he attempted peace negotiations with Don Juan on behalf of the Estates General and, when the negotiations failed, fought valiantly for his employers at the Battle of Rijmenam. In the same year, 1578, the queen granted him an annuity of 50 marks in recognition of his military and diplomatic services. Naval expeditions In 1579, Bingham was sent to Ireland to aid in the suppression of the Second Desmond Rebellion. In September the following year he served as captain of the Swiftsure under Admiral William Winter, and in the course of that expedition took part in the massacre at Smerwick of hundreds of Italian and Spanish troops who had surrendered to the English, an event on which he reported to another of the queen's secretaries, Francis Walsingham. In September 1583, Bingham was given a commission to apprehend pirates in the narrow seas; the queen told Burghley to instruct him to seize Dutch ships for debts due to her, under the colour of looking for pirates. Governor of Connacht In 1584 Bingham was appointed governor of the Irish province of Connacht, an office which led him into great controversy for the rest of his career. His brothers George and John were assistant commissioners, and he himself was knighted by Lord Deputy Perrot at Dublin Castle on 12 July 84. The 1585 Composition of Connacht aimed to regularise payment of cess by the Gaelic lords. But by 1586, Connacht had gone into general rebellion. At the Galway assizes early in the year, Bingham presided at court, when over 70 death sentences for disloyalty to the crown were passed. Later in the year, he took Castle Cloonoan in County Clare after a seven-day siege and had the O'Brien owner shot and put the garrison to the sword. The principal agitators of the rebellion in Connacht were the MacWilliam Burke clan of County Mayo. Bingham entered their territory in March, taking Castlehag in Lough Mask, and agreed to withdraw his forces only if the men of the country prosecuted the rebels. In 1585 he took three young Burkes, Ulick, Richard and William aged fourteen, nine and seven. They were kept as hostages and then hanged in Ballinrobe. D'alton gives a harrowing account of the hangings. Perrot then granted a 3-month protection for the rebels, in return for pledges, and decided that the title of the MacWilliam should be abolished. In July the Burkes rose out again with even more adherents and sent men to Ulster to engage the Scots. In a provocative move, Perrot usurped Bingham's authority by forbidding him from moving against them, and the rebel numbers doubled to 800. Bingham assembled his army at Ballinrobe in mid-July, and by the end of the month, the rebel Burkes were ready to submit on the terms offered by him. The costs of the rebellion were covered by cattle seizures and fines. Bingham confiscated parts of the Burkes' property, granting to his brother John the castle of Castlebarry near Castlebar, which had belonged to Edmund Burke, the 80-year-old leader, who had been hanged after conviction for treason in August 1586, having been carried to the gallows on a bier. Perrot wanted an immediate peace, but Bingham insisted on good pledges, suspecting that the rebels were buying time to reap their corn. By 26 August, peace had been made with all the Connacht rebels. Bingham still had to deal with an incursion by a force of 3,000 Scots who had crossed the River Erne from Ulster. He watched them in the mountains and woods and descended on them at Ardnaree at noon on 23 September, when they thought he was far off. The Scots went into battle formation, but Bingham – despite his paucity of horse – drew them on until his foot came up, then charged and broke them. They fled to the river and all – including women and children – were killed or drowned, except 80. Those who escaped, as well as the Scots horsemen, were killed by locals in Tirawley. Bingham's brother John distinguished himself in this rout. Meanwhile, Perrot attempted again to invade Bingham's authority, against the advice of his council at Dublin. He brought his forces to Galway to gather evidence on foot of charges brought against Bingham by a rebel supporter, but nobody came in to testify. Perrot left the province in October, and an appeal was made to Francis Walsingham for mediation. In November, formal complaints were made against Bingham for having provoked the rebellion, but a declaration was signed by 43 Mayo gentlemen to the effect that the cause of the rebellion had been the extinction of the MacWilliam title and the suppression of exactions to be replaced with a central composition. The charges against Bingham, as brought before the Dublin council, were dismissed as malicious in February 1587. At the end of Bingham's first tour of duty in Connacht, it was claimed that the province was so prosperous that it produced corn for the other provinces and even attracted settlers from the Pale, and that even the composition was being paid in money. By then, the governor had come to tolerate the composition, for all its faults, as an expedient means of governing once the septs had been reduced and brehon law abolished. Netherlands and return to Ireland In July 1587 Bingham left Ireland for service in the Netherlands, with the prospect of assuming command of England's expeditionary army at the end of the year upon the recall of the Earl of Leicester. His brother George took his place in Ireland in September. In 1588 Bingham corresponded with Burghley on the defence of the realm against the Spanish. In January of the same year, he married for the first time. Bingham returned as governor of Connacht later in 1588, reaching Athlone in May. He entered the dispute over the inheritance of the late Donnell O'Connor Sligo, chief of the clan Ó Conchobhair Sligigh, who had died in late 1587, leaving the strategic manor of Sligo to a dubious heir (the castle being reserved to the crown, in order to command the western approach into Ulster). Commissioners appointed by Perrot found for the claimed heir, and Bingham was compelled to deliver custody of the manor, while lodging an objection: on further inquiry, the heir was found to be illegitimate. This finding was confirmed, and the subsequent grant of land was made according to Bingham's recommendation. Spanish Armada and renewed rebellion In September 1588, upon news of the flight of the Spanish Armada into the North Sea, Bingham ordered that all Spanish refugees landing on the coast of Connacht should be brought to Galway and put to death there. Many vessels were wrecked in the following month, and of the survivors who came to shore he estimated that 1,000 were put to death under his authority. His brother George, sheriff of County Sligo, also killed many Spanish survivors. Bingham suggested that 50 of the captives be kept alive, but the new Lord Deputy of Ireland, William Fitzwilliam, ordered him to put them all to death; later, more survivors came into his custody and he put them under the charge of bailsmen. (Some years later, in January 1592, Bingham persuaded several Spaniards to come in from the Burkes under protection and sent them to Dublin for passage home, but they were detained in prison there against his wishes.) In September, Bingham marched out with a small force toward the castles of Doona and Torrane, on intelligence that hundreds of survivors under the command of Don Alonso de Leyva had left those strongholds and marched to Donamona to intercept another landing of 500 men. Punishment was meted out to those suspected of succouring the Spanish. By the end of September, few Irish lords refused to give up their Armada survivors, but the presence of the Spanish caused unrest among several clans. In March 1589 open rebellion was entered by the pretender to the title of the MacWilliam – the Blind Abbot of the Burkes – and by other western clans. Fitzwilliam intervened and laid waste to counties Mayo, Sligo and parts of Roscommon, ordering Bingham to withdraw his forces from Mayo so as not to hinder the pacification. A peace commission was set up, with Bingham at its head, which sat in Galway in April, but most of the rebels stayed out. Then Sir Brian O'Rourke committed a great cattle raid in County Sligo, while the Burkes took similar action in the southwest, across the Mayo border. The latest rebel demand was for the withdrawal of Bingham from Connacht, the installation of the MacWilliam, and the removal of sheriffs from Mayo. Chaos reigned in the province, while the authorities remained divided on how best to proceed. One faction in the Privy Council of Ireland put the collapse of the talks down to the desire of some of the peace commissioners to blame Bingham for the rebellions. Bingham pursued his policy in the field, scouring counties Mayo and Roscommon with his forces, until the rebels had caved in and O'Rourke was driven north into Ulster. At Cong he was ordered by Fitzwilliam to cease and to disband some of his newly raised forces, and a new peace commission was appointed to treat until Fitzwilliam arrived. The Lord Deputy was determined that blame be placed on Bingham, and the rebels were resurgent as Fitzwilliam ordered the governor to remain at Athlone. Fitzwilliam travelled to Galway with 350 foot and 120 horse to receive the formal submissions of the rebels, and two books of complaints were lodged by them against Bingham. The complaints were forwarded by the lord deputy into England, and before leaving the province he denied Bingham the use of martial law and cut off his authority to conduct assize sessions, until Fitzwilliam himself had completed his progress through the province. Connacht remained unstable, and O'Rourke broke into action again, attacking the sheriff of Sligo in the Curlew Mountains. Trouble spread across the north, despite the presence of the lord deputy, and the disablement of the governor became a strategic worry for the government in London. Walsingham wrote in support of Bingham, and the Privy Council at London ordered that a trial before the lord deputy and council at Dublin proceed on the basis of the books of complaint. Fitzwilliam set about gathering evidence against Bingham, but crucial testimony from absent rebels was lacking. In early October, the Blind Abbott was proclaimed MacWilliam, and the queen ordered Fitzwilliam to assist Bingham in suppressing the title. But support from England could not prevent the charges against Bingham from being read before the council in early November. No witnesses appeared against him (although there were mutterings that they were too fearful to come to Dublin); his own witnesses underwent examination on the 28th. His full acquittal was proclaimed on 5 December. Bingham returned to Connacht, where the Lord Deputy had gathered his forces at Galway with an invitation to the rebels to submit by 12 January 1590. Hardly any rebels of note accepted, fearing that their hostages would be inadequate and that they themselves would be detained. Bingham was then given a free hand, and promptly marched to Cong with Donogh O'Brien, 4th Earl of Thomond and Ulick Burke, 3rd Earl of Clanricarde. The rebels harried them as they marched into Tirawley, but the next day the Blind Abbott was injured when he chased one of Thomond's kerne – as he overtook his prey on horseback, the kerne wheeled about and struck him with a sword, nearly cutting off the foot above the ankle. The crown forces progressed through the country, burning crops and villages, and the rebels withdrew with their cattle towards the mountains of Erris, where they soon sued for peace. Bingham was in Roscommon when the Burkes and Clandonnell accepted his conditions, which included the charges of the wars of 1586 and 1589. He then turned against O'Rourke who had invaded Sligo in March, although illness prevented him from taking the field and his brother George assumed command. Within the month O'Rourke had fled to Ulster with his sons, and the clans of County Leitrim had submitted. End of Perrot's influence In 1592 Perrot, who was then on the Privy Council in London with a special brief to advise on Irish affairs, formally complained to the queen of Bingham's severity and insubordination. But Perrot became entangled in allegations made against him by a priest imprisoned in Dublin, and the investigation broadened out to include the former lord deputy's dealings with the rebel O'Rourke. Bingham's assistance was sought in building a case against Perrot, but curiously his evidence was rather limited. Nevertheless, Perrot was convicted of treason and died in the Tower of London, (Elizabeth I having refused to order his death), while O'Rourke was extradited from Scotland to London, whereupon his rebel followers came into Bingham, who subsequently resisted suggestions that they be attainted. He also made it clear that only O'Rourke's personal seignory be subject to attainder, even though the crown had been expecting a much larger part of the rebel's clan territory in Leitrim. In June 1592 a Burke faction went into rebellion again, and as part of the ensuing terms of the peace, Bingham forced them to give pledges for each sept, imposed a fine of 2000 marks, and made them bear the damages of war since 1588. Connacht was quiet until May 1593, when Hugh Maguire and the late rebel's son, Brian Óg O'Rourke, raided Sligo after Bingham's brother George had seized the latter's milch cows in lieu of composition rent. In June they suffered heavy losses in a raid on Roscommon in the company of Fiach McHugh O'Byrne, who had brought forces from Leinster. In September Hugh Roe O'Donnell sent a small force to stir up Mayo, and in response, Bingham sent men against Maguire, and the rising proved a failure when the men of Tirawley set upon the rebels. Northern rebellions In January 1594, a detachment of Henry Bagenal's army with 2 companies sent by Bingham under the command of his cousin, Captain George Bingham, besieged Enniskillen. The outer wall of the castle defence was breached, and the defenders – 40 shot, 60 able men and 200 others – locked themselves in. Preparations were made to fire the gate, but the defenders sought a parley which was granted and the castle was surrendered: 150 were put to the sword. At this time Bingham was at Athlone and couldn't travel to Dublin because of a disease that prevented him from riding. In August the castle had to be relieved by the lord deputy, and in the following May, it was taken by O'Donnell. In September 1594, the younger O'Rourke and O'Donnell again attacked Sligo and were driven off with losses. In March the following year, Bingham drove O'Donnell from Roscommon, but he returned in April, and Bingham could only divert him to Longford, while seeking English soldiers to supplement the muster. In June, his cousin George was murdered by his ensign bearer, Ulick Burke (cousin of the Earl of Clanricarde), who had conspired with the garrison in Sligo castle; the castle was then surrendered to O'Donnell. Bingham sought 6 companies and 50 horse from the lord deputy to retake Sligo and Ballyshannon, but few could be spared from the campaign against Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, the chief rebel of the period. Bingham stationed his troops and horses in the grounds and buildings of the Dominican friary in Sligo, using the church as a base while he tried to retake the castle. Bingham stripped all the timber from the rood screen and constructed a 'sow' or siege tower to attack the castle. The attack failed and Bingham's forces were routed and chased back to Roscommon castle. Bingham had been left with few resources to counter the dominance asserted by O'Donnell in northern Connacht; and then the new lord deputy, William Russell, came to Galway to consider a further set of charges against the governor. In the course of an attempted appeasement of the rebels, O'Donnell submitted in April 1596 to John Norreys and Geoffrey Fenton, who had come to Connacht to make peace. The MacWilliam and O'Donnell held out for their own terms: the MacWilliamship and surrender of all queen's lands, and a reduction in the composition rates. The commissioners withdrew their forces in September, and in the following year, a new force under the command of Conyers Clifford was stationed in the north of the province, which compelled the submission of all the Mayo clans during a widespread famine in their country. Meanwhile, the Privy Council had directed a trial at Dublin of the latest charges against Bingham, who complained about the partiality of Fenton and Norreys. The arrival of a new Lord Deputy, Lord Burgh, in May 1596 seemed to promise a fair hearing, but such were the shifts and feints in the preparatory proceedings that Bingham petitioned the Privy Council for trial before the full Dublin council or in England. In September, fearing assassination, he fled without leave to England to appeal for justice and was put in the Fleet. He sent a petition to Burghley for his release, which was granted in November on account of his illness, although he did suffer a suspension from office. Bingham was eventually ordered back to Ireland to stand trial before the council, and set out on the journey back in Clifford's company, but had to stop at Chester because of further ill-health. In January 1597, after his ship was blown back to Beaumaris, Bingham excused himself from attending at Dublin – again due to ill-health, which continued into the summer when he also complained of the expense of maintaining relatives at Dublin. In 1598, when it became clear that the Tyrone's rebellion was getting out of control, Bingham's knowledge of Irish affairs was suddenly deemed unequalled in England. Upon Sir Robert Cecil's suggestion that the Earl of Essex take command in Ireland, Francis Bacon urged Essex to heed the advice of the veteran governor of Connacht. After the significant defeat of the crown forces at the battle of the Yellow Ford, a faction fight grew at court between the Cecil and Essex parties over the Irish appointment – fuelled by the anticipation of a significant Spanish intervention, either in England or Ireland. The circumstances had grown desperate, and Bingham received an appointment as marshal of Ireland and general of Leinster. He left England at the head of 5,000 troops but, upon arrival at Dublin, he died. Legacy Bingham married Sarah Heigham (1565–1634) of Suffolk in January 1588, but left no male issue. His nephew, Sir Henry Bingham, 1st Baronet – son of George – succeeded to his estate. A cenotaph was erected in his name in Westminster Abbey. He had one daughter, Martha. His widow remarried Edward Waldegrave. In 1599 Essex was appointed to lead an army into Ireland, but the expedition was largely a failure, and it was only in 1601 that the English took the upper hand, with their victory at the battle of Kinsale, which led to the submission of Tír Eoghain after the queen's death in 1603. Bingham's reputation has suffered on account of the harshness of his rule in Connacht, and he became the image of a cruel governor, lording it over the Irish without regard to justice or mercy. His apologists insist that everything he did during his tenure in that province was within the letter of his authority. Bibliography Dictionary of National Biography 60 vols. (London, 2004) References 1528 births 1599 deaths English knights 16th-century Anglo-Irish people English army officers 16th-century English soldiers Irish MPs 1585–1586 Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for County Roscommon constituencies People of the Nine Years' War (Ireland) People of the Second Desmond Rebellion Military personnel from Dorset Bingham family (Ireland)
4573383	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield%20Tramway	Sheffield Tramway	Sheffield Tramway was an extensive tramway network serving the English city of Sheffield and its suburbs. The first tramway line, horse-drawn, opened in 1873 between Lady's Bridge and Attercliffe, subsequently extended to Brightside and Tinsley. Routes were built to Heeley, where a tram depot was built, Nether Edge and Hillsborough. In 1899, the first electric tram ran between Nether Edge and Tinsley, and by 1902 all the routes were electrified. As of 1910 the network covered 39 miles (62.7 km) and as of 1951 48 miles (77.2 km). The last trams ran between Leopold Street to Beauchief and Tinsley on 8 October 1960—three Sheffield trams were subsequently preserved at the National Tramway Museum in Crich. 34 years later trams returned to the streets of Sheffield under a new network called Supertram. History Horse tram era The Sheffield horse tramway was created under the Tramways Act 1870, with powers granted in July 1872. The first routes, to Attercliffe and Carbrook, Brightside, Heeley, Nether Edge and Owlerton opened between 1873 and 1877. Under the legislation at that time, local authorities were precluded from operating tramways but were empowered to construct them and lease the lines to an individual operating company. Tracks were constructed by contractors and leased to the Sheffield Tramways Company, which operated the services. Prior to the inauguration of the horse trams, horse buses had provided a limited public service, but road surfaces were poor and their carrying capacity was low. The new horse trams gave a smoother ride. The fares were too high for the average worker so the horse trams saw little patronage; services began later than when workers began their day so were of little use to most. Running costs were high as the operator had to keep a large number of horses and could not offer low fares. Electric tram era Sheffield Corporation (Sheffield City Council) took over the tramway system in July 1896. The corporation's goal was to expand and mechanise the system. Almost immediately a committee was formed to inspect other tramway systems to look at the improved systems of traction. Upon their return the committee recommended the adoption of electrical propulsion using the overhead current collection system. The National Grid was not as developed as it is now and so the Corporation set out to generate the required current - the Corporation became the local domestic and industrial electricity supplier. A power station was built for Sheffield Corporation Tramways on Kelham Island by the river Don between Mowbray Street and Alma Street. Feeder cables stretched from there to the extremities of the system, covering over 40 miles of route. The horse operated lines were left opened and track replaced with heavier rails. Along with lines opening to Abbeydale, Walkley and Hunter's Bar, the missing link in the centre of the sprawling network between Moorhead and Lady's Bridge was finally laid. Electric lines opened in succession; Nether Edge to Tinsley on 6 September 1899, to Walkley on 18 September 1899 and Pitsmoor on 27 September 1899. The other electric lines opened soon after allowing the Hillsborough to be closed in November 1902. The network was basically in place by 1905, further development included extending lines out of the city and connecting lines. In 1905, Rotherham Corporation connected their line to Templeborough to Tinsley and both Sheffield and Rotherham corporations began running services between both towns. Some tensions existed between both councils and services were halted between September 1914 and May 1915 leaving passengers to either walk between both networks or use the railways. Sheffield Corporation introduced motor bus services from the termini to outlying districts in 1918. The First World War made material scarce and progress in bus technology which meant that many cities abandoned their tram networks. Sheffield considered trolleybuses, but found no favours in the Council who preferred motor buses. Twenty second-hand double-deck tramcars were purchased from London County Council Tramways in 1917 and 1918, due to the material shortage. This was a rare move but a necessary one to replace single-deck cars. The scarcity of material did not deter the corporation, though, who extended the network to Handsworth, Mansfield Road and to Sheffield Lane Top. In 1927, the Beauchief and Meadowhead lines were joined by the laying of track along Abbey Lane. Prince of Wales Road line was linked to the Handsworth and Intake line. The Nether Edge line was closed in 1934, in face of line renewal costs, the Nether Green via Broomhill line suffering the same fate. The Prussian blue with cream bands with gold leaf lining livery gave way to the Cream with azure blue bands. After the Second World War, the railway bridge on Sheffield Road was replaced and the through-tram service to Rotherham temporarily suspended. It was never reinstated. In 1951, the decision was taken to eventually close the tramway system and replace it with motor buses. The decision was not unanimous, Councillor R.W. Allott resigned from the ruling Labour Group in protest. The Council compared the price to replace tramcars with that of buses, ignoring the shorter lifespan of motor buses. The first line conversion was the Fulwood to Malin Bridge in 1952. Several protests broke out following the publishing of the news. "Sheffield folk were fond of their trams and did not take kindly to the prospect of losing them". An unsuccessful petition was handed over to the council by the Holme Lane residents and traders. The second conversion occurred in 1954 and was the Ecclesall to Middlewood line. Thos. W. Ward received most of the trams for scrapping via a track connection into their scrap-yard on Attercliffe Common, almost opposite the end of Weedon Street. The last route, Beauchief to Vulcan Road, closed on the afternoon of Saturday 8 October 1960. An illuminated car, followed by a procession of fourteen trams, carried passengers and Council dignitaries from Beauchief to the Tinsley depot. Trams then went on to Tinsley or Queens Road, trams led to the Queens Road were destined for preservation. Network 122 The Sheffield Tramway Company's original horse-drawn tram network was 9 miles long and radiated from the city centre to Tinsley, Brightside, Hillsborough, Nether Edge and Heeley. A few years after Sheffield Corporation took over horse tramways were gradually replaced first by single-deck, then double-deck electric trams. It extended routes to Beauchief and Woodseats in 1927 and to Darnall and Intake in 1928. Adjacent lines were converted into circular route by sleeper-track connecting links. The line along Abbey Lane linking Beauchief to Woodseats was mostly reserved track. The last extensions were opened in 1934 and extended the network to Lane Top, via Firth Park. Three small sections, Fulwood Road, Nether Edge and Petre St, were closed between 1925 and 1936. In 1952 the Corporation closed two sections followed by the rest of the network between 1954 and 1960. The sortable table below shows opening and closing dates of routes - 1 via Newhall Road 2 Owlerton via Penistone Road opened 12 February 1902 3 via the Moor; Shoreham Street and Queens Road opened 1904 4 via Shoreham Street and Queens Road 5 via the Moor Tram depots Eight depots were built throughout the city to service a fleet of about 400 trams. Tinsley depot Tinsley depot () was built in 1874 and was the first depot built for the "Sheffield Tramways Company". It was originally built for horse trams but was converted for electric trams in 1898–99, after which it was capable of accommodating 95 trams. Following the abandonment of the tramway system in 1960, it was sold and was subsequently used as a warehouse. Much of the original 1874 building still exists and the entire depot is listed as a historically significant building. The Sheffield Bus Museum Trust used part of the depot as the Sheffield Bus Museum from 1987 until 2007, when it moved to a factory unit at Aldwarke, Rotherham. Since then the Sheffield Bus Museum Trust has been renamed the South Yorkshire Transport Museum. The building was then all but empty, with just a tile dealer left, in the first two bays through the gate. In 2009, the building was once again fully occupied. The rest of the bays are now home to the South Yorkshire Transport Trust's 75 vehicle collection - http://www.sytt.webeden.co.uk/ The SYTT announced plans in February 2010 that looks set to see Tinsley Depot restored and opened as a new Museum. Heeley depot Heeley depot () was for horse trams only: the line to it was never electrified. The depot was built by the Sheffield Tramways company in 1878. When the building was no longer required it was sold off and used as a motor vehicle repair shop until 2005, when it was purchased to become part of a block of flats. The building, had 'Listed Status', as part of which, the builder was told the archway, which included the carved stone "Sheffield Tramways" legend had to remain in place. Although promises were made by the builder to that effect, locals woke one morning to find it knocked down. The builder told the council that it was unsafe and fell down in the night. Sheffield City Council instructed the builder that all work on site must stop until the archway was restored, however work continued regardless. Flats were built in place of the depot and the central rooftop removed to make way for a courtyard. The original archway was finally rebuilt, partly with original material but noticeably different and with a lot of new material. Slate from the original roof was replaced. The arch looks 'new' and some locals have said it has lost its originality. It is far higher that it was before as it has been lifted to comply with regulations to allow access by the fire service. Nether Edge depot A small tram shed was built at the Nether Edge terminus (), opened in 1899. The Nether Edge line and two other small sections were abandoned due to the narrowness of the streets, which caused problems and were unsuitable for efficient service. Queens Road works Queens Road works () opened in 1905. Many of Sheffield trams were built here. The building survived for many years following abandonment, but was demolished in 1993. Shoreham Street depot Construction of Shoreham Street depot () started in about 1910 on the site of an 18th-century lead mill. Following the abandonment of the tramway the depot was used as a bus garage until the 1990s. Much of the building has since been demolished and redeveloped as student flats. Those parts that surround the entrance at the junction of Shoreham Street and Leadmill Road are still standing and in good condition, though a new use for them has yet to be found. Crookes depot Crookes depot, which was on Pickmere Road (), was started in 1914 but not completed until 1919. It closed on 5 May 1957 and has since been demolished and a church now stands on the site. Tenter Street depot Tenter Street depot () opened in 1928 and was the last operational tram depot. There was a bus garage on the upper level, accessed from Hawley Street. Holme Lane depot (Hillsborough) The depot at Holme Lane () closed on 23 April 1954. The facade of the building still stands, although the rest of the building has been demolished and a medical centre built in its place. Rolling stock For a comprehensive list of Sheffield trams of the tramway see Tramcars of the Sheffield Tramway. Unlike other tram companies, whose trams were often rebuilt and made to last 30 to 40 years, Sheffield Corporation adopted a policy of replacement by new vehicles after a 25-year life. By 1940, only 11 of its 444 trams were older than 26 years, more than half of them were less than ten. Sheffield Corporation operated 884 trams. Its last livery was blue and cream, worn on the preserved trams at Crich and Beamish. The 'Preston' cars The United Electric Car Company of Preston built 15 double deck balcony cars for Sheffield Corporation Tramways in 1907. Initially numbered 258–272 they had wooden seats for 59 passengers, and were mounted on a four-wheel Peckham P22 truck with two Metrovick 102DR 60 hp motors operated by British Thomson-Houston B510 controllers. The braking systems consisted of a handbrake acting on all wheels, an electric brake for emergency use and a hand-wheel operated track brake. Between December 1924 and July 1927 they were rebuilt with a totally enclosed upper deck. The 'Rocker Panel' cars Following the production of a prototype at Queens Road works in 1918, between 1919 and 1927 Brush at Loughborough built 100 of these cars, and another 50 at Cravens in Darnall. The 'Standard' cars The prototype Standard car (number 1) was built by Cravens at Darnall, and entered service in 1927. Subsequently, about 150 were built at Queens Road works and 25 by W.E. Hill & Sons in South Shields. From 1936 to 1939 Queens Road works built redesigned Standard cars, known as the 'Domed-roof' class, which had improved lighting and seats. The 'Roberts' cars The prototype for this series, number 501, was built at Queens Road works in August 1946. With comfortable upholstered seating for 62 passengers, it was the last car to be built at the works. From 1950 to 1952 35 more, numbered 502–536, were constructed by Charles Roberts & Co. of Horbury near Wakefield. They were carried on a four-wheel Maley & Taunton hornless type 588 truck with rubber and leaf spring suspension, powered by two Metrovick 101 DR3 65 hp motors. Air brakes were fitted, acting on all wheels, and electric braking was available for emergency use. Car 536, which entered service on 11 April 1952, was the last tram to be constructed for Sheffield. Representing the ultimate development of the traditional British four-wheel tram, the class worked for only 10 years, as Sheffield tramway closed in 1960. On 8 October of that year, car 513, ran specially decorated in the final procession; so too did sister tram 510, now preserved by the National Tramway Museum at Crich. Sheffield trams in preservation The National Tramway Museum, Crich The National Tramway Museum at Crich in Derbyshire holds eight Sheffield trams. Sheffield Corporation Tramways car 15 is a horse tram dating from 1874; it was the first tram to be used at the museum in 1963 and still remains serviceable. Car 74 is another Victorian Sheffield tram, sold to the Gateshead tramway and ran until 1951. Although only its lower deck survived, as a garden shed, it has been restored to original condition by the museum and is operational. The museum also has Standard car 189 (on display), Domed-roof car 264 (on display), and Roberts car 510 (operational). In addition there is also Sheffield works car 330 and early single-deck tram 46 that are not in working condition. North of England Open Air Museum, Beamish The North of England Open Air Museum at Beamish had two preserved Sheffield trams. Number 264 is a Preston car dating from 1907 and is in service after a major overhaul was completed in 2016, Number 513, a Roberts car dating from 1950, was there also until a few years ago. It first travelled to Blackpool, then Beamish and finally on to the East Anglian Transport Museum near Lowestoft, where it currently resides. 513 was stored for some time on disused railway sidings and lost its control equipment and most of its glass due to vandalism. It was fitted with replacement controllers from a different vehicle, and is therefore no longer the same as when it was built. South Yorkshire Transport Museum The SYTM owns Sheffield Corporation tramcar 460. The tramcar was built by Cravens in Darnall, Sheffield and was part of a batch of fifty cars, all numbered between 451 and 500. The car was equipped with upholstered seats in April 1939 and survived the Blitz on Sheffield in December 1940. She was withdrawn in February 1950 and stored at Tinsley Tram Sheds until 1951 when the car was dismantled with the lower and upper saloon bodies being disposed of separately. The lower saloon of No 460 fetched £25 and was used on a farm in Lincolnshire. The lower body was generously donated by Mr and Mrs K.S. Jacklin of Susworth near Scunthorpe and returned to Tinsley in May 1987. Remnants There are very few remnants of the once extensive tramway. The tram shed at Tinsley survives more or less intact, as do parts of those at Holme Lane and Shoreham Street. Parts of Heeley shed remain but it has been stripped out and substantially altered, turning it in to an approximation of its former self. In many places the tram tracks were not removed: the road was resurfaced over the tracks, which survive (albeit covered). An example of tracks covered in this way was uncovered and made a feature of The Moor pedestrian precinct for a time, but this was re-covered when the area was re-modelled a few years back. At Firth Park, the short section of reserved track, running through the middle of a roundabout, still exists. There were about ten traction poles still standing in 2006, such as the matching pair in Firth Park, and single poles at Manor Top, Woodseats, Abbeydale Road, Angel Street and also the last pole outside Tinsley Depot. On the pavement of Howard Road in Walkley, near the junction with Commonside, several manhole covers marked "Sheffield Corporation Tramway" are still in place. A manhole survives on Abbeydale Road between the junction with Sheldon Road and Abbeydale Picture House with the inscription "Sheffield Corporation Electric Tramways". In places where the trams ran on a reserved track, such as on Abbeydale Road South and Abbey Lane at Beauchief, the reservation has been converted into a dual carriageway. The former line lives on in the name of Terminus Road, Abbeydale. At Kelham Island, the power station that generated the electricity for system still stands and is now the Kelham Island Museum. Resurfacing projects across the city in 2019 have uncovered a large amount of old tram rails, which have since been removed. References External links Sheffield Bus Museum Sheffield tram in the 1960s 1902 Mitchell & Kenyon film of a tramride through Sheffield (on BFI website) Tramway Tram transport in Sheffield Sheffield Tram transport in England
4573759	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatures%20Rising	Temperatures Rising	Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12, 1972 to August 29, 1974. During its 46-episode run, it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups. The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems. Set in a fictional Washington, D.C. hospital, the series first featured James Whitmore as a no-nonsense chief of staff, forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern (Cleavon Little) and three nurses (Joan Van Ark, Reva Rose, and Nancy Fox). For the first season, 26 episodes were produced and broadcast. In the second season, Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde, and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson. The series was re-titled The New Temperatures Rising Show, and featured a new supporting cast: Sudie Bond, Barbara Cason, Jennifer Darling, Jeff Morrow, and John Dehner. Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast. In this season, Lynde was presented as the penny-pinching chief of staff, with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital. The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings. It returned in July in yet another incarnation. Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format—albeit with Lynde continuing in the lead. Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising, Little remained in the show's cast, accompanied by a new line-up of supporting players: Alice Ghostley, Barbara Rucker and, returning from the first season's cast, Nancy Fox. Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights, the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes, after which it was cancelled permanently. First season Concept and development Temperatures Rising was one of two sitcoms that the ABC network premiered in its 1972–73 prime time schedule, the other being The Paul Lynde Show. Both series were produced and developed by William Asher and his partner Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems, which had scored a major success for the network with Bewitched, a fantasy sitcom that first aired in 1964 starring Asher's wife, Elizabeth Montgomery. Asher and Screen Gems made a deal with ABC to cancel Bewitched a year earlier than contracts stipulated, thereby allowing them the opportunity to develop the two new sitcoms. Ackerman served as executive producer and Asher as producer. Asher and Ackerman derived the format of the series from an unsold pilot they had produced for ABC in 1965. Entitled This is a Hospital?, and written by Sheldon Keller, it starred comedian Shecky Greene as a mischievous intern who Asher referred to as "Sgt. Bilko in a hospital". Asher also drew on the British Carry On franchise as his inspiration for Temperatures Rising. Original cast Set in Capitol General, a fictional Washington, D.C., hospital, the series centered on five characters. Cleavon Little starred as Dr. Jerry Noland, a ghetto-raised intern who works on the side as the hospital bookie and finds humor in anything from an operation to a con job. Joan Van Ark played Annie Carlisle, the hospital's beautiful, young, sexy head nurse, who is "always covering up for the inept crew". Reva Rose played Nurse Mildred "Millie" MacInerny, who offers satirical comments on the shenanigans going on in the hospital. Nancy Fox was cast as Ellen Turner, a shy student nurse who becomes Noland's most faithful follower. James Whitmore starred as Dr. Vincent Campanelli, the hospital's chief of surgery. Campanelli is presented as an Italian-American former combat surgeon, who looks upon Noland with both pride and shock and refers to the young intern and nurses Carlisle, MacInerny, and Turner as the "Four Horsemen of Aggravation". Little's guest appearance on All in the Family led to his casting in Temperatures Rising, which in turn led to the leading role in the 1974 Mel Brooks comedy film Blazing Saddles. Little's casting reflected "pressure from the government and Negro organizations and concerned whites who believe that black representation on television was long overdue". William Asher later stated that Temperatures Rising gave him a chance to work with a black actor. Fox was cast in Temperatures Rising after Elizabeth Montgomery spotted her in a commercial for Close-Up toothpaste. Asher had considered her for a part in The Paul Lynde Show. During the time that Temperatures Rising was in production, Fox declined an offer to leave the series and star in another, Needles and Pins. Overview In a 2000 interview, William Asher described Temperatures Rising as being about: "a young black surgeon who was always into mischief and things, but he was a very competent surgeon. James Whitmore was the head surgeon and he used to drive Whitmore crazy". The pilot episode of Temperatures Rising was written by Sheldon Keller, who turned to his This is a Hospital? script for inspiration. It features Noland broadcasting a bingo game in code over the hospital's public-address system. Jack Albertson guest starred as a United States Senator. Subsequent episodes feature Noland performing a secret operation on a young baseball player while Campanelli deals with a hospital inspector (Ed Platt), and John Astin as a gangster wanting Noland to be his personal physician. In another episode, Noland hypnotizes a patient (Alice Ghostley) and, accidentally, Nurse Turner as well. This nearly costs the hospital a large donation from a potential benefactor (Charles Lane). In later episodes, Campanelli is seen having a brief romance with Nurse Turner's aunt (Beverly Garland), Noland helps out a new intern (Bernie Kopell) who has a reputation for being a jinx, and also performs a witchcraft ritual on a patient (Alan Oppenheimer) who thinks he has been cursed. Albertson returned in a later episode that features Dr. Campanelli participating in a documentary film about hospital surgery. Unfortunately, Campanelli develops stage fright during filming. Noland then takes over the operation and receives all the acclaim. Kopell returned to his role as a hospital orderly in two episodes, one in which he causes a furor with a hospital scandal sheet, the other showing Noland having to save him from being fleeced by a patient who is also a card shark. There was some racially tinged comic bantering in the series, such as scenes with Noland giving cotton to a nurse and stating, "Honey, picking cotton is part of my heritage," or observing some adhesive strips labeled "flesh colored" and remarking, "Maybe this is your idea of flesh colored, but it wouldn't make it in my neighborhood." Aside from these, racial issues were avoided, as Asher and Ackerman felt that ABC was not interested in having them mixed into the comedy. In discussing the series Asher noted: We too often forget the humanity of doctors and nurses. They become godlike to most of us and yet it is their humanity that makes them so interesting and enjoyable. We are not doing a drama and have no intention of doing anything like dealing with life and death issues. We want to make people laugh so we de-emphasize the more serious elements of hospital life. It isn't that he [Noland] just sees things differently, he also deals with them differently. That is why Noland will dream up a baby derby, a gambling night at the hospital, a variety show at Christmas and off-track betting when patients get bored with the hospital routine. Production of Temperatures Rising was underway by August 1972 with filming done at the Burbank Studios in Burbank, California. Original reviews In his review of the premiere episode of Temperatures Rising for the Los Angeles Times, critic Don Page felt that James Whitmore was "totally wasted in this silly exercise" and that "guest Jack Albertson almost saves it with his portrayal of an annoyed senator. Otherwise, the diagnosis is terminal comedy". Likewise, Cecil Smith, another writer for the Times, claimed it was the "worst show of the season. Avoid it like the plague". Other reviews were more favorable. Columnist Joan Crosby noted that "This is the kind of show you don't think you'll laugh at, but you do, mostly because the cast is so good." She noted that Cleavon Little, Joan Van Ark, and Reva Rose were, respectively, "marvelous", "pretty", and "funny", and that Nancy Fox "wins this year's cute-as-a-kitten award". Barbara Holsopple, TV and radio editor for the Pittsburgh Press, noted that "ABC did a gutsy turnabout in taking the heavy drama out of a hospital and replacing it with comedy. The venture worked well, thanks to excellent performances from the Temperatures Rising cast". She praised Albertson, noted that Whitmore "was little seen", and that the series: "is the kind of tidy little show that brings chuckles". Win Fanning, a syndicated columnist, stated that: "the comedy writing and performances by a beautifully integrated cast give Temperatures a bright, light quality so seldom achieved in a situation comedy", and that it was: "loaded with one-liners and sight gags, which, if kept on the level of the opener, promise many hours of hilarity". Fanning praised Little as "one of the comedy finds of any TV season", and Fox as "a fresh new face and talent giving promise of a long, successful career ahead". More praise for the series came after the broadcast of its fourth episode. An unidentified reviewer, writing for the Armored Sentinel (of Temple, Texas), stated "If you're suffering from a case of the 'downs,' this series is a sure pick up!" The reviewer went on to note that "the brightest spot of the series is wacky Nancy Fox. Her role applies the wackiness of Goldie Hawn, but in situation comedy form. I'd watch the show just for her! The whole series is wacky and funny; it's downright good. I highly recommend it." First season ratings ABC placed Temperatures Rising in its 8:00 PM Tuesday night time-slot, where it debuted on September 12, 1972. Because one of the stars was black, some of ABC's affiliated stations in the southern and midwestern parts of the United States refused to air the series or broadcast it in a different time slot. Airing opposite it were Bonanza on NBC, and the new sitcom Maude on CBS. Bonanza was entering its fourteenth year and offered up an ambitious two-hour season premiere dealing with the marriage of Little Joe Cartwright (Michael Landon). Maude, starring Beatrice Arthur in the title role, was a spin-off of All in the Family. Both shows presented Temperatures Rising with stiff opposition in the "ratings game". The two-hour season premiere of Bonanza performed exceptionally well in the ratings. Maude did much better than Temperatures Rising in the New York City area, while Temperatures Rising fared better than Maude in the Los Angeles area. In subsequent weeks, Bonanza'''s ratings dropped sharply and NBC cancelled the series in November 1972. According to Asher: "Temperatures Rising put Bonanza out of business and was beating Maude in the Los Angeles area until mid-season, when NBC switched to some heavy movies which hurt us". Despite this the series finished its first year with a consistent 29 share of the ratings at a time when a 30 share was enough to assure renewal for another season. ABC, however, wanted to improve the ratings and decided to make significant changes to Temperatures Rising for its second season. The first season finished 48th out of 75 shows, with an average 17.3 rating. Second season New premise and producers As early as November 1972, James Whitmore expressed a desire to leave Temperatures Rising, claiming that "the show [was] basically a broad farce and I didn't feel it was right for me". Screen Gems head John Mitchell and ABC chief programmer Barry Diller decided to replace Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde, whose sitcom, The Paul Lynde Show, was airing on Wednesday nights. At the time, Lynde was scoring second only to Peter Falk in TV popularity polls even though his sitcom, which aired opposite The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour on CBS, was floundering in the ratings. Asher was against making this change but was overruled as his contractual commitments to ABC had finished. Of the change Asher stated: The network–ugh–they're so stupid sometimes. The shows [Temperatures Rising and The Paul Lynde Show] were doing good, they weren't big hits, but they were doing good. They felt that if they could put Paul [Lynde] and Cleavon Little together that they would have a big hit. I didn't want to do that. I said I won't do it, not at the sacrifice of the show. It's wrong. I don't think it's a good idea. But they wanted to bring in somebody else as the head of the hospital. They wanted his [Lynde's] mother to be head of the hospital and his conflicts would be with her and I just didn't think it was right. I didn't want to write it. I just didn't want to do it [and] I didn't. Someone else came in. It was a big thing with the network. They cancelled The Paul Lynde Show and put Paul in Temperatures Rising." Asher was replaced as producer by Bruce Johnson and E. Duke Vincent, whose previous credits included Gomer Pyle – USMC, The Jim Nabors Hour, Arnie, and The Little People. They changed the title of the series to The New Temperatures Rising Show, and the tone went from lighthearted wackiness to a form of black comedy similar to The Hospital, a 1971 film written by Paddy Chayefsky, starring George C. Scott. The sitcom became: "a savage satire of the medical profession" with $185-a-day hospital rooms, incompetent, fee-splitting doctors, operations on the wrong patients, misread X-rays, and rampant malpractice. Commenting on the series Vincent noted: We're not doing stories about a fouled-up hospital. These things really happen. Every story we've told is true. They're the results of untrained people, inadequate staff, horrendous costs, worn-out equipment, the demands of doctors. The doctors, not the patients, are the customers; they're the ones the hospitals have to please ... Revised cast For this new season, Johnson and Vincent dropped Joan Van Ark, Reva Rose, and Nancy Fox from the series, leaving Cleavon Little as the only returning cast member. His character, Dr. Jerry Noland, was now being presented as the hospital's only sane figure. Paul Lynde played Dr. Paul Mercy, the sneering, unscrupulous, hospital administrator while Sudie Bond was cast as Martha Mercy, his obnoxious, overbearing mother and the owner, and permanent resident, of the hospital. She constantly calls him with her pager to complain about everything. Also in the new cast were Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis, the head of administrative and accounting: "... who would let you bleed to death filling out forms", Jennifer Darling as the romantically inclined nurse "Windy" Winchester, and Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton, a fraudulent surgeon who has published two books, Profit in Healing and Malpractice and Its Defense. After only two episodes, Morrow was replaced by John Dehner as "society" Dr. Charles Claver. Revised concept For the 1973–74 television season ABC continued to air the revamped Temperatures Rising on Tuesday nights at 8:00 PM. CBS continued to air Maude, and NBC introduced Chase, an hour-long crime drama starring Mitchell Ryan, in the same time slot. Although the season premiere of Maude and Chases debut aired on September 11, 1973, ABC delayed the premiere of The New Temperatures Rising Show until September 25. The episodes produced by Johnson and Vincent included Dr. Mercy exploiting a 125-year-old Civil War veteran and dealing with a strike by the doctors and nurses. Another episode saw Noland create a mythical patient and then claim that the patient died, the cause of death being the result of a lack of cardiac crash carts on each floor of the hospital. Johnson and Vincent's favorite episode was one where the X-rays of a professional footballer are misread, resulting in him being placed by mistake in "Crutchfield's Traction", in which holes are drilled in his head and tongs inserted in them. Second season reviews In reviewing The New Temperatures Rising Show, Associated Press television writer Jay Sharbutt noted: First the hopeful note: There are faint signs the tinkering with Temperatures format could make the series funny later on, but only if the writing improves. The show now leaves most of the mugging to Lynde and no longer insists that each regular is wacky. It's all feeble stuff but the cast is vastly improved and the new approach portends to better things ahead. Likewise, Los Angeles Times critic Cecil Smith, who considered the original format "maybe the three worst shows on television rolled into one" now remarked: "Paul Lynde for the first time that I can recall has a part worthy of his mettle. The people surrounding him are first rate." Sinking ratings Despite some heavy promotion, the black comedy approach was not what audiences wanted to see, especially with Paul Lynde. As a result, the ratings for the series fell well below the levels of the previous season. The last of The New Temperatures Rising Show's thirteen episodes aired on January 8, 1974. The following Tuesday, January 15, ABC premiered Happy Days in its place. According to co-producer Mitchell, "... the audience didn't buy that at all. They just didn't get it. It was funny if you like black comedy, but if you don't it would disturb you. So the show failed miserably and we lost the job and the show." Summer replacement Third concept When John Mitchell and Barry Diller noticed that The New Temperatures Rising Show was failing, they contacted William Asher and asked him to salvage the series. According to Asher: They asked if I'd go back to the old Temperatures, only this time with Paul [Lynde]. At this point we were still hoping to make it for the midseason. After a couple of weeks we agreed that the show should go off the air in January, but continue production so that we would have 11 shows ready for airing any time they wanted them. Some of the nonsense and hijinks of the first season are gone and we have managed to keep a touch of reality of the second version. As to why the series was not cancelled, Asher remarked, "I can answer that in two words: Paul Lynde." Final cast For the third format, the show reverted to its original title Temperatures Rising, and the proposed number of episodes was reduced from eleven to seven. The series' production resumed on November 17, 1973, after a three-week shutdown. Sudie Bond, Barbara Cason, Jennifer Darling, and John Dehner were dropped from the cast and a new line-up was assembled. Paul Lynde continued as Dr. Paul Mercy while Alice Ghostley played Edwina Moffitt, the admissions nurse and Dr. Mercy's sister. She had appeared (in a completely different role) as a guest star in an episode in the first season of Temperatures Rising. Nancy Fox returned as student nurse Ellen Turner, and Barbara Rucker was introduced as Nurse Amanda Kelly. Cleavon Little returned for a third time as Dr. Jerry Noland, whose character was now being presented as somewhere between the jive-talking surgeon of the first season and the serious one of the second. Last format and cancellationTemperatures Rising returned to the ABC network on July 18, 1974 after a six-month hiatus. Its new time slot, Thursday nights at 8:00 PM, had previously been occupied by Chopper One, an adventure series. The situations presented this time around included Dr. Mercy saving the life of a popular country music singer (Dick Gautier), and setting up a surveillance system so that staff would be kept on their toes. The final episode of Temperatures Rising'' aired on August 29, 1974. The attempt to resuscitate the series was unsuccessful, and ABC finally cancelled it permanently. Andy Siegel, a comedy development executive for ABC at the time, felt the series failed because audiences did not want to watch a show displaying inadequate medical care, even though it was done in a humorous fashion. In reminiscing about the series he stated: "When people see doctors on television they really want to feel that they're in good hands. That no matter what happens it is a reassuring experience." William Asher, in a 2000 interview, summed up the demise of the series by saying: "It didn't get on. It's too late. You can't do that to an audience. They won't accept it." The second season ranked 68th out of 80 shows, with an average 13.6 rating. Episodes References Notes Footnotes Bibliography External links Photo gallery from Temperatures Rising 1970s American sitcoms 1970s American workplace comedy television series 1972 American television series debuts 1974 American television series endings 1970s American medical television series American Broadcasting Company original programming Television series by Sony Pictures Television English-language television shows Television shows set in Washington, D.C. Television series by Screen Gems
4574063	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2A%20receptor	5-HT2A receptor	{{DISPLAYTITLE:5-HT2A receptor}} The 5-HT2A receptor is a subtype of the 5-HT2 receptor that belongs to the serotonin receptor family and is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). The 5-HT2A receptor is a cell surface receptor, but has several intracellular locations. 5-HT is short for 5-hydroxy-tryptamine or serotonin. This is the main excitatory receptor subtype among the GPCRs for serotonin, although 5-HT2A may also have an inhibitory effect on certain areas such as the visual cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex. This receptor was first noted for its importance as a target of serotonergic psychedelic drugs such as LSD and psilocybin mushrooms. Later it came back to prominence because it was also found to be mediating, at least partly, the action of many antipsychotic drugs, especially the atypical ones. Downregulation of post-synaptic 5-HT2A receptor is an adaptive process provoked by chronic administration of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and atypical antipsychotics. Suicidal and otherwise depressed patients have had more 5-HT2A receptors than normal patients. These findings suggest that post-synaptic 5-HT2A overdensity is involved in the pathogenesis of depression. Paradoxical down-regulation of 5-HT2A receptors can be observed with several 5-HT2A antagonists. Thus, instead of tolerance, reverse-tolerance would be expected from 5-HT2A antagonists. However, there is at least one antagonist at this site which has been shown to up-regulate 5-HT2A receptors. Additionally, a couple of other antagonists may have no effect on 5-HT2A receptor number. Nevertheless, upregulation is the exception rather than the rule. Neither tolerance nor rebound is observed in humans with regard to the slow-wave sleep (SWS) promoting effects of 5-HT2A antagonists. History 5-HT receptors were split into two classes by John Gaddum and Picarelli when it was discovered that some of the serotonin-induced changes in the gut could be blocked by morphine, while the remainder of the response was inhibited by dibenzyline, leading to the naming of M and D receptors, respectively. 5-HT2A is thought to correspond to what was originally described as D subtype of 5-HT receptors by Gaddum and Picarelli. In the era before molecular cloning, when radioligand binding and displacement was the only major tool, spiperone and LSD were shown to label two different 5-HT receptors, and neither of them displaced morphine, leading to naming of the 5-HT1, 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors, corresponding to high affinity sites from LSD, spiperone and morphine, respectively. Later it was shown that the 5-HT2 was very close to 5-HT1C and thus were grouped together, renaming the 5-HT2 into 5-HT2A. Thus, the 5-HT2 receptor family is composed of three separate molecular entities: the 5-HT2A (formerly known as 5-HT2 or D), the 5-HT2B (formerly known as 5-HT2F) and the 5-HT2C (formerly known as 5-HT1C) receptors. Distribution 5-HT2A is expressed widely throughout the central nervous system (CNS). It is expressed near most of the serotonergic terminal rich areas, including neocortex (mainly prefrontal, parietal, and somatosensory cortex) and the olfactory tubercle. Especially high concentrations of this receptor on the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells in layer V of the cortex may modulate cognitive processes, working memory, and attention by enhancing glutamate release followed by a complex range of interactions with the 5-HT1A, GABAA, adenosine A1, AMPA, mGluR2/3, mGlu5, and OX2 receptors. In the rat cerebellum, the protein has also been found in the Golgi cells of the granular layer, and in the Purkinje cells. In the periphery, it is highly expressed in platelets and many cell types of the cardiovascular system, in fibroblasts, and in neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Additionally, 5-HT2A mRNA expression has been observed in human monocytes. Whole-body distribution of the 5-HT2A/2C receptor agonist, [11C]Cimbi-36 show uptake in several internal organs and brown adipose tissue (BAT), but it is not clear if this represents specific 5-HT2A receptor binding. Signaling cascade The 5-HT2A receptor is known primarily to couple to the Gαq signal transduction pathway. Upon receptor stimulation with agonist, Gαq and β-γ subunits dissociate to initiate downstream effector pathways. Gαq stimulates phospholipase C (PLC) activity, which subsequently promotes the release of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3), which in turn stimulate protein kinase C (PKC) activity and Ca2+ release. Effects Physiological processes mediated by the receptor include: CNS: neuronal excitation, hallucinations, out-of-body experiences, and fear. Primarily responsible for the psychedelic effects associated with 5-HT2A receptor agonists such as LSD, DMT, etc. Activation of the 5-HT2A receptor with 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI) produces potent anti-inflammatory effects in several tissues including cardiovascular and gut. Other 5-HT2A agonists like LSD also have potent anti-inflammatory effects against TNF-alpha-induced inflammation. Activation of the 5-HT2A receptor in hypothalamus causes increases in hormonal levels of oxytocin, prolactin, ACTH, corticosterone, and renin. Role in memory and learning Role in arthralgia. Role in Alzheimer's disease. Smooth muscle contraction in the gut. Probable role in sleep paralysis. Probable role in ageing. Ligands Agonists Activation of the 5-HT2A receptor is necessary for the effects of the "classic" psychedelics like LSD, psilocin and mescaline, which act as full or partial agonists at this receptor, and represent the three main classes of 5-HT2A agonists, the ergolines, tryptamines and phenethylamines, respectively. A very large family of derivatives from these three classes has been developed, and their structure-activity relationships have been extensively researched. Agonists acting at 5-HT2A receptors located on the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells within regions of the prefrontal cortex are believed to mediate hallucinogenic activity. Some findings reveal that psychoactive effects of classic psychedelics are mediated by the receptor heterodimer 5-HT2A–mGlu2 and not by monomeric 5-HT2A receptors. However, newer research suggests that 5HT2A and mGlu2 receptors do not physically associate with each other, so the former findings have questionable relevance. Agonists enhance dopamine in PFC, enhance memory and play an active role in attention and learning. Full agonists 25I-NBOH and its 2-methoxy-analog 25I-NBOMe 18F FECIMBI-36, radiolabelled agonist ligand for mapping 5-HT2A / 5-HT2C receptor distribution TCB-2 Mexamine is a full agonist to several serotonin receptors. O-4310, 5-HT2A selective, claimed to have 100x selectivity over 5-HT2C and be inactive at 5-HT2B PHA-57378, dual 5-HT2A / 5-HT2C agonist, anxiolytic effects in animal studies. 25B-NBOMe Also known as Cimbi-36; used as a PET imaging tool for visualizing the 5-HT2A receptor Partial agonists 25C-NBOMe 25CN-NBOH, 100x selectivity for 5-HT2A over 5-HT2C, 46x selectivity over 5-HT2B. AAZ-A-154, non-hallucinogenic but retains antidepressant effects in animals. Bromo-DragonFLY (R)-DOI, traditionally the most common 5-HT2A reference agonist used in research Efavirenz, an antiretroviral drug, produces psychiatric side effects thought to be mediated by 5-HT2A. DMBMPP, a structurally constrained derivative of 25B-NBOMe, which acts as a potent partial agonist with 124x selectivity for 5-HT2A over 5-HT2C, making it the most selective agonist ligand identified to date. Lisuride, an antiparkinson dopamine agonist of the ergoline class, that is also a dual 5-HT2A / 5-HT2C agonist and 5-HT2B antagonist. Mefloquine, an antimalarial drug, also produces psychiatric side effects which may be mediated through 5-HT2A and/or 5-HT2C receptors. Methysergide, a congener of methylergonovine, used in treatment of migraine blocks 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors, but sometimes acts as partial agonist, in some preparations. OSU-6162 acts as a partial agonist at both 5-HT2A and dopamine D2 receptors Quipazine, 5-HT2A agonist but also potent 5-HT3 agonist. SN-22, partial agonist at all three 5-HT2 subtypes 3-carboxy indole PB-22 (1-pentyl-indole-3-carboxylic acid), a metabolite of the synthetic cannabinoid PB-22, partial agonist at 5-HT2A Some benzazepines and similar compounds related to lorcaserin such as SCHEMBL5334361 are potent 5-HT2A agonists as well as showing action at 5-HT2C. IHCH-7113, 5-HT2A agonist derived by simplification of the 5-HT2A antagonist antipsychotic lumateperone. Tetrahydropyridine derivatives such as (R)-69 Substituted tetrahydro-β-carbolines Peripherally selective agonists One effect of 5-HT2A receptor activation is a reduction in intraocular pressure, and so 5-HT2A agonists can be useful for the treatment of glaucoma. This has led to the development of compounds such as AL-34662 that are hoped to reduce pressure inside the eyes but without crossing the blood–brain barrier and producing hallucinogenic side effects. Animal studies with this compound showed it to be free of hallucinogenic effects at doses up to 30 mg/kg, although several of its more lipophilic analogues did produce the head-twitch response known to be characteristic of hallucinogenic effects in rodents. Antagonists Volinanserin is the most potent 5-HT2A antagonist. It is also called MDL100907 or M100907. It underwent a few clinical trials but never got marketed. Trazodone is a potent 5-HT2A antagonist, as well as an antagonist on other serotonin receptors. Brexpiprazole an atypical antipsychotic, is a potent antagonist at 5-HT2A receptors (Ki=0.47 nM in humans). Most tricyclic antidepressants: Amitriptyline, Nortriptyline, Amoxapine, Clomipramine, Doxepin, Maprotiline, Imipramine, Iprindole Tetracyclic antidepressants: Mianserin, Mirtazapine, Maprotiline Although ergot alkaloids are mostly nonspecific 5-HT receptor antagonists, a few ergot derivatives such as metergoline and nicergoline bind preferentially to members of the 5-HT2 receptor family. The discovery of ketanserin was a landmark in the pharmacology of 5-HT2 receptors. Ketanserin, though capable of blocking 5-HT induced platelet adhesion, however does not mediate its well-known antihypertensive action through 5-HT2 receptor family, but through its high affinity for alpha1 adrenergic receptors. It also has high affinity for H1 histaminergic receptors equal to that at 5-HT2A receptors. Compounds chemically related to ketanserin such as ritanserin are more selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonists with low affinity for alpha-adrenergic receptors. However, ritanserin, like most other 5-HT2A receptor antagonists, also potently inhibits 5-HT2C receptors. Nefazodone operates by blocking post-synaptic serotonin type-2A receptors and to a lesser extent by inhibiting pre-synaptic serotonin and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) reuptake. Atypical antipsychotic drugs like clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone and asenapine are relatively potent antagonists of 5-HT2A as are some of the lower potency old generation/typical antipsychotics. Another antagonist is cyproheptadine. Pizotifen is a non-selective antagonist. LY-367,265 - dual 5-HT2A antagonist / SSRI with antidepressant effects 2-alkyl-4-aryl-tetrahydro-pyrimido-azepines are subtype selective antagonists (35g: 60-fold). AMDA and related derivatives are another family of selective 5-HT2A antagonists. Typical antipsychotics such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine (minor) Opipramol, an atypical antidepressant Hydroxyzine (Atarax) (minor effect) 5-MeO-NBpBrT Niaprazine Cariprazine Nantenine Antagonists and cardiovascular disease Increased 5-HT2A expression is observed in patients with coronary thrombosis, and the receptor has been associated with processes that influence atherosclerosis. As the receptor is present in coronary arteries and capable of mediating vasoconstriction, 5-HT2A has also been linked to coronary artery spasms. 5HT antagonism, therefore, has potential in the prevention of cardiovascular disease, however, no studies have been published so far. Inverse agonists AC-90179 - potent and selective inverse agonist at 5-HT2A, also 5-HT2C antagonist. Nelotanserin (APD-125) - selective 5-HT2A inverse agonist developed by Arena Pharmaceuticals for the treatment of insomnia. APD-125 was shown to be effective and well tolerated in clinical trials. Eplivanserin (Sanofi Aventis), a sleeping pill that reached phase II trials (but for which the application for approval was withdrawn), acts as a selective 5-HT2A inverse agonist. Pimavanserin (ACP-103) – more selective than AC-90179, orally active, antipsychotic in vivo, now FDA approved for the treatment of hallucinations and delusions associated with Parkinson's disease. Functional selectivity 5-HT2A-receptor ligands may differentially activate the transductional pathways (see above). Studies evaluated the activation of two effectors, PLC and PLA2, by means of their second messengers. Compounds displaying more pronounced functional selectivity are 2,5-DMA and 2C-N. The former induces IP accumulation without activating the PLA2 mediated response, while the latter elicits AA release without activating the PLC mediated response. Recent research has suggested potential signaling differences within the somatosensory cortex between 5-HT2A agonists that produce headshakes in the mouse and those that do not, such as lisuride, as these agents are also non-hallucinogenic in humans despite being active 5-HT2A agonists. One known example of differences in signal transduction is between the two 5-HT2A agonists serotonin and DOI that involves differential recruitment of intracellular proteins called β-arrestins, more specifically arrestin beta 2. Cyclopropylmethanamine derivatives such as (-)-19 have also been shown to act as 5-HT2A/2C agonists with functional selectivity for Gq-mediated signaling compared with β-arrestin recruitment. Genetics The 5-HT2A receptors is coded by the HTR2A gene. In humans the gene is located on chromosome 13. The gene has previously been called just HTR2 until the description of two related genes HTR2B and HTR2C. Several interesting polymorphisms have been identified for HTR2A: A-1438G (rs6311), C102T (rs6313) and His452Tyr (rs6314). Many more polymorphisms exist for the gene. A 2006 paper listed 255. Probable role in fibromyalgia as the T102C polymorphisms of the gene 5HT2A were common in fibromyalgia patients. Human HTR2A gene is thought to consist of 3 introns and 4 exons and to overlap with human gene HTR2A-AS1 which consists of 18 exons. There are over 200 organisms that have orthologs with the human HTR2A. Currently, the best documented orthologs for HTR2A gene are the mouse, and zebrafish. There are 8 paralogs for the HTR2A gene. The HTR2A gene is known to interact and activate G-protein genes such as GNA14, GNAI1, GNAI3, GNAQ , and GNAZ. These interactions are critical for cell signaling and homeostasis in many organisms. In human brain tissue, regulation of HTR2A varies depending on the region: frontal cortex, amygdala, thalamus, brain stem and cerebellum. In a paper from 2016, they found that HTR2A undergoes a variety of different splicing events, including utilization of alternative splice acceptor sites, exon skipping, rare exon usage, and intron retention. Mechanisms of regulation There are a few mechanisms of regulation for HTR2A gene such regulated by DNA methylation at particular transcript binding sites. Another mechanism for the correct regulation of gene expression is achieved through alternative splicing. This is a co-transcriptional process, which allows the generation of multiple forms of mRNA transcript from a single coding unit and is emerging as an important control point for gene expression. In this process, exons or introns can be either included or excluded from precursor-mRNA resulting in multiple mature mRNA variants. These mRNA variants result in different isoforms which may have antagonistic functions or differential expression patterns, yielding plasticity and adaptability to the cells. One study found that the common genetic variant rs6311 regulates expression of HTR2A transcripts containing the extended 5' UTR. Associations with psychiatric disorders Several studies have seen links between the -1438G/A polymorphism and mood disorders, such as bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. A weak link with an odds ratio of 1.3 has been found between the T102C polymorphism and schizophrenia. This polymorphism has also been studied in relation to suicide attempts, with a study finding excess of the C/C genotypes among the suicide attempters. A number of other studies were devoted to finding an association of the gene with schizophrenia, with diverging results. These individual studies may, however, not give a full picture: A review from 2007 looking at the effect of different SNPs reported in separate studies stated that "genetic association studies [of HTR2A gene variants with psychiatric disorders] report conflicting and generally negative results" with no involvement, small or a not replicated role for the genetic variant of the gene. Polymorphisms in the promoter gene coding Early growth response 3 (EGR3) are associated with schizophrenia. Studies have demonstrated a relationship between EGR3 and HTR2A, and schizophrenia-like behaviors in transgenic animals. Exactly how these results translate over to further biopsychological understanding of schizophrenia is still widely debated. There is some evidence that dysfunction of HTR2A can impact pharmacological interventions. Several studies have assessed a relationship between 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) 2A receptor (5-HTR2A) gene polymorphisms with an increased risk of suicidal behavior. One study revealed that T102C polymorphism is associated with suicidal behavior but other studies failed to replicate these findings and found no association between polymorphism and suicidal behavior. Treatment response Genetics seems also to be associated to some extent with the amount of adverse events in treatment of major depression disorder. Associations with substance abuse Polymorphisms in the 5-HT2A receptor coding gene HTR2A (rs6313 and s6311) have been shown to have conflicting associations with alcohol misuse. For example, A polymorphism in the 5-HT2A receptor coding gene HTR2A (rs6313) was reported to predict lower positive alcohol expectancy, higher refusal self-efficacy, and lower alcohol misuse in a sample of 120 young adults. However, this polymorphism did not moderate the linkages between impulsivity, cognition, and alcohol misuse. There are conflicting results as other studies have found associations between T102C polymorphisms alcohol misuse. Drug impact on gene expression There is some evidence that methylation patterns may contribute to relapse behaviors in people who use stimulants. In mice, psychotropic drugs such as DOI, LSD, DOM, and DOB which produced differing transcriptional patterns among several different brain regions. Methods to analyse the receptor The receptor can be analysed by neuroimaging, radioligand, genetic analysis, measurements of ion flows, and in other ways. Neuroimaging The 5-HT2A receptors may be imaged with PET-scanners using the fluorine-18-altanserin, MDL 100,907 or [11C]Cimbi-36 radioligands that binds to the neuroreceptor, e.g., one study reported a reduced binding of altanserin particularly in the hippocampus in patients with major depressive disorder. Altanserin uptake decreases with age reflecting a loss of specific 5-HT2A receptors with age. Other Western blot with an affinity-purified antibody and examination of 5-HT2A receptor protein samples by electrophoresis has been described. Immunohistochemical staining of 5-HT2A receptors is also possible. References Further reading External links Biology of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Biology of bipolar disorder Serotonin receptors
4575461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Drummond%20%28botanist%29	James Drummond (botanist)	James Drummond (late 1786 or early 1787 – 26 March 1863) was an Australian botanist and naturalist who was an early settler in Western Australia. Early life James Drummond was born in Inverarity, near Forfar, Angus, Scotland, the eldest son of Thomas Drummond, a gardener and botanist. His younger brother Thomas Drummond (1793–1835) was also a botanist. The latter emigrated to Cuba and died there. Both brothers originally worked with their father on the Fothringham estate in Inverarity. He was baptised on 8 January 1787. His father, Thomas Drummond, was a gardener at Fotheringham estate. Little is known of his early life, but he certainly followed the usual course of apprenticeship leading to his "qualification" as a gardener. In 1808, he was employed by Mr Dickson (most probably George Dickson of Leith Walk, Edinburgh). In the mid-1808, Drummond (aged 21) he was appointed curator of the botanic garden that was being established by the Cork Institution, in the city of Cork, Ireland. At the time this was a government funded garden, one purpose of which was the testing and propagation of plants for the benefit of the farmers of southern Ireland. In addition to his horticultural duties, Drummond discovered several species of plant that were previously not known to occur in Ireland. In 1810 Drummond was elected an Associate of the Linnean Society of London. That year he married Sarah Mackintosh, with whom he would have six children. Swan River Colony In 1828, in the midst of an economic recession, the British government withdrew funding for the botanical garden, and Drummond found himself unemployed with six children to support. Shortly afterwards, he was offered an appointment as Government Naturalist to the soon-to-be-established Swan River Colony (Australia). This position was honorary, but Drummond was given to understand that if it was decided to establish a public garden in the colony, he could expect to be given a salaried appointment as Superintendent of Government Gardens. Drummond and his family sailed for the Swan River with the colony's other government officials on board the Parmelia. On arriving, a temporary settlement was established at Garden Island. Informed that the settlement was unlikely to move to the mainland for a few months, Drummond established a garden on Garden Island. This garden was planted with stock donated by the Horticultural Society in London and Drummond's own private stock of plants and seeds. Under the colony's land grant conditions, Drummond's investment in the colony was valued at £375, and this figure entitled him to of land. His first grant was of rich alluvial soil at Guildford, where the Helena and Swan Rivers meet. He took possession of this land on 16 November 1829, and set about establishing a public nursery, probably with a view to encouraging his appointment to the salaried position of Superintendent of Government Gardens. However, when Drummond sought permission of the Governor, Captain James Stirling, to transfer some of his plants from Garden Island, he was refused permission and told that the storekeeper, John Morgan, had been given control of the Garden Island nursery. Drummond then abandoned the Guildford site. Around this time Drummond was given permission to select of his grant on the Swan River. He chose a site in the present-day Perth suburb of Ascot, consisting of extensive river frontage and low-lying flats prone to flooding. Later he claimed a grant in the Avon Valley south of Beverley, but then changed his mind and exchanged it for land in the Helena Valley, probably near the present-day site of Mundaring Weir. In July 1831, Stirling decided to establish a Government Garden and nursery adjacent to the temporary Government House. He appointed Drummond to the position of Superintendent with a salary of £100 per year, and allowed him to live in a small house next to the site. The following year, however, Stirling received instructions from the Colonial Office that the position of Government Naturalist should be abolished. Stirling agreed to press for the decision to be overturned, and in the meantime invited Drummond to take over the Government Gardens for his own profit. Stirling returned to England later that year to hold discussions with the Colonial Office in person. On his return in June 1834, Drummond was informed that the Colonial Office had insisted that Drummond's post be abolished. On top of his retrenchment, Drummond was instructed to vacate his house next to the Government Gardens, as Stirling had decided to build the permanent Government House on the site. The situation degenerated into a quarrel, and Drummond tendered his resignation. He then retired from Perth to his grant in the Helena Valley, where he established a nursery and vineyard. Collecting for Mangles In July 1835, James Mangles wrote to George Fletcher Moore to ask him to help Mangles obtain seeds and plants of Western Australian flora. Moore responded by purchasing a hundred packets of different kinds of seeds from Drummond's son Johnston, who had developed a taste for botanical collecting from his father. Moore sent the seeds to Mangles, and later that year Mangles sent Moore two cases of rare and useful plants, asking Moore to return the cases filled with Western Australian plants. As Moore doubted his ability to rear the plants given to him, and did not have time to collect plants to return to Mangles, he passed both tasks on to James Drummond, writing to Mangles to introduce Drummond and recommend him as a botanist and collector. Aware of Drummond's financial difficulties, he agreed to bear the cost of sending the boxes to Mangles. In September 1835, Drummond sent a letter to Mangles, in which he included the seeds of a number of species that he had collected when exploring the Helena Valley. He also enclosed three samples of soil from different parts of his grant, and asked Mangles to arrange a scientific analysis of them. He also asked Mangles to help him get orders for seeds and specimens. The first box of specimens sent by Drummond contained orchid tubers, although Drummond doubted they would survive the trip. None of them survived, and all of the seeds were destroyed by insect larvae. Mangles responded with a request for more specimens, and sent Drummond a hortus siccus for Drummond to mount pressed plants in. He agreed to take orders and dispose of seeds and specimens on Drummond's behalf, and enclosed an order from the English botanist John Lindley. However he also sent a frank letter to his cousin, Stirling's wife Ellen, in which he must have expressed frustration with Drummond, as Ellen Stirling responded with the observation that his letter was "a very long one but abusing poor old Drummond occupied so large a portion of it that [there was] no room for any other subject". By the same ship, Mangles sent a box of plants addressed to Ellen Stirling, but these were claimed by Drummond. Ellen Stirling disputed the matter, and the two had an angry argument that concluded with Drummond taking half. Ellen Stirling later wrote to Mangles, saying that Drummond was getting "old and stupid and appears only desirous to promote his own views". The ship that carried Mangles' letters and plants to Western Australia arrived in September 1837, and Drummond sent another box of orchid tubers and some dried, pressed plants with it on its return to England. The orchid tubers were again destroyed, but the pressed plants arrived intact. Mangles lent them to John Lindley, who described a number of new species from them, thus establishing Drummond's reputation as a botanical collector. Drummond continued to collect for Mangles, putting together a large collection of living plants for him. He also made a number of collections of pressed plants and seeds for Mangles to sell on Drummond's behalf, of which one was to be given to Mangles. He dispatched these collection on the Joshua Carroll in September 1838. Meanwhile, Mangles had tired of Drummond's "commercial attitude towards botany" (Hasluck, 1955), and had begun to receive the outstanding collections of Georgiana Molloy. Shortly after the Joshua Carroll sailed, Drummond received a letter from Mangles in which Mangles declined to dispose of his specimens. On receiving Drummond's collections, Mangles passed them on to Lindley, who had offered to dispose of them for Drummond. The collections were divided into sets and sold by George Bentham, but it was many years before Drummond eventually received payment. Farming at Toodyay In 1836, Drummond exchanged his grant on the Helena Valley for land in the Avon Valley. Settling at Toodyay, the Drummonds established a homestead which they named Hawthornden after Drummond's ancestral seat. By February 1838, the homestead was sufficiently established for Drummond's wife and daughter to join them. Initially Drummond worked hard to establish his farm, but later this was increasingly taken over by his sons Thomas and James. Collecting for Hooker Although no longer having any financial encouragement to collect, Drummond continued to collect botanical specimens. In 1839 he received a letter from Sir William Jackson Hooker of Kew Gardens, who requested seeds and plants, and offered to dispose of collections on Drummond's behalf. He also invited Drummond to submit written accounts of the botany of the Swan River Colony, which Jackson would publish in his Journal of Botany. A number of Drummond's letters to Hooker were published, and it is these accounts for which Drummond was best known at the time. Over the next fourteen years, Drummond made numerous collecting expeditions. In August 1839, he made an expedition to Rottnest Island in company with John Gilbert and Ludwig Preiss, and made two journeys into the Guangan that year. In 1840 he undertook an expedition to King George Sound, helping to identify a poisonous plant as the cause of many stock deaths in the area. In 1841 he went in search of good squatting land to the east of their land in Toodyay. The expedition, which included Captain John Scully, Samuel Pole Phillips and Johnston Drummond, discovered the vast tract of open pastoral land that is now known as the Victoria Plains. Following this expedition, Drummond put together what is now known as Drummond's 1st Collection. Drummond made four expeditions in 1842. The first was to the Busselton district; the second into unexplored territory around the present-day site of the town of Moora; the third into the Wongan Hills with Gilbert and Johnston Drummond; and the fourth in the south west corner of the colony with Gilbert. In addition to collecting plants, Drummond also made large collections of moss and fungi during 1842 and 1843. The collection that Drummond prepared and dispatched in 1843 became known as Drummond's 2nd Collection. During late 1843 and 1844, Drummond made a number of journeys with his son Johnston, who was rapidly becoming a highly respected botanical and zoological collector in his own right. Near the end of 1843, the pair made an expedition to the north and east of Bolgart. Shortly afterwards they started on a major expedition to King George Sound, and east as far as Cape Riche. The plants that he collected in this expedition formed what became known as Drummond's 3rd Collection. In 1844, a severe recession placed the Drummond family in severe financial debt, and the family farm was lost. Drummond and his son Johnston began planning to make their entire living from collecting, discussing going to South Australia or India, but nothing came of it before Johnston Drummond's death in July 1845. In 1845 and 1846, financial difficulties prevented Drummond from undertaking any further expeditions, but late in 1846 he was informed that he had been granted an honorarium of £200 by the British Government for services rendered to botany. He immediately began preparations for another journey. Setting out in company with George Maxwell, he travelled south to the Porongorup and Stirling Ranges, extensively exploring both, then south to King George Sound and east along the coast for five days. The result was Drummond's 4th Collection, which was complete by July 1847. He made yet another expedition in 1848, along the south coast to the Mount Barren. He had intended to go further, but the Mount Barren ranges were so rich in new species that there was no need. Drummond's 5th Collection was dispatched to London in June 1849. When Hooker received it he wrote in his Journal that he had "rarely seen so great a number of fine and remarkable species arrive at one time from any country". In 1850, Drummond joined a surveying expedition that sought to establish a route for overlanding stock to Champion Bay. He spent 1851 in Champion Bay with his son John. He returned to Toodyay in December, and over the next few months he wrote a series of articles on the "Botany of the Northwestern District of Western Australia", which were published in five issues of the Perth Gazette from April 1852, and later republished by Hooker. His 6th Collection, made in Champion Bay the previous year, was put together and shipped near the end of 1852. Later life Thereafter Drummond ceased all collecting. He retired to Hawthornden, where he tended his grape vines and garden, and maintained an occasional correspondence with Hooker and other botanists. He remained in quiet retirement for ten years. He died on 26 March 1863 and was buried at Hawthornden beside his son Johnston. His wife died a little over a year later, and was buried beside him. James Drummond Jr. transferred his father's extensive collections to Ferdinand von Mueller, then Government Botanist of Victoria, where it became the basis of Victoria's State Herbarium. Specimens collected by Drummond are held in twenty-five herbaria in Britain, Europe, the USA and Australia. Legacy James Drummond was the author of several species of plant: Boronia molloyae Tall Boronia Dasypogon hookeri, J.Drumm., 1843 Pineapple bush Drakaea livida, J.Drumm., 1842 Diuris picta, J.Drumm., 1853 Dricrastylis reticulata, J.Drumm. ex Harv., 1855 Dicrastylis stoechas, J.Drumm. ex Harv., 1855 Gastrolobium leakeanum Hakea victoria, Royal Hakea Macropidia fumosa, J. Drumm. ex Harv., 1855 Verticordia grandis, Scarlet Featherflower and, at least, one genus Lepilaena, J. Drumm. ex Harv., 1855 Over one hundred plant species were named in his honour, around sixty of which are still valid. Hall (1978) quotes Joseph Maiden as writing "He was far and away the most successful collector of Western Australian plants of his time." This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation J.Drumm. when citing a botanical name. Mount Drummond was named in Drummond's honour by John Septimus Roe in 1848. Roe, who was exploring the Mount Barren area is search of pastoral land at the same time that Drummond was collecting there, gave the hill its name after finding fresh tracks of Drummond there. In 1993 the Mundaring district office of the Department of Conservation and Land Management purchased of land west of Bolgart it was named the Drummond Nature Reserve in his honour. In 1948 a memorial in honour of John Gilbert and James Drummond was erected in bush near Drakewood by ornithological and historical societies. A memorial seat in Kings Park and Botanic Garden commemorates his life and work. James Drummond's brother Thomas Drummond, also a naturalist, accompanied Sir John Franklin in his explorations into the Northwest Territories of Canada in 1819-1822. Thomas died in Havana in Cuba in 1835. Of his sons, Johnston became a respected botanical collector in his own right; James became a Member of the Western Australian Legislative Council, and John became the colony's first Inspector of Native Police. His youngest daughter Euphemia was famed in her lifetime as the last surviving settler to arrive on the Parmelia from 1905 until her death in 1920. Thomas' grandson (James' great nephew) was the botanist James Montagu Frank Drummond FRSE. References Other sources Botanists with author abbreviations 1786 births 1863 deaths Fellows of the Linnean Society of London Botanical collectors active in Australia Botany in Western Australia Settlers of Western Australia People from Toodyay, Western Australia Scottish emigrants to colonial Australia
4576152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Peradeniya	University of Peradeniya	The University of Peradeniya (, ) is a public university in Sri Lanka, funded by the University Grants Commission. It is the largest university in Sri Lanka, which was originally established as the University of Ceylon in 1942. The university was officially opened on 20 April 1954, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II, by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. The University of Peradeniya hosts nine faculties, four postgraduate institutes (including the newly added Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences), 20 centres and units, 73 departments, and teaches about 12,000 students in the fields of Medicine, Agriculture, Arts, Science, Engineering, Dental Sciences, Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Management, and Allied Health Science. It claims to have the largest government endowment by a higher education institution in Sri Lanka, based on its large staff and faculties/departments. Location The University of Peradeniya site touches the natural environment of the lower slopes of the Hanthana mountain range. The university is in the Central Province, from the centre of Kandy (the historic capital of the last kingdom of Sri Lanka) and about from Colombo. The Botanical Garden of Peradeniya is close by. The university spans nearly in the Mahaweli flood plain. Most of the area remains afforested. The climate around the university is mild, and the temperature fluctuates between . The main entrance to the university is through Galaha road. The Faculty of Engineering is on one side of the Mahaweli River and all other faculties are on the other side. The Akbar bridge links the two banks of the river. Considered as a marvel of civil engineering, it was designed by A. Thurairajah (Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, 1975–77 and 1982–85), and built by the first batch of the faculty, in the year of its inception. The Sarasavi Uyana railway station is on campus. Another bridge known as Yaka Paalama links the railway to the other bank. Daily shuttle bus services operate from Kandy to Galaha junction and Kandy to the university. A separate sub-campus was established in 1968 at Mahailuppallama, North Central province for the Faculty of Agriculture. Separate residential facilities are provided to this sub-campus. History Beginnings The proposal for the establishment of University of Ceylon, the first university of Sri Lanka (the predecessor of the University of Peradeniya) goes back to 1899. But no progress was seen until the formation of the Ceylon University Association in 1906 under the guidance of Sir Ponnambalam Arunachalam, Sir James Peiris and Sir Marcus Fernando. Its request for a European-style university in Sri Lanka was partially granted by the British rulers with the formation of Ceylon University College on 1 January 1921. The University Council, through which the administration of the Ceylon University College was done, appointed committees to plan the academic activities of a future university. It made suggestions to build the university in Bullers Road (now Bauddhaloka Mawatha) in Colombo, but it was disputed by politicians. To resolve the conflict, the then Governor Hugh Clifford appointed a committee headed by Justice M. T. Akbar on 20 December 1926. It suggested that the proposed university should be unitary, residential and outside Colombo. Another committee was appointed in 1928 with Sir Walter Buchanan-Riddel as chairman. The committee initially proposed a site at Uyanawatta, in the Dumbara Valley close to Kandy. H. B. Lees, the Director of Public Works however proposed Mavilmada and Austin Woodeson, the Chief Architect recommended Aruppola, both on the Kandy side of the Dumbara Valley as better sites than Uyanawatta. Dr. Samuel Chelliah Paul and Andreas Nell pointed out the disadvantages of those sites and proposed a larger one at Peradeniya. In 1938 the government acquired the plot and developed an area about (out of ) to create the University Park. Although the site was acquired, no plans were made to establish the university until 1941. With the arrival of Sir Ivor Jennings, as the second principal of the Ceylon University College, establishment plans were put into effect. He stressed the urgent need to move the university to Peradeniya to the Minister of Education C. W. W. Kannangara and took the initiative in the process. Thus he is considered the forefather of the University of Peradeniya. 1942 to 1952 In 1942, the University of Ceylon was created as the first unitary, residential and autonomous university in Sri Lanka with its seat in Peradeniya, amalgamating Ceylon University College and the Medical College into a single unit with 55 academic staff members, 904 students in four faculties. But due to World War II, the construction of buildings started in 1946. Until then, the lectures and laboratory classes were conducted in the buildings obtained from the Ceylon University College and the Ceylon Medical College in Colombo. Consultants Sir Patrick Abercrombie and Clifford Holliday did the planning and layout of the university complex. The first phase of work constituted only the development of the left bank. The building of a bridge across the Mahaweli River, later known as the 'Akbar bridge', was planned by Prof. A Thurairajah. Transfer of the first batch of students, students from the Departments of Law and Agriculture and the third and fourth-year students of the Department of Veterinary Science, from Colombo to Peradeniya took place in 1949. Another major move took place in 1952, with the transfer of staff and students of the Faculties of Arts and Oriental Studies, together with the Main Library and the University Administration. This movement on 6 October 1952 marks the official establishment of the University of Ceylon, Peradeniya. In the initial stages, vice chancellor Jennings wanted to model British universities but met with resistance from students who opposed the changes. 1952 to 1972 Although the buildings at Peradeniya were established in 1952, the official ceremony for its inception was held on 20 April 1954, with the participation of Queen Elizabeth II. The Sri Lankan government was keen to postpone the ceremony until Queen Elizabeth II could participate. Her visit was delayed by the death of King George VI. Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh also participated in the event. He declared the university opened: Sections of the University of Ceylon functioned in Colombo and Peradeniya acted as campuses of the same university until 1967. In 1967, these campuses were split into two. The section in Peradeniya was known as the University of Ceylon, Peradeniya, while the section in Colombo was known as the University of Ceylon, Colombo. 1972 to 1978 By the University Act No. 1 of 1972, four universities functioned a — Peradeniya, Colombo, Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara and the Ceylon College of Technology, Katubedda, Moratuwa became five constituent campuses of a single structure – the University of Sri Lanka. It had one vice chancellor and five presidents for five campuses. Under this designation, the University of Ceylon – Peradeniya became the University of Sri Lanka – Peradeniya Campus. This designation prevailed until 1978. 1978 to the present Under the Universities Act No. 16, 1978, the University of Sri Lanka was split into six independent, autonomous institutions as the University of Peradeniya, University of Colombo, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, University of Kelaniya, University of Moratuwa and University of Jaffna. This Act brought back some of the central features of the Ceylon University Ordinance of 1942 such as the senates, the councils and courts. Governance and administration The University of Peradeniya operates under the provisions of the Universities Act No. 16 of 1978 and the Universities (Amendment) Act No. 7 of 1985. It is a state university and the undergraduate study is 100% free. Therefore, it depends on the government for much of its annual grant, which is provided by the University Grants Commission (UGC). Due to this, its administration is heavily influenced by the UGC. The administration is based upon that of the former University of Ceylon consisting of a dual structure of bodies: the council (formally known as the University Court which is the governing body) and the Academic Senate (academic affairs). Officers Chancellor The chancellor is the head of the university and is responsible for awarding all the academic degrees. Usually, the chancellor is a distinguished person in an academic discipline. Otherwise, it is a member of the clergy or a distinguished person from civil society. The President of Sri Lanka appoints the chancellor. The position is mainly ceremonial and duties are usually carried out by the vice-chancellor. The current chancellor of the university is Prof. Gerald Peiris. Vice chancellor The vice chancellor is the de facto principal academic and administrative officer of the university, responsible for management tasks. This appointment is also done by the President of Sri Lanka. The current vice chancellor is Prof. M.D. Lamawansa, who is also the Professor of Surgery. The deputy vice-chancellor is Prof. W.M. Terrance Madhujith, Professor of Food Science. Deans of Faculties Deans are the heads of the faculties. They are responsible for the management and the tasks carried out by the faculty. Deans are appointed by the chancellor for three years. List of chancellors and vice chancellors Chancellors University of Ceylon and University of Sri Lanka Sir Andrew Caldecott [1942–44] Sir Henry Monck-Mason Moore (1944–49) Lord Soulbury (1949–54) Sir Oliver Goonetilleke (1954–62) William Gopallawa (1962–78) University of Peradeniya J. R. Jayewardene (1978 – July 1979) Victor Tennekoon (1979 – 31 January 1984) T. B. Panabokke (1 Feb 1984–1989) Fredrick de Silva (1990–1993) Prof. Ediriweera Sarachchandra (1993 to 1996) Prof. R. G. Panabokke (1999 to 2002) Deshamanya R. K. W. Goonesekera (2002 to 2006) Dr. Premadasa Udagama (2007 to 2012) Prof. P. W. Epasinghe Vice Chancellors University of Ceylon Prof. Sir Ivor Jennings (1942–55) Prof. Sir Nicholas Attygalle (1955–66) University of Ceylon, Peradeniya S. J. Walpita, CCS (1966–68) M. J. Perera, CCS (1968–69) Prof. E.O.E. Pereira (1969–71) University of Sri Lanka Prof.B. A. Abeywickrema (1972–74) L. H. Sumanadasa (1974) Prof. P. P. G. L. Siriwardena (1974–78) Prof. S. Kodikara (president, Peradeniya Campus) Prof. P. W. Vithanage (president, Peradeniya Campus) University of Peradeniya Prof. B. L. Panditharatne (1978–84) Prof. M. A. Fernando (1984–85) Prof. R. G. Panabokke (1985–88) Prof. A. P. R. Aluwihare (1988–89) Prof. C. L. V. Jayathilake (1989–91) Prof. J. M. Gunadasa (1991–94) Prof. C. M. Madduma Bandara (1994–97) Prof. R. A. L. H. Gunawardana (1997–00) Prof. Kapila Gunasekara (2000–06) Prof. Harishchandra Abeygunawardena (2006–09) Prof. S. B. S. Abayakoon (2009–12) Prof. A. Senaratne (2012–15) Faculties and institutions The university has eight academic faculties of study. These faculties contain 72 departments. In addition, the university has two postgraduate institutions and six affiliated centres. At the beginning, it had only three present-day faculties — the Faculty of Arts, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Science. Departments of Law and Oriental Studies functioned separately. Since then, five other faculties have been added. The latest addition is the Faculty of Allied Health Science, established in 2005. The Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture (PGIA) and Postgraduate Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences (PGIHS) and Postgraduate Institute of Medical Science (PGIMS) and Postgraduate Institute of Science (PGIS) are the institutions established in the university. PGIS is a national institute established by the Ministry of Higher Education, Sri Lanka in 1996. PGIA was established in 1975 and offers three postgraduate degrees. PGIA offers postgraduate-level courses in Agricultural disciplines. In addition to these institutions, Senerath Paranavitana Teaching and Research Museum functions affiliated with the Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts. It was established in 1960. Ranking In 2023, Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed the University of Peradeniya first in Sri Lanka and 301–400 band in the world university ranking. This is the highest world ranking that any university in Sri Lanka has reached in recent history. The University of Peradeniya has also been ranked first in Sri Lanka under other popular university rankings schemes such as Times Higher Education world university rankings, QS world university rankings and U.S. News & World Report global university ranking in 2022. In 2019–2020, according to the University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP), the University of Peradeniya ranked first in Sri Lanka and 1123rd in the world. The University of Peradeniya was ranked No. 1 in Sri Lanka based on total ResearchGate scores. Library network The library is a centrally administered network of libraries. It is considered the oldest academic library in Sri Lanka. Containing over 430,000 items, it is one of the largest libraries serving the country. Seven branches are in faculties in the main campus at Peradeniya and one other branch is in the Mahailuppallama sub-campus. University of Peradeniya library contains a legal deposit collection of 300,000 items, a special collection of 15,000+ items acquired from various individuals, palm-leaf manuscript collection of approximately 5,000 (second largest in Sri Lanka) and a microfilm collection of 17,000. Furthermore, it owns the largest historical map collection in Sri Lanka. Student life Student organizations Students at the University of Peradeniya run over 100 clubs and organizations. These include cultural and religious groups, academic clubs, and common-interest organizations. The Peradeniya Students' Union (PSU) is considered the highest body which represents all internal students. Separate student unions operate in each faculty. These student societies include: Agriculture Students Union (AgSU) Agriculture Faculty English Literary Association (AFELA) Agriculture Management Science Society (AGMAG) Agriculture Faculty Forestry Society Agriculture Faculty Journalism and Media Society (AFJM) Arts Circle – Faculty of Agriculture International Students' Forum (ISF), University of Peradeniya Inventors Club – Faculty of Agriculture Nature Society Horticulture Society Society of Food Science and Technology Biology Guild Arts Students Union (ASU) Science Students Union (SSU) Engineering Students Union (ESU) Dental Faculty Students Union (DFSU) Medical Faculty Students' Union (MFSU) Societies in the Faculty of Engineering Engineering Students' Publication Society (ESPS) Association of Computer Engineering Students (ACES) Civil Engineers Society (CES) Chemical Engineering Students Society (ChESS) Electrical and Electronic Engineers Society (EEES) Engineering Faculty Art Circle Engineering Faculty Buddhist Brotherhood Mechanical Engineers Society (MES) Production Engineering Students Society (PESS) Power and Highvoltage Engineers Society (PHES) Societies in the Faculty of Science Art Circle Buddhist Brotherhood Faculty of Science Botanical Society Chemical Society Computer Society University of Peradeniya (CSUP) Hantana Conservation Society Hindu Society Mathematics Society Photographic Society Physical Society Science Library Club Tamil Sangeetha Natya Sangam Tamil Society University Explorers Club University Geological Society Zoologists' Association Cultural Societies Ceylon University Dramatic Society (DramSoc) English Literary Association (ELA) Film Society (FilmSoc) Gandarwa Sabhawa Sinhala Natya Mandalaya Sinhala Sangamaya Tamil Sangeetha Natya Sangam Tamil Society Religious Societies Buddhist Brotherhood Hindu Students' Union Newman Society (for Roman Catholics) Student Christian Movement University Buddhist Society University Muslim Majlis Other Societies AIESEC in University of Peradeniya Arunachalum-Hall Alumni Association MIDI Group http://perabeats.lk/ media society Rotaract Club Sports Council Student Meditation Society University Explorers' Club University Gavel Club Sports Sports activities are conducted by the Department of Physical Education. The University of Peradeniya has 30 athletics teams to date. Facilities include a well-equipped gymnasium, one of the largest multi-purpose outstation stadiums in Sri Lanka, a 50m swimming pool and separate stadiums for cricket, rugby, football, hockey, tennis, track and field, and elle. Residential facilities The University of Peradeniya is the only residential university in Sri Lanka. It provides residential facilities to most of its undergraduate students, all its academic staff members and guests. Three guest houses — Gal Bangalawa, Upper Hantana Guest House and Lady Hill a tourist hotel – come under university administration. Residential halls for undergraduate students: International collaborations The university has developed international relationships since its earliest days. Student exchange programs (Erasmus and International Credit Mobility Programme with SLU, Sweden), collaborative research, split postgraduate programs, international seminars, conferences and short courses are being carried out with these global partners by the Directorate of Research and International Affairs. This was established as a separate institution in 2006. UoP has initiated cooperation programs with foreign governments and institutions. Academic networking UoP is a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) academic network. Research and academic partners The university has signed Memorandums of Understanding for research and academic development with these international universities. University of California, Davis Campus, United States National University of Singapore, Singapore University of Pennsylvania, United States (with Solomon ASCH Centre for the Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict) University of Ottawa, Canada (Governance and Institutional Strengthening Project) Carnegie Mellon University, United States University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom (with School of Biological Sciences) University of Göttingen, Germany (with Institut für Sportwissenschaften) University of Guelph, Canada (cooperation in Food and Science Technology) University of Naples Federico II, Italy University of North Dakota, United States Marche Polytechnic University, Italy North South University, Bangladesh (Public Policy and Governance) Institute of Polytechnic de Grenoble, France (Educational and Scientific cooperation) Yamagata University, Japan Institute National Polytechnique de Lorraine, France (Higher Education on Disaster Mitigation) Hokkaido University, Japan (With Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine) University for Foreigners Perugia, Italy Osaka Prefecture University, Japan (cooperation in Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science) Rajamangala University of Technology, Thailand Saga University, Japan (Telemedicine) Dongguk University, South Korea (Pali and Buddhist Studies) Niigata University, Japan University of Limerick, Ireland Lincoln University, New Zealand United Nations University, Japan Yonsei University, South Korea (academic exchange and cooperation) Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand (Asian Regional Research Programme on Environmental Technology Phase II) Universiti Sains, Malaysia Lund University, Sweden National Formosa University, Taiwan Intercollegiate Sri Lanka Education program The Intercollegiate Sri Lanka Education (ISLE) program provides facilities for undergraduate students from United States of America to study in Sri Lanka. Each year, about 20 undergraduates spend five months in Sri Lanka following courses given by members of the Faculty of Arts. This programme also involves an exchange of faculty. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States Bates College, Maine, United States Bowdoin College, Maine, United States Carleton College, Minnesota, United States Colby University, Maine, United States Grinnell College, Iowa, United States College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, United States Macalester College, Minnesota, United States Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, United States Whittier College, California, United States Government partnerships Government of Sweden – research cooperation on SAREC project Government of Japan – capacity building training programme for Oral & Maxillafacial surgeons Government of Egypt – Arabic student exchange program and teaching Islamic civilization Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) – research cooperation People Students The total number of undergraduates in the university for the year 2009–2010 was 9,605. Student intake for that year remained at 2,620. In 2008, 1514 postgraduate students studied at the university, most of them affiliated with the two postgraduate institutions: Postgraduate Institute of Science (PGIS) and Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture (PGIA). Postgraduate output for the year was 358, including 15 doctorates. Faculties except Science and Agriculture conducted their own postgraduate courses. Women constituted 53.15 percent of undergraduates. Women constituted remained over 45 percent in all faculties except Faculty of Engineering where it was 15.46 percent. Courses in all faculties except Faculty of Arts are taught in English medium. In the Faculty of Arts, 69.85 percent of undergraduates are enrolled in Sinhala, 15.93 percent in Tamil and 14.22 percent in English. Alumni The University of Peradeniya has produced a large number of alumni. Among the best-known are Sri Lankans are Hon. W. J. M. Lokubandara; former speaker of the parliament (2005–2010), Sri Lankabhimanya Hon. Lakshman Kadirgamar; distinguished diplomat, politician and lawyer,Prof. Channa Jayasumana; Medical Professor, winner of AAAS Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility in 2019 offered by American Association for the Advancement of Science and former Health minister of Sri Lanka, Dr. Jayantha Dhanapala; former Under-Secretary-General for Disarmament Affairs, United Nations, Prof. Gananath Obeyesekere; emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Princeton University and the person who entered into an intellectual debate with Marshall Sahlins over the rationality of indigenous people through the details of Captain James Cook's death in the Hawaiian Islands in 1779, Prof. Anuradha Seneviratna; a renowned Sri Lankan scholar, Prof. Malik Peiris; discoverer of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus, Prof. Saman Warnakulasuriya ; OBE- Emeritus Professor King's College London, UK & Director WHO Collaborating Centre on Oral Cancer, Major General Janaka Perera; chief of staff of the Sri Lanka Army and one of the most distinguished generals in Sri Lankan history, Prof. J B Disanayake; head of the Department of Sinhala, University of Colombo., Prof. Kusuma Karunaratne; the first female Professor of Sinhala language Dr. Gunadasa Amarasekera; a prominent Sinhala writer, poet, and essayist and Prof. Neelan Tiruchelvam – A Sri Lankan Tamil politician, peace activist and an internationally respected academic. Founder and director of the International Centre for Ethnic Studies and the founder and director of The Law and Society Trust. Faculty The number of permanent academic staff at the University of Peradeniya is 731. It is the university in Sri Lanka that is served by the highest number of professors, associate professors and academic staff. Teacher to student ratio of the university was 1:13 by 2008. Faculty include Prof. Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah; professor in anthropology (1955–1960), a leading social anthropologist in the world, recipient of the prestigious Balzan Prize, the highest recognition of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland and Esther and Sidney Rabb Professor (Emeritus) of Anthropology at Harvard University, Prof. Senarath Paranavithana; the pioneering archeologist and epigraphist of Sri Lanka and once the archaeological commissioner, Prof. Gunapala Malalasekera; famous Sri Lankan scholar and diplomat; compiler of the "Gunapala Sinhala-English Dictionary", Prof. Anuradha Seneviratna; a renowned Sri Lankan scholar, Prof. Seneka Bibile, the founder of Sri Lanka's drug policy and the greatest medical benefactor of humanity that Sri Lanka has hitherto produced. and Prof. Ashley Halpé, a prominent Sri Lankan writer. Criticism Ragging The university has been criticized for its high level of ragging with several incidents grabbing national headlines. These include the death of S. Varapragash in 1997 due to kidney failure following severe ragging by a group of senior students and the permanent disability of Rupa Rathnaseeli in 1975 as a result of having jumped from the second floor of the hostel Ramanathan Hall to escape the physical ragging by the seniors. She died by suicide in 2002. In 1997, Selvanayagam Varapragash, a first-year engineering student was murdered on the campus due to hazing. He was subjected to sadistic ragging, and in the post-mortem, a large quantity of toothpaste was found in his rectum. Popular culture The University of Peradeniya holds a central position in classical university education, which has made it the setting for many dramas, films, songs, poems, novels and other cultural works in Sri Lanka. Songs like "Hanthanata paayana sanda..." by Amarasiri Peiris, "Hanthane kandu muduna sisara..." by W. D. Amaradeva, "Hanthana adaviye meduru kulunu sudu sandaluthalaa pisa..." by Nanda Malini, "Mé nagaraya maa oba munagasunu nagarayayi..." by Mervin Perera, "Hanthane raja dahane...", "Nethu saluna...", "Hantana Desin ena..." are only a few of them. Movies like Gamini Fonseka's Saagarayak Meda (In the middle of an ocean) and Sugathapala Senarath Yapa's Hanthane Kathawa (The story of Hanthana) are directly based on University of Peradeniya. UoP is featured in novels: Siri Gunasinghe's Sevanella (The shadow) and Gunadasa Amarasekara's Ek Sathya Kathawak (One true story). Groundbreaking dramas like Prof. Ediriweera Sarachchandra's Maname (1957) and Sinhabahu (1960) were first directed and played there. In Sarachchandra's novel Heta Echchara Kaluvara Nae (Tomorrow is not that dark), an entire chapter is dedicated to describing the beauty of the university. Further reading De Silva, K. M. and Jayatilaka, Tissa (eds). Peradeniya: Memories of a University, International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Kandy (1997), Peiris, Ralph. Universities, politics and public opinion in Ceylon, Springer, Netherlands (Volume 2, Number 4 / June 1964). (Print) (Online). 435-454pp. Goonetileke H. A. I. Introduction to Jennings’s The Kandy Road (1993) Jennings, Sir Ivor The Road to Peradeniya (Autobiography), Gooneratne, Yasmine. The Sweet and Simple Kind: A Poetic Account of a Nation's Troubled Awakening, Abacus Publishers (2006), / (UK edition) See also Education in Sri Lanka Sri Lankan universities University of Ceylon List of split up universities Notes a. Table 2.1.1: Total student enrolment by faculty (pp.24), University Hand Book 2009 published by the University of Peradeniya publications (2010). b. Table 2.1.1: Total student enrolment by faculty (pp.24), University Hand Book 2009. c. Table 2.1.1: Postgraduate students by faculty (pp.24), University Hand Book 2009. d. "The oldest academic library in Sri Lanka, founded in 1921 as the university College Library became the University of Ceylon Library in 1942 and was moved to Peradeniya in 1952. Currently, it has one of the largest collections in the country, numbering more than 500,000 in volume" – International dictionary of library histories, Volume 1. e. Table 2.1.15: Undergraduate enrolment by ethnicity (pp.39), University Hand Book 2008 f. Total number of students in Faculty of Engineering, 2008: 1468. Number female: 227. Table 2.1.4: Undergraduate enrolment by ethnicity (pp.22), University Hand Book 2008 g. Only permanent staff included. The number of academic staff engaged in university education is retrieved from the University Statistics – 2008 by University Grants Commission of Sri Lanka References External links University of Peradeniya :Proud beginnings University Grants Commission of Sri Lanka 1942 establishments in Ceylon Universities and colleges established in 1942 Engineering universities and colleges in Sri Lanka Forestry education Statutory boards of Sri Lanka Education in Kandy District Universities and colleges in Central Province, Sri Lanka Universities in Sri Lanka
4576465	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower	Flower	A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). Flowers produce gametophytes, which in flowering plants consist of a few haploid cells which produce gametes. The "male" gametophyte, which produces non-motile sperm, is enclosed within pollen grains; the "female" gametophyte is contained within the ovule. When pollen from the anther of a flower is deposited on the stigma, this is called pollination. Some flowers may self-pollinate, producing seed using pollen from the same flower or a different flower of the same plant, but others have mechanisms to prevent self-pollination and rely on cross-pollination, when pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species. Self-pollination happens in flowers where the stamen and carpel mature at the same time, and are positioned so that the pollen can land on the flower's stigma. This pollination does not require an investment from the plant to provide nectar and pollen as food for pollinators. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Most flowering plants depend on animals, such as bees, moths, and butterflies, to transfer their pollen between different flowers, and have evolved to attract these pollinators by various strategies, including brightly colored, conspicuous petals, attractive scents, and the production of nectar, a food source for pollinators. In this way, many flowering plants have co-evolved with pollinators to be mutually dependent on services they provide to one another—in the plant's case, a means of reproduction; in the pollinator's case, a source of food. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds. Flowers have long been appreciated by humans for their beauty and pleasant scents, and also hold cultural significance as religious, ritual, or symbolic objects, or sources of medicine and food. Etymology Flower is from the Middle English , which referred to both the ground grain and the reproductive structure in plants, before splitting off in the 17th century. It comes originally from the Latin name of the Italian goddess of flowers, Flora. The early word for flower in English was blossom, though it now refers to flowers only of fruit trees. Morphology The morphology of a flower, or its form and structure, can be considered in two parts: the vegetative part, consisting of non-reproductive structures such as petals; and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower is made up of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk or axis, called a receptacle. Each of these parts or floral organs is arranged in a spiral called a whorl. The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium. Together the calyx and corolla make up the non-reproductive part of the flower called the perianth, and in some cases may not be differentiated. If this is the case, then they are described as tepals. Perianth Calyx The sepals, collectively called the calyx, are modified leaves that occur on the outermost whorl of the flower. They are leaf-like, in that they have a broad base, stomata, stipules, and chlorophyll. Sepals are often waxy and tough, and grow quickly to protect the flower as it develops. They may be deciduous, but will more commonly grow on to assist in fruit dispersal. If the calyx is fused together it is called gamosepalous. Corolla The petals, together the corolla, are almost or completely fiberless leaf-like structures that form the innermost whorl of the perianth. They are often delicate and thin, and are usually coloured, shaped, or scented to encourage pollination. Although similar to leaves in shape, they are more comparable to stamens in that they form almost simultaneously with one another, but their subsequent growth is delayed. If the corolla is fused together it is called sympetalous. Reproductive Androecium The androecium, or stamens, is the whorl of pollen-producing male parts. Stamens consist typically of an anther, made up of four pollen sacs arranged in two thecae, connected to a filament, or stalk. The anther contains microsporocytes which become pollen, the male gametophyte, after undergoing meiosis. Although they exhibit the widest variation among floral organs, the androecium is usually confined just to one whorl and to two whorls only in rare cases. Stamens range in number, size, shape, orientation, and in their point of connection to the flower. In general there is only one type of stamen, but there are plant species where the flowers have two types; a "normal" one and one with anthers that produce sterile pollen meant to attract pollinators. Gynoecium The gynoecium, or the carpels, is the female part of the flower found on the innermost whorl. Each carpel consists of a stigma, which receives pollen, a style, which acts as a stalk, and an ovary, which contains the ovules. Carpels may occur in one to several whorls, and when fused together are often described as a pistil. Inside the ovary, the ovules are attached to the placenta by structures called funiculi. Variation Although this arrangement is considered "typical", plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions or look like what is typically another part. In some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced; in many species, the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like; the double flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens. Many flowers have symmetry. When the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point and symmetrical halves are produced, the flower is said to be actinomorphic or regular. This is an example of radial symmetry. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves, the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. If, in rare cases, they have no symmetry at all they are called asymmetric. Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base (sessile—the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent). The stem or stalk subtending a flower, or an inflorescence of flowers, is called a peduncle. If a peduncle supports more than one flower, the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called pedicels. The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle. In the majority of species, individual flowers have both pistils and stamens. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either female or male the species is regarded as dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is called monoecious. Many flowers have nectaries, which are glands that produce a sugary fluid used to attract pollinators. They are not considered as an organ on their own. Inflorescence In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the collective cluster of flowers is called an inflorescence. Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower. A common example of this is most members of the very large composite (Asteraceae) group. A single daisy or sunflower, for example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers (or florets). An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as bracts. Floral diagrams and formulae A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form. It can represent a taxon, usually giving ranges of the numbers of different organs, or particular species. Floral formulae have been developed in the early 19th century and their use has declined since. Prenner et al. (2010) devised an extension of the existing model to broaden the descriptive capability of the formula. The format of floral formulae differs in different parts of the world, yet they convey the same information. The structure of a flower can also be expressed by the means of floral diagrams. The use of schematic diagrams can replace long descriptions or complicated drawings as a tool for understanding both floral structure and evolution. Such diagrams may show important features of flowers, including the relative positions of the various organs, including the presence of fusion and symmetry, as well as structural details. Development A flower develops on a modified shoot or axis from a determinate apical meristem (determinate meaning the axis grows to a set size). It has compressed internodes, bearing structures that in classical plant morphology are interpreted as highly modified leaves. Detailed developmental studies, however, have shown that stamens are often initiated more or less like modified stems (caulomes) that in some cases may even resemble branchlets. Taking into account the whole diversity in the development of the androecium of flowering plants, we find a continuum between modified leaves (phyllomes), modified stems (caulomes), and modified branchlets (shoots). Transition The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds, hence ensuring maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of plant hormones and seasonable temperature and photoperiod changes. Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as florigen, which involves a variety of genes, including Constans, Flowering Locus C, and Flowering Locus T. Florigen is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in buds and growing tips to induce a number of different physiological and morphological changes.The first step of the transition is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue. Organ development The ABC model is a simple model that describes the genes responsible for the development of flowers. Three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the primordia organ within the floral apical meristem. These gene functions are called A, B, and C. A genes are expressed in only outer and lower most section of the apical meristem, which becomes a whorl of sepals. In the second whorl both A and B genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of aberrant flowers and mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana and the snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus. For example, when there is a loss of B gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. Function The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and the species. All flowering plants are heterosporous, that is, every individual plant produces two types of spores. Microspores are produced by meiosis inside anthers and megaspores are produced inside ovules that are within an ovary. Anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium. Both types of spores develop into gametophytes inside sporangia. As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes also develop inside the spores, i. e., they are endosporic. In the majority of plant species, individual flowers have both functional carpels and stamens. Botanists describe these flowers as perfect or bisexual, and the species as hermaphroditic. In a minority of plant species, their flowers lack one or the other reproductive organ and are described as imperfect or unisexual. If the individual plants of a species each have unisexual flowers of both sexes then the species is monoecious. Alternatively, if each individual plant has only unisexual flowers of the same sex then the species is dioecious. Pollination The primary purpose of the flower is reproduction. Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, known as cross-pollination, but many plants are able to self-pollinate. Cross-pollination is preferred because it allows for genetic variation, which contributes to the survival of the species. Many flowers are dependent, then, upon external factors for pollination, such as: the wind, water, animals, and especially insects. Larger animals such as birds, bats, and even some pygmy possums, however, can also be employed. To accomplish this, flowers have specific designs which encourage the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. The period of time during which this process can take place (when the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis, hence the study of pollination biology is called anthecology. Flowering plants usually face evolutionary pressure to optimize the transfer of their pollen, and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behavior of the plants. Pollen may be transferred between plants via a number of 'vectors,' or methods. Around 80% of flowering plants make use of biotic, or living vectors. Others use abiotic, or non-living, vectors and some plants make use of multiple vectors, but most are highly specialised. Though some fit between or outside of these groups, most flowers can be divided between the following two broad groups of pollination methods: Biotic pollination Flowers that use biotic vectors attract and use insects, bats, birds, or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination, while others have elaborate designs to ensure pollination and prevent self-pollination. Flowers use animals including: insects (entomophily), birds (ornithophily), bats (chiropterophily), lizards, and even snails and slugs (malacophilae). Attraction methods Plants cannot move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Most commonly, flowers are insect-pollinated, known as entomophilous; literally "insect-loving" in Greek. To attract these insects flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar. Some flowers have glands called elaiophores, which produce oils rather than nectar. Birds and bees have color vision, enabling them to seek out colorful flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent, though not all flower scents are appealing to humans; a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals. These are often called Carrion flowers, including plants in the genus Rafflesia, and the titan arum. Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and so most such flowers are white. Some plants pollinated by bats have a sonar-reflecting petal above its flowers, which helps the bat find them, and one species, the cactus Espostoa frutescens, has flowers that are surrounded by an area of sound-absorbent and wooly hairs called the cephalium, which absorbs the bat's ultrasound instead. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant. Other flowers use mimicry or pseudocopulation to attract pollinators. Many orchids for example, produce flowers resembling female bees or wasps in colour, shape, and scent. Males move from one flower to the next in search of a mate, pollinating the flowers. Pollinator relationships Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship an example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs. This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction, however, since the extinction of either member in such a relationship would almost certainly mean the extinction of the other member as well. Abiotic pollination Flowers that use abiotic, or non-living, vectors use the wind or, much less commonly, water, to move pollen from one flower to the next. In wind-dispersed (anemophilous) species, the tiny pollen grains are carried, sometimes many thousands of kilometres, by the wind to other flowers. Common examples include the grasses, birch trees, along with many other species in the order Fagales, ragweeds, and many sedges. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to grow large, showy, or colorful flowers, and do not have nectaries, nor a noticeable scent. Because of this, plants typically have many thousands of tiny flowers which have comparatively large, feathery stigmas; to increase the chance of pollen being received. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers is usually large, sticky, and rich in protein (to act as a "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is typically small-grained, very light, smooth, and of little nutritional value to insects. In order for the wind to effectively pick up and transport the pollen, the flowers typically have anthers loosely attached to the end of long thin filaments, or pollen forms around a catkin which moves in the wind. Rarer forms of this involve individual flowers being moveable by the wind (Pendulous), or even less commonly; the anthers exploding to release the pollen into the wind. Pollination through water (hydrophily) is a much rarer method, occurring in only around 2% of abiotically pollinated flowers. Common examples of this include Calitriche autumnalis, Vallisneria spiralis and some sea-grasses. One characteristic which most species in this group share is a lack of an exine, or protective layer, around the pollen grain. Paul Knuth identified two types of hydrophilous pollination in 1906 and Ernst Schwarzenbach added a third in 1944. Knuth named his two groups 'Hyphydrogamy' and the more common 'Ephydrogamy.' In hyphydrogamy pollination occurs below the surface of the water and so the pollen grains are typically negatively buoyant. For marine plants that exhibit this method the stigmas are usually stiff, while freshwater species have small and feathery stigmas. In ephydrogamy pollination occurs on the surface of the water and so the pollen has a low density to enable floating, though many also use rafts, and are hydrophobic. Marine flowers have floating thread-like stigmas and may have adaptations for the tide, while freshwater species create indentations in the water. The third category, set out by Schwarzenbach, is those flowers which transport pollen above the water through conveyance. This ranges from floating plants, (Lemnoideae), to staminate flowers (Vallisneria). Most species in this group have dry, spherical pollen which sometimes forms into larger masses, and female flowers which form depressions in the water; the method of transport varies. Mechanisms Flowers can be pollinated by two mechanisms; cross-pollination and self-pollination. No mechanism is indisputably better than the other as they each have their advantages and disadvantages. Plants use one or both of these mechanisms depending on their habitat and ecological niche. Cross-pollination Cross-pollination is the pollination of the carpel by pollen from a different plant of the same species. Because the genetic make-up of the sperm contained within the pollen from the other plant is different, their combination will result in a new, genetically distinct, plant, through the process of sexual reproduction. Since each new plant is genetically distinct, the different plants show variation in their physiological and structural adaptations and so the population as a whole is better prepared for an adverse occurrence in the environment. Cross-pollination, therefore, increases the survival of the species and is usually preferred by flowers for this reason. Self-pollination Self-pollination is the pollination of the carpel of a flower by pollen from either the same flower or another flower on the same plant, leading to the creation of a genetic clone through asexual reproduction. This increases the reliability of producing seeds, the rate at which they can be produced, and lowers the amount energy needed. But, most importantly, it limits genetic variation. In addition, self-pollination causes inbreeding depression, due largely to the expression of recessive deleterious mutations. The extreme case of self-fertilization, when the ovule is fertilized by pollen from the same flower or plant, occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Some flowers are self-pollinated and have flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open; these flowers are called cleistogamous; many species in the genus Viola exhibit this, for example. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-pollination and hence, self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-incompatible. In Clianthus puniceus, (pictured), self-pollination is used strategically as an "insurance policy." When a pollinator, in this case a bird, visits C. puniceus it rubs off the stigmatic covering and allows for pollen from the bird to enter the stigma. If no pollinators visit, however, then the stigmatic covering falls off naturally to allow for the flower's own anthers to pollinate the flower through self-pollination. Allergies Pollen is a large contributor to asthma and other respiratory allergies which combined affect between 10 and 50% of people worldwide. This number appears to be growing, as the temperature increases due to climate change mean that plants are producing more pollen, which is also more allergenic. Pollen is difficult to avoid, however, because of its small size and prevalence in the natural environment. Most of the pollen which causes allergies is that produced by wind-dispersed pollinators such as the grasses, birch trees, oak trees, and ragweeds; the allergens in pollen are proteins which are thought to be necessary in the process of pollination. Fertilization Fertilization, also called Synagmy, occurs following pollination, which is the movement of pollen from the stamen to the carpel. It encompasses both plasmogamy, the fusion of the protoplasts, and karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei. When pollen lands on the stigma of the flower it begins creating a pollen tube which runs down through the style and into the ovary. After penetrating the centre-most part of the ovary it enters the egg apparatus and into one synergid. At this point the end of the pollen tube bursts and releases the two sperm cells, one of which makes its way to an egg, while also losing its cell membrane and much of its protoplasm. The sperm's nucleus then fuses with the egg's nucleus, resulting in the formation of a zygote, a diploid (two copies of each chromosome) cell. Whereas in fertilization only plasmogamy, or the fusion of the whole sex cells, results, in Angiosperms (flowering plants) a process known as double fertilization, which involves both karyogamy and plasmogamy, occurs. In double fertilization the second sperm cell subsequently also enters the synergid and fuses with the two polar nuclei of the central cell. Since all three nuclei are haploid, they result in a large endosperm nucleus which is triploid. Seed development Following the formation of zygote it begins to grow through nuclear and cellular divisions, called mitosis, eventually becoming a small group of cells. One section of it becomes the embryo, while the other becomes the suspensor; a structure which forces the embryo into the endosperm and is later undetectable. Two small primordia also form at this time, that later become the cotyledon, which is used as an energy store. Plants which grow out one of these primordia are called monocotyledons, while those that grow out two are dicotyledons. The next stage is called the Torpedo stage and involves the growth of several key structures, including: the radicle (embryotic root), the epicotyl (embryotic stem), and the hypocotyl, (the root/shoot junction). In the final step vascular tissue develops around the seed. Fruit development The ovary, inside which the seed is forming from the ovule, grows into a fruit. All the other main floral parts die during this development, including: the style, stigma, sepals, stamens, and petals. The fruit contains three structures: the exocarp, or outer layer, the mesocarp, or the fleshy part, and the endocarp, or innermost layer, while the fruit wall is called the pericarp. The size, shape, toughness, and thickness varies among different fruit. This is because it is directly connected to the method of seed dispersal; that being the purpose of fruit - to encourage or enable the seed's dispersal and protect the seed while doing so. Seed dispersal Following the pollination of a flower, fertilization, and finally the development of a seed and fruit, a mechanism is typically used to disperse the fruit away from the plant. In Angiosperms (flowering plants) seeds are dispersed away from the plant so as to not force competition between the mother and the daughter plants, as well as to enable the colonisation of new areas. They are often divided into two categories, though many plants fall in between or in one or more of these: Allochory In allochory, plants use an external vector, or carrier, to transport their seeds away from them. These can be either biotic (living), such as by birds and ants, or abiotic (non-living), such as by the wind or water. Biotic vectors Many plants use biotic vectors to disperse their seeds away from them. This method falls under the umbrella term Zoochory, while Endozoochory, also known as fruigivory, refers specifically to plants adapted to grow fruit in order to attract animals to eat them. Once eaten they go through typically go through animal's digestive system and are dispersed away from the plant. Some seeds are specially adapted either to last in the gizzard of animals or even to germinate better after passing through them. They can be eaten by birds (ornithochory), bats (chiropterochory), rodents, primates, ants (myrmecochory), non-bird sauropsids (saurochory), mammals in general (mammaliochory), and even fish. Typically their fruit are fleshy, have a high nutritional value, and may have chemical attractants as an additional "reward" for dispersers. This is reflected morphologically in the presence of more pulp, an aril, and sometimes an elaiosome (primarily for ants), which are other fleshy structures. Epizoochory occurs in plants whose seeds are adapted to cling on to animals and be dispersed that way, such as many species in the genus Acaena. Typically these plants seed's have hooks or a viscous surface to easier grip to animals, which include birds and animals with fur. Some plants use mimesis, or imitation, to trick animals into dispersing the seeds and these often have specially adapted colors. The final type of Zoochory is called Synzoochory, which involves neither the digestion of the seeds, nor the unintentional carrying of the seed on the body, but the deliberate carrying of the seeds by the animals. This is usually in the mouth or beak of the animal (called Stomatochory), which is what is used for many birds and all ants. Abiotic vectors In abiotic dispersal plants use the vectors of the wind, water, or a mechanism of their own to transport their seeds away from them. Anemochory involves using the wind as a vector to disperse plant's seeds. Because these seeds have to travel in the wind they are almost always small - sometimes even dust-like, have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, and are produced in a large number - sometimes up to a million. Plants such as tumbleweeds detach the entire shoot to let the seeds roll away with the wind. Another common adaptation are wings, plumes or balloon like structures that let the seeds stay in the air for longer and hence travel farther. In Hydrochory plants are adapted to disperse their seeds through bodies of water and so typically are buoyant and have a low relative density with regards to the water. Commonly seeds are adapted morphologically with hydrophobic surfaces, small size, hairs, slime, oil, and sometimes air spaces within the seeds. These plants fall into three categories: ones where seeds are dispersed on the surface of water currents, under the surface of water currents, and by rain landing on a plant. Autochory In autochory, plants create their own vectors to transport the seeds away from them. Adaptations for this usually involve the fruits exploding and forcing the seeds away ballistically, such as in Hura crepitans, or sometimes in the creation of creeping diaspores. Because of the relatively small distances that these methods can disperse their seeds, they are often paired with an external vector. Evolution While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants—and some animals—can simply scatter out genetic clones of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants reproduced. But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other damage which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed, though it had not yet evolved the flower. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo and conifers. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. An early fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis from China, is dated about 125 million years old. Even earlier from China is the 125–130 million years old Archaefructus sinensis. In 2015 a plant (130 million-year-old Montsechia vidalii, discovered in Spain) was claimed to be 130 million years old. In 2018, scientists reported that the earliest flowers began about 180 million years ago. Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics) shows that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the only species in the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. Besides the hard proof of flowers in or shortly before the Cretaceous, there is some circumstantial evidence of flowers as much as 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids, which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification. The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots. The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior". The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains. While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection. Colour Many flowering plants reflect as much light as possible within the range of visible wavelengths of the pollinator the plant intends to attract. Flowers that reflect the full range of visible light are generally perceived as white by a human observer. An important feature of white flowers is that they reflect equally across the visible spectrum. While many flowering plants use white to attract pollinators, the use of color is also widespread (even within the same species). Color allows a flowering plant to be more specific about the pollinator it seeks to attract. The color model used by human color reproduction technology (CMYK) relies on the modulation of pigments that divide the spectrum into broad areas of absorption. Flowering plants by contrast are able to shift the transition point wavelength between absorption and reflection. If it is assumed that the visual systems of most pollinators view the visible spectrum as circular then it may be said that flowering plants produce color by absorbing the light in one region of the spectrum and reflecting the light in the other region. With CMYK, color is produced as a function of the amplitude of the broad regions of absorption. Flowering plants by contrast produce color by modifying the frequency (or rather wavelength) of the light reflected. Most flowers absorb light in the blue to yellow region of the spectrum and reflect light from the green to red region of the spectrum. For many species of flowering plant, it is the transition point that characterizes the color that they produce. Color may be modulated by shifting the transition point between absorption and reflection and in this way a flowering plant may specify which pollinator it seeks to attract. Some flowering plants also have a limited ability to modulate areas of absorption. This is typically not as precise as control over wavelength. Humans observers will perceive this as degrees of saturation (the amount of white in the color). Classical taxonomy In plant taxonomy, which is the study of the classification and identification of plants, the morphology of plant's flowers are used extensively – and have been for thousands of years. Although the history of plant taxonomy extends back to at least around 300 B.C. with the writings of Theophrastus, the foundation of the modern science is based on works in the 18th and 19th centuries. Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), was a Swedish botanist who spent most of his working life as a professor of natural history. His landmark 1757 book Species Plantarum lays out his system of classification as well as the concept of binomial nomenclature, the latter of which is still used around the world today. He identified 24 classes, based mainly on the number, length and union of the stamens. The first ten classes follow the number of stamens directly (Octandria have 8 stamens etc.), while class eleven has 11–20 stamens and classes twelve and thirteen have 20 stamens; differing only in their point of attachment. The next five classes deal with the length of the stamens and the final five with the nature of the reproductive capability of the plant; where the stamen grows; and if the flower is concealed or exists at all (such as in ferns). This method of classification, despite being artificial, was used extensively for the following seven decades, before being replaced by the system of another botanist. Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836) was a French botanist whose 1787 work Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposita set out a new method for classifying plants; based instead on natural characteristics. Plants were divided by the number, if any, of cotyledons, and the location of the stamens. The next most major system of classification came in the late 19th century from the botanists Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911) and George Bentham (1800–1884). They built on the earlier works of de Jussieu and Augustin Pyramus de Candolle and devised a system which is still used in many of the world's herbaria. Plants were divided at the highest level by the number of cotyledons and the nature of the flowers, before falling into orders (families), genera, and species. This system of classification was published in their Genera plantarum in three volumes between 1862 and 1883. It is the most highly regarded and deemed the "best system of classification," in some settings. Following the development in scientific thought after Darwin's On the Origin of Species, many botanists have used more phylogenetic methods and the use of genetic sequencing, cytology, and palynology has become increasingly common. Despite this, morphological characteristics such as the nature of the flower and inflorescence still make up the bedrock of plant taxonomy. Symbolism Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include: Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion. Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war. Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining. Daisies are a symbol of innocence. Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of floral art. Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keeffe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art. Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to associate flowers with femininity. The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th–19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower. Their symbolism in dreams has also been discussed, with possible interpretations including "blossoming potential". The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris. In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a lotus flower. Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance. For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation. Human use History shows that flowers have been used by humans for thousands of years, to serve a variety of purposes. An early example of this is from about 4,500 years ago in Ancient Egypt, where flowers would be used to decorate women's hair. Flowers have also inspired art time and time again, such as in Monet's Water Lilies or William Wordsworth's poem about daffodils entitled: "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud". In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and smell. Around the world, people use flowers to mark important events in their lives: For new births or christenings As a corsage or boutonniere worn at social functions or for holidays As tokens of love or esteem For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and as decorations for wedding venues As brightening decorations within the home As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome-home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving For worship. In Christianity, chancel flowers often adorn churches. In Hindu culture, adherents commonly bring flowers as a gift to temples Flowers like jasmine have been used as a replacement for traditional tea in China for centuries. Most recently many other herbs and flowers used traditionally across the world are gaining importance to preapare a range of floral tea. People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy commercially-grown flowers from florists. Flower production and trade supports developing economies through their availability as a fair trade product. Flowers provide less food than other major plant parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves), but still provide several important vegetables and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable; dried and ground marigold flowers are also used as a spice and colouring agent in Georgian cuisine. Flowers of the dandelion and elder are often made into wine. Bee pollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey. Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible, but only few are widely marketed as food. They are often added to salads as garnishes. Squash blossoms are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Some edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, Japanese honeysuckle, chicory, cornflower, canna, and sunflower. Edible flowers such as daisy, rose, and violet are sometimes candied. Flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, Japanese honeysuckle, and chamomile, chosen for their fragrance and medicinal properties, are used as tisanes, either mixed with tea or on their own. Flowers have been used since prehistoric times in funeral rituals: traces of pollen have been found on a woman's tomb in the El Miron Cave in Spain. Many cultures draw a connection between flowers and life and death, and because of their seasonal return flowers also suggest rebirth, which may explain why many people place flowers upon graves. The ancient Greeks, as recorded in Euripides's play The Phoenician Women, placed a crown of flowers on the head of the deceased; they also covered tombs with wreaths and flower petals. Flowers were widely used in ancient Egyptian burials, and the Mexicans to this day use flowers prominently in their Day of the Dead celebrations in the same way that their Aztec ancestors did. Giving The flower-giving tradition goes back to prehistoric times when flowers often had a medicinal and herbal attributes. Archaeologists found in several grave sites remnants of flower petals. Flowers were first used as sacrificial and burial objects. Ancient Egyptians and later Greeks and Romans used flowers. In Egypt, burial objects from the time around 1540 BC were found, which depicted red poppy, yellow Araun, cornflower and lilies. Records of flower giving appear in Chinese writings and Egyptian hieroglyphics, as well as in Greek and Roman mythology. The practice of giving a flower flourished in the Middle Ages when couples showed affection through flowers. The tradition of flower-giving exists in many forms. It is an important part of Russian culture and folklore. It is common for students to give flowers to their teachers. To give yellow flowers in a romantic relationship means break-up in Russia. Nowadays, flowers are often given away in the form of a flower bouquet. See also Floral color change Flower preservation Garden List of garden plants Plant evolutionary developmental biology Plant reproductive morphology Sowing Notes References Citations Sources Further reading External links Native Plant Information Network + Plant morphology Plant reproductive system Plant sexuality Periodic phenomena Yonic symbols Pollination
4576538	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalocalypse	Metalocalypse	Metalocalypse is an American musical adult animated television series created by Brendon Small and Tommy Blacha for Adult Swim. It premiered on August 6, 2006. The television program centers on the larger-than-life melodic death metal band Dethklok, and often portrays dark and macabre content, including such subjects as violence, death, and the drawbacks of fame, with hyperbolic black comedy. The show was widely heralded as both a parody and a pastiche of heavy metal culture. The music, written by guitarist/creator Brendon Small, was credited to the band and featured in most episodes. The animation was often carefully synced to the music with the chord positions and fingering of the guitar parts shown in some detail. The show was canceled in 2013. In 2021, Adult Swim announced a direct-to-video film had been greenlit; the film Metalocalypse: Army of the Doomstar was released on August 22, 2023 on Blu-ray and digital. Overview In the series, Dethklok is a death metal band that enjoys a level of popularity unheard of in reality, ranking as the seventh-largest economy on Earth by the end of the second season. Series creator Small described them as "like the Beatles, just a thousand times more dangerous and a billion times more stupid". The fictional band members are Nathan Explosion, Skwisgaar Skwigelf, Pickles, William Murderface and Toki Wartooth. Their manager/nanny is Charles Foster Offdensen. If Dethklok endorses a product or service, competitors are quickly driven out of business. Organizations worldwide, ranging from governments to businesses, go out of their way to avoid hindering Dethklok, to the point that the band is allowed to maintain its own police force and can get away with any crime imaginable with virtually no repercussions. In fairness, the reason they are criminally negligent and guilty 2nd degree murderers, is because Dethklok are morons who have little to no common sense about daily life; being unable to even fix their own meals, or handle finances. The members of Dethklok tend to cause disaster wherever they travel, and anything remotely associated with them likewise attracts chaos. Dethklok concerts are so notoriously dangerous that those attending are required to sign "pain waivers" at the entrance, releasing the band from legal liability in the very likely case attendees are killed or maimed. The band is shown to have a callous disregard for the safety of their fans, as shown in the first episode where they pour scalding hot coffee over concertgoers. The band's popularity is such that impressionable fans will do anything for them, even if that means death, which is usually the case. In the episode "Dethgov", fans of Dethklok lynch the governor of Florida after he refuses to establish a holiday for lead singer Nathan Explosion, whom they then proceed to elect as governor against his will; the karma gets them in the end, as Dethklok turns the state into a hellhole and makes the citizens demand Nathan's execution in hypocrisy. Some actively seek to kill Dethklok, because of all the death their idiocy causes. The band's unnatural popularity and trail of destruction has attracted the attention of an Illuminati-style group, known as The Tribunal, dedicated to monitoring Dethklok's activity and plans. Typically, episodes involve the Tribunal attempting to maintain and perpetuate public ignorance and rampant consumerism whenever Dethklok's antics inadvertently threaten to upset the status quo. The Tribunal, led by a mysterious character named "Mr. Salacia", works off the premise that Dethklok's unusual powers are the result of an ancient Sumerian prophecy about an "Apocalypse of Metal". General Crozier, the military leader in the group, appears to desire either the death of the band's members or the dismantlement of the band itself, but Mr. Salacia consistently overrules him to prevent this from happening. Most episodes show the Tribunal attempting to covertly thwart the band by calling in various "specialists", such as "military pharmaceutical psychotropic drug manufacturers", "celebrity depression experts", or various legally compromised characters who attempt to infiltrate the group. Development Brendon Small's show Home Movies ended its run in 2004, which freed Small to spend time with writer friend Tommy Blacha. They went to metal shows around the same time they were both trying to pitch shows to different networks. This was how they came up with the idea of doing a show about a metal band that was vastly more popular than The Beatles had been. They came up with the storyline, wrote a theme song, and had a friend Jon Schnepp design the characters. The series was originally called Deathclock, but the name could not be used due to an existing trademark. The show and the main characters' band were then renamed Dethklok. The show's title was then extended to Dethklok Metalocalypse, although the starring band still retained the name Dethklok. The title was finally shortened to Metalocalypse because the extended show title was too complicated. They pitched the show to Adult Swim, which greenlit it in 2005 with a 20-episode contract. In developing the series, Small looked at the budget for what he considered to be the cheapest show to produce at the time on Adult Swim, Tom Goes to the Mayor. On asking Tim and Eric, who produced the show, Small discovered that their budget was $110,000 per episode. Small then went to Titmouse and asked if they could do Metalocalypse for under $110,000 per episode while still maintaining Small's vision. Titmouse responded they could do it for $109,099 per episode averaged over the entire season. Broadcast history The show's first season consists of 20 11-minute episodes, the first of which premiered on the Adult Swim Video on August 4, 2006, and on Adult Swim proper the following Sunday. Metalocalypse was renewed for a second season consisting of 19 episodes which began airing on September 23, 2007, two days before the CD release of The Dethalbum. The second season also introduced an updated version of the show's opening theme (officially titled "Deththeme"), which had been rerecorded for The Dethalbum. The Metalocalypse premiere was the #1 rated show in its time slot among males aged 18–34 and earned the network's best premiere delivery and ratings in 2006. Among the top ad-supported basic cable programs of the week, Metalocalypse ranked #12 among men 18–34 and #6 among men 18–24. The series premiere ranked #30 for the week among adults 18–34. At San Diego Comic Con 2008, Tommy Blacha confirmed that the show would be renewed for a third season which premiered on November 8, 2009. The episodes of season three are 21 minutes long (30 minutes including commercials). The fourth season returned to the original 11 minute run-time. Season four premiered April 29, 2012, and consisted of 12 episodes. Actor Mark Hamill stated in 2013 that the fifth season of the show was currently in production. Brendon Small later denied this, stating that it had not yet reached production. On May 10, 2013, Brendon Small and Adult Swim announced that a Metalocalypse one-hour rock opera special, Metalocalypse: The Doomstar Requiem, was in the works. This special aired on October 27, 2013. In April 2014, in an interview on Steve Agee: Uhhh podcast, Brendon Small stated that a fifth and final season was in pre-production and that he was waiting on a budget from Adult Swim. Small has since stated that he has begun exploring other ways of concluding the show, which may take the form of a special or a film, and that he was in the early stages of planning. Cancellation In March 2015, Brendon Small issued a statement saying that he had approached Adult Swim with the idea to do the finale as a "big mini-series," but was turned down by the network. It was later revealed that Metalocalypse had been canceled; however, Small tweeted that he has plans "to service a final story and music—but not in way fans are used to". In October 2015, Small announced a month-long social campaign, called "Metalocalypse Now", to have fans of the show contact Hulu and Adult Swim to convince them to co-fund the series finale to Metalocalypse, entitled Metalocalypse: The Army of the Doomstar – The Final Chapter. As a result of the campaign, financial backers stepped forward to fund a final season, but Adult Swim declined to pick up the series. In a May 2016 interview, Small said he is "all but finished making Dethklok records". Revival film In May 2021 it was announced that a direct-to-video film is in production; it was later announced that the film would also be released on HBO Max. In April 2023, the film has been announced to be written and directed by Small, and is, in fact, the previously scrapped Metalocalypse: Army of the Doomstar. The film will have a voice cast of famous actors and well-known metal musicians. Dethklok will record the soundtrack for the film along with a new album. The film was released on August 22, 2023 on Blu-ray and digital. This film served as the final chapter of the series. Voice cast and characters Main cast members Guest stars Musicians Michael Amott Asesino Dino Cazares Tony Campos Emilio Márquez Jack Black Richard Christy Brann Dailor Warrel Dane Emperor Ihsahn Samoth Trym Torson Exodus Lee Altus Rob Dukes Jack Gibson Gary Holt Tom Hunting George "Corpsegrinder" Fisher Ace Frehley Marty Friedman Billy Gibbons Angela Gossow Dave Grohl Kirk Hammett James Hetfield Brent Hinds Gene Hoglan Scott Ian Arve Isdal Mike Keneally King Diamond Grutle Kjellson Herbrand Larsen Amy Lee Jeff Loomis Marco Minnemann Mike Patton Matt Pike Cam Pipes Troy Sanders Joe Satriani Ben Shepherd Silenoz Slash Steve Smyth Kim Thayil Thundercat Devin Townsend Steve Vai ICS Vortex Dweezil Zappa Livia Zita Other guest stars Besides the metal and rock musicians above, other celebrities have also contributed to this show, including: Samantha Eggar Chris Elliott Janeane Garofalo Jon Hamm Pat Healy Werner Herzog Frankie Ingrassia Marc Maron Christopher McCulloch Juliet Mills Byron Minns Laraine Newman Patton Oswalt "Dr. Drew" Pinsky Brian Posehn Andy Richter Laura Silverman Amber Tamblyn James Urbaniak Raya Yarbrough Episodes International broadcast In Canada, Metalocalypse previously aired on Teletoon's Teletoon at Night block and later G4's Adult Digital Distraction block. The series currently airs on the Canadian version of Adult Swim. Music The show includes music written under the name Dethklok by Brendon Small, often in the form of incidental music, and songs about the subjects of the episode in which they are featured, although three albums have since been released compiling full songs from the show. An EP titled Adult Swim Presents: ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead on Tour with Dethklok was released in 2007. The Dethalbum The Dethalbum was released on September 25, 2007, in both standard and deluxe editions. The album is a combination of full-length tracks from the series and completely new songs. The album debuted at #21 on the Billboard 200 chart with nearly 34,000 copies sold in its first week. The Dethalbum was also streamed 45,000 times when it went live on AOL Music during the week of its release. Dethalbum II Dethalbum II was released on September 29, 2009, in both standard and deluxe editions. The album includes many songs from the second season of the series and completely new songs. The deluxe version includes a DVD containing music videos for all the songs played during Dethklok's 2008 tour with Soilent Green and Chimaira. Dethalbum III Dethalbum III was released on October 16, 2012. The album features Brendon Small, Gene Hoglan and Bryan Beller. Ulrich Wild co-produced and mixed the album. The Doomstar Requiem The Doomstar Requiem was released on October 29, 2013. It is the soundtrack album to the Metalocalypse special Metalocalypse: The Doomstar Requiem. The album features Brendon Small, Bryan Beller, Gene Hoglan, a 50-piece orchestra and, for the first time on a Dethklok album, live Dethklok guitarist Mike Keneally. The series has been made available for on-demand streaming on Hulu Plus, as part of a deal made with Hulu and Turner Broadcasting. Dethalbum IV Dethalbum IV was released on August 22, 2023 alongside the film Metalocalypse: Army of the Doomstar. Endorsements Dethklok, the in-show band, also endorses several real-world music products, including Marshall Amplification, Gibson guitars, EMG pickups, David Eden Amplification, Universal Audio, M-Audio, Dunlop Manufacturing/MXR, and Line 6 gear. Originally endorsing Krank Amplification, Brendon Small and Dethklok began an arrangement with Marshall in 2009. According to the official Dethklok MySpace, the Gibson Guitar Corporation was also planning on making a Dethklok signature guitar. During the 2008 NAMM Show, a special edition Epiphone Explorer was unveiled to a select few. Pictures of show creator Brendon Small holding the guitar can be seen on the internet. Small later confirmed that Gibson, not Epiphone, would be releasing a Dethklok Explorer. A Dethklok "Thunderhorse" Explorer has been released by Gibson; it would later become Skwisgaar's main guitar on the show. In May 2012, Brendon Small revealed a prototype for the new Brendon Small "Snow Falcon" Flying V, it now serves as Toki Wartooth's primary guitar on the show. The guitar was released in December 2013 by Gibson. In December 2016, an Epiphone version was released. At the NAMM Show in January 2013, Brendon Small revealed that an Epiphone version of the Dethklok "Thunderhorse" Explorer was in production. It was released in April 2013 as the Brendon Small "Thunderhorse" Explorer. On October 25, 2014, Brendon Small premiered the prototype of the Gibson Dethklok "Snow Horse" Explorer, a silver burst Gibson Explorer modelled after one of Skwisgaar's guitars. In 2007, Shocker Toys produced a limited run of statues of William Murderface and Nathan Explosion. In 2008 and again in 2009, Shocker Toys made a boxed set of vinyl figures with limited articulation of all 5 of the band members. Kid Robot produced unarticulated figures of Murderface and Toki as part of an Adult Swim blind boxed mini figure line. At the 2009 San Diego Comic Con, Shocker Toys released an exclusive limited edition Dr. Rockso Mallow. The song "Thunderhorse" is featured in the game Guitar Hero II by Harmonix and RedOctane as a bonus song. In early 2010, Adult Swim released a "Dethklok Fountain" for sale on their website for $40,000. In January 2010, "Laser Canon Deth Sentence" became a downloadable song for Guitar Hero 5. "Bloodlines" is on the main setlist in Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock. Dethklok was featured in Soundgarden's video for "Black Rain", which Small directed. Dethklok's 2009 tour with Mastodon was sponsored by Brütal Legend and the song "Murmaider" was featured in the game. The song "The Cyborg Slayers" was featured in the soundtrack for the game Saints Row: The Third. There are guitar tablature books for all three Dethklok albums, which were released through Alfred Publishing. A bass tab anthology containing tablature from the first two albums was also released through Alfred Publishing. The production of these books has subsequently led to the removal of all Dethklok tabs from websites such as Ultimate Guitar. On August 17, 2012, a two-minute animated short aired on Adult Swim featuring Dethklok and Death from Darksiders II, in promotion of the game. On September 25, 2013, an animated short featuring Dethklok, entitled "'Tallica Parking Lot" (a reference to Heavy Metal Parking Lot), premiered at Fantastic Fest. On April 28, 2015, the Dethklok songs "Awaken", "Go into the Water" and "Thunderhorse" became available for download in the video game Rocksmith 2014 as part of the "Dethklok 3-Song Pack". Small appeared in an advert for the game in 2016 along with comedian Steve Agee playing the song "Go into the Water". Later, on April 3, 2018, the songs "Black Fire Upon Us", "Bloodlines" and "Murmaider" were added as part of the "Dethklok II" song pack. Touring history Dethklok does have a touring band, although there are no actual human counterparts to the characters on the show. The band consists of show co-creator, vocalist/guitarist Brendon Small, who writes and sings most of the music for the show, alongside drummer Gene Hoglan, bassist Bryan Beller, and second guitarist Mike Keneally. Home media release The series is also available on Max. Video games In 2009 the UK Adult Swim site released two flash games titled Deth Toll and Deth Toll II. The games are played in a similar fashion to Guitar Hero or Rock Band except with Dethklok songs. A video game based on the series, titled Metalocalypse: Dethgame, was revealed at the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con. The game was to be published by Konami and be available for download on both the PlayStation 3's PlayStation Network and Xbox 360's Xbox Live Marketplace. Players would have played as one of The Gears, and the game was to be set in Mordhaus, where the player would fight mutant fans. The game would have included music taken from Dethklok's albums. The game has been canceled, because "the creative direction of the game would not live up to the high standards...set for the project". The Dethklok songs "Thunderhorse" and "Bloodlines" are featured in the video games Guitar Hero II and Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock, respectively. Additionally, the Dethklok song "Laser Cannon Deth Sentence" was added to Warriors of Rock as downloadable content. The song "Murmaider" was included in the soundtrack to the 2009 video game Brütal Legend. Comic book The Dethklok vs. The Goon (one-shot) was issued by Dark Horse Comics on July 23, 2009. Written by Brendon Small and Eric Powell. Dethklok is sent into the same universe as The Goon, who seeks to kill them. The next day, Dark Horse announced a forthcoming short-run Dethklok series in collaboration with Adult Swim, which appeared the next year. Dethklok #1, October 6, 2010. Written by Brendon Small, Jon Schnepp and Jeremy Barlow. Dethklok decides to venture into the frozen food market with Dethklok frozen dinners, though after many setbacks, the band releases lethally poisonous food on their fans. Dethklok #2, December 15, 2010. Written by Brendon Small, Jon Schnepp and Jeremy Barlow. Dethklok returns to Finland to apologize for their last visit when they awakened a troll, while a cult of troll worshippers plan to use the band to unleash end times through the trolls once again. Dethklok #3, February 23, 2011. Written by Brendon Small, Jon Schnepp and Jeremy Barlow. Dethklok builds a cross-country train to help blues legend Mashed Potatoes Johnson get out of his deal with Satan over his soul, while a ghost of a train-riding murderer is about to send things off the rails. All four comics appeared with variant cover art by Eric Powell and Jon Schnepp. The Dethklok HC deluxe hardcover collected the four comics and was released June 15, 2011. See also Notes References External links Official tumblr Official Myspace Official Adult Swim with Metalocalypse section, YouTube Metalocalypse on Adult Swim UK (Archived URL) Original link 2000s American adult animated television series 2000s American black comedy television series 2000s American musical comedy television series 2000s American parody television series 2010s American adult animated television series 2010s American black comedy television series 2010s American musical comedy television series 2010s American parody television series 2006 American television series debuts 2013 American television series endings American adult animated comedy television series American adult animated musical television series Anime-influenced Western animated television series American flash adult animated television series English-language television shows Adult Swim original programming Heavy metal television series Television series by Williams Street Television series created by Brendon Small
4577128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1979 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1979 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 47th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 9 and 10 June 1979. With no other major works cars this year, the Porsche team were the strong favourites to win. Their competition would be from Cosworth-powered Mirages and Rondeaus and a swarm of Group 5 and IMSA-class Porsche 935s. The other big talking point was the presence of Hollywood actor Paul Newman, driving for Dick Barbour Racing. However, the Porsche 936s ran into problems early, as did the Mirages that inherited the lead. The race became a duel between the 935s of the rival teams from Cologne: Kremer Racing and Gelo Sportswear. Soon after midnight, heavy storms started sweeping the circuit. The rain stayed for virtually the rest of the race, dramatically slowing the pace, negating the speed of the 936s coming back through the field. Both Gelo cars retired with mechanical issues in the soggy dawn, and when the Wollek/Haywood Porsche developed a bad misfire soon after it looked like the Kremer 935 of Klaus Ludwig and the Whittington brothers had the race covered. They had a 13-lap lead over the Dick Barbour Porsche. Then approaching 11am Don Whittington came to a stop on the Mulsanne Straight with a broken drivebelt. It took 80 minutes to get back to the pits, and by the time they got back into the race the lead down to four laps. But the charging American team were foiled by a faulty wheel-nut taking 23 minutes to fix. Then in the last hour, the car slowed with a bad misfire. Stommelen pulled up just before the finish line and waited for the Kremer car to take the flag in victory. The Kremer brothers' finest hour was sealed with their other team-car coming home in third. Porsche finished 1-2-3-4, and the Kremer 935-K3 was the first Le Mans win by a rear-engined car. The torrential rain in the second half of the race made it the slowest Le Mans since 1958. Regulations In April 1978, the sports regulatory body, the CSI, was overhauled and replaced by the new international racing organisation FISA. The World Championship for Makes was revised to include both Group 5 and Group 6 racecars again, split into two categories: over and under 2-litres. FISA President, Jean-Marie Balestre was committed to bringing Le Mans back into the World Championship, but for now the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) chose to remain independent. A change to the circuit was forced upon the ACO this year. Construction of the city's ring-road system meant the second Dunlop Bridge at the Tertre Rouge corner had to be demolished. The right-hand corner that led onto the Hunaudières straight was eased into a faster double-apex corner, shortening the overall circuit length by to 13.63 km. The only other change was to move the start-time forward two hours, to 2pm, to allow the spectators more time to vote on Sunday in the European parliament elections. A new efficiency calculation was used this year – the Index of Fuel Consumption. The total fuel used was measured as at the final pit-stop and then gauged against the cars' total distance covered, as litres per 100 kilometres. It was not exact, as no account was taken of the remaining fuel in the tanks. Entries The ACO received 87 applications, from which 60 were accepted to qualify for the 55 starting spots. Porsche was the only manufacturer with a works team and made up 19 of the 55 starters. Entries again came from regular specialists Mirage, De Cadenet, Rondeau and WM. There were also exploratory entries from Formula 1 constructor March and the Japanese companies of Mazda and Dome. Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started. Group 6 and GTP The absence of the defending winners, Renault-Alpine, made the Porsche works team, strong favourites for the race win. They were now sponsored by the American oil tycoon David Thieme's Essex Petroleum. The 1978 iterations of the Porsche 936 were rebuilt on two chassis that had both been coincidentally crashed by Jochen Mass. The cars were essentially unchanged although the gearbox was strengthened after last year's woes. This year, their talismanic driver Jacky Ickx was paired with Brian Redman. The pair had driven together at the previous year's Spa 24 Hours. Ickx had just returned from Canada where he had won the Can-Am race. The second car had team regular Hurley Haywood with Bob Wollek, who had been released for the race from his regular seat with Georg Loos as a late replacement for Didier Pironi. Porsche's competition in Group 6 would all be equipped with the Ford-Cosworth DFV engine. Mirage felt they had a genuine chance of victory this year. They were unable to renew the engine deal they had had for two years with Renault and instead reverted to its reliable workhorse, the Cosworth engine. It helped entice the sponsorship of a consortium of 250 Ford-dealerships in France. The new M10 cars sported a new streamlined, long-tail spyder bodywork, with a 20% smaller frontal area. Team driver Vern Schuppan was paired with Renault winner Jean-Pierre Jaussaud, while veteran British endurance drivers Derek Bell and David Hobbs shared the second car. Dome Company had first appeared in Europe at the 1978 Geneva Motor Show with a road prototype. A racing version of the Dome Zero was entered. The distinctive low, angular wedge-shaped design came from Masao Ono who had worked on the Maki Formula One project. It was developed in England by a team led by former De Cadenet team manager Keith Greene. Two cars were built, with the original tested at the Fuji Speedway then debuted at the World Championship round at Silverstone It was driven by Chris Craft (also from De Cadenet) and Gordon Spice. They were joined at Le Mans by Bob Evans and former Maki driver Tony Trimmer. André Chevalley had bought and raced the Inaltéra GTP the previous year. This year he entered two Lola Type T286 cars. Alain de Cadenet continued his personal development of the Lola T380. The new LM78 now had a wider, longer chassis to improve road-holding. Having lost his regular co-driver Chris Craft to the Dome team, De Cadenet now got local Le Mans professional François Migault in his stead. This year the car was finished in time to compete at the Silverstone round, where they finished an excellent second. Two of his earlier cars were also entered by their British owners: Peter Lovett's JC Racing and Simon Phillips. Once again, Jean Rondeau hedged his bets by entering his cars in both the Group 6 and GTP classes. The three new cars had improved aerodynamics and suspension with Cosworths tuned by Swiss engine-specialist Heini Mader. Rondeau attracted veteran French drivers Henri Pescarolo and Jean-Pierre Beltoise for one car, and rally specialists Jean Ragnotti and Bernard Darniche, while he himself raced the GTP entry with Jacky Haran. The other French team in GTP, Welter Racing also had a new design. The P79 refined the aerodynamic shell and kept developing the 2.7-litre Peugeot V6 engine, now with twin KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbos. Three cars were ready for Le Mans, with all-French crews. The most curious entry in Group 6 was a lavish project from March Engineering, who had been working with BMW in Formula Two. The silhouette design by John Gentry was based on the BMW M1, but as less than 400 cars had yet been built, it could not run in Group 5, nor would IMSA allow it into the GTX category. GTP rules required all four wheels be the same size, whereas this car had 16" fronts and 19" rears. In the end, it got special dispensation from the FIA to run in Group 6, in the 5-litre class normally used for American V8 engines. The car would be raced by BMW works driver Dieter Quester, alongside Ian Grob and Guy Edwards who had paired up last year with the disappointing Ibec project. Group 6 (2-litre) Once again, there was a big field for the 2-litre category with fifteen entries, dominated as usual by Lola and Chevron, and using a mix of ROC, Cosworth or BMW engines. The French engine-builder team, Société ROC, had three of the B36. Another Chevron (with a Brian Hart-prepared Cosworth engine) was entered by the Scottish Mogil Motors team of Tony Charnell, Robin Smith and Richard Jones. The six Lolas were equipped with ROC, Cosworth and BMW engines – with the French Lambretta team with both a BMW and a ROC-engined car entered. The Lola-Ford of the Dorset Racing team had a special Cosworth BDX engine, developed by their local Swindon Racing Engines. Team-owners Tony Birchenhough and Brian Joscelyne were joined by Richard Jenvey and Nick Mason. The latter was the other big-name celebrity in the race, as the drummer for British band Pink Floyd (and avid Ferrari collector), though his status was overshadowed by Paul Newman. For several seasons, Jörg Obermoser had shown success with his ToJ cars in Europe, yet this was the first year they were seen at Le Mans with Frenchman Hubert Striebig entering his BMW-powered SC206, partnered with Alain Cudini and Hughes Kirschoffer. Group 5 and IMSA GTX The Porsche works team had finished its development of the Porsche 935, leaving its representation in Group 5 and IMSA to their customer teams of which there were now many. The car was dominating the respective championships. The differences between the Group 5 and IMSA cars were slight, aside from drawing European teams to Group 5 and North American teams following IMSA. Although the cars were more powerful, their smaller tanks meant they would need more fuel stops, with only about 50–60 minutes endurance. The Kremer brothers had made over 100 modifications to the standard 935-77 model in developing their next iteration, the 935-K3. Using panels made of composite materials they took off weight, and tweaked the body-shell, mostly made of kevlar, with their own aerodynamic refinements. The 3-litre engine was fitted with twin-turbos that could put out 740 bhp, right up to a massive 800 bhp on maximum boost. They were also fitted with an air-air intercooler, unlike the air-water variety on the regular 935. Kremer Racing entered three cars: two of the new K3s for team leader Klaus Ludwig, joined by the wealthy Whittington brothers (Don and Bill), former motocross riders from Florida in one, and DRM regulars Axel Plankenhorn and "John Winter", with Philippe Gurdjian in the other. They also had a standard 935 for Laurent Ferrier/François Sérvanin/ François Trisconi. The Whittington brothers had also entered their own 935 in the IMSA class but then cancelled that entry. The dominant team of the season had been the Gelo Sportswear team of Georg Loos. His cars had won three of the five rounds and second in another. Despite two of his winning drivers, Ickx and Wollek, being called into the works team, the two cars still had strong driver line-ups: Manfred Schurti/Hans Heyer in one and John Fitzpatrick/Harald Grohs/Jean-Louis Lafosse in the other. Alongside these premier teams were four other entries: Porsche 935s of the French ASA Cachia team, Swiss privateer Claude Haldi and German Sekurit team and the return of a De Tomaso Pantera, run by the Italian Carlo Pietromarchi. Dick Barbour returned to Le Mans, this year with four Porsche 935s set up to the IMSA specifications, including one of the 1979 twin-turbo models. In a major publicity coup he scored two big signings as drivers: Rolf Stommelen was not needed by the Porsche works team this year. The other was the 54-year old actor Paul Newman, one of the biggest names in Hollywood of the time and nicknamed Cool Hand Luke after his character in the 1967 film. But Newman was no part-time gentleman-driver; having been a class-winning champion in the amateur SCCA Barbour's second car had the Sebring-winning trio of Bob Akin, Rob McFarlin and Roy Woods Two other 935s were in the IMSA class: a privateer effort from Formula 1 driver Jean-Pierre Jarier and Ted Field's Interscope team who had, with Danny Ongais and Hurley Haywood, won the Daytona 24 hours earlier in the year. Ferrari's Gestione Sportiva (racing division) had now developed a proper lightened, racing version of the 512 BB for its customer teams. However, at Daytona it had shown diabolical handling. It was fitted with a lengthened streamlined body designed by Pininfarina. The 5-litre flat-12 engine got fuel-injection and was tuned to now put out 480 bhp. But this was 200 bhp less than the rival Porsche 935, which was also around 150 kg lighter. Five such cars were entered for Le Mans – two each for Charles Pozzi's French team, and Luigi Chinetti's North American Racing Team, while the Belgian Ecurie Francorchamps prepared one for their regular driver Jean Blaton, who raced under the pseudonym "Beurlys". Hervé Poulain, French art-auctioneer, had presented the world with a successive series of BMW Art Cars at Le Mans. This year he had the BMW M1, entered in the IMSA class and he had his car painted by American pop artist Andy Warhol. After production difficulties, it was in production and had finally been homologated. The 3.5-litre engine was fuel-injected and could put out 470 bhp. The model had debuted at the Nürburgring in April and started in the races of the new one-make Procar series. With a special exhaust and plastic rear window, the car had to run in the IMSA class. Poulain had the services of works driver Manfred Winkelhock, along with Marcel Mignot. Mazda had been competing successfully in the IMSA GTU category, with their new RX-7 and Yojiro Terada getting a class victory at Daytona. An RX-3 had entered the 1975 race run by privateer Claude Buchet. This year, Mazda sent its RX-7 to Le Mans, but with only a single IMSA class it was set against the far more powerful Porsches and Ferraris. The drivers were Terada, Buchet and Tetsu Ikuzawa. Group 4 GT The Group 4 class had a smaller field of just six entries, all of which were privateer teams running the 3-litre turbocharged Porsche 934. They comprised three French, two Swiss and a German team. Last year's class-winner Anne-Charlotte Verney had taken the opportunity to upgrade from the 911 Carrera, and had rally driver René Metge as one of her co-drivers. The Swiss Lubrifilm team had hired the experienced veteran Herbert Müller. Practice and Qualifying As was expected, the two Porsche 936s comfortably put in the fastest times to claim the first two places on the grid. Bob Wollek set the fastest time, 3:30.1, on Wednesday but the next lap had a tyre blow-out at top speed on the Hunaudières Straight. It was a very similar incident to what had happened to Jochen Mass at the Silverstone race, the previous month. Ickx recorded his time of 3:31.4 on Thursday before Brian Redman missed a gear-change and over-revved the engine, forcing the mechanics to do an engine-change before the race. Modified wheel rims, fashioned overnight at Porsche's factory at Weissach, were also fitted to both cars as insurance against further sudden punctures. Third quickest was Klaus Ludwig in the Kremer K3. His time of 3:34.6 was actually faster than Stommelen got in the "Moby Dick" works 935 the previous year (3:39.3). He was two seconds faster than the rival Gelo Porsche of Manfred Schurti, that had also needed a full engine change. Fifth was Schuppan's Mirage from Ragnotti's Rondeau. Stommelen had the fastest IMSA lap, of 3:49.8, to qualify 16th, with Jarier second fastest in 21st (3:55.7). The fastest Ferrari was the Ballot-Léna/Gregg/Leclère Pozzi car well back in 28th (4:00.8). They were just ahead of the leading 2-litre Group 6 of the ROC Chevron (4:01.3). Last car on the grid was the underwhelming Aston Martin with a sluggish 4:24.5. The slowest qualifiers of each class would be culled from the starting grid. Not surprisingly, the heavy March-BMW failed – Guy Edwards' best lap (3:59.4) was almost 30 seconds slower than the pole-time, and eight seconds outside the 110% rule. The Mazda RX-7, despite being 5 seconds faster than the Aston Martin, also fell afoul of that rule, as slowest in the IMSA class. Race Start Although the week had been cloudy, race-day was sunny and hot, attracting a big crowd for the 2pm start. Pescarolo did not even complete the formation lap, having to pit the Rondeau with low fuel-pressure and starting from the pit-line at the back of the field. From the start, the two Porsche 936s took the lead in formation. At the end of the first lap, Ickx led the pair, already with a ten-second jump on Ludwig and the rest of the field. By lap 3, the two Mirages had moved up to third and fourth ahead of the 935s. At the first pit-stops Ickx was delayed when the new wheel-rims had to be changed because they were locking against the brake callipers. This gave Wollek a good lead. The British cars had a terrible start from sloppy preparation: De Cadenet's car pitted after just six laps: mechanics had omitted to drill a hole in the pinion to let oil reach the bearing, which caused the gearbox to quickly seize solid. Craft had the Dome running seventh on the first lap, but pitted next time around with a fire caused by a distributor lead that had not been properly attached. After losing seven laps, they ran out of petrol at Mulsanne because of a faulty fuel-pump. By saving fuel, the other Dome had got into fifth, but were then thwarted at the first stops with a blown head-gasket. After two hours, Wollek led Ickx by eighty seconds, with Bell a further fifty seconds back. Schuppan was a lap back in fourth and the 935s of Ludwig, Fitzpatrick, Schurti and Plankenhorn a further lap back with the Rondeau of Pescarolo. Just after Redman had taken over for his first stint, he got a puncture at the Dunlop curve. He spun the car to avoid the barriers, but had to crawl round most of a lap on the rim to get back to the pits where almost an hour was lost repairing the heavy damage to bodywork and one of the radiators. They resumed 17 laps down. At the same time, Jaussaud found his Mirage gearbox full of neutrals and was marooned out on the circuit. A mechanic was sent out to shout instructions and Jaussaud was able to fashion repairs to jam the second-gear cog into position to get back to the pits. Rebuilding the gearbox took four hours, and despite hard driving by Jaussaud and Hobbs, niggly issues meant they missed the minimum distance at half-time by three laps and were disqualified. In the fourth hour, the Wollek/Haywood car started to misfire badly. Losing a half-hour, it took 4 stops and 8 laps, in the pits replacing the fuel-injection pump and filter to solve the problem. This put the Bell/Hobbs Mirage into the lead (despite not having a first gear). Now joined by Schuppan they held the lead for a further three hours, until just before nightfall, until the perennial vibration issues of the Cosworth DFV caused exhaust problems, costing a half-hour in the pits. With the demise and delay of the Group 6 cars, this left the lead to be contested between the 935s of the Gelo team and the Ludwig/Whittingtons Kremer K3. The other Kremer car, of Plankenhorn, "Winter" and Gurdjian was running fourth. But at the 8pm pit-stops, spilt fuel ignited and exploded with such force that it blew the engine cover off the car. Only the bravery of a fire marshal prevented greater damage. Once repaired they were able to rejoin the race. Night All through the night, the two Cologne teams battled for the lead, while the IMSA-leading 935 of Dick Barbour was further back in fourth. The worst accident of the race happened soon after 10pm, when Marc Sourd in the ROC Chevron crashed at the new Tertre Rouge corner. Although the driver was uninjured, a flag marshal was taken to hospital in a serious condition. Late on Saturday night, Schuppan had a narrow escape in the remaining Mirage. It was suffering an over-charging alternator that suddenly shorted out the headlights. This happened as he was coming through the quick Porsche Curves. Clipping the barriers on both sides of the road he was lucky the damage to the back end was light, but 50 minutes was lost repairing it. The electrical issue remained a potential problem again throughout the night, although the drivers pressed on hard. The two 936s were the fastest cars on the track and quickly moving back up through the field. At midnight, after ten hours, the Gelo Porsches of Schurti and Fitzpatrick sandwiched the Kremer 935. Wollek was fourth ahead of a pack of 935s: the IMSA cars of Barbour and Interscope, then the other Kremer, Haldi and Sekurit cars. The leading Pozzi Ferrari (of Ballot-Léna/Gregg/Leclère) rounded out the top-10. Herbie Müller's 934 had run like clockwork and was sitting in 13th. The Mamers/Raulet WM led GTP, running 16th while the Mogil Chevron was fighting the Lambretta Lola for the lead of the 2-litre Group 6. Then soon after midnight the clear weather of Saturday gave way to drizzle, then torrential rain that lasted all night dramatically slowing the race pace. By half-time Wollek and Haywood were back up to third while Ickx/Redman were seventh. Jacky Ickx came to a stop on the circuit when his car broke its drivebelt. In the darkness he installed the spare belt incorrectly. A mechanic sent out with another one was spotted by officials throwing it across the track and they were disqualified for receiving outside assistance. The Gelo Porsches stopped soon after 4am, within minutes of each other when they were running second and fourth. Firstly Fitzpatrick suffered a spectacular turbo fire in the engine that lit up the pits. The damage was repairable until an over-exuberant fire marshal smothered the engine with foam. Then less than a quarter hour later, Schurti was in the pits with an engine failure. Morning At 6am, as the soggy dawn tried to break through, the Kremer Porsche had got through the night with a sizeable lead over the Barbour car. The Porsche 936 was third ahead of three other 935s – of the Kremer, Haldi and Sekurit teams. Seventh was the BMW from the French ASA-Cachia Porsche. Ninth, having a very reliable run was the Lubrifilm Porsche 934 with a big lead in Group 4. The two Pozzi Ferraris were split by the stationery Ickx/Redman 936, then came the Belgian Ferrari and the recovering Rondeau of Ragnotti/Darniche in 14th. By 7am, the Wollek/Haywood car got back up to second but was then stopped by engine problems. Although it got going again, its race was done and it would retire two hours later after many more pitstops. This left the Kremer Porsche with a clear 13-lap lead over the Dick Barbour car. At 7.50am, the Leclère Ferrari (running 3rd in class behind its Pozzi teammate in 10th) collided with one of the ROC Chevrons braking for Mulsanne corner. The 2-litre was turfed over the barrier and the Ferrari was also too damaged to continue though neither driver was injured. Ninety minutes later, the other Pozzi car, running sixth overall, ruined its radiators and gearbox running over debris and going off-road to avoid a spinning car. After losing a cylinder in the third hour, the BMW had steadily made up places as others fell around them. After getting through the worst of the rain they were in seventh until halted for over an hour to repair the clutch, dropping them back to fourteenth. What could have been an easy cruise to the finish for the Kremer team was abruptly curtailed at 10.40am when Don Whittington came to a stop on the Hunaudières straight. The toothed fuel-pump drivebelt had come off. He carried a spare on-board but could not fit it. Surprising the pit-crew, he managed to fashion a repair with the spare alternator belt instead and crawl back to the pits. But that had all taken 80 minutes, then another 15 for the repairs. With the lead down to just four laps and a damaged car, they got back on the track soon after noon. Finish and post-race An improbable Hollywood ending for Newman was on the cards until the team was foiled by an intransigent wheel-nut locking tight, forcing it to be sawn off and a complete hub replacement, taking 23 minutes (6 laps). Stommelen pushed hard but then with just 20 minutes to go, he slowed dramatically with a bad misfire. Finally defeated by a holed piston, he crept round for two more painful laps until pulling up just before the finish line. Being sure to keep his engine running to avoid disqualification, he waited for the Kremer car to come past and take the flag before inching over the line to take second. The second K3, having driven back up the field to eighth after its engine fire was unlucky to have a driveshaft fail in the last hours that dropped them down to finish 13th. However, the third team car, of Ferrier/Servanin/Trisconi kept up its reliable run to finish third, capping an excellent weekend for the Kremer team. Fourth, after its own metronomic run was the Group 4 Porsche of Herbie Müller and the Swiss Lubrifilm team. Finishing just a lap off the podium it won its class by an enormous 31 laps. The remaining Mirage had been struggling with water getting into the electrics throughout the latter half of the race. With less than an hour to go, at its last pitstop, the car refused to restart. For forty minutes the crew tried to get it going, as regulations stated every car had to only be started by onboard means. Horsman had (illegally) rigged up a slave battery and tried to disguise restarting the car but when Bell had the car stall on him going up the pitlane, they were out. The Ragnotti/Darniche Rondeau finished fifth, winning the Group 6 class 13 laps ahead of team-mates Pescarolo/Beltoise who finished tenth. Both cars had been hampered throughout the latter half of the race with water getting into the electrics. Despite its trials and tribulations, the new BMW carried on to finish sixth. Winning the GTP category was the WM of Raulet/Mamers/Saulnier in 14th, just the second time one of their cars had finished. Once again the 2-litre Sports class was decimated by unreliability. The class winner, finishing 17th, was the Mogil Chevron-Cosworth of Charnell/Smith/Jones. They had endured wet electrics and a number of flat batteries. Four laps behind them was the Dorset Racing Lola of Birchenhough/Jenvey/Joscelyne/Mason. After initially losing an hour with a broken rocker arm it had run reliably. Third in the class (12 laps further back) was the surviving Lambretta Lola, that had been the early class-leader. It was a triumph for the Whittington brothers in only their second year of professional racing. But as "Motor" magazine put on their headline, it was "the day the winner came second": the spectators' favourite, Paul Newman, had almost pulled it off and got the biggest ovation when he took the podium with his team-mates. The decade has started with one movie star making a film about the race and ended with another almost winning it. With the 935-K3, this was the first Le Mans won by a rear-engined car. This record capped a great race for Porsche – finishing 1-2-3-4, as Jaguar had done in 1957, and winning all four of the classes they had been represented in. The torrential rain in the second half of the race made it the slowest Le Mans since 1958; the total distance was down fully 17% on the previous year. A month later, the next event of the World Championship was at Watkins Glen. After the lead changed hands 12 times over the 6 hours, it ended with the same result for the same drivers, with the Ludwig and the Whittington brothers again beating home the Barbour/Stommelen/Newman car. Overall, Klaus Ludwig had a very successful season with the Kremer Porsche, winning 11 of the 12 races it was entered in. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text. Did Not Finish Did Not Start Class Winners Note: although all classes, by definition, set speed records for the revised circuit, none exceeded the previous distance records. Index of Fuel Consumption Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest Lap in practice –B. Wollek, #14 Porsche 936-79– 3:30.1secs; Fastest Lap –J.-Ickx, #12 Porsche 936-79 – 3:36.1secs; Winning Distance – Winner's Average Speed – Attendance – 150,000 Citations References Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Armstrong, Doug – editor (1979) Automobile Year #27 1979/80 Edita SA Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1979 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 25 Aug 2021 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 25 Aug 2021 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 25 Aug 2021 Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 25 Aug 2021 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 25 Aug 2021 Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 25 Aug 2021 YouTube – Colour footage (poor quality) of the race, in French (25mins). Retrieved 16 Sep 2021 YouTube – the winning Kremer K3 car described by Bruce Meyer (3mins). Retrieved 16 Sep 2021 YouTube – News article about Paul Newman at Le Mans, in French (3mins). Retrieved 16 Sep 2021 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1979 in French motorsport
4577290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky%20Balboa	Rocky Balboa	Robert "Rocky" Balboa (also known by his ring name the Italian Stallion) is a fictional character and the titular protagonist of the Rocky film series. The character was created by Sylvester Stallone, who has also portrayed him in eight of the nine films in the franchise. He is depicted as a working class or poor Italian-American from the slums of Philadelphia who started out as a club fighter and "enforcer" for a local Philly Mafia loan shark. He is portrayed as overcoming the obstacles that had occurred in his life and in his career as a professional boxer. While the story of his first film is loosely inspired by Chuck Wepner, a boxer who fought Muhammad Ali and lost on a TKO in the 15th round, the inspiration for the name, iconography and fighting style came from boxing legend Rocco Francis "Rocky Marciano" Marchegiano, though his surname coincidentally also resembles that of Middleweight Boxing Champion Thomas Rocco "Rocky Graziano" Barbella. The character is widely considered to be Stallone's most iconic role and is often considered the role that started his film career. He received critical acclaim for his performance in the first movie, earning Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations. When Stallone reprised his role once again in 2015 for Creed, his performance received universal acclaim and he received his first Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor, along with his third Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor, the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor and several other accolades. Character biography Robert "Rocky" Balboa was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on July 6, 1945. He was the only child in a Roman Catholic Italian-American or Italian immigrant family. When Rocky is spoken to in the Italian language by his Italian priest, Father Carmine, it is apparent that Rocky understands Italian very well or fluently, including in a scene in which he translates Italian into English for Tommy Gunn. However, despite Rocky's obvious understanding of the Italian language, it is unclear and undetermined how well he actually speaks the Italian language, as his responses to Father Carmine are always in English. During the scene in Rocky in which Rocky takes Adrianna "Adrian" Pennino skating on Thanksgiving, he tells her, "Yeah – My old man, who was never the sharpest, told me I weren't born with much brain, so I better use my body." This encouraged him to take up boxing. He trained very hard so he could grow up to be like his idol Rocky Marciano. Unable to live on the low pay of club fights, and being unable to find work anywhere else, Rocky got a job as a collector for Tony Gazzo, the local loan shark, to make ends meet. By the end of 1975, Rocky had fought in 64 fights, winning 44 (38 KO'S) and losing 20. Rocky was proud that he never had his nose broken in any of his amateur fighting career. His nickname is the Italian Stallion, from his Italian-American heritage. Rocky (1976) The first film begins on November 25, 1975, in the slums of the Kensington section of Philadelphia. Rocky Balboa is fighting Spider Rico in a local boxing ring called the Cambria Fight Club (nicknamed "The Bucket of Blood") inside a chapel. In the second round, Rico hits Balboa with a headbutt, leaving a gash on his forehead. Rocky then delivers a vicious barrage of punches, knocking Rico out. The next day, Rocky stops by the J&M Tropical Fish pet shop, where he meets Adrian Pennino. Adrian is very shy and scared of Rocky's tough appearance, even though Rocky is kind to her and shows her respect. Afterward, Rocky goes to collect a loan for his loan shark boss, Tony Gazzo. Even though the client, Bob, does not have all the money, Rocky does not break his thumbs, despite Gazzo ordering him to do so. Later, Rocky stops by the local boxing gym and finds out that his locker has been replaced by another local contender. Unknown to him, the gym's owner and grizzled former boxer, Mickey Goldmill, does not dislike him, but considers Rocky's potential to be better than his effort. When Rocky leaves for home that night, he sees a young girl named Marie hanging around a bad crowd and walks her home. On the way, Rocky lectures her about staying away from the wrong people. However, once they get to her house, Marie assumes Rocky is trying to flirt with her, and dismisses him. Rocky walks home, frustrated how nothing is going right in his life. Rocky gets his dream come true when the undisputed World Heavyweight Champion, Apollo Creed, decides that he wants to give an unknown fighter a chance to fight for the title after his intended challenger, Mac Lee Green, broke his hand while training. Creed was told that no other contender was available for a fight on New Years Day. Going against his trainer's warnings of Balboa being a southpaw (left-handed boxer), Creed chooses Rocky because he likes Balboa's nickname, 'The Italian Stallion'. After getting picked by Creed, Rocky reunites with his estranged trainer, who convinces Rocky that he can help prepare him for the match. Mickey reveals that his career never got anywhere because he did not have a manager and he does not want the same thing to happen to Rocky. At the same time, Rocky begins dating Adrian. Rocky helps Adrian to become more self-confident and stand up for herself. Rocky confides in Adrian before the fight that, although he figures that he may not win, he wants to at least "go the distance." On January 1, 1976, at the Philadelphia Spectrum, Rocky has his match with Creed, who did not take the fight seriously during training. In the first round, Rocky knocks Creed down, the first time he had ever been knocked down in his career and Creed responds by breaking Rocky's nose, the first time in his career. Creed soon realizes that, although Rocky does not have his level of skills, he has crippling, sledgehammer-like power and is determined to keep fighting. The match becomes a long and grueling battle for both competitors. Up into the 14th round, Rocky is nearly knocked out but manages to get back up and delivers some hard body shots, breaking Creed's ribs just before the bell. The 15th round comes to naught and Rocky manages to pummel Creed until the bell rings once more. It is the first time an opponent had lasted the full 15 rounds against him and as a result, it ends up with a split decision, Creed wins the fight and holds on to his title. Both combatants, battered beyond belief, agree that there would be no rematch. Rocky clearly doesn't mind about the outcome, as he only wanted to go the distance with Creed. After the match, Adrian climbs into the ring and embraces Rocky saying, "I love you!" Rocky II (1979) After the match, Creed changes his mind and demands a rematch under the stress of being humiliated by the press for failing to beat Rocky convincingly, as well as his own knowledge that he didn't give his best in the match. Creed demands a rematch with Rocky, stating that he would fight him 'anywhere, anyplace, anytime' to prove to the world that Rocky's feat was merely a fluke. Rocky initially declines and retires from boxing, having surgery for retinal detachment, a condition that could lead to permanent blindness. He marries Adrian [who in the movie goes into a coma while giving birth to a boy] who convinces Rocky to live outside boxing. However, Rocky, a grade-school drop-out, soon realizes that he has no white-collar skills beyond the eighth grade and is, in fact, barely literate. [He does, however, improve his reading skills by reading books aloud to Adrian during her coma.] The money he made in his match with Creed is easily and quickly frittered away, so Adrian re-claims her part-time job at the J&M Tropical Fish pet shop. At first, Rocky seems to be unaffected by Creed's smear campaign, but his inexperience with money causes him to run into financial troubles. Rocky struggles to find employment with decent pay, when he is fired from a commercial studio, turned down for an office job and even laid off at the Shamrock meat packing facility. Despite Adrian's objections, and after Creed insults Rocky on national television and the newspaper, he agrees to the rematch. Without Adrian's support, however, Rocky becomes greatly discouraged and cannot concentrate on his training whatsoever, leaving Mick frustrated and worried. The now-pregnant Adrian goes into preterm labor on the job due to stress and slips into a coma after giving birth to her first child, Robert Jr. When Adrian is out of the coma, she promises her full support to Rocky. Together, Mickey and Rocky train hard, focusing on Rocky's speed and improving his right-handed punching (Rocky being a southpaw). At the same time, Creed is also focused on his training, taking this match much more seriously than the previous time. The rematch is set for Thanksgiving. Creed dominates the fight but is fixated on knocking Rocky out, ignoring the advice of his trainer. The match goes on for the full 15 rounds again, with both Rocky and Creed falling to the canvas after Rocky lands a succession of left hands. As referee Lou Fillipo exercises his 10-count to the limit, both Creed and Rocky struggle to get back up and Creed falls back down in exhaustion. Rocky is able to get back up from sheer determination, beating the 10-count and winning the rematch by knockout, thus becoming heavyweight champion of the world. Rocky III (1982) Over the next three years, Rocky has successfully defended his title in ten consecutive matches against various contenders, amassing a wealthy fortune and worldwide fame in the process. In addition, Rocky also has an exhibition match against the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion, "Thunderlips" (Hulk Hogan), with the match ending in a draw. However, in 1981, Rocky is challenged by a young power-hungry fighter named James "Clubber" Lang (Mr. T), who has risen to the top of the rankings. Rocky begins having some issues with his trainer, Mickey Goldmill, due to his revelation of having faced "hand-picked" challengers that were "good fighters, but not 'killers'" which Lang seemingly is. Mickey insists that he would step down as Rocky's manager if he chooses to fight Lang, but Rocky convinces him to train him for one last match. However, just like Creed in the first film, Rocky does not put his heart into the training properly, and this reinforces Mickey's belief that Rocky has become too comfortable (or "civilized") as champion. Before the match, pandemonium erupts backstage, with Lang shoving Mickey out of the way during a trash-talk exchange of words with Rocky, causing Mickey to suffer from cardiac arrest. Distraught over Lang's cold indifference, Rocky requests to call the match off, but Mickey urges him on. A distracted Rocky attempts to knock Lang out early with a barrage of huge blows, but his lack of proper conditioning quickly wears him out. Lang, who has trained with ruthless vigor, recovers and easily knocks out Rocky in the second round, causing Rocky to lose his title. After the match, Rocky visits Mickey, who then dies of a heart attack, devastating Rocky. After the funeral, a depressed Rocky wanders the streets of Philadelphia until seeing the statue at the steps. In a fit of rage, Rocky throws his motorcycle helmet at the statue and takes off until he visits Mickey's now-abandoned gym. In the gym, Rocky meets Apollo Creed, who explains to Rocky, that when they fought, he won because he was competitive. He has the 'fire' Creed no longer has and the former champion convinces Rocky that he needs to get his fire ("the eye of the tiger") back. Along with his old trainer, Tony "Duke" Evers, Creed offers to train Rocky for a rematch against Lang, taking Rocky to Los Angeles. While training on the beach, Adrian and Rocky furiously debate, while Creed trains Rocky to help get him "back to basics." After a while, Rocky manages to put his doubts behind him and retain his spirit. Fighting with a style very reminiscent of Creed's own boxing technique mixed with his own style, Rocky wins the rematch against Lang by K.O., dodging and absorbing Lang's best blows and still standing, regaining his world heavyweight title. After the match, Rocky and Creed meet again in Mickey's Gym, with Creed taking his "payment" for his training services: one last rematch, just the two of them, no spectators. Rocky IV (1985) Apollo Creed agrees to have an exhibition match against Soviet World Amateur Champion and Olympic gold medalist-turned-professional fighter Ivan Drago (Dolph Lundgren) in Las Vegas, with Rocky Balboa and Tony "Duke" Evers in his corner. Creed, past his prime but in good shape, again not taking his opponent seriously, takes a serious beating by Drago in the first round, despite Rocky's orders to stop the fight. In the second round, Creed continues to be brutally beaten by Drago, falling limp in the ring and dying. Feeling responsible for Creed's death and riddled with guilt by Drago's cold indifference, Rocky decides to take on Drago himself, but to do so, he has to surrender his championship. Rocky travels to the cold mountains of Russia and undergoes rigorous training, even after being berated by Adrian, who said that Rocky couldn't win against Drago. His match against Drago takes place on Christmas Day 1985 in Moscow. With Evers assuming the role as his new trainer, Rocky trains hard using old-school methods within the mountainous terrain of Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, while Drago trains with state-of-the-art equipment and steroid enhancement. During the match, Drago gains the upper hand in the early moments, but in the second round, Rocky strikes back against Drago with a haymaker to the eye, cutting him. The match goes on in a bloody back-and-forth battle, with the Soviet crowd, who originally roots for Drago, beginning to cheer for Rocky, while Drago's handler becomes increasingly upset over his inability to finish Rocky. In the end, Rocky's superior stamina and determination to win perseveres and defeats the heavily favored Russian in the fifteenth round. After the match, Rocky gives a passionate 'thank you' speech to the crowd while receiving a standing ovation both from the crowd and the politicians in attendance. Rocky V (1990) The year is 1985, Shortly after the bout with Ivan Drago, Rocky realizes while he is showering that he may have sustained some type of injury during the fight. His hands tremble relentlessly, and he tells Adrian that he is tired and wants to go home, but accidentally addresses her as Mickey. Upon returning to the United States (in a Soviet airplane), his press conference is interrupted by promoter George Washington Duke and Union Cane (Michael Williams). They challenge him to a title fight called "Lettin' it Go in Tokyo." Rocky hints about retirement and leaves without accepting the challenge. Once returning home, Rocky goes to say goodnight to his son, Robert Jr., but when Rocky goes downstairs, he overhears Adrian and Paulie arguing, which turns out to be a dramatic life-changing situation. Paulie unknowingly had Rocky sign a power of attorney over to Rocky's investment accountant, who had embezzled and squandered all of his money on real estate deals gone sour. In addition, the accountant had failed to pay Rocky's taxes over the past six years and his mansion had been mortgaged by $400,000. Unwilling to go bankrupt, Rocky decides to participate in a few more fights, including the one against Union Cane, but Adrian demands that Rocky should see a doctor first. Rocky's doctor, Presley Jensen, reveals that Rocky is suffering from a condition called Cavum septi pellucidi, which is brain damage caused by extremely heavy blows to the head. The effects are seemingly permanent and irreversible. With such a condition, it would make it impossible for Rocky to continue boxing in any state. At Adrian's urging, as well as with the doctor's support, Rocky gravely acknowledges that it is time to retire and he reluctantly does so. His only remaining asset is the now-closed Mickey's Gym, which had been willed by Mickey to Robert, making it virtually untouchable by the IRS. After selling their mansion and auctioning some of their belongings, Rocky and the family now return to the old neighborhood, moving back into Adrian and Paulie's old house in South Philadelphia. Rocky reopens Mickey's Gym as a means of income, while Adrian returns to work at the J&M Tropical Fish pet shop, where she was employed during the time she first met Rocky. Rocky asks Adrian, "Did we ever leave this place?". One day, Rocky meets a young ruffian boxer from Oklahoma named Tommy Gunn (Tommy Morrison) and begins training him. Tommy slowly becomes an excellent fighter, but suffers from constantly being put in Rocky's shadow; he is nicknamed "Rocky's Robot" by the media. As Rocky is training Tommy, he becomes so distracted that he ends up neglecting Robert. On Christmas Eve, Tommy visits the Balboa residence and tells Rocky he wants to team up with Duke, but Rocky explains that dealing with Duke would be a dirty business. Tommy regrets being Rocky's protégé, drives off in a huff, and leaves him for good. Adrian attempts to comfort Rocky, but Rocky's frustration boils over. After they reconcile, Rocky meets Robert and they finally pick up the pieces. Rocky is still anxious as he watches the match with Tommy facing off against Union Cane on television with Paulie. As the match starts out small, Rocky begins to emote through the first couple of seconds of the fight as Cane becomes effective in hurting Tommy. As Tommy begins to make his adjustments as Rocky taught him, Rocky then mirrors his punches on a punching bag, which leaves his family concerned. Tommy wins the world heavyweight title from Union Cane by knockout. Visibly proud of Tommy, Rocky is surprised that Tommy credited his success to Duke instead of Rocky. However, Tommy is booed and ridiculed in the press conference, since he had never gone up against a "real contender" he is not regarded as a real champion or heir to the belt. This motivates Tommy, with prodding from Duke, to publicly challenge Rocky to a fight. While Rocky is at a local bar, Tommy steps in and insults Rocky. Paulie insults Tommy back and is sucker-punched by Tommy. Rocky confronts Tommy and challenges him by saying "you knocked him down, why don't you try knocking me down?". When Duke intervenes and says that Tommy "only fights in the ring", Rocky explains to him that his "ring's outside". As both fighters head to the alley, Duke tries to persuade Tommy to not fight a street fighter, but Tommy squares upon him, saying that he does not own him and wants his respect. Rocky then quickly starts to beat Tommy without giving him a chance, knocking him down. Rocky tells Tommy that, even though he admires him, he actually ruined their relationship. With Rocky's back turned, Tommy sucker punches him and starts attacking some of the bystanders on the side. Tommy gains the upper hand and tackles Rocky through a steel door into the street. The two engage in a street fight, which quickly garners the attention of the media, while also catching Robert and Adrian's attention as well. As the neighborhood gathers round to witness the fight, Tommy's punches begin to slow Rocky in his tracks due to his condition and he is knocked down, disoriented with Paulie at his side. Tommy is then restrained from finishing Rocky off. Glimpses of Ivan Drago, his loss to Clubber Lang during his first fight with him and Mickey's burial start to cloud his mind until he hears Mickey's voice, telling him that he is the champion and to get up. As Tommy walks away, convinced that he finally got what he wanted, Rocky rises up and calls him out for one more round and Tommy happily obliges. An adamant Duke reminds Tommy that if he loses this, he will terminate their association. In a shocking turn of events, Rocky uses his brawling abilities to punish and humiliate Tommy. With his back against a gate, Rocky dodges several hooks from Tommy and manages to push him towards the gate, shoving him with brute force and a powerful left hook knocking Tommy down again. Duke threatens to sue Rocky if he touches him and becomes infuriated at Tommy. Tommy gets up and tackles Rocky to the ground and later lifts him up. Just as Robert joins the crowd, Rocky breaks free from Tommy's grip and performs a reversal that sends Tommy spiraling into a pile of trash cans. Both men now exchange punches with Rocky being the aggressor, making Tommy miss his shots. Rocky is then caught by a series of punches by Tommy, just as Adrian joins the crowd, but manages to parry Tommy and begins to walk him down with his devastating shots. Seeing the opportunity, Rocky goes to Tommy's body, then lands perfect headshots and finishes with a right uppercut sending Tommy to the grill of a bus, defeating his former protégé. As Adrian and Robert tend to him, Rocky tells Adrian that she was right. The neighborhood's cheer is then silenced by Duke as he tries to sarcastically commend Rocky. He confronts Duke, who still continues to threaten him with a lawsuit. Since Rocky and his family have been declared bankrupt, Rocky clenches his fist and uppercuts Duke to the gut which lifts him off the ground, sending him to the hood of his own limousine, telling him "Sue me for what?". Rocky, Adrian, Robert, and Paulie walk away in good spirits as the neighborhood continues to cheer him on. Some time later, Rocky and his son run up the Philadelphia Museum of Art, where Rocky gives him a valuable possession of Mickey Goldmill's that had been passed on to him by Rocky Marciano. The two make up for the tensions of the past few years and head into the museum together. Rocky Balboa (2006) In 2006, 20 years after the events of Rocky V, Rocky, now in his early sixties, has been going through changing times in his life. He runs a small but rather successful restaurant called 'Adrian's', named after his wife who died of ovarian cancer four years prior. Rocky is no longer depressed and broke, and is doing far better than he was in years prior. Rocky visits Adrian's graveside regularly and each year, on the anniversary of her death, takes a tour of the old places, where their relationship began and blossomed: the now-closed J&M Tropical Fish pet shop where Adrian worked, the former site of the ice skating rink where they had their first date and Rocky's old apartment, where they fell in love. Rocky's son, Robert Jr., is now working as a struggling mid-level corporate employee and has been farther apart from his family over the years, but reluctantly joins Rocky to commemorate the anniversaries of his mother's death. An episode of ESPN's program, Then and Now, airs featuring a computer-simulated fight between Rocky (in his prime) and the current champion, Mason "The Line" Dixon (Antonio Tarver). The simulation result sees Rocky winning by knockout in the thirteenth round, which stirs up a discussion about the result if such a fight ever occurred. Inspired by the simulation and feeling he still has some issues to deal with ("stuff in the basement"), Rocky decides to return to the ring and applies to renew his boxing license. Though Rocky passes the required physical with flying colors, the licensing committee denies his application, citing his advanced age and their moral duty to protect him from himself. Rocky responds to this with an impassioned speech of his own and the committee change their minds to renew his license. The brain damage Rocky is diagnosed within Rocky V is not addressed in this film, but in interviews, Stallone has said that the storyline explanation would have been that Rocky's brain damage was within the normal range for boxers. When tested for brain damage in Rocky V, Rocky was suffering the effects of a severe concussion as a result of the Drago fight, but he never sought a second or more informed opinion because he intended to retire anyway. Rocky's intentions were originally just to compete in small, local fights, but with the publicity of Rocky's return right on the heels of the embarrassing computer simulation, Mason Dixon's promoters convince Rocky to challenge the champ in an exhibition match at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. Originally against fighting an aged Rocky, Dixon recognizes the opportunity to fight a legend and hopes to end all prognosticating about who would win as well as contentions that he has never had a truly great opponent or memorable match. In the press, commentators dismiss Rocky's chances and the merits of the fight, assuming that it will be one-sided due to Rocky's age, despite their original excitement with Rocky's return to the ring, and their doubts regarding Dixon's ability. Before the fight, the boxing record that was presented for each boxer was, for Rocky: 57 wins (54 by KO), 23 losses, and 1 draw; for Dixon: 33 wins (30 by KO). As news of the bout spreads, Robert begins to feel more pressure from being Rocky's son and makes an effort to discourage Rocky from fighting, blaming his own personal failings on his father's celebrity shadow, but Rocky rebukes him with some profound advice: to succeed in life, "it ain't about how hard you hit; it's about how hard you can get hit, and keep moving forward" and that blaming others won't help him. The day after this debate, father and son meet over Adrian's grave and reconcile, which is when Robert announces that he has resigned from his job to be at ringside. Rocky also reunites with his old trainer, Duke, and both men quickly realize that age and arthritis have sapped Rocky of any speed he once possessed. They decide to focus on one major remaining weapon: power. When the match begins, it appears to be as lopsided as everyone predicted, with Dixon's speed allowing him to dominate Rocky at will, knocking him down twice early on. However, the champion soon realizes that Rocky will not back down and that the elderly Rocky "has bricks in his gloves". The tide turns when Dixon injures his hand while punching Rocky. This evens the playing field and allows Rocky to mount an offense, knocking Dixon down for the first time in the latter's career. During the subsequent rounds, Dixon's injury numbs up, which enables him to throw much harder punches and pose a threat to Rocky. In the final round, it starts out slow for both combatants. After a brief exchange of punches, Dixon catches Rocky with a strong blow, knocking down Rocky for the third time. As Rocky takes the knee, he looks to Robert in the corner and has flashbacks of his time with Adrian, remembering what she said to him about never giving up. As he slowly gets up, the crowd, along with Marie, starts to chant his name and he rises to Dixon's surprise. As the final thirty seconds unfold, Dixon manages to catch Rocky with quick punches; however, an emotional Rocky retaliates with devastating punches of his own. The two exchange punches, but Rocky gets the final blow before the bell rings. In the end, the two fighters go the distance and show their appreciation for each other. Before the winner is announced, Rocky and his entourage make their way out of the ring in celebration. As Dixon is announced the winner by split decision ), Rocky thanks each and every one of his group and, with Robert and Paulie by his side, they turn Rocky around and raise his arms as the audience gives him a heartfelt standing ovation. Dixon is finally recognized as being a warrior for fighting through every round and Rocky proves to the world that he is no joke, mirroring the ending of the first film. After the fight, Rocky visits Adrian's grave and puts flowers on top, telling her, "Yo, Adrian, we did it", which is a play on the second film's line, "Yo, Adrian, I did it!". Rocky is last seen walking away from the grave and waving goodbye one last time. Creed (2015) Since Rocky's very last fight, his brother-in-law Paulie has died. In addition, his statue has been re-installed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art at the very bottom of the steps. Nine years later, Rocky is visited at Adrian's by Donnie Creed (Michael B. Jordan) – Apollo's illegitimate son, who grew up serving time at a juvenile detention center in Los Angeles. After Donnie grew up, he worked as a securities firm at the Smith Boardley Financial Group, but eventually resigned to be a boxer and moved to Philadelphia. Donnie meets Rocky at Adrian's restaurant and requests him to train him, but Rocky is reluctant to come back to the sport of boxing after his brain damage and a one-off comeback. Days after his initial offer, Rocky recommends him to his friend, Pete Sporino (Ritchie Coster), who currently runs Mighty Mick's Gym. After deep thought, Rocky finally agrees to take Donnie as his new protégé. Wanting to train in the old-school style, Donnie moves in with Rocky, staying in Paulie's former room. Donnie notices an old picture of Rocky and his son, Robert (an actual picture of Sylvester Stallone and a young Sage Stallone), Rocky reveals that Robert had moved to Vancouver with his girlfriend, because of the difficulties he faced trying to be independent in Philadelphia, but does check on his father every now and then. Pete, who initially wanted Rocky to be a part of his son, Leo's (Gabriel Rosado) team, challenges Donnie to fight his son, in which Rocky shows reluctance again, but then both agree. Instead of training at Mighty Mick's Gym, Rocky takes Donnie to train at the Front Street Gym, where he surprises Donnie with a corner team and apparel. Before the fight, Pete pulls Rocky aside to address the rumors of Donnie being Apollo's son, which Rocky confirms, and tells him that he should not speak of it to anyone else. After Donnie's win, the media heavily publicized the story of Apollo's infidelity, which catches the eye of Tommy Holiday (Graham McTavish), who is looking for the final person to fight his trainee, light-heavyweight champion "Pretty" Ricky Conlan (Tony Bellew). While training, Rocky suddenly stalls, vomits, and collapses in the gym. After doing a string of test ordered by the doctors at the emergency room, Rocky is diagnosed with an early case of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, making him confront his own mortality. At first, Rocky is hesitant to the option of chemotherapy, as he remembers the pain Adrian experienced as she underwent treatment for ovarian cancer. After a bitter argument with the former heavyweight champion, Donnie, greatly impacted by his coach's diagnosis, makes a pact with Rocky that they would fight their battles together, as Donnie prepares for his bout with Conlan and as Rocky undergoes treatment. As Donnie moves on in training, the effects of treatment begin to weaken Rocky, and because of this, Donnie acts as a caregiver to Rocky while helping him get up and go to the restroom, and uses the medical facility to his advantage; shadowboxing in the corridors and running up the stairs, passing doctors and nurses. With the match taking place in Liverpool, a calm Rocky teaches Donnie the hysterics that would ensue during the pre-fight press conference when Conlan tries to play mind games, and later helps in Donnie's girlfriend Bianca (Tessa Thompson) surprising Donnie in his hotel room. During the match, Rocky stands in Donnie's corner along with Bianca. Before the final round, Rocky grows concerned about the injuries that Donnie has sustained and tells him he's stopping the fight. However, Donnie wants to prove that he is "not a mistake", which emotionally impacts Rocky. He then tells Donnie that he wishes he had the chance to thank Apollo after Mickey died, but it doesn't match his appreciation of Donnie's tenacity that motivated him in his battle against his illness and tells him that he admires him. A newly motivated Adonis goes on to fights a competitive final round against Conlan, even knocking him down near the round's conclusion, but ultimately loses the match by split decision in a manner that mirrors Rocky's initial bout against Apollo. The film concludes with Donnie taking a frail, but rather improving, Rocky back to the steps of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, which Rocky says is his "most favorite place." Both look toward the Philadelphia skyline, remaining positive about their futures. Creed II (2018) Three years since his diagnosis, Rocky has recovered from his cancer and coached Donnie to the WBC World Heavyweight championship. Rocky gives Donnie advice in proposing to Bianca and uses his proposal with Adrian as an example. Rocky struggles with contacting Robert, with whom he has, once again, an estranged relationship. Later on, Rocky drops by Adrian's and finds Ivan Drago waiting for him there. Drago tells him how his loss to Rocky 33 years earlier shattered his reputation, evicted him from Russia into Ukraine, and led to his divorce from his wife, Ludmilla. Drago threatens him by saying his son, Viktor (Florian Munteanu), has trained all his life and will "break" Donnie, issuing a fight challenge to Donnie earlier that morning. Rocky, clearly shaken, politely tells Drago to leave. Wanting to avenge his father and forge his own legacy, Donnie decides to take up Viktor's challenge and goes to Rocky's place for his approval. Rocky refuses to support Donnie, noting that Viktor was raised in hate and has nothing to lose, and that makes him dangerous. Despite Donnie's pleas, Rocky declines to train him out of fear and guilt from Apollo's fateful match years prior. Rocky decides to watch Donnie and Viktor's match, where he watches Viktor pummel Donnie repeatedly. Viktor illegally hits Donnie while he is down, knocking him unconscious; Rocky turns off his television in horror at what he has witnessed. Rocky travels to Los Angeles to visit a hospitalized Donnie, who lashes out at him for abandoning him. With Donnie becoming detached from his family, Donnie's stepmother and Apollo's widow Mary Anne (Phylicia Rashad) contacts Rocky in helping him out of his slump. Donnie and Rocky make amends, and Rocky accompanies Donnie as Bianca gives birth to their daughter, Amara. When Amara is revealed to be deaf, Rocky advises him that they should not pity her condition, and instead treat her fully with their love. Rocky and Tony "Little Duke" Evers (Wood Harris) take Donnie to a decrepit location in the California desert to retrain, describing it as a place where fighters are "reborn". Donnie undergoes a rigorous and brutal training regimen with Rocky, focusing on fighting from the inside and training his body to repeatedly absorb the heavy impact he knows he will receive from Viktor in the ring. Rocky accompanies Donnie as they hold their rematch with Viktor in Moscow; Donnie withstands Viktor's blows and wins the match after Drago throws in the towel. Rocky doesn't join Donnie's celebration, saying that it's "his time," and watches in contentment from outside the ring. Rocky later travels to Vancouver where he reunites with Robert and meets his grandson Logan for the first time. Future On July 23, 2019, in an interview with Variety, Stallone said that a Rocky direct sequel and prequel are in development. Producer Irwin Winkler said "We're very high on it" and those negotiations are underway for Stallone to write and star in the feature. Stallone said the plot of the movie would be about Rocky befriending a young fighter who is an undocumented immigrant. "Rocky meets a young, angry person who got stuck in this country when he comes to see his sister. He takes him into his life, and unbelievable adventures begin, and they wind up south of the border. It's very, very timely." Stallone said. Stallone also said there are "ongoing discussions" about a Rocky prequel television series, which he hopes will land on a streaming service and the series will likely follow a young Rocky Balboa as professional boxing hopeful. Stallone said Winkler is hesitant on making the series saying that "There was some conflict there, yes. He felt in his mind that Rocky was primarily a feature film, and he did not see it as being translated for cable, so there was a big bone of contention." Personal life Balboa resides in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and married Adriana "Adrian" Pennino in 1976. They were married for 26 years. The two have a son, Robert Balboa Jr., who unlike his father goes by Robert. After Adrian's death in 2002, Rocky and his brother-in-law Paulie lived together for a short time, then Paulie moved in with an unnamed girlfriend. Now living completely alone again, Rocky cannot come to terms with present-day living and constantly thinks about the past. With the help of Paulie and reunited long-time acquaintance Marie, Rocky begins to move on with his life and in the process restores his relationship with his only child, Robert. Rocky's relationship with Marie is established as platonic in the film, but a hint of romantic interest is revealed with a kiss on the lips the night before the last fight of his life. Shortly after, Paulie passes away and Rocky's relationship with his son becomes strained due to Robert distancing himself from any contact with him, leaving him alone again. A few years later, he meets Adonis Creed, the illegitimate son of his old friend, Apollo Creed, who asks him to come train him. After initially declining to, Rocky agreed and the two would have a father-son relationship. Eventually, Rocky learns he's been diagnosed with cancer and turns down treatment, seeing it as a chance to be reunited with his loved ones, although Adonis convinces him to keep fighting and decides to take treatment, saving him. When Adonis's wife, Bianca, gave birth to a daughter, Rocky was named her godfather. For years, Rocky attempted to reestablish contact with his estranged son, Robert, but never went through with it. However, after helping Adonis conquer Viktor Drago, Rocky decides to visit his son in Vancouver where they finally begin to reconcile and meets his grandson, Logan, who bears a striking resemblance to Adrian. Character origin The name, iconography, and fighting style of Rocky Balboa was inspired by the legendary heavyweight champion Rocky Marciano from Brockton, Massachusetts and from the 5 times world champion Roberto 'Manos de Piedra (Hands of Stone)' Durán, from Panama, where the Balboa is the official currency. Balboa was also inspired by other fighting legends: Joe Frazier, for his Philadelphia origin, training methods and victory against Muhammad Ali (the inspiration for Apollo Creed), and Jake LaMotta, for his Italian-inner city roots, ability to absorb many blows and his rivalry with Sugar Ray Robinson, which heavily resembled Rocky and Apollo's. However, it was Chuck Wepner who inspired the movie and Balboa's underdog personality. Boxing style Rocky Balboa fights as a southpaw (left-handed). In the second film, against Apollo Creed, he comes out orthodox and Mickey intends for him to switch back to southpaw late in the last round, but Balboa refuses saying "no tricks, I ain't switching". Mickey tells him that Apollo is ready for him (if he continues using his right) and so towards the end of the round, he does indeed lead with his left. The real reason for this is Sylvester Stallone tore his pectoral muscles in training, but the idea was probably taken from the great southpaw boxer "Marvelous" Marvin Hagler who would sometimes come out orthodox to confuse opponents. Rocky was an all-or-nothing brawler coming into his first bout with Creed; however, under the training of Mickey, he began to develop his boxing skills which he eventually mastered. During his reign as world champion, he became a class hybrid fighter, possessing the qualities of an inside fighter, brawler, and swarmer. With the exception of his rematch against Clubber Lang (where he fights as an outside fighter), he often advances quickly upon his opponents, driving them into the ropes in order to attack the body. Balboa's best attribute is without question his near-superhuman ability to absorb a multitude of the hardest hits without falling — an attribute he often employs on purpose to wear down his opponents, sacrificing defensive strategy to land his own punches. Because of this rare talent, Balboa can afford to keep his hands in position to strike rather than up high to block. Because he takes more punches than he throws, it is easy to overlook his incredible punching power. Rocky also has an uncanny ability to sense weakness in his opponents, often capitalizing on every shift in momentum possible. He is acknowledged as having the most devastating body attack in the sport, with his body blows causing internal bleeding in Creed and breaking Drago's ribs. After going two rounds with Balboa, Ivan Drago told his trainer (in Russian), "He's not human, he's like a piece of iron." Mason Dixon once remarked about Balboa: "that guy's got bricks in his gloves." These qualities, in concert, helped land him a high percentage of KO victories over the course of his career. Honors Rocky Balboa was named the 7th greatest movie hero by the American Film Institute on their 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains list. Additionally, he was ranked 36 on Empire's compilation of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters. Premiere magazine ranked Rocky Balboa No. 64 on their list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time. The Rocky character is immortalised with a bronze statue erected near the Rocky Steps at the Philadelphia Museum of Art recalling the famous scene from the original Rocky movie. In 2007, a Rocky statue was erected in the Serbian village of Žitiste. In 2011, Sylvester Stallone was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame for his work on the Rocky Balboa character, having "entertained and inspired boxing fans from around the world". Additionally, Stallone was awarded the Boxing Writers Association of America award for "Lifetime Cinematic Achievement in Boxing." Inspired by people criticizing an actor being inducted in the Hall of Fame for playing a fictitious athlete, in 2014 the Fictitious Athlete Hall of Fame was launched with Rocky Balboa as its Inaugural Induction. A poll of former heavyweight champions and boxing writers ranked Balboa as the best boxer in the film series. Merchandising Hasbro intended to license Rocky and make him a member of the G.I. Joe toyline, as they had with wrestler Sgt. Slaughter and began negotiations with Stallone's representation. Marvel Comics' G.I. Joe: Order of Battle profile book came out during the negotiations and included Rocky as a current Joe member, specializing in hand-to-hand combat training and an example of what it means to persevere under seemingly impossible odds. Balboa also appeared on the cover of the issue. In the meantime, Stallone's agents made a deal with Coleco to produce Rambo figures in order to compete with the G.I. Joe line. Hasbro, who was working on a toy prototype at the time, decided to end negotiations at that point. Marvel ran a retraction in the third issue of the limited-run series indicating that the character was not, and never had been, a part of G.I. Joe. The trade paperback edition of the series, published in July 1987, omitted the page featuring Balboa altogether. Between 2006 and 2009, Jakks Pacific released six series of figures, each focused on one of the movies in the film series. Additionally, two "Best Of" series were released, as well as several collector's box sets, boxing ring playsets, and limited edition exclusive figures. Notes References Fictional characters from Philadelphia Fictional characters from Pennsylvania Fictional characters from the 20th century Fictional professional boxers Fictional sports coaches Fictional characters with cancer Fictional male sportspeople Fictional martial arts trainers Martial artist characters in films Rocky characters Film characters introduced in 1976 Sylvester Stallone Fictional Italian American people
4577630	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Authority%20of%20New%20York%20and%20New%20Jersey%20Police%20Department	Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department	The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department, or Port Authority Police Department (PAPD), is a law enforcement agency in New York and New Jersey, the duties of which are to protect and to enforce state and city laws at all the facilities, owned or operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ), the bi-state agency running airports, seaports, and many bridges and tunnels within the Port of New York and New Jersey. Additionally, the PAPD is responsible for other PANYNJ properties including three bus terminals (the Port Authority Bus Terminal, the George Washington Bridge Bus Station and Journal Square Transportation Center), the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, and the PATH train system. The PAPD is the largest transit-related police force in the United States. History The Port Authority Police Department was created in June 1928 when 40 men were selected to police the Goethals Bridge and Outerbridge Crossing. These original officers were known as Bridgemen, nine of whom were later promoted to the rank of Bridgemaster, or Sergeant. The force grew in number with the opening of Port Authority facilities such as the Holland Tunnel in 1927, three Metropolitan Airports and a Marine Terminal in the 1940s, and the Port Authority Bus Terminal in the 1950s. The Port Authority also assumed control of the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad, rebranding it as the PATH. Airports The PAPD protects three major airports: Newark Liberty International, John F. Kennedy International, and LaGuardia, which handle over 80 million air passengers, over 1.1 million aircraft movements, and over 2.5 million tons of air cargo annually. Together, the three New York area airports create the largest airport system in the entire United States. Policing these aviation facilities involves a wide variety of duties. Police personnel cover screening points, respond to all aircraft incidents, and aid travelers from all parts of the world. Escorting and protecting visiting dignitaries is provided for on a daily basis. The PAPD also patrols the Port Authority-owned Teterboro Airport in New Jersey, which is much smaller than the other three airports and operates only general aviation aircraft. The PAPD is also responsible for fire fighting and crash emergency rescue at the four airports and for all other aircraft emergency incidents. Police personnel assigned to fire and rescue duty are trained in all phases of aircraft rescue and firefighting. They have a large number of aircraft rescue fire fighting vehicles, known as "crash trucks". Marine terminals Police operations at Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal, Howland Hook, Port Jersey, and the Red Hook, Brooklyn piers include traffic control and the prevention and investigation of cargo thefts. Structure The department's headquarters is located at the Port Authority Technical Center in Jersey City, New Jersey. The nerve center of the force is the Central Police Desk, which is located at Journal Square. It is staffed around-the-clock and is the hub of the communications network. There, personnel are assigned to needed areas, all radio transmissions are monitored, and computer terminals are integrated into the NY & NJ Intelligence and Crime Information Systems as well as the National Crime Information Center (NCIC) in Washington, D.C. Information received from these sources is supplied to officers in the field when needed. Approximately 200,000 passengers use the PATH system daily. The system's stations are monitored by video surveillance to aid police personnel. At the Holland and Lincoln Tunnels, the Bayonne, Goethals, and George Washington Bridges, and the Outerbridge Crossing, the duties of PAPD officers are patrol, traffic control, hazardous cargo inspections, truck weigh and emergency services, as well as enforcement for violations of motor vehicle laws. Police at these crossings have also instituted programs that maintain a constant campaign against drunk driving. The Port Authority operates the largest and busiest bus terminal in the nation, accommodating 57 million bus passengers and over 2.2 million bus movements in 2001. Police assignments demand a broad range of functions, everything from locating lost children to aiding everyday commuters. They are responsible for the general security of the facility utilizing a variety of patrol tactics. Police Officer/Social Worker teams patrol the bus terminal and identify youngsters who may be runaways, throwaways, or missing persons. They provide crisis intervention counseling, placement with social service agencies, and reunions with families when appropriate. The Port Authority also owns the World Trade Center site and Port Authority Trans-Hudson, and the PAPD is responsible for the general safety and security of those facilities. Criminal Investigations Bureau The Criminal Investigations Bureau consists of 77 detectives and supervisors that are specifically trained for crimes occurring at transportation facilities. During the past year, the Criminal Investigations Bureau has worked on computerized airline ticket fraud, and property and drug interdictions. They have seized over 10 million dollars of goods including of narcotics. Additionally, the Criminal Investigations Bureau has worked cooperatively with Local, State, and Federal agencies in the fight against crime. Some of these agencies include the New Jersey State Police, the New York City Police Department, United States Customs and Border Protection, and the federal Drug Enforcement Administration. Members of the Criminal Investigations Bureau also work as part of the FBI Joint Terrorism Task Force to prevent terrorist activities in the region. Emergency Service Unit The Port Authority Police Emergency Service Unit was founded in 1983, over the objections of the Port Authority Police management at that time. Working with the non-police PATH railroad personnel and railroad management, who clearly recognized the need for a rapid response to PATH railroad emergencies and fires, a small group of Port Authority Police officers assigned to the PATH command asked for, and got, a stock Port Authority utility truck which was converted for police emergency use. Despite the continued objections of P.A. Police management, the PATH railroad management's goal of having an "Emergency Response Vehicle" operated by the police bore fruit. The initial team members were trained in underground rescue, extrication of passengers from PATH train cars and first aid, with emphasis on the procedure of lifting railroad cars from trapped persons by use of Vetter air bags. Prior to the PATH Emergency Unit, emergencies which occurred on the PATH train were handled by the local police within the jurisdictions around the PATH train (Jersey City, New York, Newark, etc.). Emergency Service Unit members, who have received specialized training to respond to emergency and rescue operations that arise at Port Authority facilities or in other jurisdictions when their expertise is requested are currently assigned to various facilities throughout the Port Authority. Emergency Service Unit members may receive training in the following areas; animal control, hazardous material response, heavy weapon use, bridge and water rescue and tactical operations. Noteworthy cases that the Emergency Services Unit has handled or assisted other jurisdictions in handling include: A 1983 ceiling collapse at the Journal Square Transportation Center Water rescues from the PATH system in 1992 The 1993 World Trade Center bombing The rescue of an emotionally disturbed person from a water tower in West New York, New Jersey. An NJ Transit train accident in the Hackensack Meadowlands in 1996 A 1999 General Aviation crash in the City of Newark The rescue of homeowners in Bound Brook, N.J., trapped by rising floodwaters caused by Hurricane Floyd in 1999. The collapse of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 Canine Units The Port Authority Police Department formed its first canine unit with three patrol dogs; Prince, Bear, and Rex, and three police officer handlers in September 1985. There were two assigned to PATH and one assigned to the Port Authority Bus Terminal. They were trained by the NYC Transit Police canine unit located in Brooklyn N.Y. They began patrol in December 1985. The Port Authority Police Department formed its Canine (police dog) Explosive Detection Unit in the fall of 1996 in response to the crash of TWA Flight 800 off the coast of Long Island that summer. The department subsequently expanded the unit to include a K-9 Narcotics Detection Unit. The Canine unit, which consists of 45 police officers, three sergeants, one inspector, and 48 dogs, patrols all Port Authority facilities on a 24-hour basis. Port Authority Police officers who are members of the K-9 unit must pass a challenging and demanding physical, a physical agility course, participate in a group interview and complete a minimum of 400 hours of K-9 training. The most popular dog in the unit is the German Shepherd. The unit also has Labradors, a Belgian Shepherd and a Golden Retriever. The dogs are trained to detect either explosives or narcotics, but not both. The unit currently has 40 dogs trained to detect explosives, including 22 certified by the federal Transportation Security Administration. There are eight dogs trained in narcotics detection. The canine explosive detection teams patrol and search aircraft, airline and cargo buildings, bus terminals, subway stations, vehicles, and unattended luggage and packages. The K-9 narcotic detection teams patrol and perform a variety of searches at Port Authority facilities and are also used by many other government agencies. This unit experienced what might be the first loss ever of an American police dog due to international terrorism when Sirius, PAPD Badge #17, died in the collapse of the World Trade Center's South Tower. Sirius' remains were recovered in 2002, and ceremoniously removed with full honors. Firefighting and Crash Emergency In June 1998, the Port Authority Police Department opened a new aircraft rescue, firefighting, and fuel spill trainer facility at John F. Kennedy International Airport. The facility, one of the largest of its kind in the United States, is used to train Port Authority Police officers in aircraft rescue and firefighting techniques. It allows officers to train for emergency situations in a controlled environment. The centerpiece of the training center is a pit that uses clean-burning propane to simulate a fire. It also features a -long aircraft mock-up with a broken wing section. Computer controls allow for the creation of firefighting scenarios that vary in size, difficulty and intensity. Each year, more than 600 Port Authority officers are cross-trained as aircraft rescue firefighters for the region's three major airports - John F. Kennedy International, Newark Liberty International, and LaGuardia airports. In 2014, the command and responsibility of the Aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) Unit at the major Port Authority airports was transferred from the Port Authority Police Department to Port Authority Aviation Department. This transfer was due to numerous and prolonged deficiencies and violations discovered by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The results of the FAA investigation cited numerous instances where Port Authority Police did not properly maintain training records that are mandated by the FAA. The FAA also discovered numerous instances where Port Authority Police permitted untrained officers to be placed in firefighter positions. Thousands of violations were found to be occurring for many years. A Federal consent order was levied against the Port Authority which mandated numerous changes including creating a full-time cadre of ARFF firefighters; removing command and control of the ARFF unit from the direction of the Port Authority Police Department; and the putting in place non-police ARFF commanding officers. While Port Authority Police officers still make up the rank and file of the ARFF Unit, command and control of the ARFF unit and emergencies is under the direction of a Port Authority Aviation Department fire chief as well as Port Authority Aviation deputy fire chiefs and fire captains assigned to each of the agency's four airports. The Police Academy Deputy Inspector is the commanding officer of the Rescue Training Center at JFK Airport. Aviation Unit After undertaking a study, the PAPD in July 2010 decided to disband its aviation unit, elimination of which would save an estimated $4 million annually in labor, fuel and maintenance costs. In addition, selling the fleet's two Sikorsky S-76 helicopters was expected to net over $8 million. During an eight-month review period from August 2008 through April 2009, the choppers made 258 flights, 228 of which were security patrols of Port Authority-operated airports, bridges, tunnels, and other properties. Not a single unusual incident was spotted during these patrols, according to a Wall Street Journal report. One flight was made in response to the US Airways 1549 "Miracle on the Hudson" incident, but the New York City Police Department waved off the PAPD's assistance. Other flights were made to take aerial photos of facilities. The review also discovered that the Port Authority was the only airport operator in the U.S. to use patrol helicopters. Training Recruits typically receive 25 weeks of intensive training at the Port Authority Police Academy, which is located in Jersey City, NJ, with a Regional Training Center located at Kennedy Airport. Training given to recruits includes New York and New Jersey law, behavioral sciences, public relations, police practices and procedures, laws of arrest, court procedures and testimony. They are also trained in rules of evidence, defensive tactics, first aid, fire fighting, police patrol and traffic duty, firearms training, defensive and pursuit driving, water safety and rescue. Throughout their careers, Port Authority Police officers return to the Academy both for refresher courses and for training in new techniques added to the curriculum. The Koebel Memorial Police Firearms Training Center is dedicated to the memory of Police Officer Henry J. Koebel, who was killed in the line of duty in May 1978. The Police Academy uses state-of-the-art equipment where the staff operates eighteen shooting ports within this computerized firearms training facility. Features include moveable target lights and noise controls, shoot/don't shoot situations, as well as standard marksmanship instruction. In June 2016, the PAPD began delivering counter-terrorism training focused on "active shooter situations" to key personnel. The program was paid for by federal grants. That month, the PAPD added 102 new recruits to its ranks of roughly 1,800 officers. The PAPD focuses on intelligence gathering to protect against attacks. It is a member of 28 different task forces at the federal, state and local level, including the FBI Joint Terrorism Task Force. Rank structure Overseen by a non-uniformed Superintendent of Police/Director of Public Safety, there are ten sworn titles (commonly referred to as ranks) in the Port Authority Police Department in the following order: Promotions to the rank of sergeant, lieutenant and higher are made via examinations, including a qualifications review meeting interview. Promotion to detective and Captain and above is at the discretion of the Superintendent of Police/Director, Public Safety Department. Power and authority Port Authority Police officers are classified as police officers in New Jersey and as New York State police officers under paragraph e, subdivision of the state Criminal Procedure Law. With the status of police officer, they are permitted to serve warrants, make arrests, use physical and deadly force, carry and use firearms, carry and use handcuffs, and issue summonses. Equipment and vehicles All Port Authority Police officers are equipped with a Glock 19 9mm semiautomatic pistol, expandable baton, can of pepper spray, handcuffs, whistle, flashlight, bullet resistant vest, and a radio that is directly linked to the Central Dispatcher and other Port Authority officers. Currently, the department utilizes numerous vehicles in its fleet including Ford Police Interceptor Utilitys, Chevrolet Impalas, Chevrolet Tahoes, Dodge Chargers, and Harley Davidson motorcycles. The department also utilizes numerous boats. At the airports the Port Authority utilizes a number of aircraft rescue fire fighting vehicles, known as "crash trucks". Deaths in the line of duty The PAPD has had 50 police officers die in the line of duty. The Port Authority Police Department suffered one of the worst losses of life ever in a single event in the history of policing in the United States, losing 37 officers in the 9/11 attacks. PAPD officers killed ranged from rookie patrolmen to the Chief of the Department. Terrorist attacks On February 26, 1993, the Port Authority's World Trade Center complex was the target of a terrorist attack bombing. PAPD personnel stationed at the complex provided an immediate response to the terrorist bombing and assisted other responding agencies in evacuating people from the power-stricken complex, many of whom required additional medical assistance as a result of breathing in acrid, sulfurous smoke that had spread from the burning subterranean bomb site at the B-2 level parking garage to the upper floors of the Twin Towers via connecting elevator shafts and stair wells. September 11, 2001, witnessed the complex as the target of terrorist attacks for a second time. On a normal business day the complex housed over 50,000 employees and accommodated 70,000 visitors; the rescue and evacuation efforts of the Port Authority Police, the New York City Police Department (NYPD), the Fire Department of the City of New York (FDNY), New York City Sheriff's Office, New York State Court Officers, and federal law enforcement officers, along with countless other uniformed and civilian first responders, helped to greatly minimize the loss of life resulting from the plane strikes and subsequent building collapse events. The Port Authority Police suffered the worst loss of police personnel in a single event in American history: 37 police officers, along with one police K-9 named Sirius, were killed at the World Trade Center complex on September 11. See also List of law enforcement agencies in New Jersey List of law enforcement agencies in New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority Police New Jersey Transit Police Department Newark Police Department New York City Police Department Port Authority of New York and New Jersey References External links Port Authority of NY/NJ Police Port Authority Police Memorial Port Authority Police Benevolent Association Port Authority Police vehicles Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Transit police departments of the United States Airport police departments of the United States Specialist police departments of New York (state) Specialist police departments of New Jersey Port police departments of the United States Law enforcement in the New York metropolitan area 1928 establishments in New Jersey 1928 establishments in New York (state)
4577825	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20history%20of%20Mexico	Economic history of Mexico	Since the colonial era, Mexico's economic history has been characterized by resource extraction, agriculture, and a relatively underdeveloped industrial sector. Economic elites in the colonial period were predominantly Spanish-born, active as transatlantic merchants and mine owners, and diversifying their investments with the landed estates. The largest population sector was indigenous subsistence farmers, which predominantly inhabited the center and south. New Spain was envisioned by the Spanish crown as a supplier of wealth to Iberia, which was accomplished through large silver mines and indigenous labor. A colonial economy to supply foodstuffs and products from ranching as well as a domestic textile industry meant that the economy provided much of its own needs, with international trade mainly conducted through colonial monopolies. Crown economic policies rattled American-born elites’ loyalty to Spain when in 1804, it instituted a policy to make mortgage holders pay immediately the principal on their loans, threatening the economic position of cash-strapped land owners. The Independence of Mexico in 1821 was initially difficult for the country, with the loss of its supply of mercury from Spain in silver mines. Most of the patterns of wealth in the colonial era continued into the first half of the nineteenth century, with agriculture being the main economic activity through the labor of indigenous and mixed-race peasants. The mid-nineteenth-century Liberal Reforma (ca. 1850–1861; 1867–76) attempted to curtail the economic power of the Catholic Church and to modernize and industrialize the Mexican economy. Following the Reform War and the Second French intervention, the late nineteenth century found political stability and economic prosperity during the Porfiriato (1876–1911). Mexico was opened to foreign investment and, to a lesser extent, foreign workers. Foreign capitals built railway networks, one of the keys for transforming the Mexican economy, by linking regions of Mexico and major cities and ports. As the construction of the railway bridge over a deep canyon at Metlac demonstrates, Mexico's topography was a barrier to economic development. The mining industry revived in the north of Mexico, and the petroleum industry developed in the north Gulf Coast states with foreign capitals. Regional civil wars broke out in 1910 and lasted until 1920, known generally as the Mexican Revolution. Following the military phase of the Revolution, Mexican regimes attempted to "transform a largely rural and backward country… into a middle-sized industrial power." The Mexican Constitution of 1917 gave the Mexican government the power to expropriate property, which favored land reform through the creation of ejidos and the Mexican oil expropriation of 1938. Mexico benefited from its participation in World War II, and the post-war years experienced what has been called the Mexican Miracle (ca. 1946–1970). This growth was fueled by import substitution industrialization (ISI). The Mexican economy experienced the limits of ISI and economic nationalism in the 1970s. Large oil reserves discovered in the Gulf of Mexico in the late 1970s led the country to borrow heavily from foreign banks with loans denominated in U.S. dollars. When the price of oil dropped in the 1980s, Mexico experienced a severe financial crisis. From the 1980s, Mexico implemented neoliberal economic policies and made constitutional changes to promote the private sector. The country campaigned to join the North American Free Trade Agreement, with the expanded treaty going into effect in Mexico, the U.S., and Canada on January 1, 1994. In the twenty-first century, Mexico has strengthened its trade ties with China, but Chinese investment projects in Mexico have hit roadblocks in 2014–15. Mexico's continued dependence on oil revenues has had a deleterious impact on the economy, as it happened in the 2010s. Economy of New Spain, 1521–1821 Mexico's economy in the colonial period was based on resource extraction (mainly silver), on agriculture and ranching, and on trade, with manufacturing playing a minor role. In the immediate post-conquest period (1521–40), the dense indigenous and hierarchically organized central Mexican peoples were employed as labor and producers of tribute goods for Spanish conquerors. Indigenous communities' tribute and labor (but not land) were granted to individual conquerors in an arrangement called encomienda. Conquerors built private fortunes less from the plunder of conquest than from the labor and tribute and the acquisition of land in areas where they held encomiendas, translating that into long-term sustainable wealth. The colonial landscape in central Mexico became a patchwork of different sized holdings by Spaniards and indigenous communities. As the crown began limiting the encomienda in the mid-sixteenth century to prevent the development of an independent seigneurial class through the New Laws, Spaniards who had become land owners acquired permanent and part-time labor from Indigenous and mixed-race workers. Although the encomienda was a major economic institution of the early period, it was gradually abandoned due to the drop in indigenous populations, economic growth and the expansion of the number of Spaniards in New Spain. Mining Silver became the motor of the Spanish colonial economy both in New Spain and in Peru. It was mined under license from the crown, with a fifth of the proceeds (quinto real) rendered to the crown. Although the Spaniards sought gold, and there were some small mines in Oaxaca and Michoacán, the big transformation in New Spain's economy came in the mid-sixteenth century with discoveries of large deposits of silver. Near Mexico City, the Nahua settlement of Taxco was found in 1534 to have silver. The largest silver deposits were found north of the zone of dense indigenous communities and Spanish settlement. Zacatecas and later Guanajuato became the most important centers of silver production, but there were many others, including in Parral (Chihuahua) and later strikes in San Luis Potosí, optimistically named after the Potosí silver mine of Peru. Spaniards established of cities in the mining region as well as agrarian enterprises supplying foodstuffs and material goods necessary for the mining economy. For Mexico, which did not have a vast supply of trees to use as fuel to extract silver from ore by high heat, the invention in 1554 of the patio process that used mercury to chemically extract the silver from ore was a breakthrough. Spain had a mercury mine in Almadén whose mercury was exported to Mexico. (Peru had its own local source of mercury at Huancavelica). The higher the proportion of mercury in the process meant the higher the extraction of silver. The crown had a monopoly on mercury and set its price. During the Bourbon reforms of the eighteenth century, the crown increased mercury production at Almadén and lowered the price to miners by half resulting in a huge increase in Mexico's silver production. As production costs dropped, mining became less risky so that there was a new surge of mine openings and improvements. In the eighteenth century, mining was professionalized and elevated in social prestige with the establishment of the royal college of mining and a miners' guild (consulado), making mining more respectable. The crown promulgated a new mining code that limited liability and protected patents as technical improvements were developed. Highly successful miners purchased titles of nobility in the eighteenth century, valorizing their status in society as well as bringing revenues to the crown. Wealth from Spanish mining fueled the transatlantic economy, with silver becoming the main precious metal in circulation worldwide. Although the northern mining did not itself become the main center of power in New Spain, the silver extracted there was the most important export from the colony. The control that the royal mints exerted over the uniform weight and quality of silver bars and coins made Spanish silver the most accepted and trusted currency. Many of the laborers in the silver mines were free wage earners drawn by high wages and the opportunity to acquire wealth for themselves through the pepena system which allowed miners to take especially promising ore for themselves. There was a brief period of mining in central and southern Mexico that mobilized indigenous men's involuntary labor by the repartimiento, but Mexico's mines developed in the north outside of the zone of dense indigenous settlement. They were ethnically mixed and mobile, becoming culturally part of the Hispanic sphere even if their origins were indigenous. Mine workers were generally well paid with a daily wage of 4 reales per day plus a share of the ore produced, the partido. In some cases, the partido was worth more than the daily wage. Mine owners sought to terminate the practice. Mine workers pushed back against mine owners, particularly in a 1766 strike at the Real del Monte mine, owned by the Conde de Regla, in which they closed down the mine and murdered a royal official. In the colonial period, mine workers were the elites of free workers, Agriculture and ranching Although pre-Hispanic Mexico produced surpluses of corn (maize) and other crops for tribute and subsistence use, Spaniards began commercial agriculture, cultivating wheat, sugar, fruit trees, and even for a period, mulberry trees for silk production in Mexico. Areas that had never seen indigenous cultivation became important for commercial agriculture, particularly what has been called the "near North" of Mexico, just north of indigenous settlement in central Mexico. Wheat cultivation using oxen and Spanish plows was done in the Bajío, a region that includes a number of states of modern Mexico, Querétaro, Jalisco, and San Luis Potosí. The system of land tenure has been cited as one of the reasons that Mexico failed to develop economically during the colonial period, with large estates inefficiently organized and run and the "concentration of land ownership per se caused waste and misallocation of resources." These causes were posited before a plethora of studies of the hacienda and smaller agrarian enterprises as well as broader regional studies were done in the 1960s and 1970s. These studies of individual haciendas and regions over time postulate that hacienda owners were profit-seeking entrepreneurs. They had the advantage of economies of scale that smaller holders and indigenous villages did not in cultivation of grains, pulque, sugar, and sisal and in ranching, with cattle and sheep. Great haciendas did not completely dominate the agrarian sector, since there were products that could be efficiently produced by smaller holders and indigenous villages, such as fruits and vegetables, cochineal red dye, and animals that could be raised in confined spaces, such as pigs and chickens. Small holders also produced wine, cotton and tobacco. In the eighteenth century, the crown created a tobacco monopoly on both cultivation and manufacturing of tobacco products. As Spanish agrarian enterprises developed, acquiring title to land became important. As the size of the indigenous labor force dropped and as the number of Spaniards seeking land and access to labor increased, a transitional labor institution called repartimiento ("allotment") developed, in which the crown allotted indigenous labor to Spaniards on a temporary basis. Many Spanish landowners found the system unsatisfactory since they could not count on receiving an allocation that suited their needs. The repartimiento for agriculture was abolished in 1632. Large-scale landed estates or haciendas developed, and most needed both a small permanent labor force supplemented by temporary labor at peak times, such as planting and harvesting. Cattle ranching needed less labor than agriculture, but did need sufficient grazing land for their herds to increase. As more Spaniards settled in the central areas of Mexico where there were already large numbers of indigenous settlements, the number of ranching enterprises declined and ranching was pushed north. Northern Mexico was mainly dry and its indigenous population nomadic or semi-nomadic, allowing Spanish ranching activities to expand largely without competition. As mining areas developed in the north, Spanish haciendas and ranches supplied products from cattle, not just meat, but hides and tallow, for the silver mining areas. Spaniards also grazed sheep, which resulted in ecological decline since sheep cropped grass to its roots preventing regeneration. Central Mexico attracted a larger proportion of Spanish settlement and landed enterprises there shifted from mixed agriculture and ranching to solely agriculture. Ranching was more widespread in the north, with its vast expanses and little access to water. Spaniards imported seeds for production of wheat for their own consumption. Both Spaniards and the indigenous produced native products commercially, particular the color-fast red dye cochineal, as well as the fermented juice of the maguey cactus, pulque. In the early colonial period Mexico was briefly a silk producer. When the transpacific trade with Manila developed in the late sixteenth century, the finer quality Asian silks out-competed locally produced ones. The bulk of luxury yard goods were imported from northern Europe via Spain. For rough cloth for the urban masses, cotton and wool were produced and woven in Mexico in small workshops called obrajes. Cities, trade and transportation routes Cities had concentrations of crown officials, high ecclesiastical officials, merchants, and artisans, with the viceregal capital of Mexico City, having the largest. Mexico City was founded on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and has never given up its primacy in Mexico. The history of Mexico City is deeply entwined in the development of the Mexican economy. Two main ports, Veracruz on the Caribbean coast the served the transatlantic trade and Acapulco on the Pacific coast, the terminus for the Asian trade via the Manila Galleon, allowed the crown to regulate trade. In Spain the House of Trade (Casa de Contratación) in Seville registered and regulated exports and imports as well as issuing licenses for Spaniards emigrating to the New World. Exports were silver and dyestuffs and imported were luxury goods from Europe, while a local economy of high bulk, low value products were produced in Mexico. Artisans and workers of various types provided goods and services to urban dwellers. In Mexico City and other Spanish settlements, the lack of a system of potable water meant that the services of water carriers supplied individual households. A network of cities and towns developed, some were founded on previous indigenous city-states, (such as Mexico City) while secondary cities were established as provincial areas gained population because of economic activity. The main axis was from Veracruz, via the well-situated city of Puebla to Mexico City. Another axis connected Mexico City and Puebla to the mining areas of the north, centered on Guanajuato and Zacatecas. There was a road further north to New Mexico, but Mexico's far north, except for a few mining centers such as Parral, were of little economic interest. California's rich deposits of gold were unknown in the colonial era and had they been discovered that whole region's history would not be one of marginal importance. To the south, trunk lines connected Mexico's center to Oaxaca and the port of Acapulco, the terminus of the Manila galleon. Yucatán was more easily accessed from Cuba than Mexico City, but it had a dense Maya population so there was a potential labor force to produce products such as sugar, cacao, and later henequen (sisal). Bad transportation was a major stumbling block to the movement of goods and people within Mexico, which had generally difficult topography. There were few paved roads and dirt tracks turned impassible during the rainy season. Rather than hauling goods by carts drawn by oxen or mules, the most common mode of transporting goods was via pack mules. Poor infrastructure was coupled with poor security, so that banditry was an impediment to the safe transport of people and goods. In the Northern area, the índios bárbaros or "uncivilized Indians" opposed settlement and travel. The eighteenth century saw New Spain increase the size and complexity of its economy. Silver remained the motor of the economy, and production increased even though few new mines came into production. The key to the increased production was the lowering of the price of mercury, an essential element in refining silver. The larger the amount of mercury used in refining, the greater pure silver was extracted from ore. Another important element for the eighteenth-century economic boom was the number of wealthy Mexicans who were involved in multiple enterprises as owners, investors, or creditors. Mining is an expensive and uncertain extractive enterprise needed large capital investments for digging and shoring up shafts as well as draining water as mines got deeper. Elites invested their fortunes in real estate, mainly in rural enterprises and to a lesser extent urban properties, but often lived in nearby cities or the capital. The Roman Catholic Church functioned as a mortgage bank for elites. The Church itself accrued tremendous wealth, aided by the fact that as a corporation, its holdings were not broken up to distribute to heirs. Crown policy and economic development Crown policies generally impeded entrepreneurial activity in New Spain, through laws and regulations that were disincentives to the creation of new enterprises. There was no well-defined or enforceable set of property rights, but the crown claimed rights over subsoil resources, such as mining. The crown's lack of investment in a good system of paved roads made moving products to market insecure and expensive, so enterprises had a narrower reach for their products, particularly bulky agricultural products. Although many enterprises, such as merchant houses and mining, were highly profitable, they were often family firms. The components of Roman Catholic Church had a considerable number of landed estates and the Church received income from the tithe, a ten percent tax on agricultural output. However, there were no laws that promoted "economies of scale through joint stock companies or corporations." There were corporate entities, particularly the Church and indigenous communities, but also corporate groups with privileges (fueros), such as miners and merchants who had separate courts and exemptions. There was no equal standing before the law, given the exemptions of corporate entities (including indigenous communities) and legal distinctions between races. Only those defined as Spaniards, either peninsular- or American-born of legitimate birth had access to a variety of elite privileges such as civil office holding, ecclesiastical positions, but also entrance of women into convents, which necessitated a significant dowry. A convent for Indigenous women of "pure blood" was established in the eighteenth century. Indigenous men from the mid-sixteenth century had been barred from the priesthood, not only excluding them from empowerment in the spiritual realm, but also depriving them of the honor, prestige, and income that a priest could garner. In the eighteenth century the Bourbon administrative reforms began restricting the number of American-born men appointed to office, which was not only a diminution of their own and their families’ status, but also excluded them from the revenues and other benefits that flowed from office holding. The benefits were not merely the salary, but also the networks of useful connections to do business.The interventionist and pervasively arbitrary nature of the institutional environment forced every enterprise, urban or rural, to operate in a highly politicized manner, using kinship networks, political influence, and family prestige to gain privileged access to subsidized credit, to aid various stratagems for recruiting labor, to collect debts or enforce contracts, to evade taxes or circumvent courts, and to defend titles to land. The most closely controlled commodity from New Spain (and Peru) was the production and transportation of silver. Crown officials monitored each step of the process, from licensing on those who developed mines, to transportation, to minting of uniform size and quality silver bars and coins. The crown established monopolies in other commodities, most importantly mercury from Almadén, the key component in silver refining. But the crown also established monopolies over tobacco production and manufacturing. Guilds (gremios) restricted the practice of certain professions, such as those engaged in painting, gilded framer makers, music instrument makers, and others. Indigenous and mixed–race castas were considered a threat, producing quality products far more cheaply. The crown sought to control trade and emigration to its overseas territories via the House of Trade (Casa de Contratación), based in Seville. Officials in Seville registered ships’ cargoes and passengers bound for the Indies (as the crown to the end of the colonial era called its territories) and upon arrival in New World ports, other crown officials inspected cargo and passengers. In Mexico, the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz, New Spain's oldest Spanish city and main port, and the Pacific coast port of Acapulco, the terminus of the Manila Galleon were busy when ships were in port, but they did not have large numbers of Spanish settlers in large part due to their disagreeable tropical climate. Restricting trade put big merchant houses, largely family businesses, in a privileged position. A consulado, the organization of elite merchants, was established in Mexico City, which raised the status of merchants, and later consulados were established in Veracruz, Guadalajara, and Guatemala City indicating the growth of a core economic group in those cities. Central regions could get imports those firms handled relatively easily, but with a bad transportation network, other regions became economic backwaters and smuggling and other non-sanctioned economic activity took place. The economic policy of comercio libre that was instituted in 1778, it was not full free trade but trade between ports in the Spanish empire and those in Spain; it was designed to stimulate trade. In Mexico, the big merchant families continued to dominate trade, with the main merchant house in Mexico City and smaller outlets staffed by junior members of the family in provincial cities. For merchants in Guatemala City dealing in indigo, they had direct contact with merchants in Cádiz, the main port in Spain, indicating the level of importance of this dye stuff in trade as well as the strengthening of previously remote areas with larger trade networks, in this case by passing Mexico City merchant houses. There was increased commercial traffic between New Spain, New Granada (northern South America), and Peru and during wartime, trade was permitted with neutral countries. Internal trade in Mexico was hampered by taxes and levies by officials. The alcabala or sales tax was established in Spain in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and was especially favored by the crown because in Spain it did not fall under the jurisdiction of the cortes or Spanish assembly. Goods produced by or for indigenous peoples were exempted from the alcabala. In the eighteenth century, with more effective collection of the sales tax, the revenues increased significantly. Other taxes included the tithe, which was a ten percent tax on agricultural production; tributes paid by non-whites (Indigenous, Blacks and mixed-race castas); and fees for licensing and other government regulation. Crown officials (with the exception of the viceroy) often purchased their offices, with the price recouped through fees and other means. During the late eighteenth century with the Bourbon reforms, the crown established a new administrative system, the intendancy, with much better paid crown officials, with the hope that graft and other personal enrichment would not be so tempting. In the eighteenth century, there were new and increased taxes including on maize, wheat flour, and wood. Fluctuations in rainfall and harvests played havoc with the price of maize, which often resulted in civil unrest, such that the crown began establishing granaries (alhondigas) to moderate the fluctuations and to forestall rioting. In a major move to tap what it thought was a major source of revenue, the crown in 1804 promulgated the Act of Consolidation (Consolidación de Vales Reales), in which the crown mandated that the church turn over its funds to the crown, which would in turn pay the church five percent on the principal. Since the church was the major source of credit for hacendados, miners, and merchants, the new law meant that they had to pay the principal to the church immediately. For borrowers who counted on thirty or more year mortgages to repay the principal, the law was a threat to their economic survival. For conservative elements in New Spain that were loyal to the crown, this most recent change in policy was a blow. With the Napoleonic invasion of Iberia in 1808, which placed Napoleon's brother Joseph on the Spanish throne, an impact in New Spain was to suspend the implementation on the deleterious Act of Consolidation. A Spanish intellectual Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos wrote a critique of the decline of Spain as an economic power in 1796 that contended the stagnation of Spanish agriculture was a major cause of Spain's economic problems. He recommended that the crown press for major changes in the agrarian sector, including the breakup of entailed estates, sale of common lands to individuals, and other instruments to make agriculture more profitable. In New Spain, the bishop-elect of the diocese of Michoacan, Manuel Abad y Queipo, was influenced by Jovellanos's work and proposed similar measures in Mexico. The bishop-elect's proposal for land reform in Mexico in the early nineteenth century, influenced by Jovellanos's from the late eighteenth century, had a direct impact on Mexican liberals seeking to make the agrarian sector more profitable. Abad y Queipo "fixed upon the inequitable distribution of property as the chief cause of New Spain's social squalor and advocated ownership of land as the chief remedy." At the end of the colonial era, land was concentrated in large haciendas and the vast number of peasants had insufficient land and the agrarian sector stagnated. From the era of independence to the Liberal Reform, 1800–1855 Late colonial era and independence, 1800–1822 In the late colonial era, the Spanish crown had implemented what has been called a "revolution in government", which significantly realigned New Spain's administration with significant economic impacts. When the Napoleonic invasion of Iberia ousted the Bourbon monarch, there was a significant period of political instability in Spain and Spain's overseas possessions, as many elements of society viewed Joseph Napoleon as an illegitimate usurper of the throne. In 1810, with the massive revolt led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo rapidly expanded into a social upheaval of Indigenous and mixed-race castas that targeted Spaniards (both peninsular-born and American-born) and their properties. American-born Spaniards who might have opted for political independence retrenched and supported to conservative elements and the insurgency for independence was a small regional struggle. In 1812, Spanish liberals adopted a written constitution that established the crown as a constitutional monarch and limited the power of the Roman Catholic Church. When the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, Ferdinand VII swore allegiance to the constitution, but almost immediately reneged and returned to autocratic rule and asserted his rule being "by the grace of God" as the 8 real silver of coin minted in 1821 asserts. Anti-French forces, particularly the British, had enabled the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne. Ferdinand's armed forces were to be sent to its overseas empire to reverse the gains that many colonial regions had gained. However, the troops mutinied and prevented a renewed assertion of royal control in the Indies. In 1820, Spanish liberals staged a coup and forced Ferdinand to reinstate the Spanish Constitution of 1812 passed by the Cortes of Cádiz. For elites in New Spain, the specter of liberal policies that would have a deleterious impact on their social and economic position propelled former royalists to join the insurgent cause, thus bringing about Mexican independence in 1821. A pact between former royalist officer Agustín de Iturbide and insurgent Vicente Guerrero unified under the Plan de Iguala and the Army of the Three Guarantees brought about Mexican independence in September 1821. Rather than the insurgency being a social revolution, in the end it allowed conservative forces in now independent Mexico to remain at the top of the social and economic system. Although independence might have brought about rapid economic growth in Mexico since the Spanish crown was no longer the sovereign, Mexico's economic position in 1800 was far better than it would be for over the next hundred years. In many ways the colonial economic system remained largely in place, despite the transition to formal political independence. At the end of the colonial era, there was no national market and only poorly developed regional markets. The largest proportion of the population was poor, both peasants, who worked small holdings for subsistence or worked for low wages, and urban dwellers, most of whom were underemployed or unemployed, with only a small artisan sector. Although New Spain had been the major producer of silver and the greatest source of income for the Spanish crown, Mexico ceased to produce silver in any significant amounts until the late nineteenth century. Poor transportation, the disappearance of a ready source of mercury from Spain, and deterioration and destruction of deep mining shafts meant that the motor of Mexico's economy ground to a halt. A brief period of monarchic rule in the First Mexican Empire ended with a military coup in 1822 and the formation of a weak federated republic under the Constitution of 1824. Early republic to 1855 The early post-independence period in Mexican was organized as a federal republic under the Constitution of 1824. The Mexican state was a weak institution, with regional struggles between those favoring federalism and a weak central government versus those favoring a strong central government with states subordinate to it. The weakness of the state contrasts with the strength of Roman Catholic Church in Mexico, which was the exclusive religious institution with spiritual power, but it was also a major holder of real estate and source of credit for Mexican elites. The Mexican military was also a stronger institution than the state, and intervened in politics on a regular basis. Local militias also continued to exist, with the potential for both enforcing order and creating disorder. The new republic's situation did not promote economic growth and development. The British established a network of merchant houses in the major cities. However, according to Hilarie J. Heath, the results were bleak: Trade was stagnant, imports did not pay, contraband drove prices down, debts private and public went unpaid, merchants suffered all manner of injustices and operated at the mercy of weak and corruptible governments, commercial houses skirted bankruptcy. The early republic has often been called the "Age of Santa Anna," a military hero, participant in the coup ousting emperor Augustín I during Mexico's brief post-independence monarchy. He was president of Mexico on multiple occasions, seeming to prefer having the job rather than doing the job. Mexico in this period was characterized by the collapse of silver exports, political instability, and foreign invasions and conflicts that lost Mexico a huge area of its North. The social hierarchy in Mexico was modified in the early independence era, such that racial distinctions were eliminated and the formal bars to non-whites' upward mobility were eliminated. When the Mexican republic was established in 1824, noble titles were eliminated, however, special privileges (fueros) of two corporate groups, churchmen and the military, remained in force so that there were differential legal rights and access to courts. Elite Mexicans dominated the agrarian sector, owning large estates. With the Roman Catholic Church still the only religion and its economic power as a source of credit for elites, conservative landowners and the Church held tremendous economic power. The largest percentage of the Mexican population was engaged in subsistence agriculture and many were only marginally engaged in market activities. Foreigners dominated commerce and trade. It was contended by Mexican liberals that the Catholic Church was an obstacle to Mexico's development through its economic activities. The Church was the beneficiary of the tithe, a ten percent tax on agricultural production, until its abolition in 1833. Church properties and Indigenous villages produced a significant proportion of agricultural output and were outside tithe collection, while private agriculturalists' costs were higher due to the tithe. It has been argued that an impact of the tithe was in fact to keep more land in the hands of the Church and Indigenous villages. As for the uses the Church put this ten percent of the agrarian output subject to it, it has been argued that rather being spent on "unproductive" activities that the Church had a greater liquidity that could be translated into credit for enterprises. In the first half of the nineteenth century, obstacles to industrialization were largely internal, while in the second half largely external. Internal impediments to industrialization were due to Mexico's difficult topography and lack of secure and efficient transportation, remedied in the late nineteenth century by railroad construction. But the problems of entrepreneurship in the colonial period carried forward into the post-independence period. Internal tariffs, licensing for enterprises, special taxes, lack of legislation to promote joint-stock companies that protected investors, lack of enforcement to collect loans or enforce contracts, lack of patent protections, and the lack of a unified court system or legal framework to promote business made creating an enterprise a lengthy and fraught process. The Mexican government could not count on revenues from silver mining to fund its operations. The exit of Spanish merchants involved in the transatlantic trade was also a blow to the Mexican economy. The division of the former viceroyalty into separate states of a federal system, all needed a source of revenue to function meant that internal tariffs impeded trade. For the weak federal government, a large source of revenue was the customs revenue on imports and exports. The Mexican government floated loans to foreign firms in the form of bonds. In 1824 the Mexican government floated a bond taken up by a London bank, B.A. Goldschmidt and Company; in 1825 Barclay, Herring, Richardson and Company of London not only loaned more money to the Mexican government, but opened a permanent office. The establishment of a permanent branch of Barclay, Herring, Richardson and Co. in Mexico in 1825 and then establishment of the Banco de Londres y Sud América in Mexico set the framework for foreign loans and investment in Mexico. The Banco de Londres issued paper money for private not public debt. Paper money was a first for Mexico which had long used silver coinage. After an extended civil war and foreign invasions, the late nineteenth century saw the more systematic growth of banking and foreign investment during the Porfiriato (1876–1911). Faced with political disruptions, civil wars, unstable currency, and the constant threat of banditry in the countryside, most wealthy Mexicans invested their assets in the only stable productive enterprises that remained viable: large agricultural estates with access to credit from the Catholic Church. These entrepreneurs were later accused of preferring the symbolic wealth of tangible, secure, and unproductive property to the riskier and more difficult but innovative and potentially more profitable work of investing in industry, but the fact is that agriculture was the only marginally safe investment in times of such uncertainty. Furthermore, with low per capita income and a stagnant, shallow market, agriculture was not very profitable. The Church could have loaned money for industrial enterprises, the costs and risks of starting one in the circumstances of bad transportation and lack of consumer spending power or demand meant that agriculture was a more prudent investment. In October, 1835, the Conservative Party intellectual and statesman Lucas Alaman, the Banco de Avío, a state owned bank was established in order to provide pecuniary aid and machinery to Mexico’s industry and agriculture. This was the first formal bank in Mexican history but the experiment had limited success, succeeding mainly in the field of textiles. The establishment of a national bank was further decreed in 1837. Despite obstacles to industrialization in the early post-independence period, cotton textiles produced in factories owned by Mexicans date from the 1830s in the central region. The Banco de Avío did loan money to cotton textile factories during its existence, so that in the 1840s, there were close to 60 factories in Puebla and Mexico City to supply the most robust consumer market in the capital. In the colonial era, that region had seen the development of obrajes, small-scale workshops that wove cotton and woolen cloth. In the early republic, other industries developed on a modest scale, including glass, paper, and beer brewing. Other enterprises produced leather footwear, hats, wood-working, tailoring, and bakeries, all of which were small-scale and designed to serve domestic, urban consumers within a narrow market. There were no factories to produce machines used in manufacturing, although there was a small iron and steel industry in the late 1870s before Porfirio Díaz's regime took hold after 1876. Some of the factors that impeded Mexico's own industrial development were also barriers to penetration of British capital and goods in the early republic. Small-scale manufacturing in Mexico could make a modest profit in the regions where it existed, but with high transportation costs and protective import tariffs and internal transit tariffs, there was not enough profit for British to pursue that route. Liberal reform, French intervention and Restored Republic, 1855–1876 The Liberals' ouster of conservative Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1854 ushered in a major period of institutional and economic reform. The Liberal Reforma via the lerdo law abolished corporations’ right to own property as corporations, a reform aimed at breaking the economic power of the Catholic Church and Indigenous communities which held land as corporate communities. The Reform also mandated equality before the law, so that legal privileges or fueros that had allowed ecclesiastics and military personnel to be tried by their own courts were abolished. Liberals codified the Reform in the Constitution of 1857. A civil war between Liberals and Conservatives, known as the War of the Reform or the Three Years’ War was won by Liberals, but Mexico plunged again in conflict with the government of Benito Juárez reneging on the payment of foreign loans contracted by the rival conservative government. European powers prepared to intervene for repayment of the loans, but it was France with imperial ambitions that carried out an invasion and the installation of Maximilian of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico. The seeds of economic modernization were laid under the Restored Republic (1867–76), following the fall of the French-backed empire of Maximilian of Habsburg (1862–67). Mexican conservatives had invited Maximilian to be Mexico's monarch with the expectation that he would implement policies favorable to conservatives. Maximilian held liberal ideas which alienated his conservative supporters. The withdrawal of French military support for Maximilian, alienation of his conservative patrons, and post-Civil War support for Benito Juárez's republican government by the U.S. government precipitated Maximilian's fall. The conservatives' support for the foreign monarch destroyed their credibility and allowed the liberal republicans to dominate economic policy after 1867 until the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910. President Benito Juárez (1857–72) sought to attract foreign capital to finance Mexico's economic modernization. His government revised the tax and tariff structure to revitalize the mining industry, and improved the transportation and communications infrastructure to allow fuller exploitation of the country's natural resources. The government issued contracts for construction of a new rail line northward to the United States, and in 1873 completed the commercially vital Mexico City–Veracruz railroad, begun in 1837 but disrupted by civil wars and the French invasion from 1850 to 1868. Protected by high tariffs, Mexico's textile industry doubled its production of processed items between 1854 and 1877. Overall, manufacturing grew using domestic capital, though only modestly. Mexican per capita income had fallen during the period 1800 until sometime in the 1860s, but began recovering during the Restored Republic. However, it was during the Porfiriato (the rule of General and President Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911)) that per capita incomes climbed, finally reaching again the level of the late colonial era. "Between 1877 and 1910 national income per capita grew at an annual rate of 2.3 percent—extremely rapid growth by world standards, so fast indeed that per capita income more than doubled in thirty-three years." Porfiriato, 1876–1911 When Díaz first came to power, the country was still recovering from a decade of civil war and foreign intervention, and the country was deeply in debt. Díaz saw investment from the United States and Europe as a way to build a modern and prosperous country. During the Porfiriato, Mexico underwent rapid but highly unequal growth. The phrase "order and progress" of the Díaz regime was shorthand for political order laying the groundwork for progress to transform and modernize Mexico on the model of Western Europe or the United States. The apparent political stability of the regime created a climate of trust for foreign and domestic entrepreneurs to invest in Mexico's modernization. Rural banditry, which had increased following the demobilization of republican force, was suppressed by Díaz, using the rural police force, rurales, often transporting them and their horses on trains. Other factors promoting a better economic situation were the elimination of local customs duties that had hindered domestic trade. Changes in fundamental legal principles of ownership during the Porfiriato had a positive effect on foreign investors. During Spanish rule, the crown controlled subsoil rights of its territory so that silver mining, the motor of the colonial economy, was controlled by the crown with licenses to mining entrepreneurs was a privilege and not a right. The Mexican government changed the law to giving absolute subsoil rights to property owners. For foreign investors, protection of their property rights meant that mining and oil enterprises became much more attractive investments. The earliest and most far reaching foreign investment was in the creation of a railway network. Railroads dramatically decreased transportation costs so that heavy or bulky products could be exported to Mexico's Gulf Coast ports as well as rail links on the U.S. border. The railway system expanded from a line from Mexico City to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz to create an entire network of railways that encompassed most regions of Mexico. Railroads were initially owned almost exclusively by foreign investors, expanded from 1,000 kilometers to 19,000 kilometers of track between 1876 and 1910. Railways have been termed a "critical agent of capitalist penetration," Railways linked areas of the country that previously suffered from poor transportation capability, that is, they could produce goods, but could not get them to market. When British investors turned their attention to Mexico, they primarily made investments in railways and mines, sending both money and engineers and skilled mechanics. The development of the petroleum industry in Mexico on the Gulf Coast dates from the late nineteenth century. Two prominent foreign investors were Weetman Pearson, who was later knighted by the British crown, and Edward L. Doheny, as well as Rockefeller's Standard Oil. Oil has been an important contributor to the Mexican economy as well as an ongoing political issue, since early development was entirely in the hands of foreigners. Economic nationalism played the key role in the Mexican oil expropriation of 1938. Mining silver continued as an enterprise, but copper emerged as a valuable mining resource as electricity became an important technological innovation. The creation of telephone and telegraph networks meant large-scale demand for copper wiring. Individual foreign entrepreneurs and companies purchased mining sites. Among the owners were Amalgamated Copper Company, American Telephone and Telegraph, American Smelting and Refining Company, and Phelps Dodge. The Greene Consolidated Copper Company became infamous in Mexico when its Cananea mine workers went on strike in 1906 and the rurales in Mexico and Arizona Rangers suppressed it. Northern Mexico had the greatest concentration of mineral resources as well as closest proximity to a major market for foodstuffs, the United States. As the railroad system improved, and as the population grew in the western U.S., large-scale commercial agriculture became viable. From the colonial period onward, the North had developed huge landed estates devoted mainly to cattle ranching. With the expansion of the rail network northward and with the Mexican government's policies of surveying land and clearing land titles, commercial agriculture expanded enormously, especially along the U.S.-Mexico border. Both U.S. and Mexican entrepreneurs began investing heavily in modernized large-scale agricultural estates along the railroad lines of the north. The family of future Mexican president Francisco I. Madero developed successful enterprises in the Comarca Lagunera region, which spans the states of Coahuila and Durango, where cotton was commercially grown. Madero sought to interest fellow large landowners in the region in pushing for the construction of a high dam to control periodic flooding along the Nazas River, and increase agricultural production there. One was constructed in the post-revolutionary period. The bilingual son of a U.S. immigrant to Mexico and the niece of the powerful Creel-Terrazas family of Chihuahua, Enrique Creel became a banker and intermediary between foreign investors and the Mexican government. As a powerful politician and landowner, Creel "became one of the most hated symbols of the Porfirian regime." Mexico was not a favored destination for European immigrants the way the United States, Argentina, and Canada were in the nineteenth century, creating expanded work forces there. Mexico's population in 1800 at 6 million was a million larger than that of the young U.S. republic, but in 1910 Mexico's population was 15 million while that of the U.S. was 92 million. Lack of slow natural increase and higher death rates coupled with lack of immigration meant that Mexico had a much smaller labor force in comparison. Americans moved to Mexico in the largest numbers, but most to pursue ranching and farming themselves, and were the largest group on foreign nationals in Mexico. In 1900, there were only 2800 British citizens living in Mexico, 16,000 Spaniards, 4,000 French, and 2,600 Germans. Foreign enterprises employed significant numbers of foreign workers, especially in skilled, higher paying positions keeping Mexicans in semi-skilled positions with much lower pay. The foreign workers did not generally know Spanish, so business transactions were done in the foreign industrialists' language. The cultural divide extended to religious affiliation (many were Protestants) and different attitudes "about authority and justice." There were few foreigner workers in the central Mexican textile industry, but many in mining and petroleum, where Mexicans had little or no experience with advanced technologies. Mexican entrepreneurs also created large enterprises, many of which were vertically integrated. Some of these include steel, cement, glass, explosives, cigarettes, beer, soap, cotton and wool textiles, and paper. Yucatán underwent an agricultural boom with the creation of large-scale henequen (sisal) haciendas. Yucatán's capital of Mérida saw many elites build mansions based on the fortunes they made in henequen. The financing of Mexican domestic industry was accomplished through a small group of merchant-financiers, who could raise the capital for high start up costs of domestic enterprises, which included the importation of machinery. Although industries were created, the national market was yet to be built so that enterprises ran inefficiently well below their capacity. Overproduction was a problem since even a minor downturn in the economy meant the consumers with little buying power had to choose necessities over consumer-goods. Under the surface of all this apparent economic prosperity and modernization, popular discontent was reaching the boiling point. The economic-political elite scarcely noticed the country's widespread dissatisfaction with the political stagnation of the Porfiriato, the increased demands for worker productivity during a time of stagnating or decreasing wages and deteriorating work conditions, the repression of worker's unions by the police and army, and the highly unequal distribution of wealth. When a political opposition to the Porfirian regime developed in 1910, following Díaz's initial statement that he would not run again for the presidency in 1910 and then reneging, there was considerable unrest. As industrial enterprises grew in Mexico, workers organized to assert their rights. Strikes occurred in the mining industry, most notably at the U.S.-owned Cananea Consolidated Copper Company in 1906, in which Mexican workers protested that they were paid half what U.S. nations earned for the same work. U.S. marshals and citizens crossed from Arizona to Sonora to suppress the strike, resulting in 23 deaths. The violent incident was evidence that there was labor unrest in Mexico, something the Díaz regime sought to deny. The enforcement of labor discipline by U.S. nationals was publicly seen as a violation of Mexican sovereignty, but there were no consequences for the government of Sonora for permitting the foreigners' actions. The Díaz regime accused the radical Mexican Liberal Party of fomenting the strike. The significance of the strike is disputed, but one scholar considers it "an important benchmark for the Porfirian labor movement as well as the regime. It raised the social question in a dramatic fashion, and at the same time fused it with Mexican nationalism. In 1907, workers at the French-owned Río Blanco textile factory engaged in a dispute after being locked out from their factory. Díaz sent the Mexican army to suppress the action, resulting in loss of life of an unknown number of Mexicans. Before 1909 most workers were reformist and not anti-Díaz, but did seek government intervention on their behalf against foreign owners' unfair practices, particularly regarding wage differentials. Signs of economic prosperity were apparent in the capital. The Mexican stock exchange was founded in 1895, with headquarters on Plateros Street (now Madero Street) in Mexico City, trading in commodities and stocks. With increasing political stability and economic growth, Mexico’s urban populations had more disposable income and spent it on consumer goods. In Mexico City, several French entrepreneurs established department stores stocked with goods form the global economy. Such enterprises promoting consumer culture were taking hold in Paris (the Bon Marché) and London (Harrod’s), catering to elite urban consumers. They used advertising and innovative ways of displaying and selling goods. Female clerks catered to customers. In Mexico City, the Palacio de Hierro was one example, with its five-story building in downtown was constructed of iron. The flourishing of such stores was a signal of Mexico’s modernity and participation in the transnational cosmopolitanism of the era. French immigrants from the Barcelonette region of France established the vast majority of the department stores in Porfirian Mexico. These immigrants had dominated the retail apparel market for increasingly fashion-conscious elites. Two of the biggest enterprises adopted the business model of the joint stock company (sociedad anónima, or S.A.) and were listed on the Mexican stock exchange. Enterprises sourced their merchandise from abroad, using British, German, Belgian, and Swiss suppliers, but they also sold textiles made in their own factories in Mexico, creating a level of vertical integration. The Barcelonettes, as they were called, also innovated by using hydroelectric power in some of their textile factories, and supplied some surrounding communities. Gallery Era of the Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920 The outbreak of the Revolution in 1910 began as a political crisis over presidential succession and exploded into civil wars of movement in northern Mexico and guerrilla warfare in the peasant centers near Mexico City. The former working relationship between the Mexican government and foreign and domestic enterprises was nearing an end with the fall of the Díaz government, producing uncertainty for businesses. The upstart challenger to Porfirio Díaz in the 1910 election, Francisco I. Madero, was from a very wealthy, estate-owning family in northern Mexico. After the fraudulent election, Madero issued the Plan of San Luis Potosí, calling for a revolt against Díaz. In his plan he made the vague promise to return stolen village lands, making Madero appear sympathetic to the peasantry and potentially bringing about land reform. For Mexican and foreign large-land owners, Madero's vague promise was a threat to their economic interests. For the peasants in Morelos, a sugar-growing area close to Mexico City, Madero's slowness to make good on his promise to restore village lands prompted a revolt against the government. Under the Plan of Ayala, sweeping land reform was the core of their demands. Earlier, the demands by the Liberal Party of Mexico (PLM) articulated a political and economic agenda, much of which was incorporated into the Constitution of 1917. American-owned enterprises especially were targets during revolutionary violence, but there was generally loss of life and property damage in areas of conflict. Revolutionaries confiscated haciendas with livestock, machinery, and buildings. Railways used for troop movements in northern Mexico were hard hit by the destruction of tracks, bridges, and rolling stock. Significantly, the Gulf Coast petroleum installations were not damaged. They were a vital source of revenue for the Constitutionalist faction that was ultimately victorious in the decade-long civil conflict. The promulgation of the 1917 Constitution of 1917 was one of the first acts of the faction named for the Constitution of 1857. The Constitutionalist faction of Mexico's North was victorious in 1915–16. Northern revolutionaries were not sympathetic to demands by peasants in central Mexico seeking the return of village land a reversion to small-scale agriculture. The Constitutionalists mobilized organized labor against the peasant uprising in Morelos under Emiliano Zapata. Urban labor needed cheap foodstuffs and sought the expansion of the industrial sector versus subsistence peasant agriculture. Labor's support was rewarded in the new constitution. The drafting of that constitution was major outcome of the nearly decade-long conflict. Organized labor was a big winner, with Article 123 enshrining in the constitution basic worker rights, such as the right to organize and strike, the eight-hour day, and safe working conditions. Organized labor could no longer be simply suppressed by the industrialists or the Mexican state. Although Mexican and foreign industrialists now had to contend with a new legal framework, the Revolution did not, in fact, destroy the industrial sector, either its factories, extractive facilities, or its industrial entrepreneurs, so that once the fighting stopped in 1917, production resumed. Article 27 of the Constitution empowered the state to expropriate private holdings if deemed in the national interest and returned subsoil rights to the state. It enshrined the right of the state could expropriate land and redistribute it to peasant cultivators. Although there could be a major roll back of changes in land tenure, the leader of the Constitutionalists and now President, Venustiano Carranza, was both a politician and large land owner, who was unwilling implement land reform. The state's power regarding subsoil rights meant that the mining and petroleum industries that were developed and owned by foreign industrialists now had less secure title to their enterprises. The industrial sector of Mexico evaded revolutionary violence and many Mexican and foreign industrialists remained in Mexico, but the uncertainty and risk of new investments in Mexican industry meant that it did not expand in the immediate post-Revolutionary period. An empowered labor movement with constitutionally guaranteed rights was a new factor industrialists also had to deal with. However, despite the protections of organized labor's rights to fair wages and working conditions, the constitution restricted laborers' ability to emigrate to the U.S. to work. It "required each Mexican to have a labor contract signed by municipal authories and the consulate of the country where they intended to work." Since "U.S. law prohibited offering contracts to foreign laborers before they entered the United States," Mexicans migrating without a permission from Mexico did so illegally. Consolidating the Revolution and the Great Depression, 1920–1940 In 1920, Sonoran general Álvaro Obregón was elected president of Mexico. A key task was to secure diplomatic recognition from the United States. The American-Mexican Claims Commission was established to deal with claims by Americans for property-loss during the Revolution. Obregón also negotiated the Bucareli Treaty with the United States, an important step in securing recognition. Concessions made to foreign oil during the Porfiriato were a particularly difficult matter in the post-Revolutionary period, but General and President Alvaro Obregón negotiated a settlement in 1923, the Bucareli Treaty, that guaranteed petroleum enterprises already built in Mexico. It also settled some claims between the U.S. and Mexico stemming from the Revolution. The treaty had an important impact for the Mexican government, since it paved the way for U.S. recognition of Obregón's government. The agreement not only normalized diplomatic relations, but also opened the way for U.S. military aid to the regime and gave Obregón the means to suppress a rebellion. As the Porfiriato had demonstrated, a strong government that could maintain order paved the way for other national benefits; however, the Constitution of 1917 sought to enshrine rights of groups that suffered under that authoritarian regime. General and President Plutarco Elías Calles succeeded Obregón in the presidency; he was another of the revolutionary generals who then became president of Mexico. An important economic achievement of the Calles administration was the 1925 founding of the Banco de México, that became the first permanent government bank (following the nineteenth-century failure of the Banco de Avío). Calles enforced the anticlerical articles of the Constitution of 1917, prompting a major outbreak of violence in the Cristero rebellion of 1926–29. Such violence in the center of the country killed tens of thousands and prompted many living in the region to migrate to the United States. For the United States, the situation was worrisome, since U.S. industrialists continued to have significant investments in Mexico and the U.S. government had a long-term desire for peace along its long southern border with Mexico. The U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Dwight Morrow, a former Wall Street banker, brokered an agreement in 1929 between the Mexican government and the Cristeros, which restored peace. The Mexican political system was again seen as fragile when in 1928 José de León Toral, a Cristero, assassinated president-elect Obregón, who would have returned to the presidency after a four-year hiatus. Calles stepped in to form in 1929 the Partido Nacional Revolucionario, the precursor to the Institutional Revolutionary Party, helped stabilize the political and economic system, creating a mechanism to manage conflicts and set the stage for more orderly presidential elections. Later that year, the U.S. stock market crashed and the Mexican economy suffered as the worldwide Great Depression took hold. It had already slowed in the 1920s, with investor pessimism and the fall of Mexican exports as well as capital flight. Even before the Great Crash of the U.S. stock market in 1929, Mexican export incomes fell between 1926 and 1928 from $334 million to $299 million (approximately 10%) and then fell even further as the Depression took hold, essentially collapsing. In 1932, GDP dropped 16%, after drops in 1927 of 5.9%, in 1928 5.4%, and 7.7%, such that there was a drop in GDP of 30.9% in a six-year period. The Great Depression brought Mexico a sharp drop in national income and internal demand after 1929. A complicating factor for Mexico–United States relations in this period was forced Mexican repatriation of undocumented Mexican workers in the U.S. at the time. The largest sector of the Mexican economy remained subsistence agriculture so that these fluctuations in the world market and the Mexican industrial sector did not affect all sectors of Mexico equally. In the mid-1930s, Mexico's economy started to recover under the General and President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940), which initiated a new phase of industrialization in Mexico. In 1934, Cárdenas created the National Finance Bank (Nacional Financiera SA (Nafinsa)). as a "semi-private finance company to sell rural real estate" but its mandate was expanded during the term of Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Avila Camacho term to include any enterprise in which the government had an interest. An important achievement of the Cárdenas presidency was "the restoration of social peace" achieved in part by not exacerbating the long simmering post-revolutionary conflict between the Mexican state and the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico, extensive redistribution of land to the peasantry, and re-organizing the party originally created by Plutarco Elías Calles into one with sectoral representation of workers, peasants, the popular sector, and the Mexican army. The Partido de la Revolución Mexicana created the mechanism to manage conflicting economic and political groups and manage national elections. Education had always been a key factor in the nation's development, with liberals enshrining secular, public education in the Constitution of 1857 and the Constitution of 1917 to exclude and counter the Roman Catholic Church from its long-standing role in education. Cárdenas founded the Instituto Politécnico Nacional in 1936 in northern Mexico City, to train professional scientists and engineers to forward Mexico's economic development. The National Autonomous University of Mexico traditionally trained lawyers and doctors, and in its colonial incarnation, it was a religiously affiliated university. UNAM has continued to be the main university for aspiring politicians to attend, at least as undergraduates, but the National Polytechnic Institute marked a significant step in reforming Mexican higher education. The railroads had been nationalized in 1929 and 1930 under Cárdenas's predecessors, but his nationalization of the Mexican petroleum industry was a major move in 1938, which created Petroleos Mexicanos or Pemex. Cárdenas also nationalized the paper industry, whose best-selling product was newsprint. In Mexico the paper industry was controlled by a single firm, the San Rafael y Anexas paper company. Since there was no well-developed capital market in Mexico ca. 1900, a single company could dominate the market. But in 1936, Cárdenas considered newsprint a strategic company and nationalized it. By nationalizing it, a company with poor prospects for flourishing could continue via government support. During the 1930s, agricultural production also rose steadily, and urban employment expanded in response to rising domestic demand. The government offered tax incentives for production directed toward the home market. Import-substitution industrialization began to make a slow advance during the 1930s, although it was not yet official government policy. To foster industrial expansion, the administration of Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–46) in 1941 reorganized the National Finance Bank. During his presidency, Mexico's economy recovered from the Depression and entered a period of sustained growth, known as the Mexican Miracle. World War II and the Mexican miracle, 1940–1970 Mexico's inward-looking development strategy produced sustained economic growth of 3 to 4 percent and modest 3 percent inflation annually from the 1940s until the 1970s. This growth was sustained by the government's increasing commitment to primary education for the general population from the late 1920s through the 1940s. The enrollment rates of the country's youth increased threefold during this period; consequently when this generation was employed by the 1940s their economic output was more productive. Additionally, the government fostered the development of consumer goods industries directed toward domestic markets by imposing high protective tariffs and other barriers to imports. The share of imports subject to licensing requirements rose from 28 percent in 1956 to an average of more than 60 percent during the 1960s and about 70 percent in the 1970s. Industry accounted for 22 percent of total output in 1950, 24 percent in 1960, and 29 percent in 1970. The share of total output arising from agriculture and other primary activities declined during the same period, while services stayed constant. The government promoted industrial expansion through public investment in agricultural, energy, and transportation infrastructure. Cities grew rapidly during these years, reflecting the shift of employment from agriculture to industry and services. The urban population increased at a high rate after 1940 (see Urban Society, ch. 2). Although growth of the urban labor force exceeded even the growth rate of industrial employment, with surplus workers taking low-paying service jobs, many Mexican laborers migrated to the United States where wages were higher. During World War II, Mexico–United States relations had improved significantly from the previous three decades. The Bracero Program was set up with orderly migration flows were regulated by both governments. However, many Mexicans could not qualify for the program and migrated north illegally, without permission from their own government and with no sanction from U.S. authorities. In the post-war period as the U.S. economy boomed and as Mexico's entered a phase of rapid industrialization, the U.S. and Mexico cooperated closely on illegal border crossings by Mexicans. For the Mexican government, this loss of labor was "a shameful exposure of the failure of the Mexican Revolution to provide economic well-being for many of Mexico's citizens, but it also drained the country of one of its greatest natural resources, a cheap and flexible labor supply." The U.S. and Mexico cooperated closely to stop the flow, including the 1954 program called Operation Wetback. In the years following World War II, President Miguel Alemán Valdés's (1946–52) full-scale import-substitution program stimulated output by boosting internal demand. The government raised import controls on consumer goods but relaxed them on capital goods, which it purchased with international reserves accumulated during the war. The government spent heavily on infrastructure. By 1950 Mexico's road network had expanded to 21,000 kilometers, of which some 13,600 were paved. Large-scale dam building for hydroelectric power and flood control were initiated, most prominently the Papaloapan Project in southern Mexico. In recent years, there has been a re-evaluation of such infrastructure projects, particularly their negative impact on the environment. Mexico's strong economic performance continued into the 1960s, when GDP growth averaged about 7 percent overall and about 3 percent per capita. Consumer price inflation averaged only 3 percent annually. Manufacturing remained the country's dominant growth sector, expanding 7 percent annually and attracting considerable foreign investment. Mining grew at an annual rate of nearly 4 percent, trade at 6 percent, and agriculture at 3 percent. By 1970 Mexico had diversified its export base and become largely self-sufficient in food crops, steel, and most consumer goods. Although its imports remained high, most were capital goods used to expand domestic production. Labor unions Before the 1990s, unions in Mexico had been historically part of a state institutional system. From 1940 until the 1980s, during the worldwide spread of neoliberalism through the Washington Consensus, the Mexican unions did not operate independently, but instead as part of a state institutional system, largely controlled by the ruling party. During these 40 years, the primary aim of the trade unions was not to benefit the workers, but to carry out the state's economic policy under their cosy relationship with the ruling party. This economic policy, which peaked in the 1950s and 60s with the so-called "Mexican Miracle", saw rising incomes and improved standards of living but the primary beneficiaries were the wealthy. In the 1980s, Mexico began adhering to Washington Consensus policies, selling off state industries such as railroad and telecommunications to private industries. The new owners had an antagonistic attitude towards unions, which, accustomed to comfortable relationships with the state, were not prepared to fight back. A movement of new unions began to emerge under a more independent model, while the former institutionalized unions had become very corrupt, violent, and led by gangsters. From the 1990s onwards, this new model of independent unions prevailed, a number of them represented by the National Union of Workers / Unión Nacional de Trabajadores. Current old institutions like the Oil Workers Union and the National Education Workers' Union (Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educación, or SNTE) are examples of how the use of government benefits are not being applied to improve the quality in the investigation of the use of oil or the basic education in Mexico as long as their leaders show publicly that they are living wealthily. With 1.4 million members, the teachers' union is Latin America's largest; half of Mexico's government employees are teachers. It controls school curriculums, and all teacher appointments. Until recently, retiring teachers routinely "gave" their lifelong appointment to a relative or "sell" it for anywhere in between $4,700 and $11,800. In 2022, Sindicato independiente nacional de trabajadores trabajadoras de la industria automotriz, SINTTIA, a union backed by American and Canadian unions won a union representation election at a General Motors plant in the city of Silao. The Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM), a union affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) which had negotiated sweet-heart contracts with GM since the opening of the plant in 1995, and an allied "independent" union received only small percentages of the vote. A worker at the plant with 10 years service reported wages of 480 pesos ($23.27) for a 12-hour shift. At Volkswagen's plant in Puebla state, the union has negotiated average pay of 600 pesos ($29.15) a day for an eight-hour shift. Deterioration in the 1970s Although the Mexican economy maintained its rapid growth during most of the 1970s, it was progressively undermined by fiscal mismanagement and by a poor export industrial sector and a resulting deterioration of the investment climate. The GDP grew more than 6 percent annually during the administration of President Luis Echeverría Álvarez (1970–76), and at about a 6 percent rate during that of his successor, José López Portillo (1976–82). But economic activity fluctuated wildly during the decade, with spurts of rapid growth followed by sharp depressions in 1976 and 1982. Fiscal expenditures combined with the 1973 oil shock to exacerbate inflation and upset the balance of payments. Moreover, President Echeverría's leftist rhetoric and actions—such as abetting land seizures by peasants—eroded investor confidence and alienated the private sector. The balance of payments disequilibrium became unsustainable as capital flight intensified, leading the government to devalue the peso by 58 percent in 1976. The action ended Mexico's twenty-year unmodified fixed exchange rate. Mexico implemented an IMF adjustment program and received financial backing from the United States. According to a 2017 study, "Key US and Mexican officials recognized that an IMF program of currency devaluation and austerity would probably fail in its stated objective of reducing Mexico's balance of payments deficit. Nevertheless, US Treasury and Federal Reserve officials, fearing that a Mexican default might lead to bank failures and subsequent global financial crisis, intervened to an unprecedented degree in the negotiations between the IMF and Mexico. The United States offered direct financial support and worked through diplomatic channels to insist that Mexico accept an IMF adjustment program, as a way of bailing out US banks. Mexican president Luis Echeverría's administration consented to IMF adjustment because officials perceived it as the least politically costly option among a range of alternatives." Although significant oil discoveries in 1976 allowed a temporary recovery, the windfall from petroleum sales also allowed continuation of Echeverría's fiscal policies. In the mid-1970s, Mexico went from being a net importer of oil and petroleum products to a significant exporter. Oil and petrochemicals became the economy's most dynamic growth sector. Rising oil income allowed the government to continue its expansionary fiscal policy, partially financed by higher foreign borrowing. Between 1978 and 1981, the economy grew more than 8 percent annually, as the government spent heavily on energy, transportation, and basic industries. Manufacturing output expanded during these years, growing by 8.2 percent in 1978, 9.3 percent in 1979, and 8.2 percent in 1980. This renewed growth rested on shaky foundations. Mexico's external indebtedness mounted, and the peso became increasingly overvalued, hurting non-oil exports in the late 1970s and leading to a second peso devaluation in 1980. Production of basic food crops stagnated and the population increase was skyrocketing, forcing Mexico in the early 1980s to become a net importer of foodstuffs. The portion of import categories subject to controls rose from 20 percent of the total in 1977 to 24 percent in 1979. The government raised tariffs concurrently to shield domestic producers from foreign competition, further hampering the modernization and competitiveness of Mexican industry. 1982 crisis and recovery The macroeconomic policies of the 1970s left Mexico's economy highly vulnerable to external conditions. These turned sharply against Mexico in the early 1980s, and caused the worst recession since the 1930s, with the period known in Mexico as La Década Perdida, "the lost decade", i.e., of economic growth. By mid-1981, Mexico was beset by falling oil prices, higher world interest rates, rising inflation, an overvalued peso, and a deteriorating balance of payments that spurred massive capital flight. This disequilibrium, along with the virtual disappearance of Mexico's international reserves—by the end of 1982 they were insufficient to cover three weeks' imports—forced the government to devalue the peso three times during 1982. Devaluation further fueled inflation and prevented short-term recovery, depressing real wages and increasing the private sector's burden in servicing its dollar-denominated debt. Interest payments on long-term debt alone were equal to 28 percent of export revenue. Cut off from additional credit, the government declared an involuntary moratorium on debt payments in August 1982, and the following month it announced the nationalization of Mexico's private banking system. By late 1982, incoming President Miguel de la Madrid reduced public spending drastically and stimulated exports to balance the national accounts. Recovery was slow to materialize, however. The economy stagnated throughout the 1980s as a result of continuing negative terms of trade, high domestic interest rates, and scarce credit. Widespread fears that the government might fail to achieve fiscal balance and have to expand the money supply and raise taxes deterred private investment and encouraged massive capital flight that further increased inflationary pressures. The resulting reduction in domestic savings impeded growth, as did the government's rapid and drastic reductions in public investment and its raising of real domestic interest rates to deter capital flight. Mexico's GDP grew at an average rate of just 0.1 percent per year between 1983 and 1988, while inflation on an average of 100%. Public consumption grew at an average annual rate of less than 2 percent, and private consumption not at all. Total investment fell at an average annual rate of 4 percent and public investment at an 11 percent pace. Throughout the 1980s, the productive sectors of the economy contributed a decreasing share to GDP, while the services sectors expanded their share, reflecting the rapid growth of the informal economy and the change from good jobs to bad ones (services jobs). De la Madrid's stabilization strategy imposed high social costs: real disposable income per capita fell 5 percent each year between 1983 and 1988. High levels of unemployment and underemployment, especially in rural areas, stimulated migration to Mexico City and to the United States. By 1988 (de la Madrid's final year as President) inflation was at last under control, fiscal and monetary discipline attained, relative price adjustment achieved, structural reform in trade and public-sector management underway, and the economy was bound for recovery. But these positive developments were inadequate to attract foreign investment and return capital in sufficient quantities for sustained recovery. A shift in development strategy became necessary, predicated on the need to generate a net capital inflow. In April 1989, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari announced his government's national development plan for 1989–94, which called for annual GDP growth of 6 percent and an inflation rate similar to those of Mexico's main trading partners. Salinas planned to achieve this sustained growth by boosting the investment share of GDP and by encouraging private investment through denationalization of state enterprises and deregulation of the economy. His first priority was to reduce Mexico's external debt; in mid-1989 the government reached agreement with its commercial bank creditors to reduce its medium- and long-term debt. The following year, Salinas took his next step toward higher capital inflows by lowering domestic borrowing costs, reprivatizing the banking system, and broaching the idea of a free-trade agreement with the United States. These announcements were soon followed by increased levels of capital repatriation and foreign investment. Due to the financial crisis that took place in 1982, the total public investment on infrastructure plummeted from 12.5% of GDP to 3.5% in 1989. After rising during the early years of Salinas' presidency, the growth rate of real GDP began to slow during the early 1990s. During 1993 the economy grew by a negligible amount, but growth rebounded to almost 4 percent during 1994, as fiscal and monetary policy were relaxed and foreign investment was bolstered by United States ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). In 1994 the commerce and services sectors accounted for 22 percent of Mexico's total GDP. Manufacturing followed at 20 percent; transport and communications at 10 percent; agriculture, forestry, and fishing at 8 percent; construction at 5 percent; mining at 2 percent; and electricity, gas, and water at 2 percent (services 80%, industry and mining 12%, agriculture 8%). Some two-thirds of GDP in 1994 (67 percent) was spent on private consumption, 11 percent on public consumption, and 22 percent on fixed investment. During 1994 private consumption rose by 4 percent, public consumption by 2 percent, public investment by 9 percent, and private investment by 8 percent. NAFTA, economic crisis, and recovery The last years of the Salinas administration were turbulent ones. In 1993 when Mexico experienced hyperinflation, Salinas stripped three zeros from the peso, creating a parity of $1 new peso for $1000 of the old ones. On 1 January 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect and on the same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) in Chiapas took several small towns, belying Mexico's assurances that the government created the conditions for stability. In March 1994, the Institutional Revolutionary Party's presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated and was replaced by Ernesto Zedillo. Salinas was loath to devalue the currency in the final months of his term, leaving to his successor to deal with the economic consequences. In December 1994 Zedillo was inaugurated. The Mexican peso crisis caused the economy to contract by an estimated 7 percent during 1995. Investment and consumption both fell sharply, the latter by some 10 percent. Agriculture, livestock, and fishing contracted by 4 percent; mining by 1 percent; manufacturing by 6 percent; construction by 22 percent; and transport, storage, and communications by 2 percent. The only sector to register positive growth was utilities, which expanded by 3 percent. The Fobaproa contingencies fund, applied during the peso crisis to protect Mexican banks, became a subject of controversy. By 1996 Mexican government and independent analysts saw signs that the country had begun to emerge from its economic recession. The economy contracted by 1 percent during the first quarter of 1996. The Mexican government reported growth of 7 percent for the second quarter, and the Union Bank of Switzerland forecast economic growth of 4 percent for 1996. The USMCA Trade Agreement In 2018 negotiations opened between the Donald Trump administration of the United States, the government of Mexico, and the government of Canada to revise and update provisions of the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement. As of April 2020, Canada and Mexico have notified the U.S. that they are ready to implement the agreement. Current trade Mexico is an integral part of the North American Free Trade Agreement and the U.S. is its top trading partner. As of 2017, Mexico's biggest imports (in U.S. dollars) came from the U.S. $307Billion; Canada $22B; China $8.98B; Germany $8.83; and Japan $5.57. Its biggest imports came from the U.S. $181B; China $52.1B; Germany $14.9B; Japan $14.8B, and South Korea $10.9B. "The economy of Mexico has an Economic Complexity Index (ECI) of 1.1 making it the 21st most complex country. Mexico exports 182 products with revealed comparative advantage (meaning that its share of global exports is larger than what would be expected from the size of its export economy and from the size of a product’s global market)." Peso–US dollar exchange 1970–2018 See also Corruption Perceptions Index Economy of Mexico Economy of Prehispanic Mexico Latin American economy Economic history of Latin America References Further reading Colonial and post-independence Tutino, John. The Mexican Heartland: How Communities Shaped Capitalism, a Nation, and World History, 1500-2000. Princeton University Press 2018. Salvucci, Richard . “Mexico: Economic History” EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. December 27, 2018. URL http://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-economic-history-of-mexico/ Colonial economy Altman, Ida. Transatlantic Ties in the Spanish Empire. Brihuega, Spain and Puebla, Mexico, 1560–1620. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2000. Altman, Ida and James Lockhart. Provinces of Early Mexico. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center 1976. Altman, Ida, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador. The Early History of Greater Mexico. Pearson 2003. Bakewell, Peter. Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546–1700. New York: Cambridge University Press 1971. Barrett, Ward. The Sugar Haciendas of the Marqueses del Valle. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1970. Baskes, Jeremy. Indians, Merchants, and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Colonial Oaxaca, 1750–1821. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2000. Booker, Jackie R. Veracruz Merchants, 1770–1829: A Mercantile Elite in Late Bourbon and Early Independent Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1988. Borah, Woodrow. Early Colonial Trade and Navigation between Mexico and Peru. Berkeley: University of California Press 1954. Borah, Woodrow. Silk Raising in Colonial Mexico. Berkeley: University of California Press 1943. D.A. Brading, Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajío: León, 1700–1860. New York: Cambridge University Press 1987. D.A. Brading Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810. New York: Cambridge University Press 1971. D.A. Brading "Mexican Silver Mining in the Eighteenth Century: The Revival of Zacatecas." Hispanic American Historical Review 50(2)1970: 665–81. D.A. Brading and Harry Cross. "Colonial Silver Mining: Mexico and Peru," Hispanic American Historical Review, 52:4(1972): 545–79. Chowning, Margaret. "The Consolidación de Vales Reales in the Bishopric of Michoacan," Hispanic American Historical Review 69:3(1989) 451–78. Cline, Sarah.The Book of Tributes. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications 1993. Costeloe, Michael P. Church Wealth in Mexico: A Study of the "Juzgado de Capellanías" in the Archbishopric of Mexico, 1800–1856. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1967. Costeloe, Michael P. Bubbles and Bonanzas: British Investors and Investments in Mexico, 1824-1860. Lexington Books, 2011. Deans-Smith, Susan. Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press 1992. Garner, Richard and Spiro E. Stafanou. Economic Growth and Change in Bourbon Mexico. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1993. Gibson, Charles. Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964. Gutierrez Brockington, Lolita. The Leverage of Labor. Managing the Cortés Haciendas in Tehuantepec, 1588–1688. Durham: Duke University Press 1989. Hamnett, Brian R. Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750–1812. New York: Cambridge University Press 1971. Haskett, Robert S. "Our Suffering with the Taxco Tribute": Involuntary Mine Labor and Indigenous Society in Central New Spain," Hispanic American Historical Review 71:3(1991) 447–75. Himmerich y Valencia, Robert. The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521–1555. Austin: University of Texas Press 1991. Hoberman, Louisa Schell. Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1590–1660. Durham: Duke University Press 1991. Kicza, John E. Colonial Entrepreneurs: Families and Business in Bourbon Mexico City. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1983. Ladd, Doris M. The Making of a Strike: Mexican Silver Workers' Struggles in Real del Monte, 1766–1775. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1988. Lavrin, Asunción "The Execution of the Law of Consolidación in New Spain: Economic Aims and Results." Hispanic American Historical Review Vol. 53, No. 1 (Feb., 1973), pp. 27–49 Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2512521 Martin, Cheryl English. Rural Society in Colonial Morelos. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985. Melville, Elinor G.K. A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997. Ouweneel, Arij. Shadows over Anahuac: An Ecological Interpretation of Crisis and Development in Central Mexico, 1730–1800. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1997. Patch, Robert W. "Agrarian Change in Eighteenth-Century Yucatan," Hispanic American Historical Review 65:1(1985)21-49. Riley, G. Michael. Fernando Cortés and the Marquesado in Morelos, 1522–1547. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1973. . Salvucci, Richard J. Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: an Economic History of the Obrajes, 1539–1840. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1987. Sampat Assadourian, Carlos. "The Colonial Economy: The Transfer of the European System of Production to New Spain and Peru," Journal of Latin American Studies Vol. 24, Quincentenary Supplement. (1992), pp. 55–68. Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. 1959. Schwaller, John Frederick. The Origins of Church Wealth in Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985. Super, John C. "Querétaro Obrajes: Industry and Society in Provincial Mexico, 1600–1810," Hispanic American Historical Review 56 (1976): 197–216. Swann, Michael M. Migrants in the Mexican North. Mobility, Economy, and Society in a Colonial World. Boulder: Westview Press 1989. Taylor, William B. Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1979. Thomson, Guy P.C. Puebla de los Angeles. Industry and Society in a Mexican City, 1700–1850. Boulder: Westview Press 1989. Tutino, John. "Life and Labor in North Mexican Haciendas: The Querétaro-San Luis Potosí Region, 1775-1810," in Elsa Cecilia Frost, Michael C. Meyer, and Josefina Zoraida Vázquez, Labor and Laborers in Mexican History. Mexico and Tucson: El Colegio de México and University of Arizona Press 1979. Van Young, Eric. Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara Region, 1675–1820. Berkeley: University of California Press 1981. Reprinted 2006, Rowman and Littlefield. West, Robert C. The Mining Community in Northern New Spain: The Parral Mining District. Berkeley: University of California Press 1949. Post-independence economy Alegre, Robert F. Railroad Radicals in Cold War Mexico: Gender, Class, and Memory. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2014. Anderson, Rodney. Outcasts in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial workers, 1906–1911. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University 1976. Armstrong, Christopher and H.V. Nelles. "A Curious Capital Flow: Canadian Investment in Mexico, 1902–1910," Business History Review 58(1984). Babb, Sarah. Managing Mexico: Economists from Nationalism to Neoliberalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2001. Beatty, Edward. Institutions and Investment: The Political Basis of Industrialization in Mexico Before 1911. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001. Bernstein, Marvin D. The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890–1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology. Albany 1964. Bortz, Jeffrey L. and Stephen Haber, eds. The Mexican Economy, 1870-1930: Essays on the Economic History of Institutions, Revolution, and Growth. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2002. Brown, Jonathan C. "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico," American Historical Review vol. 98(June 1993), pp. 786–818. Brown, Jonathan C. "Foreign Investment and Domestic Politics: British Development of Mexican Petroleum during the Porfiriato," Business History Review 61(1987), 387–416. Brown, Jonathan C. Oil and Revolution in Mexico. Berkeley: University of California Press 1992. Brunker, Steven. Creating Mexican Consumer Culture in the Age of Porfirio Diaz. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012. Coatsworth, John H. Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1981. Coatsworth, John H. "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico", American Historical Review, 83 (February 1978). Coatsworth, John H. "Economic and Institutional Trajectories in Nineteenth-Century Latin America," in Latin America and the World Economy since 1800, John H. Coatsworth and Alan M. Taylor, eds. Cambridge, Massachusetts: David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University 1998. Cosío Villegas, Daniel, et al. Historia Moderna de México, 7 vols. El Porfiriato: La vida económica, 2 parts. Mexico 1965. Fowler-Salamini, Heather. Working Women, Entrepreneurs, and the Mexican Revolution: The Coffee Culture of Córdoba, Veracruz. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2013. González Navarro, Moisés. Las huelgas textiles en el porfiriato. Puebla, Mexico 1970. Haber, Stephen H. "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation: The Mexican Economy, 1830–1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24(1992). Haber, Stephen H. Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890–1940. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1989. Haber, Stephen H., Armando Razo, and Noel Maurer. The Politics of Property Rights: Political Instability, Credible Commitments, and Economic Growth in Mexico, 1876-1929. New York: Cambridge University Press 2003. Hamilton, Nora. The Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1982. Hamilton, Nora. "Banking and Finance, 1910–40" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1 pp. 135–138. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1996. Knight, Alan. "The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution, c. 1900-1920," Journal of Latin American Studies, 16 (1984). Kouri, Emilio. A Pueblo Divided: Business, Property, and Community in Papantla, Mexico. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2004. Ludlow, Leonor and Carlos Marichal, eds. Banco y Poder en México, 1800–1925. Mexico: Grijalbo 1986. Lurtz, Casey Marina. From the Grounds Up: Building an Export Economy in Southern Mexico. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2019. . Maurer, Noel. The Power and the Money: The Mexican Financial System, 1876-1928. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2002. Maxfield, Sylvia. Governing Capital: International Finance and Mexican Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1990. Miller, Richard Ulric. "American Railroad Unions and the National Railways of Mexico: An Exercise in Nineteenth-Century Manifest Destiny," Labor History 15(1974). Moore, O. Ernesto. Evolución de las instituciones financieras en México. Mexico: Centro de Estudios Monetarios Latinomericanos 1963. Pilcher, Jeffrey. The Sausage Rebellion: Public Health, Private Enterprise, and Meat in Mexico City, 1890-1917. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2006. Pletcher, David M. "Mexico Opens the Door to American Capital, 1877–1880", The Americas XVI (1959) 1–14. Pletcher, David M. Rails, Mines, and Progress: Seven American Promoters in Mexico, 1867–1911. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1958. Potash, Robert A. Mexican Government and Industrial Development: The Banco de Avío. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 1983. Ramos Escandón, Carmen. La industria textil y el movimiento obrero en México. Mexico city 1988. Razo, Armando and Stephen Haber, "The Rate of Growth of Productivity in Mexico, 1850-1933: Evidence from the Cotton Textile Industry," Journal of Latin American Studies 30, 3 (1998), 481-517. Reynolds, Clark W. The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth. New Haven: Yale University Press 1970. Schell, William, Jr. "Money as Commodity: Mexico's Conversion to the Gold Standard, 1905." Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 12:1 (1996). Schoonover, Thomas. "Dollars Over Dominion: United States Economic Interests in Mexico, 1861-67," Pacific Historical Review vol 45, No. 1 (Feb. 1976), pp. 23–45. Smith, Robert Freeman. "The Formation and Development of the International Bankers Committee in Mexico." Journal of Economic History 23 (December 1963). Topik, Steven. "the Economic Role of the State in Liberal Regimes: Brazil and Mexico Compared, 1888–1910," in Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History, Joseph L. Love and Nils Jacobsen, eds. New York 1988, 117–44. Tutino, John. Making a New World: Founding Capitalism in the Bajío and Spanish North America. Durham: Duke University Press 2011. Tutino, John. The Mexican Heartland: How Communities Shaped Capitalism,, a Nation, and World History, 1500-2000. Princeton University Press 2017. Wionczek, Miguel S. "Industrialization, Foreign Capital, and Technology Transfer: The Mexican Experience 1930–85," Development and Change (SAGE, London, Beverly Hills, and New Delhi) Vol. 17 (1986), 283–302. Zebadúa, Emilio. Banqueros y revolucionarios: La soberania financiera de México. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económico 1994. External links Mexican Economic Crisis (80s) from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Products of Mexico and Central America from the early mid-20th century Third-Worldism
4577839	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%20Zhi%20%28philosopher%29	Li Zhi (philosopher)	Li Zhi (1527–1602), often known by his pseudonym Zhuowu (which means, “I who am smart”), was a Chinese philosopher, historian and writer of the late Ming dynasty. A critic of the Neo-Confucianist views espoused by Zhu Xi, which was then the orthodoxy of the Ming government, he was persecuted and committed suicide in prison. Biography He was born in Jinjiang, Fujian province (in modern Quanzhou). His ancestor by seven generations was Lin Nu, the son of Li Lü, a maritime merchant. Lin Nu visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, converted to Islam upon marriage to a Semu girl ("娶色目女") (who was most likely either Persian or Arab), and brought her back to Quanzhou. This was recorded in the Lin and Li genealogy《林李宗譜》. However, the new faith did not take root in his lineage and the family stopped practising Islam during the time of his grandfather. His father made a living by teaching, and Li Zhi was therefore educated from an early age. In 1551, he passed the village examinations, and five years later was appointed as a lecturer in Gongcheng (in modern Huixian, Henan Province). In 1560 he was then promoted to the Guozijian in Nanjing as a professor, but went into filial mourning, returning to his native Quanzhou. During this time he participated in the defence of the coastal city against Wokou raids. After returning from mourning in 1563, he was assigned to the Guozijian in Beijing. In 1566, he served in the Ministry of Rites in Beijing, where he became learned in Yangmingism as well as Buddhist thought. He was then assigned as a prefect of Yao'an County in Yunnan in 1577, but left his post three years later. After this, he took up a teaching post in Hubei on the invitation of Geng Dingli, but was attacked as a heretic by Dingli's brother, the scholar and official Geng Dingxiang, and eventually moved to Macheng. In 1588, he took the tonsure and became a Buddhist monk, but did not follow the ascetic lifestyle of other monks. Two years later, his work A Book to Hide was printed. He travelled during the 1590s, visiting Jining and Nanjing, where he met with Matteo Ricci and discussed the differences between Buddhist and Catholic thought. Returning to Macheng in 1600, he was again forced to leave after attacks from the local magistrate for his philosophical views. In 1602, after being accused of deceiving society with heretical ideas by Zhang Wenda and other officials of the Censorate, he was arrested and imprisoned, where he committed suicide. Having heard that he was to be exiled to his native Fujian, he cut his throat with a shaving knife which he seized from a servant. After his death, he was buried in Tongzhou, where his grave still remains. Philosophy Li Zhi's philosophy was based upon Neo-Confucianism, though he was a staunch critic of the then-orthodox Cheng-Zhu School, and indeed identified himself as a heretic. He can be seen as having been influenced by Wang Yangming (1472–1529), as well as the Taizhou School. He denied that women were inferior to men in native intelligence, and argued that many women in Chinese history, such as Wu Zetian, had actually been superior to men. However, he did not believe women should be emancipated and commended widows who chose suicide over remarriage. The Childlike Heart-Mind (tóng xīn; 童心)The childlike heart-mind is the genuine heart-mind. If one denies the childlike heart-mind, then he denies the genuine heart-mind. The childlike heart-mind is free of all falsehood and entirely genuine; it is the original mind at the very beginning of the first thought. -Li Zhi, “On the Childlike Heart-Mind”Li Zhi wrote a considerable amount on the “childlike heart-mind” (tóng xīn; 童心). Although someone of a childlike heart-mind was once considered to be someone “naive, immature, and inexperienced in the ways of the world” – and thus “bound to come to a bad end” – Li uses the term in a different sense, as evidenced by his reference to the 13th-century play The Western Chamber (Xixiang ji). In this play, a scholar and a maiden develop a somewhat “forbidden” relationship, have a clandestine and passionate love affair, push through “traditional barriers” to their love, and finally marry. In the original telling (from the Tang Period, 7th-10th century CE), these same lovers have a short-lived, passionate romance which takes a sharp downward turn when the scholar decides to leave the maiden, leaving them both with no choice but to marry other people, although not out of “true love”. In referencing this, Li argues for the ideals of the lovers in the Western Chamber, the “spontaneity, genuineness, abundance in feeling, and passionate desire”. These are all aspects of Li's childlike heart-mind. Li's works on the childlike heart-mind are thought to be “innovative” yet “muddled and inconsistent”. Some regard his seemingly incompatible ideas on the heart-mind as a relativist ethical structure “where anything goes." Pauline Lee, however, rejects this interpretation, arguing instead that Li's work is useful in allowing us to understand the cultural milieu in which he lived, and that his “philosophical vision” bears great “intrinsic value and power”. This concept of the childlike heart-mind is not unlike concepts of Li's contemporaries on similar subjects. In fact, Li may have even considered his contemporaries’ terms, namely the “original heart-mind” (ben xin), the “genuine heart-mind” (zhen xin), “pure knowing” (liang zhi), and “the infant heart-mind” (chizi zhi xin). The term “ben xin” comes from a passage in the Mengzi that says that if a person acts in accordance with their “appetitive parts,” even if it is to save their own life and even if the decision is difficult for them, then they have “lost contact” with their original heart-mind, something which Mengzi believed is a person's “greatest moral resource." Li Zhi makes a conscious decision not to use this term, preferring instead to use tong xin. This may be due in part to the fact that, while Mengzi believed that the heart-mind was something to be cultivated and nurtured, Li saw the heart-mind as something to be “preserved,” since, in his view, it is innately perfect from birth. Mengzi also thought that there was a specific “path of moral self-cultivation” and that those who had followed this path correctly would all have the same ethical attitudes, whereas Li held that there were many different ways that one could cultivate the heart-mind, particularly through the reading of certain texts or engagement in certain practices. “Zhen xin” is found in the Buddhist text the Platform Sutra, in which it is said to be analogous to the “deep concentration of oneness,” something to practice while also maintaining a lack of attachment to things. However, the heart-mind, in this view, runs the risk of becoming enmeshed with the Dao if ever it lingers in anything, if it becomes too attached. Ultimately, the heart-mind in this conception is considered to be functioning properly if it is doing things with natural ease, rather than struggling against the natural way of things (or Dao). Self-cultivation plays a role in this idea of the heart-mind, as well, through deep concentration. “Liang zhi” comes from Wang Yangming's idea of the heart-mind as something that is known through a discovery-based self-cultivation method and as being “directly manifested in a faculty of ‘pure knowing’” (a term which Mengzi used but which Wang means differently). Wang regarded pure knowing as something innately perfect, just like Li's heart-mind, but which was “clouded over” at birth, akin to the sun being obstructed by clouds. This “clouding” could be caused by one's qi if it had somehow become corrupted or soiled, so the aim was to have clear qi by exercising one's pure knowing, something which could be accomplished only through the will. “Chizi zhi xin” is a term used by Luo Rufang meaning “infant heart mind”. This idea held the “free expression of one's natural desires” in high regard. Luo believed that a person's feelings “are [their] human nature,” and so the feelings should not be “repressed” in any way. Spontaneous expression (expression without thinking about it) is also a part of the human nature, and as long as “artificial obstructions” (such as “false teachings or excessive meditation”) do not interfere, the feelings can thrive. To Li, losing the genuine mind could result in losing the genuine self, and anyone who failed to be genuine would never recover their genuine heart-mind. The childlike heart-mind is lost when anything from the outside – be those “aural and visual impressions” (even of the “Principles of the Way”), “knowledge and perceptions,” or the favor of a good reputation while masking a bad one – interferes with it. Li also believed that if a person's childlike heart-mind was “obstructed,” then whatever that person said would not come from the childlike heart-mind, and so would lack “foundation” and would not be truthful. This is because, “when childlike heart-mind is obstructed, the Principles of the Way that come from outside the self become one's heart-mind." This is a problem because, in this case, everything a person encounters and does with their physical senses is of the Principles of the Way, and so is not arising spontaneously from the childlike heart-mind. Words inspired by the Principles of the Way might sound nice or flow well, Li thought, but they wouldn't have anything to do with the person themselves. Their words would be “phony” and so the person themselves will be “phony,” and so too for everyone else until the whole world became like this, eventually leaving people unable to determine between “good” and “bad." Li felt that the childlike heart-mind's “genuine feelings and desires,” as well as the expression of these, could “connect one to an abundant and powerful source” which is too great for “phony” individuals to comprehend. Because of this, such individuals would turn away from opportunities to deepen their spiritual "vision," and face instead a life of comfort and “blindness." Li notes that early sages had so securely preserved their heart-minds that, when they read and studied the moral teachings of the Principles of the Way, they were able to protect their heart-minds. However, Li was concerned that many students would allow these same teachings to interfere with their heart-minds. This seems contradictory, given that it was the sages themselves who wrote the books of these teachings that, when read and studied, would cause the students to lose their childlike heart-mind. However, Li's justification for this reasoning is that the sages’ teachings were specific to each student, not necessarily to be used universally. He likened the teachings to medicine, not only in that each one is tailored specifically to the “patient's” needs, but also in that what helps one person might worsen the condition of another. For Li, writings such as the Analects and the Six Classics were not to be understood as the “ultimate standard for thousands of generations,” because, he proposed, these texts would not then be direct products of the childlike heart-mind. Although Li does say that the childlike heart-mind cannot return once it is lost, the aforementioned metaphor of “healing” might suggest that anyone is capable of recovering their childlike heart-mind, though perhaps not in its original condition. This is partially because our phoniness is our own doing and our own decision, and therefore is not entirely out of our control. The metaphor also reminds people that this particular kind of “health,” the recovery of the heart-mind, is relative. Each individual person has certain things that they need to do in order to remain healthy, and these practices are different from person to person. Ethics Li did not believe in rule-based ethics, but in using one's innate and sensitive “faculty of knowing” (or the “child-like heart-mind”) to read and evaluate each situation as it came and to determine from this which action to take. This does not mean that Li regarded all judgments as being entirely subjective. Consistent with his view that one should follow their heart-mind, their most genuine and spontaneous nature, he was highly critical of any actions that were taken or works which were written that did not come from this nature. While Li advocates for spontaneity and “immediate” action “without prior reflection or thought,” this does not mean that he favors completely reckless behavior. For Li, such spontaneity was possible and favorable only because the subject had (ideally) worked to preserve their childlike heart-mind. Without an intact heart-mind, such spontaneous action could be mis- or uninformed. Opinions on Fiction Writing Many of Li Zhi's contemporaries regarded fiction with disdain; true to form, however, Li disagreed and held it in high esteem. He argued that the “most exquisite literature in the world” comes from the childlike heart-mind because, if something is written from this heart-mind, then nothing is obstructed and no one is “forcing” the “structure” or “style” of their writing. Therefore, if someone composes a written work of fiction that originates from their childlike heart-mind, then this work is indeed “exquisite.” He took issue with the more popular idea that “good” prose is that which is written in a “classical” style (such as from the “pre-Qin period”). He claimed that all of the “exquisite” literature from past periods could not be seen through the lenses of their own preceding periods, and that they were notable because they were, indeed, originals. To Li, what defined the quality of certain literature was not the time in which it was written, but rather the faculty within its author from which it arose. In fact, in general Li vehemently discouraged people from regarding “ideas of antiquity” as solid, “unchanging” truth without first critically examining them, as he believed truth to be “context-dependent” and, therefore, was subject to change with one's environmental variables. He did not believe that people should adhere to “universal truths,” since, in his particularist view, there likely were none. The "Good Death" Li Zhi once wrote to his friend Kong Ruogu regarding his own death, saying, “Under no circumstances should you leave my bones for others to take care of." This is a reference to a passage of Kongzi's on what constitutes a “good death." According to Kongzi, such a death is “genuine in feeling” (therefore not “deceptive”), occurs with friends and loved ones around, and is “supported by relations and rituals constructed by culture,” not alone and away from people and social customs. The Xunzi also discusses what constitutes the “good death,” describing it as an event which is both “genuine in feeling” and “social in nature." Though Li does not employ the importance of ritual, “formality,” “social relations,” and “reverence” as part of his own ideas on the “good death,” he does incorporate some Confucian aspects of it, namely the qualities of genuineness and “sincere generosity." This comes as no surprise given that Li believed that a necessary quality of a good life is the “[attendance] to our genuine desires”. However, Li acknowledged the roles of culture and social relationships in people's daily lives, and so also believed that this single quality was not enough to secure a good life. In fact, during his periods of mourning, he followed the traditional customs, and appears to have meant it genuinely. For instance, when he returned home to bury both his grandfather and second eldest son, he expressed to Kong Ruogu his guilt over having delayed the burial of his great-grandparents by fifty years. Although this was due to insufficient funds rather than carelessness, Li insists that this is a “crime” for which “nothing can atone,” as it goes against "custom". Among Confucians, disfigurement in death was considered to be unacceptable and something to be avoided. In fact, among Confucian families it was considered a filial duty to keep the body from disfigurement. However, Li writes as if unfazed by the idea, saying that, should he die “on the road” (already an unfavorable death by Confucian standards), he should like for his body to be cremated or thrown into a river. Having been arrested in Tongzhou for behaving as a heretic and a traitor (such as by bathing with prostitutes and inviting high-class women to attend his various philosophical discussions), Li ultimately decides his own death as he awaits his trial. Still in prison, he slits his throat with a razor borrowed from a prison guard, though does not die until two days later. Whether this act was one of desperation or of courage has long been disputed, but Li's friend Yuan Zhongdao notes that, either way, Li's qi (“life energy”) must have been considerably robust in order to sustain him for those two days. Toward the end of his life, Li claimed that his having taken the tonsure did not make him feel that he was living in a way that was “superior” compared to others, as this way of life was, in his words “the only way." His reasons for having done this had nothing to do with its supposed “desirability” or with practicing the Dao, but with his aversion to being controlled. Believing that people are controlled their whole lives – and even after death (such as in burial) – Li chose to break free of this restraint by adopting the tonsure rather than returning home. He writes of this in his essay “Testimony,” assuring the reader that this decision was the “genuine intention” of his “original heart,” or his childlike heart-mind. Gender Equality Confucian feminism focused mainly on self-cultivation as a means of approaching patriarchal issues, primarily through “reading classical texts, writing poetry, engaging in discourse and debate,” and “meditation”. Li Zhi felt that, because women are inherently just as capable as men are of achieving “intellectual and spiritual development,” men and women should both have “opportunities” for self-cultivation available to them. Pauline Lee describes Li as a “particularist” in that he believes that anyone can “work to achieve” “moral knowledge,” but also that all moral judgments are relative to their “specific conditions and time." However, she notes that this does not mean that Li is content to leave women's problems of inequality as they are, as he argues against standard Confucian practices such as the “cloistering of women” in the home, or customs that denounced the remarrying of widows, or the overall subservience of women. Chinese Confucian cosmology, describing not just the order of the universe but also the order of relationships between people (the latter mirroring and even influencing the former, and vice versa), was one particular area of Confucianism which Li attacked. This cosmology involved the “elements” yin and yang which are often associated with other opposing energies, including masculine and feminine. Lee argued that yin-yang relationships, at least by the third century, were “hierarchical,” with yin as yang’s secondary subordinate. While Li maintains the traditional Confucian idea of the cosmos as emanating from one original source, he sees this creation as “cooperative,” with yin and yang working together to produce the universe rather than one force being the initiator for the secondary force to follow. He also held the Confucian idea of the family and society as reflections of the cosmos (and vice versa), but again his view was more binary than monistic, believing there to be no hierarchy in creation and, therefore, no hierarchy in male-female or husband-wife relationships. Li also challenges the hierarchical notion of the five essential Confucian relationships (father-son, ruler-subject, husband-wife, old-young, and friend-friend), all of which, aside from friendship, were based on power imbalance. He does this by arguing in his letter “Discussion on Husband and Wife” that societal order is dependent upon the husband-wife relationship as its “ultimate source,” and so this particular relationship should be seen as one between friends who have willingly decided to work together. Not surprisingly, Li had a more egalitarian view of gender relationships than did traditional Confucian thinkers, regarding such relationships as “complementary." He saw men and women as intellectual and spiritual equals, with equal capabilities for self-cultivation in these areas. It is worth it to note that Li did not discuss gender equality in the area of moral development, though this may be due to the fact that, for much of Chinese history, women appeared to have superior moral capacities by nature. Although the popular belief at the time was that women could not understand the Way due to their supposedly inherent “shortsightedness,” Li Zhi disagreed. To Li, someone who is shortsighted is concerned only with what happens within their lifetime, such as the events of their offspring and what happens to their physical body. A farsighted person, however, considers what is beyond that, “transcending” not only the body but also the “superficial appearances of life and death” while also turning their attention away from mindless chatter and prejudices and toward the teachings of the sages, which encouraged a more unbiased perspective. Li argued that, although men and women are different, their vision is not; that is, there is no vision that is either “male” or “female,” as “vision" in the way that Li meant it, is not gendered. This means that shortsightedness is not inherently female, nor is farsightedness inherently male. Li illustrates this point by describing a hypothetical situation in which there is someone with “a woman's body and a man's vision,” someone who is both female and not only values engaging in conversation of the “transcendent,” but also understands that attachment to the ever-changing things of the material world is not worthwhile. He makes reference to notable “farsighted” women of the past, such as Yi Jiang (King Wu's ninth minister) and Wen Mu (also known as Tai Si, King Wen's consort and a “sage” whose “virtuous behavior” set such a high standard that it “rectified” the customs of the southern regions). Li Zhi asserts that it is only a shortsighted man who would anger at the idea of women being farsighted, and that a truly farsighted man would neither engage with nor desire the approval of shortsighted men (for, if he did, it would only make him one such shortsighted, “small-minded” man himself). Literary works Li was a notable author of the xiaopin, a form of short essay. His philosophical works included A Book to Burn and A Book to Keep (Hidden). A Book to Burn and A Book to Keep (Hidden) A Book to Burn is composed of Li's responses to questions from friends (“soul friends,” he calls them) in which he offers criticism of what he considers to be mistakes of the contemporary scholars of the day. Li wanted to print this book because of the possibility that it would make its way to those who might be interested in his ideas. Though he feared being killed by dissenters for what he'd written, he was nevertheless optimistic that someone might read his work and understand what he meant. Li also writes of the relationship between married couples in this text, describing “loving-kindness” as being particularly “profound." He discusses how the intimacy that is cultivated within such a relationship extends beyond sex and even friendship by virtue of both parties having struggled and “sacrificed” together. He waxes poetic about his late wife, praising her “feminine” virtues, which, in Confucianism, referred to “womanly virtue, womanly speech, womanly appearance, and womanly work." A Book to Keep (Hidden) gives accounts of thousands of years of good and bad deeds from antiquity to the current age. By Li's own advice, it cannot be read by those who possess “eyes of flesh” (a Buddhist term indicating the “most mundane form of vision” characteristic of someone unenlightened). References Bibliography and further reading Qingliang Chen. Li Zhi (1527-1602) and his Literary Thought. 1999. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Master's Thesis. L. Carrington Goodrich and Chanying Fang, eds., Dictionary of Ming Biography 1368-1644, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), II: 807-818 Phillip Grimberg, Dem Feuer geweiht: Das Lishi Fenshu des Li Zhi (1527–1602). Uebersetzung, Analyse, Kommentar. Marburg: 2014, 442pp. Rivi Handler-Spitz, Pauline C. Lee, Haun Saussy. A Book to Burn & a Book to Keep (Hidden): Selected Writings of Li Zhi. 2016. Ray Huang, 1587: A Year of No Significance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 189–221. Pauline C. Lee Li Zhi (1527–1602): A Confucian Feminist of Late-Ming China. 2002. Stanford University, PhD Dissertation. Pauline C. Lee Li Zhi, Confucianism, and the Virtue of Desire Albany NY: SUNY, 2012. Mair, Victor H. (ed.) (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. . (Amazon Kindle edition.) Marie Laure de Shazer, Le Club des Confucéens et Lizhi, le Mal Aimé en Chine (French Edition) Jean François Billeter, Li Zhi, philosophe maudit, Geneva, Droz, (1979), 1527 births 1602 deaths 16th-century Chinese people 17th-century Chinese philosophers Chinese Confucianists Chinese people of Iranian descent Deified Chinese people Ming dynasty essayists Ming dynasty philosophers 16th-century Chinese philosophers Ming dynasty scholars Neo-Confucian scholars People from Jinjiang, Fujian Philosophers from Fujian Writers from Fujian Suicides by sharp instrument in China Chinese people who died in prison custody Prisoners who died in Chinese detention People who died by suicide in prison custody Yao'an County Chinese Yangming Scholars
4578009	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona%20State%20Sun%20Devils	Arizona State Sun Devils	The Arizona State Sun Devils are the athletic teams that represent Arizona State University. ASU has nine men's and eleven women's varsity teams competing at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level as a member of the Pac-12 Conference. The mascot was adopted in 1946; earlier nicknames were the Normals and later, the Bulldogs. The Sun Devil mascot, Sparky, was designed by former Disney illustrator Bert Anthony. ASU's chief rival is the University of Arizona Wildcats, and both universities' athletics departments compete against each other in the Territorial Cup Series. On August 4, 2023, Arizona State accepted an invite to join the Big 12 Conference, effective August 2, 2024. Notable athletic achievements ASU has 24 NCAA team national championships, including baseball (five times), women's tennis (three times), men's gymnastics (one), men's track and field (one), men's indoor track and field (one), women's outdoor track and field (two times), women's indoor track and field (one), wrestling (one), men's golf (two times), women's golf (eight times), and softball (two times). ASU also has numerous individual NCAA national champions in different sports. Additionally, the baseball team has appeared in the College World Series 22 times, the men's basketball team has participated in 13 NCAA tournaments, and the ASU football team won the Rose Bowl in 1987 and the Fiesta Bowl in 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, and 1982. ASU varsity teams won national championships in men's archery 15 times, women's archery 21 times, mixed archery 20 times, men's badminton 13 times, women's badminton 17 times, mixed badminton 10 times and triathlon four times, all of which are not recognized by the NCAA. Sports Arizona State University currently sponsors teams in 11 men's and 15 women's NCAA sanctioned sports, following the 2015 elevation of the men's ice hockey club team to varsity status. In the fall of 2015, Arizona State announced the addition of women's triathlon and women's lacrosse. Triathlon began competition in the fall of 2016, with lacrosse starting competition in the spring of 2018. In spring 2016, ASU announced the reinstatement of men's tennis, which had been dropped after the 2007–08 school year. Football The Sun Devils played in the Border Conference between 1931 and 1961, before joining the Western Athletic Conference. Led by head coach Frank Kush, the Sun Devils posted a 64–9 record between 1970 and 1975, culminating in a 17–14 upset of the Nebraska Cornhuskers in the 1975 Fiesta Bowl. After the 2006 season, Dirk Koetter was fired after six seasons, and on December 6, 2006, athletic director Lisa Love hired Dennis Erickson to become the head coach at ASU. Erickson, in his first year as coach of the Arizona State Sun Devils, led the team to 10 wins, a share of the Pac-10 title with USC, and the Holiday Bowl against the University of Texas Longhorns. Erickson was fired on November 28, 2011, after five seasons with the Sun Devils. He was replaced by coach Todd Graham on December 14, 2011. Love was fired from her position as vice president for University Athletics and athletics director on March 28, 2012, and was immediately replaced by Steve Patterson. The current athletics director since 2014 has been Ray Anderson, who selected former NFL player and coach Herm Edwards to replace Graham as Arizona State's head coach in 2018. In Edwards’ first season in 2018, the Sun Devils went 5–1 at home including two Top-15 upsets over Michigan State and Utah. Notable football alumni include Terrell Suggs, Jim Jeffcoat, Mike Pagel, Jake Plummer, Todd Heap, J.R. Redmond, Danny White, Randall McDaniel, David Fulcher, Darren Woodson, Pat Tillman, Eric Allen, Zach Miller, Shaun McDonald, John Jefferson, Paul Justin, Jimmy Verdon, Mike Haynes, Al Harris, Vontaze Burfict, Ryan Torain, Brock Osweiler, Jaelen Strong, Curley Culp and N'Keal Harry. Men's basketball The Arizona State Sun Devils have appeared in the NCAA tournament 17 times, including 3 Elite Eights (1961, 1963, 1975). They have won 8 conference championships (4 WAC and 4 BOR) and finished in the final AP rankings 7 times. The highest national ranking the Sun Devils have achieved was No. 3 under Ned Wulk during the 1980–81 season when the starting lineup included Byron Scott, Fat Lever, and Alton Lister. Ned Wulk was the men's basketball coach from 1958 to 1982 and remains the most successful coach in the history of the program with a record of 406 – 272 (.599). Arizona State appeared in the NAIA Men's Basketball National Tournament two years (1948 and 1953). In both years they lost in the second round, leaving the NAIA with a tournament record of 2–2. Bobby Hurley is the current head coach of the Sun Devils, leading Arizona State to a 12–0 non-conference record in 2017, and a signature win over the #1 ranked Kansas Jayhawks on December 22, 2018 – the first win over a top ranked team at home in program history. Herb Sendek stepped down as head coach of the North Carolina State Wolfpack and accepted the head coaching job at Arizona State in 2006. Sendek took the Wolfpack to five consecutive NCAA Tournaments and also won ACC coach of the year in 2004. Sendek was credited for bringing a "basketball atmosphere" and level of excitement to the ASU campus that had been absent for years. In his first four seasons at ASU, Sendek led the Sun Devils to three consecutive 20 win seasons, the 2009 Pac-10 conference tournament finals, and the second round of the NCAA tournament. Thirty-six ASU Sun Devils have been selected in the NBA draft, including future NBA Most Valuable Player James Harden, Byron Scott, Isaac Austin, Mark Landsberger, Lafayette Lever, Alton Lister, Lionel Hollins, Sam Williams, Jeff Ayres (known as Jeff Pendergraph when he played at ASU), Stevin "Hedake" Smith, Mario Bennett, Tommy Smith, Ike Diogu, Eddie House. Freddie Lewis, and Joe Caldwell. Paul Stovall was a Charles Barkley type standout with a dominating presence on the court but his non-conducive actions off the court limited his notoriety. Baseball ASU has one of the most successful baseball programs in the country. The Sun Devils have won five national championships (1965, 1967, 1969, 1977, 1981), the fourth most by any school, and have the third most College World Series victories with 61. ASU baseball has won 21 conference championships (including four consecutive Pac-10 titles from 2007 to 2010) and reached the College World Series 22 times. The Sun Devils have also reached the NCAA tournament 41 times, most recently in 2021. Starting with Rick Monday as the No. 1 pick of the first ever Major League Baseball draft in '65, ASU leads all schools with 459 total picks. ASU also has the third most alumni to ever play in Major League Baseball. Notable baseball alumni include Barry Bonds, Paul Lo Duca, Fernando Viña, Dustin Pedroia, Mike Leake, Andre Ethier, Willie Bloomquist, Bob Horner, Sal Bando, Ike Davis, Jason Kipnis, Brett Wallace, Ian Kinsler, Hubie Brooks, Hunter Bishop, and Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson. Women's basketball The Arizona State Sun Devils have appeared in the NCAA tournament 17 times, including 7 Sweet Sixteens (1982, 1983, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2015, 2019) and 2 Elite Eights (2007, 2009). They have produced WNBA talent such as Kym Hampton, Briann January, Dymond Simon, Monique Ambers, Promise Amukamara, Amanda Levens, Sophie Brunner, Emily Westerberg, and more. Under head coach Charli Turner Thorne, the program has become one of the best in the country. She is currently the winningest coach in ASU history, leading the Sun Devils to two conference championships and 14 NCAA Tournaments in her tenure. Beach volleyball Arizona State began their Sand Volleyball program in 2014. It officially became an NCAA Championship sport in 2016, as they changed the sport's name to Beach Volleyball. ASU is currently one of nine schools to play Beach Volleyball in the Pac-12 Conference, along with Arizona, California, Stanford, Oregon, UCLA, USC, Utah, and Washington. In their first four seasons, the Sun Devils have had three head coaches. Jason Watson led ASU for two seasons from 2014 to 2015, Jackie Bunker for one season in 2016, and Brad Keenan starting in 2017. Completed in February 2022, ASU opened their new Sun Devil Beach Volleyball Facility on the Tempe campus. It cost $1.2 million and includes four courts. It's located just East of the Alberta B. Farrington Softball Stadium. Home matches were originally hosted at the PERA Club, which is located on 1 E. Continental Dr. Tempe, Arizona 85281. The PERA Club (short for Project Employees Recreation Association) is a private country club for employees and families of the Salt River Project, the major water and power utility in Phoenix and surrounding cities. It now holds three volleyball courts after completing major renovations to accommodate the Sun Devil Volleyball team. Gymnastics Led by 30+ year coach John Spini, the Sun Devils women's Gymnastics team has had many strong years in his reign with many all-American Gymnasts to Spinis credit as well as a facility named after Spini. Below is the history of top qualifiers coach has had as well as his predecessors at ASU. Jean-Luc Cairon served as an assistant coach for the women's gymnastics team. Jay Santos is currently the head coach, while his wife, Jessica Santos is an associate coach for Sun Devil Gymnastics. Lacrosse Arizona State University began their Women's Lacrosse program during the 2018 season. ASU is currently one of fourteen schools to play Women's Lacrosse in the Pac-12 Conference, along with California, Colorado, Oregon, Stanford, and USC. Courtney Martinez Connor became Head Coach starting with the 2018 campaign, while Tim McCormack was named Head Coach beginning with the 2020 season. Home games for the Arizona State Sun Devils are played at Sun Devil Soccer Stadium in Tempe, Arizona. During their inaugural season in 2018, the Sun Devils finished (6–12) overall, (1–9) in Pac-12 play, (1–6) at home, (5–5) on the road, and (0–1) in neutral site games. ASU completed the 2019 campaign (6–12) overall, (2–8) in Pac-12 play, (4–6) at home, (2–5) on the road, and (0–1) in neutral site contests. The Devils finished the shortened 2020 season (5-3) overall, (1-1) in Pac-12 play, (3-1) at home, and (2-2) on the road. Arizona State completed the 2021 campaign (10-6) overall, (5-4) in Pac-12 play, (6-2) at home, (3-3) on the road, and (1-1) in neutral site games. The Sun Devils finished the 2022 season (11-8) overall, (7-3) in Pac-12 play, (7-3) at home, and (4-5) on the road. Softball One of the nation's founding programs, the two-time NCAA national champion Sun Devils are in their 45th season on the diamond. ASU has recorded twenty-seven seasons of 30 or more wins and twelve with 40 or more, including an all-time high of 66 wins in 2008. The Sun Devils have appeared in 23 NCAA tournaments (33 postseason bids overall) and have made nine trips to the Women's College World Series. Prior to the current NCAA format, ASU went to seven WCWS, claiming back-to-back national titles in 1972 and 1973. Arizona State's storied tradition of softball excellence continues to flourish under head coach Clint Myers, who has led the Sun Devils to two NCAA national championships. Myers joined Linda Vollstedt (women's golf – 7), Greg Kraft (women's track & field indoor – 2, women's track & field outdoor – 1, men's indoor track & field – 1), Bobby Winkles (baseball – 3) and Jim Brock (baseball – 2) as Sun Devil coaches with more than one NCAA title. The Sun Devils capped off the 2008 season with their first WCWS NCAA national championship on June 3, 2008. Kaitlin Cochran hit a three-run home run, Katie Burkhart pitched a four-hitter and Arizona State routed Texas A&M 11–0 to win the title. Cochran slammed the first pitch from Megan Gibson over the left field fence in the fifth inning to give the sixth-seeded Sun Devils a 4–0 lead in the fifth inning. The margin ended up matching the second-most lopsided game in Women's College World Series history. On June 7, 2011, the Sun Devils captured their second NCAA national championship by defeating the Florida Gators. ASU pitcher, Dallas Escobedo, became the first freshman pitcher to lead a team to the NCAA title since 1990. Track and field Entering his 19th season, Greg Kraft is the current head coach of the Track and Field team. During his tenure the Sun Devils have won 4 NCAA Championships, 32 NCAA individual titles and produced 13 Olympians. As part of being in the Pac-12 Conference, ASU competes with UCLA, UC Berkeley, University of Stanford, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Arizona, and other schools that are in Pac-12. Among the all-time Pac-12 records, three of the top ten times in the men's 4x400 relay are held by ASU (2004, 2004, 2005). The women currently hold three of the top ten spots in the 400m (1991, 2004, 2015). Notable Sun Devil alumni include Olympian Dwight Phillips (Long Jump Gold Medal at 2004 Olympic games). ASU has a history producing top competitive athletes to compete in the Olympics even before 2004. Golf The Arizona State golf teams use Papago Golf Course as their home course. They play and practice, as of September 2019 at The Thunderbird Golf Complex, and the Phil and Amy Mickelson Player Development Practice Facility. In 1960, 1962, 1969 and 1970, JoAnne Gunderson, Carol Sorenson, Jane Bastanchury and Cathy Gaughan, respectively, won the women's intercollegiate individual golf championship (an event conducted by the Division of Girls' and Women's Sports, which was succeeded by the current NCAA women's golf championship). In 1975, the ASU women's golf team won the AIAW national championship. Monica Vaughn won the NCAA women's individual golf championship in 2017. The women's golf team has won 8 national championships (1990, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2009, & 2017). There have been 10 women's individual champions in school history (1960 Joanne Gunderson-Carner, 1962 Carol Sorenson, 1969 Jane Bastanchury-Booth, 1970 Cathy Gaughan, 1985 Danielle Ammaccapane, 1994 Emilee Klein, 1995 Kristel Mourgue d'Algue, 1999 Grace Park, 2008 Azahara Munoz, & 2017 Monica Vaughn). ASU women's golf has had 5 winners of the Honda Award (1994 Wendy Ward, 1995 Wendy Ward, 1998 Kellee Booth, 1999 Grace Park, & 2017 Monica Vaughn). Arizona State has had 5 coaches win the WGCA National Coach of the Year (1989 Linda Vollstedt, 1994 Linda Vollstedt, 1995 Linda Vollstedt -(Co-Winner), 2009 Melissa Luellen, & 2017 Missy Farr-Kaye). The Sun Devils have also claimed 5 winners of the Golfweek National Coach of the Year (1993 Linda Vollstedt, 1994 Linda Vollstedt, 1995 Linda Vollstedt, 1997 Linda Vollstedt, & 2017 Missy Farr-Kaye). The men's golf team has won 20 conference championships: Border Conference (5): 1935, 1957–59, 1961 Western Athletic Conference (3): 1969, 1971, 1978 Pac-12 Conference (12): 1979, 1981, 1989–90, 1993, 1995–2000, 2008 They won NCAA regional championships in 1991 (co-champions), 1995, 1998 (co-champions), 1999, 2001, and 2009. They won the NCAA Division I Championship in 1990 and 1996 while claiming six individual titles: Jim Carter (1983), Phil Mickelson (1989, 1990, 1992), Todd Demsey (1993), and Alejandro Cañizares (2003). The ASU women's golf program is the most successful is NCAA history with eight NCAA Division I national championships, most recently in 2017. Notable golf alumni include Paul Casey, Bob Gilder, Matt Jones, Billy Mayfair, Phil Mickelson (6 time major champion), Mike Morley, Tom Purtzer, Jeff Quinney, Jon Rahm, Chez Reavie, Howard Twitty, JoAnne Carner, Heather Farr, Giulia Molinaro, Azahara Muñoz, Anna Nordqvist, Grace Park, Pearl Sinn and Wendy Ward. Former students of Arizona State University top the all time money list for PGA tour career earnings. Phil Mickelson ($92.2M), Paul Casey ($32.2M), Pat Perez ($26.8M), Jon Rahm ($23.6M), Billy Mayfair ($20.3M), Chez Reavie ($16.7M), Matt Jones ($13.4M), Dan Forsman ($8.7M), Jim Carter ($4.8M), Tom Purtzer ($4.2M), Bob Gilder ($3.0M), Grayson Murray ($2.9M), Howard Twitty ($2.7M), John Adams ($2.0M), Morris Hatalsky ($1.7M) and Mike Morley ($526K) have collectively earned $255,706,471 from 89 wins. Wrestling The Sun Devil wrestling team have captured one NCAA team national championship (1988) beating out powerhouse Iowa for the title, followed by two years of national runners-up in 1989 and 1990, losing out to Oklahoma State both years. The Sun Devil wrestling team has produced eight individual NCAA champions and over 100+ All-American wrestling honors in its history. Notable wrestling alumni include several Mixed Martial Arts stars, such as: Dan Severn (inductee to UFC Hall of Fame), Don Frye, Cain Velasquez (former UFC Heavyweight Champion), Ryan Bader, Aaron Simpson, Dan Henderson, John Moraga, Clifford Starks, C.B. Dollaway, and Bubba Jenkins (2011 157 lbs NCAA Champion). Other notable wrestlers include: Anthony Robles (2011 125 lbs NCAA Champion with one leg), Curley Culp (1967 NCAA Heavyweight Champion and member of Pro Football Hall of Fame), and Zahid Valencia (two-time NCAA Champion). Eight Sun Devil wrestlers have participated at the Olympics, most recently in the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. There have been two Olympic silver medalists from Arizona State; Zeke Jones and Townsend Saunders. Six Sun Devil wrestlers have participated in the World Championships of Wrestling since 1985 (on 16 occasions). Those wrestlers placed in the top 10 a total of ten times, including Zeke Jones, who was the 1991 World Champion at 52 kg or 114.6 pounds. Ice hockey ASU announced plans to transition their ACHA men's hockey program to an NCAA varsity program on November 18, 2014. The Sun Devils continued play in the ACHA in 2014–15, played a hybrid schedule in 2015–16 with a mix of NCAA and ACHA competition, and played as a Division I independent in 2016–17 with plans to join a conference in 2017–18. The National Collegiate Hockey Conference, Western Collegiate Hockey Association, and Big Ten were all seen as potential landing spots for Arizona State. However, no conference move materialized until 2023, when ASU was announced as the newest NCHC member effective with the 2024–25 season. The ASU hockey team has a proud history of ACHA hockey. The highlight included winning the 2013–2014 ACHA National Championship, beating Robert Morris 3–1 to win its first national championship in hockey. The team is led by Coach Greg Powers. Coach Powers enters his eighth overall season on the Sun Devil coaching staff and his first as head coach of ASU's NCAA Division I Hockey program. In the 2013–2014 season, coach Powers helped guide the Sun Devils to their first ever ACHA Division I National Championship. He holds a 164–27–9 career record, and his team ended the 2014–2015 season ranked number three in the ACHA with a 35–4–1 record, qualifying for the team's third-straight ACHA Division I Final Four. Since taking the reins as head coach, Greg has also coached eight ACHA Div. I All-Americans and 15 ACHA Academic All-Americans. Coach Powers has helped lead Sun Devil Hockey to five consecutive ACHA National Tournament appearances, starting with his first year as head coach in 2010. In 2012–2013, he led ASU to a new program best record and first ever 30 plus win season with a record of 35–8–1, its first ever Final Four Appearance, first ever National Ranking of No. 1, and a benchmark win over NCAA DI Penn State. During the 2013–2014 season, ASU Hockey won the ACHA DI National Championship, with Powers named ACHA DI National Coach of the Year. The Sun Devils were also named WCHL Conference Champions both for 2013–2014 and 2014–2015, and Powers was named WCHL Coach of the Year for 2013–2014. Powers was also named an ACHA Division I National Coach of the Year finalist in 2012–2013, and 2014–2015. Since 2009, Coach Power's ASU hockey teams held a 37-game winning streak over the rival college hockey team located in Tucson, Arizona. Notable non-varsity sports Rugby Founded in 1975, the Arizona State University men's rugby team has played college rugby in Division 1 of the Gold Coast Conference, which is part of American College Rugby, the USA Rugby-sanctioned governing body of Division I-AA, II and III college rugby since the summer of 2019. The Sun Devils formerly played in the Division 1-A PAC Rugby Conference, which is part of the College Rugby Association of America (also sanctioned by USA Rugby), in which their rivals included Pac-12 foes such as Arizona and UCLA. With 98 registered players, Arizona State was ranked as the largest college rugby program in the United States in 2009. Arizona State was led by head coach Gary Lane from 2001 until 2017, when he agreed to resign in compliance with a disciplinary action taken by D-I Rugby (the College Rugby Association of America) in response to a violent on-field incident involving an ASU player. The team is currently coached by Pieter Hugo. Arizona State was regularly ranked in the Top 25 in the country during its time as a Division I-A program. Arizona State's rugby sevens program has been successful in the Collegiate Rugby Championship, the highest profile college rugby tournament in the country, where they finished tenth in the 2010 tournament. Arizona State also participated in the 2013 USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships, where they went 5–1 and finished ninth. Championships NCAA team championships Arizona State has won 24 NCAA team national championships. Men (11) Baseball (5): 1965, 1967, 1969, 1977, 1981 Golf (2): 1990, 1996 Gymnastics (1): 1986 Indoor Track & Field (1): 2008 Outdoor Track & Field (1): 1977 Wrestling (1): 1988 Women (13) Golf (8): 1990, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2009, 2017 Indoor Track and Field (2): 2007, 2008 Outdoor Track and Field (1): 2007 Softball (2): 2008, 2011 see also: Pac-12 Conference NCAA championships List of NCAA schools with the most NCAA Division I championships List of NCAA schools with the most Division I national championships Other national team championships Arizona State has 18 DGWS/AIAW team national championships: Women (18) Badminton (7): 1971, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981 Golf (1): 1975 Softball (2): 1972, 1973 Swimming (8): 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1977, 1978 Below are 105 national team titles won by varsity and club sports teams at the highest collegiate levels in other non-NCAA competition: Men (32) Archery (16): 1969, 1974, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Badminton (13): 1978, 1980, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Bowling (1): 1981 Karate (1): 1981 Paintball (1): 2005 (Div. AA) Women (40) Archery (22): 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Badminton (10): 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Bowling (1): 1981 Racquetball (1): 2007 Rodeo (1): 1966 Tennis (3): 1971, 1972, 1974 Triathlon (6): 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022 Combined (34) Archery (20): 1969, 1970, 1971, 1974, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Badminton (10): 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Wakeboarding (3): 2013, 2014 (both College and Wake); 2014 (USA Wakeboard) Waterskiing (1): 2001 Rivalries A strong academic and athletic rivalry exists between the University of Arizona and Arizona State University. Arizona State University fields the more accomplished baseball team with five College World Series national championships (1965, 1967, 1969, 1977 and 1981) to the University of Arizona's four College World Series national championships (1976, 1980, 1986, and 2012). , the schools have met 432 times on the baseball diamond, dating back over 100 years to the first contest in 1907. Arizona, recognizing victories against club teams (ASU did not adopt varsity baseball until 1959) claims the all-time series 241–208–1. ASU, recognizing only varsity baseball competition (beginning in 1959), claims a 189–123 edge in the all-time series (). The annual football rivalry game between the two schools is known as "The Duel in the Desert." It is one of the most heated rivalries in college football. The University of Arizona has the all-time series lead with a record of 49–45–1 dating back to the time when ASU was the Tempe Normal Owls and Teacher's College Bulldogs. The school adopted the moniker, the Sun Devils, on November 20, 1946. The trophy awarded after each game, the Territorial Cup, is the nation's oldest rivalry trophy. It is currently held by the University of Arizona. In 2009, State Farm introduced the sponsored "State Farm Territorial Cup" for the two schools. Arizona won the inaugural season of the series 10.5 points to 7.5. The ASU wrestling team has been dominant over the UA Wildcats with a record of 28–8 all time. The University of Arizona no longer has a wrestling program. ASU athletic facilities Alberta B. Farrington Softball Stadium Desert Financial Arena John Spini Gymnastics Center Karsten Golf Course Mona Plummer Aquatic Center Mullett Arena Phoenix Municipal Stadium Sun Angel Stadium, Joe Selleh Track Sun Devil Soccer Stadium Mountain America Stadium The Verde Dickey Dome Weatherup Center Whiteman Tennis Center References External links College sports in Arizona Sports in Phoenix, Arizona
4578255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20history%20of%20Australia%20during%20World%20War%20II	Military history of Australia during World War II	Australia entered World War II on 3 September 1939, following the government's acceptance of the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Nazi Germany. Australia later entered into a state of war with other members of the Axis powers, including the Kingdom of Italy on 11 June 1940, and the Empire of Japan on 9 December 1941. By the end of the war, almost a million Australians had served in the armed forces, whose military units fought primarily in the European theatre, North African campaign, and the South West Pacific theatre. In addition, Australia came under direct attack for the first time in its post-colonial history. Its casualties from enemy action during the war were 27,073 killed and 23,477 wounded. Many more suffered from tropical disease, hunger, and harsh conditions in captivity; of the 21,467 Australian prisoners taken by the Japanese, only 14,000 survived. Australian Army units were gradually withdrawn from the Mediterranean and Europe following the outbreak of war with Japan. However, Royal Australian Air Force and Royal Australian Navy units and personnel continued to take part in the war against Germany and Italy. From 1942 until early 1944, Australian forces played a key role in the Pacific War, making up the majority of Allied strength throughout much of the fighting in the South West Pacific theatre. While the military was largely relegated to subsidiary fronts from mid-1944, it continued offensive operations against the Japanese until the war ended. World War II contributed to major changes in the nation's economy, military and foreign policy. The war accelerated the process of industrialisation, led to the development of a larger peacetime military and began the process with which Australia shifted the focus of its foreign policy from Britain to the United States. The final effects of the war also contributed to the development of a more diverse and cosmopolitan Australian society. Outbreak of war Between World War I and World War II Australia suffered greatly from the Great Depression which started in 1929. This limited Australian defence expenditure and led to a decline in the size and effectiveness of the armed forces during the 1930s. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster granted the Australian government independence in foreign affairs and defence. Nevertheless, from the mid-1930s, Australian governments generally followed British policy towards Nazi Germany, supporting first the appeasement of Hitler and the British guarantee of Polish independence. Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies asked the British government to notify Germany that Australia was an associate of the United Kingdom. On 3 September 1939, Britain declared war when its ultimatum for Germany to withdraw from Poland expired. Because the Statute of Westminster had not yet been ratified by the Australian parliament, any declaration of war by the UK applied to Australia by default. After the British informed Menzies of the declaration of war, the Governor-General of Australia issued a proclamation of the existence of war in Australia. Menzies' support for the war was based on the notion of an imperial defence system, upon which he believed Australia relied and which would be destroyed if the UK was defeated. This position was generally accepted by the Australian public, although there was little enthusiasm for war. At the time war broke out in Europe, the Australian armed forces were less prepared than at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914. The Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the best-prepared of the three services, was small and equipped with only two heavy cruisers, four light cruisers, two sloops, five obsolete destroyers and a number of small and auxiliary warships. The Australian Army comprised a small permanent cadre of 3,000 men and 80,000 part-time militiamen who had volunteered for training with the Citizen Military Forces (CMF). The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), the weakest of the services, had 246 aircraft, few of them modern. While the Commonwealth Government began a large military expansion and transferred some RAAF aircrew and units to British control upon the outbreak of war, it was unwilling to immediately dispatch an expeditionary force overseas due to the threat posed by Japanese intervention. The first Australian shot of the war took place several hours after the declaration of war when a gun at Fort Queenscliff fired across the bows of an Australian ship that failed to identify itself as it attempted to leave Melbourne without required clearances. On 10 October 1939, a Short Sunderland of No. 10 Squadron, based in England for re-equipment, became the first Australian and the first Commonwealth air-force unit to go into action when it undertook a mission to Tunisia. On 15 September 1939 Menzies announced the formation of the Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF). This expeditionary force initially consisted of 20,000 men organised into an infantry division (the 6th Division) and auxiliary units. The AIF was institutionally separate from the CMF, which was legally restricted to service in Australia and its external territories, and was formed by raising new units rather than transferring CMF units. On 15 November, Menzies announced the reintroduction of conscription for home-defence service, effective 1 January 1940. Recruitment for the AIF was initially slow, but one in six men of military age had enlisted by March 1940, and a huge surge of volunteers came forward after the fall of France in June 1940. Men volunteered for the AIF for a range of reasons, with the most common being a sense of duty to defend Australia and the British Empire. In early 1940, each of the services introduced regulations which prohibited the enlistment of people not "substantially of European origin"; while these regulations were strictly enforced by the RAN and Army, the RAAF continued to accept small numbers of non-European Australians. The AIF's major units were raised between 1939 and 1941. The 6th Division formed during October and November 1939, and embarked for the Middle East in early 1940 to complete its training and to receive modern equipment after the British Government assured the Australian Government that Japan did not pose an immediate threat. The division was intended to join the British Expeditionary Force in France when its preparations were complete, but this did not eventuate as Axis forces conquered France before the division was ready. A further three AIF infantry divisions (the 7th Division, 8th Division and 9th Division) were raised in the first half of 1940, as well as a corps headquarters (I Corps) and numerous support and service units. All of these divisions and the majority of the support units deployed overseas during 1940 and 1941. An AIF armoured division (the 1st Armoured Division) was also raised in early 1941 but never left Australia. While the Government initially planned to deploy the entire RAAF overseas, it later decided to focus the force's resources on training aircrew to facilitate a massive expansion of Commonwealth air-power. In late 1939, Australia and the other Dominions established the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS) to train large numbers of men for service in the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and in other Commonwealth air units. Almost 28,000 Australians eventually trained through EATS in schools in Australia, Canada and Rhodesia. While many of these men were posted to Australian Article XV squadrons, the majority served with British and other Dominion squadrons. Moreover, these nominally "Australian" squadrons did not come under RAAF control and Australians often made up a minority of their airmen. As the Australian Government had no effective control over the deployment of airmen trained through EATS, most Australian historians regard the scheme as having hindered the development of Australia's defence capability. Nevertheless, RAAF airmen trained through EATS represented about nine percent of all aircrew who fought for the RAF in the European and Mediterranean theatres and made an important contribution to Allied operations. North Africa, the Mediterranean and the Middle East During the first years of World War II, Australia's military strategy was closely aligned with that of the United Kingdom. In line with this, most Australian military units deployed overseas in 1940 and 1941 were sent to the Mediterranean and Middle East where they formed a key part of the Commonwealth forces in the area. The three AIF infantry divisions sent to the Middle East saw extensive action, as did the RAAF squadrons and warships in this theatre. North Africa The RAN became the first of the Australian services to see action in the Mediterranean theatre. At the time Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 the RAN had a single cruiser () and the five elderly destroyers of the so-called 'Scrap Iron Flotilla' at Alexandria with the British Mediterranean Fleet. During the first days of the Battle of the Mediterranean, Sydney sank an Italian destroyer and a submarine. The Mediterranean Fleet maintained a high operational tempo, and on 19 July, Sydney, with a British destroyer squadron in company, engaged the fast Italian light cruisers and in the Battle of Cape Spada. In the running battle which followed, Bartolomeo Colleoni was sunk. The Australian ships spent much of their time at sea throughout 1940. Sydneys sister ship, , relieved her in February 1941. The Australian Army first saw action in Operation Compass, the successful Commonwealth offensive in North Africa which took place between December 1940 and February 1941. The 6th Division relieved the 4th Indian Division on 14 December. Although the 6th Division was not fully equipped, it had completed its training and was given the task of capturing Italian fortresses bypassed by the British 7th Armoured Division during its advance. The 6th Division went into action at Bardia on 3 January 1941. Although a larger Italian force manned the fortress, with the support of British tanks and artillery the Australian infantry quickly penetrated the defensive lines. The majority of the Italian force surrendered on 5 January, and the Australians took 40,000 prisoners. The 6th Division followed up this success by assaulting the fortress of Tobruk on 21 January. Tobruk was secured the next day, with 25,000 Italian prisoners taken. The 6th Division subsequently pushed west along the coast road to Cyrenaica and captured Benghazi on 4 February. The 6th Division withdrew for deployment to Greece later in February and was replaced by the untested 9th Division, which took up garrison duties in Cyrenaica. In the last week of March 1941, a German-led force launched an offensive in Cyrenaica which rapidly defeated the Allied forces in the area, forcing a general withdrawal towards Egypt (April 1941). The 9th Division formed the rear guard of this withdrawal, and on 6 April, was ordered to defend the important port town of Tobruk for at least two months. During the ensuing siege of Tobruk the 9th Division, reinforced by the 18th Brigade of the 7th Division and British artillery and armoured regiments, used fortifications, aggressive patrolling and artillery to contain and defeat repeated German armoured and infantry attacks. The Mediterranean Fleet sustained Tobruk's defenders, and the elderly Australian destroyers made repeated supply "runs" into the port. and were sunk during these operations. Upon the request of the Australian Government, the bulk of the 9th Division was withdrawn from Tobruk in September and October 1941, and was replaced by the British 70th Division. The 2/13th Battalion was forced to remain at Tobruk until the siege was lifted in December when the convoy evacuating it was attacked, however. The defence of Tobruk cost the Australian units involved 3,009 casualties, including 832 killed and 941 taken prisoner. Two Australian fighter squadrons also took part in the fighting in North Africa. No. 239 Wing, a Curtiss P-40-equipped unit in the Desert Air Force, was dominated by Australians, in the form of two RAAF squadrons—No. 3 Squadron and No. 450 Squadron—and numerous individual Australians served in RAF squadrons. These two squadrons differed from the other RAAF squadrons in the Mediterranean in that they were made up of predominantly Australian ground-staff and pilots; the other RAAF units had ground crews made up of mostly British RAF personnel. Greece, Crete and Lebanon In early 1941 the 6th Division and I Corps headquarters took part in the ill-fated Allied expedition to defend Greece from an anticipated German invasion. The corps' commander, Lieutenant-General Thomas Blamey, and Prime Minister Menzies both regarded the operation as risky, but agreed to Australian involvement after the British Government provided them with briefings which deliberately understated the chance of defeat. The Allied force deployed to Greece was much smaller than the German force in the region and inconsistencies between Greek and Allied plans compromised the defence of the country. Australian troops arrived in Greece during March 1941, and manned defensive positions in the north of the country alongside British, New Zealand and Greek units. formed part of the naval force which protected the Allied troop convoys travelling to Greece and participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan in late March. The outnumbered Allied force, unable to halt the Germans when they invaded on 6 April, had to retreat. The Australians and other Allied units conducted a fighting withdrawal from their initial positions and naval ships evacuated them from southern Greece between 24 April and 1 May. Australian warships formed part of the force which protected the evacuation and embarked hundreds of soldiers from Greek ports. The 6th Division suffered heavy casualties in this campaign, with 320 men killed and 2,030 captured. While most of the 6th Division returned to Egypt, the 19th Brigade Group and two provisional infantry battalions landed on Crete, where they formed a key part of the island's defences. The 19th Brigade was initially successful in holding its positions when German paratroopers landed on 20 May, but was gradually forced to retreat. After several key airfields were lost the Allies evacuated the island's garrison. Approximately 3,000 Australians, including the entire 2/7th Infantry Battalion, could not be evacuated, and were taken prisoner. As a result of its heavy casualties the 6th Division required substantial reinforcements and equipment before it was again ready for combat. Perth and the new destroyers and also took part in operations around Crete, with Perth embarking soldiers for evacuation to Egypt. The Allied defeat during the Greek Campaign indirectly contributed to a change of government in Australia. Prime Minister Menzies' leadership weakened during the lengthy period he spent in Britain during early 1941, and the high Australian losses in the Greek Campaign led many members of his United Australia Party (UAP) to conclude that he was not capable of leading the Australian war effort. Menzies resigned on 26 August, after losing the confidence of his party and Arthur Fadden from the Country Party (the UAP's coalition partner) became Prime Minister. Fadden's government collapsed on 3 October, and an Australian Labor Party government under the leadership of John Curtin took power. The 7th Division and the 17th Brigade from the 6th Division formed a key part of the Allied ground forces during the Syria–Lebanon Campaign, fought against Vichy French forces in June and July 1941. RAAF aircraft also joined the RAF in providing close air support. The Australian force entered Lebanon on 8 June, and advanced along the coast road and Litani River valley. Although Allied planners had expected little resistance, the Vichy forces mounted a strong defence and counter-attacks which made good use of the mountainous terrain. After the Allied attack became bogged down reinforcements were brought in and the Australian I Corps headquarters took command of the operation on 18 June. These changes enabled the Allies to overwhelm the French forces, and the 7th Division entered Beirut on 12 July. The loss of Beirut and a British breakthrough in Syria led the Vichy commander to seek an armistice and the campaign ended on 13 July 1941. El Alamein In the second half of 1941 the Australian I Corps was concentrated in Syria and Lebanon to rebuild its strength and to prepare for further operations in the Middle East. Following the outbreak of war in the Pacific most elements of the Corps, including the 6th and 7th Divisions, returned to Australia in early 1942 to counter the perceived Japanese threat to Australia. The Australian Government agreed to British and United States requests to temporarily retain the 9th Division in the Middle East in exchange for the deployment of additional US troops to Australia and Britain's support for a proposal to expand the RAAF to 73 squadrons. The Australian Government did not intend that the 9th Division would play a major role in active fighting, and it was not sent any further reinforcements. All of the RAN's ships in the Mediterranean also withdrew to the Pacific, but most RAAF units in the Middle East remained in the theatre. In June 1942 four Australian N-class destroyers transferred to the Mediterranean from the Indian Ocean to participate in Operation Vigorous (11 to 16 June 1942), which attempted to supply the besieged island of Malta from Egypt. This operation ended in failure, and had to be scuttled on 16 June, after being bombed the previous day. After this operation, the three surviving destroyers returned to the Indian Ocean. In mid-1942 the Axis forces defeated the Commonwealth force in Libya and advanced into north-west Egypt. In June, the British Eighth Army made a stand just over west of Alexandria, at the railway siding of El Alamein, and the 9th Division was brought forward to reinforce this position. The lead elements of the Division arrived at El Alamein on 6 July, and the Division was assigned the most northerly section of the Commonwealth defensive line. The 9th Division played a significant role in the First Battle of El Alamein (1 to 27 July 1942), which halted the Axis advance, though at the cost of heavy casualties, including the entire 2/28th Infantry Battalion, which was forced to surrender on 27 July. Following this battle the division remained at the northern end of the El Alamein line and launched diversionary attacks during the Battle of Alam el Halfa in early September. In October 1942 the 9th Division and the RAAF squadrons in the area took part in the Second Battle of El Alamein (23 October to 11 November 1942). After a lengthy period of preparation, the Eighth Army launched its major offensive on 23 October. The 9th Division became involved in some of the heaviest fighting of the battle, and its advance in the coast area succeeded in drawing away enough German forces for the heavily reinforced 2nd New Zealand Division to decisively break through the Axis lines on the night of 1–2 November. The 9th Division suffered a high number of casualties during this battle and did not take part in the pursuit of the retreating Axis forces. During the battle the Australian Government requested that the division be returned to Australia as it was not possible to provide enough reinforcements to sustain it, and the British and US governments agreed to this in late November. The 9th Division left Egypt for Australia in January 1943, ending the AIF's involvement in the war in North Africa. Tunisia, Sicily and Italy Although the Second Battle of El Alamein marked the end of a major Australian role in the Mediterranean, several RAAF units and hundreds of Australians attached to Commonwealth forces remained in the area until the end of the war. After the 9th Division was withdrawn Australia continued to be represented in North Africa by several RAAF squadrons which supported the 8th Army's advance through Libya and the subsequent Tunisia Campaign. Two Australian destroyers ( and ) also participated in the Allied landings in North Africa in November 1942. Australia played a small role in the Italian Campaign. The RAN returned to the Mediterranean between May and November 1943, when eight were transferred from the British Eastern Fleet to the Mediterranean Fleet to protect the invasion force during the Allied invasion of Sicily. The corvettes also escorted convoys in the western Mediterranean before returning to the Eastern Fleet. No. 239 Wing and four Australian Article XV squadrons also took part in the Sicilian Campaign, flying from bases in Tunisia, Malta, North Africa and Sicily. No. 239 Wing subsequently provided air support for the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943, and moved to the mainland in the middle of that month. The two Australian fighter bomber squadrons provided close air support to the Allied armies and attacked German supply lines until the end of the war. No. 454 Squadron was also deployed to Italy from August 1944, and hundreds of Australians served in RAF units during the campaign. The RAAF also took part in other Allied operations in the Mediterranean. Two RAAF squadrons, No. 451 Squadron (Spitfires) and No. 458 Squadron (Wellingtons), supported the Allied invasion of southern France in August 1944. No. 451 Squadron was based in southern France in late August and September, and when the operation ended both squadrons were moved to Italy, though No. 451 Squadron was transferred to Britain in December. No. 459 Squadron was based in the eastern Mediterranean until the last months of the war in Europe and attacked German targets in Greece and the Aegean Sea. In addition, 150 Australians served with the Balkan Air Force, principally in No. 148 Squadron RAF. This special duties squadron dropped men and supplies to guerrillas in Yugoslavia and attempted to supply the Polish Home Army during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. Britain and Western Europe While the majority of the Australian military fought on the Western Front in France during World War I, relatively few Australians fought in Europe during World War II. The RAAF, including thousands of Australians posted to British units, made a significant contribution to the strategic bombing of Germany and efforts to safeguard Allied shipping in the Atlantic. The other services made smaller contributions, with two Army brigades being briefly based in Britain in late 1940, and several of the RAN's warships serving in the Atlantic. Defence of Britain Australians participated in the defence of Britain throughout the war. More than 100 Australian airmen fought with the RAF during the Battle of Britain in 1940, including over 30 fighter pilots. Two AIF brigades (the 18th and 25th) were also stationed in Britain from June 1940 to January 1941, and formed part of the British mobile reserve which would have responded to any German landings. An Australian Army forestry group served in Britain between 1940 and 1943. Several Australian fighter squadrons were also formed in Britain during 1941 and 1942, and contributed to defending the country from German air raids and, from mid-1944, V-1 flying bombs. The RAAF and RAN took part in the Battle of the Atlantic. No. 10 Squadron, based in Britain at the outbreak of war to take delivery of its Short Sunderland flying boats, remained there throughout the conflict as part of RAF Coastal Command. It was joined by No. 461 Squadron in April 1942, also equipped with Sunderlands. These squadrons escorted Allied convoys and sank 12 U-boats. No. 455 Squadron also formed part of Coastal Command from April 1942, as an anti-shipping squadron equipped with light bombers. In this role the squadron made an unusual deployment to Vaenga airfield in the Soviet Union in September 1942, to protect Convoy PQ 18. Hundreds of Australian airmen also served in RAF Coastal Command squadrons, of whom 652 died. In addition to the RAAF's contribution, several of the RAN's cruisers and destroyers escorted shipping in the Atlantic and Caribbean and hundreds of RAN personnel served aboard Royal Navy ships in the Atlantic throughout the war. Air war over Europe The RAAF's role in the strategic air offensive in Europe formed Australia's main contribution to the defeat of Germany. Approximately 13,000 Australian airmen served in dozens of British and five Australian squadrons in RAF Bomber Command between 1940 and the end of the war. There was not a distinctive Australian contribution to this campaign, however, as most Australians served in British squadrons and the Australian bomber squadrons were part of RAF units. The great majority of Australian aircrew in Bomber Command were graduates of the Empire Air Training Scheme. These men were not concentrated in Australian units, and were instead often posted to the Commonwealth squadron with the greatest need for personnel where they became part of a multi-national bomber crew. Five Australian heavy bomber squadrons (No. 460, No. 462, No. 463, No. 466 and No. 467 squadrons) were formed within Bomber Command between 1941 and 1945, however, and the proportion of Australians in these units increased over time. No. 464 Squadron, which was equipped with light bombers, was also formed as part of Bomber Command but was transferred to the Second Tactical Air Force in June 1943, where it continued to attack targets in Europe. Unlike Canada, which concentrated its heavy bomber squadrons into No. 6 Group RCAF in 1943, the RAAF squadrons in Bomber Command were always part of British units, and the Australian Government had little control over how they were used. Australians took part in all of Bomber Command's major offensives and suffered heavy losses during raids on German cities and targets in France. The Australian contribution to major raids was often substantial, and the Australian squadrons typically provided about 10 percent of the main bomber force during the winter of 1943–1944, including during the Battle of Berlin. Overall, the Australian squadrons in Bomber Command dropped 6 percent of the total weight of bombs dropped by the command during the war. Australian aircrew in Bomber Command had one of the highest casualty rates of any part of the Australian military during World War II. Although only two percent of Australians enlisted in the military served with Bomber Command, they incurred almost 20 percent of all Australian deaths in combat; 3,486 were killed and hundreds more were taken prisoner. Hundreds of Australians participated in the liberation of Western Europe during 1944 and 1945. Ten RAAF squadrons, hundreds of Australians in RAF units and about 500 Australian sailors serving with the Royal Navy formed part of the force assembled for the landing in Normandy on 6 June 1944; overall, it has been estimated that about 3,000 Australian personnel took part in this operation. From 11 June until September 1944, the Spitfire-equipped No. 453 Squadron RAAF was often based at forward airfields in France and it and Australian light bomber and heavy bomber squadrons supported the liberation of France. RAAF light bomber and fighter squadrons continued to support the Allied armies until the end of the war in Europe by attacking strategic targets and escorting bomber formations. No. 451 and 453 Squadrons formed part of the British Army of Occupation in Germany from September 1945, and it was planned that there would be a long-term Australian presence in this force. Few RAAF personnel volunteered to remain in Europe, however, and both squadrons were disbanded in January 1946. War in the Pacific In the view of Paul Hasluck, Australia fought two wars between 1939 and 1945: one against Germany and Italy as part of the British Commonwealth and Empire and the other against Japan in alliance with the United States and Britain. Due to the emphasis placed on cooperation with Britain, relatively few Australian military units were stationed in Australia and the Asia-Pacific Region after 1940. Measures were taken to improve Australia's defences as war with Japan loomed in 1941, but these proved inadequate. In December 1941, the Australian Army in the Pacific comprised the 8th Division, most of which was stationed in Malaya, and eight partially trained and equipped divisions in Australia, including the 1st Armoured Division. The RAAF was equipped with 373 aircraft, most of which were obsolete trainers, and the RAN had three cruisers and two destroyers in Australian waters. In 1942, the Australian military was reinforced by units recalled from the Middle East and an expansion of the CMF and RAAF. United States military units also arrived in Australia in great numbers before being deployed to New Guinea. The Allies moved onto the offensive in late 1942, with the pace of advance accelerating in 1943. From 1944, the Australian military was mainly relegated to subsidiary roles, but continued to conduct large-scale operations until the end of the war. Malaya and Singapore From the 1920s, Australia's defence planning was dominated by the so-called 'Singapore strategy'. This strategy involved the construction and defence of a major naval base at Singapore from which a large British fleet would respond to Japanese aggression in the region. To this end, a high proportion of Australian forces in Asia were concentrated in Malaya during 1940 and 1941, as the threat from Japan increased. At the outbreak of war the Australian forces in Malaya comprised the 8t Division (less the 23rd Brigade) under the command of Major General Gordon Bennett, four RAAF squadrons and eight warships. The RAAF became the first service to see action in the Pacific when Australian aircraft shadowing the Japanese invasion convoy bound for Malaya were fired at on 6 December 1941. Australian units participated in the unsuccessful Commonwealth attempts to defeat the Japanese landings, with RAAF aircraft attacking the beachheads and accompanying the British battleship and battlecruiser during their failed attempt to attack the Japanese invasion fleet. The 8th Division and its attached Indian Army units were assigned responsibility for the defence of Johor in the south of Malaya and did not see action until mid-January 1942, when Japanese spearheads first reached the state. The division's first engagement was the Battle of Muar, in which the Japanese Twenty-Fifth Army was able to outflank the Commonwealth positions due to Bennett misdeploying the forces under his command so that the weak Indian 45th Brigade was assigned the crucial coastal sector and the stronger Australian brigades were deployed in less threatened areas. While the Commonwealth forces in Johore achieved a number of local victories, they were unable to do more than slow the Japanese advance and suffered heavy casualties. After being outmanoeuvred by the Japanese, the remaining Commonwealth units withdrew to Singapore on the night of 30–31 January. Following the withdrawal to Singapore the 8th Division was deployed to defend the island's north-west coast. Due to the casualties suffered in Johore most of the division's units were at half-strength. The commander of the Singapore fortress, Lieutenant General Arthur Ernest Percival, believed that the Japanese would land on the north-east coast of the island and deployed the near full-strength British 18th Division to defend this sector. The Japanese landing on 8 February took part in the Australian sector, however, and the 8th Division was forced from its positions after just two days of heavy fighting. The division was also unable to turn back the Japanese landing at Kranji and withdrew to the centre of the island. After further fighting in which the Commonwealth forces were pushed into a narrow perimeter around the urban area of Singapore, Percival surrendered his forces on 15 February. Following the surrender 14,972 Australians were taken prisoner, though some escaped on ships. These escapees included Major General Bennett, who was found by two post-war inquiries to have been unjustified in leaving his command. The loss of almost a quarter of Australia's overseas soldiers, and the failure of the Singapore Strategy that had permitted it to accept the sending of the AIF to aid Britain, stunned the country. Netherlands East Indies and Rabaul While Australia's contribution to the pre-war plans to defend South East Asia from Japanese aggression was focused on the defence of Malaya and Singapore, small Australian forces were also deployed to defend several islands to the north of Australia. The role of these forces was to defend strategic airfields which could be used to launch attacks on the Australian mainland. Detachments of coastwatchers were also stationed in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands to report on any Japanese operations there. At the start of the Pacific War the strategic port town of Rabaul in New Britain was defended by 'Lark Force', which comprised the 2/22nd Infantry Battalion reinforced with coastal artillery and a poorly equipped RAAF bomber squadron. While Lark Force was regarded as inadequate by the Australian military, it was not possible to reinforce it before the Japanese South Seas Force landed at Rabaul on 23 January 1942. The outnumbered Australian force was swiftly defeated and most of the survivors surrendered in the weeks after the battle. Few members of Lark Force survived the war, as at least 130 were murdered by the Japanese on 4 February, and 1,057 Australian soldiers and civilian prisoners from Rabaul were killed when the ship carrying them to Japan () was sunk by the US submarine on 1 July 1942. AIF troops were also dispatched from Darwin to the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) in the first weeks of the Pacific War. Reinforced battalions from the 23rd Brigade were sent to Koepang in West Timor ('Sparrow Force') and the island of Ambon ('Gull Force') to defend these strategic locations from Japanese attack. The 2/2nd Independent Company was also sent to Dili in Portuguese Timor in violation of Portugal's neutrality. The force at Ambon was defeated by the Japanese landing on 30 January, and surrendered on 3 February 1942. Over 300 Australian prisoners were subsequently killed by Japanese troops in a series of mass executions during February. While the force at Koepang was defeated after the Japanese landed there on 20 February and also surrendered, Australian commandos waged a guerrilla campaign against the Japanese in Portuguese Timor until February 1943. Voyager and were lost in September and December 1942, respectively, while operating in support of the commandos. In the lead-up to the Japanese invasion of Java a force of 242 carrier and land-based aircraft attacked Darwin on 19 February 1942. At the time Darwin was an important base for Allied warships and a staging point for shipping supplies and reinforcements into the NEI. The Japanese attack was successful, and resulted in the deaths of over 230 military personnel and civilians, many of whom were non-Australian Allied seamen, and heavy damage to RAAF Base Darwin and the town's port facilities. Several Australian warships, a 3,000 strong Army unit and aircraft from several RAAF squadrons participated in the unsuccessful defence of Java when the Japanese invaded the island in March 1942. Perth formed part of the main American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM) naval force which was defeated in the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February, during an attempt to intercept one of the Japanese invasion convoys. Perth was sunk on 1 March, when she and encountered another Japanese invasion force while trying to escape to Tjilatjap on the south coast of Java. The sloop was also sunk off the south coast of Java when she was attacked by three Japanese cruisers while escorting a convoy on 4 March. Other Australian warships, including the light cruiser and several corvettes successfully escaped from NEI waters. An army force made up of elements from the 7th Division also formed part of the ABDACOM land forces on Java but saw little action before it surrendered at Bandung on 12 March, after the Dutch forces on the island began to capitulate. RAAF aircraft operating from bases in Java and Australia also participated in the fighting, and 160 ground crew from No. 1 Squadron RAAF were taken prisoner. Following the conquest of the NEI, the Japanese Navy's main aircraft carrier force raided the Indian Ocean. This force attacked Ceylon in early April, and Vampire was sunk off Trincomalee on 12 April, while escorting , which was also lost. The Australian Army's 16th and 17th Brigades formed part of the island's garrison at the time of the raid but did not see action. Buildup of forces in Australia After the fall of Singapore, the Australian government and people expected an invasion soon. The Battle of Britain occurred after Dunkirk; "the fall of Singapore opens the Battle for Australia", Curtin said, which threatened the Commonwealth, the United States, and the entire English-speaking world. The fear was greatest until June 1942. Curtin said on 16 February: Australia was ill-prepared to counter such an attack. The RAAF lacked modern aircraft and the RAN was too small and unbalanced to counter the Imperial Japanese Navy. Additionally, the Army, although large, contained many inexperienced units and lacked mobility. In response to this threat most of the AIF was brought back from the Middle East and the Government appealed to the United States for assistance. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill attempted to divert the 6th and 7th Divisions to Burma while they were en route to Australia, but Curtin refused to authorise this movement. As a compromise two brigades of the 6th Division disembarked at Ceylon and formed part of the island's garrison until they returned to Australia in August 1942. The perceived threat of invasion led to a major expansion of the Australian military. By mid-1942 the Army had a strength of ten infantry divisions, three armoured divisions and hundreds of other units. The RAAF and RAN were also greatly expanded, though it took years for these services to build up to their peak strengths. Due to the increased need for manpower, the restrictions which prohibited non-Europeans from joining the military ceased to be enforced from late 1941, and about 3,000 Indigenous Australians eventually enlisted. Most of these personnel were integrated into existing formations, but a small number of racially segregated units such as the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion were formed. A number of small units made up of Indigenous Australians were also established to patrol northern Australia and harass any Japanese forces which landed there; the members of these units did not receive pay or awards for their service until 1992. Thousands of Australians who were ineligible for service in the military responded to the threat of attack by joining auxiliary organisations such as the Volunteer Defence Corps and Volunteer Air Observers Corps, which were modelled on the British Home Guard and Royal Observer Corps respectively. Australia's population and industrial base were not sufficient to maintain the expanded military after the threat of invasion had passed, and the Army was progressively reduced in size from 1943 while only 53 of the 73 RAAF squadrons approved by the government were ever raised. Despite Australian fears, the Japanese never intended to invade the Australian mainland. While an invasion was considered by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters in February 1942, it was judged to be beyond the Japanese military's capabilities and no planning or other preparations were undertaken. Instead, in March 1942, the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing Port Moresby in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia. This plan was frustrated by the Japanese defeat in the Battle of the Coral Sea and was postponed indefinitely after the Battle of Midway. While these battles ended the threat to Australia, the Australian government continued to warn that an invasion was possible until mid-1943. The collapse of British power in the Pacific also led Australia to reorient its foreign and military policy towards the United States. Curtin stated in December 1941 "that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom." In February 1942 the US and British Governments agreed that Australia would become a strategic responsibility of the United States and the Allied ANZAC Force was created specifically to defend the Australian continent. In March, General Douglas MacArthur arrived in Australia after escaping from the Philippines and assumed command of the South West Pacific Area (SWPA). All of the Australian military's combat units in this area were placed under MacArthur's command, and MacArthur replaced the Australian Chiefs of Staff as the Australian Government's main source of military advice until the end of the war. Australian General Thomas Blamey was appointed the Allied land force commander, but MacArthur did not permit him to command American forces. MacArthur also rejected US Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall's request that he appoint Australians to senior posts in his General Headquarters. Nevertheless, the partnership between Curtin and MacArthur proved beneficial for Australia between 1942 and 1944, as MacArthur was able to communicate Australian requests for assistance to the US Government. Large numbers of United States military personnel were based in Australia during the first years of the Pacific War. The first US units arrived in Australia in early 1942 and almost 1 million US personnel passed through Australia during the war. Many US military bases were constructed in northern Australia during 1942 and 1943, and Australia remained an important source of supplies to US forces in the Pacific until the end of the war. Though relations between Australians and Americans were generally good, there was some conflict between US and Australian soldiers, such as the Battle of Brisbane, and the Australian Government only reluctantly accepted the presence of African American troops. Papuan campaign Japanese forces first landed on the mainland of New Guinea on 8 March 1942, when they invaded Lae and Salamaua to secure bases for the defence of the important base they were developing at Rabaul. Australian guerrillas from the New Guinea Volunteer Rifles established observation posts around the Japanese beachheads and the 2/5th Independent Company successfully raided Salamaua on 29 June. After the Battle of the Coral Sea frustrated the Japanese plan to capture Port Morseby via an amphibious landing, the Japanese attempted to capture the town by landing the South Seas Force at Buna on the north coast of Papua and advancing overland using the Kokoda Track to cross the rugged Owen Stanley Range. The Kokoda Track campaign began on 22 July, when the Japanese began their advance, opposed by an ill-prepared CMF brigade designated 'Maroubra Force'. This force was successful in delaying the South Seas Force but was unable to halt it. Two AIF battalions from the 7th Division reinforced the remnants of Maroubra Force on 26 August, but the Japanese continued to make ground and reached the village of Ioribaiwa near Port Moresby on 16 September. The South Seas Force was forced to withdraw back along the track on this day, however, as supply problems made any further advance impossible and an Allied counter-landing at Buna was feared. Australian forces pursued the Japanese along the Kokoda Track and forced them into a small bridgehead on the north coast of Papua in early November. The Allied operations on the Kokoda Track were made possible by native Papuans who were recruited by the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit, often forcibly, to carry supplies and evacuate wounded personnel. The RAAF and USAAF also played an important role throughout the campaign by attacking the Japanese force's supply lines and airdropping supplies to Australian Army units. Australian forces also defeated an attempt to capture the strategic Milne Bay area in August 1942. During the Battle of Milne Bay two brigades of Australian troops, designated Milne Force, supported by two RAAF fighter squadrons and US Army engineers defeated a smaller Japanese invasion force made up of Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces units. This was the first notable Japanese land defeat and raised Allied morale across the Pacific Theatre. Australian and US forces attacked the Japanese bridgehead in Papua in late November 1942, but did not capture it until January 1943. The Allied force comprised the exhausted 7th Division and the inexperienced and ill-trained US 32nd Infantry Division and was short of artillery and supplies. Due to a lack of supporting weapons and MacArthur and Blamey's insistence on a rapid advance the Allied tactics during the battle were centred around infantry assaults on the Japanese fortifications. These resulted in heavy casualties and the area was not secured until 22 January 1943. Throughout the fighting in Papua, most of the Australian personnel captured by Japanese troops were murdered. In response, Australian soldiers aggressively sought to kill their Japanese opponents for the remainder of the war. The Australians generally did not attempt to capture Japanese personnel, and some prisoners of war were murdered. Following the defeats in Papua and Guadalcanal the Japanese withdrew to a defensive perimeter in the Territory of New Guinea. In order to secure their important bases at Lae and Salamaua they attempted to capture Wau in January 1943. Reinforcements were flown into the town and defeated the Japanese force in its outskirts following heavy fighting. The Japanese force began to withdraw towards the coast on 4 February. Following their defeat at Wau the Japanese attempted to reinforce Lae in preparation for an expected Allied offensive in the area. This ended in disaster when, during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, a troop convoy was destroyed by USAAF and RAAF aircraft from the US Fifth Air Force and No. 9 Operational Group RAAF with the loss of about 3,000 troops. The Papuan campaign led to a significant reform in the composition of the Australian Army. During the campaign, the restriction banning CMF personnel from serving outside of Australian territory hampered military planning and caused tensions between the AIF and CMF. In late 1942 and early 1943, Curtin overcame opposition within the Labor Party to extending the geographic boundaries in which conscripts could serve to include most of the South West Pacific and the necessary legislation was passed in January 1943. The 11th Brigade was the only CMF formation to serve outside of Australian territory, however, when it formed part of Merauke Force in the NEI during 1943 and 1944. Attacks on Australian shipping The Japanese efforts to secure New Guinea included a prolonged submarine offensive against the Allied lines of communication between the United States and Australia and Australia and New Guinea. These were not the first Axis naval attacks on Australia; during 1940 and 1941, five German surface raiders operated in Australian waters at various times. The German attacks were not successful in disrupting Australian merchant shipping, though Sydney was sunk with the loss her entire crew of over 640 men in November 1941, in a battle with the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran, off the coast of Western Australia. Following the defeat of the Japanese surface fleet the IJN deployed submarines to disrupt Allied supply lines by attacking shipping off the Australian east coast. This campaign began with an unsuccessful midget submarine raid on Sydney Harbour on the night of 31 May 1942. Following this attack, Japanese submarines operated along the Australian east coast until August 1942, sinking eight merchant ships. The submarine offensive resumed in January 1943 and continued until June during which time a further 15 ships were sunk off the east coast. The 1943 sinkings included the hospital ship , which was torpedoed off Queensland on 14 May with the loss of 268 lives. The Japanese did not conduct further submarine attacks against Australia after June 1943, as their submarines were needed to counter Allied offensives elsewhere in the Pacific. A single German submarine, , operated in the Pacific Ocean during the war, cruising off the Australian coast and New Zealand in December 1944 and January 1945. It sank two ships in Australian waters before returning to Batavia. Considerable Australian and other Allied military resources were devoted to protecting shipping and ports from Axis submarines and warships. For instance, the RAN escorted over 1,100 coastal convoys the Army established coastal defences to protect important ports and a high proportion of the RAAF's operational squadrons were used to protect shipping at various times. Nevertheless, the use of these units for defensive tasks and the shipping casualties in Australian waters did not seriously affect the Australian economy or Allied war effort. New Guinea offensives After halting the Japanese advance, Allied forces went on the offensive across the SWPA from mid 1943. Australian forces played a key role throughout this offensive, which was designated Operation Cartwheel. In particular, General Blamey oversaw a highly successful series of operations around the north-east tip of New Guinea which "was the high point of Australia's experience of operational level command" during the war. After the successful defence of Wau the 3rd Division began advancing towards Salamaua in April 1943. This advance was mounted to divert attention from Lae, which was one of the main objectives of Operation Cartwheel, and proceeded slowly. In late June, the 3rd Division was reinforced by the US 162nd Regimental Combat Team which staged an amphibious landing to the south of Salamaua. The town was eventually captured on 11 September 1943. In early September 1943, Australian-led forces mounted a pincer movement to capture Lae. On 4 September, 9th Division made an amphibious landing to the east of the town and began advancing to the west. The following day, the US 503rd Parachute Regiment made an unopposed parachute drop at Nadzab, just west of Lae. Once the airborne forces secured Nadzab Airfield the 7th Division was flown in and began advancing to the east in a race with the 9th Division to capture Lae. This race was won by the 7th Division, which captured the town on 15 September. The Japanese forces at Salamaua and Lae suffered heavy losses during this campaign, but were able to escape to the north. After the fall of Lae, the 9th Division was given the task of capturing the Huon Peninsula. The 20th Brigade landed near the strategic harbour of Finschhafen on 22 September 1943, and secured the area. The Japanese responded by dispatching the 20th Division overland to the area and the remainder of the 9th Division was gradually brought in to reinforce the 20th Brigade against the expected counter-attack. The Japanese mounted a strong attack in mid-October which was defeated by the 9th Division after heavy fighting. During the second half of November the 9th Division captured the hills inland of Finschhafen from well dug in Japanese forces. Following its defeat the 20th Division retreated along the coast with the 9th Division and 4th Brigade in pursuit. The Allies scored a major intelligence victory towards the end of this campaign when Australian engineers found the 20th Division's entire cipher library, which had been buried by the retreating Japanese. These documents led to a code breaking breakthrough which enabled MacArthur to accelerate the Allied advance by bypassing Japanese defences. While the 9th Division secured the coastal region of the Huon Peninsula the 7th Division drove the Japanese from the inland Finisterre Range. The Finisterre Range campaign began on 17 September, when the 2/6th Independent Company was air-landed in the Markham Valley. The company defeated a larger Japanese force at Kaiapit and secured an airstrip which was used to fly the Division's 21st and 25th Brigades in. Through aggressive patrolling the Australians forced the Japanese out of positions in extremely rugged terrain and in January 1944, the division began its attack on the key Shaggy Ridge position. The ridge was taken by the end of January, with the RAAF playing a key supporting role. Following this success the Japanese withdrew from the Finisterre Range and Australian troops linked up with American patrols from Saidor on 21 April, and secured Madang on 24 April. In addition to supporting the Army's operations on the New Guinea mainland, the RAN and RAAF took part in offensive operations in the Solomon Islands. This involvement had begun in August 1942, when both of the RAN's heavy cruisers, and , supported the US Marine landing at Guadalcanal. On the night after the landing, Canberra was sunk during the Battle of Savo Island and the RAN played no further role in the Guadalcanal Campaign. RAAF aircraft supported several US Army and Marine landings during 1943 and 1944 and an RAAF radar unit participated in the capture of Arawe. The Australian cruisers Australia and and destroyers and provided fire support for the US 1st Marine Division during the Battle of Cape Gloucester and the US 1st Cavalry Division during the Admiralty Islands campaign in late 1943 and early 1944. The landing at Cape Gloucester was also the first operation for the RAN amphibious transport . North Western Area Campaign The attack on Darwin in February 1942 marked the start of a prolonged aerial campaign over northern Australia and the Japanese-occupied Netherlands East Indies. Following the first attack on Darwin the Allies rapidly deployed fighter squadrons and reinforced the Army's Northern Territory Force to protect the town from a feared invasion. These air units also attacked Japanese positions in the NEI and the Japanese responded by staging dozens of air raids on Darwin and nearby airfields during 1942 and 1943, few of which caused significant damage. These raids were opposed by US, Australian and British fighters and suffered increasingly heavy casualties as Darwin's defences were improved. The Japanese also conducted a number of small and ineffective raids on towns and airfields in northern Queensland and Western Australia during 1942 and 1943. While the Japanese raids on northern Australia ceased in late 1943, the Allied air offensive continued until the end of the war. During late 1942, Allied aircraft conducted attacks on Timor in support of the Australian guerrillas operating there. From early 1943, US heavy bomber squadrons operated against Japanese targets in the eastern NEI from bases near Darwin. The Allied air offensive against the NEI intensified from June 1943, to divert Japanese forces away from New Guinea and the Solomons and involved Australian, Dutch and US bomber units. These attacks continued until the end of the war, with the US heavy bombers being replaced by Australian B-24 Liberator-equipped squadrons in late 1944. From 1944, several RAAF PBY Catalina squadrons were also based at Darwin and conducted highly effective mine-laying sorties across South East Asia. Advance to the Philippines The Australian military's role in the South-West Pacific decreased during 1944. In the latter half of 1943, the Australian Government decided, with MacArthur's agreement, that the size of the military would be reduced to release manpower for war-related industries which were important to supplying Britain and the US forces in the Pacific. Australia's main role in the Allied war effort from this point forward was supplying the other Allied countries with food, materials and manufactured goods needed for the defeat of Japan. As a result of this policy, the Army units available for offensive operations were set at six infantry divisions (the three AIF divisions and three CMF divisions) and two armoured brigades. The size of the RAAF was set at 53 squadrons and the RAN was limited to the ships which were in service or planned to be built at the time. In early 1944, all but two of the Army's divisions were withdrawn to the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland for training and rehabilitation. Several new battalions of Australian-led Papuan and New Guinea troops were formed during 1944, and organised into the Pacific Islands Regiment, however, and largely replaced the Australian Army battalions disbanded during the year. These troops had seen action alongside Australian units throughout the New Guinea campaign. After the liberation of most of Australian New Guinea the RAAF and RAN participated in the US-led Western New Guinea campaign, which had the goal of securing bases to be used to mount the liberation of the Philippines. Australian warships and the fighter, bomber and airfield construction squadrons of No. 10 Operational Group RAAF participated in the capture of Hollandia, Biak, Noemfoor and Morotai. After western New Guinea was secured No. 10 Operation Group was renamed the First Tactical Air Force (1TAF) and was used to protect the flank of the Allied advance by attacking Japanese positions in the NEI and performing other garrison tasks. The losses incurred whilst performing these relatively unimportant roles led to a decline in morale, and contributed to the 'Morotai Mutiny' in April 1945. Elements of the RAN and RAAF also took part in the liberation of the Philippines. Four Australian warships and the assault transports , and Westralia—along with a number of smaller warships and support ships—took part in the US landing at Leyte on 20 October 1944. Australian sources state that Australia became the first Allied ship to be struck by a kamikaze when she was attacked during this operation on 21 October, though this claim was disputed by US historian Samuel Eliot Morison. Australian ships also participated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, with Shropshire and Arunta engaging Japanese ships during the Battle of Surigao Strait on 25 October. The Australian naval force took part in the Invasion of Lingayen Gulf in January 1945; during this operation, Australia was struck by a further five Kamikazes which killed 44 of her crew and forced her to withdraw for major repairs. RAN ships also escorted US supply convoys bound for the Philippines. The RAAF's No. 3 Airfield Construction Squadron and No. 1 Wireless Unit also landed in the Philippines and supported US operations there, and 1TAF raided targets in the southern Philippines from bases in the NEI and New Guinea. While the Australian Government offered MacArthur I Corps for service in Leyte and Luzon, nothing came of several proposals to utilise it in the liberation of these islands. The Army's prolonged period of relative inactivity during 1944 led to public concern, and many Australians believed that the AIF should be demobilised if it could not be used for offensive operations. This was politically embarrassing for the government, and helped motivate it to look for new areas where the military could be employed. Mopping up in New Guinea and the Solomons In late 1944, the Australian Government committed twelve Australian Army brigades to replace six US Army divisions which were conducting defensive roles in Bougainville, New Britain and the Aitape-Wewak area in New Guinea. While the US units had largely conducted a static defence of their positions, their Australian replacements mounted offensive operations designed to destroy the remaining Japanese forces in these areas. The value of these campaigns was controversial at the time and remains so to this day. The Australian Government authorised these operations for primarily political reasons. It was believed that keeping the Army involved in the war would give Australia greater influence in any post-war peace conferences and that liberating Australian territories would enhance Australia's influence in its region. Critics of these campaigns argue that they were unnecessary and wasteful of the lives of the Australian soldiers involved as the Japanese forces were already isolated and ineffective. The 5th Division replaced the US 40th Infantry Division on New Britain during October and November 1944 and continued the New Britain Campaign with the goals of protecting Allied bases and confining the large Japanese force on the island to the area around Rabaul. In late November the 5th Division established bases closer to the Japanese perimeter and began aggressive patrols supported by the Allied Intelligence Bureau. The division conducted amphibious landings at Open Bay and Wide Bay at the base of the Gazelle Peninsula in early 1945, and defeated the small Japanese garrisons in these areas. By April the Japanese had been confined to their fortified positions in the Gazelle Peninsula by the Australian force's aggressive patrolling. The 5th Division suffered 53 fatalities and 140 wounded during this campaign. After the war it was found that the Japanese force was 93,000 strong, which was much higher than the 38,000 which Allied intelligence had estimated remained on New Britain. The II Corps continued the Bougainville Campaign after it replaced the US Army's XIV Corps between October and December 1944. The corps consisted of the 3rd Division, 11th Brigade and Fiji Infantry Regiment on Bougainville and the 23rd Brigade which garrisoned neighbouring islands and was supported by RAAF, RNZAF and USMC air units. While the XIV Corps had maintained a defensive posture, the Australians conducted offensive operations aimed at destroying the Japanese force on Bougainville. As the Japanese were split into several enclaves the II Corps fought geographically separated campaigns in the north, centre and southern portions of the island. The main focus was against the Japanese base at Buin in the south, and the offensives in the north and centre of the island were largely suspended from May 1945. While Australian operations on Bougainville continued until the end of the war, large Japanese forces remained at Buin and in the north of the island. The 6th Division was assigned responsibility for completing the destruction of the Japanese Eighteenth Army, which was the last large Japanese force remaining in the Australian portion of New Guinea. The division was reinforced by CMF and armoured units and began arriving at Aitape in October 1944. The 6th Division was also supported by several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships. In late 1944, the Australians launched a two-pronged offensive to the east towards Wewak. The 17th Brigade advanced through the inland Torricelli Mountains while the remainder of the division moved along the coast. Although the Eighteenth Army had suffered heavy casualties from previous fighting and disease, it mounted a strong resistance and inflicted significant casualties. The 6th Division's advance was also hampered by supply difficulties and bad weather. The Australians secured the coastal area by early May, with Wewak being captured on 10 May, after a small force was landed to the east of the town. By the end of the war, the Eighteenth Army had been forced into what it had designated its 'last stand' area which was under attack from the 6th Division. The Aitape-Wewak campaign cost Australia 442 lives while about 9,000 Japanese died and another 269 were taken prisoner. Borneo Campaign The Borneo Campaign of 1945 was the last major Allied campaign in the SWPA. In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July, the Australian I Corps, under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead, attacked Japanese forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centred on the US 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, 1TAF and the US Thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign. The goals of this campaign were to capture Borneo's oilfields and Brunei Bay to support the US-led invasion of Japan and British-led liberation of Malaya which were planned to take place later in 1945. The Australian Government did not agree to MacArthur's proposal to extend the offensive to include the liberation of Java in July 1945, however, and its decision to not release the 6th Division for this operation contributed to it not going ahead. The campaign opened on 1 May 1945, when the 26th Brigade Group landed on the small island of Tarakan off the east coast of Borneo. The goal of this operation was to secure the island's airstrip as a base to support the planned landings at Brunei and Balikpapan. While it had been expected that it would take only a few weeks to secure Tarakan and re-open the airstrip, intensive fighting on the island lasted until 19 June, and the airstrip was not opened until 28 June. As a result, the operation is generally considered to have not been worthwhile. The second phase of the Borneo Campaign began on 10 June when the 9th Division conducted simultaneous assaults on the north-west on the island of Labuan and the coast of Brunei. While Brunei was quickly secured, the Japanese garrison on Labuan held out for over a week. After the Brunei Bay region was secured the 24th Brigade was landed in North Borneo and the 20th Brigade advanced along the western coast of Borneo south from Brunei. Both brigades rapidly advanced against weak Japanese resistance, and most of north-west Borneo was liberated by the end of the war. During the campaign the 9th Division was assisted by indigenous fighters who were waging a guerrilla war against Japanese forces with the support of Australian special forces. The third and final stage of the Borneo Campaign was the capture of Balikpapan on the central east coast of the island. This operation had been opposed by General Blamey, who believed that it was unnecessary, but went ahead on the orders of Macarthur. After a preliminary air and naval bombardment the 7th Division landed near the town on 1 July. Balikpapan and its surrounds were secured after some heavy fighting on 21 July, but mopping up continued until the end of the war. The capture of Balikpapan was the last large-scale land operation conducted by the Western Allies during World War II. Although the Borneo Campaign was criticised in Australia at the time, and in subsequent years, as pointless or a waste of the lives of soldiers, it did achieve a number of objectives, such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the Dutch East Indies, capturing major oil supplies and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in deteriorating conditions. Australia's leadership changed again during the Borneo Campaign. Prime Minister Curtin suffered a heart attack in November 1944, and Deputy Prime Minister Frank Forde acted in his place until 22 January 1945. Curtin was hospitalised with another bout of illness in April 1945, and Treasurer Ben Chifley became acting Prime Minister as Forde was attending the San Francisco Conference. Curtin died on 5 July 1945, and Forde was sworn in as Prime Minister. Forde did not have the support of his party, however, and was replaced by Chifley after a leadership ballot on 13 July. Intelligence and special forces Australia developed large intelligence services during the war. Prior the outbreak of war the Australian military possessed almost no intelligence gathering facilities and was reliant on information passed on by the British intelligence services. Several small signals intelligence units were established in 1939 and 1940, which had some success intercepting and deciphering Japanese transmissions before the outbreak of the Pacific War. MacArthur began organising large scale intelligence services shortly after his arrival in Australia. On 15 April 1942, the joint Australian-US Central Bureau signals intelligence organisation was established at Melbourne. Central Bureau's headquarters moved to Brisbane in July 1942, and Manila in May 1945. Australians made up half the strength of Central Bureau, which was expanded to over 4,000 personnel by 1945. The Australian Army and RAAF also provided most of the Allied radio interception capability in the SWPA, and the number of Australian radio interception units was greatly expanded between 1942 and 1945. Central Bureau broke a number of Japanese codes and the intelligence gained from these decryptions and radio direction finding greatly assisted Allied forces in the SWPA. Australian special forces played a significant role in the Pacific War. Following the outbreak of war commando companies were deployed to Timor, the Solomon and Bismarck islands and New Caledonia. Although the 1st Independent Company was swiftly overwhelmed when the Japanese invaded the Solomon Islands in early 1942, the 2/2nd and 2/4th Independent Companies waged a successful guerrilla campaign on Timor which lasted from February 1942 to February 1943, when the Australian force was evacuated. Other commando units also played an important role in the New Guinea, New Britain, Bougainville and Borneo campaigns throughout the war where they were used to collect intelligence, spearhead offensives and secure the flanks of operations conducted by conventional infantry. Australia also formed small-scale raiding and reconnaissance forces, most of which were grouped together as the Allied Intelligence Bureau. Z Special Unit conducted raids far behind the front line, including a successful raid on Singapore in September 1943. M Special Unit, coastwatchers and smaller AIB units also operated behind Japanese lines to collect intelligence. AIB parties were often used to support Australian Army units and were assigned to inappropriate tasks such as tactical reconnaissance and liaison. AIB missions in Timor and Dutch New Guinea were also hampered by being placed under the command of unpopular Dutch colonial administrators. The RAAF formed a specially equipped unit (No. 200 Flight) in 1945 to support these operations by transporting and supplying AIB parties in areas held by the Japanese. Operations against the Japanese home islands Australia played a minor role in the Japan campaign in the last months of the war and was preparing to participate in the invasion of Japan at the time the war ended. Several Australian warships operated with the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) during the Battle of Okinawa and Australian destroyers later escorted British aircraft carriers and battleships during attacks on targets in the Japanese home islands. Despite its distance from Japan, Australia was the BPF's main base and a large number of facilities were built to support the fleet. Australia's participation in the planned invasion of Japan would have involved elements of all three services fighting as part of Commonwealth forces. It was planned to form a new 10th Division from existing AIF personnel which would form part of the Commonwealth Corps with British, Canadian and New Zealand units. The corps' organisation was to be identical to that of a US Army corps, and it would have participated in the invasion of the Japanese home island of Honshū which was scheduled for March 1946. Australian ships would have operated with the BPF and US Pacific Fleet and two RAAF heavy bomber squadrons and a transport squadron were scheduled to be redeployed from Britain to Okinawa to join the strategic bombardment of Japan as part of Tiger Force. Planning for operations against Japan ceased in August 1945, when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. General Blamey signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on behalf of Australia during the ceremony held on board on 2 September 1945. Several RAN warships were among the Allied ships anchored in Tokyo Bay during the proceedings. Following the main ceremony on board Missouri, Japanese field commanders surrendered to Allied forces across the Pacific Theatre. Australian forces accepted the surrender of their Japanese opponents at ceremonies conducted at Morotai, several locations in Borneo, Timor, Wewak, Rabaul, Bougainville and Nauru. Australians in other theatres In addition to the major deployments, Australian military units and service men and women served in other theatres of the war, typically as part of British-led Commonwealth forces. About 14,000 Australians also served in the Merchant Navy and crewed ships in many areas of the world. Australia played a minor role in the British-led campaigns against Vichy French colonial possessions in Africa. In late September 1940, the heavy cruiser took part in the unsuccessful British and Free French attempt to capture Dakar in which she sank a Vichy French destroyer. The Australian Government was not informed of the cruiser's involvement in this operation prior to the battle and complained to the British Government. Three Australian destroyers also took part in the invasion of Madagascar in September 1942. Closer to home, played a significant role in ensuring that New Caledonia came under Free French control in September 1940, by escorting a pro-Free French Governor to Nouméa and taking station off the city during the popular protests which resulted in the Governor replacing the pro-Vichy authorities. Australian warships served in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf through much of the war. From June to October 1940, took part in the East African Campaign, and played an important role in the successful evacuation of Berbera. In May 1941, Yarra supported an operation in which Gurkha troops were landed near Basra during the Anglo-Iraqi War. In August 1941, Yarra and Kanimbla took part in the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, with Yarra sinking the Iranian sloop Babr near Kohorramshahr and Kanimbla landing troops at Bandar Shapur. A dozen s also escorted Allied shipping in the Persian Gulf during 1942. While most Australian units in the Pacific Theatre fought in the SWPA, hundreds of Australians were posted to British units in Burma and India. These included 45 men from the 8th Division who volunteered to train Chinese guerrillas with the British Mission 204 in southern China and served there from February to September 1942. Hundreds of Australians also served with RAF units in India and Burma, though no RAAF units were deployed to this theatre. In May 1943, some 330 Australians were serving in forty-one squadrons in India, of which only nine had more than ten Australians. In addition, many of the RAN's corvettes and destroyers served with the British Eastern Fleet where they were normally used to protect convoys in the Indian Ocean from attacks by Japanese and German submarines. Prisoners of war Just under 29,000 Australians were taken prisoner by the Axis during the war. Only 14,000 of the 21,467 Australian prisoners taken by the Japanese survived captivity. The majority of the deaths in captivity were due to malnutrition and disease. The 8,000 Australians captured by Germany and Italy were generally treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions. The majority of these men were taken during the fighting in Greece and Crete in 1941, with the next largest group being 1,400 airmen shot down over Europe. Like other western Allied POWs, the Australians were held in permanent camps in Italy and Germany. As the war neared its end the Germans moved many prisoners towards the interior of the country to prevent them from being liberated by the advancing Allied armies. These movements were often made through forced marches in harsh weather and resulted in many deaths. Four Australians were also executed following a mass escape from Stalag Luft III in March 1944. While the Australian prisoners suffered a higher death rate in German and Italian captivity than their counterparts in World War I, it was much lower than the rate suffered under Japanese internment. Like the other Allied personnel captured by the Japanese, most of the thousands of Australians captured in the first months of 1942, during the conquest of Malaya and Singapore, the NEI and New Britain were held in harsh conditions. Australians were held in camps across the Asia-Pacific region and many endured long voyages in grossly overcrowded ships. While most of the Australian POWs who died in Japanese captivity were the victim of deliberate malnutrition and disease, hundreds were deliberately killed by their guards. The Burma–Thai Railway was the most notorious of the prisoner of war experiences, as 13,000 Australians worked on it at various times during 1942 and 1943, alongside thousands of other Allied POWs and Asians conscripted by the Japanese; nearly 2,650 Australians died there. Thousands of Australian POWs were also sent to the Japanese home islands where they worked in factories and mines in generally harsh conditions. The POWs held in camps at Ambon and Borneo suffered the highest death rates; 77 percent of those at Ambon died and few of the 2,500 Australian and British prisoners in Borneo survived; almost all were killed by overwork and a series of death marches in 1945. The treatment of the POWs prompted many Australians to remain hostile towards Japan after the war. Australian authorities investigated the abuses against Allied POWs in their country's zone of responsibility after the war, and guards who were believed to have mistreated prisoners were among those tried by Australian-administered war crimes trials. Thousands of Axis POWs were held in Australia during the war. A total of 25,720 POWs were held in Australia: 18,432 Italians, 5,637 Japanese and 1,651 Germans. These prisoners were housed in purpose-built camps and were treated in accordance with the Geneva Convention. A total of 16,798 civilians were also interned. These included 8,921 Australian-resident "enemy aliens", while the remainder were civilians sent to Australia for internment by other Allied countries. On the morning of 5 August 1944, approximately half of the 1,104 Japanese held at a camp near Cowra, New South Wales, attempted to escape. The prisoners overwhelmed their guards and over 400 broke through the wire fences; however, every escapee was either recaptured or killed within 10 days. Home front During the war the Australian Government greatly expanded its powers in order to better direct the war effort, and Australia's industrial and human resources were focused on supporting the Allied armed forces. The expansion of the government's powers began on 9 September 1939, when the National Security Act became law. This act enabled the government to introduce industrial conscription, and both men and women were ordered into essential industries. Rationing was first introduced in 1940, and was greatly expanded during 1942. The Government also strongly encouraged austerity and war bonds as a means of reducing demand for scarce resources. Government policies to develop war-related industries were successful in increasing the sophistication of Australia's industrial sector and self-sufficiency in most categories of weapons. In the decades leading up to the war successive Australian governments had provided subsidies, tariffs and other incentives to encourage the development of military-related manufacturing sectors such as the production of aircraft, automobiles, electronics and chemicals. These secondary industries were integrated into a war economy during 1940 and 1941, and were able to meet most of the Army's needs by 1942. Government-led efforts to develop and manufacture advanced technology enjoyed some notable successes, including the development of lightweight radar sets, optical devices for artillery and equipment adapted for use in the tropics. Australian industry also developed new weapons which were mass-produced for the military, including the Owen submachine gun and a shortened version of the Ordnance QF 25 pounder. In addition, Australian scientists and pharmaceutical companies made important advances in the treatment of tropical diseases. Not all development projects were successful though: efforts to develop an Australian tank (the Sentinel) did not cease until after it had been rendered obsolete and unnecessary, and the development of Australian-designed advanced bomber and fighter aircraft—the CAC Woomera and CAC CA-15 respectively—were abandoned as the engines these aircraft required were not available and adequate US and British designs were produced under licence instead. The massive expansion of the military led to a critical shortage of male workers and increased female participation in the labour force. The number of Australian women in paid employment increased from 644,000 in 1939, to 855,000 in 1944. While this was only a five percentage point increase in the proportion of all Australian women who were working, large numbers of women moved from traditionally "female" roles such as domestic servants into "male" roles in industry. Female branches of the armed forces were established in 1941, and by 1944 almost 50,000 women were serving in the Women's Royal Australian Naval Service, Australian Women's Army Service and Women's Auxiliary Australian Air Force. Thousands more served with the civilian Australian Women's Land Army or undertook voluntary war work. Manpower shortages became an increasingly significant economic issue towards the end of the war, and the Australian military was reduced in size from 1944, to free up personnel for war industries and the civilian economy. Industrial conscription and the drive to increase productivity led to an increasing degree of industrial unrest over time. Many workers were required to work long hours in poor conditions and were not able to change their employment due to the manpower laws. Poor work conditions were exacerbated by the Government's austerity measures reducing workers' standards of living. As a result, strikes and other forms of protest disrupted Australian production, especially from 1943 onwards. These protests attracted considerable criticism from other civilians and members of the military. In May 1943, the Government introduced policies which enabled workers who were undertaking unlawful industrial action to be conscripted into the military, but this had little impact due to the shortage of skilled labour in the industries most prone to industrial disputes. World War II marked the beginning of a long period of Australian economic growth. The war greatly increased the size and importance of the Australian manufacturing sector and stimulated the development of more technologically advanced industries. As part of this trend many workers acquired relatively high skill levels and female labour force participation rates greatly increased. Many women were forced out of traditionally male-dominated industries after the war, however. After the war World War II cost thousands of Australian lives and consumed a large portion of the national income. During the war, 27,073 members of the Australian military were either killed, died of wounds or died while prisoners of war. Of these, 9,572 were killed in the war against Germany and Italy and 17,501 in the war against Japan. Prisoners of war held by the Japanese made up nearly half of Australia's deaths in the Pacific. At least 386 Australian civilian seamen were killed during the war. Total Australian war expenditure was £2,949,380,000 and at its peak in 1942–43, military costs accounted for 40.1 percent of national income. In the months after the war, Australian authorities were responsible for administering all of Borneo and the NEI east of Lombok until the British and Dutch colonial governments were re-established. While British and Indian forces in the west of the NEI became caught up in the Indonesian National Revolution, the Australians were able to avoid clashes with local nationalists. Australian forces were also responsible for guarding the 344,000 remaining Japanese in the NEI and Australian territories and administering war crimes trials in these areas. A volunteer force was formed as Australia's contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) in Japan, and Australia provided the BCOF's headquarters and a high proportion of its personnel. This force later formed the nucleus of the post-war Australian Army, which included permanent combat units for the first time. The Australian military was rapidly demobilised after the Japanese surrender. At the end of the war the military had a strength of nearly 600,000 personnel, of whom 224,000 were serving in the Pacific and 20,000 in Britain and other places. Demobilisation planning had begun at the end of 1942 with the final scheme being approved by the Government in March 1945. General demobilisation started on 1 October 1945, and was completed in February 1947. The process generally ran smoothly, though there were protests over delays at Morotai and Bougainville. Personnel were provided with training while they waited to be demobilised and the government provided post-demobilisation assistance with employment, loans, education and other benefits. Service women were given similar assistance to their male counterparts, but were placed under pressure to return to 'traditional' family roles. World War II led to significant changes to Australian society. Economically, the war accelerated the development of Australia's manufacturing industry and led to a large fall in unemployment. The impact of World War II changed Australian society, and contributed to the development of a more cosmopolitan society in which women were able to play a larger role. The war also resulted in a greater maturity in Australia's approach to international affairs, as demonstrated by the development of a more independent foreign policy and the encouragement of mass immigration after the war. See also Military history of the British Commonwealth in the Second World War Military history of New Zealand during World War II Notes References Further reading External links Australia 01 Wars involving Australia
4578436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level%20Up%20%28American%20TV%20series%29	Level Up (American TV series)	Level Up is a live-action comedy television series that aired on Cartoon Network. A film with the same title, which served as a pilot for the series, premiered on November 23, 2011. The series aired from January 24, 2012, to February 19, 2013. Level Up was the second Cartoon Network show spawned from a live-action film, with the first being Out of Jimmy's Head. Premise After high schoolers Wyatt, Lyle, Dante and Angie unwittingly open a portal from a video game called Maldark: Conqueror of All Worlds into the real world, characters from the game and the Internet start leaking into the real world of the four teenage characters. The group consequently finds itself balancing its members' everyday lives with the extraordinary things that show up in their town from the virtual world which always resorts to using NeverFail to help send the monsters back into the game by "barding" them. Characters Heroes Wyatt Black (portrayed by Gaelan Connell) – Wyatt is a brilliant "techno-geek" who attains perfect grades at school. He is often shown to be a know-it-all and cannot stand when someone bests him at anything he is good at. As seen in the movie, he created NeverFail as well as organizing all the missions and lead the team in battle. He is the captain, and only competent member, of his quiz bowl team. His game avatar is "Black Death," a strong warrior with a bronze right arm. Wyatt's weapon in the game is the "Blast-a-Ton," a weapon capable of firing almost anything as ammunition. Lyle Hugginson (portrayed by Jessie Usher) – Lyle plays American football and is the high school quarterback. He's a charming, popular "jock" who purposefully conceals his love of online fantasy games from other people. Lyle loves to shout "Huzza!" when something goes right. He owns a red Chevy Camaro that he often uses to transport himself and the others. It is also shown that he will go to any means to repay a debt; even selling his car. His video game avatar is a Dread Orc named "Wizza" and his weapon in the game is the "Thunder Pole" staff. Dante Ontero (portrayed by Connor Del Rio) – Fearless and impulsive, Dante is the rebellious member of the group. He loves causing trouble to get attention as well as eating junk food or anything gross (namely anything that had expired). He frequently engages in dangerous stunts on his skateboard in order to make internet videos. He has a poor relationship with his mother, whom he refers to by her first name, Barbara. His video game avatar is a Shiny Knight called "Sir Bickle." Dante's weapon in the game is the "Skull Cracker" club. Angie Prietto (portrayed by Aimee Carrero) – Angie's is portrayed as a smart, spunky, and tenacious character, but her inquisitive nature occasionally results in problems for the female teenager. Angie does not have an avatar as she does not play the game, but her weapon from the video game is the "Fist of Schoolage," a glove that becomes an armored fist. Max Ross (portrayed by Lonny Ross) – Max Ross created the online fantasy game "Conqueror of All Worlds." He's an eccentric multi-billionaire with a taste for conspiracy theories. Following the events of Maldark's attack, Max has become an associate to the kids. He was previously portrayed by Eric André in the film. Laserbot (voiced by Andrea Fraser-Winsby) – A robot created by Max Ross. Joaquin Prietto (portrayed by Isaiah Lehtinen) – Angie's little brother who is a prodigy at everything he does as the guys are jealous when their talents are outdone. He befriends the guys when they babysit him and is also a fan of "Conquer of All Worlds." He's somewhat suspicious of what they do and he came close to their secret in "Heckfire Tiger," but believes that they are secretly LARPers. In "The 4 Harolds! What? Oh. The 4 Heralds!" Joaquin finally learns the truth about the Leaks. He later officially joined NeverFail and began using his video game character's weapon, "The War Hammer of Splat." Villains Maldark (portrayed by John Novak) – The main antagonist of the series. He's a ruthless and narcissistic sorcerer from the "Conqueror of All Worlds" video game whose sole mission is to seek out new worlds and either destroy them or conquer them. Wyatt, Lyle, Dante, Angie, and Max were able to defeat Maldark. Of course, Maldark still plans to take over Earth by sending some of his minions to fight Neverfail and find a portal for him to get to Earth. He was previously portrayed by George Faughnan in the film. Hideo Nojima (portrayed by James Rha) – A Japanese multi-billionaire game designer of the fictional cell phone game "Mystery Puzzle Puncher." He is the rival of Max Ross whose rivalry has gone on since an early career in game designing, college, and elementary school. He came to Daventry Hills to destroy Max Ross with his business. He finds out about the town's leaks after his game character leaks out due to Max's server hacking his. He then sends out his own leaks and swears to ruin Max. After his Leak counterpart was defeated by Max and his counterpart, Hideo plans to have his revenge on Max and NeverFail. Leaks Some of the Leaks are creatures from "Conqueror of All Worlds" that have leaked into Earth. There were also other Leaks that come from anything associated with the Internet. The following are listed in order of appearance: Holiday Orcs – A group of Christmas-themed orcs. They were "barded" by the male Mountain Barbarian. Mountain Barbarians – The Mountain Barbarians are human warriors that have curiosity and strength. After the male Mountain Barbarian (portrayed by Mark Gibbon) helped to defeat the Holiday Orcs, Dante and his friends had the male Mountain Barbarian pass off as an exchange student named Bob Arian when they are unable to send it back into the game. The Mountain Barbarian's wife (played by Hailey Birnie) leaked onto Earth and managed to get the Mountain Barbarian back into the game. Morthorn Worm – A creature from the "beta" version of the game. Its home was deleted by Max which caused it to break through to the real world and make wormholes. Black Death (portrayed by Dave Collette) – Wyatt's avatar. he was sent to the human world when Wyatt accidentally spills his soda onto his keyboard. Because he is an avatar, he cannot move on his own, requiring somebody to control him via keyboard. Bicyclops (portrayed by Jason Simpson) – A cyclops with a second eye above its one eye. The Bicyclopes have poor vision and must wear special glasses that can read people's emotions, feelings, and thoughts to see. If a Bicyclops loses its glasses, it will keep respawning until it reclaims its glasses. Silversmith Dwarf Scorcaling Forest Goracal Exploding Meemees Fewards of Flail Land Hampire (portrayed by Andy Nez) – A creature that is part vampire, part hamster. The Hampire has the appearance of a vampire and can turn into a hamster. He was created by Maldark and sent to the human world to spy on the NeverFail clan in his hamster form. It was flushed back into the game by Lyle. Rainbow Rider – A high-speed rainbow sprite. Snotling Goggler Hanabañero Dragon – A Lvl. 72 dragon who is the boss of Scofield Dungeon. Max's Profile (portrayed by Lonny Ross) – A dating profile of Max Ross that leaked out from the Internet. If you change the profile in any way, he changes into whatever the profile says. For example, when Wyatt had it changed to him being afraid of tablecloths, he ripped the tablecloth off of the table with all of his and his date Barbara's food on the floor. When the gang deleted the profile, he disappeared. Dupligänger – A two-headed monster with one side of its body being red while the other side of its body is yellow. It needs to be attacked with two weapons simultaneously or else it will split into two. Trash Troll – A troll who will trash anything. They resemble Swamp Trolls, but have mud, dirt, and green splatter all over them. He is known for stealing everything from players he beats in the game, and putting the people themselves inside his sack. Jack (portrayed by Morgan Roff) – The main character from Jack and the Beanstalk who leaked out of Dante's eBook. At first, he seems like a good guy and Dante's friend. But afterwards, they find out that he steals many things form the Giant, NeverFail, and Angie. Jack just claims that he was just "borrowing them." After NeverFail got Jack to listen to reason upon bringing out the Big Bad Wolf, Dante manages to get Jack and the Giant to work on their aggression by using foam bats. Giant (portrayed by John DeSantis) – A giant from Jack and the Beanstalk who leaked out of Dante's eBook. Dante always thought of him as a bad guy, but after he finds out that Jack is a thief, he realizes that the Giant has a reason to hate Jack. Dante manages to get Jack and the Giant to work on their aggression by using foam bats. Snow White (portrayed by Kendra Anderson) – The titled story book character who leaked out to help negotiate with Jack. Sherlock Holmes (portrayed by Tariq Leslie) – NeverFail leaked him out in order to help find Jack. Big Bad Wolf – NeverFail had to bring out the Big Bad Wolf in order to negotiate with Jack. Jester – An odd humanoid creature with a bugle for a mouth. It rewards players for completing its fetch quest. Woodland Fairy Acid-Spitting Mini Dragon – A miniature dragon of blended purple-red color that flies and spits acid. Their weakest spots are their wings and that is how you defeat them. Sir Guy (portrayed by Christopher Gauthier) – An NPC nobleman who needs Dante's help to complete a side quest so he can level up. The quests involve catching frogs and defeating an elite Five-Armed Blood Marauder that was terrorizing his village. Five-Armed Blood Marauder (portrayed by Michasha Armstrong) – A marauder with five arms. Dante had to help Sir Guy into fighting an elite Five-Armed Blood Marauder that was terrorizing Sir Guy's village. Dante managed to successfully bard the Five-Armed Blood Marauder. Skunkbear (portrayed by John DeSantis) – A humanoid creature that is part skunk, part bear. They can emit smelly odors from their armpits which Dante said smelled like Smelly Gym Socks, "Toe Cheese," and Dirty Diapers. Bounty Hunter (portrayed by Jud Tylor) – A female shape-shifting bounty hunter with horns who leaks from the game because Angie accidentally pastes a photo of Wyatt on a wall of wanted people in the game. Because of this, she wants to hunt him down. She can go without being found out about as shown when he appears on Wyatt's leak-detecting app, but not when anyone else beside Wyatt looks at it. She blended in with the humans by assuming the form of a substitute teacher named Ms. Lindenlooper. Once she was seen by Angie, Dante, and Lyle, they helped Wyatt to bard the Bounty Hunter. Merchant (portrayed by Richard Newman) – The 10th evilest character in "Conqueror of All Worlds". He was purposely leaked by Max Ross to promote his new expansion pack. To get control of him during the promotion, Max had the Merchant wears a shock collar. Until it is removed while he is working, the Merchant then sets out to prove he can be the number 1 villain in "Conqueror of All Worlds" by taking over all of the business in the area. He is barded in the end by NeverFail. Swirling Giver (portrayed by Tony Alcantar) – Also known as "Swirly", the Swirling Giver is a leak that hands out gold and in return demands to be paid back. Usually with gold, favors, or hanging out with someone till he annoys them. When angered, he gives them a swirly then eats their face off. Lyle is one of his victims who offers his services until he is ordered to capture Dante. Invizio (portrayed by Nolan Prasad) – A ghost who leaks into the high school. He lived in a ghost town until NeverFail brought all the ghosts back to life. Invizio wanted revenge on them for that action. When Lyle managed to bring him back to life, Wyatt defeats him in order to bard him back into the game. Courtesy Cat (portrayed by Brian McCaig) – A talking humanoid cat wearing a blue sweater who offers helpful advice to people. When angered from his warnings being ignored, he turns into the Heckfire Tiger (portrayed by Paul Lazenby) which is a humanoid masked wrestler wearing a tiger face paint and blue wrestling tights. When Courtesy Cat first appeared, it was mistaken for the Crosstown Cougar mascot of Crosstown High School. When apologized to, Heckfire Tiger weakens and turns back into Courtesy Cat. NeverFail used this tactic to defeat Heckfire Tiger and barded Courtesy Cat back into the game. Asp (portrayed by Laura Soltis) – Half-woman, half-snake. She is one of Maldark's servants who searched for a weak spot in order to get Maldark to get to Earth while posing as Vice-Principal Asp of Crosstown High School. When she infiltrated NeverFail's base to look for a weak spot, she manages to Dante and Lyle trapped until Wyatt and Angie freed them. NeverFail then proceeded to bard Asp and thwart Maldark's plot. Vomit Varmit – A small purple troll that emits blue vomit. Glamazons – A group of Amazonian warriors who seek out and challenge the strongest people called "The Glamazonian Death Challenge". The challenge consists of three events that involve speed, hand-to-hand combat, and accuracy. The winner receives a prize, while the loser loses their head. The prize is to be sacrificed to Rhea. Once Rhea was defeated, the Glamazons were freed from Rhea. Glamazon Queen (portrayed by Karen Holness) – The Queen of the Glamazons. Grinella (portrayed by Sharon Taylor) – Member of the Glamazons. Rhea (portrayed by Karin Konoval) – A Gorgon that the Glamazons have been menaced by. She often accepts sacrifices that involve giving up the winner of the Glamazon Death Challenge to her. Wyatt, Lyle, and Dante tried to stop Rhea, but she turned to stone. With help from Grinella, Angie used the mirror to turn Rhea's powers against her enough for her to be sent back into the game and undo the effects of her petrifying gaze. Rhea's petrified form then disappeared back into the game. Dwarven Butler – A dwarf butler who wears 16th-century/Steampunk-based attire. Potions Wizard (portrayed by Jay Brazeau) – A wizard who makes potions that leaked out of the game and gave Dante a free potion in exchange for not leaking him. His plan is to put everyone sleep with sleep powder and to shrink the Earth like he's done with several other planets. He was barded by Lyle. Wachupa – A small reptilian creature in the game that is based on a fictional urban legend. In the game, it is a pet created by Max Ross to be a pet that reviews constant love and attention. If it doesn't receive love and attention, it will explode. Moo Man (portrayed by Patrick Sabongui) – A man with bull-like hooves, horns, and tendencies (such as charging at the color red) that wears a nose ring. The Moo Men are known to attack villages and take breaks in their attacks by grazing in the fields. One was bombarded by another leak from the game who happened to be Hugo Vega Soro. Another Moo Man arrived looking for his son Hugo in order to bring him back. Hugo convinced his father to let him stay and Hugo's father is barded into the game by Wyatt. Hugo Vega Soro (portrayed by Reinaldo Zavarce) – A leak that felt like an outcast in his world due to him being the son of a Moo Man. He left the game to live a peaceful life. Hugo eventually became an author of Wyatt's favorite comic book "The Peaceful Prince," a book based on his life in the game. He is befriended by Wyatt. After dealing with Hugo's father, NeverFail allowed Hugo to live in the real world and act as their "leak on the street." Dante Jr. – A web cartoon created by Dante on Max's computer that leaked out of the game and went on a rampage. He kidnapped Dante's history teacher after giving a Dante a bad grade. Dante Jr. was barded by NeverFail Thomas Jeffer: Son of Frankenstein (portrayed by Rodger Barton) – A Frankenstein's Monster-themed 18th Century revolutionary who was another web cartoon created by Dante as a part of a history class assignment. He was leaked out by Dante to take on Dante Jr. by using his non-sensual creativity and genius. After Dante Jr. was defeated, Max decided to put Thomas Jeffer in "Conqueror of All Worlds". Puzzle Puncher Boxer (portrayed by Darcy Hinds) – A boxing character from "Mystery Puzzle Puncher". Mystery Puzzle Cube – A puzzle cube leaked out by Hideo. Evil Hideo (portrayed by James Rha) – A leak designed by Hideo in his own image as a wizard. He was barded by Max and his Laserbot. John (portrayed by Sean Tyson) – A blacksmith that was leaked out by Dante to pose as his dad when meeting with Vice-Principal Elmhurst to talk about Dante's suspension. He was known to feud with Nessus who was in love with John's horse Cinnamon. Once John and Nessus were in the same area, Wyatt barded both of them with a single missile. Nessus (portrayed by Matt Ward) – A centaur who once sold his magic horseshoe to Lyle. He has been in love with a horse named Cinnamon and was hunted by John the Blacksmith. When Barbara caught a glimpse of him, she fainted at first sight. Once John and Nessus were in the same area, Wyatt barded both of them with a single missile. He was named for the centaur who killed the Greek hero Hercules. Ochi (portrayed by Alex Zahara) – An Orc that was the former right-hand man of King Okavango. He cleaned up NeverFail's hideout and worked as their servant. NeverFail took him for granted and Ochi ended up being an unwitting pawn in King Okavango's revenge when King Okavango leaked onto Earth. When King Okavango wanted Ochi to finish off NeverFail after they ended up in King Okavango's trap, Ochi instead barded King Okavango. Once Max had freed NeverFail, he managed to trap Ochi on a dangling hook as Dante bards him. King Okavango (portrayed by Mark Acheson) – An Orc king that was overthrown by NeverFail in the game. King Okavango later leaked onto Earth where Ochi partook in King Okavango's revenge on NeverFail. When King Okavango wanted Ochi to finish off NeverFail after they ended up in King Okavango's trap, Ochi instead barded King Okavango. Titocona (portrayed by Mig Macario) – An NPC zen monk that Lyle had taken pacifist lessons from. Titocona leaked out of the game in order to set Mr. Cochrane straight. He chased after Mr. Cochrane until he was barded by Angie. Afterwards, Mr. Cochrane believed that Titocona's attack was part of Prank Week. Cactus Kaiser (portrayed by Andy Thompson in a German accent) – A humanoid cactus that comes from the Deutsch Desert. The quills of the Cactus Kaiser are poisonous. Lyle acted as a pacifist around the Cactus Kaiser where they talked about the Cactus Kaiser's fight with the Moist Monsters for 92 minutes. Cactus Kaiser takes up Lyle's advice and goes back into the game to negotiate peace with the Moist Monsters. The Cactus Kaiser later returned where he told NeverFail that Lyle's advice worked and is now marrying a Moist Monster. Heralds of the Maldarkian Apocalypse – A group of four monster that bring about the Maldarkian Apocalypse (which is also known as the Maldarkalypse). Ice Titan (portrayed by Fraser Aitcheson) – A ice-elemental monster. When it grabbed onto a wet pole during the fight against NeverFail, it was barded by Dante. Fire Titan (portrayed by Aidan Pringle) – A fire-elemental monster. Wyatt, Lyle, and Dante had a hard time fighting the Fire Titan. Angie tried to take on the Fire Titan only for her Fist of Schoolage attack to not being able to phase it. When the Fire Titan has Angie cornered, she pulls off a diversion to try to contact the others. With help from Joaquin, the rest of NeverFail arrived. Joaquin tricked the Water Titan into colliding with the Fire Titan in order for them to bard each other. Wind Titan – A wind-elemental monster. Joaquin fought the Wind Titan online to keep it from leaking onto Earth. Water Titan (portrayed by Paul Lazenby) – A water-elemental monster. Joaquin tricked the Water Titan into colliding with the Fire Titan in order for them to bard each other. Momcubus (portrayed by Chelah Horsdal) – A six-armed monster created by Dante on Max's computer. The Momcubus was modeled after Barbara. She was barded by Joaquin. Lord of the Pies (portrayed by Jeremy Raymond) – A human with a pie-shaped hat. He comes to NeverFail when his son had leaked onto Earth and couldn't find him. NeverFail was able to reunite him with his son offscreen. Bard (portrayed by Michael Teigen) – A bard that NeverFail leaked out to help convince Joaquin into helping NeverFail. An Insult Slug combined with the Bard to form a Bard/Insult Slug Hybrid (performed by Michael Teigen, voiced by Rob Webber) which made off with NeverFail's Booty Box. Joaquin joins up with NeverFail in order to help fight the Bard/Insult Slug. After defeating the Bard/Insult Slug, NeverFail had to separate the Bard/Insult Slug back into the two creatures before they can bard them. Insult Slug (voiced by Pat Fraley) – A pink slug that can perform insult comedy upon anyone. It was leaked by Dante to help convince Joaquin into helping NeverFail. The Insult Slug combined with the Bard and made off with the NeverFail. Joaquin joins up with NeverFail in order to help fight the Bard/Insult Slug. After defeating the Bard/Insult Slug, NeverFail had to separate the Bard/Insult Slug back into the two creatures before they can bard them. Other characters Principal Storms (portrayed by Lorne Cardinal) – The Principal of Daventry Hills North High School. Vice-Principal Elmhurst (portrayed by Sarah Strange) – The vice-principal of Daventry Hills North High School. Coach Farber (portrayed by Kurt Evans) – The football coach of Daventry Hills North High School. Dave (voiced by Keith Blackman Davis) – The janitor of Daventry Hills North High School. Barbara (portrayed by Chelah Horsdal) – The mother of Dante, who calls her by her first name. She and Dante have a poor relationship. Barbara was previously portrayed by Rhoda Griffs in the film. Teddy Black (portrayed by Tobias Slezak) – The father of Wyatt. Mayor Hugginson (portrayed by Peter James Bryant) – The father of Lyle and the Mayor of Daventry Hills. He was previously portrayed by Geoffrey Williams in the film. Big Joe (portrayed by Kurt Ostlund) – Big Joe is the school bully who picks mainly on Wyatt. Reggie (portrayed by Sunee Dhaliwal) – Reggie is on the football team and is Lyle's friend. Weird Karl (portrayed by Albert Ageman) – Karl is a creepy-looking kid who makes his own choices, and is suspicious about Wyatt and his friends. Gus (portrayed by Erik McNamee) – Gus is an awkward acting boy who has a major crush on Angie though she doesn't return the feelings. Philbert (portrayed by Samuel Patrick Chu) – Philbert is a daredevil who is always seen with Dante or Wyatt, and is Angie's crush. Natalie (portrayed by Chanelle Peloso) – A overachieving school girl that speaks in a lisp. She is suspicious of the gang and also runs the "Conspiracy Club" a club dedicated to solving the town's conspiracy aka the Leaks (including the recent Skunkbear sightings) and come close until her group is discredited on live TV. Davis (portrayed by Michael Warren Choi) – A small Asian kid with black hair. He is best friends with Jim and they always seen together. They are part of the "Conspiracy Club". Jim (portrayed by Luke McAndless-Davis) – He is a tall kid with curly brown hair. He is best friends with Davis. Also is member of Natalie's "Conspiracy Club". Ginger (portrayed by Siobhan Williams) – Ginger is the know-it-all sassy member of student council and Wyatt's Quiz Bowl Team. Roxanne – A Canadian girl who Wyatt get crush on her. But She dates with Gus at the final due to she really likes cowardice-boys. Leroy (portrayed by Aren Buchholz) – Lyle's old friend who moved back to town he is aware that Dante hangs out with the guys and loves to play "Conqueror of All Worlds." He enjoys pranking and goes completely overboard such as wrecking the running man in HQ, framing Wyatt for using a freeze ray, ruining Lyle's quest in game, and standing up Angie. He ends up getting payback after a run in with a leak, but the gang plays it off as a joke. Leroy is suspicious and swears vengeance. Mr. Cochrane (portrayed by Panou) – A strict teacher who had previously left to attend an anger management class. He was so strict that even Principal Storms was afraid of him. When Lyle finally stood up to him, Titocona attacked and chased after Mr. Cochrane. After Titocona was barded, Mr. Cochrane believed that the experience was part of Prank Week. Episodes Series overview Pilot film (2011) Season 1 (2012) Season 2 (2012–13) Home media Notes References External links Official website 2010s American comic science fiction television series 2010s American high school television series 2010s American single-camera sitcoms 2010s American teen sitcoms 2012 American television series debuts 2013 American television series endings 2010s Canadian comic science fiction television series 2010s Canadian high school television series 2010s Canadian teen sitcoms 2012 Canadian television series debuts 2013 Canadian television series endings American adventure television series American fantasy comedy television series Canadian adventure television series Canadian fantasy comedy television series Cartoon Network original programming Television series by Cartoon Network Studios English-language television shows Television series about teenagers Television shows filmed in Vancouver
4578451	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless%20microphone	Wireless microphone	A wireless microphone, or cordless microphone, is a microphone without a physical cable connecting it directly to the sound recording or amplifying equipment with which it is associated. Also known as a radio microphone, it has a small, battery-powered radio transmitter in the microphone body, which transmits the audio signal from the microphone by radio waves to a nearby receiver unit, which recovers the audio. The other audio equipment is connected to the receiver unit by cable. In one type the transmitter is contained within the handheld microphone body. In another type the transmitter is contained within a separate unit called a "bodypack", usually clipped to the user's belt or concealed under their clothes. The bodypack is connected by wire to a "lavalier microphone" or "lav" (a small microphone clipped to the user's lapel), a headset or earset microphone, or another wired microphone. Most bodypack designs also support a wired instrument connection (e.g., to a guitar). Wireless microphones are widely used in the entertainment industry, television broadcasting, and public speaking to allow public speakers, interviewers, performers, and entertainers to move about freely while using a microphone without requiring a cable attached to the microphone. Wireless microphones usually use the VHF or UHF frequency bands since they allow the transmitter to use a small unobtrusive antenna. Cheap units use a fixed frequency but most units allow a choice of several frequency channels, in case of interference on a channel or to allow the use of multiple microphones at the same time. FM modulation is usually used, although some models use digital modulation to prevent unauthorized reception by scanner radio receivers; these operate in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz or 6 GHz ISM bands. Some models use antenna diversity (two antennas) to prevent nulls from interrupting transmission as the performer moves around. A few low cost (or specialist) models use infrared light, although these require a direct line of sight between microphone and receiver. History Various individuals and organizations claim to be the inventors of the wireless microphone. From about 1945 there were schematics and hobbyist kits offered in Popular Science and Popular Mechanics for making a wireless microphone that would transmit the voice to a nearby radio. Figure skater and Royal Air Force flight engineer Reg Moores developed a radio microphone in 1947 that he first used in the Tom Arnold production "Aladdin on Ice" at Brighton's sports stadium from September 1949 through the Christmas season. Moores affixed the wireless transmitter to the costume of the character Abanazar, and it worked perfectly. Moores did not patent his idea, as he was illegally using the radio frequency 76 MHz. The producers of the ice show decided that they would not continue using the device; they would rather hire actors and singers to perform into hidden microphones to "dub" the voices of the other ice skaters, who would thus be free to concentrate on their skating. In 1972 Moores donated his 1947 prototype to the Science Museum in London. Herbert "Mac" McClelland, founder of McClelland Sound in Wichita, Kansas, fabricated a wireless microphone to be worn by baseball umpires at major league games broadcast by NBC from Lawrence–Dumont Stadium in 1951. The transmitter was strapped to the umpire's back. Mac's brother was Harold M. McClelland, the chief communications architect of the U.S. Air Force. Shure Brothers claims that its "Vagabond" system from 1953 was the first "wireless microphone system for performers." Its field of coverage was a circle of "approximately 700 square feet", which corresponds to a line-of-sight distance of only from the receiver. In 1957, the German audio equipment manufacturer Sennheiser, at that time called Lab W, working with the German broadcaster Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR), exhibited a wireless microphone system. From 1958 the system was marketed through Telefunken under the name of Mikroport. The pocket-sized Mikroport incorporated a dynamic moving-coil cartridge microphone with a cardioid pickup pattern. It transmitted at 37 MHz with a specified range of . The first recorded patent for a wireless microphone was filed by Raymond A. Litke, an American electrical engineer with Educational Media Resources and San Jose State College, who invented a wireless microphone in 1957 to meet the multimedia needs for television, radio, and classroom instruction. His U.S. patent number 3134074 was granted in May 1964. Two microphone types were made available for purchase in 1959: hand-held and lavalier. The main transmitter module was a cigar-sized device which weighed . Vega Electronics Corporation manufactured the design in 1959, producing it as a product called the Vega-Mike. The device was first used by the broadcast media at the 1960 Democratic and Republican National Conventions. It allowed television reporters to roam the floor of the convention to interview participants, including presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon. Introduced in 1958, the Sony CR-4 wireless microphone was being recommended as early as 1960 for theatre performances and nightclub acts. Animal trainers at Marineland of the Pacific in California were wearing the $250 device for performances in 1961. The 27.12 MHz solid-state FM transmitter was capable of fitting into a shirt pocket. Said to be effective out to , it mounted a flexible dangling antenna and a detachable dynamic microphone. The tube-based receiver incorporated a carrying drawer for the transmitter and a small monitor loudspeaker with volume control. Another German equipment manufacturer, Beyerdynamic, claims that the first wireless microphone was invented by Hung C. Lin. Called the "transistophone", it went into production in 1962. The first time that a wireless microphone was used to record sound during filming of a motion picture was allegedly on Rex Harrison in the 1964 film My Fair Lady, through the efforts of Academy Award-winning Hollywood sound engineer George Groves. Wider dynamic range came with the introduction of the first compander wireless microphone, offered by Nady Systems in 1976. Todd Rundgren and the Rolling Stones were the first popular musicians to use these systems live in concert. Kate Bush is regarded as the first artist to have had a headset with a wireless microphone built for use in music. For her Tour of Life in 1979 she had a compact microphone combined with a self-made construction of wire clothes hangers, to free her hands for expressionist dance performances. Her idea was adopted for live performance by other artists such as Madonna and Peter Gabriel. Nady joined CBS, Sennheiser and Vega in 1996 to receive a joint Emmy Award for "pioneering [the] development of the broadcast wireless microphone". Advantages and disadvantages The advantages are: Greater freedom of movement for the artist or speaker Avoidance of cabling problems common with wired microphones, caused by constant moving and stressing the cables Reduction of cable "trip hazards" in the performance space Galvanic isolation of microphone, avoiding ground loops between microphone and other electrical instruments on stage The disadvantages are: Lower sound quality Sometimes limited range (a wired balanced XLR microphone can run up to 300 ft or 100 meters). Some wireless systems have a shorter range, while more expensive models can exceed that distance. Possible interference with or, more often, from other radio equipment or other radio microphones, though models with many frequency-synthesized switch-selectable channels are now plentiful and cost effective. Operation time is limited relative to battery life; it is shorter than a normal condenser microphone due to greater drain on batteries from transmitting circuitry, and from circuitry giving extra features, if present. Noise or dead spots (places where it doesn't work, especially in non-diversity systems) Limited number of operating microphones at the same time and place, due to the limited number of radio channels (frequencies). Higher cost in proportion to fewer other features Techniques The professional models transmit in VHF or UHF radio frequency and have 'true' diversity reception (two separate receiver modules, each with its own antenna), which eliminates dead spots (caused by phase cancellation) and the effects caused by the reflection of the radio waves on walls and surfaces in general. (See antenna diversity). Another technique used to improve the sound quality (actually, to improve the dynamic range), is companding. Nady Systems, Inc. was the first to offer this technology in wireless microphones in 1976, which was based on the patent obtained by company founder John Nady. Some models have adjustable gain on the microphone itself to be able to accommodate different level sources, such as loud instruments or quiet voices. Adjustable gain helps to avoid clipping and maximize signal to noise ratio. Some models have adjustable squelch, which silences the output when the receiver does not get a strong or quality signal from the microphone, instead of reproducing noise. When squelch is adjusted, the threshold of the signal quality or level is adjusted. Products AKG Acoustics, Audio Ltd, Audio-Technica, Electro-Voice, Lectrosonics, MIPRO, Nady Systems, Inc, Samson Technologies, Sennheiser, Shure, Sony, Wisycom and Zaxcom are all major manufacturers of wireless microphone systems. They have made significant advances in dealing with many of the disadvantages listed above. For example, while there is a limited band in which the microphones may operate, several high-end systems can consist of over 100 different microphones operating simultaneously. However, the ability to have more microphones operating at the same time increases the cost due to component specifications, design and construction. That is one reason for such large price differences between different series of wireless systems. Generally there are three wireless microphone types: handheld, plug-in and bodypack: Handheld looks like a 'normal' wired microphone, may have a bigger body to accommodate the transmitter and battery pack. Plug-in, plug-on, slot-in, or cube-style transmitters attach to the bottom of a standard microphone, thus converting it to wireless operation (see below). Bodypack is a small box housing the transmitter and battery pack, but not the microphone itself. It is attachable to clothing or on the body and has a wire going into a headset, a lavalier microphone or a guitar. Several manufacturers including Sennheiser, AKG, Nady Systems, Lectrosonics and Zaxcom offer a plug-in transmitter for existing wired microphones, which plugs into the XLR output of the microphone and transmits to the manufacturer's standard receiver. This offers many of the benefits of an integrated system, and also allows microphone types (of which there may be no wireless equivalent) to be used without a cable. For example, a television, or film, sound production engineer may use a plug-in transmitter to enable wireless transmission of a highly directional rifle (or "shotgun") microphone, removing the safety hazard of a cable connection and permitting the production engineer greater freedom to follow the action. Plug-in transmitters also allow the conversion of vintage microphone types to cordless operation. This is useful where a vintage microphone is needed for visual or other artistic reasons, and the absence of cables allows for rapid scene changes and reducing trip hazards. In some cases these plug-in transmitters can also provide 48 volt phantom power allowing the use of condenser microphone types. DC-DC converter circuitry within the transmitter is used to multiply the battery supply, which may be three volts or less, up to the required 48 volts. Receivers There are many types of receiver. True Diversity receivers have two radio modules and two antennas. Diversity receivers have one radio module and two antennas, although some times the second antenna may not be obviously visible. Non-diversity receivers have only one antenna. Receivers are commonly housed in a half-rack configuration, so that two can be mounted together in a rack system (that is to say the receiver is enclosed in a box 1U high and half-width, so two receivers can be installed in 1U). For large complex multi channel radio microphone systems, as used in broadcast television studios and musical theatre productions, modular receiver systems with several (commonly six or eight) true diversity receivers slotting into a rack-mounted mainframe housing are available. Several mainframes may be used together in a rack to supply the number of receivers required. In some musical theatre productions, systems with forty or more radio microphones are not unusual. Receivers specifically for use with video cameras are often mounted in a bodypack configuration, typically with a hotshoe mount to be fitted onto the hotshoe of the camcorder. Small true diversity receivers which slot into a special housing on many professional broadcast standard video cameras are produced by manufacturers including Sennheiser, Lectrosonics and Sony. For less demanding or more budget conscious video applications small non-diversity receivers are common. When used at relatively short operating distances from the transmitter this arrangement gives adequate and reliable performance. Bandwidth and spectrum Almost all wireless microphone systems use wide band FM modulation, requiring approximately 200 kHz of bandwidth. Because of the relatively large bandwidth requirements, wireless microphone use is effectively restricted to VHF and above. Many older wireless microphone systems operate in the VHF part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Systems operating in this range are often crystal-controlled, and therefore operate on a single frequency. However, if this frequency is chosen properly, the system will be able to operate for years without any problems. Most modern wireless microphone products operate in the UHF television band, however. In the United States, this band extends from 470 MHz to 614 MHz. In 2010 the Federal Communications Commission issued new regulations on the operations of TV-band devices. Other countries have similar band limits; for example, Great Britain's UHF TV band currently (Jan 2014) extends from 470 MHz to 790 MHz. Typically, wireless microphones operate on unused TV channels ("white spaces"), with room for one to two microphones per megahertz of spectrum available. ("Wo Mic") Intermodulation (IM) is a major problem when operating multiple systems in one location. IM occurs when two or more RF signals mix in a non-linear circuit, such as an oscillator or mixer. When this occurs, predictable combinations of these frequencies can occur. For example, the combinations 2A-B, 2B-A, and A+B-C might occur, where A, B, and C are the frequencies in operation. If one of these combinations is close to the operating frequency of another system (or one of the original frequencies A, B, or C), then interference will result on that channel. The solution to this problem is to manually calculate all of the possible products, or use a computer program that does this calculation automatically. Digital Hybrid Wireless Digital Hybrid systems use an analogue FM transmission scheme in combination with digital signal processing (DSP) to enhance the system's audio. Using DSP allows the use of digital techniques impossible in the analogue domain such as predictive algorithms, thus achieving a flatter frequency response in the audio spectrum and also further reducing noise and other undesirable artifacts when compared to pure analogue systems. Another approach is to use DSP in order to emulate analogue companding schemes in order to maintain compatibility between older analogue systems and newer systems. Using DSP in the receiver alone can improve the overall audio performance without the penalty of increased energy consumption and resulting battery life reduction that is incurred by incorporating DSP into a battery-powered transmitter. Digital A number of pure digital wireless microphone systems do exist, and there are many different digital modulation schemes possible. Digital systems from Sennheiser, Sony, Shure, Zaxcom, AKG and MIPRO use the same UHF frequencies used by analogue FM systems for transmission of a digital signal at a fixed bit rate. These systems encode an RF carrier with one channel, or in some cases two channels, of digital audio. Only the Sennheiser Digital 9000 system, introduced in 2013, is currently capable of transmitting full-bandwidth, uncompressed, digital audio in the same 200 kHz bandwidth UHF channels that were used by analogue FM systems. The advantages offered by purely digital systems include low noise, low distortion, the opportunity for encryption, and enhanced transmission reliability. Pure digital systems take various forms. Some systems use frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology, similar to that used for cordless phones and radio-controlled models. As this can require more bandwidth than a wideband FM signal, these microphones typically operate in the unlicensed 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz or 6 GHz bands. The absence of any requirement for a license in these frequency bands is an added attraction for many users, regardless of the technology used. The 900 MHz band is not an option outside of the US and Canada as it is used by GSM cellular mobile phone networks in most other parts of the world. The 2.4 GHz band is increasingly congested with various systems including WiFi (also referred to as Wireless LAN, wireless networks, 802.11b/g/n), Bluetooth and 'leakage' from microwave ovens. The 6 GHz band has problems of range (requires line of sight) due to the extremely short transmission carrier wavelengths. The Alteros GTX Series is a local area wireless microphone network that overcomes the line-of-sight problem by utilizing up to 64 transceivers around the performance area. It is also the only system employing Ultra WideBand pulsed RF technology which doesn't generate intermodulation products common with FM, QAM and GFSK modulated carriers used by most other systems. Digital radio microphones are inherently more difficult for the casual 'scanner' listener to intercept because conventional "scanning receivers" are generally only capable of de-modulating conventional analogue modulation schemes such as FM and AM. However, some digital wireless microphone systems additionally offer encryption technology in an attempt to prevent more serious 'eavesdropping' which may be of concern for corporate users and those using radio microphones in security sensitive situations. Manufacturers currently offering digital wireless microphone systems include AKG-Acoustics, Alteros, Audio-Technica, Lectrosonics, Line 6, MIPRO, Shure, Sony, Sennheiser and Zaxcom. All are using different digital modulation schemes from each other. Licensing United Kingdom In the UK, use of wireless microphone systems requires a Wireless Telegraphy Act license, except for the license free bands of 173.8–175.0 MHz and 863–865 MHz. In 2013 the UK communications regulator, Ofcom, held an auction in which the UHF band from 790 MHz to 862 MHz was sold to be used for mobile broadband services. United States Licenses are required to use wireless microphones on vacant TV channels in the United States as they are a part of the Broadcast Auxiliary Service (BAS). Licenses are available only to broadcasters, cable networks, television and film producers. There are currently some wireless microphone manufacturers that are marketing wireless microphones for use in the United States that operate within the 944–952 MHz band reserved for studio-transmitter link communications. Beginning in 2017, the amount of TV band spectrum available for wireless microphone use is decreasing as a result of the incentive auction, which was completed on April 13, 2017. Australia In Australia, operation of wireless microphones of up to 100 mW EIRP between 520 MHz and 694 MHz is on unused television channels and is covered by a class license, allowing any user to operate the devices without obtaining an individual license. Other countries In many other countries wireless microphone use does require a license. Some governments regard all radio frequencies as military assets and the use of unlicensed radio transmitters, even wireless microphones, may be severely punished. Licensing in European countries is regulated by the Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) which is part of the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) based in Denmark. White Space Devices (United States) There is a move to allow the operation of personal unlicensed wideband digital devices using the UHF television spectrum in the United States. These 'white space' devices (WSDs) would be required to have GPS and access to a location database to avoid interfering with other users of the band. Initial tests performed by the FCC showed that, in some cases, prototypes of these devices were unable to correctly identify frequencies that were in use, and might therefore accidentally transmit on top of these users. Broadcasters, theaters, and wireless microphone manufacturers were firmly against these types of devices ostensibly for this reason. Later tests by the FCC indicated that the devices could safely be used. This did not reduce the opposition by broadcasters who might also have been concerned by the possibility of entertainment delivery competition from high-speed mobile Internet access delivered in the white spaces. On September 23, 2010, the FCC released a Memorandum Opinion and Order that determined the final rules for the use of white space for unlicensed wireless devices. The final rules adopt a proposal from the White Spaces Coalition for very strict emission rules that prevent the direct use of IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) in a single channel effectively making the new spectrum unusable for Wi-Fi technologies. Cognitive Access (UK) A similar class of device to those known in the US as White Space Devices (WSD) is being researched in the UK and probably many other countries. Whilst the WSD situation in the US is being closely watched by interested parties in the UK and elsewhere, early in 2009 Ofcom launched research and a public consultation on Cognitive Access to the UHF interleaved spectrum. The outcome of this consultation and the related WSD activities in the US could have far reaching implications for users of UHF radio microphones in the UK and around the world. See also Boom operator (media) Electronic field production (EFP) Electronic news gathering (ENG) Filmmaking FM transmitter (personal device) Professional video camera Recording studio Television production References External links Discussion regarding the reassignment of Channel 69 frequencies in the UK Microphones Wireless transmitters fi:Langaton mikrofoni
4578612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native%20American%20tribes%20in%20Virginia	Native American tribes in Virginia	The Native American tribes in Virginia are the indigenous tribes who currently live or have historically lived in what is now the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States of America. All of the Commonwealth of Virginia used to be Virginia Indian territory. Indigenous peoples have occupied the region for at least 12,000 years. Their population has been estimated to have been about 50,000 at the time of European colonization. At contact, Virginian tribes belonged to tribes and spoke languages belonging to three major language families: roughly, Algonquian along the coast and Tidewater region, Siouan in the Piedmont region above the Fall Line, and Iroquoian in the interior, particularly the mountains. About 30 Algonquian tribes were allied in the powerful Powhatan paramount chiefdom along the coast, which was estimated to include 15,000 people at the time of English colonization. Few written documents assess the traditions and quality of life of some of the various early tribes that populated the Virginia region. One account lists the observations of an Englishman who encountered groups of Native peoples during his time in Virginia. The author notes the Virginia Natives' diet depended on cultivated corn, meat and fish from hunting, and gathered fruits. He noted they believed in an afterlife, and recorded differences in characteristics among Native nations based on region and the size of population. Due to the early and extended history, by the post-Civil War period, most tribes had lost their lands and many had suffered decades of disruption and high mortality due to epidemics of infectious diseases. Because the Native Americans generally lacked reservations and some had intermarried with Europeans and African Americans, many colonists and later European-American residents of Virginia assumed that the Native Americans were disappearing. They did not understand that mixed-race descendants could be brought up as fully culturally Native American. But many Native Americans maintained their cultures and became increasingly active in the late 20th century in asserting their identities. After struggling to gain recognition from the state and federal governments, six tribes gained Congressional support for recognition. As of January 29, 2018, Virginia has seven federally recognized tribes: the Pamunkey Indian Tribe, Chickahominy, Eastern Chickahominy, Upper Mattaponi, Rappahannock, Nansemond and Monacan. The latter six gained recognition through passage of federal legislation in the 21st century. In addition, the Commonwealth of Virginia has recognized these seven and another four tribes, most since the late 20th century. Only two of the tribes, the Pamunkey and Mattaponi, have retained reservation lands assigned by 17th-century treaties made with the English colonists. In the late 20th century, state law established an official recognition process. Federal legislation to provide recognition to six of Virginia's non-reservation tribes was developed and pushed over a period of 19 years. Hearings established that the tribes would have been able to meet the federal criteria for continuity and retention of identity as tribes, but they were disadvantaged by lacking reservations and, mostly, by racially discriminatory state governmental actions that altered records of Indian identification and continuity. In addition, some records were destroyed during the American Civil War and earlier conflicts. State officials arbitrarily changed vital records of birth and marriage while implementing the Racial Integrity Act of 1924; they removed identification of individuals as Indian and reclassified them as either white or non-white (i.e. colored), according to the state's "one-drop rule" (most members of Virginia tribes are multiracial, including European and/or African ancestry), without regard for how people identified. This resulted in Indian individuals and families losing the documentation of their ethnic identities. Since the late 20th century, many of the tribes who had maintained cultural continuity reorganized and began to press for federal recognition. In 2015 the Pamunkey completed their process and were officially recognized as an Indian tribe by the federal government. Following nearly two decades of work, federal legislation to recognize the six tribes was passed by Congress and signed by President Donald Trump on January 29, 2018. History 16th century The first European explorers in what is now Virginia were Spaniards, who landed at two separate places several decades before the English founded Jamestown in 1607. By 1525 the Spanish had charted the eastern Atlantic coastline north of Florida. In 1609, Francisco Fernández de Écija, seeking to deny the English claim, asserted that Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón's failed colony of San Miguel de Gualdape, which lasted the three months of winter 1526–27, had been near Jamestown. Modern scholars instead place this first Spanish colony within US boundaries as having been on an island off Georgia. In 1542, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto in his expedition to the North American continent encountered the Chisca people, who lived in present-day southwestern Virginia. In the spring of 1567, the conquistador Juan Pardo was based at Fort San Juan, built near the Mississippian culture center of Joara in present-day western North Carolina. He sent a detachment under Hernando Moyano de Morales into present-day Virginia. This expedition destroyed the Chisca village of Maniatique. The site was later developed as the present-day town of Saltville, Virginia. Meanwhile, as early as 1559–60, the Spanish had explored Virginia, which they called Ajacán, from the Chesapeake Bay while they sought a water passage to the west. They captured a Native man, possibly from the Paspahegh or Kiskiack tribe, whom they named Don Luis after they baptized him. They took him to Spain, where he received a Jesuit education. About ten years later, Don Luis returned with Spanish Jesuit missionaries to establish the short-lived Ajacán Mission. Native Americans attacked it in 1571 and killed all the missionaries. English attempts to settle the Roanoke Colony in 1585–87 failed. Although the island site is located in present-day North Carolina, the English considered it part of the Virginia territory. The English collected ethnological information about the local Croatan tribe, as well as related coastal tribes extending as far north as the Chesapeake Bay. There were no records of indigenous life before the Europeans started documenting their expeditions and colonization efforts. But scholars have used archaeological, linguistic and anthropological research to learn more about the cultures and lives of Native Americans in the region. Contemporary historians have also learned how to use the Native American oral traditions to explore their history. According to colonial historian William Strachey, Chief Powhatan had slain the weroance at Kecoughtan in 1597, appointing his own young son Pochins as successor there. Powhatan resettled some of that tribe on the Piankatank River. (He annihilated the adult male inhabitants at Piankatank in fall 1608.) In 1670 the German explorer John Lederer recorded a Monacan legend. According to their oral history, the Monacan, a Siouan-speaking people, settled in Virginia some 400 years earlier by following "an oracle," after being driven by enemies from the northwest. They found the Algonquian-speaking Tacci tribe (also known as Doeg) already living there. The Monacan told Lederer they had taught the Tacci to plant maize. They said that before that innovation, the Doeg had hunted, fished, and gathered their food. Another Monacan tradition holds that, centuries prior to European contact, the Monacan and the Powhatan tribes had been contesting part of the mountains in the western areas of today's Virginia. The Powhatan had pursued a band of Monacan as far as the Natural Bridge, where the Monacan ambushed the Powhatan on the narrow formation, routing them. The Natural Bridge became a sacred site to the Monacan known as the Bridge of Mahomny or Mohomny (Creator). The Powhatan withdrew their settlements to below the Fall Line of the Piedmont, far to the east along the coast. Another tradition relates that the Doeg had once lived in the territory of modern King George County, Virginia. About 50 years before the English arrived at Jamestown (i.e. c. 1557), the Doeg split into three sections, with one part moving to what became organized as colonial Caroline County, one part moving to Prince William, and a third part remaining in King George. Houses Another expression of the different cultures of the three major language groups were their practices in constructing dwellings, both in style and materials. The Monacan, who spoke a Siouan language, created dome-shaped structures covered with bark and reed mats. The tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy spoke Algonquian languages, as did many of the Atlantic coastal peoples all the way up into Canada. They lived in houses they called yihakans/yehakins, and which the English described as "longhouses". They were made from bent saplings lashed together at the top to make a barrel shape. The saplings were covered with woven mats or bark. The 17th-century historian William Strachey thought since bark was harder to acquire, families of higher status likely owned the bark-covered houses. In summer, when the heat and humidity increased, the people could roll up or remove the mat walls for better air circulation. Inside a Powhatan house, bedsteads were built along both long walls. They were made of posts put in the ground, about a foot high or more, with small cross-poles attached. The framework was about wide, and was covered with reeds. One or more mats was placed on top for bedding, with more mats or skins for blankets. A rolled mat served as a pillow. During the day, the bedding was rolled up and stored so the space could be used for other purposes. There was little need for extra bedding because a fire was kept burning inside the houses to provide heat in the cold months. It would be used to repel insects during the warmer months. Wildlife was abundant in this area. The buffalo were still plentiful in the Virginia Piedmont up until the 1700s. The Upper Potomac watershed (above Great Falls, Virginia) was once renowned for its unsurpassed abundance of wild geese, earning the Upper Potomac its former Algonquian name, Cohongoruton (Goose River). Men and boys hunted game, and harvested fish and shellfish. Women gathered greens, roots and nuts, and cooked these with the meats. Women were responsible for butchering the meat, gutting and preparing the fish, and cooking shellfish and vegetables for stew. In addition, women were largely responsible for the construction of new houses when the band moved for seasonal resources. Experienced women and older girls worked together to build the houses, with younger children assigned to assist. 17th century In 1607, when the English made their first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, the area of the current state was occupied by numerous tribes of Algonquian, Siouan, and Iroquoian linguistic stock. Captain John Smith made contact with numerous tribes, including the Wicocomico. More than 30 Algonquian tribes were associated with the politically powerful Powhatan Confederacy (alternately Powhatan Chiefdom), whose homeland occupied much of the area east of the Fall Line along the coast. It spanned 100 by , and covered most of the tidewater Virginia area and parts of the Eastern Shore, an area they called Tsenacommacah. Each of the more than 30 tribes of this confederacy had its own name and chief (weroance or werowance, female weroansqua). All paid tribute to a paramount chief (mamanatowick) or Powhatan, whose personal name was Wahunsenecawh. Succession and property inheritance in the tribe was governed by a matrilineal kinship system and passed through the mother's line. Below the fall line, related Algonquian groups, who were not tributary to Powhatan, included the Chickahominy and the Doeg in Northern Virginia. The Chickahomony were independent of the Powhatan. Powhatan's chiefdom was a confederacy that relied on the cooperation and willingness of other Algonquian groups. The Chickahominy insisted on governing themselves and on having equal footing with the Powhatan. If Powhatan wished to use them as warriors, he had to hire them and pay them in copper. The Accawmacke (including the Gingaskin) of the Eastern Shore, and the Patawomeck of Northern Virginia, were fringe members of the Confederacy. As they were separated by water from Powhatan's domains, the Accawmacke enjoyed some measure of semi-autonomy under their own paramount chief, Debedeavon, aka "The Laughing King". The Piedmont and area above the fall line were occupied by Siouan-speaking groups, such as the Monacan and Manahoac. The Iroquoian-speaking peoples of the Nottoway and Meherrin lived in what is now Southside Virginia south of the James River. Other tribes occupied mountain and foothill areas. The region beyond the Blue Ridge (including West Virginia) was considered part of the sacred hunting grounds. Like much of the Ohio Valley, it was depopulated during the later Beaver Wars (1670–1700) by attacks from the powerful Five Nations of the Iroquois from New York and Pennsylvania. French Jesuit maps prior to that were labeled showing that previous inhabitants included the Siouan "Oniasont" (Nahyssan) and the Tutelo or "Totteroy," the former name of Big Sandy River — and another name for the Yesan or Nahyssan. (Similarly, the Kentucky River in Kentucky was said to be anciently known as the Cuttawah, i.e., "Catawba" River. The Kanawha River is believed to have been named centuries earlier to indicate a former homeland of the Conoy aka Piscataway.) When the English first established the Virginia Colony, the Powhatan tribes had a combined population of about 15,000. Relations between the two peoples were not always friendly. After Captain John Smith was captured in the winter of 1607 and met with Chief Powhatan, relations were fairly good. The Powhatan sealed relationships such as trading agreements and alliances via the kinship between groups involved. The kinship was formed through a connection to a female member of the group. Powhatan sent food to the English, and was instrumental in helping the newcomers survive the early years. By the time Smith left Virginia in the fall of 1609, due to a gunpowder accident, relations between the two peoples had begun to sour. In the absence of Smith, Native affairs fell to the leadership of Captain George Percy. The English and Powhatan's men led attacks on one another in near succession under Percy's time as negotiator. With both sides raiding in attempts to sabotage supplies and steal resources, English and Powhatan relations quickly fell apart. Their competition for land and resources led to the First Anglo-Powhatan War. In April 1613, Captain Samuel Argall learned that Powhatan's "favorite" daughter Pocahontas was residing in a Patawomeck village. Argall abducted her to force Powhatan to return English prisoners and stolen agricultural tools and weapons. Negotiations between the two peoples began. It was not until after Pocahontas converted to Christianity and married Englishman John Rolfe in 1614 that peace was reached between the two peoples. As noted, matrilineal kinship was stressed in Powhatan society. Pocahontas' marriage to John Rolfe linked the two peoples. The peace continued until after Pocahontas died in England in 1617 and her father in 1618. After Powhatan's death, the chiefdom passed to his brother Opitchapan. His succession was brief and the chiefdom passed to Opechancanough. It was Opecancanough who planned a coordinated attack on the English settlements, beginning on March 22, 1622. He wanted to punish English encroachments on Indian lands and hoped to run the colonists off entirely. His warriors killed about 350-400 settlers (up to one-third of the estimated total population of about 1,200), during the attack. The colonists called it the Indian massacre of 1622. Jamestown was spared because Chanco, an Indian boy living with the English, warned the English about the impending attack. The English retaliated. Conflicts between the peoples continued for the next 10 years, until a tenuous peace was reached. In 1644, Opechancanough planned a second attack to turn the English out. Their population had reached about 8,000. His warriors again killed about 350-400 settlers in the attack. It led to the Second Anglo-Powhatan War. In 1646, Opechancanough was captured by the English. Against orders, a guard shot him in the back and killed him. His death began the death of the Powhatan Confederacy. Opechancanough's successor, Necotowance signed his people's first treaty with the English in October 1646. The 1646 treaty delineated a racial frontier between Indian and English settlements, with members of each group forbidden to cross to the other side except by special pass obtained at one of the newly erected border forts. By this treaty, the extent of the Virginia Colony open to patent by English colonists was defined as: All the land between the Blackwater and York rivers, and up to the navigable point of each of the major rivers - which were connected by a straight line running directly from modern Franklin on the Blackwater, northwesterly to the Appomattoc village beside Fort Henry, and continuing in the same direction to the Monocan village above the falls of the James, where Fort Charles was built, then turning sharp right, to Fort Royal on the York (Pamunkey) river. In 1658, English authorities became concerned that settlers would dispossess the tribes living near growing plantations and convened an assembly. The assembly stated English colonists could not settle on Indian land without permission from the governor, council, or commissioners and land sales had to be conducted in quarter courts, where they would be public record. Through this formal process, the Wicocomico transferred their lands in Northumberland County to Governor Samuel Mathews in 1659. Necotowance thus ceded the English vast tracts of uncolonized land, much of it between the James and Blackwater Rivers. The treaty required the Powhatan to make yearly tribute payment to the English of fish and game, and it also set up reservation lands for the Indians. All Indians were at first required to display a badge made of striped cloth while in white territory, or they could be murdered on the spot. In 1662, this law was changed to require them to display a copper badge, or else be subject to arrest. Around the year 1670, Seneca warriors from the New York Iroquois Confederacy conquered the territory of the Manahoac of Northern Piedmont. That year the Virginia Colony had expelled the Doeg from Northern Virginia east of the fall line. With the Seneca action, the Virginia Colony became de facto neighbours of part of the Iroquois Five Nations. Although the Iroquois never settled the Piedmont area, they entered it for hunting and raiding against other tribes. The first treaties conducted at Albany between the two powers in 1674 and 1684 formally recognized the Iroquois claim to Virginia above the Fall Line, which they had conquered from the Siouan peoples. At the same time, from 1671 to 1685, the Cherokee seized what are now the westernmost regions of Virginia from the Xualae. In 1677, following Bacon's Rebellion, the Treaty of Middle Plantation was signed, with more of the Virginia tribes participating. The treaty reinforced the yearly tribute payments, and a 1680 annexe added the Siouan and Iroquoian tribes of Virginia to the roster of Tributary Indians. It allowed for more reservation lands to be set up. The treaty was intended to assert that the Virginia Indian leaders were subjects of the King of England. In 1693 the College of William and Mary officially opened. One of the initial goals of the college was to educate Virginia Indian boys. Funding from a farm named "Brafferton," in England, were sent to the school in 1691 for this purpose. The funds paid for living expenses, classroom space, and a teacher's pay. Only children of treaty tribes could attend, but at first none of them sent their children to the colonial school. By 1711, Governor Spotswood offered to remit the tribes' yearly tribute payments if they would send their boys to the school. The incentive worked and that year, the tribes sent twenty boys to the school. As the years passed, the number of Brafferton students decreased. By late in the 18th century, the Brafferton Fund was diverted elsewhere. From that time, the college was restricted to ethnic Europeans (or whites) until 1964, when the federal government passed civil rights legislation ending segregation in public facilities. 18th century Among the early Crown Governors of Virginia, Lt. Governor Alexander Spotswood had one of the most coherent policies toward Native Americans during his term (1710–1722), and one that was relatively respectful of them. He envisioned having forts built along the frontier, which Tributary Nations would occupy, to act as buffers and go-betweens for trade with the tribes farther afield. They would also receive Christian instruction and civilization. The Virginia Indian Company was to hold a government monopoly on the thriving fur trade. The first such project, Fort Christanna, was a success in that the Tutelo and Saponi tribes took up residence. But, private traders, resentful of losing their lucrative share, lobbied for change, leading to its break-up and privatization by 1718. Spotswood worked to make peace with his Iroquois neighbours, winning a concession from them in 1718, of all the land they had conquered as far as the Blue Ridge Mountains and south of the Potomac. This was confirmed at Albany in 1721. This clause was to be a bone of contention decades later, as it seemed to make the Blue Ridge the new demarcation between the Virginia Colony and Iroquois land. But the treaty technically stated that this mountain range was the border between the Iroquois and the Virginia Colony's Tributary Indians. White colonists considered this license to cross the mountains with impunity, which the Iroquois resisted. This dispute, which first flared in 1736 as Europeans began to settle the Shenandoah Valley, came to a head in 1743. It was resolved the next year by the Treaty of Lancaster, settled in Pennsylvania. Following this treaty, some dispute remained as to whether the Iroquois had ceded only the Shenandoah Valley, or all their claims south of the Ohio. Moreover, much of this land beyond the Alleghenies was disputed by claims of the Shawnee and Cherokee nations. The Iroquois recognized the English right to settle south of the Ohio at Logstown in 1752. The Shawnee and Cherokee claims remained, however. In 1755 the Shawnee, then allied with the French in the French and Indian War, raided an English camp of settlers at Draper's Meadow, now Blacksburg, killing five and abducting five. The colonists called it the Draper's Meadow Massacre. The Shawnee captured Fort Seybert (now in West Virginia) in April 1758. Peace was reached that October with the Treaty of Easton, where the colonists agreed to establish no further settlements beyond the Alleghenies. Hostilities resumed in 1763 with Pontiac's War, when Shawnee attacks forced colonists to abandon frontier settlements along the Jackson River, as well as the Greenbrier River now in West Virginia, the associated valleys on either side of the Allegheny ridge, and the latter just beyond the Treaty of Easton limit. Meanwhile, the Crown's Proclamation of 1763 confirmed all land beyond the Alleghenies as Indian Territory. It attempted to set up a reserve recognizing native control of this area and excluding European colonists. Shawnee attacks as far east as Shenandoah County continued for the duration of Pontiac's War, until 1766. Many colonists considered the Proclamation Line adjusted in 1768 by the Treaty of Hard Labour, which demarcated a border with the Cherokee nation running across southwestern Virginia, and by the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, by which the Iroquois Six Nations formally sold the British all their claim west of the Alleghenies, and south of the Ohio. However, this region (which included the modern states of Kentucky, and West Virginia, as well as southwestern Virginia) was still populated by the other tribes, including the Cherokee, Shawnee, Lenape, and Mingo, who were not party to the sale. The Cherokee border had to be readjusted in 1770 at the Treaty of Lochaber, because European settlement in Southwest Virginia had already moved past the 1768 Hard Labour line. The following year the Native Americans were forced to make further land concessions, extending into Kentucky. Meanwhile, the Virginian settlements south of the Ohio (in West Virginia) were bitterly challenged, particularly by the Shawnee. The resulting conflict led to Dunmore's War (1774). A series of forts controlled by Daniel Boone began to be built in the valley of the Clinch River during this time. By the Treaty of Camp Charlotte concluding this conflict, the Shawnee and Mingo relinquished their claim south of the Ohio. The Cherokee sold Richard Henderson a portion of their land encompassing extreme southwest Virginia in 1775 as part of the Transylvania purchase. This sale was not recognized by the royal colonial government, nor by the Chickamauga Cherokee war chief Dragging Canoe. But, contributing to the Revolution, settlers soon began entering Kentucky by rafting down the Ohio River in defiance of the Crown. In 1776, the Shawnee joined Dragging Canoe's Cherokee faction in declaring war on the "Long Knives" (Virginians). The chief led his Cherokee in a raid on Black's Fort on the Holston River (now Abingdon, Virginia) on July 22, 1776 (see Cherokee–American wars (1776–94)). Another Chickamauga leader, Bob Benge, also continued to lead raids in the westernmost counties of Virginia during these wars, until he was slain in 1794. In August 1780, having lost ground to the British army in South Carolina fighting, the Catawba Nation fled their reservation and took temporary refuge in an unknown hiding spot in Virginia. They may have occupied the mountainous region around Catawba, Virginia in Roanoke County, which had not been settled by European Americans. They remained there in safety around nine months, until American general Nathanael Greene led them to South Carolina, after the British were pushed out of that region near the end of the Revolution. In the summer of 1786, after the United States had gained independence from Great Britain, a Cherokee hunting party fought a pitched two-day battle with a Shawnee one at the headwaters of the Clinch in present-day Wise County, Virginia. It was a victory for the Cherokee although losses were heavy on both sides. This was the last battle between these tribes within the present limits of Virginia. Throughout the 18th century, several tribes in Virginia lost their reservation lands. Shortly after 1700, the Rappahannock tribe lost its reservation; the Chickahominy tribe lost theirs in 1718, and the Nansemond tribe sold theirs in 1792 after the American Revolution. After losing their reservations, these tribes faded from the public record. Some of their landless members intermarried with other ethnic groups and became assimilated. Others maintained ethnic and cultural identification despite intermarriage. In their matrilineal kinship systems, children of Indian mothers were considered born into her clan and family, and Indian regardless of their fathers. By the 1790s, most of the surviving Powhatan tribes had converted to Christianity, and spoke only English. 19th century During this period, ethnic Europeans continued to push the Virginia Indians off the remaining reservations and end their status as tribes. By 1850, one of the reservations was sold to the whites, and another reservation was officially divided by 1878. Many Virginia Indian families held onto their individual lands into the 20th century. The only two tribes to resist the pressure and hold onto their communal reservations were the Pamunkey and Mattaponi tribes. These two tribes still maintain their reservations today. After the Civil War, the reservation tribes began to reclaim their cultural identities. They asserted their identity in the Commonwealth of Virginia. They wanted to demonstrate that the Powhatan Indian descendants had maintained their cultural identity and were proud of their heritage. This was particularly important after the emancipation of slaves. The colonists and many white Virginians assumed that the many Indians of mixed race were no longer culturally Indian. But, they absorbed people of other ethnicities; especially if the mother was Indian, the children were considered to be members of her clan and tribe. 20th century In the early 20th century, many Virginia Indians began to reorganize into official tribes. They were opposed by Walter Ashby Plecker, the head of the Bureau of Vital Statistics in Virginia (1912–1946). Plecker was a white supremacist and a follower of the eugenics movement, which had racial theories related to mistaken ideas about the superiority of the white race. Given the history of Virginia as a slave society, he wanted to keep the white "master race" "pure." In 1924 Virginia passed the Racial Integrity Act (see below), establishing the one drop rule in law, by which individuals having any known African ancestry were to be considered African, or black. Because of intermarriage and the long history of Virginia Indians not having communal land, Plecker believed there were few "true" Virginia Indians left. According to his beliefs, Indians of mixed race did not qualify, as he did not understand that Indians had a long practice of intermarriage and absorbing other peoples into their cultures. Their children may have been of mixed race but they identified as Indian. The U.S. Department of the Interior accepted some of these "non Indians" as representing all of them when persuading them to cede lands. The 1924 law institutionalized the "one-drop rule", defining as black an individual with any known black/African ancestry. According to the Pocahontas Clause, a white person in Virginia could have a maximum blood quantum of one-sixteenth Indian ancestry without losing his or her legal status as white. This was a much more stringent definition than had prevailed legally in the state during the 18th and 19th centuries. Before the Civil War, a person could legally qualify as white who had up to one-quarter (equivalent to one grandparent) African or Indian ancestry. In addition, many court cases dealing with racial identity in the antebellum period were decided on the basis of community acceptance, which usually followed how a person looked and acted, and whether they fulfilled community obligations, rather than analysis of ancestry, which most people did not know in detail anyway. A holdover from the slavery years and Jim Crow, which still prevailed in the racially segregated state, the act prohibited marriage between whites and non-whites. It recognized only the terms of "white" and "colored" (which was related to ethnic African ancestry). Plecker was a strong proponent for the Act. He wanted to ensure that blacks were not "passing" as Virginia Indians, in his terms. Plecker directed local offices to use only the designations of "white" or "colored" on birth certificates, death certificates, marriage certificates, voter registration forms, etc. He further directed them to evaluate some specific families which he listed, and to change the classification of their records, saying he believed they were black and trying to pass as Indian. During Plecker's time, many Virginia Indians and African Americans left the state to escape its segregationist strictures. Others tried to fade into the background until the storm passed. Plecker's "paper genocide" dominated state recordkeeping for more than two decades, but declined after he retired in 1946. It destroyed much of the documentation that had shown families continuing to identify as Indian. The Racial Integrity Act was not repealed until 1967, after the ruling of the US Supreme Court case Loving v. Virginia, which stated anti-miscegenation laws were unconstitutional. In the ruling the court stated: "The freedom to marry, or not marry, a person of another race lies with the individual and cannot be infringed by the State." In the late 1960s, two Virginia organizations applied for federal recognition through the BAR under the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Ani-Stohini/Unami first petitioned in 1968 and the Rappahannock filed shortly thereafter. The B.I.A. later told tribal leaders that they had lost the Ani-Stohini/Unami petition; they said that during the American Indian Movement takeover of the Interior Building in 1972, many documents were lost or destroyed. The Rappahannock tribe was recognized by the State of Virginia. Today, at least 13 tribes in Virginia have petitioned for federal recognition. With the repeal of the Racial Integrity Act, individuals were allowed to have their birth certificates and other records changed to note their ethnic Indian identity (rather than black or white "racial" classification), but the state government charged a fee. After 1997, when Delegate Harvey Morgan's bill HB2889 passed to correct this injustice, any Virginia Indian who had been born in Virginia could have his or her records changed for free to indicate identity as Virginia Indian. In the 1980s, the state officially recognized several tribes in a process authorized under legislation. The tribes had struggled to be recognized, against issues of racial discrimination. Because of their long history of interaction with European Americans, only two tribes had retained control of reservation lands established during the colonial period. Their "landless" condition added to their difficulty in documenting historic continuity of their people, as outsiders assumed that without a reservation, the Indians had assimilated to the majority culture. Another three tribes were recognized by the state in 2010. 21st century The population of Powhatan Indians today in total is estimated to be about 8,500–9,500. About 3,000–3,500 are enrolled as tribal members in state-recognized tribes. In addition, the Monacan Nation has tribal membership of about 2,000. The organized tribes, which developed from kinship and geographic communities, establish their own requirements for membership, as well as what they consider its obligations. Generally, members must pay dues; attend tribal meetings (which are usually monthly in the "home" areas); volunteer to serve as a tribal officer when asked; help to put on tribal events; belong to the tribal church (if one exists and they are able); teach their children their people's history and pass on traditional crafts; volunteer to represent the tribe at the Virginia Council on Indians, the United Indians of Virginia, or at other tribes' powwows; speak at engagements for civic or school groups; and live in a good way, so as to best represent their tribe and Native Americans in general. Most Indian tribes maintain some traditions from before the time of European settlement, and are keen to pass these on to their children. Although Indians are also highly involved in non-native culture and employment, they regularly engage in activities for their individual tribes, including wearing regalia and attending powwows, heritage festivals, and tribal homecomings. Individuals try to maintain a balance between elements of their traditional culture and participating in the majority culture. The Pamunkey and the Mattaponi are the only tribes in Virginia to have maintained their reservations from the 17th-century colonial treaties. These two tribes continue to make their yearly tribute payment to the Virginia governor, as stipulated by the 1646 and 1677 treaties. Every year around Thanksgiving they hold a ceremony to pay the annual tribute of game, usually a deer, and pottery or a ceremonial pipe. In 2013, the Virginia Department of Education released a 25-minute video, "The Virginia Indians: Meet the Tribes," covering both historical and contemporary Native American life in the state. The Rappahannock tribe purchased back a part of their ancestral homeland April 1, 2022. The tribe substantially increased their holdings January 2023. Tribes recognized by Virginia The Commonwealth of Virginia passed legislation in 2001 to develop a process for state recognition of Native American tribes within the state. As of 2010, the state has recognized a total of 11 tribes, eight of them related to historic tribes that were members of the Powhatan paramountcy. The state also recognizes the Monacan Nation, the Nottoway, and the Cheroenhaka (Nottoway), who were outside the paramountcy. Descendants of several other Virginia Indian and Powhatan-descended tribes still live in Virginia and other locations. Cheroenhaka (Nottoway) Indian Tribe. Letter of Intent to Petition 12/30/2002. Receipt of Petition 12/30/2002. State recognized 2010; in Courtland, Southampton County. Chickahominy Tribe. Letter of Intent to Petition 03/19/1996. State recognized 1983; in Charles City County. In 2009, Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition. Eastern Chickahominy Indians Tribe Letter of Intent to Petition 9/6/2001. State recognized, 1983; in New Kent County. In 2009, Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition. Mattaponi Tribe (a.k.a. Mattaponi Indian Reservation). Letter of Intent to Petition 04/04/1995. State recognized 1983; in Banks of the Mattaponi River, King William County. The Mattaponi and Pamunkey have reservations based in colonial-era treaties ratified by the colony in 1658. Pamunkey Tribe's attorney told Congress in 1991 that the tribes state reservation originated in a treaty with the crown in the 17th century and has been occupied by Pamunkey since that time under strict requirements and following the treaty obligation to provide to the Crown a deer every year, and they've done that (replacing Crown with Governor of Commonwealth since Virginia became a Commonwealth) Monacan Nation (formerly Monacan Indian Tribe of Virginia). Letter of Intent to Petition 07/11/1995. State recognized 1989; in Bear Mountain, Amherst County. In 2009, Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition. Nansemond Indian Tribal Association, Letter of Intent to Petition 9/20/2001. State recognized 1985; in Cities of Suffolk and Chesapeake. In 2009, Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition. Nottoway Indian Tribe of Virginia, recognized 2010; in Capron, Southampton County. Pamunkey Nation, recognized 1983; in Banks of the Pamunkey River, King William County. Federally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs 2015. Patawomeck Indians of Virginia recognized 2010; in Stafford County. Rappahannock Indian Tribe (I) (formerly United Rappahannock Tribe). Letter of Intent to Petition 11/16/1979. State recognized 1983; in Indian Neck, King & Queen County. In 2009, Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition. An unrecognized tribe, Rappahannock Indian Tribe (II), also uses this name. Upper Mattaponi Tribe (formerly Upper Mattaponi Indian Tribal Association). Letter of Intent to Petition 11/26/1979. State recognized 1983; in King William County. In 2009, Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition. In 2009 the governor established a Virginia Indian Commemorative Commission to develop a plan to run a competition for a monument to be located in Capitol Square to commemorate Native Americans in the state. Some elements have been developed, but the statue has not yet been installed. Federal recognition Various bills before Congress have proposed granting federal recognition for the six non-reservation Virginia Tribes. Recent sponsors of such Federal recognition bills have been Senator George Allen, R-Va and Rep. Jim Moran, D-Va. These bills would grant federal recognition to the Chickahominy, Eastern Chickahominy, Upper Mattaponi, Rappahannock and Nansemond Tribes, and Monacan Indian Nation. These are six non-reservation tribes whose members have demonstrated continuity of community, as noted by state recognition. Federal recognition of these tribes would compensate for some of the historic injustices they suffered under Virginia government, and recognize their continuing identities as Virginia Indians and American citizens. On January 29, 2018, President Donald Trump signed legislation into effect that granted federal recognition to these tribes. In May 2018, $1.4 million in grants was awarded to these tribes by the Department of Housing and Urban Development, reported by the Suffolk News Herald. On May 8, 2007, the US House of Representatives passed a bill extending federal recognition to the six tribes mentioned above, but it was not passed by the Senate. On March 9, 2009 the Thomasina E. Jordan Indian Tribes of Virginia Federal Recognition Act of 2009 was sent to the House Committee on Natural Resources. Hearings for the bill were heard before the committee on March 18, 2009 and on April 22, 2009, the committee referred the bill to the US House of Representatives. On June 3, 2009, the House approved the bill and the following day it was introduced in the Senate, where it was read twice and referred to the Committee on Indian Affairs, which approved the bill on October 22. On December 23, 2009 the bill was placed on the Senate Legislative Calendar under general orders. This is the furthest the bill has gotten in the Congressional process. The bill has a hold on it placed for "jurisdictional concerns." Senator Tom Coburn (R-Ok.) believes that requests for tribal recognition should be processed through the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a process the Virginia tribes cannot use. So many of their records were destroyed under Walter Plecker that they would be unable to satisfy BIA documentation requirements of cultural continuity. The hold prevented the bill from reaching the Senate floor, and it died with the end of the Congressional session. On February 17, 2011, two bills that would grant the six non-reservation Virginia Indian tribes federal recognition were introduced in the 112th Congress, one in the Senate (S.379) and one in the House of Representatives (H.R.783). The Senate bill was referred to the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs. The House bill was referred to the House Committee on Natural Resources, who referred it to the Subcommittee on Indian and Alaska Native Affairs on February 25. On July 28, 2011, the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs ordered the Senate version of the bill "to be reported without amendment favorably." The two reservation tribes, the Pamunkey and Mattaponi, are not part of the federal recognition bill. The Pamunkey were granted independent federal recognition by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 2015. The Mattaponi are also applying for federal recognition via the BIA, under current regulations and administrative process. Unrecognized organizations More than a dozen unrecognized organizations claim to be Native American tribes, including many Cherokee heritage groups. These groups are neither federally or state-recognized tribes. One such organization, the Ani-Stohini/Unami Nation petitioned the U.S. government Bureau of Acknowledgement and Research for federal recognition in 1968. In 1972, The Bureau of Indian Affairs stated that they had lost the petition. The tribe filed a complaint that has yet to be addressed by the Bureau. In 1994, the tribe again submitted a letter of intent to petition. They are listed as petitioners #150. however, their petition has not been resolved. See also Native American agriculture in Virginia Unrecognized tribes in Virginia References Suggested reading External links Virginia Council on Indians Brigid Schulte, "With Trip to England, Va. Tribes Seek a Place in U.S. History", Washington Post, 13 Jul 2006 Thomasina E. Jordan Indian Tribes of Virginia Federal Recognition Act of 2007 , Library of Congress Brigid Schulte, "As Year's End Nears, Disappointment: Va. Tribes Had Hoped Jamestown Events Would Help Them Gain Sovereign Indian Nation Status", Washington Post, 25 Nov 2007 Virginia Indian Tribal Alliance for Life Virginia Pow-Wow Schedule
4578695	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycho%20%281998%20film%29	Psycho (1998 film)	Psycho is a 1998 American psychological horror film produced and directed by Gus Van Sant, and starring Vince Vaughn, Julianne Moore, Viggo Mortensen, William H. Macy, and Anne Heche. It is a modern remake of Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film of the same name, in which an embezzler arrives at an old motel run by a mysterious man named Norman Bates; both films are adapted from Robert Bloch's 1959 novel. Though filmed in color and set in 1998, the film is closer to a shot-for-shot retelling than most remakes, often copying Hitchcock's camera movements and editing, including the original script by Joseph Stefano (and uncredited writer Alma Reville) mostly being carried over. Bernard Herrmann's musical score is reused as well, though with a new arrangement by Danny Elfman and Steve Bartek, recorded in stereo. Some changes are introduced to account for advances in technology since the original film and to make the content more explicit. The film's murder sequences are also intercut with surreal images. Psycho was a commercial failure and earned mixed reviews from critics who criticized the similarities to the original film, though Heche's acting received some praise. It won the Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Remake and Worst Director, and was nominated for Worst Actress (Heche). However, it earned two Saturn Award nominations for Best Actress (Heche) and Best Writing (Stefano). Plot During a Friday afternoon tryst in a Phoenix hotel, real-estate secretary Marion Crane and her boyfriend Sam Loomis discuss their inability to get married because of his debts and alimony demands from his previous marriage to his ex-wife. Returning to work, she decides to steal a cash payment of $400,000 entrusted to her for deposit at the bank and drive to Sam's home in Fairvale, California, where he owns a hardware store. En route, she hurriedly trades her car, making both the car dealer and a California Highway Patrol trooper suspicious. Running into bad weather, Marion stops for the night at the Bates Motel, located off the main highway. Proprietor Norman Bates descends from a large house atop a hill overlooking the motel, registers Marion under an assumed name she uses, and invites her to dine with him. After he returns to his house, Marion overhears him arguing with his mother Norma about her presence. Upon returning with a light meal and apologizing for his mother's outbursts, Norman discusses his taxidermy hobby, his mother's "illness" and how people have their own "private trap" that they wish to escape from. Returning to her room, Marion, remorseful of her crime, decides to drive back to Phoenix in the morning and return the stolen money hidden in a newspaper, unaware that the aroused Norman is watching her through a hole in the wall. As Marion showers, a shadowy figure appears, brutally stabs her to death and leaves. Anguished and horrified upon finding Marion's corpse, Norman cleans up the murder scene, wraps the body in the shower curtain and places it along with her belongings and the hidden cash in her car, and sinks the car in a swamp near the motel. Marion's sister Lila arrives in Fairvale a week later, tells Sam about the theft, and probes her whereabouts, but he denies her disappearance. Private investigator Milton Arbogast approaches them, saying that he has been hired to retrieve the money. Learning that Marion spent a night at the Bates Motel, he questions Norman, whose nervousness and inconsistency arouse Arbogast's suspicion. When Norman implies Marion had spoken to his mother, Arbogast asks to speak to her, but Norman refuses. Arbogast, not yet suspecting the worst, updates Sam and Lila about his findings, and promises to phone again later. When he enters the Bates home looking for Norman's mother, a figure resembling an elderly woman emerges from the bedroom and fatally stabs him. Hearing no word from Arbogast, Sam and Lila grow curious about the Bates Motel, Arbogast's last stop. The pair later visit Al Chambers, the local sheriff, who tells them that Norman's mother died in a murder-suicide ten years earlier, concluding that Arbogast lied to Sam and Lila so he could pursue Marion and the money. Convinced that something happened to Arbogast, Lila and Sam drive to the motel, check in while posing as a married couple, and infiltrate Marion's room, finding a missing shower curtain and a scrap of paper indicating that Marion subtracted an amount from her cash payment. Sam distracts Norman in the office, while Lila sneaks into the house. Suspicious, Norman becomes agitated and knocks Sam unconscious. As he runs to the house, Lila hides in the fruit cellar, where she discovers the mother's mummified body. She screams, and Norman, wearing his mother's clothes and a wig, enters the cellar and tries to stab her. Sam appears and subdues him, rescuing Lila. At the police station, psychiatrist Dr. Simon Richmond explains that Norman jealously murdered Norma and her lover by poisoning them with strychnine ten years earlier. He mummified her corpse and began treating it as if she were still alive, even going so far as to recreate her in his mind as an alternate personality, as jealous and possessive as she was while alive. When Norman is attracted to a woman, "Mother" takes over: he had murdered two other young women before Marion, and Arbogast was killed to hide "his mother's" crime. Dr. Richmond concludes "Mother" has now completely taken over Norman's personality. Sitting in a jail cell, Norman hears his mother saying that the murders were all his doing, as Marion's car is retrieved from the swamp. Cast Production Development Director Gus Van Sant was a longtime admirer of Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960), and, while a film student, shot a parody commercial for a fictional "Psycho Shampoo" brand, which featured a recreation of the 1960 film's shower murder sequence. After the release of Van Sant's financially successful Good Will Hunting (1997), Universal Pictures agreed to option his proposed remake of the film. Van Sant's pitch was to remake the film shot-for-shot, which Casey Silver, then-head of production at Universal Pictures, felt was "a very strange idea. The idea of remaking a classic like Psycho just seemed like a dangerous business to get into". When asked why he wanted to remake the film in this manner, Van Sant responded: "Why not? It's a marketing scheme. Why does a studio ever remake a film? Because they have this little thing they've forgotten about that they could put in the marketplace and make money from". Casting Marion Crane was initially slated to be played by Nicole Kidman, but she was forced to leave the role due to scheduling problems. Drew Barrymore was also considered for the role before Anne Heche was ultimately cast. Julianne Moore, who was cast as Lila Crane, intentionally chose to portray the character as a more aggressive personality in contrast to Vera Miles's interpretation. William H. Macy chose to stay true to the portrayal of his character in the 1960 film, while Vince Vaughn and Julianne Moore interpreted the dialogue and scenes from the original film differently. Filming Filming of Psycho took place largely on the Universal Studios Hollywood backlot in Los Angeles, with additional exterior filming taking place in Phoenix, including at the Hotel Westward Ho. from July 6, 1998, to August 26, 1998. Van Sant began with the vision of remaking the film entirely shot-for-shot, stating that he and his crew started out being fanatical about doing it exactly the same, but early into the filming process, realized that doing so was unfeasible: "There were a couple of scenes we just couldn't get it right. We just couldn't see how Hitchcock did the blocking, where people were supposed to be standing in relation to the camera. So all we could do was loosely base them on the original". Because the film was shot in color, fake blood was used during the film's infamous shower murder scene, instead of chocolate syrup as had been done in the original film. Rick Baker designed the Mrs. Bates dummy. The new film heightened the violence to the levels of depictions of violence in films made circa 1998 by portraying two knife wounds in her back and blood on the wall in the shower scene. It also shows the buttocks of the Marion character when she dies, an aspect cut from the original film. The costume designer, Beatrix Aruna Pasztor, originally thought that the film was going to be a period piece, so she acquired period clothing for the cast, which was used in the film. Diversions from 1960 film Though almost entirely a shot-for-shot remake of the original, the film does feature slight differences in terms of visuals, minor plot details, as well as the actors' portrayals of the characters. Van Sant updated several elements in the screenplay, including setting the film in contemporary 1998, and adjusting the references to money that would be anachronistic in a modern-day setting. Due to inflation, the amount of money stolen as stipulated in the original film was adjusted from $40,000 () to $400,000. Where the 1960 film features little visual bloodletting in its murder sequences, Van Sant's film features more explicit violence, particularly during Marion Crane's murder sequence in the shower: in Van Sant's film, blood is shown streaming down the shower wall tiles, as well as visible stab wounds to Crane's back as she collapses in the bathtub. During the scene where Norman Bates spies on Marion through a peephole as she undresses, it is made explicit that Bates is masturbating through the use of sound effects as well as Vaughn's performance, which suggests Bates's voyeuristic encounter ends in him having an orgasm; in the 1960 film, the sequence consists merely of Bates observing, with no suggestion that he is masturbating. Van Sant also employed several surreal subliminal images that were edited into the film's murder sequences, likened by horror writer Charles Derry as "surreal memory fragments" that "flash" before the characters' eyes as they die. Release Box office Psycho was released theatrically in the United States on December 4, 1998 in 2,477 theaters, ranking at number two at the domestic box office below A Bug's Life with a weekend gross of $10,031,850. It went on to earn a total of $37,141,130 in the worldwide box office, $21,456,130 domestically. The film's production budget was an estimated $60 million; while promoting his 2002 film Gerry, Van Sant said he thought the producers "broke even" financially. Critical reception On Rotten Tomatoes, Psycho holds an approval rating of 40% based on 78 reviews, with an average rating of 5.30/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Van Sant's pointless remake neither improves nor illuminates Hitchcock's original". At Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C−" on an A+ to F scale. Literary critic Camille Paglia commented that the only reason to watch it was "to see Anne Heche being assassinated" and that "it should have been a much more important work and event than it was". At the 1998 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, the film was cited as one of 37 dishonourable mentions for Worst Picture. Universal Pictures received the Founders Award "for even thinking the moviegoing public would line up and pay to see a shot-for-shot remake of Psycho". Film critic Roger Ebert, who gave the film one-and-a-half stars, noted that the addition of a masturbation scene was "appropriate, because this new Psycho evokes the real thing in an attempt to re-create remembered passion". He thought Vaughn was miscast, unable to capture the "secret pool of madness" in the Norman Bates as a character, and Heche was guilty of overacting. Ebert wrote that the film "is an invaluable experiment in the theory of cinema, because it demonstrates that a shot-by-shot remake is pointless; genius apparently resides between or beneath the shots, or in chemistry that cannot be timed or counted". Janet Maslin remarks that it is an "artful, good-looking remake (a modest term, but it beats plagiarism) that shrewdly revitalizes the aspects of the real Psycho (1960) that it follows most faithfully but seldom diverges seriously or successfully from one of the cinema's most brilliant blueprints"; she noted that the "absence of anything like Anthony Perkins's sensational performance with that vitally birdlike presence and sneaky way with a double-entendre ('A boy's best friend is his mother') is the new film's greatest weakness". Eugene Novikov for Film Blather admired the film, saying that he enjoyed the remake more than the original film. Jonathan Romney of The Guardian also championed the film, writing: "Somehow, Van Sant has managed to spin a big-budget studio project into a piece of conceptual art, a provocative inquiry into the nature of cinematic originality. It's not the full-on 'queer Psycho''' that Van Sant fans predicted, but it is an extraordinary drag act". Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide classified the film as a "bomb", compared to the four-out-of-four stars he gave the original. He describes it as a "slow, stilted, completely pointless scene-for-scene remake of the Hitchcock classic (with a few awkward new touches to taint its claim as an exact replica)". He ultimately calls it "an insult, rather than a tribute, to a landmark film...What promised to be Drugstore Cowboys answer to Hitchcock' is more like Hitchcock's answer to Even Cowgirls Get the Blues". Accolades At the 19th Golden Raspberry Awards, the film was awarded two Golden Raspberry Awards (or "Razzies"), for Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Director for Gus Van Sant, while Anne Heche was nominated for Worst Actress, where she lost the trophy to the Spice Girls for Spice World. Contrastingly, at the 25th Saturn Awards the film was nominated for the Saturn Awards of Best Supporting Actress for Heche and Best Writing for Stefano. Home media Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released Psycho on VHS and in a collector's edition DVD on June 8, 1999. In June 2017, Scream Factory released the film on Blu-ray for the first time, which featured a new critical audio commentary, as well as the bonus materials included on Universal's 1999 DVD release. Legacy A number of critics and writers viewed Van Sant's version as an experiment in shot-for-shot remakes. Screenwriter Joseph Stefano, who wrote the original script that was carried over to the remake, thought that although she spoke the same lines, Anne Heche portrays Marion Crane as an entirely different character. Even Van Sant later admitted that it was an experiment that proved that no one can really copy a film exactly the same way as the original. One favorable take on the film came from an LA Weekly retrospective article published in 2013, in which writer Vern stated that the film was misunderstood as a commercially motivated film when it was in fact an "experiment" and this was the reason for the poor reception. Vern concluded that "experiments don't always have to work to be worth doing". Although the film's overall reception was less-than-favorable, it did receive a blessing from Hitchcock's daughter Pat, who stated that her father would have been flattered by the remake of his original work. "Psychos" On February 24, 2014, a mashup of Alfred Hitchcock and Van Sant's versions of Psycho appeared on Steven Soderbergh's Extension 765 website. Retitled Psychos and featuring no explanatory text, the recut appears to be a fan edit of the two films by Soderbergh. The opening credits intermingle names from both the 1960 and 1998 versions, and all color has been removed from Van Sant's scenes with the exception of the infamous shower scene. Soundtrack The film's soundtrack, Psycho: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture'', included Danny Elfman's re-recordings of some of Bernard Herrmann's score for the original film, along with a collection of songs in genres from country to drum and bass, connected mainly by titles containing "psycho" or other death or insanity-related words. Many of the songs were recorded specifically for the soundtrack, and included a sampling of Bernard Herrmann's score composed by Danny Elfman. The soundtrack also includes the track "Living Dead Girl" by Rob Zombie, which can be heard during the film when Marion trades in her old car for a new one. Note References Sources External links 1998 films 1998 horror films 1990s horror thriller films 1998 LGBT-related films 1990s mystery horror films 1990s psychological thriller films 1990s serial killer films Remakes of American films American horror thriller films American LGBT-related films American mystery horror films American psychological horror films American psychological thriller films Films about dissociative identity disorder 1990s English-language films Films produced by Brian Grazer Films directed by Gus Van Sant Films with screenplays by Joseph Stefano Films scored by Danny Elfman Films scored by Bernard Herrmann American films based on actual events Films about embezzlement Films based on adaptations Films based on American horror novels Films based on multiple works Films based on thriller novels Films set in 1998 Films set in California Films set in Phoenix, Arizona Films set in Maricopa County, Arizona Films set in swamps Films shot in California Films shot in Los Angeles Golden Raspberry Award winning films LGBT-related horror thriller films Horror film remakes Matricide in fiction LGBT-related horror films Psycho (franchise) films Imagine Entertainment films Universal Pictures films Films based on works by Robert Bloch Cross-dressing in American films Shot-for-shot remakes 1990s American films
4578722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20penicillin	History of penicillin	The history of penicillin follows observations and discoveries of evidence of antibiotic activity of the mould Penicillium that led to the development of penicillins that became the first widely used antibiotics. Following the production of a relatively pure compound in 1942, penicillin was the first naturally-derived antibiotic. Ancient societies used moulds to treat infections, and in the following centuries many people observed the inhibition of bacterial growth by moulds. While working at St Mary's Hospital in London in 1928, Scottish physician Alexander Fleming was the first to experimentally determine that a Penicillium mould secretes an antibacterial substance, which he named "penicillin". The mould was found to be a variant of Penicillium notatum (now called Penicillium rubens), a contaminant of a bacterial culture in his laboratory. The work on penicillin at St Mary's ended in 1929. In 1939, a team of scientists at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the University of Oxford, led by Howard Florey that included Edward Abraham, Ernst Chain, Mary Ethel Florey, Norman Heatley and Margaret Jennings, began researching penicillin. They developed a method for cultivating the mould and extracting, purifying and storing penicillin from it, together with an assay for measuring its purity. They carried out experiments with animals to determine penicillin's safety and effectiveness before conducting clinical trials and field tests. They derived its chemical structure and determined how it works. The private sector and the United States Department of Agriculture located and produced new strains and developed mass production techniques. During the Second World War penicillin became an important part of the Allied war effort, saving thousands of lives. Alexander Fleming, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery and development of penicillin. After the end of the war in 1945, penicillin became widely available. Dorothy Hodgkin determined its chemical structure, for which she received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964. This led to the development of semisynthetic penicillins that were more potent and effective against a wider range of bacteria. The drug was synthesised in 1957, but cultivation of mould remains the primary means of production. It was discovered that adding penicillin to animal feed increased weight gain, improved feed-conversion efficiency, promoted more uniform growth and facilitated disease control. Agriculture became a major user of penicillin. Shortly after their discovery of penicillin, the Oxford team reported penicillin resistance in many bacteria. Research that aims to circumvent and understand the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance continues today. Early evidence Many ancient cultures, including those in Australia, China, Egypt, Greece and India, independently discovered the useful properties of fungi and plants in treating infections. These treatments often worked because many organisms, including many species of mould, naturally produce antibiotics. However, ancient practitioners could not precisely identify or isolate the active components in these organisms. In England in 1640, the idea of using mould as a form of medical treatment was recorded by apothecaries such as the botanist John Parkinson, who documented the use of moulds to treat infections in his book on pharmacology. In 17th-century Poland, wet bread was mixed with spider webs (which often contained fungal spores) to treat wounds. The technique was mentioned by Henryk Sienkiewicz in his 1884 novel With Fire and Sword. In 1871, Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson reported that culture fluid covered with mould would produce no bacterial growth. Joseph Lister, an English surgeon and the father of modern antisepsis, observed in November 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mould also did not permit the growth of bacteria. He also described the antibacterial action on human tissue of Penicillium glaucum but did not publish his results. In 1875 John Tyndall demonstrated to the Royal Society the antibacterial action of the Penicillium fungus. In 1876, German biologist Robert Koch discovered that a bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) was the causative pathogen of anthrax, which became the first demonstration that a specific bacterium caused a specific disease and the first direct evidence of germ theory of diseases. In 1877, French biologists Louis Pasteur and Jules Francois Joubert observed that cultures of anthrax bacilli, when contaminated with moulds, could be successfully inhibited. Reporting in the Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, they concluded: The phenomenon was described by Pasteur and Koch as antibacterial activity and was named antibiosis by French biologist Jean Paul Vuillemin in 1877. (The term antibiosis, meaning 'against life', was adopted as antibiotic by American biologist and later Nobel laureate Selman Waksman in 1947.) However, Paul de Kruif's 1926 Microbe Hunters notes that Pasteur believed that this was contamination by other bacteria rather than by mould. In 1887, Swiss physician Carl Garré developed a test method using glass plate to see bacterial inhibition and found similar results. Using his gelatin-based culture plate, he grew two different species of bacteria and found that their growths were inhibited differently, as he reported: In 1895, Vincenzo Tiberio, an Italian physician at the University of Naples, published research on moulds initially found in a water well in Arzano; from his observations, he concluded that these moulds contained soluble substances having antibacterial action. Two years later, Ernest Duchesne at École du Service de Santé Militaire in Lyon independently discovered the healing properties of a P. glaucum mould, even curing infected guinea pigs of typhoid. He published his results in a dissertation in 1897. Duchesne was using a discovery made earlier by Arab stable boys, who used moulds to cure sores on horses. He did not claim that the mould contained any antibacterial substance, only that the mould somehow protected the animals. Penicillin does not cure typhoid and so it remains unknown which substance might have been responsible. A Pasteur Institute scientist, Costa Rican Clodomiro Picado Twight, similarly recorded the antibiotic effect of Penicillium in 1923. In these early stages of penicillin research, most species of Penicillium were non-specifically referred to as P. glaucum, so that it is impossible to know the exact species and that it was really penicillin that prevented bacterial growth. Andre Gratia and Sara Dath at the Free University of Brussels studied the effects of mould samples on bacteria. In 1924, they found that dead Staphylococcus aureus cultures were contaminated by a mould, a streptomycete. Upon further experimentation, they showed that the mould extract could kill not only S. aureus, but also Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Escherichia coli. Gratia called the antibacterial agent "mycolysate". The next year they found another killer mould that could inhibit B. anthracis. Reporting in , they identified the mould as P. glaucum. But these findings received little attention as the antibacterial agent and its medical value were not fully understood, and Gratia's samples were lost. Discovery While working at St Mary's Hospital, London in 1928, Alexander Fleming, a Scottish physician was investigating the variation of growth in cultures of S. aureus. In August, he spent the summer break with his family at his country home The Dhoon at Barton Mills, Suffolk. Before leaving his laboratory, he inoculated several culture plates with S. aureus. He kept the plates aside on one corner of the table away from direct sunlight and to make space for his research student, Stuart Craddock, to work in his absence. He returned to his laboratory on 3 September. As he and Daniel Merlin Pryce, his former research student, examined the culture plates, they found one with an open lid and the culture contaminated with a blue-green mould. In the contaminated plate the bacteria around the mould did not grow, while those farther away grew normally, meaning that the mould killed the bacteria. Fleming photographed the culture and took a sample of the mould for identification before preserving the culture with formaldehyde. Fleming resumed his vacation and returned in September. He collected the original mould and grew it in culture plates. After four days he found that the plates developed large colonies of the mould. He repeated the experiment with the same bacteria-killing results. He concluded that the mould was releasing a substance that was inhibiting bacterial growth. On testing against different bacteria, he found that the mould could kill only certain Gram-positive bacteria. Staphylococcus, streptococcus, and diphtheria bacillus (Corynebacterium diphtheriae) were easily killed, but there was no effect on typhoid bacterium (Salmonella typhimurium) and a bacterium once thought to cause influenza (Haemophilus influenzae). He prepared a culture method from which he could obtain the mould juice, which he called "penicillin" on 7 March 1929, "to avoid the repetition of the rather cumbersome phrase 'mould broth filtrate'." In his Nobel lecture of 1945 he gave a further explanation, saying: I have been frequently asked why I invented the name "Penicillin". I simply followed perfectly orthodox lines and coined a word which explained that the substance penicillin was derived from a plant of the genus Penicillium just as many years ago the word "Digitalin" was invented for a substance derived from the plant Digitalis. After structural comparison with different species of Penicillium, Fleming believed that his specimen was Penicillium chrysogenum, a species described by an American microbiologist Charles Thom in 1910. Charles John Patrick La Touche, an Irish botanist, had recently joined St Mary's as a mycologist, and he identified the specimen as Penicillium rubrum, the identification used by Fleming in his publication. In 1931, Thom re-examined different Penicillia, including that of Fleming's specimen, and he came to the conclusion that Fleming's specimen was P. notatum, a member of the P. chrysogenum series. From then on, Fleming's mould was synonymously referred to as P. notatum and P. chrysogenum. To resolve the confusion, the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress held in Vienna, Austria, in 2005 formally adopted P. chrysogenum as the name. Whole-genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis in 2011 revealed that Fleming's mould belongs to P. rubens, a species described by Belgian microbiologist Philibert Biourge in 1923. The source of the fungal contamination in Fleming's experiment remained a speculation for several decades. Fleming suggested in 1945 that the fungal spores came through the window facing Praed Street, but was disputed by his co-workers, who testified much later that Fleming's laboratory window was kept shut, and Fleming was unable to reach the window to open it. A consensus developed that the mould had come from La Touche's laboratory, a floor below Fleming's, and that spores had drifted in through the open doors. For the effect on the cultures of staphylococci that Fleming observed, the mould had to be growing before the bacteria began to grow, because penicillin is only effective on bacteria when they are reproducing. Fortuitously, the temperature in the laboratory during that August was optimum first for the growth of the mould, below 20°C, and later in the month for the bacteria, when it reached 25°C. Had Fleming not left the cultures on his laboratory bench and put them in an incubator, the phenomenon would not have occurred. Fleming was a bacteriologist, not a chemist, so he left most of the chemical work to Craddock. In January 1929, Fleming recruited Frederick Ridley, a former research student of his who had studied biochemistry, to the study the chemical properties of the mould, but Craddock and Ridley could not isolate penicillin, and before the experiments were over, both had left for other jobs. It was due to this failure to isolate the compound that Fleming abandoned further research on the chemical aspects of penicillin in 1929. Fleming reported his findings to the British Journal of Experimental Pathology on 10 May 1929, and published them in the next month's issue, but the article failed to attract much attention. Fleming himself was quite unsure of the medical application of his work and was more concerned with its the application for bacterial isolation. The article also contained some important errors. Although Ridley and Craddock had demonstrated that penicillin was soluble in ether, acetone and alcohol as well as in water – information that would be critical to its isolation – Fleming erroneously claimed that it was soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether and chloroform, which had not been tested. In fact, penicillin is soluble in ethanol, ether and chloroform. Isolation In 1939, at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the University of Oxford, Ernst Boris Chain found Fleming's largely forgotten 1929 paper, and suggested to the professor in charge of the school, the Australian scientist Howard Florey, that the study of antibacterial substances produced by micro-organisms might be a fruitful avenue of research. Howard Florey led an interdisciplinary research team that included Edward Abraham, Mary Ethel Florey, Arthur Duncan Gardner, Norman Heatley, Margaret Jennings, Jean Orr-Ewing and Gordon Sanders. Each member of the team tackled a particular aspect of the problem in their own manner, with simultaneous research along different lines building up a complete picture. This sort of collaboration was practically unknown in the United Kingdom at the time. Three sources were initially chosen for investigation: Bacillus subtilis, Trueperella pyogenes and penicillin. "[The possibility] that penicillin could have practical use in clinical medicine", Chain later recalled, "did not enter our minds when we started our work on penicillin." The broad subject area was deliberately chosen to be one requiring long-term funding. Howard Florey approached the MRC in September 1939, and the secretary of the council, Edward Mellanby authorized the project, allocating £250 () to launch the project, with £300 for salaries () and £100 for expenses () per annum for three years. Florey felt that more would be required. On 1 November 1939, Henry M. "Dusty" Miller Jr from the Natural Sciences Division of the Rockefeller Foundation paid Florey a visit. Miller encouraged Florey to apply for funding from the foundation and supported his application. "The work proposed", Florey wrote in the application letter, "in addition to its theoretical importance, may have practical value for therapeutic purposes." His application was approved, with the foundation allocating US$5,000 (£1,250) per annum for five years. The Oxford team's first task was to obtain a sample of penicillin mould. This turned out to be easy. Georges Dreyer, Florey's predecessor, had obtained a sample of the mould in 1930 for his work on bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria. Dreyer had lost interest in penicillin when he discovered that it was not a bacteriophage, but he had continued to cultivate it. Dreyer had died in 1934, but Campbell-Renton had continued to culture the mould and was able to supply it to the Oxford team. The next task was to grow sufficient mould to extract enough penicillin for laboratory experiments. The mould was cultured on a surface of liquid Czapek-Dox medium. Over the course of a few days it formed a yellow gelatinous skin covered in green spores. Beneath this, the liquid became yellow and contained penicillin. The team determined that the maximum yield was achieved in ten to twenty days. The mould needs air to grow, so cultivation required a container with a large surface area. Initially, glass bottles laid on their sides were used. Most laboratory containers did not provide a large, flat area, and so were an uneconomical use of incubator space. The bedpan was found to be practical, and was the basis for specially-made ceramic containers fabricated by J. Macintyre and Company in Burslem. These containers were rectangular in shape and could be stacked to save space. The MRC agreed to Florey's request for £300 () and £2 each per week () for two (later) women factory hands. In 1943 Florey asked for their wages to be increased to £2 10s each per week (). Heatley collected the first 174 of an order for 500 vessels on 22 December 1940, and they were seeded with spores three days later. Efforts were made to coax the mould into producing more penicillin. Heatley tried adding various substances to the medium, including sugars, salts, malts, alcohol and even marmite, without success. At the suggestion of Paul Fildes, he tried adding brewing yeast. This did not improve the yield either, but it did cut the incubation time by a third. The team also discovered that if the penicillin-bearing fluid was removed and replaced by fresh fluid, a second batch of penicillin could be prepared, but this practice was discontinued after eighteen months due to the danger of contamination. The mould had to be grown under sterile conditions. Abraham and Chain discovered that some airborne bacteria produced penicillinase, an enzyme that destroys penicillin. It was not known why the mould produced penicillin, as the bacteria penicillin kills are no threat to the mould; it was conjectured that it was a byproduct of metabolic processes for other purposes. The next stage of the process was to extract the penicillin. The liquid was filtered through parachute silk to remove the mycelium, spores and other solid debris. The pH was lowered by the addition of phosphoric acid and the resulting liquid was cooled. Chain determined that penicillin was stable only with a pH of between 5 and 8, but the process required one lower than that. By keeping the mixture at 0 °C, he could retard the breakdown process. In this form the penicillin could be drawn off by a solvent. Initially ether was used, as it was the only solvent known to dissolve penicillin, but it is highly inflammable and toxic. At Chain's suggestion, they tried using the much less flammable amyl acetate instead, and found that it also worked. Heatley was able to develop a continuous extraction process. The penicillin-bearing solvent was easily separated from the liquid, as it floated on top, but now they encountered the problem that had stymied Craddock and Ridley: recovering the penicillin from the solvent. Heatley reasoned that if the penicillin could pass from water to solvent when the solution was acidic, maybe it would pass back again if the solution was alkaline. Florey told him to give it a try. Sodium hydroxide was added, and this method, which Heatley called "reverse extraction", was found to work. The next problem was how to extract the penicillin from the water. The usual means of extracting something from water were through evaporation or boiling, but this would destroy the penicillin. Chain hit upon the idea of freeze drying, a technique recently developed in Sweden. This enabled the water to be removed, resulting in a dry, brown powder. Heatley developed a penicillin assay using agar nutrient plates in which bacteria were seeded. Short glass cylinders containing the penicillin-bearing fluid to be tested were then placed on them and incubated for 12 to 16 hours at 37 °C. By then the fluid would have disappeared and the cylinder surrounded by a bacteria-free ring. The diameter of the ring indicated the strength of the penicillin. An Oxford unit was defined as the purity required to produce a 25 mm bacteria-free ring. It was an arbitrary measurement, as the chemistry was not yet known; the first research was conducted with solutions containing four or five Oxford units per milligram. Later, when highly pure penicillin became available, it was found to have 2,000 Oxford units per milligram. Yet in testing the impure substance, they found it effective against bacteria even at concentrations of one part per million. Penicillin was at least twenty times as active as the most powerful sulfonamide. The Oxford unit turned out to be very small; treating a single case required about a million units. The Oxford team reported details of the isolation method in August 1941, with a scheme for large-scale extraction. In March 1942, they reported that they could prepare a highly purified compound, and had worked out the chemical formula as . Trials Howard Florey's team at Oxford showed that penicillium extract killed different bacteria. Gardner and Orr-Ewing tested it against gonococcus (against which it was most effective), meningococcus, streptococcus, staphylococcus, anthrax bacteria, actinomyces, tetanus bacterium (Clostridium tetani) and gangrene bacteria. They observed bacteria attempting to grow in the presence of penicillin, and noted that penicillin was neither an enzyme that broke the bacteria down, nor an antiseptic that killed them; rather, it was a chemical that interfered with the process of cell division. Jennings observed that it had no effect on white blood cells, and would therefore reinforce rather than hinder the body's natural defences against bacteria. She also found that unlike sulphonamides, the first and only effective broad-spectrum antibiotic available at the time, it was not destroyed by pus. Medawar found that it did not affect the growth of tissue cells. By March 1940 the Oxford team had sufficient impure penicillin to commence testing whether it was toxic. Over the next two months, Florey and Jennings conducted a series of experiments on rats, mice, rabbits and cats in which penicillin was administered in various ways. Their results showed that penicillin was destroyed in the stomach, but that all forms of injection were effective, as indicated by assay of the blood. It was found that penicillin was largely and rapidly excreted unchanged in their urine. They found no evidence of toxicity in any of their animals. Had they tested against guinea pigs research might have halted at this point, for penicillin is toxic to guinea pigs. At 11:00 am on Saturday 25 May 1940, Florey injected eight mice with a virulent strain of streptococcus, and then injected four of them with the penicillin solution. These four were divided into two groups: two of them received 10 milligrams once, and the other two received 5 milligrams at regular intervals. By 3:30 am on Sunday all four of the untreated mice were dead. All of the treated ones were still alive, although one died two days later. Florey described the result to Jennings as "a miracle." Jennings and Florey repeated the experiment on Monday with ten mice; this time, all six of the treated mice survived, as did one of the four controls. On Tuesday, they repeated it with sixteen mice, administering different does of penicillin. All six of the control mice died within 24 hours but the treated mice survived for several days, although they were all dead in nineteen days. On 1 July, the experiment was performed with fifty mice, half of whom received penicillin. All fifty of the control mice died within sixteen hours while all but one of the treated mice were alive ten days later. Over the following weeks they performed experiments with batches of 50 or 75 mice, but using different bacteria. They found that penicillin was also effective against staphylococcus and gas gangrene. Florey reminded his staff that promising as their results were, a human being weighed 3,000 times as much as a mouse. The Oxford team reported their results in the 24 August 1940 issue of The Lancet, a prestigious medical journal, as "Penicillin as a Chemotherapeutic Agent" with names of the seven joint authors listed alphabetically. They concluded: The publication attracted little attention; Florey would spend much of the next two years attempting to convince people of the significance of their results. One reader was Fleming, who paid them a visit on 2 September 1940. Florey and Chain gave him a tour of the production, extraction and testing laboratories, but he made no comment and did not congratulate them on the work they had done. Some members of the Oxford team suspected that he was trying to claim some credit for it. Unbeknown to the Oxford team, their Lancet article was read by Martin Henry Dawson, Gladys Hobby and Karl Meyer at Columbia University, and they were inspired to replicate the Oxford team's results. They obtained a culture of penicillium mould from Roger Reid at Johns Hopkins Hospital, grown from a sample he had received from Fleming in 1935. They began growing the mould on 23 September, and on 30 September tested it against viridans streptococci, and confirmed the Oxford team's results. Meyer duplicated Chain's processes, and they obtained a small quantity of penicillin. On 15 October 1940, doses of penicillin were administered to two patients at the Presbyterian Hospital in New York City, Aaron Alston and Charles Aronson. They became the first persons to receive penicillin treatment in the United States. He then treated two patients with endocarditis. The Columbia team presented the results of their penicillin treatment of the four patients at the annual meeting of the American Society for Clinical Investigation in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on 5 May 1941. Their paper was reported on by William L. Laurence in The New York Times and generated great public interest. At Oxford, Charles Fletcher volunteered to find test cases for human trials. Elva Akers, an Oxford woman dying from incurable cancer, agreed to be a test subject for the toxicity of penicillin. On 17 January 1941, he intravenously injected her with 100 mg of penicillin. Her temperature briefly rose, but otherwise she had no ill-effects. Florey reckoned that the fever was caused by pyrogens in the penicillin; these were removed with improved chromatography. Fletcher next identified an Oxford policeman, Albert Alexander, who had a severe facial infection involving streptococci and staphylococci which had developed from a small sore at the corner of his mouth. His whole face, eyes and scalp were swollen to the extent that he had an eye removed to relieve the pain. On 12 February, Fletcher administered 200 mg of penicillin, following by 100 mg doses every three hours. Within a day of being given penicillin, Alexander started to recover; his temperature dropped and discharge from his suppurating wounds declined. By 17 February, his right eye had become normal. However, the researchers did not have enough penicillin to help him to a full recovery. Penicillin was recovered from his urine, but it was not enough. In early March he relapsed, and he died on 15 March. Because of this experience and the difficulty in producing penicillin, Florey changed the focus to treating children, who could be treated with smaller quantities of penicillin. Subsequently, several patients were treated successfully. The second was Arthur Jones, a 15-year-old boy with a streptococcal infection from a hip operation. He was given 100 mg every three hours for five days and recovered. Percy Hawkin, a 42-year-old labourer, had a carbuncle on his back. He was given an initial 200 mg on 3 May followed by 100 mg every hour. The carbuncle completely disappeared. John Cox, a semi-comatose 4-year-old boy was treated starting on 16 May. He died on 31 May but the post-mortem indicated this was from a ruptured artery in the brain weakened by the disease, and there was no sign of infection. The fifth case, on 16 June, was a 14-year-old boy with an infection from a hip operation who made a full recovery. In addition to increased production at the Dunn School, commercial production from a pilot plant established by Imperial Chemical Industries became available in January 1942, and Kembel, Bishop and Company delivered its first batch of on 11 September. Florey decided that the time was ripe to conduct a second series of clinical trials. Ethel Florey was placed in charge, but while Howard Florey was a consulting pathologist at Oxford hospitals, and therefore entitled to use their wards and services, Ethel, to his annoyance, was accredited merely as his assistant. Doctors tended to refer patients to the trial who were in desperate circumstances rather than the most suitable, but when penicillin did succeed, confidence in its efficacy rose. Ethel and Howard Florey published the results of clinical trials of penicillin in The Lancet on 27 March 1943, reporting the treatment of 187 cases of sepsis with penicillin. It was upon this medical evidence that the British War Cabinet set up the Penicillin Committee on 5 April 1943. The committee consisted of Cecil Weir, Director General of Equipment, as chairman; Alexander Fleming; Howard Florey; V. D. Allison, another one of Fleming's former research students; Sir Percival Hartley, the head of the MRC; and representatives from pharmaceutical companies. This led to the mass production of penicillin by the next year. Deep submergence for industrial production Knowing that large-scale production for medical use was futile in a laboratory, the Oxford team tried to convince the war-torn British government and private companies for mass production, but the initial response was muted. In April 1941, Warren Weaver met with Howard Florey, and they discussed the difficulty of producing sufficient penicillin to conduct clinical trails. Weaver arranged for the Rockefeller Foundation to fund a three-month visit to the United States for Florey and a colleague to explore the possibility of production of penicillin there. Florey and Heatley left for the United States by air on 27 June 1941. Knowing that mould samples kept in vials could be easily lost, they smeared their coat pockets with the mould. Florey met with neurophysiologist John Fulton, who introduced him to Ross Harrison, the Chairman of the National Research Council (NRC). Harrison referred Florey to Thom, the chief mycologist at the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture (UDSDA) in Beltsville, Maryland, and the man who had identified the mould reported by Fleming. On 9 July, Thom took Florey and Heatley to Washington, D.C., to meet Percy Wells, the acting assistant chief of the USDA Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry and as such the head of the USDA's four laboratories. Wells sent an introductory telegram to Orville May, the director of the UDSA's Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL) in Peoria, Illinois. They met with May on 14 July, and he arranged for them to meet Robert D. Coghill, the chief of the NRRL's fermentation division, who raised the possibility that fermentation in large vessels might be the key to large-scale production. On 17 August, Florey met with Alfred Newton Richards, the chairman of the Committee for Medical Research (CMR) of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), who promised his support. On 8 October, Richards held a meeting with representatives of four major pharmaceutical companies: Squibb, Merck, Pfizer and Lederle. Vannevar Bush, the director of OSRD was present, as was Thom, who represented the NRRL. Richards told them that antitrust laws would be suspended, allowing them to share information about penicillin. This was not legalized until 7 December 1943, and it covered only penicillin and no other drug. OSRD arranged with the War Production Board (WPB) for them to have priority for equipment for laboratories and pilot plants. Coghill made Andrew J. Moyer available to work on penicillin with Heatley, while Florey left to see if he could arrange for a pharmaceutical company to manufacture penicillin. As a first step to increasing yield, Moyer replaced sucrose in the growth media with lactose. An even larger increase occurred when Moyer added corn steep liquor, a byproduct of the corn industry that the NRRL routinely tried in the hope of finding more uses for it. The effect on penicillin was dramatic; Heatley and Moyer found that it increased the yield tenfold. At the Yale New Haven Hospital in March 1942, Anne Sheafe Miller, the wife of Yale University's athletics director, Ogden D. Miller, was succumbing to a streptococcal septicaemia contracted after a miscarriage. Her doctor, John Bumstead, was also treating John Fulton for an infection at the time. He knew that Fulton knew Florey, and that Florey's children were staying with him. He went to Fulton to plead for some penicillin. Florey had returned to the UK, but Heatley was still in the United States, working with Merck. A phone call to Richards released 5.5 grams of penicillin earmarked for a clinical trial, which was despatched from Washington, D. C., by air. The effect was dramatic; within 48 hours her fever had abated and she was eating again. Her blood culture count had dropped 100 to 150 bacteria colonies per millilitre to just one. Bumstead suggested reducing the penicillin dose from 200 milligrams; Heatley told him not to. Heatley subsequently came to New Haven, where he collected her urine; about 3 grams of penicillin were recovered. Miller made a full recovery, and lived until 1999. Until May 1943, almost all penicillin was produced using the shallow-pan method pioneered by the Oxford team, but NRRL mycologist Kenneth Bryan Raper experimented with deep submergence production, in which penicillin mould was grown in a vat instead of a shallow dish. The initial results were disappointing; penicillin cultured in this manner yielded only three to four Oxford units per cubic centimetre, compared to twenty for surface cultures. He got the help of U.S. Army's Air Transport Command to search for similar mould in different parts of the world. The best moulds were found to be those from Chongqing, Bombay, and Cape Town. The best sample, however, was from a cantaloupe sold in a Peoria fruit market in 1943. The mould was identified as Penicillium chrysogenum and designated as NRRL 1951 or cantaloupe strain. The spores may have escaped from the NRRL. Between 1941 and 1943, Moyer, Coghill and Raper developed methods for industrialized penicillin production and isolated higher-yielding strains of the Penicillium fungus. To improve upon that strain, researchers at the Carnegie Institution of Washington subjected NRRL 1951 to X-rays to produce a mutant strain designated X-1612 that produced 300 milligrams of penicillin per litre of mould, twice as much as NRRL 1951. In turn, researchers at the University of Wisconsin used ultraviolet radiation on X-1612 to produce a strain designated Q-176. This produced more than twice the penicillin of X-1612, but in the form of the less desirable penicillin K. Phenylacetic acid was added to switch it to producing the highly potent penicillin G. This strain could produce up to 550 milligrams of penicillin per litre. Pfizer was a small Brooklyn company that specialised in making citric acid, for which it had developed deep submergence techniques. This involved converting molasses to citric acid by ferementing it in a large tank in which it was stirred and the pH was carefully controlled. Pfizer's vice president, John L. Smith, whose daughter had died from an infection, put all of Pfizer's resources into the development of a practical deep submergence technique. The company invested $2.98 million in penicillin in 1943 and 1944. (equivalent to $ million in ). Pfizer scientists Jasper H. Kane, G. M. Shull, E. M. Weber, A. C. Finlay and E. J. Ratajak worked on the fermentation process while R. Pasternak, W. J. Smith, V. Bogert and P. Regna developed extraction techniques. Now that they had a mould that grew well submerged and produced an acceptable amount of penicillin, the next challenge was to provide the required air to the mould for it to grow. This was solved using an aerator, but aeration caused severe foaming of the corn steep. The foaming problem was solved by the introduction of an anti-foaming agent, glyceryl monoricinoleate. The technique also involved cooling and mixing. Pfizer opened a pilot plant with a fermentor in August 1943 and Ratajak delivered the first penicillin liquor from it on 27 August. The one tank was soon producing half the company's output. Smith then decided to construct a full-scale production plant. The nearby Rubel Ice plant was acquired on 20 September 1943 and converted into the first deep-submergence production plant, with fourteen tanks. The work was carried out in five months under the leadership of John E. McKeen and Edward J. Goett, and the plant opened on 1 March 1944. Mass production Australia In mid-1943 the Australian War Cabinet decided to produce penicillin in Australia. Colonel E. V. (Bill) Keogh, the Australian Army's Director of Hygiene and Pathology, was placed in charge of the effort. Keogh summoned Captain Percival Bazeley, with whom he had worked at the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL) before the war, and Lieutenant H. H. Kretchmar, a chemist, and directed them to establish a production facility by Christmas. They set off on a fact-finding mission to the United States, where they visited NRRL and obtained penicillin cultures from Coghill. They also inspected the Pfizer plant in Brooklyn and the Merck plant at Rahway, New Jersey. A production plant was established at the CSL facilities in Parkville, Victoria, and the first Australian-made penicillin began reaching the troops in New Guinea in December 1943. By 1944, CSL was producing 400 million Oxford units per week, and there was sufficient penicillin production to allocate some for civilian use. Wartime production in Australia was in bottles and flasks, but Bazeley made a second tour of facilities in the United States between September 1944 and March 1945 and was impressed by the progress made on deep submergence technology. In 1946 and 1947 he created a pilot deep submerged plant at CSL using small tanks to gain experience with the technique. Two tanks became operational in 1948, followed by eight more. During the 1950s and 1960s, CSL produced semisynthetic penicillin as well. Penicillin was also produced by F.H. Faulding in South Australia, Abbott Laboratories in New South Wales and Glaxo in Victoria. By the 1970s there was a worldwide glut of penicillin, and Glaxo ceased production in 1975 and CSL in 1980. Canada During his visit to North America in August 1941, Howard Florey approached the Connaught Laboratories at the University of Toronto, where he met with the director, R. D. Defries, and Ronald Hare. Florey was rebuffed; Defries argued that the laboratories did not have the space, and he expressed his belief that constructing facilities to culture penicillin would be a waste as it would soon be synthesised. The results of clinical trials caused a change of heart, and in August 1943 the Canadian government asked the Connaught Laboratories to initiate mass production of penicillin. The Spadina Building was purchased by the University of Toronto for the purpose, and refurbished at a cost of Canadian $1.2 million (equivalent to Canadian $ million in ), split equally between the university and the government. Penicillin was initially cultured in 200,000 bottles occupying of air-conditioned laboratory space. Production was switched to the deep submergence method in November 1945. Continental Europe A translation of the Oxford team's 1941 report reached Germany via Sweden the following year. Like most research in wartime Germany, research into penicillin was carried out in a fragmentary fashion with little coordination. On 6 December 1943, the Reich Health Ministry ordered the medical community to conduct research into penicillin and other antibiotics. Three vials of penicillin captured by the Afrika Korps reached Germany in 1943 and one was sent to Heinz Öppinger at Hoechst in Frankfurt, and he began conducting experiments with moulds. Penicillin was produced there in 300-litre batches, and Öppinger developed a rotating drum for a deep-tank fermentation process. Research was also carried out by Schering in Berlin using a sample of Fleming's mould, which they failed to cultivate; their efforts to determine the chemical structure of penicillin were also unsuccessful. Maria Brommelhues at IG Farben's Bacteriological Laboratory in Elberfeld catalogued different species of penicillin. Hitler's personal physician, Theodor Morell, treated Hitler with penicillin for injuries sustained in the 20 July 1944 assassination attempt. Information about penicillin research in Germany was gathered by the Manhattan Project's Alsos Mission and forwarded to Florey in the UK. Much of Germany's penicillin came from Czechoslovakia, where research was carried out at Charles University in Prague and the Fragner Pharmaceutical Company by a team that included chemist Karel Wiesner. Work was also conducted in secret in France and at the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands. In 1946 and 1947, penicillin factories were established in Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Italy and Yugoslavia with plant and expertise from Canada through the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), of which Canadian Lester B. Pearson was the head of its supply committee. UNRRA was wound up in 1948, and its penicillin responsibilities were transferred to the World Health Organization (WHO). In Italy, negotiated with UNRRA for a penicillin plant to be built in Rome near the Sapienza University of Rome. This took longer than expected and construction did not commence until 1948. In the meantime, Chain came to the Istituto Superiore di Sanità to deliver a series of lectures on penicillin and Marotta took the opportunity to recruit him as a colleague. Chain suggested that instead of building a pilot plant, they use the UNRRA money to build an institute for research into penicillin. This became the largest of its kind in the world, with over one hundred chemists, biochemists, microbiologists and technicians, and was soon at the forefront of research into semisynthetic penicillin. Japan at the Pharmacological Institute in Berlin published a survey of literature on antibiotics in the 7 August 1943 issue of Klinische Wochenschrift that included the Oxford team's publications. A copy was acquired by the Japanese embassy in Berlin and taken to Japan on the , which docked at Kure, Hiroshima, on 21 December 1943. The article was translated into Japanese, and production of penicillin was underway by 1 February 1944. By mid-May, a research team under Hamao Umezawa had tested 750 different strains of mould and found that 75 exhibited antibiotic activity. Experiments were conducted on mice to determine efficacy and toxicity. The Morinaga Milk company had a small penicillin production plant in operation in Mishima, Shizuoka, by the end of the year, and the opened a small plant in Okazaki, Aichi, in January 1945. The penicillin was called "Hekiso" after its blue colour. By 1948 Japan had become the third country, after the US and UK, to become self-sufficient in penicillin, and exports to China and Korea began the following year. United Kingdom In the UK, the firm Kemball, Bishop & Co. was asked in early 1941 if it could produce of raw penicillin brew. Like Pfizer, with which it had a commercial relationship, it was a small firm, but one with experience in fermentation techniques as a manufacturer of citric acid. It was unable to do it at the time, but on 23 February 1942, Florey received an offer from Kemball, Bishop & Co. of a more modest effort of every ten days. Work commenced at its Bromley-by-Bow plant on 5 March 1942 and the first trays of mould were seeded on 25 March. Wartime conditions, including German bombing, made progress difficult. The milk churns needed for shipment were in short supply, and special arrangements were made with the Ministry of Supply. The brew was initially despatched by rail to minimise the use of rationed petrol. The first of brew, containing 6.1 million units at 9 units per mL, were delivered to Florey on 28 October 1942. Kemball, Bishop & Co. built an extraction plant, which became operational on 24 November 1943. In the meantime, Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) had established a small production unit at its plant in Blackley and had begun shipments in December 1941. In May 1942, production moved to a purpose-built plant at Trafford Park, which initially produced two million Oxford units of penicillin per week. Production was ramped up to sixty million units per week by the time the plant was closed in March 1944; production shifted thereafter to a new plant that produced 300 million units per week. In 1947 ICI decided to construct a new plant to produce of penicillin per day by the deep submergence method. Glaxo opened a small production plant at Greenford in December 1942 that produced 70 litres of penicillin broth per week. In February 1943, it opened a second plant at Aylesbury. Initially it used the techniques developed at Oxford, but in September 1943 it switch to using corn steep liquor as a medium, and switched to using the NRRL 1249.B21 strain of mould provided by Coghill. In 1943, Glaxo was responsible for 2,570 million of the 3,500 million Oxford units produced in the UK. Glaxo opened a third factory at Watford in February 1944 and a fourth at Stratford, London, in January 1945. The company was responsible for 80 per cent of the UK's output up to June 1944. In 1944 the Ministry of Supply arranged for the Commercial Solvents Company to install the first deep submergence plant at Speke, and it asked Glaxo to build one too. This new Glaxo plant opened at Barnard Castle in January 1946 and produced more penicillin over the next nine months than its surface plants had produced in all of 1945. The surface plants were all closed in 1946. Penicillin production in the UK increased from 25 million units per week in March 1943 to 30 billion per week in 1946. United States The WPB placed penicillin under a wartime allocation system on 16 July 1943. All supplies were designated for use by the armed forces and the Public Health Service. Penicillin production in the United States ramped up from 800 million Oxford units in the first half of 1943 to 20 billion units in the second half. The US government built six production plants at a cost of $7.6 million (equivalent to $ million in ). These were sold after the war to the companies that operated them for $3.4 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Another sixteen plants were built by the private sector for $22.6 million (equivalent to $ million in ), although $14.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ) was approved for accelerated depreciation under which the cost could be written off in five years instead of the usual twelve to fifteen. US penicillin production rose from 21.192 billion units in 1943, to 1,663 billion units in 1944, and an estimated 6,852 billion units in 1945. By June 1944, Pfizer alone was producing 70 billion units per month. Monthly production dropped off after July 1945 due to a shortage of corn-steep liquor. The price offered by the CMR for a million units fell from $200 in 1943 (), which was below its manufacturing cost, to $6 in 1945 (). The chairman of the NRC committee on chemotherapy, Chester Keefer was responsible for administering the equitable distribution of penicillin for civilian use on behalf of the CMR. As the news of the effectiveness of penicillin spread, he had to deal with a large volume of requests for the drug. Supplies for civilian use were initially small, and penicillin was initially provided only for cases with a high mortality rate that did not respond to other forms of treatment. In January 1943, he reported to OSRD on the results of the treatment of the first 100 patients; by August, 500 patients had been treated. Military requirements consumed 85 per cent of production in 1944. This dropped to 30 per cent in 1945, but civilian demands for penicillin exceeded allocations. By April 1944 supply and demand had exceeded the ability of one man to administer, and the task was handed over to a Penicillin Producers Industry Advisory Committee that distributed supplies through a network of depot hospitals. By 1945, there were 2,700 depot hospitals holding supplies of penicillin, and another 5,000 hospitals receiving supplies through them. Penicillin became commercially available by the end of the year, by which time the United States was exporting 200 billion units a month. By 1956, only twelve of the twenty-one firms that produced penicillin during the war were still involved in its manufacture. In the field In 1943, the Medical Research Council decided that the time had come for field trials of penicillin. The location of centres to receive the drug was kept secret so as to not provoke demand for the drug when it was still in short supply. Howard Florey was sent to North Africa, where the North African campaign was ongoing. On 29 June he was joined by Hugh Cairns, another Rhodes Scholar from Adelaide, who now held the rank of brigadier in the British Army, and was in charge of the Military Hospital for head injuries in Oxford, who brought with him a stockpile of 40 million units of penicillin. Over the next two months Florey and Cairns treated over one hundred cases and compiled a report that ran to over a hundred pages. Florey gave lectures on penicillin, and his report contained recommendations for training of medical officers in its use. The fighting in North Africa ended in May 1943, so most of the cases Florey saw were not recently wounded soldiers, but ones with old wounds that had not healed; battle casualties began arriving again after the Allied invasion of Sicily in July. Florey considered that the source of infection in many cases was from the hospital rather than the battlefield, and advocated changes to the way that patients were treated to take advantage of the properties of penicillin. He argued that wounds should be cleaned and sealed up promptly. This was a radical idea; normally it would have been inviting gas gangrene, but he proposed leaving that to the penicillin. Florey's recommendations were acted upon; the War Office established a training course for pathologists and clinicians at the Royal Herbert Hospital, which made use of film that Florey shot in North Africa. Although he intended that penicillin be used to treat the seriously wounded, there were large numbers of venereal disease cases, against which penicillin was particularly effective, and from a military point of view being able to cure gonorrhea in 48 hours was a breakthrough. The supply situation improved, and 20 million units per day were made available for Allied invasion of Italy in September. During the campaign in Western Europe in 1944–1945, penicillin was widely used both to treat infected wounds and as a prophylactic to prevent wounds from becoming infected. Gas gangrene had killed 150 out of every 1,000 casualties in the First World War, but the instance of this disease now disappeared almost completely. Open fractures now had a recovery rate of better than 94 per cent, and recovery from burns of one-fifth of the body or less was 100 per cent. Chemical analysis The chemical structure of penicillin was first suggested by Abraham in 1942. Dorothy Hodgkin determined the correct chemical structure of penicillin using X-ray crystallography at Oxford in 1945. In 1945, the US Committee on Medical Research and the British Medical Research Council jointly published in Science a chemical analyses done at different universities, pharmaceutical companies and government research departments. The report announced the existence of different forms of penicillin compounds which all shared the same structural component called β-lactam. The penicillins were designated by Roman numerals in UK (penicillin I, II, III and IV) in order of their discoveries, and known by letters (F, G, X, and K) referring to their origins or sources in the US, as below: The chemical names were based on the side chains of the compounds. In 1948, Chain introduced the chemical names as standard nomenclature, remarking that this would "make the nomenclature as far as possible unambiguous". In Kundl, Tyrol, Austria, in 1952, Hans Margreiter and Ernst Brandl of Biochemie developed the first acid-stable penicillin for oral administration, penicillin V. American chemist John C. Sheehan at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) completed the first chemical synthesis of penicillin in 1957. Sheehan had started his studies into penicillin synthesis in 1948, and during these investigations developed new methods for the synthesis of peptides, as well as new protecting groups—groups that mask the reactivity of certain functional groups. Although the initial synthesis developed by Sheehan was not appropriate for mass production of penicillins, one of the intermediate compounds in Sheehan's synthesis was 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA), the nucleus of penicillin. An important development was the discovery of 6-APA itself. In 1957, researchers at the Beecham Research Laboratories in Surrey isolated 6-APA from the culture media of P. chrysogenum. 6-APA was found to constitute the core nucleus of penicillin (and subsequently many β-lactam antibiotics) and was easily chemically modified by attaching side chains through chemical reactions. The discovery was published Nature in 1959. This paved the way for new and improved drugs as all semisynthetic penicillins are produced from chemical manipulation of 6-APA. The second-generation semisynthetic β-lactam antibiotic methicillin, designed to counter first-generation-resistant penicillinases, was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1959. Methicillin-resistant forms of S. aureus were first observed in the UK in 1960, less than a year later. It is likely that MRSA strains already existed many years before methicillin was introduced. This demonstrated that new drugs intended to circumvent known resistance mechanisms could be rendered ineffective by bacterial adaptations caused by the widespread use of other antibiotics. Patents Penicillin patents became a matter of concern and conflict. Chain had wanted to apply for a patent but Florey had objected, arguing that penicillin should benefit all. Florey sought the advice of Sir Henry Dale, the chairman of the Wellcome Trust and a member of the Scientific Advisory Panel to the British Cabinet, and John William Trevan, the director of the Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory. On 26 and 27 March 1941, Dale and Trevan met at Oxford University's Sir William Dunn School of Pathology to discuss the issue. Dale advised that patenting penicillin would be unethical. Undeterred, Chain approached Sir Edward Mellanby, then Secretary of the Medical Research Council, who also objected on ethical grounds. As Chain later admitted, he had "many bitter fights" with Mellanby, but Mellanby's decision was accepted as final. In 1945, Moyer patented the methods for production and isolation of penicillin. He could not obtain patents in the US as an employee of the NRRL, but filed for patents with the British Patent Office. He gave the license to a US company, Commercial Solvents Corporation. When Fleming learnt of the American patents on penicillin production, he was incensed and commented:I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country? The patenting of penicillin-related technologies by US companies gave rise to a myth in the UK that British scientists had done the work but American ones garnered the rewards. When the Rockefeller Foundation published its annual report in 1944, The Evening News contrasted the foundation's generous support of the Oxford team's work with that of the parsimonious MRC. In April 1945, the British firm Glaxo signed agreements with Squibb and Merck under which it paid 5 per cent royalties on its sales of penicillin for five years in return for the use of their deep submergence fermentation techniques. Glaxo paid almost £500,000 () in royalties between 1946 and 1956. The controversy over patents led to the establishment of the UK National Research Development Corporation (NRDC) in June 1948. This organisation collected government patents and charged royalties on them. Nobel prize After the news about the curative properties of penicillin broke in an editorial in The Times on 27 August 1942, Fleming enjoyed the publicity, but Howard Florey did not: he feared that this would create a demand for penicillin that he did not yet have to give. When the press arrived at the Sir William Dunn School, he told his secretary to "send them packing". Confusion resulted from the fact that both the mould and the drug produced from it were both called penicillin. Distorted and inaccurate accounts were published and broadcast giving Fleming credit for the development of penicillin, accounts that Fleming and St. Mary's Hospital made little or no effort to correct. The story the media wished to tell was the familiar one of the lone scientist and the serendipitous discovery. The British medical historian Bill Bynum later wrote: In 1943, the Nobel committee received a single nomination for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for Fleming and Florey from the British biochemist Rudolph Peters. The secretary of the Nobel committee, Göran Liljestrand, made an assessment of Fleming and Florey in the same year, but little was known about penicillin in Sweden at the time, and he concluded that more information was required. The following year, there was one nomination for Fleming alone and one for Fleming, Florey and Chain. Liljestrand and Nanna Svartz, the professor of medicine at the Karolinska Institute, considered their work, and while both judged Fleming and Florey equally worthy of a Nobel Prize, the Nobel committee was divided, and decided to award the prize that year instead to Joseph Erlanger and Herbert S. Gasser "for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres". There were a large number of nominations for Florey and Fleming or both in 1945, and one for Chain, from Liljestrand, who nominated all three. Liljestrand noted that thirteen of the first sixteen nominations that came in mentioned Fleming, but only three mentioned him alone. This time evaluations were made by Liljestrand, and , who endorsed all three. There were rumours that the committee would award the prize to Fleming alone, or half to Fleming and one-quarter each to Florey and Chain. Fulton and Dale lobbied for the award to be given to Florey. The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute did consider awarding half to Fleming and one-quarter each to Florey and Chain, but in the end decided to divide it equally three ways. On 25 October 1945, it announced that Fleming, Florey and Chain equally shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases." When The New York Times announced that "Fleming and Two Co-Workers" had won the prize, Fulton demanded – and received – a correction in an editorial the next day. Dorothy Hodgkin received the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances." She became only the third woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, after Marie Curie in 1911 and Irène Joliot-Curie in 1935. Development of penicillin derivatives The narrow range of treatable diseases or "spectrum of activity" of the penicillins, along with the poor activity of the orally active penicillin V, led to the search for derivatives of penicillin that could treat a wider range of infections. The isolation of 6-APA, the nucleus of penicillin, allowed for the preparation of semisynthetic penicillins, with various improvements over benzylpenicillin. Ampicillin was developed by the Beecham Research Laboratories in London. When introduced to clinical use in 1961 it was the first semisynthetic penicillin that could be taken orally that was effective against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive organisms. It was more advantageous than the original penicillin as it offered a broader spectrum of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, whereas the original was only effective against Gram-positive. Further development yielded β-lactamase-resistant penicillins, including flucloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and methicillin. These were significant for their activity against β-lactamase-producing bacterial species, but were ineffective against the MRSA strains. Another development of the line of penicillins was the antipseudomonal penicillins, such as carbenicillin, ticarcillin, and piperacillin, useful for their activity against Gram-negative bacteria. The usefulness of the β-lactam ring was such that related antibiotics, including the mecillinams, the carbapenems and, most important, the cephalosporins, still retain it at the centre of their structures. β-lactam penicillins became the most widely used antibiotics in the world. Amoxicillin, a semisynthetic penicillin developed by Beecham Research Laboratories in 1970, was the most commonly used of all. In the early 21st century, antibiotic preferences differed from country to country: in Europe, amoxicillin was widely used in the UK and Germany; France, Italy and Spain preferred broad-spectrum combinations like co-amoxiclav; and the Scandinavian countries relied on narrow-spectrum penicillin V. Antibiotic resistance In 1940, Ernst Chain and Edward Abraham reported the first indication of antibiotic resistance to penicillin, an E. coli strain that produced the penicillinase enzyme, which was capable of breaking down penicillin and negating its antibacterial effect. Chain and Abraham worked out the chemical nature of penicillinase which they reported in Nature as: In his Nobel lecture, Fleming warned of the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions:The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant. At the time, only poisons required a doctor's prescription, and self-treatment was a real possibility. Legislation was passed in the UK in 1947 to require a prescription for antibiotics. The United States followed in 1951. Elsewhere in the world, the export of Western pharmaceuticals diffused faster than Western medical knowledge and practices, and penicillin was often dispensed by practitioners of traditional medicine. As late as 1999, a study in the UK found that 39 per cent of respondents erroneously believed that antibiotics could cure colds and flu, and 12 per cent believed that they were the best treatment for them. The misplaced faith in antibiotics had serious consequences. It reduced the status of doctors to providers of pills. Many more people sought medical attention for ailments they would have ignored before, and they often demanded antibiotics. For their part, overworked doctors were increasingly willing to provide them even if not asked to do so. By 1942, some strains of Staphylococcus aureus had developed a strong resistance to penicillin and many strains were resistant by the 1960s. In 1946, bacteriologist Mary Barber began a study of penicillin resistance through natural selection at Hammersmith Hospital in London. She found that in 1946, seven out of eight bacterial infections were susceptible to penicillin, but two years later only three out of eight were. Nurses were exposed to both bacteria and penicillin and harboured and transmitted bacterial infections. Miller found that three out of ten student midwives were colonized by bacteria when they arrived; after three months, seven out of ten were. The problem was sloppy hygiene practices by health care workers, poor medical practices like prophylactic use of antibiotics, and slipshod administrative practices, such as taking babies from their mothers to large hospital nurseries where they could infect each other. Antibiotic-resistant infections were reported in Australia in 1952. During the 1957–1958 influenza pandemic there were 16,000 deaths in the UK and 80,000 in US from bacterial complications; 28 per cent of those who contracted pneumonia died. Most cases of pneumonia were contracted in hospitals, and many of these were antibiotic-resistant strains that had been nurtured there. In 1965, the first case of penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae was reported from Boston. Since then other strains and species of bacteria have developed resistance. Use in agriculture Research conducted by the American Cyanamid laboratories in the late 1940s and early 1950s demonstrated that adding penicillin to chicks' feed increased their weight gain by 10 per cent. The reasons for this were still subject to debate in the twenty-first century. Subsequent research indicated that adding penicillin to animal feed also improved feed conversion efficiency, promoted more uniform growth and facilitated disease control. After the Food and Drug Administration approved the use of penicillin as feed additives for poultry and livestock in 1951, the pharmaceutical companies ramped up production to meet the demand. By 1954, the United States was producing of antibiotics each year, of which was going into animal feed; in the 1990s, the United States was producing of antibiotics per year, of which half was going to livestock. The largest user remained the poultry industry, which consumed of antibiotics each year, compared to for hogs and for cattle. A 1981 study by the Council for Agricultural Science and Technology estimated that banning their use in animal feed could cost American consumers up to $3.5 billion a year (equivalent to $ billion in ) in increased food prices. The story was similar in the UK, where 44 per cent of antibiotic production was consumed by animals by 1963. By the mid-1950s, there were reports in the United States that milk was not curdling to make cheese. The FDA found that the milk was contaminated with penicillin, which was killing the bacteria required for cheesemaking. In 1963 the World Health Organization reported high levels of penicillin in milk worldwide. People who were allergic to penicillin could now get a reaction from drinking milk. A committee chaired by Lord Netherthorpe was established in the UK in 1960 to inquire into the use of antibiotics in animal feed. In 1962, the committee recommended that restrictions on the use of antibiotics in animals be relaxed. It contended that the benefits were substantial and that even if bacteria became resistant, new antibiotics would soon be developed, and there was no evidence that bacterial resistance in animals impacted human health. The Netherthorpe committee's conclusions were undermined by new research even before they were published, and the committee was recalled to reconsider the issue in 1965. New studies had shown that bacteria were not only were able to inherit the genes for antibiotic resistance, but they could also communicate them to each other. In 1967, a multiresistant strain of E. coli killed fifteen children in the UK. The use of antibiotics in animals for nontherapeutic use was banned there in 1971. Many other European countries soon followed. When Sweden acceded to the European Union (EU) in 1995, a total ban on antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) had been in place there for ten years. This would be superseded by more relaxed EU rules unless Sweden could demonstrate scientific evidence in favour of a ban. Two Swedish scientists, Anders Franklin and Christina Greko, and two Danish scientists, and , took up the fight. The odds seemed against them but this coincided with the United Kingdom BSE outbreak, which resulted in intense political pressure. In December 1996, the European Parliament's Standing Committee on Health and Welfare voted to ban the use of AGPs. The EU went further and recommended broad restrictions on the use of antibiotics. Footnotes Notes References External links Debate in the House of Commons on the history and the future of the discovery on 11 May 2009. Penicillin Penicillins Microbiology History of medicine
4578860	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20national%20museums	List of national museums	A national museum is a museum maintained and funded by a national government. In many countries it denotes a museum run by the central government, while other museums are run by regional or local governments. In other countries a much greater number of museums are run by the central government. The following is an incomplete list of national museums: Albania The Albanian government operates several national museums, including: National History Museum (Albania) National Museum of Education (Albania) National Museum of Medieval Art (Albania) Marubi National Museum of Photography Argentina The Argentinian Ministry of Culture operates several national museums, including: Historical House of the Independence Museum Museo Casa de Rogelio Yrurtia Museo Mitre Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (Buenos Aires) National Historical Museum (Argentina) National Museum of Decorative Arts National Museum of the Cabildo and the May Revolution Sarmiento Historical Museum Armenia History Museum of Armenia Australia The Australian Government operates several national museums through its various departments, including: Australian National Maritime Museum Australian War Memorial National Gallery of Australia National Museum of Australia National Portrait Gallery (Australia) Questacon In addition, a number of states in Australia also operate "national museums". These include: National Motor Museum, Birdwood, operated by the government of South Australia National Gallery of Victoria, operated by the government of Victoria Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Natural History Museum, Vienna Azerbaijan National Art Museum of Azerbaijan National Museum of History of Azerbaijan Bahrain Bahrain National Museum Bangladesh Bangladesh National Museum Belarus Belarusian National Arts Museum Belarusian National History Museum Belgium The Federal Public Service for Science Policy Programming in Belgium operates several museum associations: Royal Museums of Art and History Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnian and Herzegovinian Museum of Literature Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil National Historical Museum, Brazil (Museu Histórico Nacional) National Museum of Brazil (Museu Nacional) National Museum of Fine Arts (Museu Nacional de Belas Artes) National Museum of the Republic (Museu Nacional da República) Brunei The government of Brunei operates several museums including: Brunei Museum Brunei Darussalam Maritime Museum Malay Technology Museum Royal Regalia Museum Bulgaria National Archaeological Museum National Historical Museum National Art Gallery National Gallery for Foreign Art National Museum of Natural History Earth and Man National Museum National Museum of Military History National Transport Museum Burkina Faso National Museum of Music Cambodia National Museum of Cambodia Angkor National Museum Canada The following are national museums of Canada, established by the federal government of Canada and operated through an autonomous Crown corporation: Canada Agriculture and Food Museum Canada Aviation and Space Museum Canada Science and Technology Museum Canadian Museum for Human Rights Canadian Museum of History Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21 Canadian Museum of Nature Canadian War Museum National Gallery of Canada Virtual Museum of New France Former national museums that were later shut down includes: Canadian Museum of Contemporary Photography Canadian Postal Museum In addition to institutions established or operated by the Government of Canada, several provinces and territories have established their own provincial and territorial museums. Chad Chad National Museum (Musee National N'Djamena) Chile National Air and Space Museum (Santiago) National History Museum (Santiago) National Museum of Fine Arts (Santiago) National Museum of Natural History (Santiago) China National Museum of China Palace Museum Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution National Art Museum of China Colombia Colombian National Museum Comoros National Museum of Comoros Costa Rica National Museum of Costa Rica Cyprus Cyprus Museum Czech Republic National Gallery Prague National Museum, Prague Denmark Hirschsprung Collection National Gallery of Denmark National Museum of Denmark Natural History Museum of Denmark Ordrupgaard Djibouti Djibouti Museum Eritrea National Museum of Eritrea Estonia Art Museum of Estonia Estonian National Museum Ethiopia National Museum of Ethiopia Finland Ateneum Finnish Museum of Natural History Kiasma National Museum of Finland Sinebrychoff Art Museum France Centre Georges Pompidou (Musée National d'Art Moderne) Musée de l'Armée Musée Camille Claudel Musée de Cluny - National Museum of the Middle-Ages (Musée National du Moyen-Age) Musée du Louvre Museum of European and Mediterranean Civilisations (MuCEM) Musée d'Orsay Museum of Air and Space (Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace) Museum of Natural History (Muséum national d'histoire naturelle) Museum of Science and Industry (Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie) National Navy Museum (Musée national de la Marine) National Railway Museum (Musée Français du Chemin de Fer) Gambia Gambia National Museum Germany Bavarian National Museum German Historical Museum German Museum of Technology (Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin) German National Museum (Germanisches Nationalmuseum) Glyptothek The Max Planck Institutes Modern Art Museum (Pinakothek der Moderne) National Gallery National Museum of Germany (Deutsches Museum) New Pinakothek (Neue Pinakothek) Old Pinakothek (Alte Pinakothek) Ghana National Museum of Ghana Greece Athens War Museum National Archaeological Museum, Athens National Gallery National Historical Museum, Athens State Museum of Contemporary Arts Guatemala Museo Nacional de Arte Moderno "Carlos Mérida" Guyana National Museum of Guyana Holy See (Vatican City) Vatican Museums Vatican Library Vatican Secret Archives Saint Peter's Basilica Apostolic Palace Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Sistine Chapel Hong Kong Hong Kong Museum of History Hong Kong Heritage Museum Hungary Hungarian National Museum Hungarian National Gallery Iceland National Gallery of Iceland National Museum of Iceland Isle of Man Manx National Heritage (Eiraght Ashoonagh Vannin) India National-level museums in India come directly under the administrative control of Ministry of Culture, Government of India. National Museum, New Delhi Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya Indian Museum Government Museum, Mathura National Gallery of Modern Art Allahabad Museum Government Museum, Chennai Salar Jung Museum Dr. Bhau Daji Lad Museum Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh City Palace, Jaipur City Palace, Udaipur National Handicrafts and Handlooms Museum Victoria Memorial Jaisalmer War Museum Hazarduari Palace Sabarmati Ashram Cavalry Tank Museum, Ahmednagar National Rail Museum, New Delhi Railway Museum, Mysore Albert Hall Museum Madame Tussauds Delhi 23 science centers under the National Council of Science Museums 44 site museums under the Archaeological Survey of India Indonesia Museums listed below are operated by Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology and other ministries. National Museum of Indonesia Basoeki Abdullah Museum Formulation of Proclamation Text Museum Fort Vredeburg Museum Museum of National Awakening National Gallery of Indonesia National Press Monument Some government-operated museums in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah Youth Pledge Museum Iran National Museum of Iran Iraq National Museum of Iraq Ireland Irish Museum of Modern Art National Gallery of Ireland National Museum of Ireland Israel Israel Museum Italy Bargello National Museum (Museo Nazionale del Bargello) Galleria degli Uffizi National Archeological Museum of Naples (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli) National Archaeological Museum of Nuoro National Etruscan Museum (Museo Nazionale Etrusco) National Gallery of Ancient Art (Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica) National Gallery of Modern Art (Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna) National Museum of Capodimonte (Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte) National Museum of Magna Grecia (Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia) National Museum of Oriental Art National Museum of Rome Pinacoteca di Brera Japan National Institutes for Cultural Heritage Tokyo National Museum Kyoto National Museum Nara National Museum Kyushu National Museum Independent Administrative Institution National Museum of Art National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto National Museum of Western Art National Museum of Art, Osaka National Art Center, Tokyo National Film Archive of Japan National Museum of Nature and Science National Museum of Ethnology (Japan) National Museum of Japanese History National Showa Memorial Museum Kenya National Museums of Kenya Korea National Museum of Korea Buyeo National Museum Cheongju National Museum Chuncheon National Museum Daegu National Museum Gimhae National Museum Gongju National Museum Gwangju National Museum Gyeongju National Museum Jeju National Museum Jeonju National Museum Jinju National Museum National Folk Museum of Korea National Palace Museum of Korea Kuwait Al-Hashemi-II Marine Museum in Kuwait City Kuwait National Museum Kuwait Science and Natural History Museum Latvia Latvian National Museum of Art Lebanon National Museum of Beirut Libya Liechtenstein Liechtenstein National Museum Lithuania National Museum of Lithuania Luxembourg National Museum of History and Art, in Luxembourg City National Museum of Military History, in Diekirch National Museum of Natural History, in Luxembourg City Macau Museum of Macau Malaysia Muzium Negara Muzium Sejarah Nasional Maldives National Museum Mali National Museum of Mali Malta National Museum of Archaeology National Museum of Ethnography National Museum of Fine Arts National Museum of Natural History National War Museum Mauritania National Museum of Mauritania Mexico Museo Nacional de Antropología (National Museum of Anthropology) Museo Nacional de Historia (National Museum of History) Moldova National Museum of History of Moldova National Museum of Fine Arts, Chișinău Myanmar National Museum Nay Pyi Taw National Museum of Myanmar Namibia National Museum of Namibia Alte Feste Owela Museum Independence Memorial Museum Nepal National Museum of Nepal Netherlands Dordrechts Museum EYE Film Institute Netherlands Huis Doorn Kröller-Müller Museum Loevestein Mauritshuis Muiderslot Museum Boerhaave Museum Catharijneconvent Museum Meermanno Museum Mesdag National Museum of Ethnology Naturalis Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Paleis het Loo Rijksmuseum Amsterdam Rijksmuseum Twenthe Rijksmuseum van Oudheden Openluchtmuseum Van Gogh Museum Zuiderzeemuseum New Zealand Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa - commonly known as Te Papa or Our Place in English translation Niger Musée National Boubou Hama, formerly National Museum of Niger Norway National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design Pakistan National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi Palau Belau National Museum, Koror Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea National Museum and Art Gallery, Port Moresby Peru National Museum of Peru Museum of the Nation National Museum of the Archaeology, Anthropology, and History of Peru Lima Art Museum Philippines The National Museum of the Philippines (NMP), a government organization, operates several national museums, including: The National Museum Complex in Manila which consists of the central museums of the NMP namely the: National Museum of Anthropology National Museum of Fine Arts National Museum of Natural History The NMP also operates the following satellite museums: National Museum Dumaguete National Museum Western Visayas National Museum Cordillera National Museum Ilocos National Museum Cagayan Valley National Museum Bicol National Museum Eastern-Northern Mindanao National Museum Western-Southern Mindanao National Museum Batanes National Museum Marinduque-Romblon National Museum Bohol National Museum Sulu National Museum Kabayan National Museum Tabon Caves Site Museum National Museum Angono-Binangonan Poland National Museum, Kraków National Museum, Gdańsk National Maritime Museum, Gdańsk National Museum, Lublin National Museum, Poznań National Museum, Szczecin National Museum, Warsaw National Museum, Wrocław Portugal Air Museum, part of the Portuguese Air Force Grão Vasco National Museum Porto Military Museum, part of the Portuguese Army National Archaeology Museum National Azulejo Museum National Coach Museum National Museum of Ancient Art National Museum of Contemporary Art of Chiado National Museum of Costume and Fashion National Museum of Ethnology, it includes the Popular Art Museum National Museum of Natural History and Science, part of the University of Lisbon National Museum Machado de Castro National Museum Soares dos Reis National Music Museum National Railway Museum National Theatre and Dance Museum Navy Museum, part of the Portuguese Navy Qatar Qatar National Museum Romania ASTRA Museum of Traditional Folk Civilization (Muzeul Civilizaţiei Populare Tradiţionale) ASTRA Museum of Transylvanian Civilisation (Muzeul Civilizaţiei Transilvane) Brukenthal National Museum Emil Sigerus Museum of Saxon Ethnography and Folk Art (Muzeul de Etnografie şi Artă Populară Săsească ASTRA) Franz Binder Museum of Universal Ethnography (Muzeul de Etnografie Universală ASTRA) National History Museum of Romania National Military Museum, Romania (Muzeul Militar Naţional) National Museum of Art of Romania Russia State Historical Museum Russian Museum Saudi Arabia National Museum of Saudi Arabia Serbia National Museum of Serbia Sierra Leone Sierra Leone National Museum Singapore National Museum of Singapore Slovakia Slovak National Museum Slovak National History Museum Somalia National Museum of Somalia South Africa South African National Museum of Military History Iziko South African Museum Ditsong Museums of South Africa includes Ditsong National Museum of Natural History and Ditsong National Museum of Cultural History National Museum, Bloemfontein National Afrikaans Literary Museum and Research Centre South Sudan South Sudan National Museum Spain National Archaeological Museum, Madrid Cervantes' House Museum, Valladolid Museum of the Royal Mint, Madrid Museum Cerralbo, Madrid Aeronautical and Astronautical Museum, Madrid Museum of the Americas, Madrid Museum of the Army, Toledo Catalonia Railway Museum, Vilanova i la Geltrú (Barcelona) Railway Museum, Madrid El Greco Museum, Toledo National Museum of Romanticism, Madrid Museum of Garment - 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4578946	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpelier%20railway%20station	Montpelier railway station	Montpelier railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the district of Montpelier in Bristol, England. It is from . Its three letter station code is MTP. The station has a single platform, serving trains in both directions. it is managed by Great Western Railway, which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997. They provide all train services at the station, mainly a train every 30 minutes in each direction. The station was opened on 1 October 1874 as Montpellier (two 'L's) by the Great Western and Midland Railways as part of the Clifton Extension Railway, designed to connect the port of Avonmouth to the national rail network. In February 1888 the station's name changed to Montpelier (one 'L'). The station had two platforms, with the main structures on the southern platform and smaller waiting rooms on the northern platform. In 1903 the station employed 19 staff. Much of the main station building was destroyed by bombing during the Second World War. The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century, with passenger numbers falling significantly. Goods services at Montpelier ended in 1965, and all staff were withdrawn in 1967. The line was largely reduced to single track in 1970, with the northern platform abandoned and all trains using the remaining platform. The station building is no longer in railway use. Services had decreased to ten per day each direction by 2005, but have since increased to a train every 30 minutes in each direction. Description Montpelier railway station is located in the Bristol ward of Ashley, north of the city centre, serving the districts of Montpelier, Cotham, Ashley Down and St Andrews. The surrounding area is mostly residential, with shops on the nearby A38 Cheltenham Road. The station can be accessed step-free from Station Road to the south, or by a footbridge and steps from Cromwell Road to the north. The station is on the Severn Beach Line from to , from Bristol Temple Meads, and from Severn Beach. It is the third station from Temple Meads, and first station of the branch part of the line (the first two stations, and , are on the main line Cross Country Route). The station is on a roughly east–west alignment, curving to the north, with a single curved platform to the south of the track, serving trains in both directions. Directly to the east of the station is the Montpelier Tunnel, and to the west is The Arches bridge over the A38. The station's northern platform was abandoned in 1970 and is overgrown. Facilities at the station are minimal – there are a few chairs and timetable information is provided. There are help points on the platform, giving next train information and allowing passengers to contact staff. There is no ticket office, though a self-service ticket machine was installed in 2022. The station building is used as a workshop and showroom for a company selling fireplaces, and is bricked up on the platform side. It is, however, colourfully decorated with a mural, painted as a collaborative effort between the Severnside Community Rail Partnership and local schools. The Severnside CRP also tend the station's garden in conjunction with the nearby Montpelier High School. There is no car park or taxi rank, but there are bus stops on Cromwell Road, and more on the busy A38 Cheltenham Road roughly away. Cycle storage is available on the platform. The line through Montpelier has a speed limit for diesel multiple units, and for other trains. The line, which is not electrified, has loading gauge W6A, and carries less than 5 million train tonnes per year. , approximately 120,000 passengers used Montpelier station, making it the 1592nd busiest station in the country and the fifth busiest within the Bristol unitary authority area. This was an increase of almost 100% from the 2002–03 financial year, and reflected a general rise in usage of the Severn Beach Line. Services All services at Montpelier are operated by Great Western Railway using Turbo DMUs. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is: 2 tph to of which 1 continues to 2 tph to of which 1 continues to On Sundays, there is an hourly service between Bristol Temple Meads and Severn Beach with one train per day to and from Weston-super-Mare. Services previously ran every 40 minutes in each direction but were increased to half-hourly in the December 2021 timetable change. History Joint railway era Montpelier railway station was opened on 1 October 1874 when the Clifton Extension Railway began operations. The line, a joint venture between the Midland and Great Western Railways, was built to connect the Bristol Port Railway and Pier to the national network. It ran from Sneyd Park Junction in the Avon Gorge via Clifton Down station to Ashley Hill Junction, east of Montpelier, from which the Great Western and Midland lines diverged – the Great Western heading south, joining the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway towards Bristol Temple Meads, the Midland heading east towards . The line was built at standard gauge, and was initially managed by the Clifton Extension Railway Joint Committee. The station was built by Messrs Baker & Son of Canon's Marsh, Bristol. There were two platforms, with the southern platform used by trains towards Clifton Down and the northern one by trains in the other direction. The platforms were long and spacious, but open to the elements with little in the way of cover. An iron footbridge linked the two platforms, as well as carrying a pedestrian right of way between Cromwell Road to the north and Station Road to the south. The original station buildings were built from pennant stone, a common material in the Bristol area, and partly obtained from the digging of a cutting near Clifton Down. The station master had lodgings above the waiting rooms on the southern platform, which had separate ticket windows for Midland and Great Western services. The buildings on the northern platform were principally waiting rooms. A goods yard was provided on the south side of Station Road, mainly used for coal traffic, and accessible from the west via a bridge over the road. A signal box with 16 levers was located at the west end of the southern platform, controlling the yard and crossover points on the main line. There was some debate about whether the station should be called "Montpelier" or "Montpellier", but the joint railway committee overseeing the line ruled in favour of the former in 1888. In 1895 a petition was submitted to the joint railway committee, asking for better cover for the platforms, improved waiting rooms and a new booking office on the northern platform. The committee agreed to extend the canopy on the northern platform, and to improve the waiting rooms, but refused to build a new booking office. The work was completed in 1896. Further building work took place during the First World War, when the southern platform was extended. The initial Monday to Saturday service provided at Montpelier by the Midland Railway was 13 trains per day between Clifton Down, and Mangotsfield, where passengers could change for services to Bath, Birmingham and other Midland destinations. The Great Western provided ten services per day between Clifton Down and Bristol Temple Meads, the city's major station, where passengers could change for trains to London, Exeter and Wales, among others. The Great Western also provided occasional through services to Weston-super-Mare. On Sundays, there was no Midland service, but seven Great Western trains. The Clifton Down Tunnel, the final link to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier, was opened in 1877, initially allowing freight trains to reach Avonmouth Docks. It was not until 1885 that it was cleared for passenger use, which allowed services to Avonmouth via and . There was a trial Midland service between and Avonmouth in September 1885, but this was ended after a month. In 1886, the daily Great Western service at Montpelier consisted of six trains to Avonmouth, 24 to Clifton Down and 32 to Temple Meads. The Midland provided 12 services from Clifton Down to Fishponds, and 11 back. In the first 20 years of the Montpelier's use, the station handled large numbers of parcels, and was popular for day trips to Weston-super-Mare. The station's management passed to the Great Western & Midland Railways Joint Committee on 1 November 1894. The station was initially well-staffed: in 1903 there were 19 staff, although this had fallen to 15 by 1935. Before the First World War, it was not unusual for extra porters to be sent to Montpelier to handle large quantities of goods – the station was used by many commercial travellers who had large hampers full of clothes and samples, and the loading on Monday morning had the potential to cause delays. In 1910, Montpelier saw 17 Great Western services from Avonmouth to Temple Meads and 15 the other way, a further 20 trains each day operating between Clifton and Temple Meads, and 13 Midland trains each way between Clifton and Fishponds or Mangotsfield. Midland services were suspended from 1 January 1917 to 15 May 1919 due to the War. The section of the Bristol Port Railway and Pier closed in 1922, so to compensate an additional six trains were provided to Avonmouth, with four back. In 1923, grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS. From 1924, many trains to Avonmouth were extended to Severn Beach, a growing seaside resort, and some on to , then back to Temple Meads via . The post of station master was withdrawn on 29 March 1926, with responsibility passing to staff at Clifton Down. had suffered a similar loss in 1909. Much of the main station building on the southern platform was destroyed in the Bristol Blitz during the Second World War; the current building is what remains of this, together with a utilitarian post-war extension. The war also saw the end of services to Fishponds and Mangotsfield, the last operating on 31 March 1941. By 1947, just before the start of the British Rail era, there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads, and 18 on Sundays. Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and or Pilning. British Rail and privatisation When the railways were nationalised in 1948, services at Montpelier came under the control of the Western Region of British Railways. Staff levels were reduced further, down to two booking clerks, four porters, a checker and a weighbridge operator by 1950. Service levels had decreased slightly by 1955 to 28 towards Avonmouth and 29 towards Bristol, but the services were at regular intervals. Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase, and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted, which lost more passengers. A year later in 1963, the Beeching report suggested the complete withdrawal of services along the line, but ultimately only those beyond Severn Beach or via Henbury were withdrawn. The goods yard at Montpelier closed on 18 November 1965, with the signal box following on 10 May 1967. Staff were completely withdrawn on 17 July 1967 with tickets issued by the train guard. The general reduction in passenger traffic, as well as the transfer of Avonmouth goods traffic to the Henbury Loop Line, allowed the removal of the northern track from 19 October 1970, with all services using the southern platform. The former goods yard is now a small industrial estate. By 1974, service had reduced to 19 trains per day in each direction, with no Sunday services beyond Avonmouth. British Rail was split into business-led sectors in the 1980s, at which time operations at Montpelier passed to Regional Railways. At this time, all trains ran to Severn Beach, but the service pattern was irregular. This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times, but northbound services were terminated at Avonmouth. When the railway was privatised in 1997, local services were franchised to Wales & West, which was succeeded by Wessex Trains, an arm of National Express, in 2001. Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway (FOSBR) and a string of protests, services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005, with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains. The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006, and responsibility passed to First Great Western, a subsidiary company of FirstGroup, rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015. A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement, ensuring an hourly service along the line, and this has since been increased to three trains every two hours (24 trains per day). Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010. In 2004, the Severnside Community Rail Partnership was formed, covering the Severn Beach Line and a network of routes radiating from Bristol. By 2008, they had created a support group for the station, were helping with station upkeep, and had improved the provision of timetabling information through the use of simplified departure timetable posters. In 2007, they repainted the mural on the old station building, but it was defaced by vandals the same year. First Great Western offered a £500 reward for identifying the persons responsible, and stated they planned to install CCTV cameras. Students from Fairfield High School repainted the mural with help from professional graffiti artist Richard Minchin. Artist Wei Ong repainted the mural in 2015, and it was repainted again in 2017 by street artist Silent Hobo. Customer help points with next train information screens were installed during 2008/09, paid for by money from the Department for Transport's "Access for All" fund and local councils. The help points were stolen in early 2010, but have since been replaced. A large number of trees north of the station, which had provided noise mitigation and stabilised the embankment, were felled in 2018 by local residents, without permission from Network Rail. Future First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise (of which services at Montpelier are a part) beyond 2013, citing a desire for a longer-term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line. The franchise was put out to tender, but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition. A two-year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013, and subsequently extended until March 2019. With the upgrade to the Great Western Main Line, the main line from London to Bristol was due to be electrified by 2016. However, the electrification was never intended to extend beyond the main lines, and electrification into Bristol Temple Meads was indefinitely delayed in 2016, so Montpelier will continue to be served by diesel trains, with the "Sprinter" units replaced by and "Turbo" units. Stephen Williams, MP for Bristol West, questioned whether electrification could continue to Montpelier and the rest of the Severn Beach Line. Then-Secretary of State for Transport Philip Hammond replied that it would have to be looked at in the future. The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification of the entire Severn Beach Line. Improved services at Montpelier are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme, a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area. There is an aspiration for half-hourly services, with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at and , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single-track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads, such frequency is not currently feasible. The scheme was given the go-ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal, whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government. There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line, which could allow a direct service from Montpelier to via Avonmouth. Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board, however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion. Incidents A crash occurred at the station on 14 May 1878, when a train from to Clifton Down hit a goods train which had been shunting at the station. Several of the goods train's wagons were smashed or overturned, and the railway was severely damaged. See also Rail services in the West of England Notes References External links Railway stations in Bristol DfT Category F2 stations Former Clifton Extension Railway stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1874 Railway stations served by Great Western Railway Severn Beach Line
4579043	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifton%20Down%20railway%20station	Clifton Down railway station	Clifton Down railway station is on the Severn Beach line and serves the district of Clifton in Bristol, England. It is from . Its three letter station code is CFN. The station has two platforms, each serving trains in one direction only. it is managed by Great Western Railway, which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997. They provide all train services at the station, mainly a train every 30 minutes in each direction. The station was opened in 1874 by the Great Western and Midland Railways as part of the Clifton Extension Railway, designed to connect the port of Avonmouth to the national rail network. The station had a large gothic revival building on the Bristol-bound platform, with smaller passenger facilities on the opposite platform and a goods yard beyond. Between 1903 and 1930 the station employed an average of 22 staff. Excursion trains were a regular sight, bringing people to nearby Bristol Zoo. The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century, with passenger numbers falling significantly. Goods services at Clifton Down ended in 1965, and all staff were withdrawn in 1967. The line was largely reduced to single track in 1970, leaving Clifton Down as one of the few passing places. Services had decreased to ten per day each direction by 2005, but have since increased to a train every 30 minutes in each direction. History Joint railway era The Clifton Extension Railway was opened from Narroways Hill Junction to Clifton Down as a joint venture between the Great Western Railway and Midland Railway to connect their main lines to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier in the Avon Gorge. Clifton Down railway station opened on 1 October 1874, when passenger services began, and was for a while the terminal station. It was the second station along the line from Narroways Hill Junction where the Extension Railway left the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway's main line to Wales. It remained the second station until was opened in 1897. The line was built at standard gauge. The station was built by Messrs Baker & Son of Canon's Marsh, Bristol. The buildings, constructed in a Gothic Revival style, cost £20,000, with the main buildings on the northern platform. There was a large booking hall with sizeable fireplaces at each end. Pointed ground floor doorways gave access to the hall, which was adjacent to the booking offices and waiting rooms. It is believed that the station master's lodgings in this building were never used as such. A wide carriage drive led down to the northern platform, which was linked to the southern platform by a glass-covered footbridge. There was originally no waiting room on the southern platform, but one was built in October 1898. The platforms were mostly covered by "ridge and furrow" glass roofs, supported by iron columns. The station was flooded in August 1883, which resulted in the installation of extra drainage. There was a large goods yard to the south of the platforms, accessed from the west, with a 28-lever signal box at the west end of the southern platform. The initial service provided at Clifton Down by the Midland Railway was to and , where passengers could change for services to Bath, Birmingham and other Midland destinations. The Great Western provided services from Clifton Down to , the city's major station, where passengers could change for trains to London, Exeter and Wales, among others. The Great Western also provided occasional through services to . There were a total of 23 trains in each direction between the two companies Monday-Saturday. On Sundays, there was no Midland service, but seven Great Western trains. The fare to Temple Meads was 6d first-class and 3d third-class. The Clifton Down Tunnel, the final link to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier, was opened in 1877, initially allowing freight trains to reach Avonmouth Docks. It was not until 1885 that it was cleared for passenger use, which allowed services to via and . There was a trial Midland service between and Avonmouth in September 1885, but this was ended after a month. In 1886, the daily Great Western service was six trains each way between Avonmouth and Temple Meads, 24 trains from Clifton Down to Temple Meads and 26 the other direction. The Midland provided 12 services from Clifton Down to Fishponds, and 11 back. Clifton Down had large numbers of excursion trains, both arriving and departing. There were regular trains during the summer season to Weston-super-Mare and , as well as to , London and, more locally, football specials to . There were also regular excursion trains, known as "Monkey Specials" for visitors to the nearby Bristol Zoo. In 1886, the Bath and West Show being held on Durdham Down generated some 33,000 extra passengers over five days, with direct services from and an extra 16 services from Temple Meads. The Show was held on Durdham Down again in 1921, temporarily increasing traffic from Temple Meads by 12 trains per day, although there was increased competition from local bus services. The station also received visits from King Edward VII in 1902 and 1908, and from a delegation of British Empire Prime Ministers in 1907. The line had initially been managed by the Clifton Extension Railway Joint Committee, but in 1894 the line's management was passed to the Great Western & Midland Railways Joint Committee. In 1909, the station master at Redland was withdrawn, his duties incorporated into the job of Clifton Down station master. In 1910, Clifton Down saw 17 Great Western services from Avonmouth to Temple Meads and 15 the other way, a further 20 trains each day operating between Clifton and Temple Meads, and 13 Midland trains each way between Clifton and Fishponds or Mangotsfield. Midland services were suspended from 1 January 1917 to 15 May 1919 due to the First World War. The section of the Bristol Port Railway and Pier closed in 1922, so to compensate, an additional six trains were provided from Clifton Down to Avonmouth, and four back. In 1923, grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS. From 1924, many trains to Avonmouth were extended to , a growing seaside resort, and some on to , then back to Temple Meads via . Between 1903 and 1930 the station employed an average of 22 staff, and in 1926 the station master assumed control over Montpelier as well. The platform canopies were partially removed in the 1930s, and bomb-damage during the Bristol Blitz saw them cut back further. The war also saw the end of services to Fishponds and Mangotsfield, the last operating on 31 March 1941. By 1947, just before the start of the British Rail era, there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads, and 18 on Sundays. Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and or . British Rail and privatisation When the railways were nationalised in 1948, services at Clifton Down came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways, and there remained a strong staff presence in 1958, with a station master, chief booking clerk, four other clerks, six porters, a shunter, a checker and a weighbridge assistant. Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase, and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted, which lost more passengers, and saw the withdrawal of a special schoolchildren's service. A year later in 1963, the Beeching report suggested that all services along the Severn Beach Line be withdrawn. Following meetings with staff, it was decided to keep the line open to Severn Beach, but to close the section to Pilning, and also end services via Henbury. These services duly ended, and in July 1965 the goods yard at Clifton Down also closed. The line however was still threatened, and on 10 February 1967 it was announced that all services between and Severn Beach would be discontinued. An enquiry followed, and in June that year the decision was reversed, on the condition that tickets be issued on the trains. Thus, on 17 July 1967, all stations along the line, including Clifton Down, had their staff withdrawn. The decrease of costs allowed a reduction of ticket prices, but the line was still under threat until in June 1969 it was decided that the line's closure would result in significant hardship, and so a grant was allocated to ensure continued services. Service levels however still declined: though the "Monkey Specials" were still going strong into the 1960s, with 340,000 excursion passengers arriving between 1958 and 1966, the closure of many of the Welsh Valley Lines and the construction of the Severn Bridge led to their demise in the early 1970s. Most of the Severn Beach Line was reduced to single track in late 1970, leaving Clifton Down as one of the few passing places. The glass platform canopies were completely removed in May 1971, and the glass-covered footbridge was also removed, leaving a set of steps from Whiteladies road as the only access to the southern platform. In the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the Clifton Down Shopping Centre was built over most of the goods yard, the rest covered by a housing development. British Rail was split into business-led sectors in the 1980s, at which time operations at Clifton Down passed to Regional Railways. A programme of refurbishment was carried out in 1992/3, including the installation of a new metal footbridge and ramp access to the southern platform. In December 1994, the station building, which had been bricked up when staff were withdrawn, and was by then the Steam Tavern public house, was designated a grade II listed building, along with the screen walls. The pub was revived in the mid-2000s as the Roo Bar, an Australian-themed bar. At this time, all trains ran to Severn Beach, but the service pattern was irregular. This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times, but services were terminated at Avonmouth, allowing a single Sprinter unit to work the service. There was a better service on Saturdays as more rolling stock was available, but there was no Sunday service. Talk arose again of the line being closed completely. Local tourism expert Bernard Lane described the line's state as ... the line the railway wished was not there. It was the line that got bus substitution whenever they were short of trains or queues, when a rugby match in Cardiff needed a special. It has a problem in that the route is slow and not very direct; for years it was invisible, short of marketing and lacking a regular interval timetable. When the railway was privatised in 1997, local services were franchised to Wales & West, which was succeeded by Wessex Trains, an arm of National Express, in 2001. Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway (FOSBR) and a string of protests, services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005, with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains. The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006, and responsibility passed to First Great Western, a subsidiary company of FirstGroup, rebranded in 2015 as Great Western Railway. A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement, ensuring an hourly service along the line. In 2007, the Council unanimously agreed to pay £450,000 per annum to fund extra services from May 2008 for three years, which resulted in a 60% increase in passenger numbers along the line, and a 110% increase at Clifton Down. Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010. Passenger numbers at Clifton Down were further boosted by a marketing campaign by the Severnside Community Rail Partnership to attract more people, especially students, to use the station. The work won a Department for Transport Community Rail Marketing Award in 2007. The Severnside CRP also formed a support group for the station, and improved the provision of timetabling information through the use of simplified departure timetable posters. In 2009, they painted a large station sign on the road bridge over the line, and in 2010 they collaborated with Redland Green School to decorate the bricked-up windows and doors of the station building with animal artwork to brighten up the station and promote Bristol Zoo. The work won a Community Rail Award. Customer help points with next train information screens were installed during 2008/09, paid for by money from the Department for Transport's "Access for All" fund and local councils. Ticket machines were installed in early 2011, following complaints that passengers were unable to pay their fares. The station building was again renamed in 2016, and is now the Steam Bristol beer hall and rotisserie. Description Clifton Down railway station is on the Severn Beach Line, serving the district of Clifton in Bristol. The station is located on the busy shopping street Whiteladies Road, next door to a shopping centre. The wider area is largely residential. Bristol Zoo is under a mile away. The station is located along the line from , and from . It is the fifth station from Temple Meads. There are two running lines, roughly oriented east–west, but curving towards the north at both ends. There are two -long platforms to the north and south of the running lines, connected by a footbridge at the east end. The southern platform, Platform 1, serves trains towards , the northern platform, Platform 2, serves trains towards Temple Meads. The station is in an enclosed cutting, and runs under the road to the east. To the west is the Clifton Down Tunnel under Clifton Down, from which the station takes its name. The station is one of the few double track sections of the Severn Beach Line, and so is often used as a passing place. Facilities at the station are minimal – shelters, benches and timetable information are provided. Customer help points give live train information. There is no ticket office but there is one ticket machine which can be used to buy or collect tickets. The station car park is to the north of the platforms, with 40 spaces. There is step-free access to the northern platform from the car park, and a set of steps from the footbridge. There is also stepped access to the footbridge from the south, and a ramp down to the southern platform. There is no taxi rank, but there are bus stops on Whiteladies Road. Cycle storage is available on the platform. The disused station building's bricked-up windows and doors feature artwork of animals created by students at Redland Green School, and promote links with nearby Bristol Zoo. The building is accessible from the car park, and houses an Australian-themed pub. It is a Grade II listed building. Services All services at Clifton Down are operated by Great Western Railway using Turbo DMUs. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is: 2 tph to of which 1 continues to 2 tph to of which 1 continues to On Sundays, there is an hourly service between Bristol Temple Meads and Severn Beach with one train per day to and from Weston-super-Mare. Services previously ran every 40 minutes in each direction but were increased to half-hourly in the December 2021 timetable change. Future First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise (of which services at Clifton Down are a part) beyond 2013, citing a desire for a longer-term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line. The franchise was put out to tender, but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition. A two-year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013, and subsequently extended until March 2019. With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line, the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016. However, the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines, so Clifton Down will continue to be served by diesel trains, with the current "Sprinter" units expected to be replaced by and "Turbo" units. Stephen Williams, former MP for Bristol West, questioned whether electrification could continue to Clifton Down. Then-Secretary of State for Transport Philip Hammond replied that it would have to be looked at in the future. The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification of the entire Severn Beach Line. Improved services at Clifton Down are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme, a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area. There is an aspiration for half-hourly services, with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at and , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single-track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads, such frequency is not currently feasible. The scheme was given the go-ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal, whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government. There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line, which could allow a direct service from Clifton Down to via . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board, however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion. See also Rail services in Bristol Notes References External links Railway stations in Bristol Grade II listed buildings in Bristol DfT Category F2 stations Grade II listed railway stations Former Clifton Extension Railway stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1874 Railway stations served by Great Western Railway Clifton, Bristol
4580114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberg%20Hauptbahnhof	Nürnberg Hauptbahnhof	(German for Nuremberg main station) or Nuremberg Central Station<ref>Modern Railway Practice: A Treatise on the Modern Methods of the Construction and Working of German Railways. Approved by the Prussian Minister of Public Works, the Bavarian Minister of Communications, and the Railway Authorities of Other German States, Volume 1, R. Hobbings (1914), Ministerium der Öffentlichen Arbeiten.</ref>Hitler: speeches and proclamations, 1932-1945, Volume 2, Max Domarus, Taurus, 1989.Ordovician News, Issues 20-22, IUGS Commission on Stratigraphy (2003) is the main railway station serving the city of Nuremberg in Germany. It is the largest station in north Bavaria and belongs to the 20 stations in the highest category of importance allocated by DB Station&Service. It is a through station with 22 platforms and lies on major north–south and east–west transportation axes. It offers connections to the major German cities of Leipzig, Berlin, Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Munich, Würzburg, Frankfurt and Regensburg, as well as Linz and Vienna in Austria and Prague in the Czech Republic. Over 450 trains stop here daily and more than 200,000 passengers use the station on average every day. It is also a major hub for public transport in Nuremberg. The Hauptbahnhof is located on the southeastern perimeter of Nuremberg's Altstadt, immediately opposite the Königstor (King's Gate) where the streets of Marientorgraben, Frauentorgraben, and Bahnhofstraße meet. The DB Museum, the corporate museum of Deutsche Bahn AG (formerly the Verkehrsmuseum), is close to the station, as is the Staatstheater Nürnberg opera house. Location in the railway network is an important hub in the south German railway network. Numerous lines meet here from all points of the compass. Amongst them is the Nuremberg–Ingolstadt high-speed railway, opened in summer 2006 and which shortened journey times on many routes. The Hauptbahnhof is also the departure point for the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed line, opened in December 2017. West of another Hauptbahnhof in neighbouring Fürth the lines from Würzburg and Bamberg merge and then continue towards Nuremberg. In west Nuremberg they are joined by the railways from Crailsheim, Roth and Augsburg. The four lines then enter together at the western approach to the station. In southeast Nuremberg the line from Regensburg and the high-speed link from Munich meet one another. At the eastern approach to the station they join the lines from Cheb, Feucht and Schwandorf. They arrive together at the eastern end of the station. Railway services Long-distance services The Hauptbahnhof is located at the intersection of various Intercity-Express, InterCity and EuroCity routes and is the only long-distance station in Nuremberg. These routes generally run to Nuremberg hourly, although some are more frequent as a result of overlapping services. Long-distance trains travel from here to Munich, Leipzig, Berlin, into the Rhine-Main and the Ruhrgebiet; to Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, Bremen and Hamburg as well as Passau and Vienna. An Interregio-Express link runs to Chemnitz and Dresden. Night trains travel to various destinations including the Brussels, Innsbruck, Vienna, Hamburg and Düsseldorf. Almost all long-distance trains travelling from Munich to the north of Germany run in combination to Nuremberg over the high-speed link and then divide up from here. So even for these trunk services there is a frequent service between the two cities. Once the high-speed link between Nuremberg and Leipzig is completed this one, and hence the link to Berlin, will also be considerably faster. Local services Local services using Regional-Express and Regionalbahn trains mainly serve the Nuremberg area, but also travel to other parts of Bavaria as well as Baden-Württemberg, Thuringia and into the Czech Republic to Prague. Almost all lines are run at fixed frequencies, mainly hourly. More frequent services are laid on especially at peak times. The Munich-Nuremberg Express provides a fast local service between the two cities over the high-speed link to Ingolstadt and Munich, offering a cheaper alternative to the ICE. Two of the four S-Bahn lines also start from the Hauptbahnhof. The S-Bahn uses platforms 2 and 3 immediately next to the station building which significantly reduces changeover times to the city's public transport systems. City services Below the station is the Hauptbahnhof's underground station on the Nuremberg U-Bahn, one of the two crossing stations on the U1, U2 and U3 underground lines. The U1 line goes to the Nuremberg Messe (exhibition hall) amongst others, line U2 links the Hauptbahnhof with Nuremberg Nordost station, the departure point for the Gräfenberg Railway to Franconian Switzerland and Nuremberg Airport. The subway stop is equipped with orange tiles on the walls, intended as signifying an important interchange station. Similar orange tiles were also used at Aufseßplatz (U1 and Tram), Plärrer (all subway lines and several tram lines) and Friedrich Ebert Platz (U3 and Tram). On the station square are stops for the various city tram and bus lines. At weekends and on public holidays the station square is the meeting place and central changeover hub for the NightLiner night bus line network. East of that, about 200 m away, is the central bus station, reopened in 2005 after being rebuilt. From here there are also international bus services to various European countries. Infrastructure Facilities Because of its importance for long-distance and local services the station has a comprehensive range of facilities. has a travel centre and Servicepoint in the central hall (Mittelhalle). On the first floor is a DB lounge for bahn.comfort and 1st class passengers. Numerous electronic signboards in the halls and on the platforms inform passengers about the latest traffic situation, and recorded announcements are played automatically. Most of the station building and platforms have step-free access. All floors of the station building can be reached by escalators and lifts. The Bahnhofsmission at Nuremberg Hauptbahnhof is like a free first aid and support centre run by Christian charities and is located in the basement of the station ready to give advice and support to passengers, the homeless and those working at the station. On Christmas Eve and Maundy Thursday a service with live music is held in the central hall on the 1st floor. Numerous businesses for everyday requirements occupy about 20,000 square metres of floor in the station building; these include shops selling travel items, restaurants and fast-food outlets. A total of 55 shops are rented out. More shops and businesses are located in the Königstor passage adjoining the station. At the beginning of 1999 a multi-storey car park was opened next to the east hall (Osthalle) with 487 bays. Deutsche Bahn initiated the planning, an insurance company provided the necessary investment. In the Osthalle there is a service point for the InterCity courier service (IC-Kurierdienst) and a luggage locker room with 766 lockers. On the station forecourt there is a taxicab stand. Signal box At the end of November 1988 a new central signal box went into service at . At each end of the station there is a train dispatcher (Fahrdienstleiter) and assistant (Fahrdiensthelfer) to control the western and eastern approaches, supported by a train monitor (Zugmelder), a train announcer (Zugansager) and a pointsman (Wärter) for the adjoining coach works. Its area of operations extends as far as Fürth and the station at Schweinau to the west, to Eibach station to the south and the stations of Dutzendteich and Mögeldorf to the east. In all, 38.3 million deutschmarks were invested. 800 train movements and 2,900 shunting movements are handled per day in the Hauptbahnhof area. Planning began in the 1970s, not just for rationalisation, but also to set out the requirements for the planned high-speed railway to Munich. Shortly before the signal box was opened, a new, million deutschmark, departure board went into service in the Mittelhalle, that was controlled by the new signal box using computers. The new signal box replaced ten old ones that were about 70 years old; three more followed suit as part of the S-Bahn extension in the early 1990s. After the removal of these unfavourably sited, old signal boxes, which were not capable of expansion, five groups of storage sidings could be merged into one. Around 1900, 116 railwaymen per shift worked the points and signals for about one hundred trains on the spot. In 1913, 122 trains stopped here daily, there were 40 workers per shift controlling the station from 14 signal boxes. Architecture , which had been originally built as in the neo-Gothic style, was rebuilt by the architect, Karl Zenger, in 1900 largely in the Neo-Baroque style. The most striking feature is the muschelkalk which characterises the exterior façade. The portals to the individual halls are richly decorated and primarily depict symbols of technological progress, for example a winged wheel above the portal in the Mittelhalle. The lounge, in which the present-day travel centre is located, was built in 1904/1905 by Bruno Paul in the Jugendstil. Sections of the walls are decorated with fine mosaics, the roof is ornamented with unobtrusive stucco. The Jugendstil lounge is one of the few areas of the station, which has survived the destruction of the Second World War. Above the main portal is an advertising column from the early 20th century. In 1950 plans were made to change the neobaroque style to a neogothic style. Shortly before work began, however, it was stopped, so that only a few areas were changed. History From opening to the first rebuilding Between 1844 and 1847 appeared in its present location during the construction of the state-owned Ludwig South-North Railway from Lindau to Hof. Because the area at Plärrer, the site of the station belonging to the privately owned Ludwigsbahn to Fürth, was not big enough, the state railway decided to build its own station in front of the Frauentorgraben. It was laid out as a terminal, something which was usual for the larger stations of that time. The station building was built in a neogothic style. With the opening of the state railway lines to Schwabach (1849) Ansbach, (1875) and Bayreuth (1877) as well as the Ostbahn lines to Hersbruck (1859) and Regensburg (1871) the station became the central station for Nuremberg. The Ostbahn company built its own terminus in 1859 during the construction of the line to Hersbruck, east of the existing one, which was linked in 1876 with the western one by a through station. Rising demand for railway traffic during the 1880s and the ever-growing number of tracks made the construction of the subways, which are still there today, necessary. Gradually the various underpasses - the Tafelfeld, Karl-Bröger, Marien and Dürrenhof tunnels as well as the Celtis and Allersberg subways were built. Between 1878 and 1880 the trackage for passenger traffic was again expanded and in 1880 goods traffic moved to the newly built Nürnberg Hauptgüterbahnhof (main goods station) at Kohlenhof. As early as 1897 new plans for the conversion of the Hauptbahnhof were proposed, which included rebuilding the station building, raising the entire track system by about 3.27 m and building pedestrian underpasses (the West and Ost tunnels) under the tracks. Building work began on 19 April 1900 and was finished on 10 March 1906, the Westtunnel and the southern exit was not completed until 1927, however. Destruction and rebuilding As a result of allied bombing at the end of the Second World War the station building, with the exception of the Jugendstil lounge suffered heavily and on 16 March 1945 had to be closed for nine years. Its reconstruction took place between 1945 and 1956 and had to be simplified due to a lack of money. One new feature was the inclusion of a cinema. In 1973 work began on an underground (U-Bahn) station underneath the Hauptbahnhof. This required the Mittelhalle to be dug out and stood on stilts. Between 1976 and 1984 new platform roofing was installed and platforms 1 to 15 raised to 76 cm above the rail tops. The rebuilding of the third dome and the Mittelhalle was started in 1977. On 2 April 1984 the restaurant established in 1906 was opened again. It covers an area of 390 m2, and is eight metres high. Finally plans were even proposed for a total rebuilding, but these did not come to fruition. Rebuilding of the eastern approach for the S-Bahn In summer 1988 major building work began to construct the main route of the Nuremberg S-Bahn in the area of the Hauptbahnhof. By building its own S-Bahn platforms in the northeast part of the Hauptbahnhof the S-Bahn stop could be moved from platforms 18/19 (on the far side from the city) to platforms 2/3. By using these platforms closer to the city the distance passengers had to walk between tramway, U-Bahn and Bus was significantly reduced. In addition the new S-Bahn station of Nuremberg-Dürrenhof was built. The rebuilding of the eastern track system, carried out in eight stages, cost around 100 million D-Marks and was paid for by the Government, the state of Bavaria and the city of Nuremberg. Amongst other things, 16 kilometres of track and 60 points covering an area of 156,000 square metres were relaid, and two new fans of storage sidings (totalling 5.7 km) controlled by a shunting signal box were built. To enable the line to Lauf to cross the line to Altdorf without a track crossing being required, a bridge crossing was built. In all ten bridges had to be altered or replaced and 640 m of sound-damping walls were erected. The only examples in Europe of the wild flower, Astragalus arenarius, a plant related to the milk vetch, along with other groups of plants was transferred to a temporary nursery and later to areas around the railway. The conversion of the area with the platforms cost another 40 million D-Marks. Modernisation at the turn of the millennium At the end of the 20th century the last major changes took place. The cinema was removed and the entire interior reworked. The intermediate floors of the station building were opened to the public and the whole area turned into a shopping mall. Ticket purchase and information was moved to the historic Jugendstil lounge. Three wall mosaics were made by the artist, Iris Rauh. The mosaic Zeitreise ("time journey"), which portrays the subject of travel during the course of time, became nationally noted. On 24 June 2002 the opening ceremony of the station building, now placed under historical building protection, took place. Planning As a result of the expansion of the Nuremberg S-Bahn network in the period to 2010, work needs to be carried out on the existing S-Bahn platforms and new ones need to be built. The eastern end of the home platform (no. 1) of the future S-Bahn to Neumarkt (S3) is being lengthened; it will then have 213 m of usable length and a new height of 76 cm above the rail tops. An extra exit to the Osttunnel is also being constructed. For through services on the Hartmannshof – Nuremberg – Forchheim (S1) line, platforms 2 and 3 are being partially lowered to 76 cm and linked by a ramp to the unchanged 96 cm high existing structure. The platform intended for the S-Bahn to Ansbach (S4), number 11 (tracks 22 and 23) will be raised from its present height of 38 cm to 76 cm; at the same time stairs and a lift will be provided and a new platform roof. Operational usage The station's footprint is rather large, numbered passenger tracks reach as far as 22. The station serves the entire Nuremberg U-Bahn network, as all four lines interchange at the station together with the U3 which opened in 2008. A tram stop is situated in front of the station. Gallery See also List of railway stations in Bavaria Hauptbahnhof References Sources Karl Heinz Ferstl, Heinrich W. Kaiser, Hauptbahnhof Nürnberg, Geschichte und Visionen, Haidhausen Verlag, Munich, 2002, External links Overview and Plan of Nuremberg at www.bahnhof.de Current departure table on the DB website for passenger information Platform information on the DB website Track plan of Nürnberg Hbf on the DB website (PDF; 1.98 MB) Track plan of the Hauptbahnhof in 1979 at sporenplan.nl (private) Architecture of Nuremberg Hauptbahnhof at baukunst-nuernberg.de'' Mosaics Central Railway stations in Germany opened in 1844 Central Central Art Nouveau architecture in Germany Art Nouveau railway stations 1844 establishments in Bavaria Rail transport articles in need of updating
4580250	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severn%20Barrage	Severn Barrage	The Severn Barrage is any of a range of ideas for building a barrage from the English coast to the Welsh coast over the Severn tidal estuary. Ideas for damming or barraging the Severn estuary (and Bristol Channel) have existed since the 19th century. The building of such a barrage would constitute an engineering project comparable with some of the world's biggest. The purposes of such a project have typically been one or several of: transport links, flood protection, harbour creation, or tidal power generation. In recent decades it is the latter that has grown to be the primary focus for barrage ideas, and the others are now seen as useful side-effects. Following the Severn Tidal Power Feasibility Study (2008–10), the British government concluded that there was no strategic case for building a barrage but to continue to investigate emerging technologies. In June 2013 the Energy and Climate Change Select Committee published its findings after an eight-month study of the arguments for and against the Barrage. MPs said the case for the barrage was unproven. They were not convinced the economic case was strong enough and said the developer, Hafren Power, had failed to answer serious environmental and economic concerns. History There have been numerous proposed projects over the years, initially to provide a safe harbour and more recently to generate electricity. Early projects In 1849 Thomas Fulljames, a civil engineer and the county surveyor for Gloucestershire proposed a barrage from Beachley to Aust (now the site of the first Severn Bridge), a span of just over . Since this was before commercial electricity production, the first proposals were based on the desire for a large shipping harbour in the Severn Estuary, road and railway transport, and flood protection. No action was taken on Fulljames's proposals and three quarters of a century later, in 1925, an official study group was commissioned. An awareness of the large tidal range of 14 metres (46 ft), second only to Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada, led to a proposal to generate 800 Megawatt (MW) of electricity at English Stones and although considered technically possible, it was prevented on economic grounds (then costing £25 million). The viability was tested a few years later in 1931 when Paul Shishkoff, a Russian immigrant, demonstrated a prototype tidal generator at Avonmouth. It included a novel mechanism for spreading the power output over 24 hours. The full barrage was estimated at £5 million at the time. In 1933 the Severn Barrage Committee Report (HMSO) from a committee chaired by Lord Brabazon recommended that an 800 MW barrage across the English Stones area would be the best option. The work was interrupted by World War II and then revived in 1945 when engineers predicted an output of 2.2 terawatt hours (TWh) per year. A further government study looked at barrage options in 1948 and estimated the construction costs at £60 million. By the time of the next study in 1953 the estimated cost had risen to £200 million. In 1971 a report by Dr Tom Shaw, a tidal Power expert and advocate proposed a barrage from Brean Down to Lavernock Point. The scheme was estimated to cost £500 million. In 1975 the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB), published a study with evidence from Bristol and Salford universities for the Secretary of State's Advisory Council on Research and Development for Fuel and Power. Despite the ongoing oil crisis, the council established that a barrage could not be economically viable unless the energy situation deteriorated significantly. Bondi Committee—1981 After just such a deterioration (due to the Iranian Revolution and 1979 energy crisis) the plans were reinvestigated by the Severn Barrage Committee in 1981. This committee was known as the "Bondi Committee" (after Professor Sir Hermann Bondi). The committee investigated 6 possible barrage locations, from English Stones at the top of the estuary, down to a location largely at sea in the Bristol Channel between Lynmouth in North Devon and Porthcawl in South Wales. It produced a major energy paper, which recommended a long barrage of concrete powerhouse between Brean Down and Lavernock Point, sluice and plain caissons together with sand and rock-fill embankments. It would have generated 7,200 MW on the flow of the tides (the largest barrage considered could have produced double that power output). This set of plans was strongly built on a few years later by the Severn Tidal Power Group. In 1984 Wimpey Atkins proposed a smaller barrage at English Stones, in the hope of creating a smaller more economically viable project that would avoid the environmental impact of a large barrage. Hooker or Shoots Barrage—1987 This Wimpey Atkins 1984 study was criticised because it did not tackle the issue of silting and in 1987 Arthur Hooker OBE (a former partner of WS Atkins) in conjunction with Parsons Brinckerhoff prepared a revised barrage proposed at English Stones to better tackle this issue. Parsons Brinckerhoff further updated their earlier proposal in 2006 and current estimates for this barrage (now known as the "Shoots Barrage") would cost £1.4 to £1.8 billion to build, and generate 2.75 TWh of power per year. At the highest tidal range, it would develop a peak output of 1,050 MW, and 313 MW output on average throughout the year. The barrage would be located just below the Second Severn Crossing—i.e. above Cardiff and Bristol on the estuary—and so much smaller locks would be needed for upstream access to Sharpness and Gloucester docks as the large ports of Portbury and Avonmouth would be unaffected. Like the STPG proposal, Hooker generates only on the ebb tide. Construction time would be four years. It would be built of rock fill embankment at the coastal sides (more like the proposals for "Tidal Lagoons"), but like the STPG would be sluice caissons and turbines with powerhouse in the middle section. In April 2009 the Liberal Democrats produced a report called "A Tidal Solution—The Way Forward" that backed the Shoots Barrage along with a number of additional measures for power generation in the Severn Estuary. In September 2009 the report was adopted by the Lib Dem party conference as official party policy. Severn Tidal Power Group—1989 The £4.2 million study by Severn Tidal Power Group (STPG) built on the work of the Severn Barrage Committee, but also examined other possible barrages, and produced another major energy paper. Its members comprised Sir Robert McAlpine, Balfour Beatty, Taylor Woodrow and Alstom. They concluded that the 1981 plans were the best location for a barrage, but calculated that the power output could be larger, at 8,640 MW during flow, or 2,000 MW average power. This would provide 17 TWh of power per year (about 6% of UK consumption), equivalent to about 18 million tons of coal or 3 nuclear reactors. The cost in 1989 was calculated to be about £8 billion (£12 billion in 2006 money—about the same as six nuclear reactors, but different lifespan), and running costs would be £70 million per year (about the same as 1.5 nuclear reactors). The barrage would use existing technology as used in the Rance tidal barrage in France, the Annapolis Royal Generating Station in Canada and the Netherlands sea barrages. Power would be most efficiently generated only in the flow direction, and this effect on tidal range would mean that the tidal extent would be halved by losing the low tide rather than the high tide. That is, that the tide would only go out as far as the current tidal midpoint, but high tides would be unaffected (unless the barrage was deliberately closed to prevent flooding). The barrage would contain 216 turbines each generating 40 MW for the 8,640 MW total. Arrays of sluices would let the tide in and then close to force it out through the turbines after the tide has gone out some distance outside the barrage. This deliberate building of a head on the water builds pressure that makes the turbines more efficient. The barrage would contain a set of shipping locks, designed to handle the largest container vessels. Construction would take about eight years and would require 35,000 employees at peak build time. The minimum lifespan of the barrage would be 120 years (about three times that of a nuclear reactor), but could easily be 200 years if decent maintenance was performed. The STPG appraisal concluded that the electricity generated from the barrage would make the scheme economically viable if given certain "green" advantages, and that the environmental impact was acceptable. Margaret Thatcher's government did not accept this, and shelved the plans. However, since then global warming has radically altered the public perception of environmental damage; and soaring oil, gas and energy costs have made the economics of the barrage much more favourable. The advent of renewable energy discounts favours electricity generated from "green" sources; and in addition, much lower interest rates make the cost of loans much lower, and long-term financing of such massive projects is now more viable. Consequently, there have been renewed calls for these plans to be re-appraised. The Severn Lake™ Tidal Power Energy Causeway - 2006 The very first planning applications that would recover electricity energy from the Severn River were placed before Sedgemoor Council in Somerset and the Vale of Glamorgan Council in Wales on 1 March 2006. Planning notices were served and published in the Western Mail and The Western Daily Press. The applications were for a "change of use" from the Severn River to the Severn Lake™ creating a 145,000-hectare lake between Lavernock Point, Brean Down and Bristol, contained within an energy Causeway, some 12.2 miles long across the Severn estuary complete with hydraulic turbines, sluice gates, a free-flow shipping channel, four marinas (lakeside) and twelve private islands. The energy produced by this Causeway could power South Wales, Somerset, Bristol and beyond. The founder of the Severn Lake Co. Ltd is a Mr. Gareth Woodham (Inventor, Entrepreneur and Author - "The Grumpy Old Welshman") from a village alongside the River Severn. Mr Woodham was licensed in 2006/7 by Professor Alexander Gokhman to provide the only ebb/flow patents available in the UK that will enable hydraulic tidal energy to be captured going in and out of the Severn Estuary. Severn Tidal Reef—2007 Evans Engineering have released plans for what they call a Severn Tidal "Reef". This is a novel structure which aims to overcome the environmental side-effects of a barrage, and can be conceptualised as being half-way between a barrage and a tidal "fence" (a linked string of tidal-stream turbines). The designer, Rupert Evans, had previously worked on a tidal fence proposal, but since dismissed it as unworkable. The reef reduces environmental impact by working with a much smaller "head" of water—just —thereby reducing the impact of the structure on the estuary water and flow. The smaller head means that the water velocity is much lower and more lower power turbines are required. The load factor will be higher, partly because of the generation being both ebb and flow and the total energy output should (according to a recent report by W.S. Atkins commissioned by the RSPB) be significantly greater than for the Cardiff-Weston Barrage, and is in part a result of siting the structure at the "outer" Minehead to Aberthaw line, which roughly doubles the volume of tidal water available. Sustainable Development Commission—2007 On 1 October 2007, the UK's Sustainable Development Commission (SDC) published a report looking at the potential of tidal power in the UK, including proposals for a Severn barrage. The report draws on a series of five evidence-based reports, one of which summarises all the available evidence from previous studies on a number of Severn barrage options, but focusing on the Cardiff-Weston and the Shoots schemes. The SDC also commissioned a programme of public and stakeholder engagement, which included a national opinion poll and a series of local and regional workshops. The SDC gave its support to the building of a Severn barrage, providing a number of strict conditions were met. These include: A Severn barrage should be publicly led as a project and publicly owned as an asset to avoid short-term decisions and ensure the long-term public interest Full compliance with the EU Habitats and Birds Directives is vital, as is a long-term commitment to creating compensatory habitats on an unprecedented scale Development of a Severn barrage must not divert Government attention away from much wider action on climate change The SDC also raised the challenge of viewing the requirement for compensatory habitat as an "environmental opportunity", through the potential to combine a climate change mitigation project with the adaptation that will be required to respond to the effects of climate change. A publicly led project would enable the use of a low discount rate (2%), which would result in a competitive cost of electricity, and would limit the economic impact of even a very large-scale compensatory habitats package. Electricity production costs are not competitive if a commercial discount rate is applied. UK Government study announced—2007 A two-year feasibility study was announced in late 2007, and the terms of reference were announced on 22 January 2008, following the publication of the Turning the Tide report from the Sustainable Development Commission. This study builds upon past studies and focuses on a variety of tidal range technologies including barrages and lagoons, and innovative designs such as a tidal fence and a tidal reef in the Severn estuary. The study, initially led by John Hutton, Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform, was then led until the 2010 General Election by Ed Miliband, who was at that time the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change. The study aims to gather and assess evidence to enable the Government to decide whether it could support a tidal power scheme in the Severn Estuary and if so on what basis. Key work areas involved are: The environmental impacts on biodiversity and wildlife; flood management; geomorphology; water quality; landscape and compensatory habitat; Engineering and technical areas such as options appraisal; costs; energy yield, design and construction, links to the National Grid and supply chain; Economic considerations—financing; ownership and energy market impacts; The regional social, economic and business impacts; Planning and consents—regulatory compliance; and Stakeholder engagement and communication. The feasibility study concluded its first phase when a public consultation was launched on 26 January 2009. The consultation covered a proposed short-list of potential tidal power project options from an initial list of 10 schemes, processes that were undertaken during shortlisting and the proposed scope of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). The SEA is a formal environmental assessment of plans or programmes which are likely to have significant effects on the environment. A consortium led by Parsons Brinckerhoff (PB) and Black & Veatch (B&V) has been appointed to manage this part of the project. The process is guided by a stakeholder steering group. The study will culminate in a full public consultation in 2010. In July 2009 the Government response to consultation confirmed detailed study would be carried out in the second phase on the five schemes that were proposed for short-listing in January. It also announced work to bring forward 3 further schemes that are in the very early stages of development. In September 2010, The Observer reported that the government intended to rule out the possibility of public funding for a complete barrage, while recommending that further feasibility studies be carried out on smaller projects. On 18 October the government announced that the project was being abandoned. Corlan Hafren—2011 In December 2011 it was reported that the government was talking to Corlan Hafren, a private sector consortium, about a proposal to build a privately financed barrage from Lavernock Point to Brean Down. The Department for Energy and Climate Change said it had received the first draft of a business case for the scheme, and that it was an "interesting proposition". The campaign was led in 2012 by politician Peter Hain. It has been suggested by Atkins that similar schemes could be trialled on smaller estuaries in advance of the Severn, for example the Mersey and Duddon. However the Hafren Power plan collapsed after it was rejected by three independent committees of MPs and by the Government. On 14 January 2014 it was announced that the chairman and Chief Executive of Hafren Power had resigned, putting an end to the Severn Barrage project. Russian invasion of Ukraine—2022 The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has drawn attention to uncertainty about energy supply and uncertainty over external energy costs. A Severn barrage is again being considered and an independent commission was started to research this. If successful, it is claimed that the barrage could supply 7% of total UK energy needs. Economic impact Power generation potential The Severn Barrage plans would provide a predictable source of sustainable energy during lifetime of the scheme, with claims of up to 5% of the UK's electricity output from the 10-mile version. This could reduce the cost of meeting UK's renewable energy targets, and help the UK to meet such targets, including those to tackle climate change. This is because of the few carbon emissions associated with the plan, because unlike conventional power generation, the Severn Barrage plans do not involve the combustion of fossil fuels. A consequence of this plan is that the carbon payback time—the time it takes for saved carbon emissions (those produced by generating the same amount of power in other ways) to outstrip those produced during construction— could be as little as four-and-a-half months, although likely to be around six. It could continue to operate for around 120 years, compared with 60 years for nuclear power plants. An additional benefit would be to improve energy security. However, although power supply is predictable, peaks in generation from the barrage do not necessarily coincide with peaks in demand. There are two major tidal cycles affecting power output: semi-diurnal cycle: the familiar daily rise and fall of the sea with a full cycle every 24 hours and 50 minutes, with two high and low tides, giving maximum power generation opportunities a few hours after each of the two high tides; spring-neap cycle: a 29.5 day tidal range cycle with the lowest power days producing about 25% of the power of the highest power days. Just under eight hours per day of generation time is expected. Construction costs Estimated costs for existing plans could be as low as £10bn and as high as £34bn. Recent studies have suggested that the smaller short-listed options could be privately financed, and so in effect the matter of cost and risk becomes a private one between the building consortium and their banks. Schemes of the scale of Cardiff-Weston are likely to require significant Government involvement. If the banks feel that a smaller project is viable and decide to lend the money at an acceptable cost of finance then the projects will go ahead (subject to planning and other approvals). None of this cost would directly fall on the tax-payer but any support mechanism for the tidal power would be likely to fall on consumers. There would, though, be secondary knock-on costs from the tidal power project that might be met by the tax-payer, such as modifying existing ports, provision of compensatory habitat and dealing with environmental change. However, these would be offset by the positive knock-on effects, such as flood protection – which would have otherwise also cost tax-payer money. Whether the parties actually decided to exchange money for these knock-on effects would be a matter for Government negotiation. As a cost comparison, Hinkley Point C nuclear power station (also being built on the Severn Estuary) will cost £25bn, and deliver 3.2GW of power sold at £92.50 per megawatt hour (MWh) of electricity generated for the 35 years of the contract. The Hafren scheme proposers state they would require £25 billion capital investment, and power costs would be £160 per MWh for the first 30 years, and £20 per MWh thereafter. Other schemes have been costed at between £150 and £350 per MWh. Local impact Some say that a large-scale barrage would create leisure-friendly water conditions behind it but with around 10 m rise and fall this would still be one of the largest tidal ranges in the UK bringing with it significant danger to any leisure users. Flood protection would be provided by the barrage, covering the vulnerable Severn estuary from storm surges from the sea but drainage from land upstream would be impeded causing worse flooding there. Also higher water levels downstream of the barrage could cause flooding on the Somerset Levels. New road and/or rail transport links could be built across a barrage if demand rises in the future, as outlined below. Any barrage could provide a boost to the local economy – construction industry in the short term, tourism and infrastructure in the long term. However, shipping would have to navigate locks and the reduced depth of water would prevent much existing shipping from being able to access docks in Wales and Bristol putting thousands of jobs at risk. Other existing estuary industries, including fisheries, would be damaged and jobs lost. All industrial discharges into the River Severn (e.g. from Avonmouth) would have to be reassessed. Environmental impact The Severn Estuary is a Special Area of Conservation due to the European importance of its ecology. The inter-tidal area provides food for over 85,000 migratory and wintering water birds, and represents 7% of the UK's total estuaries. There are nature reserves and Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) on the islands of Flat Holm and Steep Holm. The Barrage was not supported in the 2003 Energy Review due to "strong environmental concerns" (The same paper also described nuclear power as "an unattractive option"). The RSPB opposes any Severn Barrage because of the effect it will have on the feeding grounds that 85,000 birds depend on, stating "The impact a barrage would have is huge. This is one of the most important sites in the UK for wild birds and the chances of them surviving if it went ahead are fairly slim. There would not be enough room left for all the birds and there would not be enough food for those that remained. The estuary is one of the UK's most important sites for water birds and its wildlife value must be taken fully into account." The present strong tidal currents in the estuary serve to lift up silt sediment and so keep the water thick with fine particles—around 30 million tonnes of suspended sediment move in the Estuary on a high Spring tide. This blocks light-penetration and means that the Severn Estuary marine environment is actually a relative desert, in terms of both plant and fish life. The zone of maximum turbidity is confined to the inner Severn and does not extend westwards into the Bristol Channel. An estimated 6.4 million tonnes/year of sand moves up and down the Bristol Channel which would be blocked by a tidal barrage; the potential environmental consequences of interrupting this flux of sand include local coastal erosion and loss of coastal habitats. The barrage will not create a "lagoon"—as both opponents and supporters have sometimes claimed. Tidal power stations by definition require that the tide flows through the barrage, but the tidal range in the Severn would be halved. There are claims that the migration of fish would be hampered, but these are contested. The Severn bore would also be eliminated. Any barrage would be likely to stimulate coastal erosion in some areas, and create a negative visual impact upon the landscape (subjective, similar to wind turbines). There would also be negative consequences of the huge amount of concrete (and other materials) needed, with the quarrying of stone likely to impact on other areas. DEFRA claims that the environmental effects of the barrage still need more analysis before final conclusions can be drawn. The Sustainable Development Commission is investigating UK tidal resources, including tidal power in the Severn Estuary and its environmental impact, and should report mid-2007. Tidal lagoon alternative Friends of the Earth support the idea of tidal power, but oppose barrages because of the environmental impact. They have proposed their own plans based on the concept of tidal lagoons, whereby man-made lagoons in the estuary would fill and drain through turbines. Their proposals would include lagoons covering up to 60% of the area covered by the barrage, which in some smaller configurations would not impound water in the ecologically sensitive inter-tidal areas of the estuary. The lagoons could be sub-divided so power would be generated at more states of the tide than a barrage, with lower peak output, giving economic advantages to set against the higher construction cost of longer barriers. This idea is based on a prototype now being proposed at Swansea bay. However leading figures in the construction industry are sceptical that the lagoons can be economic. A set of Tidal lagoons known as the "Russell Lagoon concept" were studied and dismissed by the 1981 Bondi Committee report, rejected on the grounds of both economics and environmental damage. Studies suggested that tidal currents around and between the lagoons would become extremely fierce and damaging. Tidal Fence Another possibility is to construct one or more tidal fences across the Severn estuary which would generate power using tidal stream generators. This has been put forward by the Severn Tidal Fence Consortium, and groups including IT Power and a number of industry and academic groups. This would attempt to maximise the potential power generated whilst allowing for shipping to reach Cardiff and Bristol without hindrance (through gaps at least 650 m wide) and wildlife to maintain their existing habitats. The group has now been contracted by the UK government to investigate the idea under the Severn Embryonic Technology Scheme (SETS). The group estimates that it would cost £3.5bn to construct an outer fence from Aberthaw to Minehead which would generate 1.3GW or 3.5TWh/year. It is also investigating an inner fence from Lavernock Point to Brean Down including Flat Holm and Steep Holm islands. Both fences could possibly be built. The fence would permit the migration of salmon and would only slightly affect the mudflats used by migrating birds. In addition it could significantly reduce the flood risk in the Severn estuary. A second approach to a tidal fence being explored by VerdErg uses a different way of generating electricity called the Spectral Machine Energy Converter (SMEC). This uses the flow past Venturi tube sections as a pump without moving parts to create a large secondary flow which drives turbines on the sea bed. Verderg estimate that they could produce output of 13.7TWh/yr at a cost of £9.9bn using the Lavernock Point/Brean Down connection. Some simulations have also been done on the partial barriers envisaged by Dynamic tidal power which have similar advantages. Effects of different site locations One of the complicating factors in assessing the impacts of a barrage is the large number of possible locations and sizes for the barrage. Generally, the larger the barrage the bigger its environmental impact, and the greater the amount of energy it could transfer—and therefore the bigger carbon offset it could have by way of its renewable power generation. The largest barrages (sited beyond Hinkley Point and towards Minehead on the English side and Aberthaw on the Welsh side) would significantly affect the entire Severn Estuary and much of the Bristol Channel, but could generate 15 GW peak power and protect the whole of the Somerset levels against flooding and sea-level rise caused by Global Warming. The smallest barrages (sited at Aust/Chepstow) would affect only the river and estuary in Gloucestershire, but would also only generate perhaps 0.75 GW peak power. A 2009 Paper by Atkins re-evaluated the potential energy which could be generated from the various locations, and concluded that, contrary to earlier studies and computations, the maximum power potential would come from an Ilfracombe-Gower barrage, much further west even than the earlier Minehead-Aberthaw proposals. This was attributed by the study to several calculation elements which were neglected in previous numerical models. Trans-barrage transport links It is possible that some types of barrage could be used for transport links between southern England and southern Wales, and more specifically the areas around Weston super Mare and Cardiff but no demand surveys have been carried out to show whether such a link would be useful to commuters or businesses. The east–west position of any future barrage will affect the utility of any transport links across it. Various proposals include a dual carriageway road giving a further crossing in addition to the Second Severn Crossing and the Severn Bridge. The road would have to be taken over the sea locks on a bridge at a height of the Bridge of the Americas (i.e. with a clearance of 61.3 m) if the locks are Panamax-sized. Some proposals also include a double track railway line across the barrage. A railway would have a longer approach up to a fixed bridge over the locks. The approach would be greatest for non-electrified heavy railway capable of taking freight, slightly less for non-electrified passenger line, and less still for electrified passenger line. There is no electrification presently in the Bristol or Cardiff areas, but this would change with the electrification of the Great Western Main Line. An alternative to a fixed bridge would be a swing bridge, though there is concern expressed at this reducing capacity through the locks and on the railway. However, two swing bridges, one at either end of the lock would mean that one bridge could be kept open to railway traffic at all times. The double track could be reduced to single track at this point without creating too much of a bottleneck, or if double track is required this could be worked around by grade separating the two lines and having double-decked bridges. The line could then be used to partially relieve the Severn Tunnel. The option for a new fixed rail link has implications for several wider transport proposals. One of the proposed routes for an Irish Sea Tunnel is from Fishguard, which would generate large amounts of extra freight traffic which the current Severn tunnel—already operating at capacity—could not handle. Additionally, a new high-speed rail route has been suggested between London, Bristol, and Cardiff, which faces similar capacity constraints. If the barrage is built further west, any transport connection would instead link more isolated areas of the Devon-Cornwall peninsula with the cities of South Wales and the ports of Pembrokeshire. Opinions Backers The former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair (who backed it in the last weeks of his tenure) The Chairman of the Climate Change Committee, Lord Deben, formerly John Selwyn Gummer (who has shares in a company bidding for the project) The Welsh Parliament Former Welsh First Minister Rhodri Morgan The South West Regional Assembly Weston Super Mare MP John Penrose Former Cardiff Central MP Jenny Willott Northavon MP Steve Webb Ogmore MP and Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Wales Huw Irranca-Davies Kingswood MP Roger Berry Gower MP Byron Davies Scientist and "Gaia" theorist Dr. James Lovelock CBE Former Welsh Secretary The Lord Hain Opponents The Commons Welsh Affairs Select Committee The Commons Energy and Climate Change Select Committee Former UK Science Minister Lord Sainsbury North Somerset MP and International Trade Secretary Liam Fox The Bristol Port Company RSPB Wales Friends of the Earth Wales World Wildlife Fund Wales Gwent Wildlife Trust Avon Wildlife Trust Political commentator George Monbiot See also Cardiff Bay Barrage Centre Port Mersey Barrage Energy policy of the United Kingdom Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom Tidal power Tidal resonance List of tidal power stations Saint Petersburg Dam References External links FILM End To Higher Flooding – New Technology Revealed protecting upstream Severn, self financing and protects ecology. Department of Energy and Climate Change Welsh Assembly Government Severn Estuary Partnership: Tidal Power Resource Page" SDC paper "Tidal Power in the UK: Research Report 3 – Severn barrage proposals" Friends of the Earth "Tidal Lagoons" Plans Independent report on "Tidal Lagoons" for the DTI and the Welsh Development Agency BBC Gloucestershire background videos and information Severn Lake Official Website World Wildlife Fund "Turning the Tide" Severn Tidal Power Group report for UK Government DTI Appendices to – Severn Tidal Power Group report for UK Government DTI Institute of Civil Engineers Severn Barrage environmental reappraisal Estuary energy plan makes waves The Guardian 26 April 2006 Institute of Electronic Engineers Severn Barrage Tidal power appraisal Memorandum by the Severn Tidal Power Group to Parliamentary Committee Standing Conference on Severnside Local Authorities (SCOSLA) Westminster Hall Debate on the Severn Barrage Sustainable Development Commission project looking at 'Tidal Power in the UK' Tidal barrages Proposed tidal power stations Power stations in Wales Power stations in South West England Coastal construction Geography of Somerset River Severn Vale of Glamorgan Flood barriers Bristol Channel Proposed renewable energy power stations in England Flood control in the United Kingdom Proposed infrastructure in England Proposed infrastructure in Wales
4580347	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidente%20Nicolau%20Lobato%20International%20Airport	Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport	Dili Airport , officially Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport (, ), and formerly Comoro Airport (), is an international airport serving Dili, the capital city of East Timor. Since 2002, the airport has been named after Nicolau dos Reis Lobato (1946–1978), an East Timorese politician and national hero. Location The airport is located in the suco of , which is part of the Dom Aleixo administrative post, in the western suburbs of Dili. It faces the Ombai Strait to its north and west, and the Comoro River to its east. Its runway (08/26) runs broadly east-west. North of the airport, between the runway and Ombai Strait, is a residential zone that includes houses, a small area of agricultural land, a school, a church, and a cemetery. At the zone's northern edge is Beto Tasi Beach, a hidden stretch of shoreline known to the local community and also used for fishing. History 1939–1975 The airport was built prior to World War II by the colonial administration of the then Portuguese Timor. Initially, it had an runway. It also soon became an operating base for Transportes Aéreos de Timor (TAT), which was founded in July 1939 as the colony's national airline. In May 1939, the Portuguese government gave permission to Qantas to operate a Darwin to Dili flight. However, due to objections from the Japanese government, the Qantas services were postponed for more than a year. Eventually, in December 1940, the fortnightly Qantas Darwin to Batavia service was authorised to stop in Dili. The following month, Dili replaced Kupang as the stopover for Qantas's fortnightly Darwin to Singapore service. As compensation, Dai Nippon Airways of Japan was permitted to operate six trial flights from Palau to Dili between December 1940 and June 1941. In October 1941, the Japanese government announced plans to introduce regular air services between Tokyo and Dili, beginning the next month. All of these flights were operated by flying boats, not by land-based aircraft needing to use a landing strip. At that time, Dili did not have the facilities required to handle Qantas's de Havilland D.H.86 land-based aircraft. The flying boat services have also been described as "pseudo-commercial", as they were of "negligible commercial importance", and used for "political penetration" in the lead-up to the Pacific War of 1941–1945. A radio room was set up in the Dili post office to communicate with the flying boats, using equipment supplied by the Australian Department of Civil Aviation. Meanwhile, during 1940, TAT began flying a weekly land-based aircraft service between Dili and Kupang, using a de Havilland Dragon Rapide wet-leased from Koninklijke Nederlandsch-Indische Luchtvaart Maatschappij (KNILM), the airline of the then Dutch East Indies. Those services continued, again for political reasons, even after April 1941, by which time TAT was six months behind in paying the lease fees and salaries of the pilot and mechanic. On 17 December 1941, soon after the beginning of the Pacific War, Dutch and Australian forces landed in Dili, with the objective of occupying the neutral territory of Portuguese Timor "... to defend against Japanese aggression ..." The 2nd Australian Independent Company took control of the airport. By 17 February 1942, the Allies had changed their stance, and arrangements had been made for their forces in Dili to hand over to a reinforced Portuguese garrison. On 20 February 1942, however, an Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) invasion force landed to the west of the airport and captured it by 11:00 am. The radio equipment at the Dili post office was later smuggled out, to the 2nd Australian Independent Company, which by then had retreated to Timor's central mountains. Subsequently, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service (IJAAF) used the airport as a military airfield, and between June 1942 and August 1944, it was bombed by Allied aircraft. By the end of the Pacific War, the airport was disused and overgrown. Japanese forces continued to occupy it until 11 September 1945, when the garrison at Dili officially surrendered. In post-war Portuguese Timor, Baucau Airport, which was opened in 1947, and was and still is equipped with a much longer runway, became the colony's main airport, including for international flights. Dili airport was used for domestic services. As of 1969, TAT was flying from Dili to six other places in the colony. In 1974 and 1975, TAT operated scheduled domestic services from Dili to Atauro, Baucau, , Oecusse and Suai. The company was also flying between Dili and Kupang in West Timor, Indonesia, once a week, using a Douglas DC-3 chartered from Merpati Nusantara Airlines. 1975–1999 During the Indonesian occupation after 1975, the airport at Baucau was placed under the control of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and was closed to civilian traffic, although at least nominally it remained accessible to large civilian airliners. Dili airport became the territory's principal civilian airport. In 1978, the Indonesian administration started work on rebuilding Dili airport, which it renamed as Comoro Airport (). The work included the construction of a new passenger terminal building (without any custom, immigration and quarantine (CIQ) facilities), and the lengthening of the runway to accommodate Fokker F28s. In October 1978, Indonesia's State-owned flag carrier, Garuda Indonesia, inaugurated a Jakarta–Dili–Jakarta service. The full itinerary, which, initially, was flown three times a week, was Jakarta–Yogyakarta–Denpasar/Bali–Dili–Kupang–Denpasar/Bali. Tickets could be sold only to passengers who had a 'letter of transit' approved by a 'proper authority'. The leg from Jakarta to Denpasar/Bali was operated by a McDonnell Douglas DC-9, and that from Denpasar/Bali to Kupang by a Fokker F28. A connecting flight from Denpasar/Bali back to Jakarta was flown by a Douglas DC-8. The rebuilding work at the airport was completed in 1981. As of 1983, Garuda Indonesia was operating flights between Dili and both Jakarta and Surabaya, using Fokker F28s. For each of those flights, the route flown was via Kupang and Denpasar/Bali. In April 1983, another Indonesian State-owned airline, Merpati, started operating a Kupang–Dili––Covalima/Suai flight. As of 1985, that service was being flown twice a week, but it was later downgraded to one flight a week on a Dili–Covalima/Suai–Kupang routing, using an Indonesian-built CASA turboprop aircraft. In 1992, the airport's runway was extended to , to facilitate operations by Boeing 737-200s. As of the mid 1990s, an average of 12 flights per week were being operated into the airport, by Merpati with McDonnell Douglas DC-9s and Boeing 737s, and also by Sempati Air, a private sector Indonesian airline, with Fokker 100s and Boeing 737s. At about that time, another Indonesian airline, Bouraq, also flew into Dili. As of May 1999, however, the only airline serving Dili and East Timor was Merpati, with just three Boeing 737 flights each week, linking Dili with Jakarta via Denpasar/Bali, and with Kupang. The airport was capable of handling passenger and Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft, and helicopters, but its apron was rated unsuitable for high-pressure type airframes. In the aftermath of the referendum on East Timorese independence held on 30 August 1999, systematic violence by paramilitary groups broke out in Dili and elsewhere in East Timor. Early the following month, all flights into Dili were suspended. Under international pressure, the President of Indonesia, B. J. Habibie, announced on 12 September 1999 that Indonesia would withdraw its soldiers from the territory, and allow an Australian-led international peacekeeping force, INTERFET, to enter. Shortly after dawn on 20 September 1999, the INTERFET Response Force, consisting of members of the Australian Special Air Service Regiment, New Zealand Special Air Service and the British Special Boat Service, began arriving at Dili airport from Darwin in five RAAF and RNZAF C-130Hs, to a "benign" reception by the handful of remaining Indonesian soldiers. Although by then the airport terminal departure lounge had been wrecked, the VIP lounge was one of the few buildings in Dili still intact. The airport was quickly made safe enough to allow C-130Hs from Townsville, Queensland, to land with the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR) and two M113 armoured personnel carriers from the 3rd/4th Cavalry Regiment. That day, C-130s flew 33 sorties and transported 1,500 troops to East Timor. A company of Gurkhas from the 2nd Battalion, Royal Gurkha Rifles, arrived in the early hours of 21 September 1999. The following day, 22 September 1999, INTERFET secured the airport. Responsibility for its operation passed to No. 381 Expeditionary Combat Support Squadron RAAF, and No. 2 Airfield Defence Squadron RAAF provided security. In late 1999, Airnorth started operating thrice weekly charter flights between Darwin and Dili. During the INTERFET operation, the United States Pacific Command (PACOM) and the US Army's Logistics Civil Augmentation Program (LOGCAP) arranged for two Mi-8 and two Mi-26 helicopters to be provided to East Timor together with air and maintenance crews. Operating those helicopters ashore in the upcoming monsoon season required the construction of concrete helipads at Dili airport, and East Timor lacked the facilities to produce the concrete. All the construction equipment required, along with trained operators, was therefore brought in. Between December 1999 and February 2000, the four helicopters flew 475 hours without mishap, carrying 6,400 passengers and of cargo. 2000–present By 2000, the airport had suffered serious damage in general, due to inadequate maintenance followed by the destruction of equipment in 1999 and excessively heavy use in 1999/2000. On 28 February 2000, INTERFET handed over command of military operations to United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET), which also assumed responsibility for the administration of the territory. UNTAET then began a wide-ranging rehabilitation programme for East Timor's ports and airports, and subsequently a longer-term sustainable development programme. On 25 January 2000, Airnorth switched to regular commercial services between Darwin and Dili, with eleven return flights a week. Later that year, Merpati resumed flights to Dili from Kupang and Denpasar/Bali, and Qantas subsidiary Airlink began regular flights. By the end of 2000, the airport was again fully operational. When East Timor became independent in 2002, control of the airport was handed over to the new government of East Timor, and the airport was also renamed, after Nicolau dos Reis Lobato, an East Timorese politician and national hero. In March 2005, East Timor's first post-independence commercial airline, Kakoak, launched its inaugural flight, a twice weekly service from Dili to Kupang. It was operated using a CASA C-212 Aviocar chartered from Merpati. In May 2006, the airport was temporarily placed under the control of the Australian Defence Force for the purposes of Operation Astute. Between 2006 and 2018, annual aircraft movements and passenger volume at Dili steadily increased, from about 3,000 and 50,000, respectively, in 2006 to about 8,000 and 275,000, respectively, in 2018. More than 90% of the passenger volume was international movements. Cargo tonnage at the airport increased from around 280 tons in 2006 to around 400 tons in 2012. From the latter year, however, following the cessation of the UN Integrated Mission in East Timor (UNMIT), and the closure of Merpati's Dili operations, the tonnage dropped to around 250 tons annually through to 2018. Dili's airport runway has generally been unable to accommodate aircraft larger than the Airbus A319, Boeing 737-400, Boeing 737-900ER or C-130 Hercules. In January 2008, however, the Portuguese charter airline EuroAtlantic Airways operated a direct flight from Lisbon using a Boeing 757-200, carrying 140 members of the Guarda Nacional Republicana. As of mid 2011, commercial traffic at the airport included a daily and a twice-weekly flight to Denpasar/Bali, a flight to Darwin 5 days per week, and a thrice-weekly flight to Singapore. The airport was also being used by the United Nations, the military, and helicopters servicing the petroleum industry. During the 2010s, the number of aircraft movements to and from Darwin and Singapore were generally steady, but movements between Dili and Denpasar/Bali greatly increased after 2013. In 2011, the runway underwent rehabilitation, including by the application of an overlay to upgrade its Pavement Classification Number (PCN), and increase its Landing Distance Available (LDA) from to . However, a 2013 analysis indicated that the restricted length and width of the runway prevented narrow-body aircraft from operating at maximum takeoff weight, and that it had no safe area as required by international standards. Further airside problems were that damage to the perimeter fencing caused a potential risk to aircraft from wildlife strike during takeoff and landing, the main apron had limited capacity and was in poor condition, and an absence of lighting prevented night operation. Additionally, the airport had an inadequate terminal and no separate facility for cargo handling. On 13 December 2016, the airport was flooded for several hours because the drainage system was unable to drain water from , in . The following day, the Prime Minister, Rui Maria de Araújo, visited the site and expressed the government's regret for the flooding and consequent disruption to passengers and staff. He also said that the drainage system had been ineffective "due to accumulated waste". , there were twice daily scheduled small jetliner flights between Dili and Denpasar/Bali, and on weekdays from and to Darwin, with daily Darwin flights on weekends. Scheduled flights between Dili and Singapore had been suspended since March 2019, following the collapse of a codeshare arrangement between Air Timor and SilkAir of Singapore; they resumed on 31 October 2019 under a partnership between Air Timor and Drukair of Bhutan. Smaller aircraft, such as a DHC-6, were operating domestic services to Same, Atauro, Baucau, Fuiloro, Oecusse, and Suai. Helicopters were flying to Bau Undane, where there was an oil field, and a chartered service was being flown between Dili and Denpasar/Bali. In April 2020, EuroAtlantic Airways operated a COVID-19 repatriation flight between Lisbon and Dili using a Boeing 767-300ER. Similar charter flights were operated in September and December 2020, and in March, July, September and December 2021. During 2022, the company flew and scheduled further charter services, and was said to want to continue to operate, and even reinforce, its Lisbon–Dili connection. Facilities , the airport's facilities included a passenger terminal building divided into three sections (arrival, departure and VIP), one runway, and four exit taxiways. Future developments The Timor-Leste Strategic Development Plan 2011-2013 proposed an expansion and improvement of the airport. A particular goal was the lengthening of the runway to accept large-size ICAO Code E aircraft such as the Airbus A330. The 2013 analysis of the airport proposed an airport development plan, including: the extension and expansion of the runway from to ; the preparation of a runway end safety area (RESA) and expansion of the runway strip to each side; an overlay of the apron; an upgrade of the lighting system to allow night operations; and the construction of a new passenger terminal. Also in 2013, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) issued a project brief on behalf of the government of East Timor presenting a proposal for the development and operation of the airport under a public–private partnership as a business opportunity. Two years later, in 2015, the IFC revised the proposal, after studying the traffic forecast, possible runway developments, and the landside area, including the terminal building. In particular, the IFC formulated two options for development of the runway. By contrast, a report on aviation in East Timor published in 2017 by The Asia Foundation noted that the then-current airport facilities at Dili satisfied minimum standards for operating international flights. According to that report, the limited width of the runway was more important than its limited length, because East Timor is very windy, and sidewinds hit aircraft when they are landing. The then-current capacity of the airport's facilities was definitely sufficient for passenger load and demand for at least the next two decades. The airport could already support A320 and B737-500 aircraft which had a capacity of over 100 passengers each, and were within range of all major Asian hub airports. In the event of increased demand, there were cost-effective alterations available to increase passenger capacity. In 2018, similar comments were made in another report, focusing on the national tourism industry and also published by The Asia Foundation. The same year, however, the governments of East Timor and Japan began discussions over a planned redevelopment of the airport, including improvements to the passenger terminal, control tower and roadworks. By late 2019, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), was supporting the plan, and the government of Japan had approved it. In October 2019, the government of East Timor approved a Dili Airport Master Plan presented by IFC, and in October 2021 the two governments signed an exchange of notes confirming a grant of approximately from Japan for the construction of a two-storey passenger terminal building of based on the projected number of airport passengers as of 2030, and an accompanying power station. The total amount of Japanese assistance for the project, including for additional preparation works, would be more than . Meanwhile, in November 2019 a report commissioned by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) on the upgrading of the runway considered a number of options, and recommended two alternatives, involving either an extension to the east, or extensions in both directions. However, the report also noted that the government had already chosen one of the other two options, namely a 2,500 m-long runway involving an extension only to the west, and including reclamation from Ombai Strait. In September 2021, East Timor took out a million loan from the ADB to expand the airport. The expansion project funded by the loan was planned to include the extension of the runway from to , and the construction of a new ATC tower, taxiways, aprons, and an aeronautical ground lighting system. Airlines and destinations Passenger Statistics Accidents and incidents On 16 August 1983, Fretilin guerrillas attacked the military section of the airport, killing 18 Indonesian soldiers. In response, and as part of a larger military offensive, Indonesian forces carried out several large massacres: of 200-300 civilians near the town of Viqueque, and at least 500 civilians in villages near Mount Bibileu. See also Civil Aviation Division of East Timor List of airports in East Timor Transport in East Timor References Further reading External links Airports in East Timor Buildings and structures in Dili
4580395	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Colchester	History of Colchester	Colchester is a historic town located in Essex, England. It served as the first capital of Roman Britain and is the oldest recorded town in Britain. It was raided by the Vikings during the 9th and 10th centuries. It also served as an essential location for the medieval cloth trade. Prehistory The gravel hill upon which Colchester is built was formed in the Middle Pleistocene period, and was shaped into a terrace between the Anglian glaciation and the Ipswichian glaciation by an ancient precursor to the River Colne. From these deposits beneath the town have been found Palaeolithic flint tools, including at least six Acheulian handaxes. Further flint tools made by hunter gatherers living in the Colne Valley during the Mesolithic have been discovered, including a Tranchet axe from Middlewick. In the 1980s an archaeological inventory showed that over 800 sherds of pottery from the Neolithic, Bronze Age and early Iron Age have been found within Colchester, along with many examples of worked flint. This included a pit found at Culver Street containing a ritually placed Neolithic grooved ware pot, and other find spots containing fragments of later Deverel-Rimbury bucket urns. Further Neolithic finds were uncovered in 2010 during archaeological excavations of the former Goojerat Barracks. Colchester is surrounded by Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments that pre-date the town, including a Neolithic henge at Tendring, large Bronze Age barrow cemeteries at Dedham and Langham, and a larger example at Brightlingsea consisting of a cluster of 22 barrows. Five Bronze Age barrow mounds remain near the University of Essex on the north-east outskirts of the town, although the building of the railway line between Colchester and Clacton-on-Sea in the 1850s may have destroyed more. Iron Age fortress and Roman Colonia Iron Age Camulodunon The Celtic fortress of "Camulodunon", meaning Stronghold of Camulos is first mentioned on coins minted by Tasciovanus in the period 20-10BC. Camulodunon consisted of a series of earthwork defences, built from the 1st century BC onwards with most dating from the 1st century AD. They are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain The defences are made up of lines of ditches and ramparts, possibly palisaded with gateways, that mostly run parallel to each other in a north–south direction. The Iron Age settlement was protected by rivers on three sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River valley forming the southern boundary; the earthworks were mostly designed to close off the western gap between these two river valleys. Other earthworks closed off eastern parts of the settlement. The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, a large high-status settlement with associated religious site, the Sheepen river port and industrial area near the present location of St Helena School and the Lexden burial mounds, a group of barrows and cremation burials. Originally Camulodunon was a stronghold of the Trinovantes tribe, led by kings such as Addedomarus, but at some point in the 1st century AD the aristocracy and ruling families were from the Catuvellauni tribe. Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain; the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site at Camulodunon appear to confirm this trade with the empire. The Catuvellauni king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain, and was called by the Roman historian Suetonius "King of the Britons". Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain. Around 40AD he had fallen out with his son Adminius (acting as proxy ruler of the Cantiaci tribe in his father's name), who had fled to Rome for support. There he was received by the Emperor Gaius, who may have attempted an invasion of Britain to put Adminius on his father's throne. After Cunobelinus’ death (circa 40AD) his sons took power, with Togodumnus the eldest ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and Caratacus ruling from Camulodunon. Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the Atrebates of the south coast. Verica, king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the English Channel and had been friends of Rome since Caesar's conquest, appealed to the Emperor Claudius for aid. At the time of this appeal in 43 AD, the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the military, and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext. Aulus Plautius led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target, defeating and killing Togodumnus near the Thames and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the Ordovices and Silures tribes in Wales and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome. The Roman historian Suetonius and Claudius' triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus’ sons’ control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon. Roman Camulodunum A Roman legionary fortress or castrum, the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain, was established within the confines of Camulodunon (which was Latinised as Camulodunum) following the successful invasion in 43AD, and was home to the Twentieth Legion. After the legion was withdrawn in c. 49 AD, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing. Its official name became Colonia Victricensis, and discharged Roman soldiers making up the population. Tacitus wrote that the town was "a strong colonia of ex-soldiers established on conquered territory, to provide a protection against rebels and a centre for instructing the provincials in the procedures of the law". A Roman monumental temple, the largest classical style temple in Britain, was built there in the 50sAD and was dedicated to Emperor Claudius on his death in 54AD. The podium of the temple has been incorporated into the Norman castle, and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country". A monumental arch was built from tufa and Purbeck Marble at the western gate out of the town. Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans, with the most famous being those of Longinus Sdapeze and Marcus Favonius Facilis. The city was the capital of the Roman province of Britannia, and its temple (the largest classical-style temple in Britain) was the centre of the Imperial Cult. But tensions arose between the Roman colonists and the native British population in 60/61AD, when the Roman authorities used the death of Iceni king Prasutagus as a pretext for seizing the Iceni client state from his widow Boudica. The Iceni rebels were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the seizure of land for the colonia's veteran population, the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council. The Procurator Catus Decianus was especially despised. As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the "arx aeternae dominationis" ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus. He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground. After the defeat of the uprising, the Procurator of the Roman province moved to the newly established commercial settlement of Londinium (London). Following the destruction of the Colonia and Suetonius Paulinus’ crushing of the revolt the town was rebuilt on a larger scale and flourished, growing larger in size than its pre-Boudican levels (to 108 acres/45 ha) despite its loss of status to Londinium, reaching its peak in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The town's official name was Colonia Claudia Victricensis (City of Claudius’ Victory), but it was known colloquially by contemporaries as Camulodunum or simply Colonia. The colonia became a large industrial centre, and was the largest, and for a short time the only, place in the province of Britannia where samian ware was produced, along with glasswork and metalwork, and a coin mint. Roman brick making and wine growing also took place in the area. Colonia Victricensis contained many large townhouses, with dozens of mosaics and tessellated pavements found, along with hypocausts and sophisticated waterpipes and drains. The town was home to a large classical Temple, two theatres (including Britain's largest), several Romano-British temples, Britain's only known chariot circus, Britain's first town walls, several large cemeteries and over 50 known mosaics. It may have reached a population of 30,000 at its height (in the third and early fourth century). However, the late 3rd and 4th centuries saw a series of crises in the empire, including the breakaway Gallic Empire (of which Britain was a part), and raids by Saxon pirates, both of which lead to the creation of the Saxon Shore forts along the east coast of Britain. The fort at Othona overlooking the confluence of the Blackwater and Colne estuaries, and two more at the mouth of the river into the colonia were built to protect the town. Balkerne Gate and Duncan's Gate were both blocked up in this period, with the later showing signs of being attacked. The extramural suburbs outside of Balkerne Gate had gone by 300 and were replaced by cultivation beds. The re-cutting of the town ditch in front of the newly blocked Balkerne Gate in 275–300 involved destroying the water pipes which entered the colonia through the gate. As with many towns in the empire, the colonia shrunk in size in the 4th century but continued to function as an important town. Although houses tended to shrink in size, with 75% of the large townhouses being replaced by smaller buildings by c. 350, in the period 275 to 325 a weak "building boom" (the "Constantinian renaissance") occurred in the town, with new houses being built and old ones reshaped. Many of the towns mosaics date from this period, including the famous Lion Walk mosaic. Late Roman robber trenches have been found at some sites for removing and salvaging tessellated floors and tiles for reuse in later houses. The pottery industry in the town had declined significantly by 300, but the 4th century did see an increase in the bone-working industry for making furniture and jewellery, and evidence of blown glass making has also been found. Large areas of the Southern part of the town were given over to agriculture. Despite the scaling down of private buildings an increase in the size and grandeur of public buildings occurs in the period 275–400. The Temple of Claudius and its associated temenos buildings were reconstructed in the early-4th century, along with the possible forum-basilica building to the south of it. The Temple appears to have had a large apsidal hall built across the front of the podium steps, with numismatic dating evidence taking the date of the building up to at least 395. A large hall at the Culver Street site, dated 275–325 to 400+, may have been a large centralised storage barn for taxes paid in kind with grain. During this period the late Roman church at Butt Road just outside the town walls was built with its associated cemetery containing over 650 graves (some containing fragments of Chinese silk), and may be one of the earliest churches in Britain. A strong numismatic chronology has been obtained from the over 500 coins found at the site, and puts its date from 320 to c. 425. Sub-Roman Town The formal collapse of Roman administration in the province occurred in the years 409–411. Activity in the 5th century continued in Camulodunum at a much reduced level, with evidence of at the Butt Road site showing that it briefly carrying on into the early 5th century. Several burials within the town's walls have been dated to the 5th century. These include two burials discovered at East Hill House in 1983, which have been surgically decapitated (in a fashion found in both Pre-Roman and some early pagan-Saxon burial practices), and other burials cut into the 4th century barn at Culver Street. A skeleton of a young woman found stretched out on a Roman mosaic floor at Beryfield, within the SE corner of the walled town, was initially interpreted as a victim of a Saxon attack on the Sub-Roman town; however, it is now believed that the burial is a post-Roman grave cut down to the hard floor surface (the name Beryfield means Burial field, a reference to the medieval graveyards in the area). As well as burials, coin hoards from the late Fourth and early Fifth centuries have been found, including a hoard minted in the reign of Constantine III (reigned 407–411) from Artillery Folly, that are heavily clipped; this clipping must have occurred in the years after they were minted and so would have happened in the 5th century. Post-Roman/early Saxon burials from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, some buried with weapons, have been found outside of the walls in the areas of former Roman cemeteries, suggesting a continuity of practice. Scattered structures have also been excavated by archaeologists, such as a mid-5th-century dwelling at Lion Walk, as well as 5th-century loam weights and cruciform-brooches found across the town. At the Culver Street site a thin layer of early Saxon pottery was discovered along with two dwellings. Other circumstantial evidence of activity includes large post-Roman rubbish dumps, which suggest nearby occupation by Romano-Britons. The existence of a post-Roman entity centred on the town, sometimes linked to the legend of Camelot, has been argued and was first proposed by archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler. Saxon and Viking era Fifth to eighth centuries Archaeological evidence shows that the post-Roman, but pre-Saxon, settlement of the early 5th century gave way from about 440–450 to a culture that was overwhelmingly Saxon in its character. This appears to have taken the form of a small community centred largely around Head Street and the High Street, both of which roughly follow the course of the two former main Roman streets in the town. During this period London was the capital of the Kingdom of Essex (founded c.527), although Colchester may have been an important local centre for the north of Essex. Evidence for Saxons from the fifth to eighth centuries consists of a 5th-century hut at Lion Walk, two huts from Culver Street dating to the 7th century, burials (including warrior graves) found around and within the town which date from 400 to 700, including those on Magdalen Street and the seventh and eighth century burials to the north-east of Castle Park, brooches and loomweights from the fifth to seventh centuries, coins from the seventh and eighth centuries, and scatters of pottery and other artefacts from various sites. There is a possibility that due to financial and time constraints on archaeological investigations from the 1960s–1980s that some Anglo-Saxon evidence may have been lost, with Saxon finds from the demolition of the Medieval Cups Hotel on the High Street suggesting that some structures or features were missed. The early Saxon river port was located to the south-east of the town, at Old Heath (Ealdehethe) and Blackheath (Heath, and the later name of Colchester's port Hythe, derive from Old English hetha, meaning a landing place) The Bishop of London's soke in the medieval town may have derived from an earlier Saxon privilege dating from the Kingdom of Essex. The Kingdom of the East Saxons has a very low presence in written historical accounts from the Saxon period, and Colchester does not appear explicitly in written accounts until 917. The History of the Britons traditionally ascribed to Nennius lists a Cair Colun among the 28 cities of Britain, which has been thought to indicate Colchester. Geoffrey of Monmouth similarly referenced it as Kaelcolim, while his contemporary Geoffrey Gaimar called it Kair Koel. The Saxon version of the current name of the town is first recorded as "Colenceaster" and "Colneceastre" during the 10th century. Ninth to eleventh centuries The isolated raids by Vikings in the first half of the 9th century took a far more serious turn in 865 when a great army of Danes under the command of Ivar the Boneless invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia. In 869 King Edmund of East Anglia was defeated and killed by the Danes and the east of England fell under Danish control. Under a peace treaty between Wessex and the Danes in 879, Colchester was incorporated in the Danelaw. Norfolk and Suffolk were heavily settled by the Danes as can be traced by the density of Scandinavian place names. North-East Essex was also colonised by the Danes, and Scandinavian place names such as Kirby and Thorpe are found around Colchester. Scandinavian names are found later amongst the town's residents, and Scandinavian style weapons have been dredged from the Colne, although these might be Late Saxon or Norman. 9th century graves of the town's inhabitants have been discovered in the vicinity of St Marys at the Walls in the south-west corner of the town. The Kings of Wessex waged continual war on the Danes and finally Colchester was recaptured by English armies under Edward the Elder in 917. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that after liberating Maldon Edward's army: "Went to Colchester, and beset the town, and fought thereon till they took it, and slew all the people, and seized all that was therein; except those men who escaped therefrom over the wall." Following successful battles against the Viking armies, Edward returned to Colchester: "After this, the same year, before Martinmas, went King Edward with the West-Saxon army to Colchester; and repaired and renewed the town, where it was broken down before." After being restored to English rule by Edward the Elder the settlement at Colchester flourished into a prosperous small burh with a developed system of rights and privileges for its burgesses. However, its location (which was the result of its Iron Age and Roman origins) several miles up-river placed it in a poor position to exploit naval trade lanes, and the town was overshadowed in this respect by Maldon and the newer town of Ipswich in Suffolk. A new port at the present Hythe improved the situation somewhat, and the town shows an increase in foreign trade during the 10th century and a mint from 991. Witans were held in the town by Edward's successors, Athelstan in 931 and Edmund I in 940. Athelstan described Colchester as a Town well known to all men, and his Witan included 13 ealdormen, 37 thegns, 15 bishops, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Chester-le-Street. Six of the town's churches date from the Saxon period, and several more also might do. These are St Peters (which, with its central location close to the crossroads of Head and High Street may have been the main church in the Saxon period), Holy Trinity with its early 11th century tower, St Martin's (whose tower also contains pre-Norman elements), the now demolished St Nicholas, All Saints and the now demolished St Runwalds (which sat in the market square in front of the Moot Hall in the High Street). The three other candidates include St Mary-at-the-Walls (which contains 9th-century graves), an earlier church on the site of St Botolph's Priory (which supposedly had a tower similar to Holy Trinity's), and St John the Evangelists Church where St Botulph's Roundabout now sits was a Saxon church demolished by the Normans. St Helen's Chapel, built into the remains of the Roman Theatre on Maidenburgh Street, may also have had Saxon origins, as St Helen was often (erroneously) linked to the town in Saxon and later medieval folklore. A chapel (whose remains can be seen in front of the castle) and a 10th-century large hall were built in front of the still-standing ruins of the Temple of Claudius. The 10th century town was at the heart of a large system of estates held by Essex ealdormen, which were broken up by inheritance through the 11th century. Medieval era Norman Colchester In the initial twenty years following the Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066 Colchester suffered disproportionately under heavy tax burdens. The annual farm from the town in 1066 had been £15. 5s. 3d., but by 1086 it had risen to an extortionate £80. Only Rochester saw a bigger increase, putting Colchester joint fifth in terms of annual payments with Wallingford behind London, York and Lincoln (joint second), and Norwich. But by 1130 this burden had been reduced to £40. In 1069 a Danish fleet unsuccessfully attacked the east coast of England, failing to take Dover, Sandwich, Ipswich and Norwich, although it appears to have severely damaged Colchester, with a second invasion scare in 1071. At this time (1069 or 1070) the town was given to the control of Eudo Dapifer (also known as Eudo de Rie after his Norman home town). The son of Hubert de Rie, he was William the Conqueror's Seneschal of Normandy, later serving the Conqueror's successors William II and Henry I, and owning 64 manors in Eastern England, including 50 houses and 40 acres of land in Colchester. Eudo directed the construction of Colchester Castle (c. 1073 – 1080) on the remains of the Temple of Claudius, as a royal rather than baronial castle, intending it to be at the centre of the defence of Eastern England. Construction on the castle, which is the largest Norman castle ever built and the first stone Keep in England, was initially halted in around 1075 and hastily fortified during a rebellion in East Anglia supported by a Danish Fleet, but resumed shortly afterwards to be given to Eudo in 1089. Henry I later renewed this right in 1101, granting the "turrim and castelum" to Eudo in a charter. Under Eudo the town prospered, reaching a population of 2,500 (putting it in the middle rank of English towns). The town, and its turbulent history, was described sometime between 1087 and 1100 as: "The city of Colchester is placed in the eastern part of Britain, a city near to a port, pleasantly situated, watered on every side by abundant springs, with a very healthy air, built with very strong walls; a city to be reckoned amongst the most eminent, had not time, fires, floods, incursions of pirates, and various strokes of misfortune obliterated all the monuments of the city." Eudo endowed the town with several religious institutions. The foremost of these was St. John's Abbey (built 1095–1116), built close to the site of the Saxon church of St John the Evangelist, discovered during the creation of St Botolph's Roundabout. Stephan, Abbot of York, sent 13 monks to Essex to inhabit the abbey, with Pope Paschal II granting a petition to make their leader Hugh the first abbot of the abbey in 1104. The Abbot of Colchester had a seat in the House of Lords. Also in 1104 the abbey was granted the right to hold a fair on St John's Green outside of the abbey grounds. Upon Eudo's death in 1120 on his estate at Préaux in Normandy his remains were brought to England to be interred at the abbey on 28 February 1120. The abbey underwent reconstruction in 1133 after a large fire which had consumed part of the town affected the building. A large precinct wall was constructed around the abbey in the 12th century, some of which still stands along the north end of Mersea Road despite a 140m stretch of it being pulled down in the 1970s for the creation of a roundabout. As a Benedictine monastery lay folk were not permitted within the abbey, and so the parish church of St Giles was built on the edge of the Abbey's precinct to serve them in 1171. Although the church still stands as the Colchester Masonic Centre, large portions of the associated graveyard and earlier Roman features were removed and destroyed by building contractors with little archaeological investigation during the creation of a car park in the 1970s and 1980s. Eudo also founded the Hospital of St Mary Magdalen in 1100. This was built in the north-west corner of the junction between what is now Magdalen Street and Brook Street, deliberately placing it outside of the walled town to keep the leper patients away from the healthy population. This hospital was controlled by St John's Abbey, who paid for the upkeep of its inmates with an annual sum of £6 from the Abbey's estate in Brightlingsea. As the hospital had its own monks and officials the Abbey's level of control became a matter of dispute during the latter Middle Ages. In 1189 the monks at the hospital were granted the right to hold their own fair. Eudo is also supposed to have rebuilt the Saxon Chapel of St Helena, which was built into the remains of the Roman Theatre on Maidenburgh Street, and to have improved the port at the Hythe. Unrelated to Eudo, but contemporary with him, was the construction of the first Augustinian monastery in Britain at St Botolph's Priory outside of South Gate close to the abbey. The Priory was originally the site of a Saxon church in honour of St Botolph which housed some of his relics, and also Saint Denis. Pope Pascal II granted a priest called Ainulf, the leader of a group of priests at the church who had all studied the Austin rites in France, the rite to found the Priory, which in August 1116 was granted control over all of the Augustinian monasteries in England. The Priory was granted the right to hold a fair on the feast day of St Denis (9 October). However, despite the Priories eminent position it was relatively poor in comparison to the Abbey of St John. Secular buildings in the Norman town included the Moot Hall which was significantly rebuilt in 1160, which was unusual in its appearance for non-religious structures of the period due to the extravagant nature of its decorations, making it perhaps the most decorated secular building in the country in the 11th century. These included a carved stone door and carved windows created by the same mason who worked on Rochester Cathedral and Dover Priory, featuring carvings of King Solomon and The Queen of Sheba (emblematic of the wise judgements of the courts held in the Hall). Other secular buildings made from Roman rubble include the numerous Stone houses built around the town. Many of these 11th-century dwellings were demolished in the 1970s, including one on Lion Walk and one behind what is now the JobCentre. Numerous robber trenches and demolition pits from this period have been found around the town from which the Roman building material for these structures was mined, as well as large complexes of lime kilns built from Roman tiles for baking oyster shells to obtain lime for mortar. The town's merchant fleet trade with the continent, with corn shipments from Colchester reported in Holland. Four moneyers operated in the town under William I, William II, Henry I and King Stephen, although by 1157 this had been reduced to one and to none by 1166. Iron working and pottery production occurred within the town, with a large series of pottery kilns producing Thetford-type ware and early medieval ware found at Mile End and Middleborough. Pottery datable to the Anglo-Norman period is relatively rare in England although not in Colchester. The town's burgesses had developed a corporate identity with established rights and responsibilities before they were enshrined in the 1189 Charter. These privileges included substantial common land grazing rights, fishing rights, the right to hunt foxes, hares and cats, common-ownership of the river bank and the protection of the town's market against unauthorised markets. These last two privileges were unique to Colchester amongst English towns. The townsfolk were also exempt from paying to billet visiting royals and dignitaries, paying Scot, Lot and Danegeld, and could reclaim money paid as tolls at other towns. Together the townspeople held 1,304 acres of land in parcels of 1 to 10 acres, whilst other land and houses in and around the town were owned by the Lords of local manors around Essex. Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk held 30 acres, and a wic at Mile End. The town hosted King Henry II for a week in May 1157 after his coronation at Bury St Edmunds, with his entourage which included the Archbishop of York, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishops of London, Lincoln, Chicester, and Exeter, the Earl of Leicester, the Earl of Salisbury, Warin FitzGerald (a local Essex lord) and the Lord Chancellor Thomas Becket. Elements of the army to oppose Hugh Bigod's rebellion assembled at Colchester in 1173. Early medieval history Colchester was the largest town in Essex throughout the entire Middle Ages and was initially the principal town of the county, with its castle being home to the High Sheriff of Essex and the County Jail. In 1204 the town's port at the Hythe was rated by its subsidy payments (£16. 8s. p.a.) as the 19/20th largest out of the 30 audited, ahead of local rivals Norwich, Ipswich, Dunwich and Orford, yet less than half that of Great Yarmouth, although this port status was short-lived. However it slowly lost its status during the 13th century to Chelmsford, which from 1202 to 1203 held the Royal Justices, and the Justices in Eyre from 1218. In the early 13th century Colchester became embroiled in the First Barons' War. King John, who had visited the town several times in 1204, 1205, 1209, 1212 and 1214, had to send forces to besiege and take the castle from Baronial supporters in 1216, with King John himself arriving in the town later in March. However, later in the year a baronial army attacked and ravaged the town. The town received further royal visits from Henry III in 1242 and 1256, who stayed in his Royal Quarters in the Castle. Several Colchester men were implicated in the baronial conspiracies against him in the 1250s. The thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries also saw a series of conflicts between the burgesses of the town and St. John's Abbey and several local lords over the infringements of their charter rights. In 1253, following long-standing dispute over access to the free warren in West Donyland and the extent of the Abbot's jurisdiction, a group of forty Colcestrians attacked and destroyed the Abbey's gallows and tumbrels at Greenstead to the east of the town, before cutting the ropes of the Abbey's ships at Brightlingsea. By 1255 these particular disagreements were settled, although an anti-abbey riot broke out at the Midsummers Fair in 1272. Then in 1312 the townspeople became entangled in disputes with the powerful FitzWalter family, lords of Lexden manor and close relations of the Plantagenets, when they began trespassing and hunting on Baron Robert FitzWalter's private estates as well as contesting the extent of his jurisdiction and control of pastureland. In 1319 a group of 174 Colcestrians attacked servants and tenants of Essex lord Hugh de Neville who was gathering supplies and men for the Scottish war, and in 1324 attacked John Dagworth Lord of Bradwell who was again attempting to raise men and arms. When Edward II was deposed in 1327 in the wake of the Scottish wars there was rioting and faction-squabbles in the town. Further local disputes with the Lexden FitzWalters occurred in 1342, when a Lexden man was killed in an argument at Mile End to the north of the town; Lord John FitzWalter believed that the Colchester coroner would be biased in favour of the Colcestrian defendants, and so called on the County coroner at Chelmsford to conduct the enquiry which in turn angered the townsfolk who saw the intervention of the County coroner as an infringement of their Charter rights. However, when both the Colchester and Chelmsford enquiries judged in favour of the defendants the enraged John FitzWalter called on his agents to attack any Colchester man found outside of the town, resulting in the death of a Colcestrian at Southminster and another on the road to Maldon. The violence increased when the FitzWalters blockaded the town between 20 May and 22 June until they were bought off with £40 by the town. But the following year the situation deteriorated again, and so John FitzWalter once again besieged the town between 7 April and 1 June 1343 before being paid off with a further £40. A few years later in 1349 Lionel of Bradenham, Lord of Langenhoe and a friend and tenant of John FitzWalter, began constructing six weirs in arms of the River Colne which obstructed fish movements (infringing the burgesses' charter-enshrined right to the River bank and fish stocks). The resulting dispute with the town led to him besieging it between August and November 1350, damaging Colchester's eastern suburbs and taking grain and hay from Greenstead, before he was bought off with £20. Lionel began illegally placing piles in the Colne in 1360, which led to the town excluding Langenhoe men from Colchester's markets. He was successfully prosecuted by the burgesses of Colchester in 1362. In the winter of 1348–49 the Black Death struck the town, killing up to 1,500 people including the Abbot and Prior of St. John's Abbey by the time it began to die down in August 1349. A second bout struck the town in 1360–61. The plague had struck England in the middle of the Hundred Years' War, to which Colchester had sent five ships and 170 mariners to aid in the blockade of Calais in 1347–48. Late medieval history Despite the destruction caused by the Black Death the town entered a period of growth spurred by the cloth trade from the mid-14th century onwards, with 22 people admitted into the ranks of the burgesses every year in the 1350s during which time Edward III visited the town in 1354. By 1377 Colchester's population had reached 7,000, placing it Eighth in rank of English provincial towns, increasing to its medieval maximum of 9,000 by the early 15th century. Immigrants into the town came from across Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, London, Bristol, Gloucester, Ludlow, Canterbury, Sandwich, Manchester, Yorkshire, Kent, Wales, Ireland, Calais and later (foreshadowing the large-scale immigration in the 16th century) from the Low Countries. The first burgess to be explicitly stated as being Flemish was in 1451, although Flemish names occur in the town from much earlier. Colchester was one of the centres of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. One of the leaders of the Rebels, John Ball of St Albans, had been a priest in Colchester for a long period in the 1350s. On 13 June a large group of peasants gathered at Colchester from the surrounding Essex countryside before marching to Stepney in South Essex. Those who stayed behind attacked the Moot Hall and St John's Abbey on 15 and 16 June, forcing the law courts to shut for five weeks, and carried off the court rolls of the abbey. On 17 June a group of Stanway men carried off the court rolls of St Crosses hospital on Crouch Street. Following the defeat of the Rebels at Billericay by King Richard survivors flooded into the town, taking their anger out on Colchester's sizeable Flemish population. Following the attack by the disgruntled peasants on the abbey its walls and gatehouse were strengthened. The disputes between the townsfolk and the abbey continued into the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Twelve armed men from the abbey were involved in a fight with townspeople outside of Colkynge's Castle (modern Balkerne Gate) in 1391 over grazing rights to the meadows in the area. The following year in 1392 the Abbot with his supporters got into a fight with his own monks, which spilled over onto St John's Green outside of the Abbey Gate. In 1404 the Abbot, alongside other leading Colcestrians and the Abbot of St Osyth's Priory, were charged with being part of an earlier conspiracy to put the deposed Richard II back on Henry IV's throne. Although the Abbot was acquitted in 1405, the case led to several leading burgesses of Colchester taking legal actions against him, all of which were resolved by 1415. These disputes with the established church stemmed in part from the town's position as a centre of Lollardy. A large group of Lollard books were confiscated in Colchester in 1405 and 1415, and in the late 1420s a group of Norfolk Lollards claimed to have secretly attended meetings in Colchester. In November 1428 a tailor by the name of William Cheveling was burnt at the stake outside of Colkynge's Castle (Balkerne Gate on the Western walls of the town) for being a heretic. The following year, in 1429, during a dispute with the townsfolk over the ownership of the Hythe water mill the Abbot of St John's called the town a nest of Lollards, intending it as an insult. A Colchester man was involved in John Oldcastle's rebellion in 1415 and there were riots in the town in response to the defeat of Jack Cade's rebellion in 1449 and 1450. Colchester avoided the fighting of the Wars of the Roses which ended the medieval period and ushered in the Tudor period, although Colcestrians were involved in several conspiracies after the conflict ended in the 1470s against Henry VI and Henry VII, both of whom had visited the town (Henry VI in 1445 and Henry VII in 1487 and 1491). Colchester had strong sympathies with the House of York and the Plantagenets, and Richard III had visited the town several times, as a teenager in 1427 and again in 1467/68, staying at the pro-Yorkist St John's Abbey each time. Following the Yorkist defeat at the Battle of Bosworth Field the abbey provided a sanctuary for anti-Lancastrians, including briefly Viscount Lovell. The Abbey's sympathies were remembered in the early Tudor period by Edward IV and Richard III's mother Cecily Neville who left a large sum to the abbey in her will. By the end of the Middle Ages Colchester's population had begun to decline with the shrinking of the medieval cloth trade to about 5,000 by 1520, placing it eleventh in size of English provincial towns. The medieval town Borough governance Colchester received its first town charter in 1189 from Richard the Lionheart before he embarked on his crusade, although it is clear from the wording of the document that the rights and privileges granted to the burgesses of Colchester pre-existed their formal recognition in the document. The borough celebrated the 800th anniversary of its charter in 1989. The document set out the election process for the towns bailiffs and justices, and placed the hearings of the Crown Court in the Moot Hall. The charter also defined the qualifications needed to obtain full burgess status; this was that a burgess had to have been born in the town, or had to have served an existing burgess of the town as an apprentice for at least seven years, or had paid for the status with a large fee. The burgesses' rights included: The sole right to all of the fish and shellfish in the River Colne between North Bridge and Westernesse The right of access to the Colne River bank The right to travel in the borough without tolls, fees or hindrances The right to graze the commons between August and February every year The right to hunt foxes, hares and cats (polecats) They could claim a share of the town's corporate income obtained through fees, licence-payments, tolls, rents and fines Permitted to vote on specified matters This was altered over time; for example Edward II removed the townsfolk's right to disdain from debt accrued in other counties, whilst the modified charter granted in 1413 by Henry V is currently on display in the Castle Museum, and first displayed the coat of arms of Colchester. Henry VI's charter extended the liberty of the borough to include the previously independent vills of Lexden, Greenstead, Mile End and West Donyland. An attempt in 1447 to take the rights to the Colne away from the burgesses and give it to the Earl of Oxford was blocked by the town. The government of the borough was conducted through a group of officials, whose number, role and electoral procedures altered over the course of the Middle Ages as political, demographic and economic changes affected the town. The officers and aldermen wore red hoods and gowns as a sign of their position. Originally the two highest officials were reeves, later replaced by two bailiffs who were royal officers charged with collecting the fee farm for parliament and holding the borough courts, as well as taking the role of coroners when needed. Their position as royal officers put them at odds with the interest of the burgesses, and in many English towns the role of mayor was created as a counterbalance to their influence; this creation of a mayoral office did not occur in Colchester however, and the two bailiffs continued to act as the borough's chief officers. Elections for the bailiffs took place on 8 September (the Nativity of Mary), and they took office on Michaelmas. By the 13th century the bailiffs and coroners were separated, and the coroners were usually the bailiffs-elect for the following year. Further offices included the town clerk, the farmer of the tolls responsible for collecting the town's due, two to three under-bailiffs to assist the main bailiffs, key keepers to take over from the bailiffs the responsibility of guarding the town's common chest, and from 1310 three (from 1380 four) serjeants to take tolls and keep the peace. The serjeants and town clerk were elected on the 9 September. With the growth of the town after the Black Death of the mid-14th century the borough government also developed, aided by a growing distrust of the bailiff's powers. In 1372 a new system was brought into effect, with tighter election processes for the bailiffs and two new officials initially called receivers but later chamberlains, responsible for the town's income. The town was divided into four wards: North Ward (the north west quarter of the town), East Ward (the north east), South Ward (south east) and Head Ward (the south west quarter of the town). The leading burgess of each ward chose five other burgesses from his ward to create an overall borough council of 24, from whom the town's officials and board of eight auditors (the aldermen) were chosen. This council and its officials were designed as a counterbalance to the bailiffs, who had previously ruled without referring to a common council of burgesses. The bailiffs and the council's board of aldermen elected 16 men from the four wards to form a second council, which convened four times a year. Further changes occurred in 1447, when a common council was created from four men from each of the four wards, from which the aldermen were to be elected, who in turn would elect four J.P.s to hear Crown Courts, the coroners and the keykeepers. From 1295 onwards two Members of Parliament represented the town, who were also chosen from amongst the town's leading burgesses, although due to the financial cost involved this was not a popular office to hold. The local Lords were represented in the House of Lords, as was the Abbot of St John's Abbey. Law Jury courts met fortnightly at the Moot Hall, and at three other major hearings on Michaelmas, Hilary and Hock Days, called law hundreds where view of frankpledge was held, and cases concerning the town's treasure trove, the raising of hue and cry, bloodshed, encroachments, overcharging the common, breaches of the assize of ale and of weights and measures, and nuisance were heard. By 1310 the courts met more frequently. Prisoners awaiting trial were kept in a gaol beneath the Moot Hall and outside of the Hall's entrance where the town's stocks were located and where they could be feed by relatives and friends. The town's gallows were located on an unidentified main route outside of the town called Galwystrete (Gallow's Street). Much of the court's time was spent on cases of trespass, illegal hunting, the blocking, diversion and pollution of the town's public water sources, theft, removing stone from the town's walls and pavements, the inconsiderate emptying of pissepotts into the street and the creation of dunghills in public places (mounds of human and animal excrement and rubbish). This later issue was not confined to private residents, as in 1481/82 the chamberlains were charged with creating a dunghill behind the Moot Hall in the Moothalle Yard, and it was reported that "the Master of the schools is in the common habit of casting the dung of his school over and beyond the stone wall of the town at le Posterne and there making a dunghill" for which he was fined. The blocking and pollution of public water sources was always major issue for the courts, and in 1424/25 the town tanners and white-tanners were prosecuted for dumping waste in streams. The town jealously guarded its markets, and closed down an illegal meat market held on Crouch Street in the 15th century. Poaching deer from the Royal forests around the town such as Langham and Kings Wood (modern High Woods to the north of the town) was also a serious issue, and in 1267 when a group of Christian and Jewish Colcestrians chased a deer into the town and killed it the bailiffs confiscated the carcass. Attempts were made to curb gambling with cards, dice and chess in taverns, and to prevent people from staying all night in the taverns or using them during church hours. Practisers of Cleromancy were tightly regulated, whilst two cases of Witchcraft were tried in the town, one in 1420 when the parish clerk of St Peters was supposed to have uttered demonic names whilst practicing black magic, and a second case in 1456 involving a man and wife accused of killing boys in the town with witchcraft. The remains of the executed were placed on public display in the town as a warning, and in 1398 the town received a quarter of Oxfordshire rebel Henry Roper, which was displayed in the town marketplace on the High Street. Thomas Malory, author of the Arthurian romance Le Morte d'Arthur, was imprisoned in Colchester Castle in October 1454 for crimes including horse theft. Other Councils and Courts Aside from the main council and courts in the Moot Hall there were several others in the town. By 1411 a special court to hear cases concerning non-burgesses in the borough liberty called the foreign court was held. In 1477 the town was exempted from the Admiralty court, although it still seems to have been held at the Hythe after this time. The Ecclesiastical institutions also had their own courts. St John's Abbey had its own courts and gallows at its estate in Greenstead. In 1414 the court of the Prior of St Botolph's Priory was indicted for overstepping its authority. Colchester's medieval Jewish community also had its own council and Beth din. They had their own bailiff by 1220 (the first was Benedict, father of Isaac), and a council chamber granted to them by Henry II in the suburban area of St John's Green, although by 1251 the Abbey of St John had ownership of this and had turned it into a Christian chapel. Religious institutions The largest and richest ecclesiastical institution in medieval Colchester was St John's Abbey, a Benedictine monastery founded in 1095 on the site of an existing Saxon church to St John the Baptist or St John the Evangelist to the south of the town. As it was of the Benedictine order, no lay person was permitted to worship in the abbey building itself, and so St Giles church was built by 1172 on the edge of the abbey precinct to serve the lay community of St John's Green. To the north-east of the abbey, on the road out of South Gate, was the Augustinian St Botolph's Priory. A third large institution was the Franciscan Greyfriars, founded by 1237 within the town walls on what is now the west end of East Hill. The Friary, part of the Wardenship of Cambridge, was a large building whose spire was the tallest structure in the medieval town. A fourth monastic institution was the Crossed (also spelt Crouched) Friars on Crouch Street, an Augustinian order separate from those at St Botolph's Priory. They had taken control in 1496 of the Chapel of the Holy Cross, a hospital on the junction of Maldon Road and Crouch Street. A fifth monastic institution, and a second hospital, was St Mary Magdalene's on Magdalene Road on the way to the Hythe port. This was under the nominal control of St John's Abbey, against whom the hospital struggled for independence in the 14th century, including enlisting the aid of Parliament. There were two other medieval hospitals connected to the town, St Catherine's somewhere outside of Head Gate, and St Anne's on Harwich Road, which was the site of a Holy Well. The town had several parish churches; St Mary-at-the-Walls (often called Our Lady-at-the-Walls), St Peter's, St Runwald's, St Martin's, St Nicholas', St James the Great's, All Saints/All Hallows, Holy Trinity, St Leonards-at-the-Hythe, and the chapel of St Helena. The castle contained a chapel, and the town also contained small chantry chapels. There were numerous guilds in the town which were associated with specific churches. The largest of these was the Guild of St Helena, who took their prestige from having the patron saint of Colchester, St Helena, as their own patron. The guild had been given the responsibility in 1407 by Henry IV of taking over the dilapidated Hospital of the Holy Cross, although they were pushed out of this in 1496 by the arrival of the Crossed Friars who spuriously claimed that they had originally owned the hospital. Other guilds included: St Mary's Guild at the church of St Leonards-at-the-Hythe, who maintained an Eternal Light for St Mary in the church Jesus Guild at St Peters church from 1447, who maintained the building through money obtained from ownership of Chiswell Meadow outside the south-east walls of the town A John the Baptist Guild, also at St Peters Corpus Christi Guild at St Nicholas church St Anne's Guild, who maintained St Anne's chapel and hospital on Harwich Road Saint Mary, St Crispin and St Crispian Guilds at Greyfriars St Barbara Guild at All Saints church A second St Barbara Guild at St Peters St Francis Guild at St James church Colchester also hosted members of the heretical Christian Lollard sect, who held secret congregations in the town. Aside from the Christian institutions, the town also had a Jewish rabbi and synagogue in the 13th century. In 1258 a rabbi called Samuel, son of Jechiel is recorded, whilst others are recorded later in the 1260s and 1270s. A synagogue existed in 1268 somewhere on either West or East Stockwell Street, later moving by 1285 to a solar in a house at the west end of the High Street. The medieval Jewish community in Colchester suffered the same fate as those elsewhere in England when they were expelled by King Edward I's Edict of Expulsion in 1290. Economy of medieval Colchester Colchester functioned as the main market town for the villages and townships of North East Essex and South West Suffolk throughout the Middle Ages. The local trade in grain, fish, cattle and sheep, as well as by-products such as beer, bread, wool, cloth, milk, cheese, butter, leather and meat was focused on the town, and were exported to other markets at Ipswich, Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn. As well as its role as a local market, Colchester was also part of a wider network of trade routes in other goods. Colchester pottery, from kilns such as those excavated by archaeologists at Middleborough, Mile End and along Magdalene Street, has been found across Essex. The kilns also specialised in producing Colchester-ware louvers (ceramic vents or chimney stacks for letting air and smoke out of the roofs of houses and manors), some of which are very elaborate, during the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries which were used across Essex at places like West Bergholt, Heybridge, Chelmsford and Great Easton. Roof and glazed floor tiles were also made at kilns in the town and at nearby Wivenhoe. However, it was the wool trade from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries which occupied much of the town's population. By 1247 a fulling mill was recorded in the borough, and the russet woollen and linen cloths produced in the 13th century were sold at fairs in Ipswich and Boston, with Henry III buying Colchester russets to clothe his servants in 1248. However, it was the decades after the Black Death in 1348–49, when Colchester experienced large scale immigration from across Britain and the Low Countries, which saw the greatest boom in the wool trade for the town. Colchester's wool industry benefitted from the fact there was initially no regulatory guild for the weavers and fullers, with wool and dyes from across North East Essex and South West Suffolk, and even from markets at York, Southampton, Lewes and Westminster, coming into the town to be processed. Each bale of cloth could represent the work of up to fifty people from in and around Colchester, including shepherds, wool staplers, carders, wool combers, spinners, dyers, weavers, fullers, roughers, shearers, pressers and merchants. The town was surrounded by watermills used in the fulling process, with Lexden Mill (on the Colne North of Lexden), North Mill (to the west of North Bridge), New Mill (somewhere near North Bridge), Middle Mill (the main mill of the town), Stokes Mill (between Middle Mill and East Mill), East Mill (at East Bridge), Hythe Mill, Mill-in-the-Woods (possibly the same structure as Hythe Mill), Canwick Mill, Bourne Mill (the last two were on the Bourne Brook south of the walled town) and Hull Mill being especially close to the town. At its peak, Colchester was exporting 40,000 bales of cloth annually, specialising in grey-brown russet cloth. The quality of Colchester's russets made it a favourite amongst England's clergy. By 1373 there were two wool fairs in the town, and wool was exported via Colchester's Hythe port to Zeeland, Flanders, Calais, Saint-Omer, Amiens, the Mediterranean, Sweden, Prussia, Gascony, Spain, and later in the 15th century to the German Hanseatic League, especially Cologne. Colchester's main trade partner outside England was Bruges, to which cloth, wool and dyes (as well as grain, butter and cheese) were exported in exchange for more exotic products such as wine, spices, saffron, nuts, furs, salt, soap, bitumen, ginger, garlic, pepper and silk. Customs officials from London and Ipswich would cocket the sacks of wool and cloth, whilst seven local officials aided the King's serjeant-at-arms in searching ships for uncustomed woollen products. The wool trade in the town began to change in the 15th century, with the creation in 1407 of two Masters of the Weaver's Art, and in 1411–12 the creation by the town bailiffs of new laws to protect and regulate the cloth industry. These included the standardisation of weights, a requirement that all spinning was to be carried out within the borough, that weavers were not to be paid with food or merchandise instead of coin, that a person could not be a weaver and a fuller, no apprentice was to serve less than five years, and that all disputes were to be solved by the two Masters. A separate fullers guild was also permitted by the town bailiffs, with two Masters to be elected annually on the Monday after Michaelmas at St Cross Church and to swear oaths of office before the presence of the bailiffs. However, by the second half of the 15th century war and depopulation in the Baltic states and France had caused a severe decline in trade with those regions, resulting in a large contraction of the wool trade in Colchester despite the continued presence of Hanseatic merchants in the town. Despite the shrinking of the medieval wool trade, the cloth industry in Colchester would boom again to even greater heights during the second half of the 16th century and into the 17th century. Other industries were also present in the town. During the 14th century the leather working industry employed almost as many people as the cloth industry did, although this too declined in the later 14th century. In 1311 there was the creation of butchers wardens in response to complaints about the quality of the meat market, in 1336 there were two Keepers of the Tanners Art (although they were not formally recognised until 1442), in 1425 there was the creation of the four Masters of the Cordwainers Art, in 1451 the wax chandlers had Masters, and in 1456–57 there was the creation of four Supervisors of the Curriers Craft. The fish and oyster industry was also an important component of the medieval town's economy, with Colchester fish being sold at Sudbury, Dunwich and Great Yarmouth. In 1365 officials were created to supervise the fish market in the town, whilst illegal fishing and oyster cultivation was targeted by the bailiffs in an edict from 1382, which prohibited the forestalling of fish by blocking the river, the dredging of oysters out of season and the obstructing of the river. Colchester artisans included clockmakers, who maintained clocks in church towers across north Essex and Suffolk. Several were of French ancestry, such as John Orlogeer, who was admitted as a burgess in 1357–58 and William Orlogeer, admitted in 1368–69, whose surnames come from horloger (French for clockmaker), or Flemish ancestry, such as Austyn Wegayn (whose surname is an English rendition of the Flemish surname Begeyn). Colchester clockmakers repaired the two clocks in Colchester, at St John's Abbey and St Leonards-at-the-Hythe, Lord Howard's clock in 1482, the clock at Ramsey, and at Saffron Walden in 1461. Some of the richer members of Colchester's Jewish population were involved in moneylending, which was forbidden to Christians. This made them a scapegoat in hard times causing them to favour living in sturdy stone-built houses, such as the two owned by a man called "Aaron the Jew" in the 12th century. However, most of the Jewish community in Colchester were poor in comparison to others around Essex and East Anglia. Layout of the medieval town Medieval Colchester had developed from the Saxon town, which in turn had grown within the shell of the old Roman town of Camulodunum. Most of the town was located within the old Roman walls, although suburbs along the main routes out of the town developed during the Middle Ages. Intramural features Most of the medieval town was located within the town walls, which were originally the walls of the Roman town. The walls were further strengthened in the Middle Ages by the addition of bastion towers around the southern portion of the walls, which took place in either 1312 or during an extensive repair of the walls in 1382–1421. To the ire of the town officials, the walls were sometimes the target of illegal quarrying of building stone by the townspeople. Of the original six Roman gates, two (Balkerne Gate and Duncan's Gate) had been blocked up, probably in the 4th century. This left Hed Gate (modern Head Gate) as the main entrance to the town (hence its name), with North Gate, Suth Gate (modern South Gate) and Est Gate (modern East Gate) as the remaining Roman gateways. In addition, four new gates were cut through the town walls during the Middle Ages. These are Ryegate (meaning River Gate, sometimes called Northsherd, the modern Ryegate Street), le Posterne (modern St Marys Steps next to the Arts Centre), Scheregate (modern Scheregate Steps) and a small Postern gate somewhere in the south-east corner of the town walls. The gates were frequently in a state of disrepair. Through Hed Gate was Hed Strete (modern Head Street), which followed the old north–south Cardo maximus of the Roman town, continuing on as North Strete (modern North Hill) out of the North Gate. Two small lanes (the modern Church Street and Church Walk) led west from Hed Strete to St Mary-at-the-Walls church, a small chapel to St Andrew and Colchester's medieval school house. Next to St Marys was le Posterne, which was made by widening an existing Roman drain in the walls to create a foot passageway out of the town onto Balkerne Lane. At the south end of North Strete sat St Peters church, whose churchyard contained a large stone cross and a large stone marker of some kind. Running east from Hed Strete was the other main street in the town, High Strete (modern High Street), which roughly followed the old Decumanus Maximus of the Roman town. The west end of High Strete, where the junction with Hed Strete is, was called Corn Hill because it was where the Corn Market was based at the Red Row, and also contained a bear-baiting stake. The High Strete was the location of Colchester's market, with the grain market at Corn Hill, les Butterstalls (the butter market) opposite the Moot Hall, the fish market on the south side of the street (which also sold porpoises), the shambles (meat market) around and to the east St Runwalds church (which stood in the centre of the street), the Cook Shop Row close to this, the vegetable market at the east end of the street near St Nicholas church, and several other groups of shops and stalls called la Bacherie and Cordwainers Row. A building for market officials called the Thulohus (toll house) stood in the High Strete. The market was originally only on Wednesdays and Saturdays, but by 1285 it was held on nearly every day of the week. The Moot Hall itself was a Saxon stone building with elaborate carved windows and doors, which was given new marble steps and a new entranceway in 1373/74. As well as housing a goal for those awaiting trial in its courts, the Moot Hall also contained a white-washed strong room in its cellar to hold valuables for the market holders. Next to the Moot Hall, on its west side, stood the Falcon Inn (later the Queens Head, and then the Three Cups Hotel) which was an important building in the town. In its later history it would host Admiral Nelson and the future French King Louis XVIII during their visits to the town. Other Inns on the High Strete included the George (which still stands as a hotel and public house under the same name), and the Angel (at junction of High Strete and West Stockwell Strete, also called Angel Lane after the Inn). The Bell Inn stood to the west of St Nicholas church, and housed part of the vegetable market. The Swan Inn and Hart Inn stood somewhere on the west end of the High Strete, near Helle Lane (possibly the modern Bank Passage between High Street and Culver Street West). The churches of St Nicholas and All Saints still stand on the south side of the High Strete at its eastern end, whilst the church of St Runwalds, which stood in the middle of the market, was demolished in the 19th century. One of the two bells in St Nicholas church was cast by Joanna Hille in 1411, the first recorded example of a woman casting a church bell. The High Strete continued east to Est Gate (modern East Gate) as Frere Strete (modern East Hill), so called because the Franciscan Greyfriars stood on its north side, opposite the church of St James-the-Greats on the south side of the street. Where High Strete became Frere Strete there was another main road running south, called Suth Strete (modern Queen Street) which led out of Suth Gate (South Gate). Running east-west between Suth Strete and Hed Strete, and parallel to the High Strete ran Culver Strete (modern Culver Street East and Culver Street West) and Elde Lane (modern Short Wyre Street, Eld Lane and Sir Isaacs Walk). Elde Lane was the location of several alms houses for the poor from 1481/2 onwards. Connecting Elde Lane, Culver Strete and High Strete were three north–south streets, Catte Lane (modern Lion Walk), Wyre Lane (modern Long Wyre Street) and Trinity Lane (modern Trinity Street) where Holy Trinity church stands. The junction of Catte Lane and High Strete is where John Howard built his house that would later become the Red Lion. To the north of High Strete ran three north–south streets, West Stockwell Strete, Est Stockwell Strete and Maidenburgh Strete (the modern West and East Stockwell Streets and Maidenburgh Street respectively). These streets were Saxon in origin, leading down to the old Stockwell public well. St Martins church stood on West Stockwell Strete, which was also home to Colchester's cobblers, whilst St Helena's Chapel stood on Maidenburgh Strete, on the corner of Elyn Lane (modern St Helens Lane). The south end of Maidenburgh Strete, where it joins High Strete, was an open market space taking up the area between modern Madienburgh Street, George Street and the east end of Williams Walk. These streets headed north down to what is now Northgate Street, where the Ryegate gave access to Middle Mill. The Castle sat with its associated buildings in the castle Bailey, surrounded by the bank and ditch defences, on the north side of the High Strete. The castle was the County Jail for most of the Middle Ages, with most dignitaries choosing to stay at St John's Abbey from the 14th century onwards. The houses and buildings along the street fronts were timber framed, and usually consisted of a main hall and several side rooms, with ovens, wells and yards. Locally made roof tile, louvers and Flemish-style glazed floor tiles were in many of the larger houses. Behind the street fronts were large yards and cultivation plots, as well as industrial features such as metal casting pits and lime kilns. A feature of the medieval town were burgates, enclosed urban estates attached to some of the larger dwellings. As well as around 13 inns, the town also contained around 15–20 taverns. this cross roads was located the Bull Inn, which is still in existence as Colchester's oldest public house, and St Catherine's Hospital. The road to London was Croucherche Strete (modern Crouch Street), named after the Crouched Friars priory and Hospital of St Cross on the south-west corner of the junction with Maldone Lane (modern Maldon Road). Opposite the priory was an Inn called the Saracen's Head and an elaborate wayside cross. Croucherche Strete continued eastwards as Gutter Strete (modern St John's Street) where it met a cross-roads outside of Scheregate. Scheregate gave more direct access to the town for St John's Abbey and St John's Green via Lodders Lane (modern Abbey Gate Street) and Stanwell Strete (modern Stanwell Street). The abbey precinct, surrounded on the east, north and west sides by a wall which enclosed St Giles church, the abbey building itself and several smaller buildings, including the Abbot's house. Gutter Strete continued east to the cross-roads outside of Suth Gate as Bere Lane (modern Vineyard Street), which was one of the poorest districts in the town. Bere Lane took its name from the Berehalle (Bear Hall, a bear and bull baiting arena) located on its southern side. The road was also home to medieval Colchester's licensed brothels and stew houses (bath house/brothel buildings), and medieval tennis courts. The area kept its reputation as the Red-light district of Colchester until the end of the Victorian era, when the houses along what is now Vineyard carpark were demolished in a slum clearance, and the roads name was changed to the more innocuous sounding Vineyard Street. Bere Lane met Botolph Strete (modern St Botolph's Street) outside of the Suth Gate, which became the main road south out of the town to Mersea Island. St Botolph's Priory stood in its precinct behind the street front on the east side of the road, whilst the east precinct wall of St John's Abbey lay against its west side. Along Botolph Strete's east side lay Hog Lane (also Grub Strete), which ran east to become Magdaleyne Strete (modern Magdalene Street and Barrack Street), the main road to the Hythe port, and another branch road to Rowhedge (modern Military Road). Magdaleyne Strete was named after the Hospital of St Mary Magdaleyne, which stood on the junction between Magdaleyne Strete and Brook Strete (modern Brook Street). This latter street took its name from the Lose Brook in the valley between Magdaleyne Strete and the town walls, a stream which arose at the Stanwell (Stone Well) on St John's Green before travelling east through the precinct of St Botolph's Priory and then across the mores (uncultivated land) to the south east of the town before emptying into the Colne near Est Bregge (East Bridge). This brook was used by the medieval cloth workers who lived at St John's Green and along Botolph Strete. Running around the outside of the south-east corner of the town was More Strete (modern Priory Street), named after the mores around it. A small lane ran across these mores from More Strete to Brook Strete called More Elm Lane, named after the Elm Trees that lined it. More Strete connected Botolph Strete with Est Strete (modern East Street), which exited the town at Est Gate before crossing the Colne at Est Brugge (East Bridge). The community along Est Strete was one of the poorest in the town after Bere Lane, and was home to several unlicensed brothels. There was a mill at Est Brugge and small jetties on the river bank. Across the Est Brugge there stood a stone wayside cross at the point where the Est Strete divided into the main roads to Ipswich and Harwich (modern Ipswich and Harwich Roads respectively). Outside of North Gate ran the main road to Myland (Mile End) and Sudbury, with the suburbs of Myddelburgh (Middleborough) located on this road between North Gate and Northbregge (North Bridge). Myddelburgh and Myland contained pottery and louver kilns. The medieval Hythe port Magdaleyne Strete led from Colchester and connected the town to the Hythe, and by the 14th century houses extended from the Hythe all the way up to St Mary Magdalene hospital. The road into the Hythe was called Hethstrete (modern Hythe Hill), and had a wayside cross at some point along it. Although physically separate from the main part of the town proper, the Hythe was legally part of the town. The Hythe had a foot bridge in place of the old ford by 1407 to reach the east bank of the Colne, which in 1473–74 was replaced by the Stonebregge (Stone Bridge) to give access to the village of Greenstead. However, all of the structures at the Hythe were located on its west bank, which included cranes (some of the earliest recorded in England), warehouses, boat building sheds, at least one mill and brew houses (which used the raw water from the Colne for brewing). The river between the Hythe and Wivenhoe had been straightened in the early 14th century, but most large ships could not fit along the river to the Hythe, and so instead alighted their cargo at Brightlingsea close to the Colne Estuary, from where it was taken to the Hythe in smaller boats. Owing to this role as Colchester's surrogate port Brightlingsea subsequently became a member of the medieval Cinque Ports alliance. The Hythe was the richest parish in the town due to its port and river trade, and had its own small market for fish and bread. The Hythe saw a slight increase in trade through the second half of the 14th century, which has been linked to a decline in Ipswich's port from the 1330s into the 15th century. However, by the late 15th century the amount of revenue taken as river toll was down due to a contraction in overseas trade, and most shipping was done through London. Dutch Quarter Between 1550 and 1600, a large number of Protestant weavers and clothmakers from Flanders, fleeing persecution, emigrated to Colchester and the surrounding areas where they were affectionately referred to as the 'Dutch'. They were famed for the production of Bays and Says cloth. An area in Colchester town centre is still known as the Dutch Quarter and many buildings there date from the Tudor period. During this period Colchester was one of the most prosperous wool towns in England. Between 1796 and 1810 Jane Taylor lived in West Stockwell Street of the Dutch Quarter, famous for writing the poem Twinkle Twinkle Little Star. Siege of Colchester In 1648, Colchester was thrown into the thick of the Second English Civil War when a large Royalist army (led by Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle) entered the largely Parliamentarian (Roundhead) town. They were hotly pursued from Kent by a detachment of the New Model Army led by Sir Thomas Fairfax, Henry Ireton, and Thomas Rainsborough. The Roundheads besieged the town for 76 days. By that time, many of the town's most ancient monuments like St. Mary's Church and the Gate of St. John's Abbey were partially destroyed and the inhabitants were reduced to eating candles and boots. When the Royalists surrendered in the late summer, Lucas and Lisle were shot in the grounds of Colchester Castle. The spot is marked by an obelisk today and there is a myth that no grass will grow in this area (it has since been covered with tarmac to make sure.) Plague Daniel Defoe mentions in A tour through England and Wales that the town lost 5,259 people to the plague in 1665, "more in proportion than any of its neighbours, or than the city of London". By the time he wrote this in 1722, however, he estimated its population (including "out-villages") to have risen to around 40,000. Colchester earthquake At around 9:20 in the morning of 22 April 1884 the Colchester area was at the epicentre of the UK's most destructive earthquake, estimated to have been 5.2 on the Richter Scale, and lasting for about 20 seconds. The quake was felt over much of southern England and into Europe, and over 1,200 buildings were destroyed or damaged. The Times for Wednesday 23 April reported damage "in the many villages in the neighbourhood from Colchester to the sea coast", with many poor people made homeless, and estimated the financial cost of the quake at 10,000 pounds sterling. Great damage was also reported in Wivenhoe and Ipswich, and buildings destroyed included Langenhoe church. The death of a child at Rowhedge was also reported. A copy of the Report on the East Anglian Earthquake of April 22, 1884 can be found in the Colchester local library. Oyster Feast The Oyster Feast is the centrepiece of the Colchester's annual civic calendar. The feast celebrates the "Colchester Natives" (the native oyster, Ostrea edulis) that are gathered from the Colne oyster fishery. The feast has its origins in the 14th century and is held in the Moot Hall. Colchester Army Garrison The Colchester Garrison has been an important military base since the Roman era. The first permanent military garrison in Colchester was established by the Legio XX Valeria Victrix in AD 43 following the Claudian invasion of Britain. Colchester was an important barracks during the Napoleonic Wars and throughout the Victorian era. During the First World War several battalions of Kitchener's Army were trained there. Today, there are considerable plans to build a new and modern barracks out of the town to free up building land in the centre and replace the Victorian buildings. There are hopes that some of the original architecture will be conserved for heritage. Colchester Town Watch Colchester Town Watch was founded in 2001 to provide a ceremonial guard for the mayor of Colchester and for the town for civic events. A self-financed body of volunteers, the Watch is convened under the auspices of the Statutes of Winchester of 1253. This statute was introduced to provide for some sort of law and order, and created the first police force in the UK. Today's Watch, of course, are a purely ceremonial body, leaving law and order to the Essex Constabulary. The Watch's livery is based on late Elizabethan dress, and is in the town colours of red and green. The Watch wear crested morions, back and breastplates, and carry either partizans or half-pikes when on duty. The Captain has the privilege of wearing Elizabethan "civvies". A fine and colourful (in every sense) body of persons, the Watch provide a link with Colchester history at many civic events. Their day is, however, the Marching Watches. On the Saturday closest to the Vigil of St. John The Baptist, the watch "walk the walls" completing a circuit of Colchester's town wall (the oldest in Britain, with parts dating back to Roman times), a "beating the bounds" type ceremony, establishing the territory they protect. A distance of some 3 kilometers, it finishes in a local hostelry, The Foresters Arms, so that the Watch may refresh themselves. They are accompanied by Mayors past and present, such civic dignitaries as may wish to attend, and anyone else who cares to join in. Colchester Co-op The Colchester and East Essex Co-operative Society was founded in 1861. Today the society is the largest independent retail chain in the region with a net asset value of £65 million. Paxman Engine manufacturer Paxman has been associated with Colchester since 1865 when James Noah Paxman founded a partnership with the brothers Henry and Charles Davey ('Davey, Paxman, and Davey') and opened the Standard Ironworks at a location in the town centre. In 1876 James Paxman obtained a site on Hythe Hill and the company moved to the "New" Standard Ironworks. In 1925 Paxman produced its first spring injection oil engine and joined the English Electric Diesel Group in 1966 – later becoming part of GEC. Since the 1930s the Paxman company's main business has been the production of diesel engines. Paxman engines are world-famous. They are used in fast naval patrol craft, submarines, and high-speed trains. At its peak, the Paxman works covered 23 acres (93,000 m2) and employed over 2,000 people. Paxman became part of MAN Diesel in 2000. In 2003 the company announced proposals to transfer manufacturing to Stockport. Production was wound down, and what was to be the last production engine to be built in Colchester was completed on 15 September 2003. However, the Stockport plant proved unable to manufacture the popular VP185 efficiently, and thus in 2005, production resumed in Colchester. References Coloniae (Roman)
4580694	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Nationals	London Nationals	The London Nationals are a Canadian junior ice hockey team based in London, Ontario, Canada. They play in the Western division of the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League. Paul Duarte is the current owner of the London Nationals. The general manager and head coach is Pat Powers. The Nationals play their home games at the Western Fair Sports Centre. The arena's seating capacity is 1,800, and features an international-sized ice surface measuring 100' X 200'. History Early days — 1950 The team's life began in 1950, playing in The Big '10' Western Division out of the Ontario Arena at the Western Fair grounds. They won the Western Division title in 1952 as the London Lou Ball Juniors, after sponsor Lou Ball's clothing store. In 1956 the 'Big 10' was divided, and London became a member of the Western Ontario Junior "B" Hockey League. Consistent representation of the city of London at the Jr. B level began in 1950 with the London Lou Ball Juniors, playing in The 'Big 10' Western Division out of the Ontario Arena at the Western Fairgrounds. The team was named after Lou Ball Clothes, which were stores owned by coach Lou Ball, and they won the championship the following season. The team was known as the London Collinson Flyers during the 1955–56 season before reverting to Lou Ball Juniors for 2 more seasons. The name changed to London Diamonds in 1958, then to Athletics in 1960. In 1961 the team was renamed again. They were called the Nationals, after sponsor Canadian National Recreation Association, an organization of Canadian National Railways employees. The Maple Leafs — 1963 In 1963 the Toronto Maple Leafs began sponsoring the Nationals. The Maple Leafs traditionally had affiliations with the Toronto Marlboros and St. Michael's Majors, however with the withdrawal of the Majors from the OHA, and the collapse of the Metro Junior A League, the Leafs were left with only one team. They decided to sponsor the junior team in London, which they wanted to play at the new London Gardens and be promoted to the Ontario Hockey Association. The OHA initially balked at the proposition however, and so the Nationals continued to play in the Junior B league, winning the London Free Press Trophy as league champions in 1964 and 1965. For the 1965–66 season, the team was finally admitted to major junior hockey, and London's Junior B franchise moved to Ingersoll to make room for the Junior A Nationals. The Junior A team was renamed as London Knights in 1968, and the Nationals name disappeared from the London sports landscape. The Bees, Squires and Diamonds — 1966 The Junior B team returned to London under the name Bees for the 1966–1967 season, but then fell dormant for two seasons. The team was revived in 1969 as the Squires, and played under that name until 1976. The team was then known as the Diamonds from 1976–1991, before the Nationals name was revived after a long-lasting sponsorship with a diamond jeweler dissolved. The team's time under the Diamonds name was successful, as they claimed the Western Ontario Hockey League title in 1981, 1983, and 1984. Nationals Name Returns — 1991 The next change came when Kent Phibbs purchased the team and changed the name back to the London Nationals, and they won the Western Jr. B championship that same year. The team uniforms were once again the blue and white of the Maple Leafs and the team remained at Nichols Arena for a few years. Mr. Phibbs now moved the team back to the Gardens. In the summer of 1998, the team was sold again, this time to the Doug Tarry Group (London Knights). The team remained playing at the same arena, but the name had changed to the London Ice House. The team colors and logo were changed to eggplant and teal to match the affiliate and the team still played at the London Ice House. The team's most recent championship came in 2019 (4th straight) as Western Conference Champions. In 2013, the Nationals defeated the Cambridge Winterhawks to win their first-ever Sutherland Cup. The Nationals appeared in back-to-back Sutherland Cups in 2016 & 2017, and again in 2019. In 2020, the Nationals marked their 70th anniversary as a Jr. B franchise in London. Championships Sutherland Cup GOJHL Champions 2012–13 Champions vs. Cambridge Winterhawks Bill Weir Trophy GOJHL Western Conference Champions 2018–19 Champions vs. Leamington Flyers 2017–18 Champions vs. St. Thomas Stars 2016–17 Champions vs. Leamington Flyers 2015–16 Champions vs. Leamington Flyers 2012–13 Champions vs. Chatham Maroons 2011–12 Champions vs. Strathroy Rockets Western Ontario Junior B Champions Western Ontario Junior Hockey League 1991–92 Champions vs. Windsor Bulldogs 1983–84 Champions vs. Sarnia Bees 1982–83 Champions vs. Sarnia Bees 1980–81 Champions vs. Chatham Maroons 1974–75 Champions vs. St. Mary's Lincolns Western Junior B Champions Western Ontario Junior B Hockey League 1964–65 Champions vs. St. Thomas Barons 1963–64 Champions vs. St. Thomas Barons 1951–52 Champions vs. Sarnia Jr. Sailors Season-by-season results Playoffs 1950–51 Lost to Windsor 8–6 (2–3, 6–3) 1951–52 Defeated Windsor 3–0 in semi-finals Defeated Sarnia 4–0 in finals. BIG '10' WESTERN CHAMPIONS 1952–53 Semi-final round robin. London Eliminated. 1953–54 Lost to Sarnia 4–0 in semi-finals. 1954–55 Lost to Sarnia 3–2 in semi-finals. 1955–56 Did not qualify 1956–57 Did not qualify 1957–58 Defeated Woodstock 3–0 in first round. Defeated St. Mary's Lincolns 3–1 in semi-finals. Lost to Sarnia Bees 4–1 in final. 1958–59 Lost to Sarnia Bees 4–1–1 in semi-finals 1959–60 Did not qualify 1960–61 Did not qualify 1961–62 Did not qualify 1962–63 Did not qualify 1963–64 Defeated Sarnia Bees 4–2 (7–4, 2–5, 4–2, 5–7, 6–2, 5–3) in semi-finals. Defeated St. Thomas Barons 4–2 (7–6, 3–5, 4–2, 5–2, 3–7, 6–1) in finals. WOJHL CHAMPIONS 1964–65 Defeated Chatham Maroons 4–1 (4–6, 6–5, 5–3, 5–0, 7–4) in semi-finals. Defeated St. Thomas Barons 4–0 (8–4, 6–3, 3–1, 7–5) in finals. WOJHL CHAMPIONS 1965–66 Lost to Sarnia Bees 4–1 (4–3, 2–8, 7–2, 3–2, 5–2) in semi-finals. 1966–67 Did not qualify 1967–68 Did not participate 1968–69 Did not participate 1970–78 NO RECORDS AVAILABLE 1978–79 Defeated Petrolia Jets 7–3 (6-pt series) in first round. Lost to Strathroy Blades 8–0 (8-pt series) in second round. 1980–80 Defeated Chatham Maroons 3–1 in first round. Defeated Strathroy Blades 4–0 in second round. Lost to Windsor 4–0 in finals. 1980–81 Defeated Windsor 4–0 (London advanced directly to final) Defeated Chatham Maroons 4–1 in finals. WOJHL CHAMPIONS 1981–82 Defeated Chatham Maroons 3–0 in first round. Defeated Petrol Jets 3–0 in second-round. Lost to Sarnia 4–3 in finals. 1982–83 Defeated St. Thomas Pests 5–2 in first round. (Best 5-of-9; London advanced directly to final) Defeated Sarnia Steeplejacks 4–1 in finals. WOJHL CHAMPIONS 1983–84 Defeated Windsor 4–0 (London advanced directly to final) Defeated Sarnia Steeplejacks 4–0 in finals. WOJHL CHAMPIONS 1984–85 Defeated St. Thomas Pests 3–0 (London advanced directly to final) 1985–86 Lost to Chatham Maroons 5–4 (Best 5-of-9) in first round. 1986–87 Defeated Chatham Maroons 4–0 in first round. Second Round (Double Round-Robin): 1st - St. Thomas, 2nd - London, 3rd - Sarnia (eliminated) Final: St. Thomas def. London 4–0 1988–89 Did not qualify 1989–90 Did not qualify 1990–91 Lost to St. Mary's Lincoln's 4–0 in quarter-final. 1991–92 Lost to Windsor 4–1 in quarter-final. 1992–93 Defeated St. Thomas Stars 4–1 in divisional semi-final. Defeated St Mary's Lincolns 4–3 in divisional final. Defeated Windsor 4–3 in finals. WOJHL CHAMPIONS 1993–94 Defeated St. Thomas Stars 4–1 in divisional semi-final. Lost to St Mary's Lincolns 4–0 in divisional final. 1994–95 Defeated Aylmer 4–2 in divisional semi-final. Lost to St Mary's Lincolns 4–0 in divisional final. 1995–96 Lost to St. Thomas Stars 4–0 in divisional semi-finals. 1996–97 Lost to St. Thomas Stars 4–0 in divisional semi-finals. 1997–98 Lost to St. Thomas Stars 4–1 in divisional semi-finals. 1998–99 Did not qualify. 1999–00 Lost to St. Thomas Stars 4–0 in divisional semi-finals. 2000–01 Did not qualify. 2001–02 Defeated Strathroy Rockets 4–2 in first round. Defeated Sarnia Blast 4–2 in semi-finals. Lost to Chatham 4–2 in finals. 2002–03 Lost to Sarnia Blast 4–1 in quarter-finals 2003–04 Defeated St. Thomas Stars 4–1 in quarter-finals Lost to Sarnia Blast 4–3 in semi-finals. 2004–05 Defeated Leamington Flyers 4–2 in first round. Defeated Sarnia Blast 4–0 in semi-finals. Lost to Chatham 4–2 in finals. 2005–06 Defeated St. Mary's Lincolns 4–1 in first round. Lost to Chatham Maroons 4–0 in semi-finals. 2006–07 Lost to St. Mary's Lincolns 4–3 in quarter-finals. 2007–08 Lost to Sarnia Legionairres 4–3 in quarter-finals. 2008–09 Defeated Leamington Flyers 4–2 in first round. Defeated St. Mary's Lincolns 4–0 in semi-finals. Lost to Tecumseh Chiefs 4–1 in final. 2009–10 Defeated LaSalle Vipers 4–1 in first round. Defeated St. Mary's Lincolns 4–3 in semi-finals. Lost to Sarnia Legionaries 4–2 in final. 2010–11 Defeated Leamington Flyers 4–0 in first round. Lost to St. Thomas Stars 4–2 in semi-finals. 2011–12 Defeated Sarnia Legionaries 4–0 in first round. Defeated LaSalle Vipers 4–2 in semi-finals. Lost to St. Thomas Stars 4–3 in final. 2012–13 Defeated LaSalle Vipers 4–1 in first round. Defeated St. Mary's Lincolns 4–2 in semi-finals. Defeated Strathroy Rockets 4–2 WESTERN CONFERENCE CHAMPIONS Defeated Cambridge Winterhawks 4–3 in the championship round. SUTHERLAND CUP CHAMPIONS 2013–14 Defeated St. Thomas Stars 4–2 in first round. Lost to Leamington Flyers 4–1 in semi-finals. 2014–15 Defeated Sarnia Legionnaries 4–3 in first round. Lost to Leamington Flyers 4–1 in semi-finals. 2015–16 Defeated Strathroy Rockets 4–2 in first round. Defeated LaSalle Vipers 4–2 in semi-finals. Defeated Leamington Flyers 4-2 WESTERN CONFERENCE CHAMPIONS Defeated Stratford Cullitons 4–2 Lost to Caledonia Corvairs 4–0 in final. 2016–17 Defeated St. Mary's Lincolns 4–1 in first round. Defeated Chatham Maroons 4–1 in semi-finals. Defeated Leamington Flyers 4–1 WESTERN CONFERENCE CHAMPIONS Defeated Listowel Cyclones 4–1 Lost to Elmira Sugar Kings 4–1 in Final. 2017–18 Defeated Strathroy Rockets 4–0 in first round. Defeated Chatham Maroons 4–2 in semi-finals. Defeated St. Thomas Stars 4–0 WESTERN CONFERENCE CHAMPIONS Lost to Listowel Cyclones 4–1 in semi-finals 2018–19 Defeated St. Thomas Stars 4–0 in first round. Defeated LaSalle Vipers 4–1 in semi-finals. Defeated Leamington Flyers 4–0 WESTERN CONFERENCE CHAMPIONS Defeated Listowel Cyclones 4–1 in semi-finals Lost to Waterloo Siskins 4–3 in Final. 2019–20 Defeated Sarnia Legionnaries 4–0 in first round. Playoffs cancelled due to COVID-19 Pandemic Sutherland Cup appearances 2013: London Nationals defeated Cambridge Winterhawks 4-games-to-3 2016: Caledonia Corvairs defeated London Nationals 4-games-to-none 2017: Elmira Sugar Kings defeated London Nationals 4-games-to-1 2019: Waterloo Siskins defeated London Nationals 4-games-to-3 Players Retired numbers 16 – Tom Cardiff 22 – Patrick Dobie 29 – Taylor Edwards 39 – Scott Lombardi 61 – Max Vinogradov 96 – Aaron Dartch NHL alumni List of alumni who also played in the National Hockey League. London Nationals Junior B Mike Corrigan Gerry Desjardins Darryl Edestrand Brandon Prust Mike Van Ryn London Diamonds Junior B Bill Armstrong Neal Coulter Jeff Hackett Ken Hammond Dave Hutchison Walt McKechnie Dan Quinn Craig Simpson Scott Thornton Awards GOJHL Western Conference Stan Moore Award First Place - Western Conference 2017-18 2019-20 GOJHL Scoring Champion 2019-20 - Cal Davis Kelly Hearn Award Volunteer of the Year 1992–93 – Bill McCullough 2006–07 – Bill Westgate 2012–13 – Steve Davidson 2013–14 – Bruce Keck Chester Pegg Memorial Award Sportsmanship & Ability 1991–92 – Bill Weir 1995–96 – Craig Watson 2000–01 – Matt Meyer 2009–10 – Adam McKee 2010–11 – Noah Schwartz 2012–13 – Noah Schwartz 2018–19 – Cal Davis Roy Bruhlman Memorial Award Rookie of the Year 1989–90 – Keli Corpse 1990–91 – Trevor Gallant 1997–98 – Scott Dickier 2000–01 – Kyle Piwowarczyk Phibbs Incorporated Award Most Valuable 1st Year Defenseman 1991–92 – Dan Brown 1992–93 – Chad Palmer 1993–94 – Chad Palmer 1994–95 – John Barrett 1996–97 – Mike Van Ryn 2008–09 – Jake McClelland 2013–14 – Matt Fuller 2015-16 - Jordan DiCicco 2019–20 – Logan Mailloux Uni-Fab Award Top Defenceman 2016-17 - Quinn Lenihan 2017-18 - Jordan DiCicco Kevin McIntosh Award Defensive Forward 2017-18 - Kyle Dawson CHOK Award Most Valuable Player 1992–93 – Chris Legg 1993–94 – Shane Johnson 2000–01 – Ash Goldie 2008–09 – Adam McKee 2018–19 – Cal Davis 2019–20 – Cal Davis Phibbs Incorporated Award Most Valuable Rookie Defenseman 2003–04 – Patrick Dobie 2014–15 – Justin Murray Hugh McLean Award Regular Season Scoring Champion 1982–83 – Craig Simpson 1988–89 – Bill Weir 1991–92 – Bill Weir 1992–93 – Mike Legg 1993–94 – Shane Johnson 2007–08 – Glenn McCarron 2009–10 – Adam McKee 2016–17 – Brenden Trottier 2018–19 – Cal Davis 2019–20 – Cal Davis Pat & Jackie Stapleton Award Playoff Scoring Champion 2000–01 – Ashe Goldie Sharon Williamson Award Playoff MVP 2012–13 – Noah Schwartz Southland Insurance Award Top Points - Rookie 2019–20 – Logan Mailloux Smith-Buys Award Rookie Scoring Champion 2000–01 – Kyle Piwowarczyk Roy Caley Award Best Team Goals Against Average 1979–80 – 1980–81 – 1982–83 – D. Sceli, Craig Billington 1983–84 – Richard McCullough, Rob Nixon 1984–85 – 1985–86 – 1986–87 – Joe Noval, Brian Morris 1991–92 – Shawn O'Hagan, Dave Grasso 1995–96 – Steve Tutt, Ian Burt 2009–10 – Mike Coulter, Taylor Edwards 2016–17 – Cameron Zanussi, Trenten McGrail 2017–18 – David Ovsjannikov, Zach Springer 2019–20 – Shawn Wiranata Team records As of January 19, 2020 Arenas Ontario Arena, 1950–1963 Built : Capacity : . Ice Size : 190' x 85' Original home of the London Nationals. Built on the property of the Western Fair. London Gardens/London Ice House, 1976–2001 Built : 1963 Capacity : 5,075 including standing room. Ice Size : 190' x 85' The London Gardens (see article) was built in 1963 and served as the home of the Nationals from 1963 to its closing in 2001. The building was renamed London Ice House in 1994. The arena is currently home to the Forest City Velodrome. Ray Lanctin Arena (Medway Arena), 2002–2005 Built : 1967 Capacity : N/A. Ice Size : 100' x 200' Medway Arena was renovated in 2009 after being built in 1967. Renovations include updates to the community centre, flooring and rink boards. Winter skating programs and events run throughout the winter season, and arena pad is available for lacrosse during the summer season. This facility is also equipped with a hall and kitchenette, perfect for private rentals.. Western Fair Sports Centre, 2006–present Built : 1995 Capacity : 1,500 including standing room. Ice Size : 100' x 200' The Sports Centre at Western Fair District is a state-of-the-art 160,000 square foot multi-use facility known as a leader amongst the many ice facilities available in London and Ontario. Other arenas Lambeth Arena Earl Nicols Arena Ray Lanctin Arena Glencoe Arena Uniforms and logos The original London Nationals were modelled off their parent club, the Toronto Maple Leafs up until the change to the London Knights. The team's logo was the same Leaf as used by the parent club at the time, except with the words "London Nationals" written out across the leaf instead of "Toronto Maple Leafs" The team over went numerous logo and uniform changes with sponsors including Chester Pegg & Phibbs Incorporated. The team adopted similar colours to the Knights (Eggplant & teal) in the 1990s to look more like their Jr A affiliate. The Knight's move to more modern colours in 2002 brought the Nationals' look back to the familiar blue & white look. Today's uniforms mimic the Maple Leafs look, adopting a blue, white & black colour scheme. In 2015, the Nationals adopted a black alternate jerseys with the team's crest logo. Mascot The Nationals' mascot is now known as "Lou", a tribute to the Lou Ball Juniors, a Jr. B team which played out of the Ontario Arena at the Western Fairgrounds beginning in 1950. The winning name was submitted in a "Name The Mascot" contest. Lou made his first appearance in 2012. References External links Nationals Webpage GOJHL Webpage Sports clubs and teams in London, Ontario Western Junior B Hockey League teams
4580784	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Church%20in%20Lithuania	Catholic Church in Lithuania	The Catholic Church in Lithuania () is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope in Rome. Lithuania is the world's northernmost Catholic majority country. Pope Pius XII gave Lithuania the title of "northernmost outpost of Catholicism in Europe" in 1939. Among the Baltic states, Lithuania is the country with the highest percentage of Catholic population. Almost three-quarters (74.19%) of Lithuania's population, self-identified as Catholics in the 2021 census. The country is divided into eight dioceses including two archdioceses and a military ordinariate. St. Casimir (Kazimieras, 1458–1484) is the only canonized saint of Lithuania. He is the patron of the country and Lithuanian youth. Archbishop Jurgis Matulaitis-Matulevičius (1871–1927) was beatified in 1987. History Middle Ages (–1500) 11th century The missionary bishop Saint Bruno of Querfurt was martyred in 1009 for preaching the Christian faith. Some historians write that he was martyred by the Lithuanians, but Zigmas Zinkevičius contests this and says that Bruno was killed in lands inhabited by the Yotvingians. The name of Lithuania was mentioned for the first time due to this. 13th century Catholicism began to spread in Lithuania in the 13th century. The Dominican Order and the Franciscans began to be established in Lithuania during the rule of Mindaugas (). The Dominican Saint Hyacinth came to Lithuania in 1231. In 1251, a Lithuanian delegation sent by Lithuania's ruler Mindaugas informed Pope Innocent IV that Mindaugas would like to be baptised as Roman Catholic. The Pope enthusiastically accepted the Lithuanian conversion, writing even six papal bulls regarding this matter. In the first half of 1251, Mindaugas and many of his subjects, including part of the Lithuanian nobility, were baptised as Roman Catholics. The ruler's baptism meant that Lithuania became an officially Catholic country that was internationally recognized already in the 1250s. The Pope obliged the Bishop of Culm to crown Mindaugas with the king's crown in the Pope's name. On 6 July 1253, Mindaugas was crowned king of Lithuania, while Morta became Queen of Lithuania. On August 21, the Pope appointed the Teutonic Order priest Christian as the bishop of Lithuania, thus establishing the Diocese of Lithuania. According to the Lithuanian bishop Jonas Boruta, "A separate diocese directly subordinate to the Pope is already a considerable step for the creation of an ecclesiastical province, and in the Lithuania of Mindaugas' time (if not for unfortunate political events - the murder of Mindaugas, etc.) there were all the conditions for the establishment of an ecclesiastical province as well.." After Mindaugas' assassination, Treniota, who ruled Lithuania for about a year after rising to power in 1263, began persecuting Christians. In 1264, after Treniota was killed, the Lithuania was ruled by Mindaugas' son Vaišvilkas (), followed by Mindaugas' son-in-law Shvarn (), who were both Orthodox. The latter died during the struggle for power within Lithuania and the following Grand Dukes of Lithuania were pagans. 14th century During the 14th century, Lithuania's pagan rulers, for example, Vytenis and Gediminas, built Catholic churches and invited Catholic priests and monks to Lithuania. The pagan Lithuanian Grand Dukes Vytenis () built a Catholic church in Naugardukas and asked for 2 Franciscans to administer it, but the Teutonic Order's knights destroyed the church. Gediminas' rule (1316–1341) Vytenis' successor, Gediminas (), who was also a pagan, formed an alliance with the Archbishop of Riga against the Teutonic Order. Since the beginning of their first alliance in 1298, Riga's Franciscans and Dominicans could freely operate in Lithuania. Later, the Archbishop of Riga wanted to establish Franciscan and Dominican monasteries in Lithuanian cities, in which he succeeded. In Gediminas' estates, Franciscans and Dominicans were active. In Vilnius, two churches were built, with one being for the Dominicans and the other for the Franciscans. There was also a Franciscan church in Naugardukas. Encouraged by these monks and in the pursuit of political goals, Gediminas wrote a letter to the Pope in 1322 promising to become Roman Catholic. In 1323, Gediminas wrote letters to the superiors of monasteries in Western Europe and invited priests, monks and lay Christians to come to Lithuania, while promising them freedom of religion. The Pope promised to send his legates to Gediminas in June 1324 and they arrived in Riga by autumn. They sent their representatives to Gediminas, but he refused to be baptized and pretended not to know anything about his promise to be baptized. He blamed this on the Franciscan who wrote the letter to the Pope. Nevertheless, the monks continued to spread Catholicism in Lithuania. Co-rule by Algirdas and Kęstutis (1345–1377) Gediminas's sons Algirdas and Kęstutis, co-rulers of Lithuania from 1345 to 1377, remained pagans their entire lives. Algirdas, who married Duchess Maria of Vitebsk in 1318, inherited the Principality of Vitebsk in 1320, allowed his children to be baptized Orthodox, and founded the Orthodox Metropolis of Lithuania in the Rus' lands under Lithuanian rule. Kęstutis was encouraged by the Pope as well as the kings of Poland and Hungary, for example King Casimir III of Poland, to become baptised. In 1351, King Louis I of Hungary (who later became king of Poland) wanted Kęstutis to be baptized. He agreed to be baptized on the condition that King Louis I of Hungary would return him the lands seized by the Teutonic Order and ensure Kęstutis' coronation; both parties confirmed the contract by swearing oaths, but Kęstutis remained unbaptised. Emperor Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, sent messengers to Algirdas and Kęstutis in 1358, encouraging them to convert to Catholicism. Lithuania's co-rulers promised to be baptized on the condition that the lands conquered by the Order would be returned to Lithuania, while the Order itself would be brought to the east to fight the Golden Horde Tatars. The conditions were not accepted, so they were not baptised. Although Kęstutis remained a pagan for his life, his daughter Danutė was baptized when she married the Duke of Masovia Janusz I of Warsaw in the 1370s. Pope Gregory XI's efforts to baptize Lithuania in 1373 were also unsuccessful. Lithuanian Civil Wars (1381–1384; 1389–1392) The Grand Dukes of Lithuania Jogaila, Algirdas' son, and Vytautas the Great, Kęstutis' son, sought to ensure Lithuania's baptism. On 31 October 1382, Jogaila negotiated his baptism with the Teutonic Order in the Treaty of Dubysa. In this treaty, Jogaila promised Samogitia until the Dubysa river to the Teutonic Order in return for his help against Kęstutis and Vytautas and promised to be baptized with his subordinates within 4 years. When Jogaila did not ratify the treaty the following year, the Order began supporting Vytautas. Vytautas was baptized Roman Catholic with the baptismal name Wigand on 21 October 1383 in Tepliava. Vytautas promised Samogitia up to Nevėžis to the Teutonic Order and was given to rule 3 castles near the Nemunas river. With the Act of Krėva in 1385, Jogaila accepted Polish nobility's offer to marry the Queen Hedwig of Poland, the daughter of Louis I of Hungary, and to be crowned King of Poland and accept the Roman Catholic faith. So, Jogaila was baptized on 15 February 1386 as Ladislaus in Kraków together with several brothers and his cousin Vytautas, who was baptised as Alexander. In 1387, Jogaila, accompanied by Bishop Andrzej Jastrzębiec, arrived in Vilnius, where they were aided by Lithuanian-speaking Franciscans. Lithuania, primarily Aukštaitija, was baptised once more in 1387 on the initiative of the grand dukes Jogaila and Vytautas. Jogaila's privilege of 17 February 1387 ensured that the Vilnius Cathedral was provided for, while the diocese of Vilnius was established under Pope Urban VI on 12 March 1388. Jogaila was personally involved in the building of the churches in Maišiagala, Medininkai, and other places, and established a chapter consisting of a provost, dean and 10 canons. Most of the clergy were Poles. The first Franciscan monasteries were established. 15th century A delegation of Samogitian nobility arrived to the Council of Constance in 1417, where they sought to prove that Jogaila and Vytautas are ensuring the baptism of the Samogitians and demanded that Samogitia would remain under Vytautas' rule. In addition, the Samogitian delegation requested that the future diocese in Samogitia be established under the surveillance by the bishops of Vilnius and Lviv. When the Teutonic Order disallowed the delegation formed by the Council of Constance to go and baptize Samogitia, this was done by the bishops of Vilnius and Lviv. The Baptism of Samogitia happened in 1417. The diocese of Samogitia, based in Medininkai, was established in 1421 under Pope Martin V. There was also a chapter consisting of 6 canons and Matthias of Trakai was consecrated as the first bishop of Samogitia. Both the dioceses of Vilnius and Samogitia belonged to the ecclesiastical province of Gniezno until 1795. With the help of the rulers like Vytautas, Jogaila and others, the number of churches in Lithuania increased rapidly. By the end of the 14th century, there were 17 churches in the Vilnius' diocese, of which 5 were in Vilnius itself. According to the Polish historian , 10 parishes were established by 1392, with a total of 27 parishes throughout the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by the time of the death of Vytautas the Great in 1430. By the end of 15th century, there were 109 churches throughout Lithuania, 91 in Vilnius' diocese and 18 or 19 churches in the Samogitian diocese, of which 7 were founded by Vytautas himself. From then until the mid-16th century, 103 and 38 churches were built in the Vilnius and Samogitian dioceses, respectively. Around 1500, there were 130 churches in Vilnius' diocese. While the dioceses were being established, churches were mostly built and founded by rulers, later by magnates and nobles. In the foundations by rulers, land was usually assigned to the church, the income from which allowed the maintenance of parish clergy and buildings, while the foundations by nobles concerned funds and church supplies. The noble founders of churches and their heirs usually also inherited the Jus patronatus, which ensured that the parish would be provided with a clergyman. Early Modern period (1500–1795) 16th century In 1530–40, the Reformation and humanist ideas began spreading to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from Lithuania Minor. In the mid-16th century, Protestantism spread in Lithuania and although the influence of Lutherans initially prevailed, the influence of Calvinists prevailed thereafter. Around 1570, the Reformation reaches its highpoint in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. During this period, educational activities, the establishment of schools, and book publishing became more active. For example, the first printed book in the Lithuanian language was the Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas, a Lutheran pastor, in 1547. During the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church starts fighting more actively against Arianism and other forms of Protestantism. At the time, Protestant churches and schools were closed down, while most of the Lithuanian nobility, most importantly the Radvila family's Nyasvizh branch, from which came Mikalojus Kristupas Radvila Našlaitėlis and Cardinal Jurgis Radvila, converted to Catholicism. In 1569, due to the initiative of Bishop Valerijonas Protasevičius, Jesuits were invited to Vilnius. After coming to the geographically distant Baltic, Spaniards, Italians, Germans, as well as some of the first Polish Jesuits, began to learn local languages. The Jesuits learned Lithuanian in the 1570s, and the first foreigners who learned the Lithuanian language were the Spaniards, who learned it to preach and listen to confessions in that language. Sometimes they went to the surrounding villages and sometimes organized sermons in Vilnius' streets. Soon, they quickly introduced the constant and frequent delivery of Lithuanian sermons in Vilnius. Complete lists of those who preached in Lithuanian until up to the 18th century still exist and despite some slight gaps, many of the lists of the Lithuanian Jesuit province have survived. However, in 1570, until they learnt Lithuanian, Jesuits initially delivered sermons in Italian, German and Polish. The Cardinal Jurgis Radvila founded the Vilnius Theological Seminary in 1582. Bishop Merkelis Giedraitis (1576–1609), who actively encouraged Catholicism in Samogitia, where he built 12 churches and established new parishes, also sent his clerics to it. In the Third Statute of Lithuania, published in 1588, equal civil and political rights were established for Catholics, Protestants and the Eastern Orthodox within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Union of Lithuanian Brest, the ecclesiastical union of the Orthodox within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with Rome, happened in 1596. 17th-18th centuries The construction of churches supported by noble founders and the establishment of new monasteries intensified very much during the 17th-18th centuries. Schools, hospitals, shelters were built near them. From this time to the destruction of the Lithuanian state in 1795, monasteries became extremely influential because monks participated in all areas of the religious and cultural life of the nation. Most Dominican monasteries in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were built in the 17th century. The officially Catholic Grand Duchy of Lithuania was partitioned out of existence in the Third Partition of Poland–Lithuania of 1795 by the Protestant Kingdom of Prussia and the Eastern Orthodox Russian Empire. Most of the Lithuanian lands were under Russian rule. After the First Partition of Poland–Lithuania in 1772, Empress Catherine II of Russia created the archdiocese of Mogilev in 1782. Long 19th century (1795–1914) After the uprisings of 1831 and 1863, the tsar's repression against the Catholic Church intensified, and monasteries were closed en masse. These monasteries were previously very involved in religious and cultural activities throughout the former Lithuanian lands and were responsible for many schools, libraries, and charity institutions. During the years of Russian rule, a struggle began within the Catholic Church for the rights of faith and Lithuanian national identity, which were persistently defended by Bishop of Samogitia Motiejus Valančius. Valančius spread faith, sobriety, and literacy among Lithuanians. 20th century Lithuania regained its independence in 1918 and successfully defended it in the Lithuanian Wars of Independence. The Vatican recognized Lithuania's independence de jure in 1922. A concordat was signed in 1927 between Lithuania and the Holy See. First Soviet occupation After the Soviet Union occupied Lithuania in the summer of 1940, the Church began to be persecuted. The Church and state were separated. The concordat and diplomatic relations with the Vatican were terminated. Church property was confiscated, religious education in schools was stopped, publishing of Catholic books and newspapers was banned. Dominican monasteries were also closed down. On 11–12 July 1940, many prominent Lithuanian public figures were arrested, including Catholic priests. During the Soviet mass deportation from Lithuania on 14–15 June 1941, 9 Lithuanian Catholic priests were deported. In the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in late June 1941, a total of 15 Lithuanian Catholic priests were murdered. On June 22, priests , Vaclovas Balsius and Jonas Petrikas in Būdavonė forest (Bartninkai district) were martyred by NKVD soldiers. Second Soviet occupation During the second Soviet occupation, which began once the Red Army invaded Lithuanian lands in 1944, the persecution of the Church intensified. This was because of the regime's state atheism, as well as the Catholic Church's involvement in the Lithuanian anti-communist guerrilla war against Soviet occupation. Mass arrests and deportations of Lithuanian citizens, priests and believers, were carried out. Churches were closed down. The restrictions on the church's activities intensified, especially restricting the training of new clergy. In 1946, the bishop of Telšiai Vincentas Borisevičius was arrested and sentenced to death. Later, the bishops Teofilius Matulionis, Pranciškus Ramanauskas, Vilnius archbishop Mečislovas Reinys were arrested and imprisoned. The Soviet state seized the Vilnius Cathedral from the Catholic Church in 1950. In the 1970s, the Catholic Church's underground activity intensified, as underground Catholic newspapers and magazines began to be published, and priests were trained underground. In 1972, the underground publication Chronicle of the Catholic Church of Lithuania began to be published. The number of initiatives to defend religious freedom increased. Also during the Communist time, Apostolic Visitors were designated by the Holy See for the Lithuanian Roman Catholics in diaspora. Hill of Crosses The nationally renowned anti-Communist resistance shrine, the Hill of Crosses, upon which thousands of Latin Rite crosses of all sizes have been placed, is located near the city of Šiauliai. Erecting Latin crosses on the hill was forbidden by the Czarist Russian Orthodox authorities in the 19th century. Later, in the 20th century, the Soviet authorities also forbade such explicit religious symbols. The crosses were removed in 1961 with tractors and bulldozers, but despite Soviet prohibitions, Catholics continued to put small crucifixes and larger crosses on the Hill of Crosses. Pope John Paul II visited the hill during his visit to Lithuania, primarily because it was a sign of anti-Communist Catholic resistance, as well as a Catholic religious site. Lithuania was the only majority-Catholic Soviet republic. Independent Lithuania Lithuania regained its independence once more in 1990, during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Catholic Church is an influential factor in the country, and some priests actively led the resistance against the Communist regime and, after independence was regained, in support of traditionalism, especially in ethical questions. The Catholic Church in Lithuania has after independence continued to campaign against liberal and socialist measures, especially in ethical questions. The treaties of the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania entered into force in 2000. Since then, the relations between the Catholic Church and the Lithuanian state have been regulated by three special treaties of the Republic of Lithuania and the Holy See, instead of the concordat. Education Christian culture was spread in Lithuania through schools. Until the Third Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, education was mainly taken care of by the Catholic Church. Initially, the first schools operated in Vilnius near the Franciscan monastery and cathedral. Vytautas settled the Benedictines in Senieji Trakai in 1409, where it was sought that they would open a school as well. A parish school for the townspeople was established, near the Church of St. Johns, Vilnius, in 1413. More schools appeared in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1534, the Synod of Vilnius ordered priests to establish schools. The church leadership ordered in 1607 the establishment of primary schools in all parishes, while the higher schools were maintained by Jesuits, Piarists and other monks. In the 18th century, there were about 300 parochial schools in Lithuania, with 5,000 students. The Jesuits establish a college in Vilnius in 1570. The Vilnius Academy was founded in 1579 by the Jesuits through the reorganization of the college they established nine years prior. The university trained Lithuanian clergymen and published Lithuanian-language religious literature. Jesuits also founded many colleges in other cities. The Jesuits head the Vilnius University until 1773. After the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, the Commission of National Education took over the management of Vilnius University and higher schools. Hierarchy List of Apostolic Visitors for Lithuanian Catholics in Diaspora (historically, until 2003) Catholic churches in Lithuania The first churches appeared in Lithuania before the introduction of Christianity – they were built by merchants and craftsmen from other countries who lived here. After the baptism in 1387 the number of churches in Lithuania began to grow notably. In the middle of the twentieth century there were as many as 885 Catholic churches and chapels in Lithuania. The first church in Lithuania, supposedly, was built by the Grand Duke Mindaugas in the thirteenth century. It was Vilnius Cathedral, which in its long history has been repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. The oldest surviving stone church is St. Nicholas, built in the 14th – 15th centuries. It stands in Vilnius and visitors admire its Gothic and Romanesque features. St. Anne's Church is a masterpiece of late Gothic. The Chapel of the Gate of Dawn storing the icon of the Holy Virgin Mary, Mother of Mercy in Vilnius has many features of late Renaissance and is one of the holy places in Lithuania most visited by pilgrims. Impressive architectural work of baroque is St. Peter and Paul Church in Vilnius. The oldest wooden church of Lithuania is in Palušė, Ignalina district. Catholic organizations in Lithuania Ateitis: Catholic children and youth organization, member of Fimcap See also Religion in Lithuania Apostolic Nunciature to Lithuania Christianization of Lithuania Saint Casimir List of Catholic pilgrimage sites in Lithuania References Sources External links Katalikų Bažnyčia Lietuvoje / Catholic Church in Lithuania Official web site of Lithuanian Catholic Church Sanctuaries and Pilgrimage Sites in Lithuania Catholic Church by country Catholic Church in Europe
4581384	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs%20surgery	Mohs surgery	Mohs surgery, developed in 1938 by a general surgeon, Frederic E. Mohs, is microscopically controlled surgery used to treat both common and rare types of skin cancer. During the surgery, after each removal of tissue and while the patient waits, the tissue is examined for cancer cells. That examination dictates the decision for additional tissue removal. Mohs surgery is the gold standard method for obtaining complete margin control during removal of a skin cancer (complete circumferential peripheral and deep margin assessment - CCPDMA) using frozen section histology. CCPDMA or Mohs surgery allows for the removal of a skin cancer with very narrow surgical margin and a high cure rate. The cure rate with Mohs surgery cited by most studies is between 97% and 99.8% for primary basal-cell carcinoma, the most common type of skin cancer. Mohs procedure is also used for squamous cell carcinoma, but with a lower cure rate. Recurrent basal-cell cancer has a lower cure rate with Mohs surgery, more in the range of 94%. It has been used in the removal of melanoma-in-situ (cure rate 77% to 98% depending on surgeon), and certain types of melanoma (cure rate 52%). Other indications for Mohs surgery include dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, keratoacanthoma, spindle cell tumors, sebaceous carcinomas, microcystic adnexal carcinoma, merkel cell carcinoma, Paget's disease of the breast, atypical fibroxanthoma, and leiomyosarcoma. Because the Mohs procedure is micrographically controlled, it provides precise removal of the cancerous tissue, while healthy tissue is spared. Mohs surgery can also be more cost effective than other surgical methods, when considering the cost of surgical removal and separate histopathological analysis. However, Mohs surgery should be reserved for the treatment of skin cancers in anatomic areas where tissue preservation is of utmost importance (face, neck, hands, lower legs, feet, genitals). Uses Mohs surgery is most commonly used on the head and neck, where its use conserves normal tissue and decreases the risk of recurrence. For these reasons, it is also considered for skin cancers on hands, feet, ankles, shins, nipples, or genitals. Mohs surgery should not be used on the trunk or extremities for uncomplicated, non-melanoma skin cancer of less than one centimeter in size. On these parts of the body, the risks exceed the benefits of the procedure. Technique In 2012, the American Academy of Dermatology published appropriate use criteria (AUC) on Mohs micrographic surgery in collaboration with the following organizations: American College of Mohs Surgery; American Society for Mohs Surgery; and the American Society for Dermatologic Surgery Association. More than 75 physicians contributed to the development of the Mohs surgery AUC, which were published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery. The Australasian College of Dermatologists, in concert with the Australian Mohs Surgery Committee, has also developed evidence based guidelines for Mohs Surgery. The Mohs procedure is a pathology sectioning method that allows for the complete examination of the surgical margin. It is different from the standard bread loafing technique of sectioning, where random samples of the surgical margin are examined. Mohs surgery is performed in four steps: Surgical removal of tissue (Surgical Oncology) Mapping the piece of tissue, freezing and cutting the tissue between 5 and 10 micrometres using a cryostat, and staining with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) or other stains (Including Toluidine Blue) Interpretation of microscope slides (Pathology) Possible reconstruction of the surgical defect (Reconstructive Surgery) The procedure is usually performed in a physician's office under local anesthetic. A small scalpel is utilized to cut around the visible tumor. A very small surgical margin is utilized, usually with 1 to 1.5 mm of "free margin" or uninvolved skin. The amount of free margin removed is much less than the usual 4 to 6 mm required for the standard excision of skin cancers. After each surgical removal of tissue, the specimen is processed, cut on the cryostat and placed on slides, stained with H&E and then read by the Mohs surgeon/pathologist who examines the sections for cancerous cells. If cancer is found, its location is marked on the map (drawing of the tissue) and the surgeon removes the indicated cancerous tissue from the patient. This procedure is repeated until no further cancer is found. The vast majority of cases are then reconstructed by the Mohs surgeon. Some surgeons utilize 100 micrometres between each section, and some utilize 200 micrometres between the first two sections, and 100 micrometres between subsequent sections (10 crank of tissue set at 6 to 10 micrometre is roughly equal to 100 micrometres if one allows for physical compression due to the blade). Blood thinners The trend in skin surgery over the last 10 years has been to continue anticoagulants while performing skin surgery. Most cutaneous bleeding can be controlled with electrocautery, especially bipolar forceps. The benefit gained by ease of hemostasis is weighed against the risk of stopping anticoagulants; and it is generally preferred to continue anticoagulants. Cure rate Few specialists dispute the cure rate for Mohs, especially pathologists familiar with the procedure. Extensive studies performed by Mohs involving thousands of patients with both fixed tissue and fresh tissue cases have been reported in the literature. Other surgeons repeated the studies with also thousands of cases, with nearly the same results. Clinical 5 year cure rates with Mohs surgery: 4085 cases of primary and recurrent cancer of face, scalp, and neck. Cure rate of 96.6%. 1065 cases of squamous cell carcinoma of face, scalp, and neckcure rate 94.8% 2075 cases of basal-cell cancer of the nose both primary and recurrent, cure rate 99.1%. Cure rate for basal-cell cancer of the ear, less than 1 cm, 124 cases, cure rate 100%. Cure rate of basal-cell cancer of the ear, 1 to 2 cm, 170 cases, 100%. One needs to keep in mind that the cases performed by Mohs were for large and extensive tumors, often treated numerous times before by other surgeons. Regardless, his cure rate for small primary tumors was either 100% or near 100% when separated from larger or recurrent tumors. These are only a small number of cases reported by Mohs, and numerous other articles by other authors have shown tremendous cure rates for primary basal-cell carcinoma. Studies by Smeet, et al. showing a Mohs cure rate of about 95%, and another study in Sweden showing Mohs cure rate of about 94%. Cure rate variation Some of Mohs' data revealed a cure rate as low as 96%, but these were often very large tumors, previously treated by other modalities. Some authors claim that their 5-year cure rate for primary basal-cell cancer exceeded 99% while other noted more conservative cure rate of 97%. The quoted cure rate for Mohs surgery on previously treated basal-cell cancer is about 94%. Reasons for variations in the cure rate include the following. Modern frozen section method. Frozen section histology does not give the added margin of safety by the cytotoxic Mohs paste, originally used by Mohs. This paste might have destroyed any residual cancer cells not detected by the pathologist. Missing epidermal margins. Ideally, the Mohs section should include 100% of the epidermal margin, but greater than 95% is often accepted. Vigorous scrubbing, poorly controlled initial curettage, poor tissue health, technician's error, and surgeon's error can introduce areas missing epithelial margin. Some surgeons consider 70% epithelial margin acceptable, while others suggest 100% margin. In the ideal situation, 100% of the epithelial margin should be available to be reviewed on serial sectioning of the Mohs specimen. Misreading of the pathology slide. It is difficult to differentiate between a small island of basal-cell carcinoma and a hair follicle structure. Many Mohs surgeons limit their tissue processing to include only 2 sections of tissue. This severely hampers their ability to determine if a structure is a hair follicle or a carcinoma. Two histologic sections can not fully distinguish these two nearly identical structures, and can lead to either "false negative" or "false positive" errors by either calling a section clear of tumor, or calling a section positive for tumor, respectively. Serial sectioning of the tumor is preferred by other surgeons. Surgeons who perform serial sectioning through the block of tissue (usually 100 micrometres apart) are assured of the contiguous nature of his tumor and the distance of the tumor from the surgical margin, and are familiarized with the nature of the tumor. Serial sectioning also makes it easier to work with three-dimensional tumor with margins that are difficult to compress. Compression artifact, freezing artifact, cautery artifact, tissue folds, crush artifact from forceps, relaxing incision artifact, cartilage dropping out, fat compression, poor staining, dropping of tumor, etc. These can be introduced as the tumor is "flattened". Stain can run from the surgical edge, and stain the surgical margin – giving a false impression that the entire surgical margin is clear, when it is not. While some surgeons unfamiliar with the "whole piece" or "PacMan" methods of processing might suggest that multiple piece sectioning is better than one, in fact the more tissue sections are cut, the more artifacts in staining and tissue malformation will be introduced. It is imperative that the surgeon be fully familiar with tissue handling and processing; and not simply rely on a trained technologist to perform his sectioning. Hard-to-see tumor in heavy inflammatory infiltrate. This can occur with squamous cell carcinoma, especially when complicated with local infection, or intrinsic lymphoproliferative disorders (chronic lymphocytic leukemia). Because of abnormal peripheral blood profile, response to inflammatory skin conditions with patients with myelomonocytic leukemia can have appearance of atypical cells at sites of inflammation, confusing the Mohs surgeon. Perineural spread, and benign changes simulating perineural spread. Tumor spreading along a nerve can be difficult to visualize, and sometime benign plasma cells can surround the nerve, simulating cancer. Anatomical area that is difficult to cut and process. Examples would be the ear, and other three-dimensional structures like eyelids. The ability to make a scallop shaped incision is increasingly difficult when the surgical surface is no longer a flat plane, but is a three-dimensional rigid structure. Recurrent skin cancer with multiple islands of recurrence. This can occur with either previous excision, or after electrodesiccation and curettage. As these residual skin cancer are often bound in scar tissue, and present in multiple location in the scar of the previous surgical defect – they are no longer contiguous in nature. Some surgeons advocate the removal of the complete scar in the treatment of "recurrent" skin cancers. Others advocate removing only the island of local recurrence, and leaving the previous surgical scar behind. The decision is often made depending on the location of the tumor, and the goal of the patient and physician. Unreported or underreported recurrence. Many patients do not return to the original surgeon to report a recurrence. The consulting surgeon on the repeat surgery may not inform the first surgeon of the recurrence. The time it takes for a recurrent tumor to be visible to the patient might be 5 or more years. Quoted "cure" rates must be looked upon with the understanding that a 5-year cure rate might not necessary be correct. As basal-cell carcinoma is a very slowly progressing tumor, a 5-year no recurrence rate might not be adequate. Longer follow up might be needed to detect a slow growing tumor left in the surgical scar. Poor training of the surgeon/pathologist/histotechnologist. While Mohs surgery is essentially a technical method of tissue handling and processing, the skill and training of the surgeon can greatly affect the outcome. Success requires a foundation of good tissue handling and good surgical skill and hemostasis, based on the tissue processing and staining technique. A surgeon without a good histotechnologist does not have access to sufficiently high quality information about the cancer, and a histotechnologist without a good surgeon can not produce quality slides. Originally, surgeons learned the procedure by spending a few hours to several months with Mohs or during their residencies. Today, many Mohs surgeons complete a fellowship after their dermatology residency, spending hundreds of hours observing and performing Mohs surgery under careful supervision of highly experienced Mohs surgeons. This is the most comprehensive and thorough method of learning Mohs surgery. Others learn the technique in their dermatology residencies and through courses and preceptorships. It is highly encouraged that a physician interested in learning Mohs surgery should spend extended time observing, cutting, processing, and staining Mohs specimens. It is vital that the histotechnologist prepare high quality slides. The histology block must be correctly mounted, cut, and stained the first time, as there is no second chance in Mohs histology. It is not a procedure that can be properly mastered in a short period of time. Comparison to other modalities of treatment Mohs surgery is not suitable for all skin cancers. Mohs micrographic surgery is the most reliable form of margin control; utilising a unique frozen section histology processing technique – allowing for the complete examination of 100% of the surgical margin. The method is unique in that it is a simple way to handle soft, hard-to-cut tissue. It is superior to serial bread loafing at a 0.1 mm interval for improved false negative error rate, requiring less time, tissue handling, and fewer glass slides mounted. The clinical quotes for cure rate of Mohs surgery are from 97% to 99.8% after 5 years for newly diagnosed basal-cell cancer (BCC), decreasing to 94% or less for recurrent basal-cell cancer. Radiation oncologists quote cure rates from 90 to 95% for BCCs less than 1 or 2 cm, and 85 to 90% for BCCs larger than 1 or 2 cm. The Surgical excision cure rate varies from 90 to 95% for wide margins (4 to 6 mm) and small tumors, to as low as 70% for narrow margins and large tumors. Society and culture Some commentators argue that skin cancer surgery, including Mohs surgery, is overutilised as rates of skin cancer surgery are increasing worldwide. It is unclear if this relates to higher rates of skin cancer, increased vigilance in diagnosis, and increased availability of the procedure, or patient and doctor preferences. The incidence of Mohs surgery increased significantly over the decade between 2004 and 2014. In a sample of 100 Mohs surgeries, the total cost ranged from US$474 to US$7,594, with the higher costs for hospital-based complex procedures. In Australia, the direct out of pocket cost to patients may vary from $0 to $4000. When the non-Mohs surgery is performed by multiple doctors including pathologists the costs may be increased further. This is especially true when the cancer is incompletely excised and requires repeat surgery. History Originally, Mohs used a chemical paste (an escharotic agent) to cauterize and kill the tissue. It was made of zinc chloride and bloodroot (the root of the plant Sanguinaria canadensis, which contains the alkaloid sanguinarine). The original ingredients were 40.0 g Stibnite, 10.0 g Sanguinaria canadensis, and 34.5 ml of saturated zinc chloride solution. This paste is similar to black salve or "Hoxsey's paste" (see Hoxsey Therapy), a fraudulent patent medicine, but its usage is different. Hoxsey used the paste for long periods, a harmful practice that was rapidly discredited. Mohs left the paste on the wound only overnight, and the following day, the cancer and surrounding skin would be anesthetized and the cancer removed. The specimen was then excised, and the tissue examined under the microscope. If cancer remained, more paste was applied, and the patient would return the following day. Later, local anesthetic and frozen section histopathology applied to fresh tissue allowed the procedure to be performed the same day, with less tissue destruction, and similar cure rate. See also American College of Mohs Surgery References External links American Cancer Society statement about treating basal-cell carcinoma, including via Mohs surgery American College of Mohs Surgery Dermatologic surgery Surgical procedures and techniques
4582033	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterrence%20%28penology%29	Deterrence (penology)	Deterrence in relation to criminal offending is the idea or theory that the threat of punishment will deter people from committing crime and reduce the probability and/or level of offending in society. It is one of five objectives that punishment is thought to achieve; the other four objectives are denunciation, incapacitation (for the protection of society), retribution and rehabilitation. Criminal deterrence theory has two possible applications: the first is that punishments imposed on individual offenders will deter or prevent that particular offender from committing further crimes; the second is that public knowledge that certain offences will be punished has a generalised deterrent effect which prevents others from committing crimes. Two different aspects of punishment may have an impact on deterrence, the first being the certainty of punishment, by increasing the likelihood of apprehension and punishment, this may have a deterrent effect. The second relates to the severity of punishment; how severe the punishment is for a particular crime may influence behavior if the potential offender concludes that the punishment is so severe, it is not worth the risk of getting caught. An underlying principle of deterrence is that it is utilitarian or forward-looking. As with rehabilitation, it is designed to change behaviour in the future rather than simply provide retribution or punishment for current or past behaviour. Categories There are two main goals of deterrence theory. Individual deterrence is the aim of punishment to discourage the offender from criminal acts in the future. The belief is that when punished, offenders recognise the unpleasant consequences of their actions on themselves and will change their behaviour accordingly. General deterrence is the intention to deter the general public from committing crime by punishing those who do offend. When an offender is punished by, for example, being sent to prison, a clear message is sent to the rest of society that behaviour of this sort will result in an unpleasant response from the criminal justice system. Most people do not want to end up in prison and so they are deterred from committing crimes that might be punished that way. Underlying assumptions A key assumption underlying deterrence theory is that offenders weigh up the pros and cons of a certain course of action and make rational choices. Known as rational choice theory, it assumes the following: People are able to freely choose their actions and behaviour (as opposed to their offending being driven by socio-economic factors such as unemployment, poverty, limited education and/or addiction). The offender is capable of assessing the likelihood of getting caught. The offender knows the likely punishment that will be received. The offender is able to calculate whether the pain or severity of the likely punishment outweighs the gain or benefit of getting away with the crime. Other assumptions relate to the concept of marginal deterrence, based on the belief that it is prudent to punish a more severe crime more severely than a lesser crime and a series of crimes more severely than a single crime. The assumption here is that more severe penalties will deter criminals from committing more serious acts and so there is a marginal gain. On the other hand, research by Rupp (2008) shows a pattern in which legal sanctions have stronger deterrent effects for minor crimes than for violent or more serious crimes. Consequently, Rupp (2008) suggests that there is a categorical difference in the factors that deter minor crimes and violent crimes. Philosophical basis Two utilitarian philosophers of the 18th century, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, formulated the deterrence theory as both an explanation of crime and a method for reducing it. Beccaria argued that crime was not only an attack on an individual but on society as well. That extended the issue of punishment beyond retribution and restitution to aggrieved individuals. Society was cast as victim, not merely bystander, and what had been seen as a dispute between individuals, expanded to an issue of criminal law. For the utilitarians, the purpose of punishment became the protection of society through the prevention of crime. Religious basis The history of punishment in reaction to crime began in biblical times with an eye for an eye guideline, although later Christians interpreted that literally by emphasizing compassion and tolerance, rather than punishment, even to the extent of "turning the other cheek." Although most Western populations eventually embraced some version of Judeo-Christian values, Medieval Europe displayed little of the restraint prescribed by this religious tradition. On the contrary, the level of violence among medieval populations was exceeded only by the force applied by emerging states in their attempts to maintain control and suppress it. Deciding guilt in an offender was more important than the nature of the offense. Once the guilt was announced, the question was not so much whether an execution should take place but how dramatic it should be. There were not many punishments besides exile and execution. In the Islamic system of hadd, applied 1400 years ago, the punishment for crimes was public and aimed at general social deterrence. Evidential flaws Lack of rationality Impact of alcohol and drugs Although that level of rationality might apply to some well educated, white-collar criminals, most of those who end up in prison do not meet that profile. In the United States, one study found that at least half of all state prisoners are under the influence of alcohol or drugs at the time of their offence. However, the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD) has found that 80% of all offending occurs under the influence of alcohol and drugs and that half of those in prison are clinically addicted. As such, most crime is committed by offenders who are too impaired to consider the pros and cons of their behaviour in a rational manner. Impact of mental health disorders Research shows that a significant proportion of those in prison have personality disorders or other mental health disorders which affect their ability to make rational decisions. A 2016 study in Lancet Psychiatry has found that "prisoners have high rates of psychiatric disorders... Despite the high level of need, these disorders are frequently under-diagnosed and poorly treated". In 2002, a systematic review of 62 different studies from 12 different countries published in The Lancet found 65% of men in prison and 42% of women have a personality disorder. Mental health and personality disorders will clearly have an impact of an individual's capacity to make rational decisions about their offending behaviour. Impact of brain injury Many inmates have suffered head injuries, which can lead to loss of impulse control and cognitive impairment. A study in 2010 found that over 60% of prison inmates had experienced a significant head injury. Adults with traumatic brain injury were first sent to prison when quite young and reported higher rates of repeat offending. Having a head injury also reduces an individual's capacity for rational decision making, and the same goes for Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, a neurological disability of the brain. Research has found that it causes "learning disabilities, impulsivity, hyperactivity, social ineptness, poor judgment, and can increase susceptibility to victimization and involvement in the criminal justice system". In fact, youths with FASD are 19 times more likely to be incarcerated than those without FASD in a given year because of their poor decision-making. Knowledge of likely punishment In order for a particular sanction to act as a deterrent, potential offenders must be aware of exactly what punishment they will receive before they commit an offence. However, evidence suggests that few people know what sentence will be imposed for a particular crime and, in the United States, most people generally underestimate how severe the sentence will be. Offenders are likely to be well aware that crimes such as assault, robbery, drug dealing, rape and murder will be punished but lack fine-grained knowledge of what the specific penalty is likely to be. A study by Anderson (2002) found that only 22% of offenders convicted of cultivating cannabis "knew exactly what the penalties would be". That is not surprising given that sentencing is a complex process: what sanction is imposed depends on a number of different factors including the offender's age, previous criminal history, whether or not they plead guilty, their perceived level of remorse, and any other mitigating factors. If a potential offender does not know what punishment will be imposed, that undermines the ability to make a rational choice about whether the potential pain associated with committing a particular crime outweighs the potential gain. Another concern is that even if offenders have accurate knowledge about potential penalties, they do not necessarily take that information into account prior to committing a crime. Anderson's study quoted above found that 35% of offenders failed to think about the likely punishment prior to committing the offence. Durrant (2014) points out that many crimes are impulsive in nature and carried out "in the heat of the moment with little forethought or planning". Lack of certainty of punishment There are usually significant differences between the levels of crime in official statistics and the number of people who report they have been victimised in surveys of crime. In the United Kingdom, only an estimated 2% of offences lead to a conviction, and only one in seven of those convictions results in a prison sentence. The Home Office (1993) concluded that "the probability of being sent to prison for a crime is about one in 300". In the United States, it has been calculated that only one out of every 100 burglaries leads to a custodial sentence. In regard to drug use, the chances of getting caught are even more remote: less than one in 3,000. If it is unlikely that an offender will actually be caught, let alone punished, there is thus very little certainty of punishment, and any deterrent effect is substantially reduced. Perceptions of risk Durrant (2014) argues that it is the perception of risk that has the potential to deter offending rather than punishment itself. He cites a study of offenders in which 76% did not think about getting caught or thought the chances of getting caught were slim. Offenders who have successfully got away with certain crimes are especially likely to discount the probability of getting caught, particularly for drunk-driving. Durrant concludes: "for any given offence, the chances of actually getting punished by the criminal justice system are quite slim and active criminals are well aware of these favourable odds, thus undermining the potential deterrent effects of punishment". Certainty vs. severity It is commonly assumed that increasing the severity of punishment increases the potential pain or cost of committing a crime and should therefore make offending less likely. One of the simplest methods to increase the severity is to impose a longer prison term for a particular crime. However, there are limits to how severe a punishment can be imposed because of the principle of proportionality: the severity of the punishment should be roughly proportionate to the gravity of the offending. In a review of the literature, Durrant found that "most systematic reviews of the effects of sentencing severity on crime conclude, with a few exceptions, that there is little or no evidence that increasing the punitiveness of criminal sanctions exerts an effect on offending". This is partly because many offenders get used to being in prison with the result that longer sentences are not necessarily perceived as being more severe than shorter sentences. Offenders who perceive that sanctions for particular crimes are almost inevitable are less likely to engage in criminal activity. However, because of low apprehension rates in most criminal justice systems, in practice it is much easier to make penalties more severe than it is to make them more certain. Effectiveness Measuring and estimating the effects of criminal sanction on subsequent criminal behavior are difficult. Despite numerous studies using a variety of data sources, sanctions, crime types, statistical methods and theoretical approaches, there remains little agreement in the scientific literature about whether, how, under what circumstances, to what extent, for which crimes, at what cost, for which individuals and, perhaps most importantly, in which direction do various aspects of contemporary criminal sanctions affect subsequent criminal behavior. There are extensive reviews of this literature with somewhat conflicting assessments. As a general deterrent Daniel Nagin (1998), one of the leading authorities on the effectiveness of deterrence, believes the collective actions of the criminal justice system exert a very substantial deterrent on the community as a whole. He says it is also his "view that this conclusion is of limited value in formulating policy". He argues that the issue is not whether the criminal justice system in itself prevents or deters crime but whether a new policy, added onto the existing structure, will have any additional deterrent effect. As an individual deterrent More recent research by Nagin (2009) found that increased severity of punishment had little deterrent effect on individual offenders. A meta-analysis of the deterrent effect of punishment on individual offenders also suggests little benefit is gained from tougher sentences. In 2001 Canadian criminologist, Paul Gendreau, brought together the results of 50 different studies of the deterrent effect of imprisonment involving over 350,000 offenders. This included studies which compared the impact of prison over community sentences and the impact of longer versus shorter prison sentences on recidivism rates. The results revealed no support for the deterrent effects of punishment. Gendreau wrote: "None of the analyses found imprisonment reduced recidivism. The recidivism rate for offenders who were imprisoned as opposed to given a community sanction was similar. In addition, longer sentences were not associated with reduced recidivism. In fact the opposite was found. Longer sentences were associated with a 3% increase in recidivism. This finding suggests some support for the theory that prison may serve as a ‘school for crime’ for some offenders". Durrant states that "reviews of 'enhanced punishment' such as boot camps, intensive supervision, 'scared straight' programs, and electronic monitoring are typically consistent with the thesis that increasing the severity of punishment does not act as a significant deterrent to offenders". In a different kind of study, Kuziemko found that when parole was abolished (as a result of which prisoners served their full sentence), that increased the crime rate and the prison population by 10%. This is because prisoners who know they may get out early if they behave are psychologically invested in rehabilitation. When parole was eliminated for certain offenders (meaning there was no hope of early release), those prisoners accumulated more disciplinary infractions, completed fewer rehabilitative programs, and re-offended at higher rates than inmates who were released early. Mann et al. (2016) found that internal sanctions such as feeling guilty are stronger than legal sanctions at deterring crime. However, legal sanctions gain strength in situations in which a would-be perpetrator is unlikely to feel guilty. Likelihood vs. severity The perceived likelihood that one will be caught is far more effective as a deterrent than the severity of the punishment. The presence of police officers has also been effective at deterring crime, as criminals in the presence of police officers have a stronger understanding of the certainty of being caught. Seeing handcuffs and a radio are also likely to influence a criminal's behavior. Death penalty The death penalty is still retained in some countries, such as in some parts of the United States, one reason being due to the perception that it is a deterrent to certain offenses. In 1975, Ehrlich claimed the death penalty was effective as a general deterrent and that each execution led to seven or eight fewer homicides in society. More recent research has failed to find such effects. Durrant (2014) believes that different outcomes achieved by different researchers depend largely on which research model is used. A major difficulty in evaluating the effectiveness of the death penalty as a deterrent in the United States is that very few people are actually executed. Fagan (2006) points out that "the rare and somewhat arbitrary use of execution in states (which still have the death penalty) means that it serves no deterrent function, because no would-be murderer can reasonably expect to be executed". A 2012 report by the National Research Council of the National Academies concluded that studies claiming a deterrent effect, brutalization effect, or no effect on murder rates from the death penalty are fundamentally flawed. Criminologist Daniel Nagin of Carnegie Mellon said: "Nothing is known about how potential murderers actually perceive their risk of punishment." The report concluded: “The committee concludes that research to date on the effect of capital punishment on homicide is not informative about whether capital punishment decreases, increases, or has no effect on homicide rates". See also Capital punishment and deterrence in the United States Rehabilitation (penology) Mutual assured destruction References Bibliography Hagan, John, A.R. Gillis, and David Brownfield. Criminological Controversies: A Methodical Primer. Boulder: Westview, 1996. 81–3. Further reading To read more about severity of punishment in relation to deterrence, see Mendes, M. & McDonald, M. D., [2001] “Putting Severity of Punishment Back in the Deterrence Package” in Policy Studies Journal, vol. 29, no. 4, p. 588-610, and Moberly, Sir W. H., [1968] The Ethics of Punishment. To read more about the argument concerning who deterrence is aimed at see Beccaria and Bentham's ideas as presented in Moberly, Sir W. H., [1968] The Ethics of Punishment. External links Deterrence and the Death Penalty Statistical information and studies Criminology Penology
4582540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Weston%20Limited	George Weston Limited	George Weston Limited, often referred to as Weston or Weston's, is a Canadian holding company. Founded by George Weston in 1882, the company today consists of the Choice Properties real estate investment trust and Loblaw Companies Limited, Canada's largest supermarket retailer, in which it maintains a controlling interest. Retail brands include President's Choice, No Name and Joe Fresh. The former Weston Bakeries division, which owned the brands Wonder, Country Harvest, D'Italiano, Ready Bake and Gadoua, was sold off to FGF Brands in 2022. The company is controlled by the Weston family, which owns a majority share in George Weston Limited. History Bread route In 1882, Toronto bread salesman George Weston, who got his start at the age of 12 as a baker's apprentice, went into business for himself when he bought a bread route from his employer, G.H. Bowen. Two years later, Weston bought out Bowen's Sullivan Street bakery and began baking and delivering his own bread. His first employee was Charles Upshall, another young baker, and the two worked long hours baking and delivering bread. Weston's business prospered, particularly with the development of his "Real Home Made Bread," made from a combination of Manitoba No. 1 Hard Wheat and Ontario Fall wheat. His bakery underwent at least four expansions. At a time when many bakers were reluctant to adopt new technology, believing it adversely affected the taste and quality of their bread, Weston began introducing modern equipment to automate the baking process. "He has not spared expense getting in the latest designs of machinery to mix his dough," proclaimed one newspaper ad. Eventually, he renamed his bakery on Sullivan Street the "G. Weston’s Bread Factory." Model Bakery In October 1897, George Weston unveiled his "Model Bakery", Canada's largest and most modern bread factory, at the corner of Soho and Phoebe streets in Toronto. Newspaper reports told of how Weston had travelled to other countries to inspect the latest in baking technology and that his new establishment represented the best of what he had seen. Not only was the factory hailed for its efficiency and cleanliness, but also its capacity to turn out thousands of loaves of bread: Remember that bread alone is made in this immense factory, and such bread it is that has made the name of its maker famous. Over 3200 large loaves are turned out on an average daily, but the factory has a capacity of 6,500 loaves. One may judge the largeness of the business done weekly when it takes nearly three hundred barrels of flour to supply the weekly demand. Two teams are kept busy all day Friday and Saturday hauling flour to supply the week’s needs. Although the Model Bakery was well received by the Toronto press, its appearance resulted in a price war, apparently initiated by the city's other bakers. On hearing that competitors were offering cut-rate bread – contrary to a local bakers’ agreement that set a standard price for a loaf of bread – George Weston left the bakers' association and lowered his prices. In retaliation, the competition dropped what they charged at the wholesale level in an apparent attempt to fill store shelves with their bread. In spite of the price war, the Model Bakery continued to expand production such that a year later business had increased by 78 percent. Less than two years later, George Weston was selling his bread to 38 cities and towns beyond Toronto's borders. By 1901, the factory's output had reached 10,000 large loaves a day and its bread was shipped to over 100 communities throughout Ontario. By 1899, Weston had also established in the town of Oshawa, northeast of Toronto, a branch bakeshop, which he described as a "miniature Model Bakery", for the production of bread. While the Model Bakery established George Weston as Canada's biggest baker, he had already begun to move beyond bread into other lines of baked goods. By 1897, he had set up a separate shop for the making of cakes, crumpets, pastries and buns. Then, early in the new century, Weston began making biscuits and sodas. While the bread business was very competitive and typically low margin, biscuits offered higher margins. Within a few years, the Model Bakery had a dozen salesmen taking orders for Weston's biscuits from merchants throughout Ontario. In promoting his new vanilla wafer biscuits, Weston employed a form of early direct marketing. From a decorative bread wagon, salesmen handed out free samples of the new biscuits and told housewives to ask for them at their grocer's. In 1901, George Weston merged with J.L. Spink, a flour mill operator at Pickering, Ontario, to form the Model Bakery Company. The amalgamation soon raised concerns, though, that the new partnership would result in higher bread prices. In a letter to local newspapers, Weston tried to allay fears of a "Bread Trust" and asserted that rather than an attempt to destroy competition that the merger would reduce the price of bread by cutting out the middleman's profit: ... we are believers in honest competition. Some bakers are endeavouring to fill the minds of the grocers, and the public in general, with the fact that we intend to get control of the bread baking business for the purpose of raising the price of bread to consumers. Now, I wish to give this a straight denial. By the amalgamation of these two concerns, the mill and the bakery, we are going to lessen our expenses, and the public are going to reap the advantage. Weston further contended that the new venture would ensure the very choicest flour for the Model Bakery and its bread. But while the Weston-Spink partnership lasted five years, for reasons unknown it was eventually dissolved and the baker and miller went their separate ways. Canada Bread In 1911, George Weston entered into another merger, this time with fellow bakers in Toronto, Montreal and Winnipeg, to form the Canada Bread Company. The Model Bakery became part of the assets of Canada Bread and a new Weston's Biscuit Factory went into production at the corner of Peter and Richmond streets in Toronto. Meanwhile, the Canada Bread partners agreed to stay out of the bread making business for at least the next ten years. With the expiration of that non-compete clause, and at the urging of former customers who complained about the quality of the city's bread, George Weston re-entered the bread business in 1921. World War I As World War I dragged on, various shortages arose and some biscuit lines had to be discontinued. In spite of those difficulties the company remained profitable. But with the tragic loss of a youngest son and concern that his eldest son Garfield might not return from overseas duty as a soldier in the Canadian Expeditionary Force, George Weston considered selling the company to competitor Christie, Brown and Company. A letter from Garfield, from the trenches of war-torn France, in which he asked his father to hold on until his return home, convinced George Weston not to sell his business. English Quality Biscuits In 1922, George and Garfield Weston undertook a new and somewhat risky venture with the introduction of "English Quality Biscuits." While in England as a young Canadian soldier, Garfield had toured the world-famous British biscuit factories and came away convinced that a similar product could be manufactured and successfully marketed in Canada. "After the armistice, he convinced his skeptical father to import machines to make English-style cookies in Canada." In addition to importing biscuit making ovens all the way from England, the company brought master baker William Doyle from London. That year, Weston's English Quality Biscuits were launched with an advertising campaign that included an elaborate display at the Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto: This unique exhibit is the method chosen by Weston’s to acquaint Exhibition visitors with the fact that they are now making, right here in Toronto, biscuits equal in every respect to the finest imported English lines – the standard of the world. English master bakers and English making machines have been installed at Weston’s new English Biscuit Factory, and the great opportunity of these English lines is proven by the fact that a 24 hour day production has been maintained for several weeks past. The company also produced a sampler tin of the new biscuits that sold very well. Weston's English Quality Biscuits proved a long-term success and the product line became the basis for the company's continued growth. Expansion With the death of George Weston in 1924, W. Garfield Weston became president of George Weston Limited at the age of 26. Garfield, who had effectively been running the company the past several years, set the firm on a path of expansion. In 1928, he took the company ‘public’ and made his first major acquisition – William Paterson Ltd., a Brantford, Ontario, biscuit and confectionery maker founded in 1863 by William Paterson. The company also made its first foray into the American market but the effort ended in near disaster. A Weston's English Quality Biscuits factory was set up at Watertown, near Boston, Massachusetts, but after a series of missteps, that included a botched advertising campaign, the plant was closed. It was later realized that a senior manager had secretly been working for the competition. The American company was subsequently reorganized and a new biscuit plant established near Passaic, New Jersey. Depression In spite of the Great Depression, George Weston Limited continued to expand in Ontario and Western Canada. The company bought Lawlor's Bread Limited of Toronto for over a quarter million dollars in 1930. It went on to acquire Regal Bakeries Limited in Ontario in 1931, Independent Biscuit Co. of Calgary that same year, and Lawrence Bread Limited in 1933. As the Depression deepened and George Weston Limited remained profitable, it bought companies and operations under favourable terms. In 1933, for example, it extended its service area to 100 miles around Toronto with the acquisition of Ontario Bakeries Limited from its trustee and receiver: In this case, as in nearly every case where the company or its subsidiaries have taken in other plants, the company was able to take advantage of the extraordinary low price obtaining for capital assets during the depression, to expand its business at very low cost to itself and on purchase terms that are scarcely more than rental. The company went on to acquire McCormick's Limited from its receivers in 1937 and bought Inter City Western Bakeries in 1938. In the United States, it expanded biscuit operations at Passaic, New Jersey, and established a new Weston's Biscuits plant at Battle Creek, Michigan. One long-time Weston executive, Frank Riddell, observed that since nobody had any money in those days that deals were often struck with relatively little cash and a guarantee of Weston stock. In addition to a program of expansion, the profitability of George Weston Limited allowed it to establish a minimum weekly wage for its male employees in 1934. Great Britain The early 1930s saw Garfield Weston pursue an ambitious overseas venture designed not only to extend the commercial interests of the company but also expand desperately needed export markets for Canadian wheat. Weston proposed to acquire bakeries throughout the British Isles that would then import more Canadian grain. Turned down by the banks at home, which considered the idea too risky, Weston arranged a meeting with a group of New York financiers. Among them was Wall Street speculator Ben Smith who bankrolled Weston to the tune of $2 million. In 1933, George Weston Limited acquired Scottish biscuit maker Mitchell & Muil Limited. The antiquated factory at Aberdeen was shut down and production moved to a new facility at Edinburgh. With modern equipment and facilities, along with a reduced product line of 40 items instead of 400, Garfield Weston dramatically lowered costs and began selling biscuits at half the price of the competition. Other bakeries followed, as Weston quickly acquired a string of bread and biscuits factories, as the overseas business began to rival that of the parent: All the British and Irish biscuit and bread companies obtained in the last 15 months in the course of Garfield Weston's large-scale British adventure are now reported to have a total volume of sales as great as that of the parent company in Canada, George Weston Ltd. Moreover, Mr. Weston told the shareholders at the annual meeting on March 28 that when plans at present under way are complete, he will have bread and biscuit companies in every strategic centre of England, Scotland, Northern and Southern Ireland. Later that year, with operations still expanding, George Weston Limited offered its shareholders direct ownership in the overseas venture in a rights issue that transformed the British business into a separate commercial entity. By 1937, with fifteen regional bakeries under the Allied Bakeries banner and the success of the British Isles expansion evident, news headlines back home in Canada hailed Garfield Weston as "Britain’s biggest baker." World War II During World War II, George Weston Limited struggled to maintain production in light of shortages that included basic ingredients such as sugar. Cakes were still made but at times without icing. Labour was also in short supply and salesmen at times served as bakery workers. With most of its biscuit production going to supply the armed forces of Canada and the Allied Powers, the company ran newspaper ads advising customers that Weston products may not always be available: We regret being unable to supply your grocer regularly with Weston's English Quality Biscuits. Our factories are working at top speed to help supply the biscuit needs of the armed forces of the United Nations. Even the ovens that bake the famous Weston's Soda Biscuits are now turning out "Iron Rations" for our fighting men. Another wartime ad noted that the company's products were with the 8th Army of the North African campaign. "Those fighting lads who drove Rommel out of Egypt and Libya have been getting Weston's English Quality Biscuits right along. Naturally, we're proud of their choice!". In spite of the war, the company continued to expand. In the United States, it purchased a bankrupt biscuit plant at Salamanca, New York, and acquired the Southern Biscuit Co. of Richmond, Virginia. The National Biscuit Co. in Western Canada was bought, along with Edmonton City Bakery. By 1942, the company reported that Weston operations in Canada, the United States and Great Britain used over 15 million bushels of wheat a year and employed some 16 thousand workers. The war years also saw the company diversify beyond baking with the purchase of a controlling interest in Western Grocers Ltd., a wholesale food distributor with some 700 associated Red & White stores throughout the prairies. In 1943, Garfield Weston also bought paper manufacturer E.B. Eddy Co. of Hull, Quebec, after he purchased controlling interest from Lord R.B. Bennett, the Canadian former Prime Minister. Some years later, Eddy Paper Co., along with subsidiary E.B. Eddy Co., was bought out by George Weston Limited in a cash and stock deal. Post-war The post-war years saw tremendous growth as the company continued to diversify its holdings not only in terms of consumer products but also with a concerted move into retailing. In 1948, the company bought William Neilson Limited of Toronto, Ontario, Canada's largest chocolate and ice cream maker. A year earlier, Garfield Weston struck a deal to acquire a block of 100,000 shares of Loblaw Groceterias Co. Limited, one of the country's leading supermarket chains By 1953, George Weston Limited had established majority control. Three years later, the company announced it had purchased a 25 percent stake in Chicago-based National Tea Co., a large U.S. supermarket chain with more than 700 stores. By the early 1960s, it had gained controlling interest in National through subsidiary Loblaw Companies Limited. Diversification and disclosure During the 1960s, the company continued to diversify beyond baking. Along with the 1962 acquisition of Eddy Paper Co., George Weston Limited moved into fish processing on the East and West coasts with its purchase of Connors Brothers of New Brunswick and British Columbia Packers Limited. With the full extent of the company's holdings often unknown by even senior executives, not to mention the public, George Weston Limited was under increasing pressure from Canadian parliamentarians to reveal its corporate structure and holdings. In December 1966, it provided shareholders and the media with a detailed chart showing various subsidiaries, wholly owned and controlled. The Financial Post newspaper led with headlines that read, "Weston group unveils huge empire" and reported on how 150 Weston led companies accounted for $800 million in assets and produced $2.8 billion in annual sales. While the extent of the "Weston empire" became the lead business story, it apparently resulted in little or no negative reaction in terms of press coverage. Some months later, in fact, one news story went so far as to feature the headline, "Garfield Weston: Our champ at corporate empire-building." Consolidation By the late early 1970s, the company's aggressive expansion and acquisitions strategy, which in the past had produced such remarkable growth, was showing signs of strain. Retail sales and earnings were in decline as Loblaws’ aging chain of supermarkets looked increasingly uncompetitive. In 1972, Garfield Weston, Chairman of George Weston Limited, named his youngest son, W. Galen Weston, Chief Executive Officer of Loblaw Companies Limited. The appointment came at a time when Loblaws appeared all but bankrupt, with its share of the crucial Ontario market cut in half as a result of price wars among the major chains. At the same time, the company found its hands tied by leaseback agreements that prevented it from closing money-losing stores. With few assets, Loblaw was also deeply in debt. In spite of all the problems, though, Galen Weston felt that Loblaws had the potential to be the nucleus of one of the finest retailers in Canada. "As a 200 store chain, we didn’t look very good. As a 100 store chain, Loblaws looked very good indeed." Leaseback agreements were bought out and the company began closing unprofitable stores. Old warehouse operations were shut down and a new distribution centre built. The company also initiated a broad marketing strategy that saw a prototype store renovated and remodelled in new colours and a new Loblaws logo. Toronto designer Don Watt introduced new wood panelling, big moveable display bins, and huge photos of fresh fruits, vegetables, and meats. The produce section was doubled in size and moved to the front of the store. Sales dramatically increased and more stores were remodelled and rebranded. Meanwhile, a new advertising campaign featured Canadian actor William Shatner of Star Trek fame, who told television audiences to "Come on over to Loblaws" and "More than the price is right ... but by gosh the price is right." In 1974, W. Galen Weston was appointed Chairman and Managing Director of George Weston Limited, and subsequently company President. But as Loblaws regained market share, profitability south of the border, at National Tea Co., deteriorated. A similar program of rationalization saw hundreds of National stores closed and warehouses consolidated, while other outlets underwent renovation and rebranding. By 1974, of 1,100 retail food outlets across North America, 367 stores were closed, while 81 new stores had been built. Unprofitable divisions, namely Chicago, Syracuse and California, were sold. Although some supermarket assets were later acquired, eventually the company would divest itself of all retail and wholesale holdings in the United States. Management continued to divest non-core assets through the decade as it shifted the company's focus to earnings rather than sales growth. In 1978, both George Weston Limited and Loblaw Companies Limited returned to profitability and two years later Weston's reported record earnings of $76 million on revenue of $6 billion. Once again, the company was in a position to make acquisitions and purchased Stroehmann Brothers of Pennsylvania, a baker of bread and rolls, for $32 million. George Weston Limited next made a well publicized bid to acquire controlling interest in the Hudson's Bay Company, with its diverse array of retail, resource and real estate holdings, in 1979. But as a bidding war ensued with the Ken Thomson and family, Galen Weston walked away from the process, noting that it would have cost "another $150 million to bump our offer up again" and had simply become too expensive. Private labels In addition to revitalizing the look of its stores, Loblaw management earmarked $40 million for the development of its in-house, private label program. Generally regarded as inferior to the national brands, CEO W. Galen Weston put renewed emphasis on the quality of store brands: We found it essential to change products and services before redesigning their image. For example, nothing is more disappointing for a consumer than to buy a private label product because of the attractiveness of its redesigned label and then find that the same quality that had disappointed her previously had not been improved. In 1978, at a time of rampant food price inflation, Loblaws unveiled a new line of 16 generic "no-name" products. Sales proved stronger than anticipated and within a year the number of No Name product offerings had increased to over a hundred. Months later, the first "no frills" store was launched, which featured No Name and a limited selection of 500 discount items. Two more Toronto area stores follow within a few months. The No Name line continued to grow and gourmet items were even added to the generic line-up. Then, in 1984, Loblaw launched President's Choice, a premium line of private label items, with each product personally endorsed by Loblaws president Dave Nichol and promoted in the popular advertising supplement Dave Nichol's Insider's Report. No name and President's Choice products would go on to account for 25 percent of the company's domestic grocery sales or double the industry average. Free trade With the signing of the Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement in 1988 and the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994, George Weston Limited found it necessary to once again re-evaluate its asset mix. A series of divestitures followed over the next decade as the company struggled to remain competitive within a continental free trade zone. Companies that were sold off included biscuit and ice cream making, chocolate bar manufacturing, sugar refining, milling, and paper and tissue making. In 1989, the company sold its White Swan tissue division to Scott Paper Ltd. for $110 million. While Weston's had acquired the Canadian operations of Cadbury in 1987 and merged them with William Neilson Limited, after attempting to break into emerging markets, by selling chocolate bars in Mexico, it finally sold its chocolate operations to Cadbury Schweppes in 1996. In 1998, long time holding E. B. Eddy was sold to Domtar in a cash-and-stock deal worth (CAN) $800 million. Meanwhile, under Loblaw president Richard Currie, the company's retail food operations continued to expand under a variety of regional banners that included Loblaws, no frills, Zehrs and Fortinos in Ontario, the Real Canadian Superstore in Northern Ontario and Western Canada, and the Real Atlantic Superstore and SuperValu in Atlantic Canada. In particular, Dominion Stores Limited, Loblaw's lead competitor in Ontario, had failed to keep up with the times and the rival chain finally sold off its better stores and shuttered the rest. By the mid 1980s, with a 14 percent share of the $35 billion supermarket business in Canada and 41 consecutive quarters of higher earnings, Loblaw Companies had gone "from a sorry loser without a future into Canada's largest and perhaps most thriving food distributor". Nevertheless, Loblaw still had occasion to stumble, at times badly. While large-scale "combination stores", with their mix of food and general merchandise, had worked so well in Western Canada, the introduction of SuperCentres in Central Canada a few years later resulted in huge losses. The company's policy to own many of its properties, instead of simply leasing, gave it the "operating flexibility" to rent out redundant space and thereby mitigate losses. Acquisition and divestiture On the acquisition side, George Weston Limited expanded within its traditional base of operations with the purchase of the Ontario assets of General Bakeries, a subsidiary of Dominion Stores Limited, in 1985, as Toronto financier Conrad Black divested holdings. Along with a number of bread and roll plants, the deal included ownership of the Wonder trademark in Canada, which would become an important brand for Weston Bakeries Limited. In 1995, Loblaw divested the last of its U.S. retail operations with the sale of supermarkets in St. Louis (originally bought from Kroger) and New Orleans. In spite of the retreat, the company reiterated its overall strategy to take advantage of any opportunity that presented itself: The company is prepared to enter new markets through the opening of new stores, as in its stated plan, to enter the Quebec market, or from focused acquisitions when opportunities arise. The company is also prepared to exit particular markets and redeploy assets elsewhere when it is strategically advantageous to do so, as demonstrated by the disposal of the United States retail business... But while Loblaw no longer owned stores in the U.S., it had not made a complete retreat from the American market, with its President's Choice products available on the shelves of over 1,700 supermarkets in 35 States. In 1998, the company made two major regional acquisitions, namely the 80 store Agora Foods chain in Atlantic Canada and Provigo, a 250 store chain of supermarkets in the province of Quebec. Then, in 2001, the company made a major new thrust into the U.S. fresh baked goods market with the purchase of Bestfoods Baking Co., a division of Anglo-Dutch conglomerate Unilever, for (U-S) $1.76 billion. Bestfood, with nineteen plants throughout the United States, included such well-known brands as Entenmann's, Thomas' English Muffins, and Arnold Bread. Retrenchment In 2006, chronic supply chain problems and the first year-end loss for Loblaw in almost two decades resulted in the resignation of John Lederer as president and W. Galen Weston as chairman. Galen G. Weston was appointed to the new position of executive chairman, with Allan Leighton as deputy chairman and Mark Foote president. The introduction of a 'fix the basics' program saw the company refocus attention on food retailing, with less emphasis on general merchandising. But senior executives acknowledged that the company's turnaround would take at least three years to accomplish. Meantime, Loblaw returned to profitability in 2007. Divestitures and acquisitions In spite of the deepening financial crisis of 2008, George Weston Limited signed two major deals. In October, it announced that Neilson Dairy was being sold to Saputo Inc. for (CAN) $465 million, followed months later by word that Grupo Bimbo, the Mexican baking conglomerate, had agreed to buy U.S. based George Weston Bakeries, which consisted of the former Bestfoods Baking assets, along with Stroehmann Bakeries, for (U-S) $2.5 billion. Chairman W. Galen Weston noted that the Grupo Bimbo sale represented the company's biggest deal ever and along with the sale of the dairy division would result in $5 billion in cash on corporate balance sheets, thereby allowing the company to consider future acquisitions. In 2009, T&T Supermarket, a Chinese grocery store chain, was acquired by Loblaw. While the Grupo Bimbo deal saw George Weston Limited divest most of its fresh baked goods assets in the United States, the company still maintained U.S. market share. In addition to Interbake, a manufacturer of cookies and ice cream novelty treats, it acquired Keystone Bakery, a U.S. maker of frozen cupcakes, donuts, and cookies, for (U-S) $185 million in 2010. That year it also bought ACE Bakery, a Canadian maker of artisan and European-style breads, for (CAN) $110 million. In what press reports called "a surprise move," the company announced in late 2010 that it would pay a special dividend of $7.75 per share to stockholders, worth one billion dollars. In 2011, Weston Foods worked out a deal to acquire bankrupt Colonial Cookies of Kitchener, Ontario - a baker of Loblaw private label products and in particular its bestselling President's Choice The Decadent Chocolate Chip Cookie. Legal entanglements In January 2018, Weston and its subsidiary Loblaws were implicated in price-fixing the cost of bread in Canada, taking part from 2001 until 2015. Also in 2018, Weston subsidiary Loblaws was embroiled in the Tax Court of Canada in relation to a banking subsidiary in the Caribbean. It involved a Loblaws Inc. subsidiary in Barbados that had been renamed Glenhuron Bank. The Canada Revenue Agency claimed "that a vice-president at Loblaws parent company George Weston Ltd. 'was unable or unwilling to answer many questions' during pre-trial discovery hearings, and later requested that CEO Galen Weston Jr. answer under oath "some of its pre-trial discovery questions about 'the purpose for which GBL was established and the activities of GBL during the years at issue.'" The result was that Loblaws was order by Associate Chief Justice Lucie Lamarre to pay back taxes on foreign accrual property income (FAPI) of $368 million. The company appealed to Justice Judith Woods of the Federal Court of Appeal who reversed the Lamarre order when she found that Glenhuron "bought short-term U.S. debt securities, entered into swaps and managed investments on behalf of other companies related to Loblaw and its parent, George Weston Ltd., among other things — mostly did business at arm’s length with those it entered into contracts for the debt and swaps". The CRA appealed the Woods ruling to the Supreme Court of Canada. The leave was granted on 29 October 2020. On 18 February 2021 the appeal hearing was scheduled for 13 May, and on 22 March leave to intervene was granted to the Attorney General of Ontario and the Canadian Bankers’ Association. Sale of bakery business In March 2021, Weston announced that it would soon hold an auction of its "Weston Foods bakery business", with sales "under brands such as Wonder Bread, ACE Bakery, Country Harvest, D'Italiano and others". The division accounted for $2.1 billion in 2020 sales, or less than 10% of total. In October 2021 the deal to sell Weston Foods' fresh and frozen bread business to FGF Brands Incorporated of North York, Ontario. was announced, which was expected to close in early 2022. Brands Bakery Grocery Chains: Atlantic Cash & Carry Atlantic Superstore Atlantic SuperValu Axep Dominion Entrepôts Presto / Club Entrepôt Extra Foods Fortinos Freshmart L'intermarché Loblaws/Loblaw Great Food Lucky Dollar Foods Maxi/Maxi & Cie NG Cash & Carry No Frills Pharmaprix Provigo The Real Canadian Superstore/Loblaw Superstore Real Canadian Liquorstore Real Canadian Wholesale Club Red & White Food Stores SaveEasy (formerly Atlantic SaveEasy) Shop Easy Foods Shoppers Drug Mart/Shoppers SuperValu Valu-mart Your Independent Grocer Zehrs, operating under the Zehrs Markets, Zehrs Food Plus and Zehrs Great Food banners Brands: President's Choice No Name Exact Blue Menu Joe Fresh J± (electronics) Teddy's Choice PC Splendido Bella Tavola PC Premium Black Label Joe Pet Catz & Dawgz PC Organic The Health Clinic by Shoppers Life Labs Life @ Home Corporate governance The current members of the Board of Directors of George Weston Limited are: Galen G. Weston (Chairman), Alannah Weston (Deputy Chairman), Andrew A. Ferrier, Isabelle Marcoux, Sarabjit (Sabi) S. Marwah, Gordon M. Nixon, J. Robert S. Prichard, Robert Sawyer, Christi Strauss, and Barbara Stymiest. Operations Weston's operations include more than 50 facilities across Canada employing over 5,000 staff in manufacturing facilities, distribution centres and corporate environments. See also Associated British Foods – the company built by W. Garfield Weston and later managed by son Garry Weston. References External links Bakeries of Canada Food product brands Manufacturing companies based in Toronto Weston family Food and drink companies established in 1882 1882 establishments in Ontario Companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange S&P/TSX 60 Canadian companies established in 1882 Family-owned companies of Canada
4582717	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane%20Audrey	Hurricane Audrey	Hurricane Audrey was one of the deadliest hurricanes in U.S. history, killing at least 416 people in its devastation of the southwestern Louisiana coast in 1957. Along with Hurricane Alex in 2010, it was also the strongest June hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic basin as measured by pressure. The rapidly developing storm struck southwestern Louisiana as an intense Category 3 hurricane, destroying coastal communities with a powerful storm surge that penetrated as far as inland. Audrey was the first named storm and hurricane of the 1957 hurricane season. It formed on June 24 from a tropical wave that moved into the Bay of Campeche. Situated within ideal conditions for tropical development, Audrey quickly strengthened, reaching hurricane status a day afterwards. Moving north, it continued to strengthen and accelerate as it approached the United States Gulf Coast. On June 27, the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 125 mph (205 km/h), making it a major hurricane. At the time, Audrey had a minimum barometric pressure of 946 mbar (hPa; 27.91 inHg). The hurricane made landfall with the same intensity between the mouth of the Sabine River and Cameron, Louisiana, later that day, causing unprecedented destruction across the region. Once inland, Audrey weakened and turned extratropical over West Virginia on June 29. Audrey was the first major hurricane to form in the Gulf of Mexico since 1945. Prior to making landfall, Audrey severely disrupted offshore drilling operations in the Gulf of Mexico. Damages from offshore oil facilities alone was estimated at $16 million. Audrey caused much of its destruction near the border between Texas and Louisiana. The hurricane's strong winds resulted in widespread property and infrastructural damage. Power outages also resulted from the strong winds. However, as is typical with most landfalling tropical cyclones, most of the destruction at the coast was the result of the hurricane's strong storm surge, which was amplified by Audrey's rapid strengthening just prior to landfall. The storm surge was reported to have peaked as high as 12 ft (3.7 m), inundating coastal areas. Damage from the surge alone extended 25 mi (40 km) inland. The rough seas killed nine people offshore after capsizing the boat they were in. Further inland in Louisiana, the storm spawned two tornadoes, causing additional damage. Audrey also dropped heavy rainfall, peaking at 10.63 in (270 mm) near Basile. In Louisiana and Texas, where Audrey first impacted, the damage toll was $128 million. After moving inland and transitioning into an extratropical cyclone, Audrey caused additional damage across the interior United States. The storm produced 18 tornadoes across Mississippi and Alabama, causing $600,000 in losses and killing one person. As it moved towards the northeast, moisture associated with the extratropical remnants of Audrey intersected with a cold front over the Midwest, producing record rainfall that peaked at 10.20 in (259.08 mm) in Paris, Illinois. The resultant flooding killed 10 people. Elsewhere in the United States, the storm brought strong winds that wrought additional damage. Farther north, in Canada, 15 people were killed in Ontario and Quebec. Strong winds and torrential rainfall disrupted transportation services. In Quebec, ten people were killed in the Montreal area, making Audrey the deadliest hurricane to strike the Canadian province in recorded history. The storm was also considered the worst storm to strike Quebec in at least 20 years. In the United States, Audrey killed at least 416 people, the majority of whom were in Cameron Parish, Louisiana, though the final death total may never be known. Damage totaled $147 million in the country, at the time the fifth-costliest hurricane recorded in the US since 1900. The name Audrey was later retired from usage as an identifier for an Atlantic hurricane. Meteorological history The formation and development of Hurricane Audrey was multi-faceted. One contributor to Audrey's formation—an area of anomalously low pressures roughly above sea level—was first detected in the western Caribbean Sea on June 11. In an analysis of weather patterns from June 1957, Weather Bureau meteorologist William H. Klein noted the potential for research on similar disturbances to shed light on tropical cyclone development. Concurrently, surface observations suggested the progression of a disorganized tropical wave tracking westward across the Caribbean Sea beginning on June 20, eventually entering the Bay of Campeche on June 22. At 12:00 UTC on June 24 (7:00 a.m. CST), storms associated with the wave organized into a tropical depression based on ship reports in the bay; at the time, the first indication of a developing tropical cyclone originated from a report from a shrimp boat. The depression was in a highly favorable environment for intensification in the western Gulf of Mexico; sea surface temperatures in the area were at , or 3 °F (2 °C) above normal for the time of year. In addition, the latitudinal alignment of a polar trough over the Great Plains and the nascent disturbance in the Bay of Campeche created an environment suitable for outflow in the upper-levels of the atmosphere. Taking advantage of these conditions, Audrey reached tropical storm strength just six hours after being classified as a tropical depression while remaining nearly stationary. On June 25, the first reconnaissance aircraft to probe Audrey, a P-2 Neptune, reached the system to assess its strength, concluding that Audrey had reached hurricane intensity by 18:00 UTC that day (1:00 p.m. CST), capping off an initial phase of rapid intensification about southeast of Brownsville, Texas. Now moving slowly northward around the periphery of a ridge of high pressure over the eastern Gulf of Mexico, the storm's strengthening slowed on June 26, though reconnaissance revealed an increase in the storm's rainfall. The following day, Audrey entered a second phase of intensification as it accelerated towards the United States Gulf Coast, reaching the equivalent of a modern-day Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale at 00:00 UTC on June 27 (7:00 p.m. CST June 26) and Category 3 status just six hours later. Between the final observation from aircraft and landfall, the storm's pressure had deepened by roughly 30 mbar (hPa; 0.89 inHg). The last observation near the storm's center occurred approximately five hours before landfall by the tanker Tillamook, documenting a pressure of 969 mbar (hPa; 27.94 inHg) at the western edge of the storm's eyewall. At 13:30 UTC (8:30 a.m. CST) on June 27, Audrey made landfall at peak intensity just east of the border between Texas and Louisiana with winds of 125 mph (200 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 946 mbar (hPa; 28.61 inHg). An oil rig observed conditions suggestive of a much stronger storm with winds of 180 mph (290 km/h) and a pressure of 925 mbar (hPa; 27.32 inHg), but these were discarded as erroneous. Radar and ground observations suggested the storm had concentric eyewalls at the time of landfall, resulting in two wind maxima. Operationally, Audrey was assessed to have been a Category 4 hurricane at landfall, with various estimation methods suggesting a much lower barometric pressure, but the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project reassessed the system at a lower final intensity. Despite the lowered intensity, Audrey remains as having the highest winds of any June hurricane in the Atlantic and tied with 2010's Hurricane Alex as being the most intense Atlantic hurricane in June by pressure. Audrey gradually weakened and turned to the northeast after moving inland, degenerating to a tropical storm on June 28. An approaching cold front caused Audrey to evolve into an extratropical cyclone, completing this transition on June 29 over West Virginia with a final pressure of 995 mbar (hPa; 29.38 inHg). At the same time, a second extratropical cyclone developed near Chicago, Illinois and tracked eastward. Six hours later, the remnants of Audrey were absorbed by this second extratropical cyclone over the Great Lakes. The interaction of Audrey with this second system led to unusual strengthening of the resulting combined cyclone and the production hurricane-force winds as it moved across the Northeastern United States, aided in part by an unusual warming of the stratosphere. As an extratropical system, Audrey reached a minimum pressure of 974 mbar (hPa; 28.76 inHg) roughly north of Buffalo, New York in southwestern Quebec; the post-tropical strengthening of Audrey was reminiscent to that of Hurricane Hazel in 1954. Preparations Although Audrey's formation was not explicitly forecast, the Weather Bureau in Miami, Florida, had issued its first experimental 30-day hurricane forecast on June 17, underscoring a high likelihood for the development of one or two tropical storms in the forecast period. The first bulletin on Audrey was issued by the Weather Bureau office in New Orleans, Louisiana, at 04:30 UTC on June 25 (11:30 p.m. CST June 24), while Audrey was still a tropical depression in the Bay of Campeche. A hurricane watch was posted for the coasts of Texas and Louisiana the following day. A hurricane warning was issued for the entirety of the Louisiana coast at 10 a.m. CST on June 26, with the Weather Bureau highlighting similarities in the paths of Audrey and Hurricane Flossy in 1956; experience with Flossy aided in part in convincing Grand Isle, Louisiana, residents to evacuate. At the same time, northwest storm warnings were issued for the Texas coast east of Galveston, while southeast storm warnings were issued for the U.S. Gulf Coast between Louisiana and Pensacola, Florida. Small coastal craft from Brownsville, Texas, to Panama City, Florida, were advised to remain in port. Hurricane warnings were later extended westward to High Island, Texas by June 27. Although warnings were issued 24 hours before landfall, the acceleration of Audrey as it neared land surprised meteorologists and residents. In total, approximately 75,000 people evacuated from low-lying areas on the United States Gulf Coast in advance of Audrey. Due to the threat of inundation of the bridge over Rollover Pass, 270 beach houses and other homes on the lower end of the Bolivar Peninsula were evacuated, with evacuees staying at either nearby Fort Travis or Port Bolivar. Offshore oil rigs were secured, with hundreds of personnel evacuated by helicopter on June 26, including those operated by Kerr-McGee, Gulf Oil, and Humble Oil. An estimated 50,000 people in total evacuated from Port Arthur, Texas, while all except two families evacuated Sabine Pass; about 2,000 people evacuated from Orange, Texas, with another 1,000 evacuating from Beaumont, Texas. The American Red Cross opened fifteen shelters in Port Arthur which eventually housed 5,000. Four hundred children in church camps in Galveston were evacuated inland to Baytown, Texas. A public shelter program was established for Louisiana evacuees by the state civil defense, invoking National Guard equipment and personnel; all civil defense groups in the state were ordered to place key men on 24-hour duty. Evacuation procedures began on Grand Isle, Louisiana on June 26, culminating in the evacuation of 3,400 people; however, 600 people opted to remain in Grand Isle. Most of Cameron, Louisiana, was evacuated, while the remaining sought refuge in the town's courthouse and other structures. Red Cross shelters in Lake Charles, Louisiana housed 19,000 refugees and issued food rations to 30,000 people. The United States Air Force and United States Navy evacuated 115 North American T-28 Trojans from Naval Outlying Landing Field Barin in Alabama to Barksdale Air Force Base. Similarly, aircraft and personnel were evacuated out of Keesler Air Force Base in Biloxi, Mississippi, and the Gulfport Combat Readiness Training Center in Gulfport, Mississippi. The high death toll caused by Audrey was partially blamed on the incompleteness of evacuations before the storm made landfall, attributed by meteorologist Robert Simpson to a lack of proper communication between coastal residents and forecasters. Although the Weather Bureau's advisories and warnings were technically accurate, they were found in Bartie v. United States to have lacked a sense of urgency or emergency. The warnings advised the evacuation of "low or exposed areas," but many inland residents at an elevation of did not consider themselves to be at a low elevation. In addition, newly elected city officials in Lake Charles, Louisiana, edited warnings and advisories disseminated by a local radio broadcast, tailoring the bulletins to local residents by trimming details deemed irrelevant and possibly resulting in a hesitance to evacuate until it was too late. Impact The Weather Bureau initially estimated that the death toll from Audrey was over 500, with the cost of damage estimated between $150–200 million. Other estimates indicated that the death toll amounted to 390, including 263 identified and 127 unidentified persons. An additional 192 people were reported as missing. The National Weather Service report on the most impactful tropical cyclones in the United States lists Audrey as having caused at least 416 fatalities, with an additional 15 killed in Canada. Audrey was the deadliest hurricane to strike the United States since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane, which killed approximately 2,500, and comparable to all storms affecting the country in the previous decade combined. Nearly all deaths were attributed to storm surge drowning. Texas The fishing vessel Keturah sank after colliding with an oil rig off of Galveston, Texas, leading to the loss of nine crewmen. In the hours before the collision, the Keturah had been disabled and taken in tow by the USCGC Cahoone (WSC-131), but the tow line broke. In Corpus Christi, where tides were above normal, a tanker, a tug, and a few barges washed aground. The surf also washed out a portion of Mustang Island Park Road between Corpus Christi Pass and Packery Channel. Another person drowned in the rough surf off the Texas coast. At Port Isabel, tides swelled 2.5 ft (about 75 cm) above normal as Audrey passed to the east, though coastal flooding remained minimal. Periodic squalls impacted the Brownsville, Texas, area without much consequence, though the wave action on nearby Padre Island pushed marine debris beyond the seawall; tides on Padre Island were the highest in five years. The oil barge Pemrod broke from its mooring, leaving it adrift in Sabine Lake. In Galveston, the storm surge swelled to a height of above mean sea level; the total expanse of coast that saw tides higher than spanned . The surge topped the Galveston Seawall, flooding the downtown streets and inundating businesses. Several boats in Galveston Harbor were sunk. A segment of Texas State Highway 87 between Sabine Pass and High Island was submerged. Despite the seawater inundation in some areas of Galveston Island, an extension of the Galveston Seawall completed in 1953 was assessed to have mitigated about $100,000 in damage from Audrey. A fish market, crab depot, and a smaller shack were destroyed in Texas City, and the city's fishing pier sustained $5,000 in damage after being struck by a loose barge. Two oil barges spanning were moved inland north of Gilchrist, Texas. Portions of eastern Texas were analyzed to have experienced high-end Category 2 conditions as Audrey made landfall just east of the state. Winds reached in Port Arthur and in Galveston. Plate glass windows in downtown Galveston were broken by flying debris, as were high-rise windows in Port Arthur. At least 50 homes on the Bolivar Peninsula were flattened. Most roofs on the peninsula sustained substantial damage. The most severe damage on the peninsula occurred in and around Gilchrist, where the majority of destroyed homes were located. On the southern end of the Bolivar Peninsula, the effects of Audrey in Port Bolivar were limited to lost shingles. Galveston Island fared comparatively better than the Bolivar Peninsula but nonetheless sustained some impacts. Some beachfront establishments in Galveston were demolished by the strong winds and storm surge. The rough surf also washed out some segments of Galveston beaches, exacerbated by a local practice of digging holes to sell soil from private beachfront property. Minor power outages knocked out service to some 1,700 telephones, but power was quickly restored. Damage in Galveston County was estimated at $200,000–$300,000. In nearby Orange, homes were damaged by falling trees felled by strong winds. Power and other utility lines were also downed, leaving only connectivity for emergency telephones and cutting most power to the city. Fifteen people were injured while one was killed in Orange. At Jefferson County Airport, of rain fell on June 27, setting a daily rainfall record. The monetary cost of Audrey's damage in Texas totaled $8 million, with a conservative estimate of $1.5 million for Orange County alone. A total of nine fatalities occurred in the state, in addition to 450 injuries. Louisiana Hurricane Audrey's strong winds generated rough seas offshore Louisiana, with wave heights of occurring in the Gulf of Mexico. At the coast, tides ran above normal, inundating low-lying areas and penetrating as far as inland, resulting in over 1.6 million acres (6,500 km2) of land flooded by either storm surge or river flooding. In Cameron, tides peaked at above mean sea level, with some waves reaching as high as atop the high water. Tides exceeded for a stretch of the Louisiana coastline, peaking at just west of Cameron. Four Continental Oil sea tenders lost their anchors and went adrift in the rough seas. Some drifting oil tenders also reported gusts reaching . A $2 million oil rig east of Sabine Pass capsized, though all crew survived. Damage to offshore oil facilities caused by Audrey reached $16 million, though one offshore trade journal remarked that "the [oil] industry has scored an overwhelming though costly victory" due to the lack of industry-related fatalities and small extent of damage compared to coastal communities. Beach erosion caused by rough surf stripped away as much as of beach. Wildlife along the coast was impacted heavily, with marshes stripped entirely of vegetation. Clumps of salt hay (Spartina patens) were brought as far as inland. Scattered damage occurred in Alexandria, with strong winds knocking out telecommunications and downing tree limbs. Winds were measured at in Lake Charles, Louisiana roughly northeast of Audrey's eye as it made landfall. A gust was clocked at in Sulphur before the anemometer blew away, though the highest sustained wind at an official observation site was at Lake Charles Air Force Base. Communities along coastal Louisiana near the point of landfall were completely destroyed, with 4,500 homes considered destroyed or irreparably damaged and another 100,000 sustaining varying degrees of lesser damage. In some towns west of the Atchafalaya River, 90% of homes lost their roofs. In Cameron and Grand Chenier, Audrey destroyed or displaced 60–80% of homes, while between 90 and 95% of all buildings overall in Cameron and nearby Vermilion Parish were irreparably damaged. Nearly every home in Lake Charles sustained some degree of damage. The city of Cameron sustained the most damage, and 371 people in and around the city perished. The city courthouse, where Cameron residents sought refuge, remained the only building left standing in Cameron. Wood-frame houses were swept by Audrey's storm surge and carried inland several miles from their original locations, with most found on the Intracoastal Waterway. Dead cattle, alligators, snakes, nutria, and muskrats were also deposited in the waterway, blocking segments of the canal; an estimated 40,000–50,000 head of cattle perished, primarily by drowning. Several ships were carried well inland, causing damage; two long fishing boats were deposited on Cameron's Main Street (Louisiana Highway 82) while an offshore oil rig destroyed four fuel storage tanks as it was moved onshore. Strong winds initially prevented the United States Coast Guard from rescuing stranded residents in the city and nearby areas after dispatching a helicopter and some lifeboats. Further east, Pecan Island was submerged under a foot (0.3 m) of seawater. Strong winds in Baton Rouge blew out windows in the Louisiana State Capitol. One person was killed while clinging to debris after being bitten by a venomous water snake. Saltwater inundation was particularly damaging to rice, while strong winds blew down corn and heavy rains flooded cotton fields; these were the main crop losses attributed to Audrey. In Louisiana, preliminary estimates of crop damage reached $5 million. Forests were also heavily impacted, with an estimated 50,000,000 ft () of timber lost primarily in the parishes of Jeff Davis, Allen, Evangeline, and LaSalle. Poisoning efforts that had begun prior to Audrey's arrival to mitigate a boll weevil infestation were disrupted, leading to a resurgence in boll weevils following the hurricane. The highest rainfall associated with Audrey fell in Louisiana, where were recorded just west of Basille; most of the heaviest rainfall occurred east of Audrey's center of circulation. Daily rainfall records were set in Jennings and Lafayette, recording and on June 27, respectively. Audrey also spawned two tornadoes in Louisiana: the first was an F0 tornado east of Seabrook (New Orleans East) while the other one was an F1 tornado that damaged several homes near Arnaudville. In total, damage from Hurricane Audrey in Louisiana amounted to $120 million. An estimated 400 people lost their lives in the state, accounting for most of the deaths attributed to Audrey, while another 1,000 were injured. Elsewhere in the United States Audrey produced severe weather, including 19 tornadoes, in its rainbands as it moved inland. 14 of the 19 tornadoes touched down in Alabama; a conducive environment over the southern half of the state took shape as Audrey passed to the northwest, resulting in a localized tornado outbreak causing $600,000 in damage and injuring 14 people. An F2 tornado struck Southern Greenville, damaging or destroying 60 buildings including some of the facilities at Lomax-Hannon Junior College; damage from that tornado alone was estimated to be as high as $300,000. Three tornadoes struck in the vicinity of Evergreen, Alabama, damaging several homes; one of the tornadoes was an F2 tornado that tracked and was wide, making it both the longest-tracked and widest tornado caused by Hurricane Audrey. Another F2 tornado near Evergreen also swept up fish and crayfish, causing them to fall from the sky. Strong winds in Montgomery, Alabama, uprooted trees, while south in Davenport, Alabama, winds damaged a number of homes and injured several people. Gusts in the state peaked at in Birmingham, Alabama, and wind damage alone caused $200,000 in damage in the state. On the Mississippi Gulf Coast, winds and tidal action caused some damage. However, the most severe damage in Mississippi occurred in a band stretching from the southwestern to northeastern corner of the state. Four tornadoes touched down in Mississippi resulting in slightly over $500,000 in damage. An F2 tornado in Philadelphia destroyed seven homes and caused nine injuries, while an F3 tornado—the strongest caused by Audrey—killed one and injured 10 in Brooksville. The Brooksville tornado also destroyed a Kraft Singles plant in the western side of the city and hospitalized six people, with another four suffering minor injuries; damage from that tornado was estimated between $100,000–$300,000. Another F2 tornado destroyed a grocery store and several large buildings in Clara. The strongest winds in Mississippi were measured in Jackson and Greenwood, clocking at . Mississippi's southwestern regions saw the heaviest rainfall in the state from Audrey, with rainfall totals ranging from . Heavy rains caused minor flooding along the banks of the Pearl River and Big Black River, affecting some farm lands. One person was electrocuted in Kosciusko after attempting to upright a utility pole, bringing the number of fatalities in the state to two. The total cost of damage in the state was $9 million, and 50,000 homes sustained some form of damage. Loss of crops in Mississippi totaled $2 million with corn, cotton, hay, and unharvested oats heavily damaged. As was the case in Louisiana, boll weevil poisoning efforts were thwarted in Mississippi. Damage from Audrey in Arkansas was limited to minor roof damage caused by strong winds in El Dorado. The fringe effects of Audrey's remnant wind field and rainfall also extended to Georgia, where wind damage was light but widespread. Peaches were blown down from trees and corn was blown over. Falling trees and branches damaged homes and disrupted electric and telecommunication services. Tracking farther inland, the weakening storm brought gusts of up to to Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio, resulting in minor wind damage. Rainfall in these states produced minor flooding along streams and low-lying farmland, exacerbated by antecedent rainfall that had saturated the soil. Across Tennessee, property or crop damage associated with strong winds was reported in eleven counties, with property damage mostly being inflicted on roofs, trees, power lines, TV antennas, and other minor structures; one death and three injuries were linked to these winds. An F1 tornado destroyed a saw mill, a barn, and several other buildings near Dyersburg, Tennessee, the most northerly tornado associated with Audrey. The interaction of Audrey and a second frontal system tracking across the Midwestern United States drew excess moisture across the region, leading to heavy rainfall across Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. Rainfall in those states peaked at in Paris, Illinois, with a similar maximum of in Hermann, Missouri. The rains in Paris, Illinois, contributed to the rainiest June in the city's history and a yearly record rainfall total. Highways in Illinois were submerged for as long as three days. Flash flooding in central Indiana led to the closure of 17 highways. Two women drowned after a bus was swept off one highway near Indianapolis, Indiana, where over of rain quickly fell. Another three drowned in Indiana, in addition to the inundation of over 1,000 homes and 125 businesses. Flooding washed away roughly of crops and destroyed highway and railroad bridges. An 18-car work train fell into a creek near Reelsville, Indiana, after the bridge it was crossing succumbed to floodwaters. Railroad losses alone accounted for $1.2 million of the $2.45 million in damage wrought by Audrey in Indiana. A total of ten lives were lost in Illinois, Indiana, and New York due to heavy rains and strong winds brought by squalls in Audrey's extratropical remnants. Winds peaked at in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and in Jamestown, New York. Damage in Pennsylvania was limited to the state's western regions and confined primarily to the downing of trees, powerlines, and the loss of some roofs. One person was killed by lightning while another was injured by a falling tree. Areas of New York near Lake Ontario experienced intense wind gusts that caused widespread power outages. The winds raised the water level in the lake above normal, damaging small boats. The rise in Lake Ontario also damaged sightseeing facilities and river docks downstream of the Niagara Falls; total damage in New York was estimated at between $250,000–$400,000 and four deaths were reported in the state. Hurricane-force winds extended as far east as St. Albans, Vermont, where winds were measured at . Across New England, power lines were downed while yachts were driven aground on the coast of Maine. Canada The remnants of Audrey entered Ontario with tropical storm force winds after crossing Lake Ontario, while gusts reached . Heavy rainfall in the province washed out roads and rail lines. Six people were trapped in Algonquin Provincial Park for four days due to dangerous river currents and downed trees blocking roads. One boy drowned and a firefighter died due to the storm, while three other people died in Ontario due to traffic accidents. In neighboring Quebec, the remnants of Audrey were considered the worst storm in about 20 years, and over 100 houses were damaged by floods. The Montreal district of Saraguay lost power for several days. Throughout Montreal, there were 10 deaths, nine of which due to traffic accidents. This made Audrey the deadliest tropical cyclone in Quebec on record. Aftermath Rescue parties from the United States Coast Guard were quickly dispatched for the Cameron area in search for survivors. The Coast Guard also dispatched a cutter from New Orleans with medical supplies for affected regions. More than 40,000 people were left homeless, with many were housed at McNeese State University in Lake Charles until they could be permanently resettled. Statues were erected in honor of those killed by Audrey in southwestern Louisiana, including Highland Memorial Park in Lake Charles where 33 were buried. Audrey's storm surge on the Louisiana coastline began receding 10 hours after the storm struck, with the ocean returning to normal levels in around 1.5 days. Despite the brief period of submersion, the morphology of the coast changed significantly; about 50% of the coast had retreated inland, with a large amount of sedimentation occurring primarily in the form of mudflats. One arc of mud deposited on the coast measured in length and in width. In Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, saltwater inundation of habitats led to a significant decrease in waterfowl and plants susceptible to saltwater like bullwhips; damage in the refuge set back management and development plans for the area by two years. Other plants intolerant to saltwater sustained a four-year decrease in productivity. Nutria, muskrat, raccoon, rabbit, and deer populations experienced 60% mortality, while mink and otters fared comparatively better. All animal nests were swept away by either the rough surf or strong winds. The destruction wrought by Audrey on Cameron, Louisiana, was credited as contributing to the successful evacuation of Cameron Parish in advance of Hurricane Carla four years later, with the parish having a higher evacuation rate (96%) than any other location surveyed in the aftermath of Carla despite being at the edge of the warning area; however, the relevance of the so-called "Audrey effect" in the Carla evacuations is disputed. The extensive storm surge caused the hurricane represented the first research opportunity for the newly formed National Hurricane Research Project (NHRP) to investigate a major tropical cyclone inundation event since the organization's inception in 1954. After investigating the extent of the surge, the NHRP concluded that despite the abundant availability of storm tide observations, a lack of inland information prevented a detailed reconstruction of Audrey's surge; such data would help inform local emergency decisions and improve surge forecasting. Following the guidance of the NHRP, the Weather Bureau began installing additional tide recorders along the coast after Hurricane Audrey. Due to the damage and fatalities caused by Audrey, the name was retired and will never be used again for an Atlantic tropical cyclone. Bartie v. United States (1963) In 1962, Whitney Bartie, along with hundreds of others, sued the United States federal government, asserting that the United States Weather Bureau had failed to give proper and accurate warning on Audrey and its effects. Bartie and his family had concluded that there was no need to evacuate following a 10:00 p.m. CST news broadcast on June 26—the night before Audrey made landfall. The family was awoken the following morning by water flooding their house, forcing them to climb onto their roof; the winds and rising water killed all in Bartie's family except Whitney. Whitney's claim was two-pronged, with the first point alleging that the Weather Bureau was negligent in their warnings, and the second alleging that despite experiencing the full brunt of the storm, Weather Bureau advisories advising the evacuation of those at lower elevations did not implicate him; Whitney sought $360,000 in damages from the federal government. A hurricane expert testifying for the Weather Bureau suggested that Audrey's deviation from the forecast path were as accurate as could be expected; at the time, the track error on a 24-hour hurricane forecast averaged . The case was argued in the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana and presided by Edwin F. Hunter. The court ruled that the Weather Bureau failed to convey the urgency of the situation to those on the coast in their warnings, but asserted that evacuation orders were not within the duties of the Weather Bureau. The case was dismissed on the grounds that the claim was barred by the discretionary function and misrepresentation exception in the Federal Tort Claims Act as the Weather Bureau's warnings were based on subjective judgements and errors were unintentional; thus, Hunter ruled that Whitney had failed to establish negligence on the part of the Weather Bureau. Following the dismissal, Whitney appealed the case to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, which ruled per curiam in favor of the United States in Bartie v. United States 326 F.2d 754 (1964). Another 109 suits similar to Bartie seeking total damages of $9,755,000 were filed in federal court but did not come to trial. Notes See also List of Texas hurricanes (1950–79) List of Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes Other tropical cyclones named Audrey Storms affecting similar areas: Hurricane Carmen (1974) – A Category 4 hurricane that devastated the Yucatán Peninsula and southern Louisiana Hurricane Rita (2005) – A Category 5 hurricane that caused major damage as a Category 3 hurricane in southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas Hurricane Laura (2020) – A devastating Category 4 hurricane that caused widespread destruction across western Louisiana and eastern Texas Other strong early-season hurricanes: 1916 Gulf Coast hurricane – A destructive Category 3 hurricane that struck the central Gulf Coast of the United States Hurricane Alma (1966) – A devastating Category 3 hurricane that moved through Cuba and Florida and up the coast of the Southeastern United States References External links Hurricane Audrey by Nola Mae Ross – this category 4 hurricane hit in 1957, killing hundreds Severe Rainstorms in Illinois, Pages 23–36 Audrey Audrey (1957) Audrey (1957) Audrey Audrey Audrey Audrey Audrey Natural disasters in Quebec Natural disasters in Ontario 1957 natural disasters in the United States 1957 disasters in Canada
4583173	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafeez%20Ahmed	Nafeez Ahmed	Nafeez Mosaddeq Ahmed (born 1978) is a British investigative journalist, author and academic. He is editor of the crowdfunded investigative journalism platform INSURGE intelligence. He is a former environment blogger for The Guardian from March 2013 to July 2014. From 2014 to 2017, Ahmed was a weekly columnist for Middle East Eye, the London-based news portal founded by ex-Guardian writer David Hearst. He is 'System Shift' columnist at VICE covering issues around global systems crises and solutions. Ahmed is now Special Investigations Reporter at Byline Times. As a film-maker, he co-produced and wrote The Crisis of Civilization, and associate produced Grasp the Nettle, both directed by Dean Puckett. Ahmed's academic work has focused on the systemic causes of mass violence. His work applies systems theory to explore the intersection of multiple global crises, including climate, energy, financial, political, military, and others. He is also an adviser at the investigative journalism outlet Declassified UK. Education and career Ahmed received an M.A. in contemporary war & peace studies and a DPhil (April 2009) in international relations from the School of Global Studies at Sussex University, where he taught for a period in the Department of International Relations. His Ph.D. thesis was a comparative analysis of Spanish and British colonisation of the Americas to uncover the processes that precipitated genocidal mass violence. He was a tutor at the Department of International Relations, University of Sussex, and has lectured at Brunel University's Politics & History Unit at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, for courses in international relations theory, contemporary history, empire and globalization. From 2015 to 2018, he was Visiting Research Fellow at the Global Sustainability Institute at Anglia Ruskin University's Faculty of Science & Technology. Ahmed was previously founding Executive Director of the Institute for Policy Research & Development (IPRD) until 2013 when it ceased formal operation. The IPRD was a voluntary global network of scholars, scientists and researchers focused on 'Transdisciplinary Security Studies'. He is also founding convenor and principal author at Perennial, an IPRD project focusing on progressive Islamic theology. Perennial was co-founded by twenty-five Western Muslims to open up Islamic scholarly traditions to interdisciplinary analysis. The project was launched in 2016 on International Women's Day "to correct entrenched misreadings of Islam among Muslim and non-Muslim communities". Books The War on Freedom and The War on Truth Ahmed's first book, The War on Freedom: How and Why America was Attacked, September 11, 2001, published in 2002, was praised by the American essayist Gore Vidal "The Enemy Within", an essay published by The Observer in which Vidal described Ahmed's book as "the best and most balanced report" on 9/11. The book was among 99 books selected and used by the 9/11 Commission for its inquiry into the terrorist attacks. Ahmed's later book, The War on Truth: 9/11, Disinformation and the Anatomy of Terrorism (2005), follows up from his first book, with a critical evaluation of the findings of the 9/11 Commission. In The War on Truth, he argues that the 9/11 attacks on New York City and Washington were facilitated due to US government relations with key state-sponsors of al-Qaeda in the Middle East and North Africa such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Azerbaijan and many others. The book was praised by commentator Yasmin Alibhai-Brown in The Independent: "In his disturbing and clearly evidenced book, The War on Truth, Nafeez Mosaddeq Ahmed traces the unholy games played with Islamicist terrorists by the US, and through acquiescence by the UK, flirting with them when it suited and then turning against them. Al-Qa'ida has been used as an instrument of western statecraft and for now is the enemy. Well, not quite. Pakistan's ISI is quite chummy with the Bin Laden groupies and, well, we have to keep Pakistan on side as they know so many of our secrets. So it goes on." Midwest Book Review reckoned Ahmed's book as an "informed and informative reading for anyone studying international terrorism, national security, and the clandestine machinery of Western power". In response to conspiracy theories of 9/11, Ahmed wrote on his blog in 2014: "I'm on record in a number of places pointing out that simple physical anomalies cannot be used to justify conclusions of a government conspiracy. ... So I kind of end up pissing off basically everyone, 'troofers', 'anti-troofers', and a lot in between." A User's Guide to the Crisis of Civilization Ahmed's book, A User's Guide to the Crisis of Civilization: And How to Save It, received a notice in The Guardian which commented: "Ahmed could be charged with a certain ebullience in his delineating of potential catastrophe, which will necessitate 'the dawn of a post-carbon civilisation'. But his arguments are in the main forceful and well-sourced, with particularly good sections on agribusiness, US policies of 'energy security', and what he terms the 'securitisation' of ordinary life by western governments." In The Oil Drum, Jeff Vail, a former US Department of Interior analyst specialising in energy infrastructure, "highly recommends" the book, concluding: "In the end, if the crisis of our modern civilization can be solved—or at least if the transition to whatever replaces it can be softened—then it will be through a syncretic understanding of the system of threats we face, such as that presented by Dr. Ahmed, that pave the way." A review in Marx & Philosophy of Books criticises the book's approach to systems theory with regards to Ahmed's proposed solutions. Although the reviewer, Dr Robert Drury King, an assistant professor at Sierra Nevada College specialising in systems, acknowledges that "Ahmed draws convincingly and commandingly on a number of fields, including climate sciences, geology, monetary and financial economics, and systems theory, among many others. The impressive scope of the book owes to the fact that Ahmed is very deliberately a wide-ranging, interdisciplinary scholar" - he questions whether there is "a clear and feasible notion of systematicity" that is "applied methodologically to the resolution of the identified crises". Following the publication of the book, Ahmed's chance meeting with filmmaker Dean Puckett led to the development of a feature documentary, The Crisis of Civilization. It was received positively by Hitcham Yezza, editor of Ceasefire magazine, for whom the "film is necessary viewing, not just for activists but for anyone who’s planning to hang around this planet for the foreseeable future". Recognition Ahmed has twice been featured in the Evening Standard list of the top 1,000 most influential Londoners. His investigative journalism has also twice won the Project Censored Award. He is a winner of the Routledge-GCP&S Essay Competition for his peer-reviewed journal paper critiquing conventional international relations approaches to global crises. In 2005, he testified in US Congress about his investigative work on the events leading up to 9/11, where he argued that Western states had undermined national security by using Islamist militant groups for geopolitical purposes in parts of Central Asia and the Middle East. In 2018, Peter Oborne in the British Journalism Review described him as "one of the most courageous and interesting investigative reporters of our time" and "an expert on the environment and the war on terror ... His articles can make very uncomfortable reading for the media and political elite". Controversies Disagreement with Christopher Hitchens over Gore Vidal In Hitchens' 2010 essay in Vanity Fair about Gore Vidal's later writings, he also criticises Ahmed, whom Vidal drew for his 9/11 essay in The Observer. Hitchens wrote: "Mr. Ahmed on inspection proved to be a risible individual wedded to half-baked conspiracy-mongering." Ahmed responded with a letter to the editor, published by Vanity Fair, asserting that Hitchens's article contained "major inaccuracies": "Hitchens's reduction of me to 'conspiracy-mongering' and as having a 'one-room sideshow' institute is contrasted by the fact that I'm an academic at the University of Sussex; my book, The War on Freedom, was used by the 9/11 commission; I've testified before the U.S. Congress; I've given evidence to a UK parliamentary inquiry; and my institute is advised by a board of 20 leading scholars.″ Ahmed followed up with a detailed critique of Hitchens' attack on both himself and Gore Vidal in a feature article published by The Independent on Sunday. He argued that: On the same day, The Independent on Sunday ran a news story on the whole episode, reporting that Ahmed "had not suggested there was a conspiracy [on 9/11], rather a 'dereliction of duty'", and that he had "used the word 'complicity' in a legal sense". Discover magazine In 2014, Discover published a blog article by Keith Kloor concerning Ahmed's Guardian article about a "NASA-sponsored" and funded study of the collapse of industrial civilisation. Kloor objected to the lack of independent responses to the paper, yet to be published at the time, from other scholars in the field. A second post by Kloor asserted that Ahmed had made an "uncritical appraisal" of the study. The story was reported internationally by other media outlets which incorrectly referred to the study reported by Ahmed as a "NASA study", although Ahmed's original Guardian report had not described it as such. In a statement, NASA commented that the collapse study "is an independent study by the university researchers utilizing research tools developed for a separate NASA activity. As is the case with all independent research, the views and conclusions in the paper are those of the authors alone." In a follow-up clarification, Ahmed noted that the NASA statement had simply confirmed his original report, that NASA had funded an independent study specifically by financing the creation of the model it was based on. At the time, Kloor also labelled Ahmed as a "doomer". A December 2013 blog post by Kloor asserts: "Once someone starts down this civilization-is-collapsing road, like Guardian blogger Nafeez Ahmed, it's hard to stop. If you want a tour guide to the apocalypse, Ahmed is your guy." Ahmed rejected this characterisation of his work in his Guardian blog: "Rather what we are seeing ... are escalating, interconnected symptoms of the unsustainability of the global system in its current form. While the available evidence suggests that business-as-usual is likely to guarantee worst-case scenarios, simultaneously humanity faces an unprecedented opportunity to create a civilisational form that is in harmony with our environment, and ourselves." Criticisms of 9/11 conspiracy theorists In 2010, Jonathan Kay alleged that Ahmed is associated with the 9/11 truth movement. Ahmed, however, has been critical of the 9/11 truth movement and has ridiculed 9/11 conspiracy theories. His first book, The War on Freedom, was among 99 books selected and used by the 9/11 Commission for its inquiry into the terrorist attacks. According to Lance DeHaven Smith of Florida State University in American Behavioral Scientist journal, Ahmed catalogues "numerous defense failures on September 11, 2001" and raises questions about why the Pentagon "withheld from the 9/11 Commission evidence that military intelligence agents had uncovered the 9/11 hijackers’ activities well in advance of September 2001." He cites Ahmed’s work on 9/11 for making a major contribution to the systematic study of "State Crimes Against Democracy (SCADS)" that stands "in contrast to conspiracy theories": "The SCAD construct is designed to move beyond the debilitating, slipshod, and scattershot speculation of conspiracy theories by focusing inquiry on patterns in elite political criminality that reveal systemic weaknesses, institutional rivalries, and illicit networks". On the fifth anniversary of the 9/11 terror attacks, Ahmed wrote a column for the Italian Left Magazine outlining outstanding questions that had not been sufficiently resolved by official inquiries. These included US geopolitical relationships with Islamist militants, intelligence failures, as well as questions about the official account of the collapse of the Twin Towers. But Ahmed firmly rejected the legitimacy of approaching these questions from "a prior ideological-conspiratorial agenda" and clarified: "The 9/11 families, and with them the wider public, have an elementary right to full answers to these basic questions. And I’m not about to offer you, the reader, an alternative all-explanatory theory, or a nice ready-made answer on a plate. I don’t have one." In a further comment, he added: "... this article doesn't come from any particular preconceived ideological-theoretical agenda. It's only a catalogue of anomalies, consistent with a variety of explanations - so I'm establishing the need for further investigation and debate, not of any particular theory." In another 2015 essay, Ahmed expressed more in-depth criticisms of the 9/11 truth movement, pointing out that reasonable questions about how the World Trade Center towers collapsed did not justify believing in controlled demolition or conspiracy theories. Instead he pointed to evidence of severe breaches of fire safety codes and removal of evidence raising "serious questions about corruption and cover up for vested interests - issues which continue to undermine national security to this day". He also dismissed the notion that evidence of controlled demolition could in itself automatically prove that the US government organised the 9/11 attacks: "I'm on record as having stated several times that my stance on the WTC is not about conspiracy theory - I told a Channel 4 documentary on conspiracy theories some years ago that however the Twin Towers went down, no physical explanation proves an 'inside job.' Even if, and it's a big if indeed, it were proven beyond doubt that explosives were planted in the WTC, this in itself wouldn't prove that the US government perpetrated 9/11. There's a whole range of various scenarios consistent with this." He went on to add: "My position on 9/11 is pretty simple: I don't indulge in theory. I detest speculation. I particularly hate the very phrase 'inside job,' which is a meaningless bullshit euphemism... there is not a single alternative conspiracy theory of 9/11 blaming the state that does not itself contain holes and gaps. If you're going to point out the holes, gaps and anomalies in what the government says - and rightly so - have the balls to admit the holes in your own claims." In The Independent in 2017, Ahmed argued that there is a strong case to investigate “the fact of systemic senior official negligence on 9/11, for which officials should be held accountable” and criticized those who dismiss such issues as “valiantly critiquing a straw-man conspiracy theory about 9/11”. He further opined in his column at the New Internationalist, that these failures and omissions can be explained by the extent to which Western military and intelligence agencies have used Islamist terrorist networks "both to control strategic energy resources and to counter their geopolitical rivals", a strategy which he says to be well known to have occurred during the Cold War to counter the Soviet Union, but continued in the post-Cold War period. Bibliography The War on Freedom: How and Why America was Attacked, 11 September 2001: , 400 pages, Progressive Press, 2002. Behind the War on Terror : Western Secret Strategy and the Struggle for Iraq: , 352 pages Clairview Books, 2003. The War on Truth: 9/11, Disinformation, and the Anatomy of Terrorism: , 459 pages, Olive Branch Press, 2005. The London Bombings: An Independent Inquiry: , 256 pages, Duckworth, 2006. A User's Guide to the Crisis of Civilization: And How to Save It: , Pluto Press, 2010. Zero Point, , 348 pages, Curiosity Quills Press, 2014 Failing States, Collapsing Systems: BioPhysical Triggers of Political Violence: , 110 pages, Springer Publishing, 2016. Academic articles "The International Relations of Crisis and the Crisis of International Relations: From the Securitisation of Scarcity to the Militarisation of Society", Global Change, Peace & Security (Vol. 23, No. 3, October 2011) "Colonial Dynamics of Genocide: Imperialism, Identity and Mass Violence", Journal of Conflict Transformation & Security (Vol. 1, No. 1, April 2011) pp. 8–36 "Overcoming Paralysis on Climate Change", Survival: Global Politics & Strategy (Vol. 53, No. 1, February–March 2011) pp. 203–206 "Water, oil and demographics: The Arab world‟s triple crisis", Europe’s World: The Only Europe-Wide Policy Journal (Vol. 17, Spring 2011) pp. 121–123 "Globalizing Insecurity: The Convergence of Interdependent Ecological, Energy and Economic Crises", Yale Journal of International Affairs (Vol. 5, No. 2, 2010) pp. 75–90 "India and the Crisis of Civilization: Potential Impacts of Converging Ecological, Economic and Energy Catastrophes", India Economy Review (Vol. 7, March 2010) pp. 90–97 "The Crisis of (Post) Modernity: The De-Sacralisation of the Social, the Death of Democracy, and the Reclamation of Islamic Tradition", Arches Quarterly (Vol. 3, No. 1, Summer 2009) pp. 25–32 "Anglo-American World Order: 30 Years After the Islamic Revolution of Iran", Islamism Digest: Journal of the Centre for the Study of Terrorism (Vol. 4, No. 2, February 2009) pp. 14–19 "Review – Purify and destroy: the political uses of massacre and genocide, by Jacques Semelin", International Affairs (Vol. 84, No. 4, July 2008) pp. 836–837 "Terrorism and Western Statecraft", in Paul Zarembka (ed.), The Hidden History of 9-11-2002 (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2008) pp. 143–182 "Structural Violence as a Form of Genocide: The Impact of the International Economic Order", Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar [Entelechy: Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies](University of Malaga, No. 5, Fall 2007) pp. 3–41 "Terrorism and Western Statecraft: Al-Qaeda and Western Covert Operations After the Cold War", Research in Political Economy (Emerald: Vol. 23, 2006) pp. 149–188 "UN Humanitarian Intervention in East Timor: A Critical Appraisal", Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar (University of Malaga, No. 2, Fall 2006) pp. 227–244 "The Globalization of Insecurity: How the international economic order undermines human and national security on a world scale", Historia Actual [Contemporary History] (University of Cadiz, No. 5, 2004) pp. 113–126 "The Discourse of Empire: United States National Security Strategies Since 1945", in Ronald Thoden (ed.), Terror und Staat: Der 11 September – Hintergrunde und Folgen: Goestregie, Terror, Geheimdienste, Medien, Kriege, Folter, Edition Zeitgeschichte (Berlin: Kai Homilius Verlag, 2004) "State Terrorism at the Dawn of the New American Century", Afterword to William Blum [former State Department official], ll libro nero degli Stati Uniti (Rome: Fazi Editore, 2003) "America and the Taliban: From Co-operation to War", Global Dialogue (Vol. 4, No. 2, Spring 2002) 7 "Distortion, Deception and Terrorism: The Bombing of Afghanistan", International Socialist Review (No. 20, November/December 2001) pp. 36–44 See also List of British Bangladeshis References External links iprd.org.uk The Institute for Policy Research & Development (IPRD) Nafeez Ahmed Nafeez Ahmed's personal website and blog (articles up to 2017 : https://nafeez.blogspot.com/) 1978 births Living people Academics of the University of Sussex Alumni of the University of Sussex British people of Bangladeshi descent British bloggers British columnists British investigative journalists British writers English Muslims Environmental bloggers The Guardian people 21st-century British male writers
4583197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20H.%20Brooks	Edward H. Brooks	Lieutenant General Edward Hale Brooks (April 25, 1893 – October 10, 1978) was a highly decorated senior officer of the United States Army, a veteran of both World War I and World War II, who commanded the U.S. Second Army during the Korean War. He received the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) for heroism as a junior officer in World War I and, remaining in the army during the interwar period, rose to command the 2nd Armored Division during the Battle of Normandy as well as VI Corps during the subsequent defeat of German forces in World War II. Early life and military career Edward Hale Brooks was born on April 25, 1893, in Concord, New Hampshire. His father, Edward Waite Brooks, was a Concord grocer. His mother was the former Mary Frances Hale, a native of Dover, Kent, England. Brooks had three sisters, Harriott, Gertrude and Alice Brooks. Both Gertrude and Alice died in their infancy. He graduated from Concord High School in June 1911 (where he lettered in football), after which he attended Norwich University (The Military College of Vermont) in Northfield, Vermont, graduating in 1916 with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering. In 1949, he received the honorary degree of Master of Military Science from Norwich University. In 1952, Brooks was awarded an honorary Doctor of Military Science degree from Pennsylvania Military College. Brooks began his military career in June 1915 as a captain with the 1st Cavalry Regiment of the Vermont National Guard, a position he held until July 1916. For the following year, he worked as a civil engineer before his National Guard unit was called up for federal service. On Thanksgiving Day, 1917, Brooks married the former Beatrice Aurora Leavitt. They had two children: Elizabeth Allen Brooks (b. December 27, 1918) and Edward Hale Brooks, Jr. (b. June 6, 1920). World War I Brooks was commissioned as a second lieutenant of the Cavalry Branch in the Regular Army of the United States Army in August 1917, four months after the American entry into World War I, was promoted to first lieutenant the same date and was assigned to the Army Service Schools at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In November 1917, he was transferred to the 76th Field Artillery Regiment at Camp Shelby, Mississippi, moving with his regiment to Camp Merritt, New Jersey, in March 1918. The regiment was part of the 3rd Division. At that post he was assigned to the 3rd Field Artillery Brigade in command of a detachment (later G-3) that sailed for France to reinforce the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in April 1918. Brooks served on the Western Front in the Champagne-Marne Defense, the Aisne-Marne Offensive, the St. Mihiel Offensive and the Meuse–Argonne offensive, the largest battle in the history of the United States Army. On October 5, 1918, during the fighting in the Meuse–Argonne, he earned a Distinguished Service Cross (DSC), the citation for which reads: Following the Armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918, he served with the Army of Occupation in Germany until returning to the United States in August 1919 with station at Camp Pike, Arkansas. In July 1920 he was transferred from the Cavalry Branch to the Field Artillery Branch. Between the wars Upon his return to the United States, Brooks was a member of the Camp Pike football team. After being named All-Army Halfback in 1920 on the first All-Army team, he captained the Army team that defeated Great Lakes Naval Training Station 20–6 at the American Legion Convention in Kansas City in 1921. Brooks entered the U.S. Army Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, in September 1921. Upon graduation in June 1922 he remained as an instructor in gunnery until November 1926, when he was assigned to the command of Battery 'D' of the 24th Field Artillery Regiment, a pack mule outfit at Fort Stotsenburg, in the Philippines. In October 1928, he was assigned to the 18th Field Artillery Regiment at Fort Riley, Kansas. At Fort Riley his artillery battery, a horse drawn outfit, was the first to complete a 100-mile forced march in less than 24 hours. From 1932 to 1934 Brooks attended the U.S. Army Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, then went to Harvard University as a Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) instructor in 1934. He attended the U.S. Army War College from 1936 to 1937 and was then detailed as an instructor in the attack section of the Command and General Staff College. Preparing for World War II Brooks was chief of the statistics branch of the War Department General Staff from 1939 to 1941, where he was closely associated with General George C. Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson. By this time he had risen to the rank of lieutenant colonel, having been promoted on August 1, 1940. In September 1941, Major General Jacob L. Devers requested that Brooks be named to the staff of the new armored force being formed at Fort Knox, Kentucky. With this came a promotion to the one-star general officer rank of brigadier general in the Army of the United States (AUS) on December 15, 1941. Consequently, he never held the rank of colonel. In 1942, shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent German declaration of war on the United States in December 1941, which brought America into World War II, he was promoted once again, this time to major general (AUS), on August 5, 1942. In this capacity he played a major role in the development of the M-7 self-propelled artillery piece and the Howitzer Motor Carriage M8, both potent forces in armored tactics. World War II From August 1942 until March 1944 Brooks served as the first commander of the 11th Armored Division at Fort Knox, Kentucky, preparing them for the impending invasion of continental Europe. His results with the 11th Armored Division caught the eye of senior commanders, resulting in his selection for overseas assignment to command the 2nd "Hell on Wheels" Armored Division, then stationed in England training for the Allied invasion of Normandy. In January 1943, at the direct request of General Marshall, Brooks, then a two-star major general, and several other senior officers accompanied Lieutenant General Devers on a tour of Northern African Allied forces. Their objective was to assess Allied and Axis strengths and weaknesses and to gather ideas for making armor training more realistic, reflecting actual combat experience. At the conclusion of their North African Theater intelligence gathering, the B-17 they were on ("Stinky") crash-landed in neutral Ireland. They were treated by the locals with hospitality and were transferred across the border to Northern Ireland the next day. Devers and Brooks pressed on to inspect the European Theater of Operations, then technically still under the command of Lt. Gen. Eisenhower. They toured England using the train supplied by Logistics Chief Major General John C. H. Lee, witnessing joint operations with the British, and many Services of Supply installations as well. They flew back to Washington on 28 January. Major General Brooks assumed command of the 2nd Armored Division on March 17, 1944, at Tidworth Camp, near Salisbury, England. The division had been transferred to England from the Mediterranean late in 1943. After a training and preparation period the division embarked from England in LCI's and LST's on June 8, 1944, and stood toward the shores of France. Preceded by an advance command post detachment which established contact with the V Corps commanding general, Major General Leonard T. Gerow, the division landed on Omaha Beach on June 9, 1944. The 2nd Armored Division was committed immediately. In its first engagement the division secured the Vire River bridgehead. Normandy and the bocage country, where hedgerows furnished natural cover for every field came next. The problem was solved by mounting huge bulldozer blades on the tanks so that a path could be cut through the natural earthen breastworks for the infantry to follow. Then came Saint-Lô, the breakthrough at Avranches, where the 2nd Armored Division held the eastern flank, and a series of engagements throughout Northern France and Belgium. Brooks was cited for gallantry in action during the period August 2 to 6 for making repeated visits to forward elements of his command. Exposing himself to hostile observation and fire, he expedited the commitment of the division and personally assisted in the organization of continuing attacks by subordinate units in assault on enemy strong points. That display of gallantry and leadership, without regard to his personal safety, earned for him the Silver Star. Brooks personally pushed the 2nd Armored Division into being among the first Allied divisions on Belgian soil, and was the first Allied division commander to enter that country by assault. An incident during the drive into Belgium occurred when a corps staff officer came to Brooks' 2nd Armored command post and told the general that he had a mission for the division that he feared was impossible—to be in Ghent in two days. The staff officer's eyes bugged out when the general said, "Tell the corps commander it's in the bag. We'll be there." After the officer departed, Brooks turned to his chief of staff, Colonel Charles D. Palmer, and said, "Where the hell is Ghent?" (They made the objective behind enemy lines and outside their operational zone, with hours to spare.) From training in England, through the Normandy landings, the hedgerow fighting, the breakthrough and the race northeastward across France, through Belgium to the Albert Canal, Brooks had guided the division through two campaigns and scores of operations. During this period, seven units of his command were awarded the Presidential Distinguished Unit Citation. At Marchiennes, France near the Belgian border on September 2, 1944, he himself had personally participated in and directed an operation which annihilated a German convoy of 165 vehicles and earned him an oak leaf cluster to his Silver Star. The Army Distinguished Service Medal was awarded to Brooks for his leadership of the 2nd Armored Division. On September 12, 1944, while the 2nd Armored Division was poised at the Albert Canal, Brooks relinquished command of the division to take temporary command of the V Corps. On October 25 Brooks assumed command of the VI Corps under Lieutenant General Alexander Patch's U.S. Seventh Army, replacing Major General Lucian Truscott who was ordered to the 12th Army Group. In early November, VI Corps was confronted with three problems: to bring the corps' right and left flanks up to the salient held by the 3rd Infantry Division along the Meurthe, thus straightening a "jump" line for another offensive; to introduce the newly arrived 100th and 103rd Infantry Divisions into combat, and to make final plans and regroup the entire corps for an attack to cross the Meurthe, to crack the German Winter Line, to penetrate the Vosges passes, and to reach the Rhine. The Seventh Army's assault was marked by success. VI Corps drove through to its objectives. German defenses of the Vosges passes were taken, Strasbourg was captured and the River Rhine reached. The army changed its direction of attack on November 24. This resulted in major disengagements, reliefs and redeployments. All were accomplished by December 5. VI Corps, teamed with XV Corps, was ready to attack to the north—objective the Lauter River and invasion of Germany. Hurdles ahead were the Maginot Line, the Haguenau Forest and the Siegfried Line. By mid-December the VI Corps was crossing the Lauter River into Germany and assaulting the Siegfried Line. On the night of December 20 the Seventh Army's offensive was called off and all troops ordered to prepare defensive lines. This resulted from the apparent success of the German counter-offensive in Belgium and Luxembourg, known as the "Battle of the Bulge." Forced on the defensive by this turn of events and in the face of determined and repeated enemy counterattacks Brooks organized a flexible defense which stopped the enemy attacks. During VI Corps' resistance to a January 1, 1945, enemy counterattack through the Low Vosges Mountains (Operation Nordwind), VI Corps executed a difficult withdrawal from close contact with the enemy to a predetermined line along the Moder River. All hostile attacks against that position were repulsed. All was quiet on the corps' front until March. For his performance in command of the VI Corps, from December 5, 1944, to March 1945, Brooks was awarded an oak-leaf cluster to the Army Distinguished Service Medal. While VI Corps was criticized for exposing its armored forces in towns, Devers noted that "Ted Brooks has fought one of the great defensive battles of all time with very little." The great spring offensive began in March. VI Corps crossed the Rhine and captured Heidelberg. then came Heilbronn. Turning south and crossing the Danube, the corps drove on to the Italian border to meet the U.S. Fifth Army via Brenner Pass. On May 5, 1945 (two days before Victory in Europe Day) Brooks accepted the surrender of the German 19th Army and 24th Army from General der Panzertruppe Erich Brandenberger in Innsbruck, Austria, thus terminating hostilities in his sector more than 24 hours before the general surrender in Germany and the end of World War II in Europe. Personal tragedy On September 22, 1945, Brooks' son, Major Edward Hale Brooks Jr. (USMA Jan 1943), died in a B-17 crash in Belgium while returning from a night training flight. After World War II Upon return to the United States at the close of the European war, General Brooks assumed command of the Fourth Service Command at Atlanta, Georgia. He was appointed deputy commander of the Seventh Army at Atlanta in June 1946, and the following March became deputy commander of the Third Army there. He assumed command of the Antilles Department at Fort Brooke, San Juan, Puerto Rico, in September 1947 and, two months later, was designated Commanding General United States Army Caribbean, with station at Quarry Heights, Panama Canal Zone. On 24 July 1948, he was awarded the Chilean Grand Cross of the Star of Military Merit, 1st Class, for his long service in their national defense. Later in 1948 Brooks was named Assistant Chief of Staff for Personnel (G-1) of the Army and in March of 1949 promoted to the three-star rank of lieutenant general. He then served as commanding general of the U.S. Second Army at Fort Meade, Maryland, from 1951 until he retired from active service on April 30, 1953. The following was written of Brooks at the time of his retirement by General Jacob L. Devers: "Ted Brooks is a man of action. He accepts responsibility and then does something constructive about it—and he does it now, not tomorrow. He is a great fighter to have on your side, for he thinks only of the big objective and never of himself. He is quick and sound in his thinking—has tremendous courage—and will tackle any problem with new approaches until he gets the solution. His integrity is of the highest order, and he has great loyalty up and down. He knows when and where to disperse the work load, and when and where to concentrate it. His judgment is unquestionably sound. In addition, Ted has a wonderfully pleasing and dynamic personality. God has truly endowed him with wisdom and with an unfailing ability to understand his fellow man. A great soldier, a keen strategist, and a thoroughly capable administrator, Ted Brooks has all the qualities that would make him an excellent Chief of Staff of the Army." Dates of rank Awards and decorations Civilian life Brooks spent the rest of his years in Concord and Melvin Village, New Hampshire. He was Executive Director, Association of Military Colleges and Schools from 1953 to 1964, served on the board of directors of a local bank, was a founding member of the Association of the United States Army, and indulged his love of fly-fishing and his family, among other hobbies. Death Lieutenant General Edward Hale Brooks died in Concord, NH on October 10, 1978, leaving his wife of 61 years, Beatrice Leavitt Brooks, their daughter, Elizabeth Brooks Campbell, four grandchildren and six great-grandchildren. Eulogizing Brooks, General Charles D. Palmer said: "He was an exceptional and courageous leader who inspired confidence, demanded much of his subordinates but gave more of himself, was very strict but fair, never sought personal power and glory. He pushed forward deserving subordinates, but never pushed forward himself, was very modest and very human. Subordinates sometimes referred to him as a "lucky general" not meaning that he himself was lucky but that he was lucky for them — such was their confidence that he and they would succeed." Notes Brooks was known as "Standing Eddie" for his unusual habit of standing up in his jeep as he reviewed the troops so he could better see them. He had a special railing welded into his jeep to hold onto for this purpose. He once hiked 20 miles himself in full pack in order to set a reasonable time in which to expect his troops to complete it. Bibliography References External links Arlington National Cemetery – GEN Dwight D. Eisenhower and MG Ernest N. Harmon – GEN I.D. White and LTG Edward H. Brooks Generals of World War II United States Army Officers 1939–1945 \|- \|- \|- 1893 births 1978 deaths United States Army Cavalry Branch personnel United States Army Field Artillery Branch personnel United States Army Command and General Staff College faculty Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Commanders of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) Grand Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau Harvard University staff Norwich University alumni Officers of the Legion of Honour Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium) Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States) Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Legion of Merit Recipients of the Silver Star United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni People from Concord, New Hampshire United States Army personnel of World War I United States Army generals of World War II United States Army generals Military personnel from New Hampshire
4583512	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazher%20Mahmood	Mazher Mahmood	Mazher Mahmood (born 22 March 1963) is a British journalist who was convicted of conspiracy to pervert the course of justice. Before his conviction, he worked mainly for the tabloid press. He spent 20 years working for the News of the World and the Sunday Times, during which time he was responsible for numerous investigations, including a reputed 94 that led to convictions. He won Reporter of the Year in 2011, as well as Scoop of the Year and the Sports Journalists' Association award, for an investigation of cricket match-fixing. Later, from its foundation in 2012, he worked for the Sun on Sunday, successor to the News of the World. Mahmood became known popularly as the "fake sheikh" because he often posed as a sheikh during the course of his investigations. In addition to numerous highly regarded public-interest investigations, he attracted allegations of breaking the law without any clear public-interest justification, including several episodes in which he was accused of entrapment. In July 2014, Mahmood was suspended from the Sun on Sunday after a trial collapsed against former X Factor judge and singer Tulisa, with concerns voiced by a judge that Mahmood might have perjured himself. In October 2016, Mahmood was jailed for 15 months after being found guilty of conspiring to pervert the course of justice. Background and career Mazher Mahmood was born in Small Heath, Birmingham, on 22 March 1963, the second of two sons of Sultan and Shamim Mahmood, journalists from Pakistan who had come to Britain three years earlier. Mahmood first gained employment as a journalist at the age of 18, exposing family friends who sold pirate videos. This gained him two weeks' work at the News of the World, after which he started freelancing at the Sunday People. In 1984, while trying with fellow journalist Roger Insall to expose a vice-ring at the Metropole Hotel at the National Exhibition Centre, Birmingham, according to Mahmood, he first used the sheikh disguise when inviting prostitutes to a hotel room. Mahmood then worked for the Sunday Times, which he joined in 1989. A managing editor at the time, Roy Greenslade, later alleged that Mahmood was dismissed for trying to cover up a mistake. Mahmood has consistently disputed Greenslade's version of events. Mahmood then briefly worked as a producer on David Frost's TV-am programme, before joining the News of the World in 1991. Methodology Mahmood maintained high levels of secrecy, and said he rarely visited the News International offices. It is said that written into his contract was a clause stating that his photograph would not be published. When featured in images that accompany his stories, he has been represented with a silhouette next to his byline. Despite these efforts, several news organisations have published photos of him, including BBC News, the Guardian and the Norwegian tabloid Dagbladet. In September 2008, he wrote a book entitled Confessions of a Fake Sheik (sic) – The King of the Sting Reveals All. In addition to his "Fake Sheikh" persona, Mahmood has used the identity of businessman Sam Fernando. He is reputed to be accompanied on occasions by a bodyguard, said to be his second cousin Mahmood Qureshi, who has posed as businessman Pervaiz Khan. Conrad Brown, the son of former NoW reporter Gerry Brown, operated the concealed video cameras and microphones. Subjects British royals Mahmood's targets included various society figures, including Sophie, Countess of Wessex, in 2001, Princess Michael of Kent in 2005, and Sarah, Duchess of York, in 2010. George Galloway On 30 March 2006, Respect Party politician George Galloway said that Mahmood, using his "fake sheikh" disguise and working for the News of the World, attempted to trap him in a sting operation at a meeting in the Dorchester Hotel with businessmen from the Middle East. Galloway said he had put off the meeting for several weeks and was suspicious from the beginning. Of the men, he wrote on his website that "neither of the two looked at all like an Islamist (which is what they later claimed to be); neither had a beard". Galloway said that Mahmood tried but failed to implicate him in illegal party funding, and to agree with antisemitic statements. The News of the World admitted their journalist had been present, but asserted that he had been involved in "wholly legitimate inquiries." Mahmood himself denied the use of antisemitic comments. Media commentator Roy Greenslade accused Mahmood and the News of the World, in its use of "subterfuge", of adopting practices which "debase journalism." Galloway wrote to Ian Blair, the Metropolitan Police commissioner and Michael Martin, the Speaker of the House of Commons about the incident. He also released photographs of Mahmood on the internet, distributed the images to other MPs and the royal family, and revealed other aspects of Mahmood's activities. The News of the World lost a High Court action to prevent publication of photographs of Mahmood. In his letter to the Speaker's office, Galloway also claimed that Mahmood had in the past deceived Diane Abbott and had sought a meeting with Jeremy Corbyn, both also prominent anti-war MPs. Other politicians featured in Mahmood's investigations included David Mellor, the former Secretary of State for National Heritage, who had resigned following an affair and the revelation of the unwise acceptance of the gift of a holiday, and Environment Minister Tim Yeo who was revealed to have fathered a child outside his marriage. Sports celebrities Mahmood won the "Reporter of the Year" award in 1999 for his exposé of Newcastle United bosses Freddy Shepherd and Douglas Hall, who mocked fans and branded Geordie women "dogs" after taking Mahmood, posing as the sheikh, to a brothel in Marbella. Footballer John Fashanu was exposed for alleged match-fixing. Fashanu offered to fix matches for Mahmood and took a cash deposit. Fashanu claimed that he knew about the sting all along and was only appearing to be corrupt so as to gather evidence for the police. In January 2006, Mahmood met England head coach Sven-Göran Eriksson, posing as a businessman interested in opening a sports academy. Eriksson, however, asked him to take over Aston Villa FC, and said that he intended to leave England after the World Cup to become Aston Villa manager, and that he would approach David Beckham from Real Madrid to become captain. On 23 January, the Football Association announced that Eriksson would leave his job after the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and it was thought that the News of the World allegations played a part in this decision. This was later denied by both parties, with Eriksson explaining that there was a prior arrangement to terminate his contract immediately after the World Cup. In 2016 Eriksson was reported to be suing Mahmood for having cost him his job. In May 2010, Mahmood exposed snooker player John Higgins and his agent Pat Mooney for apparently agreeing to fix the outcome of future individual frames which would not necessarily alter the course of a match. Meeting in a hotel room in Kyiv, Ukraine, on the morning of Friday 30 April, where Higgins and his manager had travelled after his exit from the 2010 World Championship, to ostensibly meet the undercover News of the World team the newspaper described as men posing as businessmen interested in organising a series of events linked to the World Series of Snooker. On video, Higgins and Mooney discussed how to throw frames. On the publication of the story on Sunday 2 May, Barry Hearn, chairman of the WPBSA, immediately suspended Higgins from WPBSA tournaments, promising a full investigation, saying: "Those responsible, if proved, will be dealt with in a very harsh and brutal way. People have a right to see pure sport – that's what I want snooker to be." Mooney resigned from his post as director of the WPBSA and was later banned from snooker management for life, following an investigation and judgement, which also resulted in Higgins being given a ban and large fine. Explaining that "it is not enough to just have integrity in such a position, you must also be seen to have integrity", he explained further that "this was not possible given the manner in which this allegation has been reported". Higgins subsequently issued a statement denying he had ever been involved in match fixing, and said of the meeting, "I didn't know if this was the Russian mafia or who we were dealing with. At that stage I felt the best course of action was just to play along with these guys and get out of Russia." Mooney also said "we were genuinely in fear for our safety". Pakistan cricket spot-fixing controversy Mahmood's name came under the limelight once again when, in August 2010, he posed as an Indian businessman to expose the cricket bookie Mazhar Majeed who claimed Pakistani cricketers Mohammad Amir, Mohammad Asif, Salman Butt and Kamran Akmal had committed spot-fixing during Pakistan's 2010 tour of England; the team was accused of deliberately bowling three no-balls. Terror sting In September 2004, he posed as a Muslim extremist to "expose" three men who were trying to buy radioactive material for a suspected Muslim terrorist group seeking to carry out attacks in the United Kingdom. However, the men were later found not guilty following a trial at the Old Bailey, with the judge criticising the News of the World for not checking the credibility of the story. Drug sting Mahmood reported the revelations that actor John Alford was supplying cocaine, for which he was imprisoned. Alford claimed entrapment and demanded Mahmood's arrest. The trial judge observed that "entrapment had clearly played a significant part in what he did, but greed had also been a major factor." However, when Alford appealed to the High Court and the European Court of Human Rights, the appeals were rejected. Criticism Mahmood's methods have often been criticised. In addition to Greenslade's criticisms, politician George Galloway also sought to challenge him, while some lawyers have complained that Mahmood has sometimes broken the law without clear public interest justification. In 1999, after a Mahmood investigation exposed the Earl of Hardwicke and another man as drug dealers, the jury sent a note to the judge explaining that they had reached their decision to convict the two men with great reluctance. They said that they would have acquitted the defendants if the law had allowed them to take into account Mahmood's "extreme provocation" of them to sell him cocaine. The judge agreed and passed suspended sentences. Mahmood discussed criticisms of his methods in a televised interview in 2008 with the BBC's Emily Maitlis on The Andrew Marr Show. Plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham In 2003, Mahmood was responsible for reporting an alleged plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham to the police. The subsequent trial collapsed after it emerged that Mahmood's main informant, Florim Gashi, had been paid £10,000 and could not be considered a reliable witness, and was later deported from the UK. Judge Simon Smith referred the News of the Worlds role in the affair to the Attorney General. One of the men involved later sued the News of the World for libel and won. The paper issued an apology and paid libel costs. Dirty bomb In 2004, Mahmood led an investigation into exposing the creation of a dirty bomb, through the supply of the fictitious substance red mercury, to three men from a supposed terrorist group. Mahmood was registered as an informant for the Metropolitan Police Anti-Terrorist Branch during the story, which led to a criminal case prosecution by the Crown Prosecution Service. The case, signed off by the Attorney General, collapsed in July 2006. Tulisa Contostavlos On 21 July 2014 the trial of the R&B singer-songwriter and former X-Factor judge Tulisa Contostavlos, brought about by a Mahmood drugs sting operation, collapsed. Jeremy Dein QC, for the defence, accused Mahmood of active duplicity in some stories. To support this position, he called a former Mahmood associate, Florim Gashi, who told the court he helped the reporter "make up stories for his newspaper". Judge Alistair McCreath told Southwark Crown Court that he thought Mahmood had lied in giving evidence. Explaining his decision to halt the trial, McCreath said: "Where there has been some aspect of the investigation or prosecution of a crime which is tainted in some way by serious misconduct to the point that the integrity of the court would be compromised by allowing the trial to go ahead, in that sense the court would be seen to be sanctioning or colluding in that sort of behaviour, then the court has no alternative but to say, 'This case must go no further'." The Sun On Sunday announced that Mahmood had been suspended. Mahmood had posed as a film producer, offering Contostavlos a £3.5-million deal to star in a Bollywood/Hollywood film about a girl from the ghetto trying to become an R&B star. Mahmood went to extreme lengths to entrap Contostavlos. After Mahmood was charged, the Crown Prosecution Service announced its intention to review more than 30 criminal trials in which he had given evidence. On 21 October 2016, Mahmood was jailed for 15 months after being found guilty of evidence tampering. Panorama Investigation Mahmood was the subject of BBC television Panorama investigation. The Fake Sheikh Exposed, broadcast on 12 November 2014, was presented by John Sweeney and produced by Meirion Jones and Owen Phillips. The programme aired despite legal efforts by Mahmood to prevent recent pictures of himself being shown, and a request from the Attorney General to stop the broadcast. The programme included allegations that Mahmood's methods included payments to third parties who procured the drugs that his targets would later be exposed as supplying, and that he made offers of scarcely believable career opportunities to targets with no recent history of drug misuse, who were then pressured to obtain cocaine. The programme also included unseen footage of Mahmood rehearsing with a known drug dealer for the entrapment of former Page 3 model Emma Morgan. Referring to Judge McCreath's comments, former Attorney General Lord Goldsmith said: "The fact that somebody who has been accused by a judge of apparently not telling the truth may be instrumental in those convictions would certainly be a reason to look at those convictions again, and to examine them to see whether they are safe." The programme also revisited the collapse of the Victoria Beckham kidnap plot, re-interviewing witness Florim Gashi, who worked with Mahmood on several occasions and who was on the payroll of the News of the World. Gashi claimed Mahmood was complicit with him in inventing the kidnapping plot. The collapse of the case was so troubling to the presiding judge that it was referred to the then Attorney General, Lord Goldsmith, who stated, "If a trial collapses, and it collapses because of the alleged wrongdoing of a witness, that's a real issue for me." After taking legal advice on whether criminal charges could be made, Goldsmith stated: "I have explored every possible avenue for dealing with this, what I saw was a very unsatisfactory state of affairs, and each avenue had turned out to be a blank". Investigation and conviction for conspiracy to pervert the course of justice On 4 December 2014, the Crown Prosecution Service investigated 25 cases where Mahmood gave evidence. On 29 September 2015, it announced that Mahmood and his former driver Alan Smith had been charged with conspiracy to pervert the course of justice. The offences concern evidence given in the trial of R&B singer-songwriter Tulisa Contostavlos. The pair appeared at Westminster Magistrates' Court. on 20 November 2015. Following a trial at the Old Bailey, Mahmood and Smith were found guilty of conspiring and intending to pervert the course of justice. On 21 October 2016, Mahmoud was sentenced to 15 months and Smith received a suspended sentence of 12 months. Awards Mahmood has won various newspaper awards, including British Press Awards "Reporter of the Year" 1999 for his exposé of Newcastle United directors. At the awards ceremony, a figure dressed as a sheikh collected the award, and then revealed himself to be Kelvin MacKenzie, former editor of The Sun. Mahmood won Reporter of the Year again in 2011, as well as Scoop of the Year, for an investigation of cricket match-fixing. He also won the Sports Journalists' Association award in 2011 for the same story. In January 2013, Mahmood was nominated for the Services to Media award at the British Muslim Awards. References External links Mazher Mahmood We catch 2 bus loads of Illegal Immigrants News of the World: Archived Tabloid Stories, 28 May 2006 - Mazher Mahmood activity against illegal immigrants Obsolete ordered to remove photo of Mahzer Mahmood by court injunction, courtesy of Farrer & Co Obsolete, 5 April 2006 -Copy of the legal injunction sent to a blog owner in the UK]barring the publication of Mahmood's picture 1963 births Living people English people of Pakistani descent English male journalists News of the World people Undercover journalists British investigative journalists People from Small Heath, Birmingham
4583514	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon%20Karen	Typhoon Karen	Typhoon Karen was the most powerful tropical cyclone to strike the island of Guam, and has been regarded as one of the most destructive events in the island's history. It was first identified as a tropical disturbance on November 6, 1962, well to the southeast of Truk. Over the following two days, the system tracked generally northward and quickly intensified. Karen became a tropical storm late on November 7, and within two days it explosively intensified into a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Turning westward, the typhoon maintained its intensity and struck Guam with winds of on November 11. Once clear of the island, it strengthened slightly and reached its peak intensity on November 13 with winds of and a barometric pressure of 894 mb (hPa; 26.40 inHg). The storm then gradually turned northward as it weakened, brushing the Ryukyu Islands on November 15, before moving east-northeastward over the open waters of the Pacific. Karen continued to weaken and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 17 before losing its identity the following day between Alaska and Hawaii. Karen devastated Guam with wind gusts estimated up to . Ninety-five percent of homes were damaged or destroyed, leaving at least 45,000 people homeless. Communication and utilities were crippled, forcing officials to set up water distribution centers to prevent disease. Total losses on the island amounted to $250 million. Despite the severity of the damage, only 11 people were killed. In the wake of the storm, a massive relief operation evacuated thousands to California, Hawaii, and Wake Island. Thousands more were sheltered in public buildings, and later tent villages, for many months. More than $60 million in relief funds were sent to Guam over the following years to aid in rehabilitation. Though the storm was devastating, it spurred new building codes and a revitalized economy. Meteorological history On November 6, 1962, a tropical disturbance was identified over the Pacific Ocean several hundred miles south-southeast of Truk, in the Federated States of Micronesia, by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC). Tracking northwestward, the disturbance intensified and was classified as a tropical depression early on November 7. Later that day, the system passed to the east of Truk and turned due north before attaining gale-force winds. Around 18:00 UTC, the JTWC issued their first advisory on Tropical Storm Karen, the 27th named storm of the 1962 season. Several hours later, a reconnaissance mission into the storm revealed a partially closed wide eye. Over the following 30 hours, Karen underwent a period of explosive intensification as its eye became small and increasingly defined. Between 00:00 UTC on November 8 and 03:40 UTC on November 9, Karen's barometric pressure plummeted from , a drop of . At the end of this phase, Karen featured an wide eye and had estimated surface winds of , ranking it as a modern-day Category 5-equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale. After attaining this initial peak intensity on November 9, Karen weakened somewhat as it gradually curved west-northwestward. By 15:14 UTC, the storm began to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle as a larger secondary eyewall, approximately in diameter, started developing. Although the storm's winds failed to drop significantly, Karen's central pressure rose to during this phase. Accelerating slightly, Karen tracked steadily west-northwestward towards Guam. By November 11, the system had regained a well-defined eye and deepened once more. Between 12:10 and 12:35 UTC on November 11, the wide eye of Karen passed directly over southern Guam. At this time, the storm was estimated to have had winds of , which would have made it the most intense typhoon to strike the island since 1900. However, years of post-storm analyses have indicated that it may have been somewhat weaker when it passed over Guam. At the Weather Bureau station at the north end of Guam, a pressure of was measured. Farther south at Anderson Air Force Base, was recorded. The lowest verified pressure was at the Agana Naval Air Station. Closest to the eye was Naval Magazine where a pressure of was estimated but never verified. Continuing west-northwestward, Karen attained its peak intensity on November 13, with a central pressure of . Between November 13 and 14, Karen gradually turned towards the north as it underwent another eyewall replacement cycle. During this time, Karen finally weakened below Category 5 status as its winds dropped below . This marked the end of its near-record 4.25-day span as a storm of such intensity, second only to Typhoon Nancy of 1961 which maintained Category 5 status for 5.5 days. Over the following days, the typhoon's structure gradually became disorganized, with its eye no longer well-defined by November 15. By this time, Karen began accelerating northeastward and later east-northeastward over the open ocean. The combination of its rapid movement and entrainment of cold air into the circulation ultimately caused the system to transition into an extratropical cyclone on November 17. The remnants of Karen continued tracking east-northeast and were last noted by the JTWC on November 18 roughly halfway between the southern Aleutian Islands and northern Hawaiian Islands. Impact Guam Following the identification of a tropical disturbance on November 6, a level four Typhoon Condition of Readiness (TCOR), the lowest level of alert, was raised for Guam. By November 8, three days prior to Karen's arrival, this was raised to level three, prompting residents and military personnel to stock up on supplies. A public announcement was made that day as well, warning residents that the typhoon would likely strike the island. At 9:00 p.m. on November 10 (11:00 UTC), a level two TCOR was put in place for Guam and a typhoon emergency was declared. Buildings were boarded up and emergency supplies were distributed. By 8:00 a.m. (22:00 UTC on November 10), this was raised to level one, the highest level of warning. At this time, , , , and sought refuge from the storm over open waters. All personnel on the island were ordered to evacuate to typhoon-proof shelters and emergency rations were prepared. Strategic air command planes stationed on the island were relocated to avoid damage. Many residents on the island sought refuge in government buildings designed to withstand powerful storms while others evacuated to Wake Island. Roughly 24 hours after the typhoon's passage, all warnings were discontinued. Striking Guam as a Category 5-equivalent typhoon, Karen produced destructive winds across much of the island. With the eye passing over the southern tip of the territory, the most intense winds were felt over central areas. Wind gusts over the southern tip of Guam were estimated to have peaked around . Due to the extreme nature of these winds, all anemometers on the island failed before the most intense portion of the storm arrived, and there were no measurements of the strongest winds; however, post-storm reports estimated that sustained winds reached in some areas. The highest measured gust was at a United States Navy anemometer on Nimitz Hill just before 11:00 UTC on November 11, roughly two hours before the typhoon's eye passed the station. Based on this measurement, a study in 1996 estimated that gusts peaked between over southern areas of the island. Newspaper reports indicated that a gust of was measured on the island before the anemometer was destroyed. There was also an unverified report of a wind gust. Nearly all measurements of rainfall during the typhoon were lost; the only known total is at the Weather Bureau station for the period of November 10–12. Surveys of damage revealed belt-like damage patterns from the winds, with some homes being leveled and others nearby having only minor damage, akin to the impacts of tornadoes. The winds uprooted and snapped palm trees across the island and, in some instances, stripped the bark of tree trunks and branches as if they had been sandblasted. Vegetation was completely defoliated across central areas of the island. In some places, it was described as the aftermath of a forest fire. The winds also blew debris across the island. Metal roofing was found wrapped around trees. In one instance, a twin-engine aircraft was carried from the hangar it was tied down in. A metal sign bolted into a warehouse was tossed and found half-buried in the ground. Elsewhere, a quonset hut was lofted and carried for , intact, before being crushed on impact. Along the coast, was torn from her moorings, severing two anchors and shearing a cleat – tested for over , respectively – in the process. ROK Han Ra San and RPS Negros Oriental sank in the inner harbor of Guam. Karen is regarded as the worst typhoon to ever impact Guam. Acting governor Manuel Guerrero stated that "the entire territory was devastated." Almost all structures, both civilian and military, were severely damaged or destroyed. Even reinforced concrete structures at Anderson Air Force Base sustained severe damage. Though these structures withstood the direct impact of winds, sudden drops in pressure caused windows to shatter in most structures, ultimately exposing the interior to water damage. Military structures suffered the most from this phenomenon as the buildings were designed in a way that pressure differences between the interior and exterior would not equal out. Debris from damaged or destroyed homes became projectiles during the storm that created further damage, like "shrapnel or artillery missiles." George Washington High was destroyed. The Tumon Junior Senior High School, although severely damaged, was re-opened within a month. Guam Memorial Hospital and the island's public works department were extensively damaged. Downtown Hagåtña, Guam's largest city, was flattened. Along the city's main road, Marine Drive, of sand accumulated from Karen's storm surge. Overall, the city was 85 percent destroyed, while the villages of Yona and Inarajan were 97 and 90 percent destroyed, respectively. Additionally, Agana Heights and Sinajana were reportedly leveled. The communication network on the island was completely destroyed as antennas and transmission equipment were blown away. Approximately 30 percent of telephone poles between the island's naval station and Nimitz Hill and 95 percent of civilian telephone poles were downed. The power grid was also destroyed. The Guam portion of the Pacific Scatter Communications System suffered extensive damage, with all four antennas at Ritidian Point being reduced to a "mess of tangled, twisted steel and cable." Losses from the antennas alone reached $1 million. All airstrips on the island were rendered inoperable, hampering initial relief efforts. Numerous roads across the island were also impassable, covered by downed trees and smashed vehicles. The wreckage left in the wake of the storm was described as a "massive junkyard". Throughout Guam, 95 percent of homes were destroyed, and those left standing were damaged. Nearly every non-typhoon-proof home was severely damaged or destroyed and a majority of typhoon-proof buildings sustained extensive damage. Preliminary surveys by the Red Cross on November 15 indicated that at least 5,000 homes were destroyed and another 3,000 were severely damaged. Approximately 45,000 people, mostly Guamanians, were left homeless. A total of 11 people died and about 100 others were injured. At least four of the deaths were due to collapsed buildings, including three in one home that buckled due to pounding surf. Another death resulted from decapitation by airborne debris. Losses across the island amounted to $250 million (1962 USD). The damage across Guam was described as "'much more serious" than it had been during the second Battle of Guam, when American troops retook the island from the Japanese. The U.S. Navy described the damage as equal to that of an indirect hit from a nuclear bomb. Guerrero said that the recovery effort of the previous 17 years had been "completely wiped out". Elsewhere In the Mariana Islands, three ships under the command of Rear Admiral J. S. Coye Jr. sank; however, the crew had been evacuated prior to the storm's arrival. On November 13, a level three TCOR was issued for Okinawa. This prompted military personnel to begin securing the island and preparing planes without hangars for evacuation. Brushing the region as a Category 3-equivalent typhoon, Karen caused considerable disruptions to airlines, trains, shipping, and communications. No serious damage was reported in Okinawa, but the nearby Daiyumaru and another Japanese fishing vessel with a total of 26 crew went missing. On November 15, residents in Taiwan were urged to take precautions to minimize casualties. Prior to the storm's arrival, , , and two other aircraft carriers sought refuge in the Taiwan Strait. Despite attempts to escape the storm, large swells exceeding battered the vessels, causing them to pitch up to 59 degrees. At times, the waves crashed onto the deck of USS Kitty Hawk. According to crewmen, waves up to struck Taipei, leaving water marks on many buildings. Aftermath In the immediate aftermath of the typhoon, the Pacific Air Forces were on standby to deliver supplies to Guam, but were delayed by inoperable airstrips. Guam Memorial Hospital was damaged, but other civilian and military installations, including the Navy's hospital, were able to handle injured persons. On November 12, Manuel Guerrero made an urgent appeal to the Government of the United States requesting that aid be rushed to the territory. Additionally, he instituted an island-wide curfew between 8:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. local time to limit looting. At schools, teachers were called in to guard supplies and equipment. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, under orders from United States President John F. Kennedy, declared Guam a major disaster area later that day, allowing residents to receive federal aid. Additionally, 15 United States Air Force communications technicians were deployed from Manila, Philippines carrying three plane-loads of communication supplies. Guerrero estimated that it would take four months to complete repairs to utilities. It was also estimated that schools on the island would be closed for six months. Initially, residents across Guam were critical of the delayed response by the U.S. government; no aid had arrived within two days of the storm, but unsafe conditions at airports had prevented aircraft from landing. With the majority of homes destroyed across Guam, structures that remained standing were used as temporary shelter for those left homeless. Similarly, damaged military installations at Anderson Air Force Base were made available to all civilians. By November 14, USS Daniel I. Sultan arrived in Guam with 1,100 troops to provide emergency power. A U.S. Air Force C-130 landed on the island that day carrying the first package of relief supplies. About 400 troops and 80 public works employees were sent from Hawaii on November 14. The Red Cross and civil defense offices were placed in charge of coordinating recovery efforts. Water distribution centers were set up across the island to provide residents with clean drinking water. On November 15, a massive evacuation of residents began to remove survivors from unsafe conditions. Two flights to California took place on the first day of evacuation, carrying a total of 154 people. Thousands of residents were also brought to Wake Island for shelter. Military Air Transport Service planes from the United States mainland, Japan, the Philippines, and Hawaii were called in for the operation. On November 16, residents were warned of a possible typhoid epidemic and urged to get inoculations for the disease. Over a three-day span, roughly 30,000 people were given preventative shots for the disease. In contrast to their previous ban on alien workers, the Government of Guam requested 1,500 carpenters, masons, and other building workers from the Philippines. By November 21, the Navy Supply Depot planned to have enough supplies for the entire populace shipped until replenishment arrived. In order to shelter homeless, the United States Navy set up tent villages across the island. Military kitchens were also established to provide food. Due to continued rains in the wake of the typhoon, many were unable to get a full meal for Thanksgiving. On November 21, insurance payments for losses were expected to exceed $12 million. On January 1, 1963, a $2 million relief fund was authorized by President Kennedy. Another $5.4 million in relief funds were provided by President Lyndon B. Johnson on February 15, 1964. The United States Congress provided Guam with $60 million, including $45 million through federal loans, mainly to help rebuild the territory and promote expansion of the economy. Additionally, the storm brought about the end of military security on the island, which in turn aided economic growth. Within five years of this decision, Japanese tourism to the island dramatically increased, prompting a major increase in the number of hotels. In the long term, Typhoon Karen, along with other destructive storms, shaped the development of the island's infrastructure. It led to higher quality buildings and more efficient utilities that could withstand powerful typhoons. Since Karen, most buildings on the island have been constructed with concrete and steel. On April 29, 1963, less than half a year after Karen, Typhoon Olive caused extensive damage in Guam and the Mariana Islands. With many residents living in tents, and debris from the storm still scattered about, severe damage was anticipated. Schools, churches, and other structures were opened as shelters in order to protect those without homes. Ultimately, Guam was spared the worst of the storm though much of Saipan was devastated. The island was again devastated in 1976 by Typhoon Pamela which buffeted the island with destructive winds for 36 hours. Though weaker than Karen, the longer lasting impact of Pamela was regarded as more destructive. Due to the severity of damage caused by the typhoon in Guam, the name Karen was retired and replaced with Kim. See also Typhoon Nancy (1961) - Another extremely powerful typhoon that maintained Category 5 status for a similar period of time Typhoon Yutu (2018) - Devastated the Northern Mariana Islands in a similar fashion Other notable typhoons in Guam Typhoon Yuri (1991) Typhoon Omar (1992) Typhoon Paka (1997) Typhoon Chataan (2002) Typhoon Pongsona (2002) Typhoon Mawar (2023) - A powerful typhoon that brought destructive winds in Guam. Notes References General Specific External links Japan Meteorological Agency Joint Typhoon Warning Center Retired Pacific typhoons 1962 Pacific typhoon season Typhoons in Guam Typhoons 1962 in Guam 1962 natural disasters in the United States
4583620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anish%20Kapoor	Anish Kapoor	Sir Anish Mikhail Kapoor, (born 12 March 1954) is a British-Indian sculptor specializing in installation art and conceptual art. Born in Mumbai, Kapoor attended the elite all-boys Indian boarding school The Doon School, before moving to the UK to begin his art training at Hornsey College of Art and, later, Chelsea School of Art and Design. His notable public sculptures include Cloud Gate (2006, also known as "The Bean") in Chicago's Millennium Park; Sky Mirror, exhibited at the Rockefeller Center in New York City in 2006 and Kensington Gardens in London in 2010; Temenos, at Middlehaven, Middlesbrough; Leviathan, at the Grand Palais in Paris in 2011; and ArcelorMittal Orbit, commissioned as a permanent artwork for London's Olympic Park and completed in 2012. In 2017, Kapoor designed the statuette for the 2018 Brit Awards. An image of Kapoor features in the British cultural icons section of the newly designed British passport in 2015. In 2016, he was announced as a recipient of the LennonOno Grant for Peace. Kapoor has received several distinctions and prizes, such as the Premio Duemila Prize at the XLIV Venice Biennale in 1990, the Turner Prize in 1991, the Unilever Commission for the Turbine Hall at Tate Modern, the Padma Bhushan by the Indian government in 2012, a knighthood in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to visual arts, an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Oxford in 2014. and the 2017 Genesis Prize for "being one of the most influential and innovative artists of his generation and for his many years of advocacy for refugees and displaced people". Early life and education Anish Mikhail Kapoor was born in Mumbai, India, to an Iraqi Jewish mother and an Indian Punjabi Hindu father. His maternal grandfather served as cantor of the synagogue in Pune. At the time, Baghdadi Jews constituted the majority of the Jewish community in Mumbai. His father was a hydrographer and applied physicist who served in the Indian Navy. Kapoor is the brother of Ilan Kapoor, a professor at York University, Toronto, Canada. Kapoor attended The Doon School, an all-boys boarding school in Dehradun, India. In 1971 he moved to Israel with one of his two brothers, initially living on a kibbutz. He began to study electrical engineering, but had trouble with mathematics and quit after six months. In Israel, he decided to become an artist. In 1973, he left for Britain to attend Hornsey College of Art and Chelsea School of Art and Design. There he found a role model in Paul Neagu, an artist who provided a meaning to what he was doing. Kapoor went on to teach at Wolverhampton Polytechnic in 1979 and in 1982 was Artist in Residence at the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool. He has lived and worked in London since the early 1970s. Career Kapoor became known in the 1980s for his geometric or biomorphic sculptures using simple materials such as granite, limestone, marble, pigment and plaster. These early sculptures are frequently simple, curved forms, usually monochromatic and brightly coloured, using powder pigment to define and permeate the form. He has said of the sculptures "While making the pigment pieces, it occurred to me that they all form themselves out of each other. So I decided to give them a generic title, A Thousand Names, implying infinity, a thousand being a symbolic number. The powder works sat on the floor or projected from the wall. The powder on the floor defines the surface of the floor and the objects appear to be partially submerged, like icebergs. That seems to fit inside the idea of something being partially there..." Such use of pigment characterised his first high-profile exhibit as part of the New Sculpture exhibition at the Hayward Gallery London in 1978. In the late 1980s and 1990s, Kapoor was acclaimed for his explorations of matter and non-matter, specifically evoking the void in both free-standing sculptural works and ambitious installations. Many of his sculptures seem to recede into the distance, disappear into the ground or distort the space around them. In 1987, he began working in stone. His later stone works are made of solid, quarried stone, many of which have carved apertures and cavities, often alluding to, and playing with dualities (earth-sky, matter-spirit, lightness-darkness, visible-invisible, conscious-unconscious, male-female, and body-mind). "In the end, I’m talking about myself. And thinking about making nothing, which I see as a void. But then that’s something, even though it really is nothing." Since 1995, he has worked with the highly reflective surface of polished stainless steel. These works are mirror-like, reflecting or distorting the viewer and surroundings. Over the course of the following decade Kapoor's sculptures ventured into more ambitious manipulations of form and space. He produced a number of large works, including Taratantara (1999), a 35-metre-high piece which was installed in the Baltic Flour Mills in Gateshead, England, prior to the renovation beginning there which turned the structure into the Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art; and Marsyas (2002), a large work consisting of three steel rings joined by a single span of PVC membrane that reached end to end of the Turbine Hall of Tate Modern. Kapoor's Eye in Stone (Norwegian: Øye i stein) is permanently placed at the shore of the fjord in Lødingen in northern Norway as part of Artscape Nordland. In 2000, one of Kapoor's works, Parabolic Waters, consisting of rapidly rotating coloured water, was shown outside the Millennium Dome in London. The use of red wax is also part of his repertoire, evocative of flesh, blood, and transfiguration. In 2007, he showed Svayambh (which translated from Sanskrit means "self-generated"), a 1.5-metre block of red wax that moved on rails through the Nantes Musée des Beaux-Arts as part of the Biennale estuaire; this piece was shown again in a major show at the Haus der Kunst in Munich and in 2009 at the Royal Academy in London. Some of Kapoor's work blurs the boundaries between architecture and art. In 2008, Kapoor created Memory in Berlin and New York for the Guggenheim Foundation, his first piece in Cor-Ten, which is formulated to produce a protective coating of rust. Weighing 24 tons and made up of 156 parts, it calls to mind Richard Serra's huge, rusty steel works, which also invite viewers into perceptually confounding interiors. In 2009, Kapoor became the first Guest Artistic Director of Brighton Festival. Kapoor installed four sculptures during the festival: Sky Mirror at Brighton Pavilion gardens; C-Curve at The Chattri, Blood Relations (a collaboration with author Salman Rushdie); and 1000 Names, both at the Fabrica Gallery. He also created a large site-specific work titled The Dismemberment of Jeanne d’Arc and a performance-based installation: Imagined Monochrome. The public response was so overwhelming that police had to re-divert traffic around C Curve at the Chattri and exercise crowd control. In September 2009, Kapoor was the first living artist to have a solo exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts. As well as surveying his career to date, the show also included new works. On display were Non-Object mirror works, cement sculptures previously unseen, and Shooting into the Corner, a cannon that fires pellets of wax into the corner of the gallery. Previously shown at MAK, Vienna, in January 2009, it is a work with dramatic presence and associations and also continues Kapoor's interest in the self-made object, as the wax builds up on the walls and floor of the gallery the work slowly oozes out its form. In early 2011, Kapoor's work, Leviathan, was the annual Monumenta installation for the Grand Palais in Paris. Kapoor described the work as: "A single object, a single form, a single colour...My ambition is to create a space with in a space that responds to the height and luminosity of the Nave at the Grand Palais. Visitors will be invited to walk inside the work, to immerse themselves in colour, and it will, I hope, be a contemplative and poetic experience." In 2011, Kapoor exhibited Dirty Corner at the Fabbrica del Vapore in Milan. Having fully occupied the site's "cathedral" space, the work consists of a huge steel volume, 60 metres long and 8 metres high, that visitors enter. Inside, they gradually lose their perception of space, as it gets progressively darker and darker until there is no light, forcing people to use their other senses to guide them through the space. The entrance of the tunnel is goblet-shaped, featuring an interior and exterior surface that is circular, making minimal contact with the ground. Over the course of the exhibition, the work was progressively covered by some 160 cubic metres of earth by a large mechanical device, forming a sharp mountain of dirt which the tunnel appears to be running through. In 2016, his art exposition in MUAC (Mexico City) was a success, with literary contributions from Catherine Lampert, Cecilia Delgado, and Mexican writer Pablo Soler Frost. Kapoor sued the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) in 2018. The gun lobby group had, without the sculptor's consent, used a filmed image of Cloud Gate in an approximately one-minute-long promotional video called "The Violence of Lies". The suit was ultimately settled out of court. Kapoor reported that the settlement included the removal of his work from the NRA's film, saying "They have now complied with our demand to remove the unauthorized image of my sculpture Cloud Gate from their abhorrent video, which seeks to promote fear, hostility, and division in American society". Public commissions Kapoor's earliest public commissions include the Cast Iron Mountain at the Tachikawa Art Project in Japan, as well as an untitled 1995 piece installed at Toronto's Simcoe Place resembling mountain peaks. In 2001, Sky Mirror, a large mirror piece that reflects the sky and surroundings, was commissioned for a site outside the Nottingham Playhouse. Since 2006, The Bean, a 110-ton stainless steel sculpture with a mirror finish, called Cloud Gate by Kapoor only, has been permanently installed in Millennium Park in Chicago. Viewers are able to walk beneath the sculpture and look up into an "omphalos" or navel above them. In the autumn of 2006, a second 10-metre Sky Mirror, was installed at Rockefeller Center, New York City. This work was later exhibited in Kensington Gardens in 2010 as part of the show Turning the World Upside Down, along with three other major mirror works. In 2009, Kapoor created the permanent, site-specific work Earth Cinema for Pollino National Park, the largest national park in Italy, as part of the project ArtePollino – Another South. Kapoor's work, Cinema di Terra (Earth Cinema), is a 45m long, 3m wide and 7m deep cut into the landscape made from concrete and earth. People can enter from both sides and walk along it, viewing the earth void within. Cinema di Terra officially opened to public in September 2009. Kapoor was also commissioned by Tees Valley Regeneration (TVR) to produce five pieces of public art, collectively known as the Tees Valley Giants. The first of these sculptures, Tememos, was unveiled to the public in June 2010. Temenos stands 50 metres high and is 110 metres in length. A steel wire mesh pulled taut between two enormous steel hoops, it remains an ethereal and an uncertain form despite its colossal scale. In 2010, Turning the World Upside Down, Jerusalem was commissioned and installed at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. The sculpture is described as a "16-foot tall polished-steel hourglass" and it "reflects and reverses the Jerusalem sky and the museum's landscape, a likely reference to the city's duality of celestial and earthly, holy and profane". The Greater London Authority selected Kapoor's Orbit sculpture from a shortlist of five artists as the permanent artwork for the Olympic Park of the 2012 Olympic Games. At 115 metres tall, Orbit is the tallest sculpture in the UK. When asked if engagement with people and places is the key to successful public art, Kapoor said: Architectural projects Throughout his career, Kapoor has worked extensively with architects and engineers. He says this body of work is neither pure sculpture nor pure architecture. His notable architectural projects include: Ark Nova, an inflatable concert hall that will travel around the earthquake struck regions of Japan, designed in collaboration with architect Arata Isozaki. Orbit, the permanent artwork for London's Olympic Park, in collaboration with engineer Cecil Balmond. Temenos the first work of the Tees Valley Giants, the world's five largest sculptures, in collaboration with Cecil Balmond. Temenos is situated in Middlehaven Dock, Middlesbrough. Dismemberment Site 1, installed in New Zealand at the Gibbs Farm sculpture park, owned by New Zealand businessman and art patron Alan Gibbs. 56 Leonard Street, New York, in collaboration with architects Herzog and de Meuron. Two subway stations in Naples at Monte San Angelo and Triano in collaboration with Future Systems. Taratantara (1999–2000) was installed at the Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art, Gateshead and later at Piazza Plebiscito, Naples. An unrealised project for the Millennium Dome, London, (1995) in collaboration with Philip Gumuchdjian. Building for a Void, created for Expo '92, Seville, in collaboration with David Connor. Of his vision for the Cumana station in Monte Sant'Angelo, Naples, Italy under construction (), Kapoor has said: Working with text In a collaboration with author Salman Rushdie, Kapoor conceived a sculpture consisting of two bronze boxes conjoined with red wax and inscribed around the outside with the first two paragraphs of Rushdie's text; "Blood Relations" or an "Interrogation of the Arabian Nights" in 2006. Stage design Kapoor has designed stage sets including for; the opera Idomeneo at Glyndebourne in 2003; Pelléas et Mélisande, La Monnaie in Brussels, and a dance-theatre piece called in-i with Akram Khan and Juliette Binoche at the National Theatre in London. Anish Kapoor Foundation The Anish Kapoor Foundation was founded as a charity in 2017, registered in London. In early 2021, the Venice city council approved construction plans for the foundation to convert the Palazzo Priuli Manfrin into an exhibition venue, artist studio and repository for a number of the artist's works from the foundation's collection. The project will be led by architecture firms FWR Associati of Venice and Studio Una of Hamburg. Vantablack controversy In 2014, Kapoor began working with Vantablack, a substance thought to be one of the least reflective substances known. Vantablack S-VIS, a sprayable paint which uses randomly aligned carbon nanotubes and only has high absorption in the visible light band, also called the "blackest black" colour, has been exclusively licensed to Anish Kapoor's studio for artistic use. His exclusive license to the material has been criticized in the art world, but he has defended the agreement, saying: "Why exclusive? Because it's a collaboration, because I am wanting to push them to a certain use for it. I've collaborated with people who make things out of stainless steel for years and that's exclusive." Artists like Christian Furr and Stuart Semple have criticised Kapoor for what they view to be the appropriation of a unique material to the exclusion of others. In retaliation, Semple developed a pigment called the "pinkest pink" and specifically made it available to everyone except Anish Kapoor and anyone affiliated with him. He later stated that the move was itself intended as something like performance art and that he did not anticipate the amount of attention it received. In December 2016, Kapoor obtained the pigment and posted an image on Instagram of his extended middle finger which had been dipped in Semple's pink. Semple also developed more products such as "Black 2.0" and "Black 3.0", which are supposed to look nearly identical to Vantablack despite being acrylic, and "Diamond Dust", an extremely reflective glitter made of crushed glass shards that are designed to hurt Kapoor if he dipped his finger in it, all of which were released with the same restriction against Kapoor as the "pinkest pink". Exhibitions Kapoor initially began exhibiting as part of New British Sculpture art scene, along with fellow British sculptors Tony Cragg and Richard Deacon. His first solo exhibition took place at Patrice Alexandra, Paris, in 1980. He achieved widespread recognition when he represented Britain at the 1990 Venice Biennale, and recounts the experience in Sarah Thornton's Seven Days in the Art World. In 1992 Kapoor contributed to documenta IX with Building Descent into Limbo. In 2004, he participated in The 5th Gwangju Biennale in Gwangju, Korea. Solo exhibitions of his work have since been held in the Tate and Hayward Gallery in London, Kunsthalle Basel in Switzerland, Reina Sofia in Madrid, the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa, Musée des arts contemporains (Grand-Hornu) in Belgium, the CAPC Museum of Contemporary Art in Bordeaux, the Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil in Brazil, and the Guggenheim in Bilbao, New York City and Berlin. In 2008, the Institute of Contemporary Art in Boston held the first U.S. mid career survey of Kapoor's work. That same year, Kapoor's Islamic Mirror (2008), a circular concave mirror, was installed in a 13th-century Arab palace now being used as by the Convent of Santa Clara in Murcia, Spain. Kapoor was the first living British artist to take over the Royal Academy, London, in 2009; the show attracted 275,000 visitors, rendering it at the time the most successful exhibition ever by a living artist held in London. Eventually it was overtaken by the more than 478,000 who attended the David Hockney exhibition at the Tate Modern in 2017. This show subsequently travelled to the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. In 2010, Kapoor retrospective exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA) in New Delhi and Mumbai's Mehboob Studio, the first showcase of his work in the country of his birth. In 2011 Kapoor had a solo touring exhibition with the Arts Council, part of their "Flashback " series of shows. In May he exhibited Leviathan at the Grand Palais, and two concurrent shows in Milan at the Rotonda della Besana and Fabbrica del Vapore. He had a major exhibition at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney (MCA) from December 2012 to April 2013 as part of the Sydney International Art Series. Dirty Corner, exhibited at the Palace of Versailles in 2015, was a topic of controversy due to its "blatantly sexual" nature. Kapoor himself reportedly described the work as "the vagina of a queen who is taking power". In 2020 Kapoor unveiled a new exhibition at the grounds of Houghton Hall in Norfolk. It was the largest ever outdoor exhibition of pieces by Kapoor, containing 21 sculptures, some previously unseen, as well as a selection of drawings of his. From 2 October 2021 – 13 February 2022 an exhibition of works created during the pandemic – ‘Painting’ – was shown at the Museum of Modern Art Oxford. Collections Kapoor's work is collected worldwide, notably by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City; Tate Modern in London; Fondazione Prada in Milan; the Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney; the Guggenheim in Bilbao; De Pont Museum of Contemporary Art in Tilburg, the Netherlands; the Moderna Museet, Stockholm; the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art in Kanazawa, Japan; and the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. Personal life In 1995, Kapoor married German-born medieval art historian Susanne Spicale. They have a daughter Alba and a son Ishan and lived in a house designed by architect Tony Fretton in Chelsea, London. In 2009, Kapoor purchased a Georgian-style residence at Lincoln's Inn Fields for about £3.6 million and had it redesigned by David Chipperfield. The couple separated and divorced in 2013. He later married garden designer Sophie Walker, his former sculptor's assistant, after the two began dating in 2013. The couple has one daughter together. Literature Heinz-Norbert Jocksin conversation with Anish Kapoor. Scheitere oft, aber schnell, Kunstforum International, Bd. 254, Cologne 2018, pp. 174–195 Awards and honours Artistic accolades 1990 Premio Duemila, Venice Biennale 1991 Turner Prize 1999 elected Royal Academician 2011 Praemium Imperiale Civilian honours 2003 Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) – 2003 Queen's Birthday Honours List 2011 French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres 2012 Padma Bhushan, India's third-highest civilian honour. 2013 Knighthood – 2013 Queen's Birthday Honours List Honorary Fellowships 1997 London Institute 1997 University of Leeds 1999 University of Wolverhampton 2001 Royal Institute of British Architects Other 2016 LennonOno Grant for Peace 2017 Genesis Prize See also Scheps v Fine Art Logistic Ltd Notes References External links 1954 births Living people 20th-century British sculptors 20th-century Indian sculptors 20th-century male artists 21st-century British sculptors 21st-century Indian sculptors 21st-century male artists Academics of the University of Wolverhampton Alumni of Chelsea College of Arts Alumni of Middlesex University British contemporary artists British humanists British installation artists British Jews British male sculptors British people of Indian-Jewish descent Commanders of the Order of the British Empire The Doon School alumni Indian contemporary artists Indian contemporary sculptors Indian emigrants to England Indian Jews Indian male sculptors Indian people of Iraqi-Jewish descent Jewish sculptors Knights Bachelor Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom Punjabi artists Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts Royal Academicians Turner Prize winners BRIT Award trophy designers
4583836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin-glazing	Tin-glazing	Tin-glazing is the process of giving tin-glazed pottery items a ceramic glaze that is white, glossy and opaque, which is normally applied to red or buff earthenware. Tin-glaze is plain lead glaze with a small amount of tin oxide added. The opacity and whiteness of tin glaze encourage its frequent decoration. Historically this has mostly been done before the single firing, when the colours blend into the glaze, but since the 17th century also using overglaze enamels, with a light second firing, allowing a wider range of colours. Majolica, maiolica, delftware and faience are among the terms used for common types of tin-glazed pottery. An alternative is lead-glazing, where the basic glaze is transparent; some types of pottery use both. However, when pieces are glazed only with lead, the glaze becomes fluid during firing, and may run or pool. Colours painted on the glaze may also run or blur. Tin-glazing avoids these problems. The technique originated in the Near East and reached Europe during the late Middle Ages, with a peak in Italian Renaissance maiolica. It was never used in East Asian ceramics. Tin oxide is still valued in glazes as both an opacifier and as a white colorant. Tin oxide has long been used to produce a white, opaque and glossy glaze. As well as an opacifying agent, tin oxide also finds use as a colour stabiliser in some pigments and glazes. Minor quantities are also used in the conducting phases in some electrical porcelain glazes. History The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in Abbasid Iraq (750-1258 AD)/Mesopotamia in the 8th century, fragments having been excavated during the First World War from the palace of Samarra about fifty miles north of Baghdad. From Mesopotamia, tin glazes spread to Islamic Egypt (868–905 AD) during the 10th century, and then to Andalusian Spain (711-1492 AD), leading to the maximum development of Islamic lusterware. The history of tin glazes in the Islamic world is disputed. One possible reason for the earlier production of tin-glazed wares could be attributed to the trade between the Abbasid Empire and ancient China from the 8th to 9th century onwards, resulting in imitation of white Chinese stoneware by local Islamic potters. Another might be local glaze-making rather than foreign influence, supported by the similarility between the chemical and microstructural features of pre-Islamic white opaque glazes and that on the first tin-opacified wares From the Middle East, tin-glaze spread through the Islamic world to Spain. In the 13th century, tin glazes reached Italy, where the earliest recorded reference to their use is in the 1330s, resulting in the emergence of Italian Maiolica. Amongst others, Luca della Robbia, born in Florence about 1400, used tin oxide as an opacifier in glazes. Potters began to draw polychrome paintings on the white opaque surface with metallic oxides such as cobalt oxide and to produce lustreware. The off-white fired body of Delftware and English Majolica was made to appear white, and hence mimic the appearance of Chinese porcelain, by the application of a glaze opacified and coloured white by the addition of tin oxide. By the late 18th-century the reduction in the price of porcelain, and the new English creamwares and related types, stronger, lighter and often cheaper than traditional earthenwares, hit the production of tin-glazed wares very hard, and production of "useful" rather than decorative wares almost ceased, so that "by 1850 the industry was almost extinct" in France. In 1947 Arthur Lane wrote it was "now only [made in Europe] in a few places to provide the tourist with souvenirs" Manufacturing process and colours Though the recipe of tin glazes may differ in different sites and periods, the process of the production of tin glazes is similar. Generally speaking, the first step of the production of tin glazes is to mix tin and lead in order to form oxides, which was then added to a glaze matrix (alkali-silicate glaze, for example) and heated. After the mixture cooled, the tin oxide crystallises as what has been mentioned above, therefore generates the so-called white tin-opacified glazes. Besides, the body of tin-opacified wares is generally calcareous clays containing 15-25% CaO, of which the thermal expansion coefficient is close to that of tin glazes, thus avoid crazing during the firing process. On the other hand, the calcareous clay fired in an oxidising atmosphere results in a buff colour, thus lower the concentration of tin oxide used The white opaque surface makes tin glaze a good base for painted decoration. The decoration is applied as metallic oxides, most commonly cobalt oxide for blue, copper oxide for green, iron oxide for brown, manganese dioxide for purple-brown and antimony for yellow. Late Italian maiolica blended oxides to produce detailed and realistic polychrome paintings, called istoriato. To these oxides modern potters are able to add powdered ceramic colours made from combinations of oxide, sometimes fritted. In the sixteenth century, the use of subtle and blended colours which were not strong enough to penetrate the opaque glaze made the delicate control of tonal values possible, and the painting therefore had to be done on the glaze surface, which then becomes a common manner of painting on tin-glazed wares. This method was used until the 18th century, and is often called by the French name grand feu in English. The wares were fired twice, firstly just the clay body, then again after the glaze and painted colours were added. The colours applied on top of the glaze blended into it during firing (the technique thereby differing from underglaze painting used with transparent glazes). The disadvantage was that only a narrow group of pigments produced good colours after firing at the relatively high temperatures of up to 1000 °C. These included cobalt blue, manganese dark purple, copper green, antimony yellow, and the very tricky iron reds and brown, which only some potters were able to make as a good red. In the 18th century overglaze enamels began to be used in the same way as on porcelain; this technique is often called petit feu in English when talking about faience (the Italian name is piccolo fuoco). A much wider range of colours was possible, but after the fired and glazed wares were painted a third firing was required, at a lower temperature of perhaps 750 °C and 850 °C. In modern versions, the pottery vessels are biscuit fired, usually between 900 °C and 1000 °C. The fired vessel is dipped in a liquid glaze suspension which sticks to it, leaving a smooth and absorbent surface when dry. On this surface colours are applied by brush, the colours made from powered oxides mixed with water to a consistency of water-colour paint, sometimes with the addition of a binding agent such as gum arabic. The unfired glaze absorbs the pigment like fresco, making errors difficult to correct but preserving the brilliant colors of the oxides when fired. The glazed and decorated vessels are returned to the kiln for a second firing, usually between 1000 and 1120 °C (the higher temperatures used by modern potters). Lustered wares have a third firing at a lower temperature, necessitating a delicate control of the amount of oxygen in the kiln atmosphere and therefore a flame-burning kiln. Traditional kilns were wood firing, which required the pots to be protected in the glaze and luster firings by saggars or to be fired in a muffle kiln. Except for those making luster ware, modern tin-glaze potters use electric kilns. The recrystallisation of tin oxide during the firing provides evidence of the slightly different methods of different production sites, as the crystal size, the distribution and the concentration may be influenced. For instance, the analysis of the 14th century Islamic tin glazes from eastern Spain indicates that these samples may be produced by non-fritting methods, as the heterogeneous distribution of tin oxides may be the remains of original grains of tin oxides. The interaction between glaze and body also give clues to different handling and firing processes. As mentioned above, tin glaze suspension is applied to bisque or biscuit body made of calcareous clay with high content of calcium oxide. This could be inferred from the absence of trapped glaze bubbles. If it is applied to an unfired body, the calcium carbonate will decompose, generating carbon dioxide, the releasing of which from the body to the glaze results in trapped bubbles in the glaze layers. Current use and alternatives Tin oxide has been widely used as the opacifier in sanitaryware glazes. In this application, additions of up to 6% are reported to be used. The cost of tin oxide rose considerably during World War I (1914-1918), and resulted in a search for cheaper alternatives. The first successful replacement was zirconia and later zircon. Whilst zirconium compounds are not as effective, their low price led to a gradual increase in popularity with an associated reduction in use of tin oxide. Today, tin oxide finds limited use in glazes, generally its use is restricted to specialist low temperature applications, and by artisanal studio potters. The whiteness resulting from the use of zirconia has been described as more clinical than that from tin oxide, and is consequently preferred in some applications. The Koninklijke Tichelaar Makkum factory, or Royal Tichelaar Makkum, based in Makkum, Friesland continue the production Delftware using tin-glazed earthenware. The nature of tin glaze For glaze use only one tin compound, tin (IV) oxide Tin dioxide (SnO2), and also called stannic acid, is commercially exploited. Opacity is produced in glazes by the addition of some substance to scatter and reflect some of the incident light. The opacity of glaze could be determined by the particles which spread through the glaze, therefore the light is absorbed by the particles, being scattered back before reaching the ceramic body, leading to the opaque glaze. As a result, the concentration of the absorbing or scattering particles in the glaze could determine the degree of opacification. Generally speaking, the more different the refractive index between the particles and the glaze matrix, the larger the opacity. Similarly, the closer the particle size to the light wavelength (100-1000 nm for visible light) and the more irregular the surface, the larger the degree of opacification. Tin oxide remains in suspension in vitreous matrix of the fired glazes, and, with its high refractive index being sufficiently different from the matrix, light is scattered, and hence increases the opacity of the glaze. The degree of dissolution increases with the firing temperature, and hence the extent of opacity diminishes. Although dependent on the other constituents the solubility of tin oxide in glaze melts is generally low. Its solubility is increased by Na2O, K2O and B2O3, and reduced by CaO, BaO, ZnO, Al2O3, and to a limited extent PbO. Some research on medieval tin glaze has shown that the particle size of tin oxide which appears as cassiterite is around several hundred nanometers, which corresponds to the range of wavelength of visible light. In some cases, the tin oxide is presented not only as small crystals but also as aggregates of particles. These factors – the high refractive index, the low solubility in glazes and the particle size make tin oxide an excellent opacifier. In the beginning of the use of tin oxide, it is mainly viewed as a slip layer between the glaze and ceramic body. This could be seen from the SEM photomicrographs of some earlier Islamic glazed ceramics, of which the particles of tin oxide are concentrated at the interface, together with the existence of wollastonite, diopside and air bubble as other opacifiers. The microanalysis of later tin glazes reveals the distribution of tin oxide through the glazes rather than just at the interface, which indicates that tin oxide is really acting as an opacifier instead of only a surface coating layer. Lead is usually brought into the glazes with tin oxide. The reaction between lead and tin oxide results in the recrystallisation of tin oxide, and thus enhances the degree of opacification in tin-opacified glazes than in tin-opacified glass. A high PbO/SnO2 ratio is often found in ancient glazes. During the firing process, lead oxide reacts with quartz at approximately 550 °C to form PbSiO3, which then reacts with tin oxide to produce lead-tin oxide (PbSnO3) at a temperature higher than 600 °C. After the formation of lead-tin oxide, the melting of PbSiO3, PbO and PbSnO3 occurs at the temperature in the range of 700 °C to 750 °C, resulting in the dissolution of PbSnO3 to SnO2. The degree of the crystallisation of SnO2 increases with the increasing of temperature. During either heating or cooling, the recrystallisation is taken place until the supply of tin is exhausted. In the second heating, lead in the form of lead oxide no longer reacts with tin oxide to form lead silicate, thus the recrystallised cassiterite (SnO2) remain undissolved and precipitate in the glazes. The nucleation and growth rates of the precipitation depend upon temperature and time. The particle size of the cassiterite developed is also dependent on the temperature, and smaller than that used in the very beginning. It is the smaller particle size of the recrystallised SnO2 in glazes that increases the opacity in tin-opacified glazes. Besides the increasing the opacity, the high lead oxide to tin oxide ratio also reduces the melting point of glazes, lead to a lower firing temperature during production. The technology of tin-glazing Analyses and recipes The earliest Middle Eastern tin glazes used calcium, lead and sodium compounds as fluxes in combination with the silica in silica. An Islamic opaque white glaze has been analysed, and is quoted below as a Seger formula: PbO=0.32 CaO=0.32 K2O=0.03 Na2O=0.29 MgO=0.04 Al2O3=0.03 SiO2=1.73 SnO2=0.07 In this recipe, the addition of alkali helps to increase the hardness of the surface and clarify the colour of the glaze as well. With the development of tin glazes, the significant amount of tin oxide indicates its deliberate addition as an opacifier. A recipe involving the use of three ingredients was given in Abu’l-Qasim’s treatise from Persia in the 14th century: a glass-frit of quartz and potash, a lead-tin calx and a calcination of limestone and quartz. Afterwards, with the spread of tin glazes, lead gradually became the principal background in tin glazes, though a small proportion of alkali was still introduced in order to increase the fusibility. No specific recipes alluding to tin glazes in Spain have been found in ancient archives. However, recent research has shown that, at least since the 10th century AD, most Islamic white glazes in Spain were lead-silica glazes with tin oxide as an opacifier. That is, no alkaline glazes or lead-alkaline glazes have been found. Piccolpasso recorded several glazes used in Italy in the 1550s, all variations of lead, tin, lime, soda and potash glazes. It is believed early Spanish glazes were similar. A Seger analysis of a tin glaze from the early 20th century is: PbO=0.52 CaO=0.16 K2O=0.03 Na2O=0.29 Al2O3=0.15 SiO2=2.77 SnO2=0.23 A more recent recipe is: Lead bisilicate frit: 74% China clay: 10% Whiting: 2% Flint, calcined: 4% Tin oxide: 10% And another is: Potassium feldspar: 65% Limestone: 11% Silica: 11% Zinc oxide: 9% Tin oxide: 4% As a glaze colorant In combination with chromium compounds addition of 0.5 - 1.5% tin oxide to a glaze result in a pink colour, with such glazes being known as Chrome-tin pinks. In conjunction with small additions of zinc oxide and titanium oxide, additions of tin oxide up to 18% to lead glazes can produce a satin or vellum surface finish. The firing temperatures of such glazes are low, in the region of 950 – 1000 °C because of the variable degrees of solution of the individual oxides. The amount of tin oxide used for coloured glazes depends upon the opacifying property of the chosen chromophore and the intensity of the colour desired; if a deep colour is required less opacifier will be needed than for pastel shades. References Bibliography al-Saad, Z. 2002. Chemical composition and manufacturing technology of a collection of various types of Islamic glazes excavated from Jordan. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:803-810. Allan, J. 1973. Abu'l-Qasim's treatise on ceramics. Iran 9:111-120. Borgia, I., B. Brunettu, A. Sgamellontti, F. Shokouhi, P. Oliaiy, J. Rahighi, M. Lamehi-rachti, M. Mellini, and C. Viti. 2004. Characterisation of decorations on Iranian (10th–13th century) lustreware Applied Physics A 79 (257-261). Caiger-Smith, Alan, Tin-Glaze Pottery in Europe and the Islamic World: The Tradition of 1000 Years in Maiolica, Faience and Delftware (Faber and Faber, 1973) Caiger-Smith, Alan, Lustre Pottery: Technique, Tradition and Innovation in Islam and the Western World (Faber and Faber, 1985) Canby, S. R. 1997. "Islamic lustreware". In Pottery in the making: world ceramic traditions, edited by I. Freestone and D. Gaimster. London: British Museum Press. Coutts, Howard, The Art of Ceramics: European Ceramic Design, 1500–1830, 2001, Yale University Press, , 9780300083873, google books Harris, David, Guide To Looking At Italian Ceramics (J. Paul Getty Museum in association with British Museum Press, 1993) Kleimann, B. 1986. History and development of early Islamic pottery glazes. In Proceedings of the 24th international archaeometry symposium, edited by J. S. Olin and M. J. Blackman. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Lane, Arthur, French Faïence, 1948, Faber & Faber Mason, R. B., and M. S. Tite. 1997. "The beginnings of tin-opacification of pottery glazes". Archaeometry 39:41-58. McNab, Jessie, Seventeenth-Century French Ceramic Art, 1987, Metropolitan Museum of Art, , 9780870994906, google books Molera, J., T. Pradell, N. Salvadó, and M. Vendrell-Saz. 1999. "Evidence of Tin Oxide Recrystallization in Opacified Lead Glazes". Journal of American Ceramic Society 82:2871-2875. Molera, J., M. Vendrell-Saz, and J. Pérez-Arantegui. 2001. "Chemical and textural characterization of tin glazes in Islamic ceramics from eastern Spain". Journal of Archaeological Science 28:331-340. Moon, Iris, "French Faience", in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, 2016, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, online Piccolpasso, Cipriano, The Three Books of the Potter's Art (trans. A.Caiger Smith and R.Lightbown) (Scolar Press, 1980) Ravaglioli, A., A. Keajewski, M. S. Tite, R. R. Burn, P. A. Simpson, and G. C. Bojani. 1996. A physico-chemical study on some glazes coming from Romagna's and Neaples's Moiolica. Fraenza 82:18-29. Savage, George, Pottery Through the Ages, Penguin, 1959 Tite, M. S. 1991. "Technological investigations of Italian Renaissance ceramics". In Italian Renaissance pottery: papers written in association with a colloqium at the British Museum, edited by T. Wilson. London: British Museum Publications. Tite, M. S., I. Freestone, and R. B. Manson. 1998. "Lead glazes in antiquity - methods of production and reasons for use". archaeometry 40:241-260. Tite, M. S., T. Pradell, and A. Shortland. 2008. Discovery, production and use of tin-based opacifiers in glasses, enamels and glazes from the late Iron Age onwards: a reassessment. Journal of Archaeological Science 50:67-84. Varella, Evangelia A., Conservation Science for the Cultural Heritage: Applications of Instrumental Analysis, 2012, Springer Science & Business Media, , 9783642309854, google books Vendrell, M., J. Molera, and M. S. Tite. 2000. Optical properties of tin-opacified glazes. Archaeometry 42:325-340. Further reading Carnegy, Daphne, Tin-glazed Earthenware (A&C Black/Chilton Book Company, 1993) External links Book: Tin-Glazed Earthenware: From Maiolica, Faience and Delftware to the Contemporary by Daphne Carnegy Low fire majolica glaze recipe cone 04 oxidation by Linda Arbuckle on http://ceramicartsdaily.org Colorants for Low fire majolica glazes History of glass Glass compositions Ceramic glazes Arabic pottery Types of pottery decoration Arab inventions
4584035	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive%20slippage	Cognitive slippage	Cognitive slippage is considered a milder and sub-clinical presentation of formal thought disorder observed via unusual use of language. It is often identified when a person attempts to make tangential connections between concepts that are not immediately understandable to listeners. When observed repeatedly, this is taken as evidence for unusual, maladaptive or illogical thinking patterns. Cognitive slippage is typically assessed in the context of mental health evaluations, but there is ongoing debate about how to best quantify this type of unusual language usage in research settings. Cognitive slippage is supposed to exist on a continuum which can be observed in its most extreme forms among some individuals with schizophrenia (e.g., word salad). Several mental disorders are known to co-occur with cognitive slippage. Although cognitive slippage is associated with difficulties in communication, it is not necessarily indicative of lower intelligence. Examples An example of cognitive slippage: "List some types of cars." "Let's see, there's Ford, Chevrolet, Toyota, Japan, Rising Sun, Hiroshima, Atomic Bomb, Enola Gay, oh and Miata." The inclusion of extraneous items in the list is evidence of cognitive slippage. Although the concepts such as Toyota, Japan, Rising Sun, etc. are all related, the relation does not fall under the category of the initial prompt: types of cars. Another example: "What animals did you see at the zoo today?" "We saw tigers, bears, Dolphins, the Baltimore Ravens, the Packers, Carolina Panthers, jaguars, lions, and otters." Here we see the slip occur between animal names and football teams with animals as their mascot. As the person lists animals they saw at the zoo, they mention "bears" and "dolphins" which double as the names of NFL teams. This results in a "slip" to a tangentially related list of football teams then back again to animals after the mention of the Carolina Panthers relates to the other big cats they saw - jaguars and lions. The cognitive slippage is associated with an inability to identify and disregard these extraneous connections. It results in patterns of speech and associations similar to those seen here. Theory In 1962, Paul E. Meehl emphasized that thought disorder was a critical component of schizophrenia diagnosis. He coined the term "cognitive slippage" to describe a more mild form of thought disorder that he believed was still relevant. He recognized that even in the absence of more severe forms of thought disorder, individuals with schizophrenia exhibited more cognitive slippage than non-schizophrenic individuals. As a result, Meehl deemed thought disorder a necessary component of the disorder for diagnoses, regardless of severity. He declared that any characterization of either schizophrenia or schizotypy that lacked cognitive slippage as a component was unacceptable and he insisted that cognitive slippage, interpersonal aversiveness, anhedonia, and ambivalence were the universal "core behavior traits" of all schizotypic individuals. He also noted that the amount of slippage can vary from case to case, with some highly anxious individuals exhibiting less slippage than some minimally anxious individuals. This suggests that cognitive slippage may be affected by altering the affect of the individual, but Meehl mentions that this feature is not groundbreaking or unique to cognitive slippage. Meehl (1962) also noted that cognitive slippage occurred in some typically developed relatives of individuals with schizophrenia. Though the findings were preliminary, he noted that among a group of ten individuals with schizophrenia, they were able to detect mild thought disorder in at least one parent of each individual. He thus suggested that future research into this discovery should be a priority of schizophrenia researchers. Meehl also sought to understand where the cognitive dysfunctions associated with schizophrenia stemmed from, yet he found cognitive slippage a difficult symptom to parse out. He considered that, on some level, "everybody has to learn how to think straight," and supposed there could be a social learning component to the development of organized, rational thought and speech. Meehl noticed that slippage occurred even when an individual was trying fervently to communicate clearly. He considered a neurological explanation that suggested cognitive slippage was tied to "synaptic slippage," or an error in the electrical transmission of messages from neuron to neuron in the brain. He suggested this issue was caused by an error in cell selectivity, meaning the wrong neuron received the message. According to this theory, "primary cognitive slippage" refers to the slippage at the central nervous system synapse as a result of an error in neural transmission. The observable behavior of disorganized speech, as a result of the transmission error, would be classified as "secondary cognitive slippage". He also contemplated the possibility that cognitive slippage could stem from different underlying causes based on the disorder it was a part of. Measure of cognitive slippage The Cognitive Slippage Scale (CSS) was introduced in 1985 by Miers and Raulin. The CSS is composed of 35 self-reported true or false questions intended to identify speech deficits and disorganized, confused thinking. Higher scores on this test indicate a higher level of cognitive slippage. The test has been shown to be applicable and accurate to both clinical and non-clinical populations. Examples of questions included on the test are, "Often when I am talking I feel that I am not making sense," and "Sometimes my thoughts just disappear.". With a few exceptions, this scale has seldom been evaluated for its reliability and validity. The validity of the CSS was assessed in 1992 by comparing clinical and non-clinical, undergraduate samples. The reliability of the CSS was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, a coefficient between 0 and 1 that indicates that the items on a scale have greater covariance as it approaches 1. They found that the CSS had a coefficient of 0.89 for the clinical participants with schizophrenia, and 0.86 for the non-clinical, undergraduate participants. They also suggested the CSS has adequate test-retest reliability by re-administering the CSS after a 4-week period. In 2013, a study conducted by Loas, Dimassi, Monetes, and Yon proposed that validity could also be assessed by comparing the CSS results of healthy first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia to those without it. They recruited 27 first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia and thirty first-degree relatives of individuals without schizophrenia. All participants were administered the French version of the CSS. The results indicate that the first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia scored significantly higher on the CSS than did the first-degree relatives of typically developed individuals. Research on specific disorders As a symptom of schizophrenia Cognitive slippage is characterized as a mild symptom of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a psychiatric illness defined by both abnormal behaviors and cognitive dysfunctions. Formal thought disorder (FTD) is characterized by problems with thought, language, and communication and is considered to be the key feature of the cognitive dysfunction component of schizophrenia. As Meehl suggested, cognitive slippage is a milder form of FTD, making it also a key component of schizophrenia. In considering the genetic element of schizophrenia, researchers have examined the presence of symptoms, such as cognitive slippage, in first degree relatives. For example, Oltmanns (1978) looked at the prevalence of cognitive slippage in the children of individuals with schizophrenia. For their purposes, they defined "cognitive slippage" to include associative disturbances, difficulties in thinking, and errors in reasoning. The researchers administered an object sorting task to 156 children of schizophrenic individuals, 102 children of depressed individuals, and 139 children of healthy parents. The task required participants to either sort objects or explain the reasoning behind a sorted group of objects. The task was designed to target responses that would differ noticeably between individuals with schizophrenia and without schizophrenia. All the participants were children between the ages of 6 and 15. Their responses were then sorted as either superordinate, complex, vague, or thematic. The children of parents with schizophrenia made fewer superordinate responses and more complex responses than the control children. Though small, the findings were reliable, and suggest that the children of individuals with schizophrenia are more prone to the cognitive dysfunctions associated with cognitive slippage. The loose definition of cognitive slippage can make the symptom difficult to identify, so Braatz (1970) designed a study to determine if preference intransitivity could be used as an indicator of cognitive slippage. He proposed that from a logical standpoint, intransitivities in preference would result from cognitive slippage. Preference intransitivity occurs when one's preferences and values lead to potentially unresolvable conflicts. He administered a scale of 120 items meant to judge preferences of both schizophrenia patients and healthy controls and found that individuals with schizophrenia endorse more intransitive judgments than healthy individuals. Though he acknowledges that the scale in its current form is underdeveloped, his findings suggest that further research into the connection between preference intransitivity and cognitive slippage could result in a scale powerful enough to aid schizophrenia diagnosis. He also suggests future research could expand the scale to apply in cases other than clinical schizophrenia. Kagan and Oltmanns (1981) also made an attempt to clear up some of the ambiguity surrounding cognitive slippage among individuals with schizophrenia. Their research sought to develop an objective index of cognitive slippage. They administered a word matching task to individuals with schizophrenia, individuals with affective disorders, and normal controls. They found that the individuals with schizophrenia did, in fact, perform differently on the task than the normal controls, but that they performed similarly to the individuals with affective disorders. This creates an issue as it complicates the feasibility of the task being used to measure cognitive slippage specifically to identify schizophrenia. As it relates to schizotypy Meehl (1962) identified cognitive slippage as a fundamental component of schizotypy. Thus individuals that do not meet full diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia, yet fall on the spectrum of schizotypy, still exhibit high levels of cognitive slippage. Due to this underpinning, The Referential Thinking Scale was designed as a measure to get at the underlying cognitive process of cognitive slippage. By targeting referential thinking, a measurable behavior, the idea was the scale could detect schizotypy based on the presence of cognitive slippage. Eckblad & Chapman (1983) identified magical ideation as the aspect of cognitive slippage critical to schizotypy. They define Magical Ideation as magical and superstitious beliefs about reality reliant on false causal relations between events. By this definition, cognitive slippage can manifest as fallacious, causal connections between correlated or unrelated events. Gooding, Tallent, And Hegyi (2001), found that in addition to greater cognitive slippage, schizotypic individuals performed worse on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, which was designed to assess overall high-level cognitive functioning. Specifically, they found that individuals who only endorsed the negative symptoms of schizotypy reported lower levels of cognitive slippage than those who endorsed both positive and negative schizotypy symptoms. Due to the wide variety of individuals on the schizotypal spectrum, McCarthy (2015) suggests further research should be conducted on individuals at different points on the spectrum in order to enhance understanding of symptom severity and the appropriate use of measures such as the Cognitive Slippage Scale. As a symptom of personality disorders Schizoid Among individuals with schizoid personality disorder, cognitive slippage manifests as an inability to control associations made within the context of things such as dreams, creative thoughts and free association. The slippage results in an inability to override subordinate associations between topics in order to purposefully acknowledge clearer, surface level associations. Such individuals have no difficulty making links between topics, but rather are unable to prioritize which links are more salient and thus suppress less applicable links. For instance, the individual in the example above has no difficulty making connections between various zoo animals, or NFL teams, but is unable to intentionally suppress the NFL associations in order to prioritize and answer the questions specifically regarding zoo animals. Narcissism A study was conducted using the Rorschach test to evaluate ego differences between individuals with borderline and narcissistic personality disorders. Responses to the test given by the narcissist included more answers indicative of cognitive dysfunctions they described as "cognitive slippage". Researchers suggest the slippage results from the narcissist attempting to combine idealized components of an object into a cohesive entity. This was demonstrated by individuals who interpreted the inkblots as two discrete objects somehow joined in the middle (e.g. "A head of two foxes back to back sharing a crown."). As it relates to subclinical psychosis In addition to inclusion as diagnostic criteria, the presence of cognitive slippage as a form of formal thought disorder is considered to be associated with psychosis proneness. Martin and Chapman (1982) determined that college students at risk for psychosis displayed signs of cognitive slippage on a referential communication task. Allen, Chapman, and Chapman (1987) identified college students who scored high on the Per-Mag Scale, a measure designed to identify thought processes indicative of psychosis. They found that most of these high-scoring students also exhibited signs of cognitive slippage on two measures of it. Of the students who scored very high on the Per-Mag, those who also scored above the mean on a depression scale were the most likely to demonstrate cognitive slippage. Additionally, Edell (1987) reinforced the idea that although individuals with sub-clinical psychopathology exhibit more severe thought disorder on unstructured tests, they perform relatively normally on more structured measures of cognition. Thought disorder and autism Dykens, Volkman, and Glick (1991) considered the relationship between thought disorder and high-functioning adult autism by utilizing both objective and projective measures. They collected objective data using the Thought, Language, and Communication Disorder Scale, and projective data through use of the Rorschach test. In their definition of "cognitive slippage," they broke the dysfunction down into processes such as "incongruous combinations," "fabulized combinations," "deviant responses," and "inappropriate logic." Their findings suggest that individuals with autism display more disordered thinking than typically developed individuals. To explain this, they suggest that cognitive slippage is rooted in difficulty with complex perceptual processing, a known feature of autism. Another study used Rorschach inkblots to compare individuals with Asperger syndrome to high-functioning individuals with Autism. They found that individuals with Asperger syndrome tended to exhibit greater levels of disordered and disorganized thinking in their responses than the typically developed individuals. As it relates to eating disorders In response to implications that cognitive dysfunctions were rooted in eating disorder etiology, researchers Strauss and Ryan (1988) conducted a study to compare the rates of logical errors, cognitive slippage, and conceptual complexity among individuals with eating disorders compared to their healthy counterparts. They evaluated 19 restrictive anorexic individuals, 14 purging anorexic individuals, 17 bulimic individuals, 15 individuals with sub-clinical eating pathology, and 17 healthy control individuals. Though they found differences between the anorexic groups and the others in regards to logical errors, there were no significant differences between any group on rates of cognitive slippage. As it relates to test anxiety Broadbent et al. (1982) developed the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ), a self-report measure designed to identify the presence of "cognitive slippage." For the purposes of the CFQ, however, they used this term to refer to lapses in attention, difficulty processing information, memory issues, perception problems, and complications in decision-making. As such, their definition tapped into issues such as "forgetfulness" or "inattention" rather than the clinically significant cognitive dysfunction defined by Meehl. Yates, Hannell, and Lippett (1985) designed a study to evaluate the predictive value of the CFQ as a means to identify psychological vulnerability under stressful conditions, such as during a test. 72 female participants were administered the CFQ as well as the Test Anxiety Scale as they completed two tasks - the former of which, they were told, was a practice test for the later. It was found that during the second test condition, subjects did report more "cognitive slippage" in the form of mind-wandering and distractibility. See also Schizophrenia Schizophasia Schizotypy Magical Thinking References Thought disorders
4584049	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20Portugal	Law of Portugal	The Law of Portugal is the legal system that applies to Portugal. It is part of the family of the civil law legal systems, based on Roman law. As such, it has many common features with the legal systems found in most of the countries in Continental Europe. In the 19th century, the French civil law was the main influence in the Law of Portugal. However, since the early 20th century, the major influence has been the German civil law. This growing of the Germanistic influence was mainly driven by works on civil law developed by legal theorists of the University of Coimbra under the leadership of professor Guilherme Alves Moreira, who published his decisive Instituições de Direito Civil from 1906 to 1916. European Union law is now a major driving force in many respects, such as corporate law, administrative law and civil procedure. The Law of Portugal is the basis or, at least, influences more or less sharply the legal systems of the several countries of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries and of some other territories that were once part of the Portuguese Empire. Therefore, these legal systems share many common features which, occasionally, makes them to be considered as a separate branch (Lusophone Legal System) in the scope of the wider family of civil law legal systems. The main Portuguese laws include the Constitution (1976, as amended), the Civil Code (1966, as amended), the Penal Code (1982, as amended), the Labor Code (2003, as amended) and the Commercial Societies Code (1986, as amended). The Commercial Code (1888, as amended) and the Administrative Code (1945, as amended). The Administrative Code used to have a high importance in the past, but is now largely obsolete and partially replaced by new legislation. History As in most other European medieval countries, Portugal did not have centralized political institutions with the means to enact laws to regulate everyday legal issues. Both the wars against Castile and the Reconquista turned the Crown and the Court into an army permanently on the move. Some Portuguese legal historians claim that in the first two centuries after the Treaty of Zamora in 1143—in which the León recognized Portuguese de facto sovereignty—the kingdom's political power was that of a "Warrior-State" that neither could, nor did, direct its resources to the organization of administrative institutions or to the productions of laws. An exception to this fact were the three laws enacted by King Afonso II in 1211 during the Cortes of Coimbra. During most of Portuguese legal history, Portugal and its colonies had an ancient legal system based on a double foundation of medieval local customary law and Roman law, mostly derived from the Corpus iuris civilis. The Ordinations However, following the 1383–85 Crisis, the beginning of the age of the discoveries and the establishment and growing of the overseas empire, the Kings of Portugal were able to grow politically stronger. This strength allowed the centralization of power and an increase of the legal authority of the central State. One of the expressions of this authority was the creation of the compilations of the laws in use in the Kingdom referred as the "Ordinations" (Ordenações). These attempts to codify the law were not only a way to unify and bring together the local legal traditions from the whole Kingdom, but also to correct some customs that the Crown thought to be unreasonable. The first of these Ordinations started to be created by the initiative of King Edward, under the lead of the Doctor of Law Rui Fernandes. Their first draft was presented in 1446, but they were only definitively reviewed and approved in 1454, already in the reign of Afonso V, so becoming known as the Ordenações Afonsinas. The several Portuguese ordinations were the following: Ordenações Afonsinas, 1446 (formally approved only in 1454) - under King Edward and Duke Peter of Coimbra (regent in the name of King Afonso V, while he was a minor of age); Ordenações Manuelinas, 1512–1520 - under King Manuel I. They suffered modifications in 1526, 1533 and 1580; Ordenações Filipinas, 1603 - under King Philip II. As these were established during the period of the Iberian Union, they suffered some influence of the Spanish law. The Ordinations of 1603 continued to be used in Portugal and throughout the Portuguese Empire until the first Portuguese Civil Code came into force in 1867. In Brazil, they continued to be in force after its independence in 1822 and constituted the framework of the civil law of this country until 1916, when the first Brazilian Civil Code was introduced. The process of codification Following the establishment of the Constitutional Monarchy, Portugal applied deep reforms in its legal system that included a wide process of legal codification. This process led to the creation of a number of codes of law, including the constitutions themselves (Constitution of 1822, replaced by the Constitutional Charter of 1826), the Administrative Code (1842), the Penal Code (1852, after a failed initial attempt in 1837), the Civil Code (1867) and the Commercial Code (1883). The first Portuguese Civil Code closely followed the model of the Napoleonic Code, being approved by the charter of law of 1 July 1867 and entering in force on 22 March 1868. It is referred as the "Code of 1867" or as the "Seabra's Code" due to the important collaboration of the jurist António Luís de Seabra (Count of Seabra) in its making. Although formally in force for 100 years, the Code of 1867 suffered many modifications during its history. These included the amendments made since the beginning of the 20th century in order to tilt the Portuguese civil law towards the approach of the German legal system, by the influence of the ideas defended by the legal theorists of the University of Coimbra, headed by professor Guilherme Alves Moreira. The Civil Code of 1867 was also applied to the then Portuguese overseas territories. In the Portuguese India, it was introduced in 1870, suffering a major local adaption in 1880 in order to contemplate the usages of the local Hindu community. With the amendments and adaptations suffered until then, the Code of 1867 was in force in the territories of Portuguese India when the Republic of India invaded them (Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954 and the rest of the territories in 1961), with the Code of 1966 never being applied here. The Portuguese legal system was kept in place and the Code of 1867 is still in force in what is now the Goa state - where it is referred as the Goa Civil Code or the Goa Family Law - and also in what is now the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. The second and current Civil Code was established on 25 November 1966, entering in force on 1 June 1967. It is referred as the "Civil Code of 1966" or as the "Vaz Serra's Code" in honor to Adriano Vaz Serra, who presided the commission that created it. This new Code followed the model of the German Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) and was the culmination of the successive transformations of the previous Code of 1867 that made it to move away from the Napoleonic model and approach the Germanistic model of civil law. The Code of 1966 was applied both to Portugal and to the reminiscent Portuguese overseas territories at that time. It continued to be in force until today in Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and São Tomé and Príncipe, even after the independence of these countries in the period of 1974-1975. In Timor-Leste, it was replaced de facto (although not de jure) by the Indonesian Civil Code (itself based in the Dutch Civil Code of 1838) when Indonesia annexed this country in 1976, following its invasion in the previous year. After regaining independence in 2002, Timor-Leste adopted its own Civil Code in 2011, which follows closely the Portuguese Code of 1966. Macau continued under Portuguese administration until 1999 and, in this last this year, replaced the Code of 1966 by its own Civil Code which effectively amounts to a revision of the previous Code, prepared under the influence of Portuguese jurists, especially from the Faculty of Law of the University of Coimbra. Modern era After the Carnation Revolution in 1974, the Portuguese legal system was changed due to the new political and civil demands. The new Constitution approved in 1976, was written under a myriad of communist and socialist-inspired ideologies and bias in order to replace the previous regime's system. For a number of years, the country bounced between socialism and adherence to the neoliberal model. Land reform and nationalizations were enforced. Until the constitutional revisions of 1982 and 1989, the Constitution was a highly charged ideological document with numerous references to socialism, the rights of workers and the desirability of a socialist economy. The sharp increase of the number of lawyers and judicial state-employees throughout the following decades did not produce increased efficiency in the legal system. The proliferation of both private and public law schools created a massive increase of numerus clausus vacancies for new law students across the whole country year after year, together with lower admission selectivity and a downgrade of academic integrity. Already internationally known for decades as excruciatingly slow and inefficient for European Union and USA standards, Portugal's justice system was by 2011 the second slowest in Western Europe after Italy's, even though it has one of the highest rates of judges and prosecutors, over 30 per 100,000 people, a feature that plagued the entire Portuguese public service, reputed for its overcapacity, useless redundancies and a general lack of productivity as a whole. After the collapse of the Portuguese public finances and banking system in 2011 amid the larger European sovereign debt crisis that impelled Portugal to European Union-International Monetary Fund state bailout, many reforms were put in place and measures to cut down costs and increase productivity were enforced across the entire public service. The number of district courts were slashed to 23 from 320, pooling their work in larger centers and closing courts in rural areas where the population has shrunk since the system was established in 1837. Courts were also reorganized to specialize to deal with labor or trade issues. Legislative system Legislative process Accordingly, with the Portuguese Constitution, the legislative function is shared between the Assembly of the Republic (parliament), the Government and the self-government bodies of the Portuguese autonomous regions (only for specific regional matters). The Government can only legislate about its own organization, about the development and regulation of basic laws issued by the Assembly and on matters for which it is authorized to legislate by the Assembly (under a legislative authorization). All other matters must be legislated by the Assembly, including some reserved matters regarding which no legislative authorization can be given to the Government. The legislative function reserved for the bodies of self-government of the autonomous regions is assured by their respective regional legislative assemblies, in the conditions defined by the Constitution and the political and administrative statute of each region. The legislative process is led either by the Assembly of the Republic, by the Government or by the legislative assemblies of the autonomous regions, depending on the matter to be legislated and the corresponding respective competence of each body. The ordinary laws issued by the Assembly of the Republic are named "laws", those issued by the Government are named "decree-laws" and those issued by the regional legislative assemblies are named "regional legislative decrees". The process of creation of the laws of the Assembly of the Republic starts with a bill either proposed by members of parliament (named "projects of law") or by the Government (named "proposals of law"). If approved by the Assembly, the bill starts to be designated "decree" and is sent for the promulgation by the President of the Republic. The promulgation is the act by which the President solemnly testifies the existence of a rule of law and intimates its observation. The President may however decide not to promulgate the act and to veto it with a political or legal justification. The veto can be exceeded if the bill is voted and approved by of more than two-thirds of the members of parliament, in which case the President is obliged to promulgate it. After the promulgation, the act is sent to the Government for a ministerial referenda and then is published in the Diário da República (official journal) as a law. The process for the creation of decree-laws by the Government has two ways. The first one is the way of successive signatures, by which the bill is separately signed by each of the responsible ministers and by the Prime Minister, then being sent to be promulgated by the President. The second is the collective approval of the bill by the Council of Ministers, it then being sent to be promulgated. The President can also veto the Government bills, in which case the Government has the options of either archiving them, changing them or sending them to the Assembly of the Republic as a proposal of law. After being promulgated, the decree-laws also enter in force after being published in the Diário da República. Effectiveness of the laws In Portugal, the mandatory of a law appears with its publication in the Diário da República, but its effectiveness does not start in the day of the publication. The time interval between the date of publication and the date of effectiveness is the vacatio legis. This interval can be defined by the legislator as being from one day to one year. If the date of effectiveness is not expressly defined in the law, a vacatio legis of five days is assumed by default. Portuguese laws can lose their effectiveness either by expiry or by revocation. The expiry can result from a clause in the own law (saying that the law is only effective during a given time or while a given situation occurs) or can result from the disappearance of the cause that originated the creation of the law. Regarding revocation, this results from the demonstration of a new will from the legislator against the previous will. The revocation can be partial (with only some dispositions of the old law being revoked by the new one) or total (with the revocation of the whole old law). The revocation can also be classified either as express (when a new law expressly declares the revocation of an old one) or as tacit (when it results from the incompatibility of the dispositions of a new law with the dispositions of an old one). Hierarchy of the laws The several types of laws, acts and statutes of Portugal constitute a hierarchic legislative system, with several ranks. The laws of the lower ranks have to comply with the laws of higher ranks. The hierarchy has the Portuguese Constitution in its top and is the following: 1st rank - Constitutional laws, namely: Constitution (Constituição); Loose constitutional laws (leis constitucionais avulsas); Constitutional revision laws (leis de revisão constitutional). 2nd rank - International laws, namely: Rules and principles of the general or common international law; Norms of international conventions duly ratified or approved; Decisions adopted by the competent bodies of international organizations of which Portugal is a part; Provisions of the treaties governing the European Union and the decisions adopted by its institutions in the exercise of their respective powers. 3rd order - Ordinary laws, namely: Laws (leis); Decree-laws (decretos-lei); Regional legislative decrees (decretos legislativos regionais). 4th rank - Acts with the force equivalent to that of laws, including: Adoption of conventions, treaties or international agreements; Constitutional Court decisions of unconstitutionality or illegality with general binding; Collective labor agreements and other instruments of collective regulation of labor; Case laws (assentos) of the Supreme Court of Justice and of the Court of Auditors. 5th rank - Regulatory acts, including: Regulatory decrees (decretos regulamentares); Regulations (regulamentos); Decrees (decretos); Regional regulatory decrees (decretos regulamentares regionais); Resolutions (resoluções) of the Assembly of the Republic, of the Permanent Commission of the Assembly of the Republic, of the Council of State, of the Council of Ministers and of the regional legislative assemblies; Regiments (regimentos) of the Assembly of the Republic, of the Council of State and of the regional legislative assemblies; Ordinances (portarias); Normative orders (despachos normativos); Police regulations of the civil governors (regulamentos policiais dos governadores civis); Municipal by-laws (posturas); Municipal regulations (regulamentos autárquicos). Specific legislation Main laws of Portugal From the countless loose legislation, stands out a number of legal codes that constitute the framework of the various branches of the Law of Portugal. The principal law of Portugal is the Constitution (1976), which also constitutes the framework of the branch of constitutional law. Regarding the other major branches of the law, they are mainly covered by the following codes: Criminal and criminal procedure - the Penal Code (1982), the Penal Procedure Code (1987), the Military Justice Code (2003) and the Sentence and Custodial Measures Execution Code (2009); Civil and civil procedure - the Civil Code (1966), the Civil Procedure Code (2004) and the Civil Register Code (1995); Labour law - the Labour Code (2003) and the Labour Procedure Code (1999); Administrative law - the Administrative Procedure Code (1991), the Public Contracts Code (2008), the Administrative Courts Procedure Code (2002) and the Administrative Code (1945, still partially effective but now largely obsolete); Commercial law - the Commercial Register Code (1986) and the Commercial Code (1888, still partially effective but now largely obsolete); Corporate law - the Commercial Societies Code (1986); Tax law - the Tax over Added Value Code (1984), the Tax over Single Persons Income Code (1988), the Tax over Collective Persons Income Code (1988) and the Tax Courts Procedure Code (1999); Entertainment law - the Advertisement Code (1990); Transport law - the Road Code (2005); Intellectual property law - the Industrial Property Code (1995) and the Copyright and Related Rights Code (1985). Capital punishment In the world, Portugal was a pioneer in the process of abolishment of the capital punishment. It was abolished in stages - for political crimes in 1852, for all crimes except the military in 1867, and for all crimes in 1911. In 1916 Portugal entered in World War I and the capital punishment was reestablished only for military crimes in war time with a foreign country and only in the theater of war. With the new Constitution in 1976, it was again abolished for all crimes. The last execution in Portugal took place in Lagos in 1846. A possible execution of a soldier of the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps carried out in France during World War One remains poorly documented. Life imprisonment In 1884, Portugal became the first country in the world to abolish the life imprisonment. Presently, no person can be in prison for more than 25 years. Besides having abolished the life imprisonment, Portugal is the only country in the world that considers that this type of punishment—both for minors and majors, with or without the possibility of parole - is a violation of the human rights. LGBT legislation In the 2000s, Portugal increasingly became one of the most LGBT-friendly countries in the world, with many pro-LGBT legislation and bans on LGBT discrimination, including one of the few Constitutions in the world that protects on grounds of sexual orientation. As examples, LGBT are allowed to serve openly in the Portuguese Military and are also legally allowed to donate blood. On 31 May 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and the eighth country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage on the national level. The law came into force on 5 June 2010. A new Law of Gender Identity come into effect in 2011. Being considered the most liberal of its kind in the world, it allows for transsexual people to change their name and sex in legal documentation. In 2015, the full equality in parenting for LGBT couples was authorized by law. The LGBT-parenting single adoption was already previously allowed, joint adoption by the couple is legal since 2016. Drugs legislation Portugal was a pioneer in the approach to the drug abuse as a health issue, instead of the traditional criminal approach, implementing a new drug legislation in July 2001 that largely decriminalized drug use. In the world, the Portuguese drug policy and legislation is being used as a case study for other countries that desire to reform their policies and laws on this matter. The new legislation maintained the status of illegality for using or possessing any drug for personal use without authorization. However, the offense was changed from a criminal one, with prison as a possible punishment, to an administrative one if the amount possessed was no more than ten days' supply of that substance. Marijuana possession for personal use is no longer a criminal offence. Influence in other countries The Portuguese variant of the civil law is used or is the basis of the law of various other countries and territories around the world, mostly former territories of the Portuguese Empire. Angola The Law of Portugal was applied in Angola until its independence in 1975. Many Portuguese laws effective before 1975 are still in force, namely the Portuguese Civil Code of 1966 with changes made in some matters. The new commercial law created after the reestablishment of the market economy in Angola is also still very influenced by the Portuguese one, with the Angolan Code of Commercial Societies of 2004 being based in the Portuguese similar Code of 1986. Brazil The Law of Portugal was applied in Brazil until its independence in 1822. After the independence, the Portuguese laws continued in force, gradually being supplemented or amended by the laws of the Empire of Brazil and latter by the Brazilian republican laws. Although already separate, having an independent development and receiving other influences, the Law of Brazil continued to be very influenced by the Law of Portugal, given the cultural affinities between the two countries, the high number of Portuguese residents in Brazil and also the fact that many Brazilian jurists received their training in law in the University of Coimbra. The Portuguese Ordinances of 1606 continued to be the frame of the civil law of Brazil until 1916, when the first Brazilian Civil Code entered in force. This Code was based in the German Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch or BGB), what coincided with a trend that was also being followed in Portugal of an approach to the Germanistic system of law. The present Brazilian Civil Code is that of 2002, being also inspired in the BGB, but also with a marked influence from the Portuguese Civil Code of 1966. The constitutional law of Portugal also has a marked influence in Brazil, with the Portuguese Constitution of 1976 and the works on constitutional law developed by the Portuguese legal theorist José Gomes Canotilho being the main inspirations of the present Constitution of Brazil. Cape Verde In Cape Verde, many of the Portuguese laws effective before its independence in 1975 are still in force. Namely, with some alterations, are still in force the Portuguese Civil Code of 1966 and the Commercial Code of 1888. New Cape Verde laws continue to be very influenced by the Portuguese law. Guinea-Bissau Many of the Portuguese laws effective before the independence of Guinea-Bissau in 1974 are still in force. The Portuguese Civil Code of 1966 is still in force with some alterations. In the matter of commercial law however, the Law of Guinea-Bissau is becoming increasingly influenced by the law resulting from the Treaty of Harmonization of the Commercial Law in Africa of 1993, which follows French law. India Historically, the former Portuguese India contributed to Portuguese legal science with a number of important jurists and legislators, including the goan Luiz da Cunha Gonçalves. The Portuguese civil law system still prevails in the last territories of the former Portuguese India (corresponding to the present State of Goa and Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu). At the time of the Indian occupation of those territories (1954 for Dadra and Nagar Haveli and 1961 for Goa, Daman and Diu) the Portuguese laws were effective there, namely the Civil Code of 1868, although with local adaptations mainly related with their application to the Hindu community. The Portuguese Code of 1966 was never applied in those territories, as it became effective only after the Indian occupation. The Portuguese legal system was maintained after the occupation, although rapidly becoming altered by the influence of the English common law applied in the rest of India. This process was accelerated by the forced cut of relations with Portugal and the restrictions to the use of the Portuguese language, which reduced the number of jurists and other persons able to read and understand the Portuguese laws. However, the Portuguese Civil Code of 1868 is still in force, being known in India as the "Goa civil code" or the "Goa Family Law". This code has been suggested to serve as the basis for a future uniform civil code of India, intended to replace the personal laws based on the scriptures and customs of each major religious community in the country with a common set governing every citizen. Macau Macau was under Portuguese administration until 1999, with the general Portuguese laws being applied to that territory. The agreements between Portugal and China regarding the handover of the administration of Macau state that the Portuguese legal system would continue in force in the territory for 50 years. In the last years before the handover, the Portuguese Administration initiated a process of improving the Law of Macau, creating specific laws for the territory, although still very influenced by the Portuguese Law. One of the most important of these is the Macau Civil Code—an improvement of the Portuguese Civil Code of 1966, including a Chinese official version—that became in force in the last year of the Portuguese Administration. Mozambique The Portuguese Civil Code of 1966 and other Portuguese laws effective before the independence of Mozambique in 1975 are still in force, but with modifications. A new Commercial Code was adopted in 2005, replacing the Portuguese Code of 1888. A revised Penal Code came into force in 2015, replacing the Penal Code of 1886. São Tomé and Príncipe The Portuguese Civil Code of 1966 and other Portuguese laws effective before the independence of São Tomé and Príncipe in 1975 are still in force, but with modifications. Timor-Leste The Portuguese Law was in force in Timor-Leste until its invasion by Indonesia in 1975. After the invasion and occupation, the Indonesian law replaced de facto the Portuguese one (although not de jure, as the occupation was never recognized by the international community). This implied the application of the Indonesian Civil Code, which is based on the Dutch Civil Code of 1838 (Burgerlijk Wetboek). As a provisional measure, the Indonesian law was kept in force after the independence of Timor-Leste in 2002, this being gradually replaced by Timorese own laws. The new Timorese law about the commercial societies of 2004 is very influenced by the Portuguese Code of Commercial Societies of 1986. In 2011, the Indonesian Civil Code was replaced by the new Civil Code of Timor-Leste, which is based in the Portuguese Civil Code of 1966. Education, training and research in law Portugal has a number of both public and private schools of Law. The oldest is the Faculty of Law of the University of Coimbra, which dates back to the 13th century. Both the faculties of Law of the University of Lisbon and of the University of Coimbra are nowadays the most reputed, thanks to the number of highly distinguished alumni and professors linked to them. Lisbon's faculty is linked to personalities such as Marcelo Caetano, Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, António de Menezes Cordeiro, Jorge Miranda, António Vitorino, José Manuel Barroso, Adriano Moreira and Mário Soares. Coimbra's faculty is linked to personalities like António de Oliveira Salazar, Laura Rio and Almeida Santos. The School of Law of the Portuguese Catholic University is also highly reputed, achieving notability by its academic publications, the curriculum of its teaching staff and the number of well-connected alumni it harbors. Both the Faculty of Law the Nova University and the School of Law of the Minho University are considered modern law schools with an increasingly higher reputation. In the 1990s, the offer of law degrees in Portugal became widespread across the entire country through both public and private university institutions. By 2010, lower selectiveness and academic integrity levels, including in law schools previously known for its reputation and prestige, debased the average teaching of law in Portugal according to the head of the Ordem dos Advogados Marinho Pinto. See also Crime in Portugal Portugal References External links Portuguese legislation in English Law of Portugal
4584079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomarker	Biomarker	In biomedical contexts, a biomarker, or biological marker, is a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated using blood, urine, or soft tissues to examine normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers are used in many scientific fields. Medicine Biomarkers used in the medical field, are a part of a relatively new clinical toolset categorized by their clinical applications. The four main classes are molecular, physiologic, histologic and radiographic biomarkers. All four types of biomarkers have a clinical role in narrowing or guiding treatment decisions and follow a sub-categorization of being either predictive, prognostic, or diagnostic. Predictive Predictive molecular, cellular, or imaging biomarkers that pass validation can serve as a method of predicting clinical outcomes. Predictive biomarkers are used to help optimize ideal treatments, and often indicate the likelihood of benefiting from a specific therapy. For example, molecular biomarkers situated at the interface of pathology-specific molecular process architecture and drug mechanism of action promise capturing aspects allowing assessment of an individual treatment response. This offers a dual approach to both seeing trends in retrospective studies and using biomarkers to predict outcomes. For example, in metastatic colorectal cancer predictive biomarkers can serve as a way of evaluating and improving patient survival rates and in the individual case by case scenario, they can serve as a way of sparing patients from needless toxicity that arises from cancer treatment plans. Common examples of predictive biomarkers are genes such as ER, PR and HER2/neu in breast cancer, BCR-ABL fusion protein in chronic myeloid leukaemia, c-KIT mutations in GIST tumours and EGFR1 mutations in NSCLC. Diagnostic Diagnostic biomarkers that meet a burden of proof can serve a role in narrowing down diagnosis. This can lead to diagnosis that are significantly more specific to individual patients. A biomarker can be a traceable substance that is introduced into an organism as a means to examine organ function or other aspects of health. For example, rubidium chloride is used as a radioactive isotope to evaluate perfusion of heart muscle. It can also be a substance whose detection indicates a particular disease state, for example, the presence of an antibody may indicate an infection. More specifically, a biomarker indicates a change in expression or state of a protein that correlates with the risk or progression of a disease, or with the susceptibility of the disease to a given treatment. One example of a commonly used biomarker in medicine is prostate-specific antigen (PSA). This marker can be measured as a proxy of prostate size with rapid changes potentially indicating cancer. The most extreme case would be to detect mutant proteins as cancer specific biomarkers through selected reaction monitoring (SRM), since mutant proteins can only come from an existing tumor, thus providing ultimately the best specificity for medical purposes. Another example is KRAS, an oncogene that encodes a GTPase involved in several signal transduction pathways. Biomarkers for precision oncology are typically utilized in the molecular diagnostics of chronic myeloid leukemia, colon, breast, and lung cancer, and in melanoma. Digital Digital biomarkers are a novel emerging field of biomarkers, mostly collected by smart biosensors. So far, digital biomarkers have been focusing on monitoring vital parameters such as accelerometer data and heartrate but also speech. Novel non-invasive, molecular digital biomarkers are increasingly available recorded by e.g. on-skin sweat analysis (internet-enabled Sudorology), which can be seen as next-generation digital biomarkers. Digital biomarkers can be easily shared with the responsible physician, and novel diagnostics approaches can be developed using artificial intelligence. Digital biomarkers are currently being used in conjugation with artificial intelligence (A.I.) in order to recognize symptoms for mild cognitive impairment (MCI). One major current use of digital biomarkers involves keeping track of regular brain activity. Specific neural indicators can be measured by devices to evaluate patients for any neuro abnormalities. The data collected can determine the patients disease probability or condition. While patients carryout everyday tasks (IADL), computers are using machine learning to observe and detect any deviation from normal behavior. These markers are used as signs or indicators of cognitive decline. Prognostic A prognostic biomarker provides information about the patients overall outcome, regardless of any treatment or therapeutic intervention. One example of a prognostic biomarkers in clinical research, is the use of mutated PIK3CA in the study of metastatic breast cancer. As illustrated by the graph, the mutation is prognostic since its presence in the patient endure the same outcome regardless of the treatment method used. Women who had the PIK3CA mutation before treatment, had the lowest average survival rate. The decline in the groups containing the mutant occurred quicker and in a much steeper decline. The independent nature of the prognostic factor allows researcher to study the disease or condition in its natural state. This makes it easier to observe these abnormal biological processes and speculate on how to correct them. Prognostic factors are often used in combination with predictive variables in therapeutics studies, to examine how effective different treatments are in curing specific diseases or cancer. As opposed to predictive biomarkers, prognostic do not rely on any explanatory variables, thus allowing for independent examination of the underlying disease or condition. Nutrition and diet assessment Nutritional biomarkers (biochemical markers of intake) are used to estimate dietary intake in nutrition research, in particular nutritional epidemiology, but also in other disciplines such as archaeology where reliable dietary information are required. A nutritional biomarker can be any specimen that reflects intake of dietary constituents and is sufficiently specific. Many biomarkers are derived from compounds found in foods, such as sugar or phytochemicals, or combinations thereof using a metabolomics. Another type of nutritional biomarkers, in particular common in archaeology, are stable isotope ratios. Research Biomarkers for precision medicine are a part of a relatively new behavioral and clinical toolset. In terms of the behavioral toolset, biomarkers are increasingly being used to motivate health behavior change, particularly in diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and obesity research. Most research to date uses biomarkers that are easily measured, including weight, blood pressure, and glucose; these biomarkers may reflect the impacts of diet, physical activity, and smoking reduction. However, the methods by which feedback from biomarkers are used in intervention research are varied, and their effectiveness remains unclear. In reference to the clinical toolset, only two predictive biomarkers are implemented clinically in the case of metastatic colorectal cancer. In this case, the lack of data beyond retrospective studies and successful biomarker-driven approaches may be a factor in using biomarker studies due to the attrition of subjects in clinical trials. The field of biomarker research is also expanding to include a combinatorial approach to identifying biomarkers from multiple sources. Combining biomarkers from various data allows for the possibility of developing panels that evaluate treatment response based on many biomarkers at a single time. One such area of expanding research in multiple-factor biomarkers is mitochondrial DNA sequencing. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA have been shown to correlate to risk, progression, and treatment response of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. In this example, a relatively low cost sequencing pipeline was shown to be able to detect low frequency mutations within tumor-associated cells. This highlights the general snapshot capability of mitochondrial DNA-based biomarkers in capturing heterogeneity amongst individuals. Regulatory validation for clinical use The Early Detection Research Network (EDNR) compiled a list of seven criteria by which biomarkers can be assessed in order to streamline clinical validation. Proof of concept Previously used to identify the specific characteristics of the biomarker, this step is essential for doing an in situ validation of these benefits. The biologic rationale of a study must be assessed on a small scale before any large scale studies can occur. Many candidates must be tested to select the most relevant ones. Experimental validation This step allows the development of the most adapted protocol for routine use of the biomarker. Simultaneously, it is possible to confirm the relevance of the protocol with various methods (histology, PCR, ELISA, ...) and to define strata based on the results. Analytical performances validation One of the most important steps, it serves to identify specific characteristics of the candidate biomarker before developing a routine test. Several parameters are considered including: sensitivity specificity robustness accuracy reproducibility practicality ethicality Protocol standardization This optimizes the validated protocol for routine use, including analysis of the critical points by scanning the entire procedure to identify and control the potential risks. Ethical issues In 1997 the National Institute of Health suggested a need for guidelines and legislation development that would regulate the ethical dimensions of biomarker studies. Similar to the way that the Human Genome Project collaborated with the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, biomarker susceptibility studies should collaborate to create ethical guidelines that can be implemented into the groundwork and proposal requirements of the studies. Ensuring that all of the participants that are included each step of the project (i.e. planning, implementation, and the compilation of the results) are provided with the protection of ethical principles that are put in place prior to beginning the project. These ethical protections should not only protect the participants in the study, but also the non participants, researchers, sponsors, regulators, and all other persons or groups involved in the study. Some ethical protections could include but are not limited to: Informed consent of the participant Access to participation opportunities independent of race, socio-economic status, gender, sexuality, etc. (within the range allowed by the experimental protocol) Scientific integrity Confidentiality of data (anonymity) Acknowledgement of conflict of interest in terms of funding and sponsorship by given sponsors Transparency and recognition of health and legal risks involved in participation Cell biology In cell biology, a biomarker is a molecule that allows the detection and isolation of a particular cell type (for example, the protein Oct-4 is used as a biomarker to identify embryonic stem cells). In genetics, a biomarker (identified as genetic marker) is a DNA sequence that causes disease or is associated with susceptibility to disease. They can be used to create genetic maps of whatever organism is being studied. Applications in chemistry, geology and astrobiology A biomarker can be any kind of molecule indicating the existence, past or present, of living organisms. In the fields of geology and astrobiology, biomarkers, versus geomarkers, are also known as biosignatures. The term biomarker is also used to describe biological involvement in the generation of petroleum. Biomarkers were used in the geo-chemical investigation of an oil spill in the San Francisco Bay, California in 1988. On April 22–23 around 400,000 gallons of crude oil was accidentally released into the San Joaquin Valley by a refinery and manufacturing complex of the Shell Oil Company. The oil affected many surrounding areas. Samples of the crude oil were collected in the various regions where it had spread and compared to samples that were unreleased in an attempt to distinguish between the spilled oil and the petrogenic background present in the spill area. Mass Spectra was performed to identify biomarkers and cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons within the samples. Variations in the concentration of constituents of the crude oil samples and sediments were found. Ecotoxicology Biomarkers are being used to identify the effects of water contamination on aquatic organisms. Benthic macro-invertebrates reside in the sediment on the bottoms of streams, which is where many contaminants settle. These organisms have high exposure to the contamination, which makes them good study species when detecting pollutant concentrations and pollution impacts on an ecosystem. There are a variety of biomarkers within an aquatic organism that can be measured, depending on the contaminant or the response in question. There are also a variety of contaminants within water bodies. To analyze the impact of a pollutant on an organism, the biomarker must respond to a specific contaminant within a specific time frame or at a certain concentration. The biomarkers used to detect pollution in aquatic organisms can be enzymatic or non-enzymatic. Rachel Carson, the author of Silent Spring, raised the issue of using organochlorine pesticides and discussed the possible negative effects that said pesticides have on living organisms. Her book raised ethical issues against chemical corporations that were controlling the general reception of the effect of pesticides on the environment, which pioneered the need for ecotoxicological studies. Ecotoxicologial studies could be considered the precursors to biomarker studies. Biomarkers are used to indicate an exposure to or the effect of xenobiotics which are present in the environment and in organisms. The biomarker may be an external substance itself (e.g. asbestos particles or NNK from tobacco), or a variant of the external substance processed by the body (a metabolite) that usually can be quantified. History The widespread use of the term "biomarker" dates back to as early as 1980. The manner in which the environment was monitored and studied near the end of the 1980s was still mainly reliant on the study of chemical substances that were considered dangerous or toxic when found in moderate concentrations in water, sediments, and aquatic organisms. The methods used to identify these chemical compounds were chromatography, spectrophotometry, electrochemistry, and radiochemistry. Although these methods were successful in elucidating the chemical makeup and concentrations present in the environment of the contaminants and the compounds in question, the tests did not provide data that was informative on the impact of a certain pollutant or chemical on a living organism or ecosystem. It was proposed that characterizing biomarkers could create a warning system to check in on the well being of a population or an ecosystem before a pollutant or compound could wreak havoc on the system. Now, due to the development of biomarker studies, biomarkers can be used and applied in the fields of human medicine and in the detection of diseases. Definition The term "biological marker" was introduced in 1950s. In 1987, biological markers were defined as “indicators signaling events in biological systems or samples” that could be classified into three categories: exposure, effect and susceptibility markers. In 1990, McCarthy and Shugart defined biomarkers as, “measurements at the molecular, biochemical, or cellular level in either wild populations from contaminated habitats or in organisms experimentally exposed to pollutants that indicate that the organism has been exposed to toxic chemicals, and the magnitude of the organism's response”. In 1994, Depledge defined a biomarker as, “a biochemical, cellular, physiological or behavioral change which can be measured in body tissues or fluids or at the level of the whole organism that reveals the exposure at/or the effects of one or more chemical pollutants.” In 1996, Van Gestel and Van Brummelen attempted to redefine biomarkers to unambiguously differentiate a biomarker from a bioindicator. According to Van Gestel and Van Brummelen, a biomarker by definition should be used only to describe sublethal biochemical changes resulting from individual exposure to xenobiotics. In 1998, the National Institutes of Health Biomarkers Definitions Working Group defined a biomarker as "a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention." In 2000, De Lafontaine defined the term biomarker as a “biochemical and/or physiological change(s) in organisms exposed to contaminants, and thus represent initial responses to environmental perturbation and contamination". Active biomonitoring De Kock and Kramer developed the concept of active biomonitoring in 1994. Active biomonitoring is a comparison of the chemical/biological properties of a sample that has been relocated to a new environment that contains different conditions than its original environment. See also References Biological techniques and tools Biology terminology Biomarkers
4584230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomarker%20%28medicine%29	Biomarker (medicine)	In medicine, a biomarker is a measurable indicator of the severity or presence of some disease state. It may be defined as a "cellular, biochemical or molecular alteration in cells, tissues or fluids that can be measured and evaluated to indicate normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacological responses to a therapeutic intervention." More generally a biomarker is anything that can be used as an indicator of a particular disease state or some other physiological state of an organism. According to the WHO, the indicator may be chemical, physical, or biological in nature - and the measurement may be functional, physiological, biochemical, cellular, or molecular. A biomarker can be a substance that is introduced into an organism as a means to examine organ function or other aspects of health. For example, rubidium chloride is used in isotopic labeling to evaluate perfusion of heart muscle. It can also be a substance whose detection indicates a particular disease state, for example, the presence of an antibody may indicate an infection. More specifically, a biomarker indicates a change in expression or state of a protein that correlates with the risk or progression of a disease, or with the susceptibility of the disease to a given treatment. Biomarkers can be characteristic biological properties or molecules that can be detected and measured in parts of the body like the blood or tissue. They may indicate either normal or diseased processes in the body. Biomarkers can be specific cells, molecules, or genes, gene products, enzymes, or hormones. Complex organ functions or general characteristic changes in biological structures can also serve as biomarkers. Although the term biomarker is relatively new, biomarkers have been used in pre-clinical research and clinical diagnosis for a considerable time. For example, body temperature is a well-known biomarker for fever. Blood pressure is used to determine the risk of stroke. It is also widely known that cholesterol values are a biomarker and risk indicator for coronary and vascular disease, and that C-reactive protein (CRP) is a marker for inflammation. Biomarkers are useful in a number of ways, including measuring the progress of disease, evaluating the most effective therapeutic regimes for a particular cancer type, and establishing long-term susceptibility to cancer or its recurrence. Biomarkers characterize disease progression starting from the earliest natural history of the disease. Biomarkers assess disease susceptibility and severity, which allows one to predict outcomes, determine interventions and evaluate therapeutic responses. From a forensics and epidemiologic perspective, biomarkers offer unique insight about the relationships between environmental risk factors. The parameter can be chemical, physical or biological. In molecular terms biomarker is "the subset of markers that might be discovered using genomics, proteomics technologies or imaging technologies. Biomarkers play major roles in medicinal biology. Biomarkers help in early diagnosis, disease prevention, drug target identification, drug response etc. Several biomarkers have been identified for many diseases such as serum LDL for cholesterol, blood pressure, and P53 gene and MMPs as tumor markers for cancer. Disease-related biomarkers and drug-related biomarkers It is necessary to distinguish between disease-related and drug-related biomarkers. Disease-related biomarkers give an indication of the probable effect of treatment on patient (risk indicator or predictive biomarkers), if a disease already exists (diagnostic biomarker), or how such a disease may develop in an individual case regardless of the type of treatment (prognostic biomarker). Predictive biomarkers help to assess the most likely response to a particular treatment type, while prognostic markers shows the progression of disease with or without treatment. In contrast, drug-related biomarkers indicate whether a drug will be effective in a specific patient and how the patient's body will process it. In addition to long-known parameters, such as those included and objectively measured in a blood count, there are numerous novel biomarkers used in the various medical specialties. Currently, intensive work is taking place on the discovery and development of innovative and more effective biomarkers. These "new" biomarkers have become the basis for preventive medicine, meaning medicine that recognises diseases or the risk of disease early, and takes specific countermeasures to prevent the development of disease. Biomarkers are also seen as the key to personalised medicine, treatments individually tailored to specific patients for highly efficient intervention in disease processes. Often, such biomarkers indicate changes in metabolic processes. The "classic" biomarker in medicine is a laboratory parameter that the doctor can use to help make decisions in making a diagnosis and selecting a course of treatment. For example, the detection of certain autoantibodies in patient blood is a reliable biomarker for autoimmune disease, and the detection of rheumatoid factors has been an important diagnostic marker for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for over 50 years. For the diagnosis of this autoimmune disease the antibodies against the bodies own citrullinated proteins are of particular value. These ACPAs, (ACPA stands for Anti-citrullinated protein/peptide antibody) can be detected in the blood before the first symptoms of RA appear. They are thus highly valuable biomarkers for the early diagnosis of this autoimmune disease. In addition, they indicate if the disease threatens to be severe with serious damage to the bones and joints, which is an important tool for the doctor when providing a diagnosis and developing a treatment plan. There are also more and more indications that ACPAs can be very useful in monitoring the success of treatment for RA. This would make possible the accurate use of modern treatments with biologicals. Physicians hope to soon be able to individually tailor rheumatoid arthritis treatments for each patient. According to Häupl T. et al. prediction of response to treatment will become the most important aim of biomarker research in medicine. With the growing number of new biological agents, there is increasing pressure to identify molecular parameters such as ACPAs that will not only guide the therapeutic decision but also help to define the most important targets for which new biological agents should be tested in clinical studies. An NIH study group committed to the following definition in 1998: "a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biologic processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention." In the past, biomarkers were primarily physiological indicators such as blood pressure or heart rate. More recently, biomarker is becoming a synonym for molecular biomarker, such as elevated prostate specific antigen as a molecular biomarker for prostate cancer, or using enzyme assays as liver function tests. There has recently been heightened interest in the relevance of biomarkers in oncology, including the role of KRAS in colorectal cancer and other EGFR-associated cancers. In patients whose tumors express the mutated KRAS gene, the KRAS protein, which forms part of the EGFR signaling pathway, is always 'turned on'. This overactive EGFR signaling means that signaling continues downstream – even when the upstream signaling is blocked by an EGFR inhibitor, such as cetuximab (Erbitux) – and results in continued cancer cell growth and proliferation. Testing a tumor for its KRAS status (wild-type vs. mutant) helps to identify those patients who will benefit most from treatment with cetuximab. Currently, effective treatment is available for only a small percentage of cancer patients. In addition, many cancer patients are diagnosed at a stage where the cancer has advanced too far to be treated. Biomarkers have the ability to greatly enhance cancer detection and the drug development process. In addition, biomarkers will enable physicians to develop individualized treatment plans for their cancer patients; thus allowing doctors to tailor drugs specific to their patient's tumor type. By doing so, drug response rate will improve, drug toxicity will be limited and costs associated with testing various therapies and the ensuing treatment for side effects will decrease. Biomarkers also cover the use of molecular indicators of environmental exposure in epidemiologic studies such as human papilloma virus or certain markers of tobacco exposure such as 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). To date no biomarkers have been established for head and neck cancer. Biomarker requirements For chronic diseases, whose treatment may require patients to take medications for years, accurate diagnosis is particularly important, especially when strong side effects are expected from the treatment. In these cases, biomarkers are becoming more and more important, because they can confirm a difficult diagnosis or even make it possible in the first place. A number of diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease or rheumatoid arthritis, often begin with an early, symptom-free phase. In such symptom-free patients there may be more or less probability of actually developing symptoms. In these cases, biomarkers help to identify high-risk individuals reliably and in a timely manner so that they can either be treated before onset of the disease or as soon as possible thereafter. In order to use a biomarker for diagnostics, the sample material must be as easy to obtain as possible. This may be a blood sample taken by a doctor, a urine or saliva sample, or a drop of blood like those diabetes patients extract from their own fingertips for regular blood-sugar monitoring. For rapid initiation of treatment, the speed with which a result is obtained from the biomarker test is critical. A rapid test, which delivers a result after only a few minutes, is optimal. This makes it possible for the physician to discuss with the patient how to proceed and if necessary to start treatment immediately after the test. Naturally, the detection method for a biomarker must be accurate and as easy to carry out as possible. The results from different laboratories may not differ significantly from each other, and the biomarker must naturally have proven its effectiveness for the diagnosis, prognosis, and risk assessment of the affected diseases in independent studies. A biomarker for clinical use needs good sensitivity and specificity e.g. ≥0.9, and good specificity e.g. ≥0.9 although they should be chosen with the population in mind so positive predictive value and negative predictive value are more relevant. Biomarker classification and application Biomarkers can be classified based on different criteria. Based on their characteristics they can be classified as imaging biomarkers (CT, PET, MRI) or molecular biomarkers with three subtypes: volatile, like breath, body fluid, or biopsy biomarkers. Molecular biomarkers refer to non-imaging biomarkers that have biophysical properties, which allow their measurements in biological samples (e.g., plasma, serum, cerebrospinal fluid, bronchoalveolar lavage, biopsy) and include nucleic acids-based biomarkers such as gene mutations or polymorphisms and quantitative gene expression analysis, peptides, proteins, lipids metabolites, and other small molecules. Biomarkers can also be classified based on their application such as diagnostic biomarkers (i.e., cardiac troponin for the diagnosis of myocardial infarction), staging of disease biomarkers (i.e., brain natriuretic peptide for congestive heart failure), disease prognosis biomarkers (cancer biomarkers), and biomarkers for monitoring the clinical response to an intervention (HbAlc for antidiabetic treatment). Another category of biomarkers includes those used in decision making in early drug development. For instance, pharmacodynamic (PD) biomarkers are markers of a certain pharmacological response, which are of special interest in dose optimization studies. Classes Three broad classes of biomarkers are prognostic biomarkers, predictive biomarkers and pharmacodynamic biomarkers. Prognostic Prognostic biomarkers give intervention-independent information on disease status through screening, diagnosis and disease monitoring. Prognostic biomarkers can signify individuals in the latent period of a disease's natural history, allowing optimal therapy and prevention until the disease's termination. Prognostic biomarkers give information on disease status by measuring the internal precursors that increase or decrease the likelihood of attaining a disease. For example, blood pressure and cholesterol are biomarkers for CVD. Prognostic biomarkers can be direct or indirect to the causal pathway of a disease. If a prognostic biomarker is a direct step in the causal pathway, it is one of the factors or products of the disease. A prognostic biomarker could be indirectly associated with a disease if it is related to a change caused by the exposure, or related to an unknown factor connected with the exposure or disease. Predictive Predictive biomarkers measure the effect of a drug and tell if the drug is having its expected activity, but do not offer any direct information on the disease. Predictive biomarkers are highly sensitive and specific; therefore they increase diagnostic validity of a drug or toxin's site-specific effect by eliminating recall bias and subjectivity from those exposed. For example, when an individual is exposed to a drug or toxin, the concentration of that drug or toxin within the body, or the biological effective dose, provides a more accurate prediction for the effect of the drug or toxin compared to an estimation or measurement of the toxin from the origin or external environment. Pharmacodynamic Pharmacodynamic (PD) biomarkers can measure the direct interaction between a drug and its receptor. Pharmacodynamic biomarkers reveal drug mechanisms, if the drug has its intended effect on the biology of the disease, ideal biological dosing concentrations, and physiologic response/resistance mechanisms. Pharmacodynamic biomarkers are particularly relevant in drug mechanisms of tumor cells, where pharmacodynamic endpoints for drug interventions can be assessed directly on tumor tissues. For example, protein phosphorylation biomarkers indicate alterations in target protein kinases and activation of downstream signaling molecules. Types Biomarkers validated by genetic and molecular biology methods can be classified into three types. Type 0 — Natural history markers Type 1 — Drug activity markers Type 2 — Surrogate markers Discovery of molecular biomarkers Molecular biomarkers have been defined as biomarkers that can be discovered using basic and acceptable platforms such as genomics and proteomics. Many genomic and proteomics techniques are available for biomarker discovery and a few techniques that are recently being used can be found on that page. Apart from genomics and proteomics platforms biomarker assay techniques, metabolomics, lipidomics, glycomics, and secretomics are the most commonly used as techniques in identification of biomarkers. Clinical applications Biomarkers can be classified on their clinical applications as molecular biomarkers, cellular biomarkers or imaging biomarkers. Molecular Four of the main types of molecular biomarkers are genomic biomarkers, transcriptomic biomarkers, proteomic biomarkers and metabolic biomarkers. Genomic Genomic biomarkers analyze DNA by identifying irregular sequences in the genome, typically a single nucleotide polymorphism. Genetic biomarkers are particularly significant in cancer because most cancer cell lines carry somatic mutations. Somatic mutations are distinguishable from hereditary mutations because the mutation is not in every cell; just the tumor cells, making them easy targets. Transcriptomic Transcriptomic biomarkers analyze all RNA molecules, not solely the exome. Transcriptomic biomarkers reveal the molecular identity and concentration of RNA in a specific cell or population. Pattern-based RNA expression analysis provides increased diagnostic and prognostic capability in predicting therapeutic responses for individuals. For example, distinct RNA subtypes in breast cancer patients have different survival rates. Proteomic Proteomics permits the quantitative analysis and detection of changes to proteins or protein biomarkers. Protein biomarkers detect a variety of biological changes, such as protein-protein interactions, post-translational modifications and immunological responses. Cellular Cellular biomarkers allow cells to be isolated, sorted, quantified and characterized by their morphology and physiology. Cellular biomarkers are used in both clinical and laboratory settings, and can discriminate between a large sample of cells based on their antigens. An example of a cellular biomarker sorting technique is Fluorescent-activated cell sorting. Imaging biomarkers Imaging biomarkers allow earlier detection of disease compared to molecular biomarkers, and streamline translational research in the drug discovery marketplace. For example, one could determine the percent of receptors a drug targets, shortening the time and money of research during the new drug development stage. Imaging biomarkers also are non-invasive, which is a clinical advantage over molecular biomarkers. Some of the image-based biomarkers are X-Ray, Computed Tomography (CT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), Single Photo Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Many new biomarkers are being developed that involve imaging technology. Imaging biomarkers have many advantages. They are usually noninvasive, and they produce intuitive, multidimensional results. Yielding both qualitative and quantitative data, they are usually relatively comfortable for patients. When combined with other sources of information, they can be very useful to clinicians seeking to make a diagnosis. Cardiac imaging is an active area of biomarker research. Coronary angiography, an invasive procedure requiring catheterization, has long been the gold standard for diagnosing arterial stenosis, but scientists and doctors hope to develop noninvasive techniques. Many believe that cardiac computed tomography (CT) has great potential in this area, but researchers are still attempting to overcome problems related to "calcium blooming," a phenomenon in which calcium deposits interfere with image resolution. Other intravascular imaging techniques involving magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), optical coherence tomography (OCT), and near infrared spectroscopy are also being investigated. Another new imaging biomarker involves radiolabeled fludeoxyglucose. Positron emission tomography (PET) can be used to measure where in the body cells take up glucose. By tracking glucose, doctors can find sites of inflammation because macrophages there take up glucose at high levels. Tumors also take up a lot of glucose, so the imaging strategy can be used to monitor them as well. Tracking radiolabeled glucose is a promising technique because it directly measures a step known to be crucial to inflammation and tumor growth. Imaging disease biomarkers by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) MRI has the advantages of having very high spatial resolution and is very adept at morphological imaging and functional imaging. MRI does have several disadvantages though. First, MRI has a sensitivity of around 10−3 mol/L to 10−5 mol/L which, compared to other types of imaging, can be very limiting. This problem stems from the fact that the difference between atoms in the high energy state and the low energy state is very small. For example, at 1.5 tesla, a typical field strength for clinical MRI, the difference between high and low energy states is approximately 9 molecules per 2 million. Improvements to increase MR sensitivity include increasing magnetic field strength, and hyperpolarization via optical pumping or dynamic nuclear polarization. There are also a variety of signal amplification schemes based on chemical exchange that increase sensitivity. To achieve molecular imaging of disease biomarkers using MRI, targeted MRI contrast agents with high specificity and high relaxivity (sensitivity) are required. To date, many studies have been devoted to developing targeted-MRI contrast agents to achieve molecular imaging by MRI. Commonly, peptides, antibodies, or small ligands, and small protein domains, such as HER-2 affibodies, have been applied to achieve targeting. To enhance the sensitivity of the contrast agents, these targeting moieties are usually linked to high payload MRI contrast agents or MRI contrast agents with high relaxivities. Examples Embryonic: Embryonic biomarkers are very important to fetuses, as each cell's role is decided through the use of biomarkers. Research has been conducted concerning the use of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in regenerative medicine. This is because certain biomarkers within a cell could be altered (most likely in the tertiary stage of their formation) to change the future role of the cell, thereby creating new ones. One example of an embryonic biomarker is the protein Oct-4. Autism: ASDs are complex; autism is a medical condition with several etiologies caused due to the interactions between environmental conditions and genetic vulnerability. The challenge in finding out the biomarkers related to ASDs is that they may reflect genetic or neurobiological changes that may be active only to a certain point. ASDs show heterogeneous clinical symptoms and genetic architecture, which have hindered the identification of common genetic susceptibility factors. Still, many researches are being done to find out the main reason behind the genetic incomparability. Cancer: Biomarkers have an extremely high upside for therapeutic interventions in cancer patients. Most cancer biomarkers consist of proteins or altered segments of DNA, and are expressed in all cells, just at higher rates in cancer cells. There has not yet been one, universal tumor biomarker, but there is a biomarker for every type of cancer. These tumor biomarkers are used to track the health of tumors, but cannot serve as the sole diagnostic for specific cancers. Examples of tumoral markers used to follow up cancer treatment are the Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA) for colorectal cancer and the Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) for prostate cancer. In 2014, Cancer research identified Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs) and Circulating Tumor DNA (ctDNA) as metastasizing tumor biomarkers with special cellular differentiation and prognostic skills. Innovative technology needs to be harnessed to determine the full capabilities of CTCs and ctDNA, but insight into their roles has potential for new understanding of cancer evolution, invasion and metastasis. List of Biomarkers In alphabetic order Alanine transaminase (ALT) Body fat percentage Body mass index Body temperature Blood pressure Blood sugar level Complete blood count Creatinine C-reactive protein (inflammation) Heart rate Hematocrit (HCT) Hemoglobin (Hgb) Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Triglyceride Waist circumference Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) Potential disadvantages Not all biomarkers should be used as surrogate endpoints to assess clinical outcomes. Biomarkers can be difficult to validate and require different levels of validation depending on their intended use. If a biomarker is to be used to measure the success of a therapeutic intervention, the biomarker should reflect a direct effect of that medicine. See also Biomarkers of aging Cardiac marker Molecular risk assessment Cancer biomarkers ROCCET Continuous Individualized Risk Index References Biomarkers Biotechnology Chemical pathology Medical signs Cell biology
4584893	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions%20of%201989	Revolutions of 1989	The Revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, was a revolutionary wave of liberal democracy movements that resulted in the collapse of most Marxist–Leninist governments in the Eastern Bloc and other parts of the world. Sometimes this revolutionary wave is also called the Fall of Nations or the Autumn of Nations, a play on the term Spring of Nations that is sometimes used to describe the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe. It also led to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union—the world's largest communist state—and the abandonment of communist regimes in many parts of the world, some of which were violently overthrown. The events, especially the fall of the Soviet Union, drastically altered the world's balance of power, marking the end of the Cold War and the beginning of the post-Cold War era. The earliest recorded protests began in Kazakhstan, then part of the Soviet Union, in 1986 with student demonstrations, and the last chapter of the revolutions ended in 1996 when Ukraine abolished the Soviet political system of government, adopting a new constitution which replaced the Soviet-era constitution. The main region of these revolutions was Central Europe, starting in Poland with the Polish workers' mass-strike movement in 1988, and the revolutionary trend continued in Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Romania. On 4 June 1989, Poland's Solidarity trade union won an overwhelming victory in partially free elections, leading to the peaceful fall of communism in Poland. Also in June 1989, Hungary began dismantling its section of the physical Iron Curtain, while the opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary in August 1989 set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, in which the Eastern Bloc disintegrated. This led to mass demonstrations in cities of East Germany such as Leipzig and subsequently to the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which served as the symbolic gateway to German reunification in 1990. One feature common to most of these developments was the extensive use of campaigns of civil resistance, demonstrating popular opposition to the continuation of one-party rule and contributing to pressure for change. Romania was the only country where citizens and opposition forces used violence to overthrow its communist regime, although the country was politically isolated from the rest of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War is considered to have "officially" ended on 3 December 1989 during the Malta Summit between the Soviet and American leaders. However, many historians argue that the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991 was the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Union itself became a multi-party semi-presidential republic from March 1990 and held its first presidential election, marking a drastic change as part of its reform program. The Union dissolved in December 1991, resulting in seven new countries which had declared their independence from the Soviet Union in the course of the year, while the Baltic states regained their independence in September 1991 along with Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. The rest of the Soviet Union, which constituted the bulk of the area, continued with the establishment of the Russian Federation. Albania and Yugoslavia abandoned communism between 1990 and 1992, and by the end Yugoslavia had split into five new countries. Czechoslovakia dissolved three years after the end of communist rule, splitting peacefully into the Czech Republic and Slovakia on 1 January 1993. North Korea has abandoned Marxism–Leninism since 1992. The impact of these events were felt in many third world socialist states throughout the world. Concurrently with events in Poland, protests in Tiananmen Square (April–June 1989) failed to stimulate major political changes in Mainland China, but influential images of courageous defiance during that protest helped to precipitate events in other parts of the globe. Three Asian countries, namely Afghanistan, Cambodia and Mongolia, had successfully abandoned communism by 1992–1993, either through reform or conflict. Additionally, eight countries in Africa or its environs had also abandoned it, namely Ethiopia, Angola, Benin, Congo-Brazzaville, Mozambique, Somalia, as well as South Yemen (unified with North Yemen). The political reforms varied, but in only four countries were communist parties able to retain a monopoly on power, namely China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam. However, these countries would make economic reforms in the following years to adopt some forms of market economy under market socialism. The European political landscape changed drastically, with several former Eastern Bloc countries joining NATO and the European Union, resulting in stronger economic and social integration with Western Europe and North America. Many communist and socialist organisations in the West turned their guiding principles over to social democracy and democratic socialism. In contrast, and somewhat later, in South America, a pink tide began in Venezuela in 1999 and shaped politics in the other parts of the continent through the early 2000s. Meanwhile, in certain countries the aftermath of these revolutions resulted in conflict and wars, including various post-Soviet conflicts that remain frozen to this day as well as large-scale wars, most notably the Yugoslav Wars which led to Europe's first genocide since the Second World War in 1995. Background Emergence of Solidarity in Poland Labour turmoil in Poland during 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union Solidarity, led by Lech Wałęsa, which over time became a political force, nevertheless, on 13 December 1981, Polish Prime Minister Wojciech Jaruzelski started a crackdown on Solidarity by declaring martial law in Poland, suspending the union, and temporarily imprisoning all of its leaders. Mikhail Gorbachev Although several Eastern Bloc countries had attempted some abortive, limited economic and political reform since the 1950s (e.g. the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and Prague Spring of 1968), the ascension of reform-minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 signaled the trend toward greater liberalization. During the mid-1980s, a younger generation of Soviet apparatchiks, led by Gorbachev, began advocating fundamental reform in order to reverse years of Brezhnev stagnation. After decades of growth, the Soviet Union was now facing a period of severe economic decline and needed Western technology and credits to make up for its increasing backwardness. The costs of maintaining its military, the KGB, and subsidies to foreign client states further strained the moribund Soviet economy. Mikhail Gorbachev succeeded to the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and came to power in 1985. The first signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of glasnost (openness) in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for perestroika (economic restructuring). By the spring of 1989, the Soviet Union had not only experienced lively media debate but had also held its first multi-candidate elections in the newly established Congress of People's Deputies. While glasnost ostensibly advocated openness and political criticism, these were only permitted within a narrow spectrum dictated by the state. The general public in the Eastern Bloc was still subject to secret police and political repression. Gorbachev urged his Central and Southeast European counterparts to imitate perestroika and glasnost in their own countries. However, while reformists in Hungary and Poland were emboldened by the force of liberalization spreading from the east, other Eastern Bloc countries remained openly skeptical and demonstrated aversion to reform. Believing Gorbachev's reform initiatives would be short-lived, hardline communist rulers like East Germany's Erich Honecker, Bulgaria's Todor Zhivkov, Czechoslovakia's Gustáv Husák and Romania's Nicolae Ceaușescu obstinately ignored the calls for change. "When your neighbor puts up new wallpaper, it doesn't mean you have to too," declared one East German politburo member. Soviet republics By the late 1980s, people in the Caucasus and Baltic states were demanding more autonomy from Moscow, and the Kremlin was losing some of its control over certain regions and elements in the Soviet Union. Cracks in the Soviet system had begun in December 1986 in Kazakhstan when its citizens protested over an ethnic Russian who had been appointed as the secretary of the CPSU's Kazakh republican branch. These protests were put down after three days. In November 1988, the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic issued a declaration of sovereignty, which would eventually lead to other states making similar declarations of autonomy. The Chernobyl disaster in April 1986 had major political and social effects that catalyzed or at least partially caused the Revolutions of 1989. One political result of the disaster was the greatly increased significance of the new Soviet policy of glasnost. It is difficult to establish the total economic cost of the disaster. According to Gorbachev, the Soviet Union spent 18 billion roubles (the equivalent of US$18 billion at that time) on containment and decontamination, virtually bankrupting itself. Impact of Solidarity grows Throughout the mid-1980s, Solidarity persisted solely as an underground organization, supported by the Catholic Church. However, by the late 1980s, Solidarity became sufficiently strong to frustrate Jaruzelski's attempts at reform, and nationwide strikes in 1988 forced the government to open dialogue with Solidarity. On 9 March 1989, both sides agreed to a bicameral legislature called the National Assembly. The already existing Sejm would become the lower house. The Senate would be elected by the people. Traditionally a ceremonial office, the presidency was given more powers (Polish Round Table Agreement). On 7 July 1989, General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev implicitly renounced the use of force against other Soviet-bloc nations. Speaking to members of the 23-nation Council of Europe, Mr. Gorbachev made no direct reference to the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine, under which Moscow had asserted the right to use force to prevent a Warsaw Pact member from leaving the communist fold. He stated, "Any interference in domestic affairs and any attempts to restrict the sovereignty of states—friends, allies or any others—are inadmissible". The policy was termed the Sinatra Doctrine, in a joking reference to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way". Poland became the first Warsaw Pact country to break free of Soviet domination. Fall of dictatorial regimes In February 1986, in one of the first peaceful, mass-movement revolutions against a dictatorship, the People Power Revolution in the Philippines peacefully overthrew dictator Ferdinand Marcos and inaugurated Cory Aquino as the President. The domino effect of the revolutions of 1989 affected other regimes as well. The South African apartheid regime and Pinochet's military dictatorship in Chile were gradually dismantled during the 1990s as the West withdrew their funding and diplomatic support. Ghana, Indonesia, Nicaragua, South Korea, Suriname, Republic of China and North-South Yemen, among many others, elected democratic governments. Exact tallies of the number of democracies vary depending on the criteria used for assessment, but by some measures by the late 1990s there were well over 100 democracies in the world, a marked increase in just a few decades. National political movements Poland A wave of strikes hit Poland from 21 April then this continued in May 1988. A second wave began on 15 August, when a strike broke out at the July Manifesto coal mine in Jastrzębie-Zdrój, with the workers demanding the re-legalisation of the Solidarity trade union. Over the next few days, sixteen other mines went on strike followed by a number of shipyards, including on 22 August the Gdansk Shipyard, famous as the epicentre of the 1980 industrial unrest that spawned Solidarity. On 31 August 1988 Lech Wałęsa, the leader of Solidarity, was invited to Warsaw by the communist authorities, who had finally agreed to talks. On 18 January 1989 at a stormy session of the Tenth Plenary Session of the ruling United Workers' Party, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, the First Secretary, managed to get party backing for formal negotiations with Solidarity leading to its future legalisation, although this was achieved only by threatening the resignation of the entire party leadership if thwarted. On 6 February 1989 formal Round Table discussions began in the Hall of Columns in Warsaw. On 4 April 1989 the historic Round Table Agreement was signed legalising Solidarity and setting up partly free parliamentary elections to be held on 4 June 1989 (incidentally, the day following the midnight crackdown on Chinese protesters in Tiananmen Square). A political earthquake followed as the victory of Solidarity surpassed all predictions. Solidarity candidates captured all the seats they were allowed to compete for in the Sejm, while in the Senate they captured 99 out of the 100 available seats (with the one remaining seat taken by an independent candidate). At the same time, many prominent communist candidates failed to gain even the minimum number of votes required to capture the seats that were reserved for them. On 15 August 1989, the communists' two longtime coalition partners, the United People's Party (ZSL) and the Democratic Party (SD), broke their alliance with the PZPR and announced their support for Solidarity. The last communist Prime Minister of Poland, General Czesław Kiszczak, said he would resign to allow a non-communist to form an administration. As Solidarity was the only other political grouping that could possibly form a government, it was virtually assured that a Solidarity member would become prime minister. On 19 August 1989, in a stunning watershed moment, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, an anti-communist editor, Solidarity supporter, and devout Catholic, was nominated as Prime Minister of Poland and the Soviet Union voiced no protest. Five days later, on 24 August 1989, Poland's Parliament ended more than 40 years of one-party rule by making Mazowiecki the country's first non-communist Prime Minister since the early postwar years. In a tense Parliament, Mazowiecki received 378 votes, with 4 against and 41 abstentions. On 13 September 1989, a new non-communist government was approved by parliament, the first of its kind in the Eastern Bloc. On 17 November 1989 the statue of Felix Dzerzhinsky, Polish founder of the Cheka and symbol of communist oppression, was torn down in Bank Square, Warsaw. On 29 December 1989 the Sejm amended the constitution to change the official name of the country from the People's Republic of Poland to the Republic of Poland. The communist Polish United Workers' Party dissolved itself on 29 January 1990 and transformed itself into the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland. In 1990, Jaruzelski resigned as Poland's president and was succeeded by Wałęsa, who won the 1990 presidential elections held in two rounds on 25 November and 9 December. Wałęsa's inauguration as president on 21 December 1990 is considered by many as the formal end of the communist People's Republic of Poland and the start of the modern Republic of Poland. The Warsaw Pact was dissolved on 1 July 1991. On 27 October 1991 the first entirely free Polish parliamentary elections since 1945 took place. This completed Poland's transition from communist Party rule to a Western-style liberal democratic political system. The last Russian troops left Poland on 18 September 1993. Hungary Following Poland's lead, Hungary was next to switch to a non-communist government. Although Hungary had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization during the 1980s, major reforms only occurred following the replacement of János Kádár as General Secretary of the communist Party on 23 May 1988 with Károly Grósz. On 24 November 1988 Miklós Németh was appointed Prime Minister. On 12 January 1989, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package", which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among other provisions. On 29 January 1989, contradicting the official view of history held for more than 30 years, a member of the ruling Politburo, Imre Pozsgay, declared that Hungary's 1956 rebellion was a popular uprising rather than a foreign-instigated attempt at counterrevolution. Mass demonstrations on 15 March, the National Day, persuaded the regime to begin negotiations with the emergent non-communist political forces. Round Table talks began on 22 April and continued until the Round Table agreement was signed on 18 September. The talks involved the communists (MSzMP) and the newly emerging independent political forces Fidesz, the Alliance of Free Democrats (SzDSz), the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), the Independent Smallholders' Party, the Hungarian People's Party, the Endre Bajcsy-Zsilinszky Society, and the Democratic Trade Union of Scientific Workers. At a later stage the Democratic Confederation of Free Trade Unions and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) were invited. At these talks a number of Hungary's future political leaders emerged, including László Sólyom, József Antall, György Szabad, Péter Tölgyessy and Viktor Orbán. On 2 May 1989, the first visible cracks in the Iron Curtain appeared when Hungary began dismantling its long border fence with Austria. This increasingly destabilized East Germany and Czechoslovakia over the summer and autumn, as thousands of their citizens illegally crossed over to the West through the Hungarian-Austrian border. On 1 June 1989 the Communist Party admitted that former Prime Minister Imre Nagy, hanged for treason for his role in the 1956 Hungarian uprising, was executed illegally after a show trial. On 16 June 1989 Nagy was given a solemn funeral on Budapest's largest square in front of crowds of at least 100,000, followed by a hero's burial. The initially inconspicuous opening of a border gate of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary in August 1989 then triggered a chain reaction, at the end of which the GDR no longer existed and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The idea of opening the border came from Otto von Habsburg and was brought up by him to Miklós Németh, who promoted the idea. The local organization in Sopron took over the Hungarian Democratic Forum, the other contacts were made via Habsburg and Imre Pozsgay. Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary. The Austrian branch of the Paneuropean Union, which was then headed by Karl von Habsburg, distributed thousands of brochures inviting them to a picnic near the border at Sopron. After the pan-European picnic, Erich Honecker dictated the Daily Mirror of 19 August 1989: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West." But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Now tens of thousands of the media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. In particular, the leadership of the GDR in East Berlin no longer dared to completely block the borders of their own country. The Round Table agreement of 18 September encompassed six draft laws that covered an overhaul of the Constitution, establishment of a Constitutional Court, the functioning and management of political parties, multiparty elections for National Assembly deputies, the penal code and the law on penal procedures (the last two changes represented an additional separation of the Party from the state apparatus). The electoral system was a compromise: about half of the deputies would be elected proportionally and half by the majoritarian system. A weak presidency was also agreed upon, but no consensus was attained on who should elect the president (parliament or the people) and when this election should occur (before or after parliamentary elections). On 7 October 1989, the Communist Party at its last congress re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party. In a historic session from 16 to 20 October, the parliament adopted legislation providing for a multi-party parliamentary election and a direct presidential election, which took place on 24 March 1990. The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of government. On 23 October 1989, on the 33rd anniversary of the 1956 Revolution, the communist regime in Hungary was formally abolished. The Soviet military occupation of Hungary, which had persisted since World War II, ended on 19 June 1991. East Germany On 2 May 1989, Hungary started dismantling its barbed-wire border with Austria. The border was still heavily guarded, but it was a political sign. The Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 finally started a movement that could not be stopped by the rulers in the Eastern Bloc. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The patrons of the picnic, Otto von Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State Imre Pozsgay saw the planned event as an opportunity to test the reaction of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Eastern Bloc countries to a large opening of the border including flight. After the pan-European picnic, Erich Honecker dictated the Daily Mirror of 19 August 1989: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food, and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West." But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Now tens of thousands of the media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. By the end of September 1989, more than 30,000 East Germans had escaped to the West before the GDR denied travel to Hungary, leaving Czechoslovakia as the only neighboring state to which East Germans could escape. Thousands of East Germans tried to reach the West by occupying the West German diplomatic facilities in other Central and Eastern European capitals, notably the Prague Embassy and the Hungarian Embassy, where thousands camped in the muddy garden from August to November waiting for German political reform. The GDR closed the border to Czechoslovakia on 3 October, thereby isolating itself from all its neighbors. Having been shut off from their last chance for escape, an increasing number of East Germans participated in the Monday demonstrations in Leipzig on 4, 11, and 18 September, each attracting 1,200 to 1,500 demonstrators. Many were arrested and beaten, but the people refused to be intimidated. On 25 September, the protests attracted 8,000 demonstrators. After the fifth successive Monday demonstration in Leipzig on 2 October attracted 10,000 protesters, Socialist Unity Party (SED) leader Erich Honecker issued a shoot and kill order to the military. Communists prepared a huge police, militia, Stasi, and work-combat troop presence, and there were rumors a Tiananmen Square-style massacre was being planned for the following Monday's demonstration on 9 October. On 6 and 7 October, Mikhail Gorbachev visited East Germany to mark the 40th anniversary of the German Democratic Republic, and urged the East German leadership to accept reform. A famous quote of his is rendered in German as "Wer zu spät kommt, den bestraft das Leben" ("The one who comes too late is punished by life."). However, Honecker remained opposed to internal reform, with his regime even going so far as forbidding the circulation of Soviet publications that it viewed as subversive. In spite of rumors that the communists were planning a massacre on 9 October, 70,000 citizens demonstrated in Leipzig that Monday and the authorities on the ground refused to open fire. The following Monday, 16 October 120,000 people demonstrated on the streets of Leipzig. Erich Honecker had hoped that the Soviet troops stationed in the GDR by the Warsaw Pact would restore the communist government and suppress the civilian protests. By 1989 the Soviet government deemed it impractical for the Soviet Union to continue asserting its control over the Eastern Bloc, so it took a neutral stance regarding the events happening in East Germany. Soviet troops stationed in eastern Europe were under strict instructions from the Soviet leadership not to intervene in the political affairs of the Eastern Bloc nations and remained in their barracks. Faced with ongoing civil unrest, the SED deposed Honecker on 18 October and replaced him with the number-two-man in the regime, Egon Krenz. However, the demonstrations kept growing, and on Monday, 23 October, the Leipzig protesters numbered 300,000 and remained as large the following week. The border to Czechoslovakia was opened again on 1 November, and the Czechoslovak authorities soon let all East Germans travel directly to West Germany without further bureaucratic ado, thus lifting their part of the Iron Curtain on 3 November. On 4 November the authorities decided to authorize a demonstration in Berlin and were faced with the Alexanderplatz demonstration, where half a million citizens converged on the capital demanding freedom in the biggest protest the GDR ever witnessed. Unable to stem the ensuing flow of refugees to the West through Czechoslovakia, the East German authorities eventually caved in to public pressure by allowing East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany directly, via existing border points, on 9 November 1989, without having properly briefed the border guards. Triggered by the erratic words of regime spokesman Günter Schabowski in a TV press conference, stating that the planned changes were in effect "immediately, without delay," hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity. The guards were quickly overwhelmed by the growing crowds of people demanding to be let out into West Berlin. After receiving no feedback from their superiors, the guards, unwilling to use force, relented and opened the gates to West Berlin. Soon new crossing points were forced open in the Berlin Wall by the people, and sections of the wall were literally torn down. The guards were unaware of what was happening and stood by as the East Germans took to the wall with hammers and chisels. On 7 November, the entire Ministerrat der DDR (State Council of East Germany), including its chairman Willi Stoph, resigned. A new government was formed under a considerably more liberal communist, Hans Modrow. On 1 December, the Volkskammer removed the SED's leading role from the constitution of the GDR. On 3 December Krenz resigned as leader of the SED; he resigned as head of state three days later. On 7 December, Round Table talks opened between the SED and other political parties. On 16 December 1989, the SED was dissolved and refounded as the SED-PDS, abandoning Marxism–Leninism and becoming a mainstream democratic socialist party. On 15 January 1990, the Stasi's headquarters was stormed by protesters. Modrow became the de facto leader of East Germany until free elections were held on 18 March 1990—the first since November 1932. The SED, renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism, was heavily defeated. Lothar de Maizière of the East German Christian Democratic Union became Prime Minister on 4 April 1990 on a platform of speedy reunification with the West. On 15 March 1990, a peace treaty was signed between the two countries of Germany and the four Allies to replace the Potsdam Agreement of 1 August 1945 after World War II to return full sovereignty to Germany, which facilitated the reunification. The two German countries were finally reunified into present-day Germany on 3 October 1990, solving German problem about two states status which had existed since 7 October 1949. The Kremlin's willingness to abandon such a strategically vital ally marked a dramatic change by the Soviet superpower and a fundamental paradigm shift in international relations, which until 1989 had been dominated by the East–West divide running through Berlin itself. The last Russian troops left the territory of the former GDR, now part of a reunited Federal Republic of Germany, on 1 September 1994. Czechoslovakia The "Velvet Revolution" was a non-violent transition of power in Czechoslovakia from the communist government to a parliamentary republic. On 17 November 1989, riot police suppressed a peaceful student demonstration in Prague, a day after a similar demonstration passed without incident in Bratislava. Although controversy continues over whether anyone died that night, that event sparked a series of popular demonstrations from 19 November to late December. By 20 November the number of peaceful protesters assembled in Prague had swelled from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated half-million. Five days later, the Letná Square protest held 800,000 people. On 24 November, the entire Communist Party leadership, including general secretary Miloš Jakeš, resigned. A two-hour general strike, involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia, was successfully held on 27 November. With the collapse of other communist governments, and increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November 1989 that it would relinquish power and dismantle the single-party state. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from the border with West Germany and Austria in early December. On 10 December, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948 and resigned. Alexander Dubček was elected speaker of the federal parliament on 28 December and Václav Havel the President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989. In June 1990 Czechoslovakia held its first democratic elections since 1946. On 27 June 1991 the last Soviet troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia. Bulgaria In October and November 1989, demonstrations on ecological issues were staged in Sofia, where demands for political reform were also voiced. The demonstrations were suppressed, but on 10 November 1989 (the day after the Berlin Wall was breached) Bulgaria's long-serving leader Todor Zhivkov was ousted by his Politburo. He was succeeded by a considerably more liberal communist, former foreign minister Petar Mladenov. Moscow apparently approved the leadership change, as Zhivkov had been opposed to Gorbachev's policies. The new regime immediately repealed restrictions on free speech and assembly, which led to the first mass demonstration on 17 November, as well as the formation of anti-communist movements. Nine of them united as the Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) on 7 December. The UDF was not satisfied with Zhivkov's ouster, and demanded additional democratic reforms, most importantly the removal of the constitutionally mandated leading role of the Bulgarian Communist Party. Mladenov announced on 11 December 1989 that the Communist Party would abandon its monopoly on power, and that multiparty elections would be held the following year. In February 1990, the Bulgarian legislature deleted the portion of the constitution about the "leading role" of the Communist Party. Eventually, it was decided that a round table on the Polish model would be held in 1990 and elections held by June 1990. The round table took place from 3 January to 14 May 1990, at which an agreement was reached on the transition to democracy. The Communist Party abandoned Marxism–Leninism on 3 April 1990 and renamed itself as the Bulgarian Socialist Party. In June 1990 the first free elections since 1931 were held, won by the Bulgarian Socialist Party. Romania Czechoslovak President Gustáv Husák's resignation on 10 December 1989 amounted to the fall of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, leaving Ceaușescu's Romania as the only remaining hard-line communist regime in the Warsaw Pact. After having suppressed the Brașov rebellion in 1987, Nicolae Ceaușescu was re-elected for another five years as leader of the Romanian Communist Party (PCR) in November 1989, signalling that he intended to ride out the anti-communist uprisings sweeping the rest of Europe. As Ceaușescu prepared to go on a state visit to Iran, his Securitate ordered the arrest and exile of a local Hungarian Calvinist minister, László Tőkés, on 16 December, for sermons offending the regime. Tőkés was seized, but only after serious rioting erupted. Timișoara was the first city to react on 16 December and civil unrest continued for five days. Returning from Iran, Ceaușescu ordered a mass rally in his support outside Communist Party headquarters in Bucharest on 21 December. However, to his shock, the crowd booed and jeered him as he spoke. Years of repressed dissatisfaction boiled to the surface throughout the Romanian populace and even among elements in Ceaușescu's own government, and the demonstrations spread throughout the country. At first, the security forces obeyed Ceaușescu's orders to shoot protesters. However, on the morning of 22 December, the Romanian military suddenly changed sides. This came after it was announced that defense minister Vasile Milea had committed suicide after being unmasked as a traitor. It was suggested that he only tried to incapacitate himself in order to be relieved from office, but the bullet hit an artery and he died soon afterwards. Believing Milea had actually been murdered, the rank-and-file soldiers went over virtually en masse to the revolution. Army tanks began moving towards the Central Committee building with crowds swarming alongside them. The rioters forced open the doors of the Central Committee building in an attempt to capture Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, coming within a few meters of the couple. However, they managed to escape via a helicopter waiting for them on the roof of the building. Although elation followed the flight of the Ceaușescus, uncertainty surrounded their fate. On Christmas Day, Romanian television showed the Ceaușescus facing a hasty trial, and then being executed by firing squad. An interim National Salvation Front Council led by Ion Iliescu took over and announced elections for April 1990, the first free elections held in Romania since 1937. These were, however, postponed until 20 May 1990. The Romanian Revolution was the bloodiest of the revolutions of 1989: over 1,000 people died, one hundred of which were children, the youngest only one month old. Unlike its kindred parties in the Warsaw Pact, the PCR simply melted away; no present-day Romanian party claiming to be its successor has ever been elected to the legislature since the change of system. However, former PCR members have played significant roles in post-1989 Romanian politics; every Romanian President until the election of Klaus Iohannis in 2014 was a former Communist Party member. The years following the disposal of Ceaușescu were not free of conflict, and a series of "Mineriads" organized by dissatisfied Jiu Valley miners occurred. The June 1990 Mineriad turned deadly after university students, the "Golaniads", held a months long protest against the participation of ex-PCR and Securitate members in the 1990 Romanian general election. President Ion Iliescu branded the protesters "hooligans" and called the miners to "defend Romanian democracy". Viorel Ene, president of the Association of Victims of the Mineriads, asserted that: Over 10,000 miners were transported to Bucharest and in the ensuing clashes, seven protesters died and hundreds more were injured, although media estimates on the casualty figures were much higher. The opposition newspaper România Liberă alleged that over 128 unidentified bodies were buried in a common grave in Străulești II cemetery, near Bucharest. A few weeks after the mineriad, several medical students conducted research in Străulești II cemetery, discovering two trenches with about 78 unmarked graves, which they claimed to contain victims of the events. Yugoslavia The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not a part of the Warsaw Pact but pursued its own version of communism under Josip Broz Tito. It was a multi-ethnic state which Tito was able to maintain through a Yugoslav patriotic doctrine of "Brotherhood and unity". Tensions between ethnicities began to escalate, however, with the Croatian Spring of 1970–71, a movement for greater Croatian autonomy, which was suppressed. Constitutional changes were instituted in 1974, and the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution devolved some federal powers to the constituent republics and provinces. After Tito's death in 1980 ethnic tensions grew, first in Albanian-majority SAP Kosovo with the 1981 protests in Kosovo. Parallel to the same process, Slovenia initiated a policy of gradual liberalization in 1984, somewhat similar to the Soviet Perestroika. This provoked tensions between the League of Communists of Slovenia and the central Yugoslav Party and federal army. In 1984 the decade long ban to build the Saint Sava Cahedral in Belgrade was lifted, the backdown of the communist elite and a popular gathering of 100.000 believers on 12 May 1985 to celebrate liturgy inside the walls of the ruins marked the return of religion in postwar Yugoslavia. By the late 1980s, many civil society groups were pushing towards democratization, while widening the space for cultural plurality. In 1987 and 1988, a series of clashes between the emerging civil society and the communist regime culminated with the so-called Slovene Spring, a mass movement for democratic reforms. The Committee for the Defence of Human Rights was established as the platform of all major non-Communist political movements. By early 1989, several anti-communist political parties were already openly functioning, challenging the hegemony of the Slovenian Communists. Soon, the Slovenian Communists, pressured by their own civil society, came into conflict with the Serbian Communist leadership. In January 1990, an extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was called in order to settle the disputes among its constituent parties. Faced with being completely outnumbered, the Slovenian and Croatian communists walked out of the Congress on 23 January 1990, thus effectively bringing to an end to Yugoslavia's communist party. Both parties of the two western republics negotiated free multi-party elections with their own opposition movements. On 8 April 1990, the democratic and anti-Yugoslav DEMOS coalition won the elections in Slovenia, while on 22 April 1990 the Croatian elections resulted in a landslide victory for the nationalist Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) led by Franjo Tuđman. The results were much more balanced in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Macedonia in November 1990, while the parliamentary and presidential elections of December 1990 in Serbia and Montenegro consolidated the power of Milošević and his supporters. Free elections on the level of the federation were never carried out. The Slovenian and Croatian leaderships started preparing plans for secession from the federation, while a part of the Serbs of Croatia started the so-called Log Revolution, an insurrection organized by Serbia that would lead to the creation of the breakaway region of SAO Krajina. In the Slovenian independence referendum on 23 December 1990, 88.5% of residents voted for independence. In the Croatian independence referendum on 19 May 1991, 93.24% voted for independence. The escalating ethnic and national tensions were exacerbated by the drive for independence and led to the following Yugoslav wars: War in Slovenia (1991) Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995) Bosnian War (1992–1995) Kosovo War (1998–1999), including the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. In addition, the insurgency in the Preševo Valley (1999–2001) and the insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia (2001) are also often discussed in the same context. Albania In the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, Enver Hoxha, who led Albania for four decades, died on 11 April 1985. His successor, Ramiz Alia, began to gradually open up the regime from above. In 1989, the first revolts started in Shkodra and spread in other cities. Eventually, the existing regime introduced some liberalization, including measures in 1990 providing for freedom to travel abroad. Efforts were begun to improve ties with the outside world. March 1991 elections—the first free elections in Albania since 1923, and only the third free elections in the country's history—left the former communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition led to the formation of a coalition cabinet including non-communists. Parliamentary elections were held in Albania on 22 March 1992, with a second round of voting for eleven seats on 29 March, amid economic collapse and social unrest. Mongolia Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) declared independence from China in 1911 during the fall of the Qing dynasty. The Mongolian People's Party took power in 1921, and the party renamed itself the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party. During these years, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union. After Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal left in 1984, the new leadership under Jambyn Batmönkh implemented economic reforms, but failed to appeal to those who, in late 1989, wanted broader changes. The "Mongolian Revolution" was a democratic, peaceful revolution that started with demonstrations and hunger strikes and ended 70-years of Marxism-Leninism and eventually moved towards democracy. It was spearheaded by mostly younger people demonstrating on Sükhbaatar Square in the capital Ulaanbaatar. It ended with the authoritarian government resigning without bloodshed. Some of the main organizers were Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, Sanjaasürengiin Zorig, Erdeniin Bat-Üül, and Bat-Erdeniin Batbayar. During the morning of 10 December 1989, the first public demonstration occurred in front of the Youth Cultural Center in the capital of Ulaanbaatar. There, Elbegdorj announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union, and the first pro-democracy movement in Mongolia began. The protesters called for Mongolia to adopt perestroika and glasnost. Dissident leaders demanded free elections and economic reform, but within the context of a "human democratic socialism". The protesters injected a nationalist element into the protests by using traditional Mongolian script—which most Mongolians could not read—as a symbolic repudiation of the political system which had imposed the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet. In late December 1989, demonstrations increased when news came of Garry Kasparov's interview in Playboy, suggesting that the Soviet Union could improve its economic health by selling Mongolia to China. On 14 January 1990, the protesters, having grown from three hundred to some 1,000, met in a square in front of Lenin Museum in Ulaanbaatar, which has been named Freedom Square since then. A demonstration in Sükhbaatar Square on 21 January (in weather of −30 C) followed. Protesters carried banners alluding to Chinggis Khaan (also referred to Genghis Khan), rehabilitating a figure whom Soviet schooling neglected to praise. In subsequent months of 1990, activists continued to organize demonstrations, rallies, protests and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes. Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside and the union's activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country. After numerous demonstrations of many thousands of people in the capital city as well as provincial centers, on 4 March 1990, the MDU and three other reform organizations held a joint outdoor mass meeting, inviting the government to attend. The government sent no representative to what became a demonstration of over 100,000 people demanding democratic change. This culminated with Jambyn Batmönkh, chairman of Politburo of MPRP's Central Committee decided to dissolve the Politburo and to resign on 9 March 1990. Mongolia's first free, multi-party elections for a bicameral parliament took place on 29 July 1990. Parties ran for 430 seats in the Great Hural. Opposition parties were not able to nominate enough candidates. The opposition nominated 346 candidates for the 430 seats in the Great Hural (upper house). The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won 357 seats in the Great Hural and 31 out of 53 seats in the Small Hural (which was later abolished) as well. The MPRP enjoyed a strong position in the countryside. The State Great Khural first met on 3 September 1990 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (Social Democrat) who was also a chairman of the Baga Hural, prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (lower house). In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began a discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force on 12 February 1992. In addition, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH). The MPRP retained its majority but lost the 1996 elections. The final Russian troops, which had stationed in Mongolia in 1966, fully withdrew in December 1992. China While China did not undergo a revolution resulting in a new form of government in 1989, a popular national movement led to large demonstrations in favor of democratic reforms. Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping had developed the concept of socialism with Chinese characteristics and enacted local market economy reforms around 1984, but the policy had stalled. The first Chinese student demonstrations, which eventually led to the Beijing protests of 1989, took place in December 1986 in Hefei. The students called for campus elections, the chance to study abroad, and greater availability of Western pop culture. Their protests took advantage of the loosening political atmosphere and included rallies against the slow pace of reform. Hu Yaobang, a protégé of Deng Xiaoping and a leading advocate of reform, was blamed for the protests and forced to resign as the CCP general secretary in January 1987. In the "Anti Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign", Hu would be further denounced. The Tiananmen Square protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang on 15 April 1989. By the eve of Hu's state funeral, some 100,000 students had gathered at Tiananmen Square to observe it; however, no leaders emerged from the Great Hall. The movement lasted for seven weeks. Mikhail Gorbachev visited China on 15 May during the protests, bringing many foreign news agencies to Beijing, and their sympathetic portrayals of the protesters helped galvanize a spirit of liberation among the Central, South-East and Eastern Europeans who were watching. The Chinese leadership, particularly Communist Party general secretary Zhao Ziyang, who had begun to radically reform the economy earlier than the Soviets, was open to political reform, but not at the cost of a potential return to the disorder of the Cultural Revolution. The movement lasted from Hu's death on 15 April until tanks and troops rolled into the Tiananmen Square protests of 4 June 1989. In Beijing, the military response to the protest by the PRC government left many civilians in charge of clearing the square of the dead and severely injured. The exact number of casualties is not known and many different estimates exist. The event, however, did make some political change. The problem with the mass migration is that it has now started a deepening divide between the rural poor and the rich urban people. Malta summit The Malta Summit took place between U.S. President George H. W. Bush and U.S.S.R. leader Mikhail Gorbachev on 2–3 December 1989, just a few weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a meeting which contributed to the end of the Cold War partially as a result of the broader pro-democracy movement. It was their second meeting following a meeting that included then President Ronald Reagan, in New York in December 1988. News reports of the time referred to the Malta Summit as the most important since 1945, when British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed on a post-war plan for Europe at the Yalta Conference. Election chronology in Central and Eastern Europe, and Central Asia Between June 1989 and April 1991, every communist or former communist country in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia—and in the case of the USSR and Yugoslavia, every constituent republic—held competitive parliamentary elections for the first time in many decades. Some elections were only partly free, while others were fully democratic. The chronology below gives the details of these historic elections, and the dates are the first day of voting as several elections were split over several days for run-off contests: – 4 June 1989 – 7 January 1990 – 18 February 1990 – 24 February 1990 – 25 February 1990 – 25 February 1990 – 25 February 1990 – 4 March 1990 – 4 March 1990 – 4 March 1990 – 18 March 1990 – 18 March 1990 – 18 March 1990 – 25 March 1990 – 25 March 1990 – 8 April 1990 – 22 April 1990 – 20 May 1990 – 20 May 1990 Czechoslovakia – 8 June 1990 – 10 June 1990 – 22 June 1990 – 30 September 1990 – 28 October 1990 – 11 November 1990 – 18 November 1990 – 9 December 1990 – 9 December 1990 – 31 March 1991 Dissolution of the Soviet Union On 1 July 1991, the Warsaw Pact was officially dissolved at a meeting in Prague. At a summit later that same month, Gorbachev and Bush declared a US–Soviet strategic partnership, decisively marking the end of the Cold War. President Bush declared that US–Soviet cooperation during the 1990–1991 Gulf War had laid the groundwork for a partnership in resolving bilateral and world problems. As the Soviet Union rapidly withdrew its forces from Central and Southeast Europe, the spillover from the 1989 upheavals began reverberating throughout the Soviet Union itself. Agitation for self-determination led to first Lithuania, and then Estonia, Latvia, and Armenia declaring independence. However, the Soviet central government demanded the revocation of the declarations and threatened military action and economic sanctions. The government even went as far as controversially sending Soviet Army troops to the streets of the Lithuanian capital, Vilnius, to suppress the separatist movements in January 1991, causing the deaths of 14 persons. Disaffection in other Soviet republics, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan, was countered by promises of greater decentralization. More open elections led to the election of candidates opposed to Communist Party rule. Glasnost had inadvertently released the long-suppressed national sentiments of all peoples within the borders of the multinational Soviet state. These nationalist movements were further strengthened by the rapid deterioration of the Soviet economy, whose foundations were exposed with the removal of communist discipline. Gorbachev's reforms had failed to improve the economy, with the old Soviet command structure completely breaking down. One by one, the constituent republics created their own economic systems and voted to subordinate Soviet laws to local laws. In 1990, the Communist Party was forced to surrender its seven-decade monopoly of political power when the Supreme Soviet rescinded the clause in the Soviet Constitution that guaranteed its sole authority to rule. Gorbachev's policies caused the Communist Party to lose its control over the media. Details of the Soviet Union's past were quickly being declassified. This caused many to distrust the 'old system' and push for greater autonomy and independence. After the March 1991 referendum confirmed the preservation of the Soviet Union but in a looser form, a group of Soviet hard-liners represented by Vice-President Gennadi Yanayev launched a coup attempting to overthrow Gorbachev in August 1991. Boris Yeltsin, then president of the Russian SFSR, rallied the people and much of the army against the coup and the effort collapsed. Although restored to power, Gorbachev's authority had been irreparably undermined. Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary of the Communist Party following the coup, and the Supreme Soviet dissolved the Party and banned all communist activity on Soviet soil. Just a few weeks later, the government granted the Baltic states their independence on 6 September. Over the next three months, one republic after another declared independence, mostly out of fear of another coup. Also during this time, the Soviet government was rendered useless as the new Russian government began taking over what remained of it, including the Kremlin. The penultimate step came on 1 December, when voters in the second most powerful republic, Ukraine, overwhelmingly voted to secede from the Soviet Union in a referendum. This ended any realistic chance of keeping the Soviet Union together. On 8 December, Yeltsin met with his counterparts from Ukraine and Belarus and signed the Belavezha Accords, declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. Gorbachev denounced this as illegal, but he had long since lost any ability to influence events outside of Moscow. Two weeks later, 11 of the remaining 12 republics—all except Georgia—signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the Soviet Union had been effectively dissolved and replaced by a new voluntary association, the Commonwealth of Independent States. Bowing to the inevitable, Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president on 25 December, and the Supreme Soviet ratified the Belavezha Accords the next day, legally dissolving itself and the Soviet Union as a political entity. By the end of 1991, the few Soviet institutions that hadn't been taken over by Russia had dissolved. The Soviet Union was officially disbanded, breaking up into fifteen constituent parts, thereby ending the world's largest and most influential Socialist state, and leaving to China that position. In 1993, a constitutional crisis dissolved into violence in Moscow as the Russian Armed Forces were called in to reestablish order. Baltic states Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania implemented democratic reforms and achieved independence from the Soviet Union. The Singing Revolution is a commonly used name for events between 1987 and 1991 that led to the restoration of the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The term was coined by an Estonian activist and artist, Heinz Valk, in an article published a week after 10–11 June 1988 spontaneous mass night-singing demonstrations at the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds. Estonia declared its sovereignty from the Soviet Union on 16 November 1988. Lithuania followed on 18 May 1989 and Latvia on 28 July 1989. Lithuania declared full independence on 11 March 1990 and on 30 March, Estonia announced the start of a transitional period to independence, followed by Latvia on 4 May. These declarations were met with force from the Soviet Union in early 1991, in confrontations known as the "January Events" in Lithuania and "The Barricades" in Latvia. The Baltic states contended that their incorporation into the Soviet Union had been illegal under both international law and their own law, and they were reasserting an independence that still legally existed. Soon after the launching of the August coup, Estonia and Latvia declared full independence. By the time the coup failed, the USSR was no longer unified enough to mount a forceful resistance, and it recognized the independence of the Baltic states on 6 September 1991. Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova declared full independence from the USSR on 25 August 1991. The main political changes of the early 1990s were driven by the Belarusian Popular Front and its fraction in the Supreme Soviet of Belarus. A few years later, a new post-communist leader, Alexander Lukashenko, obtained power. After a short period, he increased his power as a result of two controversial referendums (1995–96) and has been criticized for repressing political opposition ever since. participated in the War of Transnistria between Moldova and Russian-connected forces in the separatist region of Transnistria. Communists came back to power in a 2001 election under Vladimir Voronin, but faced civil unrest in 2009 over accusations of rigged elections. had restored its independence in August 1991, after it lost its independence, as the short-lived Ukrainian People's Republic, in 1919. Presidencies of former communists Leonid Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma were followed by the Orange Revolution in 2004, in which Ukrainians elected Viktor Yushchenko (also a former member of CPSU). Kyiv, the Ukrainian capital, was the focal point of the movement's campaign of civil resistance, with thousands of protesters demonstrating daily. Transcaucasia All countries in the region regained their independence in 1991 following the takeover by the Red Army in 1920–21. and the North Caucasus have been marred by ethnic and sectarian violence since the collapse of the USSR. In April 1989 the Soviet Army massacred demonstrators in Tbilisi; in November 1989, the Georgian SSR officially condemned the Red Army invasion of Georgia. Democracy activist Zviad Gamsakhurdia served as president from 1991 to 1992. Russia aided break-away republics in wars in South Ossetia and Abkhazia during the early 1990s, conflicts that have periodically reemerged, and Russia has accused Georgia of supporting Chechen rebels during the Chechen wars. A coup d'état installed former communist leader Eduard Shevardnadze as President of Georgia until the Rose Revolution in 2003. 's independence struggle included violence as the First Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Armenia became increasingly militarized (with the ascendancy of Kocharian, a former president of Nagorno-Karabakh, often viewed as a milestone), while elections have since been increasingly controversial, and government corruption became rifer. After Kocharyan, notably, Serzh Sargsyan ascended to power. Sargsyan is often noted as the "founder of the Armenian and Karabakh militaries" and was, in the past, defense minister and national security minister. 's Popular Front Party won the first elections with the self-described pro-Western, populist nationalist Elchibey. However, Elchibey planned to end Moscow's advantage in the harvesting of Azeri oil and build much stronger links with Turkey and Europe, and as a result was overthrown by former communists in a coup backed by Russia and Iran (which viewed the new country as a compelling threat, with territorial ambitions within Iranian borders and also being a strong economic rival). Mutallibov rose to power, but he was soon destabilized and eventually ousted due to popular frustration with his perceived incompetence, corruption and improper handling of the war with Armenia. Azerbaijani KGB and Azerbaijani SSR leader Heydar Aliyev captured power and remained president until he transferred the presidency to his son in 2003. The First Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan, and has largely defined the fates of both countries. However, unlike Armenia, which remains a strong Russian ally, Azerbaijan has begun, since Russia's 2008 war with Georgia, to foster better relations with Turkey and other Western nations, while lessening ties with Russia. Chechnya In Chechnya (an autonomous republic within Russian SFSR that had a strong desire for independence), using tactics partly copied from the Baltics, anti-communist coalition forces led by former Soviet general Dzhokhar Dudayev staged a largely bloodless revolution, and ended up forcing the resignation of the communist republican president. Dudayev was elected in a landslide in the following election and in November 1991 he proclaimed Checheno-Ingushetia's independence as the Republic of Ichkeria. Ingushetia voted to leave the union with Chechnya, and was allowed to do so (thus it became the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria). Due to Dudayev's desire to exclude Moscow from all oil deals, Yeltsin backed a failed coup against him in 1993. In 1994, Chechnya, with only marginal recognition (one country: Georgia, which was revoked soon after the coup landing Shevardnadze in power), was invaded by Russia, spurring the First Chechen War. The Chechens, with considerable assistance from the populations of both former-Soviet countries and from Sunni Muslim countries repelled this invasion and a peace treaty was signed in 1997. However, Chechnya became increasingly anarchic, largely due to both the political and physical destruction of the state during the invasion, and general Shamil Basaev, having evaded all control by the central government, conducted raids into neighboring Dagestan, which Russia used as a pretext for reinvading Ichkeria. Ichkeria was then reincorporated into Russia as Chechnya again. Central Asia 's independence struggle began with the Jeltoqsan uprising in 1986. Former communist leader Nursultan Nazarbayev has been in power from 1990 when he started serving as President of Kazakh SSR until his retirement from his position in 2019. 's Askar Akayev retained power until the Tulip Revolution in 2005. 's Rahmon Nabiyev retained power, which led to the civil war in Tajikistan. Emomali Rahmon has succeeded Nabiyev and has retained power since 1992. 's Saparmurat Niyazov retained power until his death in 2006 and was criticized as one of the world's most totalitarian and repressive leaders, maintaining his own cult of personality. Niyazov's successor Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov initially eased changes made by Niyazov before starting his very own cult of personality. 's Islam Karimov retained power until his death in 2016 and was widely criticized for repressing the political opposition throughout his tenure. Post-Soviet conflicts Some of the more notable post-Soviet conflicts include the Tajikistani Civil War, the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the War of Transnistria, the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War, the First Chechen War, the War in Abkhazia, the Ossetian–Ingush conflict, the Crimea and Donbass conflicts, and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Ethnic conflicts in the former Soviet Union, and their potential for triggering serious interstate conflicts, posed a major threat to regional and international security for years ahead. Other events Communist and socialist countries Reforms in the Soviet Union and its allied countries also led to dramatic changes to communist and Socialist states outside of Europe. Countries that retained socialist-styled economies and government structures beyond 1991: – China remained under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, whilst continuing far-reaching economic reforms. – Cuba remained under the leadership of the Communist Party of Cuba and retained a socialist planned economy. – Indian economic reforms were launched in 1991. Poverty reduced from 36 percent in 1993–94 to 24.1 percent in 1999–2000. – Laos remained under the leadership of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party and retained many socialist economic policies. Libya – Libya remained governed according to Muammar Gaddafi's socialist Third International Theory, and retained a socialist planned economy until 2011. It erupted with the Libyan Revolution. – Syria remained under the leadership of the Syrian Ba'ath Party and retained a socialist (Ba'athist) planned economy. – Vietnam remained under the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam and pursued economic reforms that were much less far-reaching than China's and many socialist economic policies were retained. Africa – 1988 October Riots, democratization through the 1989 constitutional referendum, victory of, an Islamist party, the FIS in the 1990 local elections and in the 1991 legislative elections, leading to a military coup in January 1992, sparking the Algerian Civil War, until 2002. Angola – The ruling MPLA government abandoned Marxism–Leninism in 1991 and agreed to the Bicesse Accords in the same year, however the Angolan Civil War between the MPLA and the conservative UNITA continued for another decade until 2002. Benin – Mathieu Kérékou's regime was pressured to abandon Marxism–Leninism in 1989. – Thomas Sankara was overthrown and assassinated in the 1987 Burkinabé coup d'état, during which power was taken by Blaise Compaoré, who reversed many of Sankara's social policies. Military rule was ended in 1989, with the establishment of the ODP-MT and the Popular Front coalition, beginning a process of democratization that started in 1991 and finished when Compaoré was finally forced to resign by the 2014 Burkinabé uprising. – 1996 Burundian coup d'état – The ruling African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde party cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1991. – democratization in 1992. Congo-Brazzaville – Denis Sassou Nguesso's regime was pressured to abandon Marxism–Leninism in 1991. The nation had elections in 1992 and First Republic of the Congo Civil War in 1993. – Djiboutian Civil War in 1991 and democratization in 1992. Ethiopia – A new constitution was implemented in 1987 and, following the withdrawal of Soviet and Cuban assistance, the communist military junta Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam was defeated by the rebel EPRDF in the Ethiopian Civil War and fled in 1991. – The Third Republic of Ghana and the military government of Jerry Rawlings are dissolved following democratization in 1992, leading to the establishment a democratically-elected government under the National Democratic Congress. – A process of democratization begins with the introduction of multi-party politics in May 1991 and the first democratic elections being held in 1994. – 1984 Guinean coup d'état Madagascar – Socialist President Didier Ratsiraka was ousted in 1991. – Moussa Traoré was ousted, Mali adopted a new constitution; held multi-party elections. Rebellion in 1990 and coup d'état in 1991. Mozambique – The Mozambican Civil War between the socialist FRELIMO and the RENAMO conservatives was ended via treaty in 1992. FRELIMO subsequently abandoned Marxism–Leninism in favor of democratic socialism with the support of the UN, held multiparty elections. – The ruling Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe/Social Democratic Party cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1991. – Socialist Party of Senegal formed a national unity government with the Senegalese Democratic Party in 1991. – democratization in 1991. – The start of the Sierra Leone Civil War in March 1991, followed by a constitutional referendum restoring multi-party politics in August 1991 and a coup d'état finally overthrowing the First Republic of Sierra Leone in April 1992. Somalia – 1988 offensive by SNM rebels during the Somaliland War of Independence leads to the acceleration of the Isaaq genocide. Rebelling Somalis overthrew Siad Barre's communist military junta during the Somali Revolution in January 1991, with Somaliland later unilaterally declaring independence in May 1991. Somalia has been in a constant state of civil war ever since. Sudan – The 1985 Sudanese coup d'état overthrows the Democratic Republic of the Sudan. After a brief period of parliamentary democracy during the late 1980s, the 1989 Sudanese coup d'état establishes a right-wing dictatorship under Omar al-Bashir. – The ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi party cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1995. – Habib Bourguiba removed from power by Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in the 1987 Tunisian coup d'état, reforming the Socialist Destourian Party into the Democratic Constitutional Rally in 1988 and holding the first multi-party election in 1989. The Tunisian Communist Party abandoned communism and reformed itself as the Ettajdid Movement in 1993. – The government of Milton Obote is overthrown by a coup in 1985, followed by the end of the Ugandan Bush War in 1986. With the rise of Yoweri Museveni to power, the National Resistance Movement cut down its Socialist ideology. Western Sahara – cut down its Socialist ideology and the End of the Western Sahara War in 1991. – The ruling United National Independence Party cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1991. Middle East Iraq – Uprisings in 1991, leading to Kurdistan becoming an autonomous region. The rest of Iraq remained under Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime until 2003 with American invasion overthrowing his regime in 1 month. Kuwait – Annexed by Iraq in 1990. Then liberated in 1991 during the Gulf War. Palestinian Territories – The Palestine Liberation Organization lost one of its most important diplomatic patrons, due to the deterioration of the Soviet Union, Arafat's failing relationship with Moscow and loss of a one-party government, and Suspension PFLP-GC of the PLO in 1984. First Intifada occurred from 1987 to 1991, leading to the PLO recognition of Israel. – South Yemen Civil War in 1986; Abandoned Marxism–Leninism in 1990; it reunified with the more capitalist North Yemen that year, though this later led to a civil war. – The Syrian Communist Party was divided to two parties in 1986. Syria participated in the Madrid Conference of 1991 and met its Cold War enemy Israel in peace negotiations. The Syrian Democratic People's Party changed from Left-wing to center-left. Asia Afghanistan – The People's Democratic Party underwent National Reconciliation reforms from 1987, renaming the country to Republic of Afghanistan (from "Democratic Republic") and removing the red star of communism from the coat of arms. The Soviet occupation ended in 1989, and in 1990 the ruling party renamed itself, removing all references to Marxism–Leninism in the process. The Soviet-backed government fell in 1992 and the party was dissolved; a new Civil War followed. – In 1990, a mass uprising leads to the end of the country's military dictatorship and a restoration of democracy. The Communist Party of Bangladesh experiences a split between an orthodox Marxist–Leninist faction and a more democratic and libertarian faction. The country experiences an internal conflict, driven by the rise of Islamism since 1989. Burma – The 8888 Uprising in 1988 saw the demise of the Burma Socialist Programme Party, but failed to bring democracy, although Marxism was abandoned. The country was led by a military government under the State Peace and Development Council until 2011, following 2010 elections viewed by many Western countries as fraudulent. End of the communist insurgency in 1989. Cambodia – The Vietnam-supported government, which had been in power since the fall of the Khmer Rouge, lost power following UN-sponsored elections in 1993, the CGDK and the Party of Democratic Kampuchea were dissolved in 1993. – The Chinese Communist Party began implementing liberalizing economic reforms during the late 1970s under Deng Xiaoping. However, the pro-democracy protests of 1989 were crushed by the military. Western countries imposed arms embargoes on China. Unrest in Tibet in 1987. The URFET and the ETPRP was dissolved. – Defeat of the Indian National Congress in the 1989 Indian general election. The Rashtriya Samajwadi Congress was dissolved in 1989, Tripura National Volunteers was dissolved in 1988 and Hmar People's Convention was dissolved in 1986. Beginning of the Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir in 1989. The Naxalite–Maoist insurgency continued into the 21st century, while the Communist Party of India (Marxist) remain a major political force in the state of Kerala. – Remained communist under the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Laos was forced to ask France and Japan for emergency assistance, and also to ask the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank for aid. Finally, in 1989, Kaisôn visited Beijing to confirm the restoration of friendly relations, and to secure Chinese aid. The red star and the hammer and sickle was taken out from the crest in 1991. – Kim Il-sung died in 1994, passing power to his son Kim Jong-il. Unprecedented floods and the dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the North Korean famine, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 2.5 million to 3 million North Koreans. All references to Marxism–Leninism were absolutely replaced by Juche in 2009, thus signifying an apparent downplaying of the role of communism in North Korea. North Korea is still a single-party totalitarian state. – End of the second communist insurgrency by the communist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna and the death of its leaders, but the Civil War continues until 2009. – The Communist Party of Vietnam has undertaken Doi Moi reforms since 1986, liberalizing certain sectors of the economy in a manner similar to China. Vietnam is still a single-party communist state. Latin America – The end of Soviet subsidies led to the Special Period. An unsuccessful protest was held in 1994, in which thousands of Cubans took to the streets around the Malecón in Havana to demand freedom and express frustration with the government. Cuba is still a single-party communist state. – After the death of Forbes Burnham in 1985, his successor Desmond Hoyte oversaw a period of democratization and the first free elections were held in October 1992, during which the People's Progressive Party of Cheddi Jagan was elected. – End of the Contra War, Daniel Ortega's Sandinista lost the multi-party elections in 1990, and the National Opposition Union won. – democratization in 1987 and Suriname Guerrilla War 1986–1992. Oceania – Vanua'aku Pati lost the multi-party elections in 1991, and the Union of Moderate Parties won. Voter turnout was 71%. Other countries Many Soviet-supported political parties and militant groups around the world suffered from demoralization and loss of financing. – The Communist Party of Australia was dissolved in 1991. – The Communist Party of Austria lost its East German financing and 250 million euros in assets. – The Communist Party of Belgium was divided to two parties in 1989. – The Socialist Unity Party of West Berlin was dissolved in 1991. – In 1990 the Communist Party of Canada was de-registered and had its assets seized, forcing it to begin an ultimately successful thirteen-year political and legal battle to maintain registration of small political parties in Canada known as Figueroa v. Canada, thus changing the legal definition of a political party in Canada in 2003 and now operates without any elected political representation. – first multi-party elections in 1993. – The Finnish People's Democratic League was dissolved in 1990 and the bankrupt Communist Party of Finland collapsed in 1992, and absorbed to the Left Alliance. – The collapse of the Eastern Bloc came as a shock to the French Communist Party. The crisis is called la mutation. Fusion of the Unified Socialist Party with the New Left for Socialism, Ecology and Self-management for Red and Green Alternatives in 1989. – 1994 Gambian coup d'état – The German Communist Party lost its East German financing and declined significantly and the Communist League was dissolved. The Red Army Faction lost its long-term supporter, the Stasi, after the fall of the Berlin Wall. – The Organisation of Marxist–Leninist Communists of Greece was dissolved in 1993 and merged into the Movement for a United Communist Party of Greece. Greek Left was dissolved in 1992. – democratization in 1990. – The Communist Party of Ireland declined significantly. Democratic Socialist Party was dissolved. – The collapse caused the Italian Communist Party to reform itself, creating two new groups, the larger Democratic Party of the Left and the smaller Communist Refoundation Party. The disappearance of the Communist party in part led to profound changes within the Italian political party system in 1992–1994 and collapse of the Radical Party in 1989 and the Italian Socialist Party in 1994. Disintegration of the Red Brigades in 1988. – The Japanese Communist Party became gradually influenced by Eurocommunism and issued a statement titled "We welcome the end of a great historical evil of imperialism and hegemonism". As a result, the JCP survived the post-Cold War decline of communist parties in the Western Bloc, and remains one of the largest non-governing communist parties in the world. – End of the Civil War – First Liberian Civil War – The Communist Party of Luxembourg declined significantly. – The Malayan Communist Party laid down its arms in 1989, ending an insurgency that had lasted decades. – the failed 1988 Maldives coup d'état – The Mexican Communist Party and a number of other communist parties were dissolved in 1989 and absorbed first into the Mexican Socialist Party and then into the Party of the Democratic Revolution. And collapse of the Socialist Mexican Party in 1989. Nepal – The Communist Party of Nepal (Janamukhi) and the Communist Party of Nepal (Fourth Convention) was dissolved in 1990. – The Communist Party of the Netherlands was dissolved in 1991 and absorbed to the GreenLeft. League of Communists in the Netherlands was dissolved in 1992. – democratization in 1991, but Coup d'état in 1996. – Coup d'état in 1985. – The Communist Party of Norway changed their pro-Soviet line. – The Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman was dissolved in 1992. – The Communist Party of the Philippines experienced criticism and the debates that ensued between the leading party cadres resulted to the expulsion of advocates of "left and right opportunism" notably forming the so-called "rejectionists" and "reaffirmist" factions. Those who affirmed the Maoist orthodoxy were called the "Reaffirmists", or RA, while those who rejected the document were called "Rejectionists" or RJ. In July 1993, the Komiteng Rehiyon ng Manila-Rizal (KRMR), one of the Rejectionists, declared its autonomy from the central leadership. Within a few months, several of the Party's regional formations and bureaus followed suit, permanently formalizing and deepening the schism. – The Sammarinese Communist Party was dissolved in 1990. – The Barisan Sosialis was dissolved in 1988. – The Workers' Party of Spain–Communist Unity was dissolved in 1991. Alternative Left was dissolved in 1993. Communist Party of Spain (Marxist–Leninist) (historical) was dissolved in 1992. The Communist Party of Galicia (Revolutionary Marxist) was dissolved in 1989. – The Communist Association of Norrköping was dissolved in 1990 and Kommunistiska Förbundet Marxist-Leninisterna ceased to function as nationwide party. The pro-Albanian Kommunistiska Partiet i Sverige and the Maoist Communist Workers' Party of Sweden were dissolved in 1993. The main leftist party, Vänsterpartiet kommunisterna, VPK (Left Party – Communists), abandoned the communist part of its name, and became simply Vänsterpartiet (Left Party). – The Communist Labour Party of Turkey was split. – The Communist Party of Great Britain was dissolved. – 1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts Concurrently, many anti-communist authoritarian states, formerly supported by the US, gradually saw a transition to democracy. – Held the first democratic presidential election since 1960 due to reforms started a few years earlier. – democratization in 1991. – Coup d'état in 1990. – While communist guerillas were unsuccessful in toppling the anti-communist regime, the military junta under Augusto Pinochet was pressured to implement democratic elections, which saw Chile's democratization in 1990. The Broad Party of Socialist Left subsequently merged into the Socialist Party of Chile. – The conservative constitution of 1886 was repealed in 1991. The 19th of April Movement, the Quintin Lame Armed Movement and most of the Popular Liberation Army gave up their weapons and began to participate in politics. The FARC continued its role in the Colombian conflict into the 21st century. – The Salvadoran Civil War ended in 1992 following the Chapultepec Peace Accords. The rebel FMLN movement became a legal political party and participated in subsequent elections. – democratization in 1991. – The Guatemalan Civil War ended in 1996 and the rebel Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity became a legal party. – Haitian Revolution of 1986 – The Suharto regime received great international criticism for its role in the 1991 Santa Cruz massacre and continued occupation of East Timor, leading to US sanctions. Suharto resigned in 1998 following mass protests, and East Timor gained independence in 2002 following the 1999 referendum. – democratization in 1990. – Restoration of multi-party democracy in 1991 – democratization in 1993. – 1984 Mauritanian coup d'état; democratization in 1992. – democratization in 1988. – The Manuel Noriega regime was overthrown by the US invasion in 1989 as a result of his suppression of elections, drug-trafficking activities and the killing of a US serviceman. – The dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner came to an end when he was deposed in a military coup d'état. In 1992, the country's new constitution established a democratic system of government. – The internal conflict in Peru intensified under Alberto Fujimori, who was criticized for his increased authoritarian rule and human rights abuses until his downfall in 2000. The Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement ended its role in the internal conflict in Peru in 1997. The Shining Path, responsible for killing tens of thousands people, shrunk in the 1990s, but continued into the 21st century. Philippines – People Power Revolution in 1986 led to the downfall of Ferdinand Marcos. Communist rebellion in the Philippines continued into the 21st century. – Rwandan Civil War in 1990 and Genocide in 1994. – Following the Soviet-Afghan War, Osama bin Laden, the founder of the Islamist militant group al-Qaeda, proposed to the Saudi monarchy not to rely on the United States after the fall of Kuwait. Bin Laden later denounced the Saudi invitation of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and was eventually expelled from the country in 1992 due to the criticism. His citizenship was revoked in 1994. – The June Democracy Movement's nationwide protests led to the downfall of the Chun Doo-hwan government in 1987, and the country's first democratic elections. In 2000, North and South Korea agreed in principle to work towards peaceful reunification in the future. – Negotiations were started in 1990 to end the Apartheid system. Nelson Mandela was elected as the President of South Africa in 1994. – In 1987 the ruling Kuomintang party ended its strict martial law introduced at the end of the Chinese Civil War. Gradual democratic reforms led to the first direct presidential election in 1996. – democratization in 1993. – The Northern Ireland peace process led to an end of The Troubles in 1998, with the signing of the Good Friday Agreement. – Following the end of the Cold War, the United States became the world's sole superpower. It ceased to support many of the military dictatorships it had during the Cold War, pressing more nations to adopt democracy. – unified with the communist South Yemen after the separation period (1967–1990) and also democratized in 1990, then suppressed communist secessionist movement in the South in 1994. – Civil War in 1996. Countries that emerged into socialist-styled governments beyond 1991 – Evo Morales led the Movement for Socialism which led to the establishment of the socialistic Plurinational State in 2009 and ruled the country until his ouster in a coup. – Monarchy was overthrown in 2008 and the republic has been ruled by Communist Party since then. – Hugo Chavez led the Fifth Republic Movement which led to the establishment of the Bolivarian Republic in 1999 and ruled the country until his death in 2013. Other impacts – In 1990, the Soviet Union finally permitted free emigration of Soviet Jews to Israel. Prior to this, Jews trying to leave the USSR faced persecution; those who succeeded arrived as refugees. Over the next few years, some one million Soviet citizens migrated to Israel. Although there was a concern that some of the new immigrants had only a very tenuous connection to Judaism, and many were accompanied by non-Jewish relatives, this massive wave of migration brought large numbers of highly educated Soviet Jews and slowly changed the demographic nature of Israel. In addition, thousands of Ethiopian Jews were rescued by the Israel Defense Forces in 1991. Political reforms Decommunization is a process of overcoming the legacies of the communist state establishments, culture, and psychology in the post-communist states. Decommunization was largely limited or non-existent. Communist parties were not outlawed and their members were not brought to trial. Just a few places even attempted to exclude members of communist secret services from decision-making. In a number of countries the communist party simply changed its name and continued to function. In several European countries, however, endorsing or attempting to justify crimes committed by Nazi or communist regimes became punishable by up to 3 years of imprisonment. Economic reforms State run enterprises in socialist countries had little or no interest in producing what customers wanted, which resulted in shortages of goods and services. In the early 1990s, the general view was that there was no precedent for moving from socialism to capitalism", and only some elderly people remembered how a market economy worked. As a result, the view that Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe would stay poor for decades was common. The collapse of the Soviet Union, and the breakdown of economic ties which followed led to a severe economic crisis and catastrophic fall in the standards of living in the 1990s in post-Soviet states and the former Eastern bloc. Even before Russia's financial crisis of 1998, Russia's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s. There was a temporary fall of output in the official economy and an increase in black market economic activity. Countries implemented different reform programs. One example, generally regarded as successful was the "shock therapy" Balcerowicz Plan in Poland. Eventually the official economy began to grow. In a 2007 paper, Oleh Havrylyshyn categorized the speed of reforms in the former communist countries of Europe: Sustained Big-Bang (fastest): Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia Advance Start/Steady Progress: Croatia, Hungary, Slovenia Aborted Big-Bang: Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Kyrgyzstan, Russia Gradual Reforms: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Tajikistan, Romania Limited Reforms (slowest): Belarus, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan The 2004 enlargement of the European Union included the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The 2007 enlargement of the European Union included Romania and Bulgaria, and Croatia joined the EU in 2013. The same countries have also become NATO members. In Mongolia, however, the economy was reformed in a similar fashion to the Eastern European counterparts. Armenia, had declared its decision to join the Customs Union and the Common Economic Space of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia, as well as to participate in the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union. Effective from 2015, Armenia joined the treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union. Chinese economic liberalization began in 1978 and has helped lift millions of people out of poverty, bringing the poverty rate down from 53% of the population in the Mao era to 12% in 1981. Deng's economic reforms are still being followed by the CCP today, and by 2001 the poverty rate became only 6% of the population. Economic liberalization in Vietnam was initiated in 1986, following the Chinese example. Economic liberalization in India was initiated in 1991. Harvard University Professor Richard B. Freeman has called the effect of reforms "The Great Doubling". He calculated that the size of the global workforce doubled from 1.46 billion workers to 2.93 billion workers. An immediate effect was a reduced ratio of capital to labor. In the long-term China, India, and the former Soviet bloc will save and invest and contribute to the expansion of the world capital stock. Ideological continuation of communism As of 2008, nearly half of Russians viewed Stalin positively, and many supported restoration of his previously dismantled monuments. In 1992, President Yeltsin's government invited Vladimir Bukovsky to serve as an expert to testify at the CPSU trial by the Constitutional Court of Russia, where the communists were suing Yeltsin for banning their party. The respondent's case was that the CPSU itself had been an unconstitutional organization. To prepare for his testimony, Bukovsky requested and was granted access to a large number of documents from Soviet archives (then reorganized into TsKhSD). Using a small handheld scanner and a laptop computer, he managed to secretly scan many documents (some with high security clearance), including KGB reports to the Central Committee, and smuggle the files to the West. Interpretations The events caught many people by surprise. Before 1991, many thought that the collapse of the Soviet Union was impossible. Bartlomiej Kaminski's book The Collapse of State Socialism argued that the state Socialist system has a lethal paradox, saying that "policy actions designed to improve performance only accelerate its decay". By the end of 1989, revolts had spread from one capital to another, ousting the regimes imposed on Central, South-East and Eastern Europe after World War II. Even the isolationist Stalinist regime in Albania was unable to stem the tide. Gorbachev's abrogation of the Brezhnev Doctrine was perhaps the key factor that enabled the popular uprisings to succeed. Once it became evident that the feared Soviet Army would not intervene to crush dissent, the Central, South-East and Eastern European regimes were exposed as vulnerable in the face of popular uprisings against the one-party system and power of secret police. Coit D. Blacker wrote in 1990 that the Soviet leadership "appeared to have believed that whatever loss of authority the Soviet Union might suffer in Central and South-East Europe would be more than offset by a net increase in its influence in western Europe." Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Gorbachev ever intended for the complete dismantling of communism and the Warsaw Pact. Rather, Gorbachev assumed that the communist parties of Central and South-East Europe could be reformed in a similar way to the reforms he hoped to achieve in the CPSU. Just as perestroika was aimed at making the Soviet Union more efficient economically and politically, Gorbachev believed that the Comecon and Warsaw Pact could be reformed into more effective entities. However, Alexander Yakovlev, a close advisor to Gorbachev, would later state that it would have been "absurd to keep the system" in Central and South-East Europe. Yakovlev had come to the conclusion that the Soviet-dominated Comecon could not work on non-market principles and that the Warsaw Pact had "no relevance to real life". In retrospect, authoritarian regimes such as the Soviet Union are more likely to be subject to economic sanctions by democratic nations, creating a riskier vulnerability to collapse. Timur Kuran writes in 1991 that generally leaders were despised and failed to meet expectations of freedoms and economic prosperity that they promised, leading to citizen motivation to upheave the government. Economic distress mirrored across most regimes had declined growth rates to near zero leading up to their respective uprisings. While socialist economics may have played a role, Stathis N. Kalyvas argues that international sanctions as well as the government makeup of authoritarian regimes were equally as impactful in reducing their economy's prosperity. Scholars such as Gale Stokes argue that the moral repression under the guise of security by communist regimes had brought citizens to the streets. Others argue that the repression of revolutionary dissidents and human rights justified revolutionary privilege throughout Europe. Remembrance Organizations Memorial, an international historical and civil rights society that operates in a number of post-Soviet states which focuses on recording and publicising the Soviet Union's totalitarian aspect of the past, but also monitors human rights in post-Soviet states at the present time, for example in Chechnya Events German Unity Day in Germany, a national holiday commemorating the anniversary of German reunification in 1990 Statehood Day in Slovenia commemorates the country's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia in 1991 Independence and Unity Day in Slovenia commemorates the country's independence referendum Day of National Unity in Georgia is a public holiday commemorating victims of the 9 April tragedy National Day in Hungary Constitution Day in Mongolia commemorates the country's transition to democracy in 1992 Constitution Day in Romania commemorates the 1991 Romanian Constitution that enshrined the return to democracy after the fall of the communist regime Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day in Slovakia Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day in the Czech Republic Restoration of Independence Day in Latvia commemorates the 1990 declaration restoring the country's independence Places Other The Soviet Story, an award-winning documentary film about the Soviet Union The Singing Revolution, a documentary film about the Singing Revolution Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism, a book and a documentary film based on the book Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire, a Pulitzer Prize-awarded book A Political Tragedy in Six Acts, biography of dissident Václav Havel Right Here, Right Now, an international hit written by Mike Edwards and performed by his rock band Jesus Jones and released in September 1990 "Wind of Change", a hit song by the German heavy-metal band Scorpions that celebrates Perestroyka and the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe See also References Further reading Ash, Timothy Garton. The Magic Lantern: The Revolution of 1989 Witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin, and Prague (Random House, 1990). Blejer, Mario I., and Marko kreb, eds. Transition: The First Decade (2002) Kenney, Padraic. The burdens of freedom: Eastern Europe since 1989 (Bloomsbury, 2008) online. Ostrovsky, Alexander. Глупость или измена? Расследование гибели СССР. (Stupidity or treason? Investigation of the death of the USSR.) М.: Форум, Крымский мост-9Д, 2011. — 864 с. ISBN 978-5-89747-068-6. Contains chapters on the Soviet Union (Mark Kramer), Czechoslovakia (Kieran Williams), Poland (Alexander Smolar), Baltic States (Mark R. Beissinger), China (Merle Goldman), and East Germany (Charles Maier). External links . . Some of aspects of state national economy evolution in the system of the international economic order. + Ergänzender Anhang A – F. Video of the revolutions in 1989 1989 in Europe 1990 in Europe 1991 in Europe Capitalism Cold War rebellions Conflicts in 1989 Decommunization Eastern Bloc Foreign relations of the Soviet Union Global politics Nationalism in the Soviet Union 1989 Turn of the third millennium Rebellions in the Soviet Union
4585013	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1978 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1978 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 46th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 10 and 11 June 1978. In many ways it was a continuation of the race from the year before – the two main protagonists would be the very evenly-matched works teams of Alpine-Renault and Porsche, with four cars each. The race was not valid (did not count points) for any championship. This time it was the Porsche team that had reliability issues – on only the second lap of the race two of their cars were in the pits. Renault soon established a solid hold of the top three positions. Like the year before, after the Ickx /Pescarolo car had early problems, Ickx was transferred to the second Porsche of Barth/Wollek. Once again he set about driving back through the field during the night, getting up to second by midnight behind the Jabouille/Depailler car. But a loss of fifth gear cost them half an hour to repair it. When the lead Renault stopped on the circuit with a jammed gearbox, there was a sense of déjà vu for the French team. The sister car of Jean-Pierre Jaussaud and Didier Pironi inherited the lead, with a 7-lap margin over the Porsches. Although the second-placed Porsche pulled back two laps, this time Renault would not be denied, and Pironi took the flag for a popular local victory with a record race-distance. Porsche were second and third, the remaining Renault fourth with the Porsche 935s of customer teams in the next four places. The race also saw several high-speed crashes on the Mulsanne straight, but fortunately only one driver was seriously injured. Regulations With the predictable demise of the FIA Championship for Group 6 (World Championship for Sports Cars), Le Mans was left as the only significant race that combined Group 6 and Group 5 racecars. No changes were made to the race regulations. This year, the IMSA GT Championship added the Le Mans GTX class to the incumbent GTO and GTU classes. This, in turn, meant the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) could merge the IMSA and GTX into a single class. The IMSA regulations allowed a lower minimum weight and wider rear wheels than Group 5. IMSA also inaugurated the World Challenge for Endurance Drivers. Not sanctioned by the FIA, it was a series that linked American races at Daytona, Sebring and Talladega with Le Mans and the Nürburgring. Finally, the Daytona-Le Mans Trophy was repeated. Entries The ACO received only 70 applications, the smallest number in a decade with 60 chosen for qualification with a further 7 kept on reserve. Once again, the only manufacturer works teams were from Porsche and Renault, bolstered by entries from small-scale racing specialists Mirage, Osella and WM. Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started. Group 6 and GTP Defending winners, the Martini-Porsche works team, brought back the 936 for its only race of the season. The 2140cc engine with twin KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbos had been enhanced with quads-cams and at 1.4bar of turbo boost now put out 580 bhp. Wound up to 1.7bar, it was a bit slower at top speed 345 kp/h (215 mph) but overall, with new aerodynamics, much faster around a complete lap. The extra engine power meant higher running temperatures and for the first time, Porsche had water-cooling, combined with its regular air-cooling. The cars were also fitted with the same gearboxes the Can-Am Porsche 917s had used to handle the great engine power. Once again, the endurance experts Jacky Ickx and Henri Pescarolo were paired up, and given the new car. Jürgen Barth had a new co-driver in Bob Wollek, driving the car that failed to finish last year fitted with the new engine. For Wollek, it was his first drive with the works team, after fulfilling a prior commitment with Kremer the year before. Americans Hurley Haywood and Peter Gregg were given the winning car from 1976 and '77, still fitted with the twin-cam, single-turbo engine. Jochen Mass and Reinhold Joest were designated as reserve drivers. After a disastrous showing the previous year, Renault Alpine did extensive work on the 2.0-litre twin-turbo engines, making over thirty modifications. The chassis also got scrutiny, with side-skirts and a Perspex bubble-canopy trialled. They did unprecedented testing, covering over 10,000 miles (16,000 km) at Circuit Paul Ricard and Istres airfield. Two short-tail chassis from the last season were given the new engine (A442A), while another was given a longer chassis (A442B). Finally, a brand-new chassis (only unveiled a month before) was built (A443) that had a 15cm longer wheelbase and was broader to carry wider wheels.The bigger 2138cc engine with a single turbo put out slightly more power (520 vs 500 bhp) but could reach 360 kp/h (225 mph) on the Hunaudières straight, fully 25 kp/h faster than the Porsche. Once again, the cream of French Grand Prix talent was brought in: Jean-Pierre Jabouille/Patrick Depailler shared the new car, Jean-Pierre Jaussaud/Didier Pironi had the A442B. The older cars were driven by rally specialists Jean Ragnotti, Guy Fréquelin with José Dolhem and Jean-Pierre Jarier with Le Mans veteran Derek Bell. Patrick Tambay had been slated to race with Jabouille, but his burned foot had not healed sufficiently. Mirage engineer John Horsman further developed the M8 to the M9. Keeping the 490 bhp Renault turbo engine, the new chassis was lower and narrower, with a long tail. The revised gearing was able to be tested on the new Interstate 10 section outside of Phoenix before it opened, where team driver Vern Schuppan was able get the car up to 335 kp/h. Two cars were entered: Schuppan had Formula 1 driver Jacques Laffite as co-driver, while Sam Posey and Michel Leclère once again shared the second car. Alain de Cadenet brought his next iteration based on the Lola T380, designed by Len Bailey (who had previously worked with John Wyer). The LM78 was longer, and faster: with the 460 bhp Cosworth DFV engine, De Cadenet's regular co-driver Chris Craft was able to make 345 kp/h (215 mph) on the back straight. A true privateer effort, as de Cadenet got virtually had no sponsorship. He even sold most of his valuable stamp collection to raise money. Last year's model had been sold to privateer Pete Lovett, while the earlier model returned with Simon Phillips. A new entrant this year was the Ibec, for the Ian Bracey Engineering Company. The Ibec P6 was designed by Harvey Postlethwaite, currently involved with the Hesketh Formula 1 team and the chassis layout was based on the Hesketh 308. But the focus on that meant the Group 6 car fell behind schedule so Bracey took the car to the Lyncar plant to assemble. Drivers Ian Grob and Guy Edwards got their first drive of the car in testing less than a fortnight before the race. After the withdrawal of the sponsorship money of Inaltéra, Le Mans local Jean Rondeau, despite keeping the design plans, had been forced to sell his cars and start building his designs again. He toyed with a 6-wheeler idea inspired by the Tyrrell P34. Assisted with funding from the city and local region his new car, the M378, was narrower, longer and lighter than the previous model. Testing on the Bugatti Circuit improved the aerodynamics. His co-drivers were rally driver Bernard Darniche and Jacky Haran. One of the Inaltéra bought by the Swiss concern was entered in GTP by André Chevalley. Welter Racing had a new design in the GTP class. The P78 had a longer, more aerodynamic shell. It kept the Peugeot 2.7-litre V6 engine with a KKK turbo and, after improvements, now put out 440 bhp. It would be driven by Debias/Sourd/Mathiot. The team also had last year's P77 model with its same turbo engine (Raulet/Mamers and the older P76. Driven by Bob Neyrat's squad of female racers Christine Dacremont/Marianne Hoepfner, it had a bigger 2.85-litre Peugeot non-turbo engine. The other GTP entry was the return of Bernard Decure's modified Alpine A310. Group 6 (2-litre) This year, the biggest class was the 2-litre category with fifteen entries. The class showed a good variety of chassis combined by different engines. The French engine-builder team, Société ROC, had three of the B36 Chevrons. This was the last model of Chevron produced when company founder Derek Bennett was killed in a hang-gliding accident. The Simca-ROC engine was also seen in two Lola. Two types of Cosworth engine powered the other five Lolas, as well as Charles Graemiger's Cheetah. With the demise of the World Group 6 Championship, the European Sportscar Championship was revived and Osella supplied a number of customer cars. Ted Toleman brought one of the Osella-BMWs to Le Mans, co-entered by BMW's British division, with a strong driver lineup of Tom Walkinshaw, Dieter Quester and his Formula 2 team driver Rad Dougall. Once again the small Sauber team was back with the C5, powered by a BMW engine. This year Swiss Formula 2 driver Marc Surer joined the regular drivers Eugen Strähl and Harry Blumer. Group 5 and IMSA GTX With the Porsche works team not contesting the World Championship, it devolved to a duel between the two German customer teams of Georg Loos (buying the services of the underemployed works pit-crews) and Kremer Racing with their 935s. BMW, with their new M1 model delayed, had to make do with the 2-litre 320i in the junior Division 1 class, that could not compete with the bigger cars. Porsche produced fifteen 935 cars for their customer teams. The 1978 version had twin-turbos and a two-level rear wing to improve downforce. Meanwhile, the Martini-Porsche works team had developed their Third Generation of the Porsche 935. Nicknamed "Moby Dick", the mighty 935-78 had the most powerful Porsche engine since the 917 Can-Am turbos of the early '70s. The 3.2-litre flat six twin-cam could put out a massive 750 bhp with its twin KKK turbos. Engineer Norbert Singer had ingeniously lowered the car, by lifting the chassis floor, fitting the gearbox and final-drive upside-down and putting the radiators in front of the massive 19" rear wheels. The engine-size bumped it up to the 5-litre class, it had to have a minimum weight of 1025kg (compared to ~800kg for Group 6) and the smaller 120-litre petrol tank for Group 5 cars would demand more fuel-stops in the race (45-minute stints vs 80-minutes for Group 6). Ickx and Mass had won on its only race to date, at Silverstone the month before. As in previous Le Mans, the Group 5 car was handed to Rolf Stommelen and Manfred Schurti. There were seven other 935s entered by the customer teams. The Kremer brothers had three cars, despite losing their two main drivers (Wollek and Pescarolo) to the works team. Instead they had three relatively inexperienced sets: Gurdjian/Schornstein/Krages, Raymond/Franey/Wielemans and Americans Busby/Cord/Knoop. Georg Loos only entered one of his two cars, but it had his best driving team of John Fitzpatrick/Toine Hezemans. The other three teams were regular Championship contenders –the French ASA-Cachia team, Mecarillos Racing Team (Switzerland) and Konrad Racing (Germany). A prospective works entry from AMG-Mercedes did not eventuate. The broadening of the IMSA regulations had sent a further fleet of Porsche 935s across the Atlantic to dominate that series. The IMSA-GTX class was well supported with a number of those teams coming across for the first time: Dick Barbour's Hawaiian Tropic team had two cars – driven by Brian Redman/John Paul Snr and Barbour himself, with Bob Garretson/Steve Earle/Bob Akin in the second. The Whittington brothers, Bill and Don, hired Joest's car and got Championship driver Franz Konrad to partner them. There were also two teams running IMSA Porsche 911 Carreras. After a single Ferrari returned to Le Mans the previous year, there were five entered this year. The 512 BB had recently replaced the 365 GT/4, as the next in the mid-engined series. The 4.9-litre engine was bigger but slightly down on power. Revised rear suspension could accommodate wider tyres. Three cars were specially built by the Ferrari factory to IMSA specifications; two for Charles Pozzi's French team, and one for Luigi Chinetti from NART. A fourth was modified from a road-car by the Ecurie Francorchamps for the regular driver Jean Blaton, who raced under the pseudonym "Beurlys". The fifth car was the older NART 365/4 returning, and run again by the Frenchmen, Lucien Guitteny and François Migault. Beyond the Porsche vs Ferrari battle in this IMSA class, there was a solitary BMW driven by former European champion Pierre Dieudonné with Alain Cudini. American Brad Friselle, who raced with the Brumos Porsche team in the US, brought a Chevrolet Monza that he had purchased from Michael Keyser (who had raced a similar car in the 1976 race). Its 5.7-litre engine was the biggest one in the race. Group 4 GT The nine entries in the Group 4 class made this the sole preserve of Porsche, all run by small privateer teams. The five Porsche 934s, with the 3-litre turbo, had a distinct power advantage over the three normally-aspirated 3-litre Porsche 911 Carreras. Biggest car in the class was the new 3.3-litre turbo Porsche 930 of Joël Laplacette. Practice and Qualifying Rolf Stommelen had never driven the Porsche 935-78 before, but in Wednesday practice he initially held the fastest time. The car was the second-fastest down the Hunaudières Straight, behind the Renaults, reaching 350 kp/h (220 mph). But the next day, in a misguided publicity action, Porsche chose to drive their 935 to the circuit through the streets of Le Mans. Unfortunately the gridlock and slow pace overheated the engine and holed a piston, forcing an unanticipated engine change. The cars of the works Porsche and Renault-Alpine teams filled the top eight places on the grid. Jacky Ickx set a sensational new lap record of 3:27.6, beating Arturo Merzario's mark by over a second to put the new Porsche on pole position. Jabouille was almost a second back in the first of the Renaults. Rolf Stommelen got the 935 up to 3rd (3:30.9) well ahead of team-mate Wollek (3:35.2). Ninth was Schuppan's Mirage (3:45.8) ahead of Chris Craft in the De Cadenet. The Mirages had chronic handling issues, which burned up a lot of practice time to resolve. The Gelo 935 was the second Group 5 Porsche, at 11th, over 15 seconds behind Stommelen. The Dick Barbour 935 was fastest of the IMSA class in 16th (3:52.6) just ahead of the Whittington Brothers' 935. It was readily apparent the Ferraris were outpaced, with the leading one, of Charles Ballot-Léna, down in 33rd (4:07.1). The new WM was quickest GTP (3:52.9, 18th), the Osella led the 2-litre Group 6 (3:56.2, 22nd) comfortably ahead of the Sauber. Hervé Poulain's turbo Porsche was the first Group 4 in 32nd (4:07.0). Twenty-four cars broke the 4-minute barrier this year, compared to only twelve in 1976. After qualifying Pironi and Jaussaud chose to keep the bubble canopy, which they estimated was worth an extra 15 kp/h (10 mph) on the back straight. Both Depailler and Jabouille, driving the new A443, had found the bubble claustrophobic and causing bad reflections at night, so they asked for it to be removed from their car. Pironi and Jaussaud, in the A442B, however, chose to keep theirs. The non-qualifiers were selected from the slowest in several classes to keep a balanced quota. In Group 6, the ToJ was well off the pace, but DeCadenet's second car was unlucky to be bumped, having done the 19th fastest time. Race Start On a sunny Saturday morning before the main event, there was a half-hour race for historic cars. In a slight anachronism, it was Stirling Moss, coming out of retirement, who won driving a Maserati 250F Grand-Prix car. Moss had previously had two second places at Le Mans in 11 attempts, in 1953 and 1956. Second and third were a pair of Jaguar D-Types. The honorary starter this year was legendary French cyclist Raymond Poulidor who had recently retired. Things started going wrong for Porsche from the start when Jabouille roared past Ickx into the Dunlop curve. At the end of the first lap, it was Jabouille twelve seconds ahead of Ickx, Wollek, Schurti in the 935 and Pironi. But at the end of the next lap, there was a sensation when both Ickx and Haywood had to pit their Porsches. The former had high fuel pressure, while the latter had loose turbo pipes and a jammed throttle. Both rejoined several laps later, but Renault had Jabouille, Pironi and Jarier now running 1-2-3 line ahead of Wollek which is how it stayed to the first pitstops. Ragnotti's Calberson-Ranault was fifth with the two Mirages were next, Leclère ahead of Laffite. Then came Schurti, the De Cadenet and Sourd, in the WM turbo, leading GTP and rounding out the top-10. But in those pitstops, the leaders were delayed by a bad tyre-change and Depailler came out in fifth. In the third hour, the Mirage of Michel Leclère stopped on the far side of the track with a complete electrical failure. Four laps later the sister-car was refuelling and could not restart. In replacing the dead battery, a pit-man left a live wire on the chassis and when the key was turned it fried the electrics. Repairing that cost almost thirty minutes, dropping them to 30th. Early casualties in the Group 5 class were the highly favoured Loos Porsche and one of the Kremer Porsches, both put out with broken pistons. Meanwhile, Ickx was driving hard back through the field. By 8pm he had the Porsche back up to 6th. But, just on 9pm they lost fifth gear and all that work was undone as they lost 37 minutes while the gearbox was repaired, dropping them back to 19th. To that was added power loss and an ignition problem. So, in a repeat of the decision in the previous year's race, Ickx was pulled from his ailing car to help the surviving Wollek/Barth car. Jochen Mass, the reserve driver, was brought in to co-drive with Pescarolo. So as night fell, the Porsche was fourth (93 laps) chasing the French cars a lap ahead. Stommelen, duelling with the Calberson-Renault (92) with Haywood (89) and Craft (88) next. Three laps further back (85) were the American 935s: Busby's Kremer, and Barbour, leading the IMSA class, in tenth. Night The De Cadenet had been stopped early – a wheel weight had come off and fired through the chassis; it was running eighth, then the clutch started failing in the evening that eventually caused a 100-minute stop at 2am to rebuild. It started a long drive back through the field. By 11pm, after 7 hours, Renault held their 1-2-3 sequence. Jabouille/Depailler were back in the lead at dusk after the Pironi/Jaussaud car spent 7 minutes changing brake pads. Ickx was putting in an epic night-drive, ably assisted by Wollek and together they were consistently fast. To catch the French cars, Porsche pushed the turbo pressure of their leading car up from 1.4 to 1.5 bar. This extra speed gradually allowed them to reel in the cars ahead of them. But again, the progress was lost by several stops to correct dodgy wheel fittings. However in the half-hour before midnight, they progressively passed two of the Renaults to move back up into second place. Then when the Jarier/Bell car, running third, stopped at the Tertre Rouge with a broken transmission at 2.30am, alarm bells started ringing for the French team. Haywood's #7 Porsche was up to fifth, Stommelen/Schurti were sixth in the 935 and Pescarolo/Mass had got back up to seventh. Earlier, just after midnight, the Toleman Osella had been leading the Group 6 2-litre class when it crashed at high speed following a puncture at the Mulsanne kink. Driver Dieter Quester got a nasty gash to his face but was otherwise all right. So at the halfway point, with Renault running 1-3-4 and Porsche ready to pounce in 2-5-6-7, the race was keenly balanced. The Mirage had driven back through the field up to tenth. This time the mechanical issues struck every works Porsche: At 4am, Pescarolo pitted with electrical issues losing six laps. Their best-placed car had two stops to fix bad handling, and then Haywood lost 4 laps as the mechanics fixed a power-loss. Finally, the 935 was delayed getting a new fuel-pump fitted. The hard-working Mirage then had the throttle linkage break undoing their effort. The eighty minutes to repair dropped them back down to 17th. Morning In the cooler air, Jabouille put in the fastest lap of the race setting a new lap record of 3:34.2. As the light got better, the second Dick Barbour IMSA 935 crashed spectacularly. Bob Garretson lost control at the Mulsanne kink and rolled over and over for more than half a kilometre. Them at 7am, there was another big accident at almost the same location. Tony Charnell was leading the 2-litre class when his Mogil Motors Chevron lost a suspension link at over 260 kp/h (160 mph). Although the car flew into the trees and went to pieces, Charnell was uninjured. Not long after, at 8am, the Ragnotti/Fréquelin/Dolhem #4 car lost 32 minutes repairing its gearbox. Then at 8.30am was the third major accident in two hours, far more serious, when Christian Débias crashed the turbo WM P78 at top speed on the Hunaudières Straight. The force was such to break the car in three and pull the barrier out of the ground. Pulled out unconscious, despite a fractured skull and many broken ribs, Débias would make a full recovery. The Porsche challenge started fading when Wollek brought his car into the pits just before 9am with the same ailment that had struck their team-mate earlier: no fifth gear and another 37 minutes lost. The Calberson-Renault also had trouble with its gearbox, losing third gear and taking 20 minutes to repair. The Renault team wound back the turbo boost on their race-leader, but then half an hour later Depailler coasted to a halt at Mulsanne corner in a cloud of smoke with a jammed gearbox. After leading for 11 hours, it was out with a holed piston, in an alarming echo of the previous year. The Pironi/Jaussaud car, a lap behind, inherited the lead with a comfortable 7-lap lead over the Haywood/Gregg Porsche. Jabouille was transferred to the Calberson Renault to help bring it home. Before noon the Barth/Wollek/Ickx overtook its stablemate to move into second place. In the 20th hour, Mass crashed in the Porsche Curves having just got up to sixth. The works 935 had a very difficult race, with a myriad of problems: a stuck throttle, leaking radiator, loose windscreen, replacing the distributor and the fuel pump. Every 16 laps, the minimum allowed, it needed a complete oil refill. All up the car spent nearly 3 hours in the pits. Finish and post-race But Renault would not be denied this year. With a 30-minute lead, the Pironi/Jaussaud car, despite a fading clutch, ran faultlessly for the rest of the race to take the victory, finishing five laps ahead of the two works Porsches. Fourth was the Calberson Renault, 11 laps behind their team-mates, despite a dodgy fourth gear. Four Porsche 935s finished next, led home by the IMSA-class winning car of Dick Barbour Racing, beating the Group 5 winner from Kremer Racing by a lap. For experienced sports-car campaigner, Brian Redman, this was his first Le Mans finish. Jean Rondeau came through to win the GTP class for the third year in a row, having the small pleasure of beating his former car by 15 laps (200 km). The Mirage drivers, Schuppan and Laffite, had been bedevilled by mechanical issues through the day, including three gearbox malfunctions and a broken turbo costing a total of four hours in the pits. But the drivers persisted and were rewarded with a tenth-place finish. From the biggest class-entry there was but a single classified finisher from the Group 6 2-litres: Michel Pignard getting back-to-back victories for himself and Société ROC. The winner of the Group 4 GT class, in twelfth, was the Porsche 911 of Anny-Charlotte Verney. After an early gearbox issue, the car had run well, outlasting the more powerful 934 turbos. Their troubles meant they took the class-lead in the 8th hour and were never headed. The only other classified finisher in the class was the privateer entry of "Ségolen", also afflicted by gearbox problems and 20 laps behind. In a race of attrition, where many cars had had mechanical issues and delays, there were eight cars that would not be classified as they had not completed the 70% threshold (259 laps). Marc Surer and his Sauber team missed out by just 2 laps. Having initially led the class, they had to undergo a full gearbox rebuild in the early evening, then were plagued by an overheating and misfiring engine. It had been in the pits for much of the afternoon until going out to take the flag. After gearbox problems took out the Ferraris, the only one to finish was the Migault/Guitteny 365, which by coincidence, had also finished 16th the year before with the same drivers but had covered 6 further laps. Race-winner Didier Pironi had put in a double-shift at the end. Completely exhausted, he needed to be lifted out of the cockpit and given medical attention to get to the podium, leaving an emotional Jaussaud to take the trophy. He and Pironi had covered a record distance of 5044 km in the 24 hours. The race victory meant a lot to Renault, and France. As the team's Competition Director and former race-winner, Gérard Larrousse put it: " The sales battle in Europe has never been so tough. The commercial fall-out of a race like this is far more obvious than the technical spin-offs, for a victory at Le Mans is one that cannot he doubted”. With the greater weighting on American races (that most European teams did not attend), the World Challenge for Endurance Drivers was won by John Paul Snr. By also taking a second at the 24 Hours of Daytona, Dick Barbour won the Daytona-Le Mans Trophy. This time it had been Porsche that had the unreliability issues and Renault-Alpine finally achieved its aim of a Le Mans win. Straight after the race, the Renault Managing Director, Bernard Hanon, announced it was mission accomplished and that they would withdraw from sports-car racing to put their focus henceforth onto Formula 1. For the event, the ACO had spent over 1 million francs (£125,000). With the withdrawal of the major local manufacturer, drawcard and sole competition, the organisation was very worried about the next year, and the financial losses if the crowds stayed away, disinterested. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class winners are in Bold text. {\| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;" ! ! Class ! ! Team ! Drivers ! Chassis ! Engine ! Tyre ! \|- ! 1 \| Gr.6S 3.0 \| 2 \| Renault Sport \| Didier Pironi Jean-Pierre Jaussaud \| Renault Alpine A442B \| Renault 2.0L V6 twin-turbo \| \| 369 \|- ! 2 \| Gr.6S 3.0 \| 6 \| Martini Racing Porsche System \| Jürgen Barth Bob Wollek Jacky Ickx \| Porsche 936-78 \| Porsche 935/73 2.1L F6 twin-turbo \| \| 364 \|- ! 3 \| Gr.6S 3.0 \| 7 \| Martini Racing Porsche System \| Hurley Haywood Peter Gregg Reinhold Joest \| Porsche 936-77 \| Porsche 911/78 2.1L F6 turbo \| \| 362 \|- ! 4 \| Gr.6S 3.0 \| 4 \| Renault Sport / Écurie Calberson \| Guy Fréquelin Jean Ragnotti José Dolhem Jean-Pierre Jabouille \| Renault-Alpine A442A \| Renault 2.0L V6 twin-turbo \| \| 358 \|- ! 5\| IMSA GT\| 90\| Dick Barbour Racing\| Dick Barbour Brian Redman John Paul Sr. \| Porsche 935-77 \| Porsche 930/78 3.0L F6 turbo \| \| 337 \|- ! 6\| Gr.5SP\| 44\| Porsche Kremer Racing\| Jim Busby Chris Cord Rick Knoop\| Porsche 935-77 \| Porsche 930/72 3.0L F6 turbo \| \| 336 \|- ! 7 \| Gr.5SP \| 41 \| ASA Cachia / Team Pace \| Alfredo Guaraná Paulo Gomes Mário Amaral \| Porsche 935-77 \| Porsche 3.0L F6 turbo \| \| 329 \|- ! 8 \| Gr.5SP \| 43 \| Martini Racing Porsche System \| Rolf Stommelen Manfred Schurti \| Porsche 935-78 \| Porsche 935/79 3.2L F6 twin-turbo \| \| 326 \|- ! 9\| GTP\| 72\| J. Rondeau(private entrant) \| Jean Rondeau Bernard Darniche Jacky Haran\| Rondeau M378 \| Cosworth DFV 3.0L V8 \| \| 294 \|- ! 10 \| Gr.6S 3.0 \| 10 \| Grand Touring Cars Inc \| Vern Schuppan Jacques Laffite Sam Posey \| Mirage M9 \| Renault 2.0L V6 turbo \| \| 293 \|- ! 11\| Gr.6S 2.0\| 31\| Société Racing Organisation Course La Pierre du Nord\| Michel Pignard Lucien Roussiaud Laurent Ferrier \| Chevron B36 \| Simca-ROC 2.0L S4 \| \| 284 \|- ! 12\| Gr.4GT\| 66\| A.-C. Verney (private entrant)'' / BP Racing\| Anne-Charlotte Verney Xavier Lapeyre François Servanin\| Porsche 911 Carrera RSR \| Porsche 3.0L F6 \| \| 279 \|- ! 13 \| GTP \| 71 \| André Chevalley Racing(private entrant) \| André Chevalley François Trisconi \| Inaltéra LM77 \| Cosworth DFV 3.0L V8 \| \| 279 \|- ! 14 \| IMSA GTX \| 97 \| Charles Ivey Racing \| Larry Perkins Gordon Spice John Rulon-Miller \| Porsche 911 Carrera RS \| Porsche 3.0L F6 \| \| 278 \|- ! 15 \| Gr.6S 3.0 \| 8 \| A. De Cadenet(private entrant) \| Alain de Cadenet Chris Craft \| De Cadenet LM78 \| Cosworth DFV 3.0L V8 \| \| 273 \|- ! 16 \| IMSA GTX \| 86 \| Écurie Grand Competition Cars North American Racing Team \| François Migault Lucien Guitteny \| Ferrari 365 GT/4 BB \| Ferrari 4.9L F12 \| \| 262 \|- ! 17 \| Gr.4GT \| 62 \| "Ségolen"(private entrant) \| "Ségolen" (André Gahinet) Christian Bussi Jean-Claude Briavoine \| Porsche 934 \| Porsche 3.0L F6 turbo \| \| 259 \|- ! N/C* \| Gr.6S 2.0 \| 23 \| P. Sauber AG / Francy Racing \| Marc Surer Eugen Strähl Harry Blumer \| Sauber C5 \| BMW-Mader 2.0L S4 \| \| 257 \|- ! N/C* \| Gr.6S 2.0 \| 20 \| Cheetah Racing Cars \| Sandro Plastina Mario Luini Jean-Daniel Grandjean \| Cheetah G-601 \| Cosworth BDG 2.0L S4 \| \| 250 \|- ! N/C* \| Gr.4GT \| 64 \| G. Bourdillat(private entrant) \| Georges Bourdillat Alain-Michel Bernhard Jean-Luc Favresse \| Porsche 911 Carrera RSR \| Porsche 3.0L F6 \| \| 241 \|- ! N/C* \| Gr.6S 2.0 \| 25 \| Team Pronuptia \| Bruno Sotty Gérard Cuynet Jean-Claude Dufrey \| Lola T294/296 \| Cosworth FVC 1.9L S4 \| \| 238 \|- ! N/C* \| Gr.6S 2.0 \| 24 \| Team Pronuptia \| Michel Elkoubi Pierre Yver Philippe Streiff \| Lola T296 \| Cosworth FVC 1.9L S4 \| \| 232 \|- ! N/C* \| Gr.6S 2.0 \| 28 \| D. Lacaud (private entrant) \| Dominique Lacaud Michel Lateste Jean-François Auboiron \| Lola T297 \| BMW 2.0L S4 \| \| 217 \|- ! N/C* \| Gr.5SP \| 45 \| Porsche Kremer Racing \| “John Winter” (Louis Krages) Dieter Schornstein Philippe Gurdjian \| Porsche 935-77 \| Porsche 3.0L F6 turbo \| \| 182 \|} Note *: Not classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of their winner) at the 12, 18 or 24-hour intervals. Did not finishNotes:''' —The No. 94 Whittington Brothers Porsche was entered and numbered in the IMSA-class but sources then show its results being in the Group 5 class Did not start Class winners Note: setting a new class distance record. Index of Energy Efficiency Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest lap in practice –J. Ickx, #6 Porsche 936-78– 3:27.6secs; Fastest lap –J.-P. Jabouille, #1 Renault-Alpine A443 – 3:34.2secs; Winning distance – Winner's average speed – Attendance – 150,000 Citations References Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Armstrong, Doug – editor (1978) Automobile Year #26 1978/79 Edita SA Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1978 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 28 Jul 2021 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 28 Jul 2021 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 28 Jul 2021 Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 28 Jul 2021 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 28 Jul 2021 Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 28 Jul 2021 Motorsport Memorial – details of the year’s fatal accidents. Retrieved 28 Jul 2021 YouTube – Colour footage of the race and historic race, in French (20mins). Retrieved 18 Aug 2021 YouTube – Colour footage of the build-up and racing, in French (20mins). Retrieved 18 Aug 2021 YouTube – A lap of Montlhery in the Renault-Alpine A442B by Jean Ragnotti (2mins). Retrieved 18 Aug 2021 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1978 in French motorsport
4585083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype%20%28printing%29	Stereotype (printing)	In printing, a stereotype, stereoplate or simply a stereo, is a solid plate of type metal, cast from a papier-mâché or plaster mould taken from the surface of a forme of type. The mould was known as a flong. Background In the days of set movable type, printing involved placing individual letters (called type) plus other elements (including leading and furniture) into a block called a chase. Cumulatively, this full setup for printing a single page was called a forme. Ink was then applied to the forme, pressed against paper and a printed page was made. This process of creating formes was labour-intensive, costly and prevented printers from using their type, leading, furniture and chases for other work. Furthermore, printers who underestimated demand would be forced to reset the type for subsequent print runs. ... while Nathaniel Hawthorne's publishers assumed that The Scarlet Letter (1850) would do well, printing an uncharacteristically large edition of 2,500 copies, popular demand for Hawthorne's controversial "Custom House" introduction outstripped supply, prompting Ticknor & Fields to reset the type and to reprint another 2,500 copies within two months of the first publication. Still unaware that they had an incipient classic on their hands, Ticknor & Fields neglected at this time to invest in stereotype plates, and thus were forced to pay to reset the type for a third time just four months later when they finally stereotyped the book. While stereotypes were useful in book publishing, it was in newspaper publishing that they came into their own. Books were normally printed not as single pages, but as set of multiple pages at a time. Thus a single volume 320 page book needed 40 stereos for an eight-page imposition, or twenty stereos for a 16-page imposition. This contrasts with newspapers, where a Sunday edition of a major newspaper could require as many as 6,000 stereos. Advantages of stereotypes Stereotype offered the following advantages: They allowed the printer to quickly distribute expensive type, thus reducing the amount of type the printer needed to keep. In some cases, contracts with publishers required printers to keep type set up for anything up to six months in case further editions were needed. Facilitated the distribution of the set-up type, as stereos were far lighter and less fragile than formes full of type. This was particularly important for syndicated news services. Facilitated the storage of set-up type. Stereos were far lighter and took up a lot less space than formes full of type. This meant that the printer did not have to set up the work again. Stereo plates could be stored for several decades. A large number of such stored stereotypes were melted down in 1916 in the UK in support of the war effort. In 1910 for example, Hodder and Stoughton published G. A. Henty's Friends though Divided: A tale of the Civil War printing the book, apart from the preliminary pages, from the stereotypes used for the initial 1883 edition by Griffith and Farran. The same stereos were used for reprinting in 1917 and in the 1920s. When they sold a copyright to another publisher, publishers often sold the stereotypes as well. Enabled the printer to quickly set up the same text multiple times so that he could print a given text, e.g. for a handbill, several times on the same sheet of paper and then separate them. This was faster and cheaper than doing them individually. Enabled the same text to be printed on multiple presses at the same time. Dalgin gives the example of one instance where thirty stereos were produced from a single flong for this purpose and states that there is no reason why more could not have been cast. Invention English sources often describe the process as having been invented in 1725 by William Ged, who apparently stereotyped plates for the Bible at Cambridge University before abandoning the business. However, Count Canstein had been publishing stereotyped Bibles in Germany since 1712 and an earlier form of stereotyping from flong was described in Germany in 1702. It is even possible that the process was used as early as the fifteenth century by Johannes Gutenberg or his heirs for the Mainz Catholicon. Wide application of the technique, with improvements, is attributed to Charles Stanhope in the early 1800s. Printing plates for the Bible were stereotyped in the US in 1814. Moulding materials The following have been used for moulding type to create stereos: Clay. Invented by a French printer, Gabriel Valleyre in 1730. He pressed the set-up forme in clay or other earthy substance to make a reverse image, and then poured molten copper into the mould. His copies were not very good, due either to the clay he was using, or the softness of the copper. However, the method was later revived, improved, and used by Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C. Hoe & Company included a range of plant for use with the process in their 1881 catalogue. Plaster of Paris. Gress was already describing this as an old method that had been displaced by the papier-mâché or paper process in 1909.. The plaster process can reproduce finer lines than the paper process, but has the disadvantage that the mould is broken to remove the stereo. This was the process developed by Ged in 1725, where a plaster mould is made of the set-up type. The process was perfected in 1802, but because there were relatively few books that needed repeated print-runs other than bibles or schoolbooks, the process did not come into widespread use for another two decades. The Bank of England printed its notes using stereos from plaster moulds in 1816. Lord Stanhope had invested a considerable sum of money in developing the process, and he then established and funded a stereotyping plant in London.. However it was not a commercial success and faced considerable opposition from the printing trade.. David noted that it was only with the introduction of the flexible and robust papier-mâché flong in the 1850 that led to the extensive use of stereotyping for book production. Papier-mâché or paper or wet process. In this process, a number of layers of paper fastened together by a paste made from a range of ingredients, including glue or gum. The paste could be to the stereotyper's own recipe or a proprietary paste. Partridge describes the process as: "A few sheets of thin paper are soaked in water until soft and then pasted together to form a flong. This flong is beaten into a page of type and dried, thus forming a matrix to receive the molten metal, which, when cooled, becomes an exact duplicate of the type page. A large number of duplicate casts may be made from the same matrix, either in flat form as required for flat-bed presses, or curved to fit the cylinders of rotary presses." Gress notes that when first introduced The Times only made papier-mâché flongs of individual columns, but that Charles Craske of the New-York Tribune developed the method to make flongs of entire pages. Dry mat, or dry matrix process. Here there is no need to beat the matrix into the page of type, but simple pressure is enough. The pressures needed are quite high and effectively require a hydraulic press. By 1946, the dry mat process had completely taken over in newspaper publishing in the United States. The process for making moulds for electrotypes was similar, except that these were made with soft materials such as beeswax or the naturally occurring mineral wax ozokerite. The thin electrotype shells had to be backed with type metal to a depth of 8mm to make them robust enough for use. Making the stereotypes After moulding the stereotype it is carefully removed from the mould. If locking the flong into a moulding box, the box was pivoted so that the flong was in the vertical plane, and liquid type metal was poured into the mould. For newspapers these moulds were cylindrical in shape. This quickly cooled, and the mould was opened to remove the stereo. The stereo might be cooled further. The back of the stereo was then shaved, to reduce it to the required thickness for the press. The stereo was also trimmed and had the edges bevelled (to enable the stereo to be clamped into place). The stereos were then clamped into place on the printing cylinder, and the print run began. Type metal is an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony. Lead on its own makes type too soft to be of use. Tin was added to lead to make it harder, but the results were unsatisfactory. It was found that adding both tin and antimony led to type that was hard, resistant to wear and to distortion under pressure, and gave sharp reproductions. The lowest solidification point for a liquid lead, antimony, and tin alloy occurs when the antimony content is twelve percent, known as the eutectic alloy. Keeping the antimony content close to twelve percent ensured the lowest possible melting point, important for slug-casting machines which melted an alloy ingot for casting the slugs. Low melting point is also important for the metal used for stereos as very high temperatures would damage the flongs. The type metal used for stereos was slightly different from the type metal used for foundry type, slug casting machines like the Linotype machine, individual letter casting machines as in the Monotype machine, or the metal used for backing electrotypes. While increasing the antimony content increases hardness, the tin content must be increased in proportion to achieve this. Fry's offered the following guide to type metal for different uses. The golden rule for stereotyping was to have cool metal and a hot box to avoid problems with shrinkage cavities or sinks. Sometimes a casting board was used to slow the cooling at the back of the casting, as this could help to avoid problems due to the flong being a poor conductor. Scale of stereotyping In 1946, Dalgin stated that the New York Times had one hundred slug-casting machines They consumed eight tons of type metal a night. However the stereotype department was casting seven times as much metal with a consumption of 45 tons of type metal every night and 150 tons on Saturday (for the large Sunday edition). They cast as many as 6,000 plates for the Sunday edition. Not only that, but the time limit for composition to press-printing time was only 15 minutes. The last pages (typically the front page and pages with stories running on from the front page) were locked-up in their formes, and then the team had fifteen minutes to mould the matrices, the stereos cast, shaved, trimmed, cooled, and placed on the presses all in that fifteen minutes. Kjaer reported that the time from delivery of a forme to the stereotype foundry to onward delivery of a plate to the press room had fallen from eight minutes in 1916 to four minutes in 1926. Newspaper syndication and stereotypes Initially syndicated news took the form of distributing printed sheets. In December 1841 the owner of the New York Sun had the then US president's address to congress couriered to him. He then printed it on a single sheet, and sold the sheets to newspapers in the surrounding regions, keeping the body, but changing the title head to suit the newspapers. The next effort was to have sheets printed with the president's address on one side and local news on the other. However, matters improved with improvements in stereotyping and the table summarised Kubel's relation of the growth of stereotyping for syndication. The flongs distributed were not just syndicated articles or comic strips, but also advertisements. This had a huge advantage in that newspapers avoided the costs of setting these up in type. In some cases flongs were distributed with sections that could be cut out where a local store name could be inserted, so that an illustrated advertisement for a particular product could include the name of the local dealer. Newspapers combined a set of flongs to cast the stereotype plate for a page. In some cases, newspapers would cast a flong, combine that plate with other elements on a page, and then cast a second flong of the whole page, so the process went: Typeset-Flong of section-cast plate of section-combine plates to make a full page -> flong of full page -> plate of full page. End of the process Stereotyping was first challenged by electrotyping, which was more expensive and time-consuming, but was capable of higher quality printing. It was initially reserved for making copper facsimiles of illustrations. With time, Weedon states that in book publishing, it became more important than stereotyping. However, Kubler stated, in 1941, that in contrast to the United States, which made greater use of electrotyping, European plants used stereotype plates of 75% of all letterpress reproduction work, and that the best stereotype work as equal to the best electrotype work. However, stereotyping retained its primacy in newspaper publishing. Kubler states that alternatives to stereotyping either involved significant additional capital costs or were unsuited for newspapers as they did not allow corrections and the insertion of late news and local materials or were both expensive and unsuitable. The first computer-aided typeset book in the UK was Dylan Thomas' Collected Poems in 1966, but the process really took off in the 1970s, creating enormous disruption in the newspaper industry. The introduction of Offset printing meant that hot-metal type was no longer needed, and phototypesetting replaced the hot-metal type machines. This meant that there was no longer a need for stereotypes. The phototypesetting machines were replaced in their turn by the personal computer and desktop publishing. Kubler's firm that made dry mats dissolved on 13 August 1979. Etymologies Over time, stereotype became a metaphor for any set of ideas repeated identically or with only minor changes. In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers' words, and in their printing senses became synonymous. However, cliché originally had a slightly different meaning, being an onomatopoeic word for the sound that was made during the process of striking a block into molten type metal during another form of stereotyping, later called in English "dabbing". The term stereotype derives from Greek στερεός (stereós) "solid, firm" and τύπος (túpos) "blow, impression, engraved mark" and in its modern sense was coined in 1798. Writings on stereotyping George Adolf Kubler (18769 January 1944) was probably the person who wrote most about the process. He was the founder and president of Certified Dry Mat Corporation. The firm made stereotype matrices or flong mats, which were used to first take a mould from the set-up type, and then to cast the stereotype plates. His writing included: A Short History of Stereotyping (1927). Kubler printed 6,000 copies of this short book (93 p., 11 leaves of plates, 24 cm) and distributed it mostly to professional stereotypers, with other copies being sent, only if specially requested, to journalism and trade schools, public libraries and printing craft clubs worldwide. It is available online at the Hathi Trust. Historical Treatises, Abstracts, and Papers on Stereotyping (1936). Slightly longer (vii, 169 p., ill., 8º) than his first book, again dealing with the early history of stereotyping. Wet Mat Stereotyping in Germany in 1690 (1937). This was a short pamphlet (6 p.) on wet matrix stereotyping, as opposed to the dry matrix approach which Kubler's company promoted. The era of Charles Mahon, third Earl of Stanhope, stereotyper, 1750-1825 (1938). This was an illustrated book (viii, 120p., 29 pl., 23 cm.) about the British statesman and scientist who invented the first iron printing press and experimented with stereotyping. The book was re-issued by Literary Licensing in 2013 . A New History of Stereotyping (1941). This is a wide-ranging book (x, 362 p., ill., 24 cm.) which not only includes a detailed history of the process, but also examines the history of newspaper, alternatives to stereotyping, and even the history of stereotypers' unions. Available on-line at the Internet Archive. Fleishman provides a thorough and well illustrated explanation of the process in his blog.. Dalgin provides a good overview of the mechanics of newspaper production in the middle of the 20th century, including different methods of reproduction. There are also books on the process such as those by Wilson, Partridge, Hatch and Stewart, and Salade. Explanatory notes References Further reading "Flong time, no see"—Fleishman's blog post is a thorough and well-illustrated introduction to the process Printing Scottish inventions
4585228	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezia%20Giulia%20Police%20Force	Venezia Giulia Police Force	Venezia Giulia Police Force was a police corps formed after World War II by the Allied Military Government in Zone A of Venezia Giulia. Operating in the Free Territory of Trieste after 1947, it was active until 1961. From 1945 to 1954 it was directed by Col. Gerald Richardson, a former Scotland Yard officer. Background The Yugoslav 4th Army and the Slovenian 9th Corps entered Trieste on May 1, 1945. The 2nd Division (New Zealand) arrived on the next day and forced the surrender of the 2,000 German Army troops holding out in Trieste, who warily had refused to capitulate to partisan troops, fearing they would be executed by them. An uneasy truce developed between New Zealand and Yugoslav troops. On June 12, 1945, the Yugoslav forces were driven out by the British Army; American and British took over the administration of the Territory, creating the Allied Military Government on the western part of the Julian March or Venezia-Giulia. On June 30, 1945 the AMG of Venetia-Giulia with an executive order signed by, US Army Colonel Nelson W. Monfort, dissolved all the existing police forces in the City of Trieste and other parts of Venezia Giulia, including the Popular Defense Corps or Difesa Popolare, created by the Yugoslavs during their forty-day occupation of the city, from May 1 to June 12, 1945. The allied Forces then had to create a new Civil Police Force to maintain law and order in the territory, and to work alongside their Military Police Forces, to deal with the local civilian matters. The newly created Corps was named Venezia-Giulia Police Force (V.G.P.F); Civil Police was an unconventional name given to the Force, to distinguish them from the Military Police Forces, British and US, which were also operating in the Venezia Giulia, A zone, at the end of WW2. They were also known with the moniker "Cerini" or "Wax Matches", because of the uniform they worn. In fact the contrast between the huge white helmet and the dark blue British Uniform, reminded to the population, the shape of a Wax Match. Organization The Venezia Giulia Police Force was created in September 1945, after the training school opened in August 1945 had trained and graduated men who had passed a medical test and had their political records scrutinized. It was organized into 7 divisions: Administrative and Personnel, Uniformed Police Criminal Investigation, Transportation, Training, Quartermaster (supply) and Prison Service. Divisions had subdivisions or sections, covering every branch of service: Division 1: Administrative, Personnel, Finance, Medical, and Press Office; Division 2: Uniformed Police, Mounted Section, Forest, Female Police service created in 1947; Division 3: Cabinet, License, Criminal Investigation Department; Division 4:Transport, Communication, and Traffic; Division 5: Quartermaster, Procurement Office; Division 6:Training and Police Band; Division 7: Divisional Headquarter including the Coroneo Jail, The Jesuits and Tigor Street Jails. The last two were in use until 1952. Training Facilities and Police School Academy as well as police band, with 60 members, were located at the Beleno Barracks, in Trieste in Street Pasquale Revoltella number 29-35. In addition there were Fishery Patrol, Motor Boat Patrol, Railway Police Service and Female Police. Although Fishery Police was part of the V.G.P.F., they did not share the same civilian status; they were military, and wore different uniforms. Fishery Police were given the tasks that nowadays are commonly carried out by the Coast Guard, such as Territorial Waters and Fishing boats protection. The Fishery Police Patrol, who was also in charge of the Port area security, and was established in August 1945 after few British officers had entered gun-in-hand into the Trieste Port Authority Offices, who were still held by the Yugoslavs, kicking them literally out. The Female section of the V.G.P.F. was created in 1947, and it was real innovation compared to the old Italian concept of policing. Their tasks were more or less those assigned to the other units, including investigating vice crimes and prostitution. The V.G.P.F. had also a Female Section, which was a forerunner for the future introduction of women into the Italian Police Forces. Female Officers were issued the same uniforms of their male colleagues, but they were not allowed to carry firearms during night shifts. The newly formed Police Force also had a chaplain Service, and a trade union. The Roman Catholic Mons. Mario Novach served as corps chaplain from 1948 until its dissolution in 1961, as most of the Corps member were Roman Catholic and Willy Marcocci was the union secretary. Transport service, or truck pool, whose trucks were provided by the military authorities, also included the communication and Road Police Unit. The communication section was in charge of all type of communications, radio, teletype and telephones, including the management of the emergency number phone number, 223. The radio center was located into the Local Government House in Piazza/Square Unita' d'Italia. Road Police Unit was responsible for patrolling the roads. In addition to their general road policing duties, they assisted with various operations aimed at improving road safety by promoting campaign for the Road-safety aimed to reduce the rate of road collision in Trieste, and were also in charge to draft reports in case of vehicle collisions. The Civil Police were equipped with Morris cars. The Police Force had its own gazette, Il Eco della Polizia ("The Echo of the Police") whose last issue was on October 25, 1954. The newspaper ha d its typography located in Via dell 'Istria n.54 in Trieste the present seat of the Provincial Carabineers HQ of Trieste. The V.G.P.F was also involved in the recovering of the corpses from the Foibes, deep karst sinkhole, and the V.G.P.F Criminal Investigation Division was in charge of the investigation. The "Corpse Recovering Squad" was part of the forensic section and was led by the Inspectors Umberto De Giorgi and Oronzo Rizzo. The long report drafted by Inspector De Giorgi, pertaining the operation of the corpses recovering from foibes, is available online, in Italian language. During the November 1951 Polesine flooding, when two thirds of the Polesine Italian geographical region was flooded, the V.G.P.F organized a relief party commanded by Superintendent May, a former Metropolitan Police Superintendent, with more than 150 men equipped with: 11 heavy trucks, 10 motorcycle, 11 jeeps, a mobile radio station, 5 light trucks, a water supply truck, an ambulance and a searching-light truck. Commissioner The Police Commissioner was the British Army Colonel CMG, OBE, Gerald Richardson. A Scotland yard Officer, from Nottingham, he had his first experience as Police Officer, when himself and other members of a local rowing club decided to volunteer, for the Special Constabulary in Nottingham, when a general strike broke out. The strike lasted 9 days, from May 3, 1926 to May 13, 1926. At the end of the strike, he had realized that Law enforcement would have been his future career. He applied for the London Metropolitan Police where, after having passing the tests, he was admitted in 1927, and entered in the Police Training School at the Peel House in Westminster. After the graduation he spent 12 months on the beat, and then requested the assignment to the Criminal Investigation department; in August 1929 he was appointed Detective Constable. On July 13, 1943 he was Commissioned into the British Army. He would spend the rest of the war as law enforcement officer in the territories occupied by the British Forces. From London he was initially sent to Tangier, and after the landing in Italy he was in Sicily and Naples where for 18 months, he was Chief Public Safety Officer. At the end of the war he was serving in Northern Italy. It was during a period of rest on lake Maggiore, that an urgent telephone call summoned him, to report immediately, to the 8th Army HQ, where he received a new assignment as Director of the Public Safety of the City of Trieste. His task was not an easy one since there was no existing police force in the city. Among the reasons which had made the allied to take the direct rule of the area was that of, avoiding future confrontation between Italy and Yugoslavia who were still struggling for the possession of the border regions and the Port of Trieste. The port was a strategic hub to supply the allied forces in the occupied Austria. Colonel Gerald Richardson, has been described as a worthy gentleman always well dressed, and with the typical English trait. He tried to infuse the esprit de corps, and to create a cohesion into the newly formed unit. When creating the V.G.P.F, He abolished disciplinary code in use in the Royal Carabineer Corps, judging it too harsh and vicious, encouraged the development of, the new force traditions, personal responsibilities, and the concept of impartiality. Police Force personnel welfare was one of his priorities; he made sure that they all received an adequate salary, appropriate lodging, family allowances, and sickness benefits. However, when a regrettable incident occurred at a village outside Trieste, where a political demonstration had later developed into a riot, was taking place, and three demonstrators were shot dead, three Police Officers and an Inspector were charged with manslaughter, and had to appear before an Allied Military Court presided by British and American judges. As soon as he took up office, one of his first decision was to disband the Difesa Popolare, or Popular Defense, the uniformed People's Police Force the Communists had built up. He soon noticed that, they were keeping no-record of what they were doing as well as for the arrestees, and when asked about it, were not able to produce any record at all; that their prisons were full, and most of the times, the interviewed prisoners could not give an account regarding their arrest. In addition all the evidences he collected, suggested that the Difesa Popolare, was financing itself with a protection racket system and looting. The uniform they wore were done by a local clothing manufacturer who had been doing the same job for the Germans. They wore red stars, and red scarfs around the neck and their chest were trimmed with hand grenades. Col. Gerald Richardson also find out that, their courts had no professional judges and that at the best, the trials were presided by some zealous young Law student, which in most of the cases, had forgotten everything he had studied. All these facts were intolerable for him and for the Allied authorities, and therefore two weeks after he took office the Difesa Popolare was officially disbanded. When they asked for a Victory parade, to be held on Sunday morning, their request was granted. The Difesa Popolare marched thru the street of Trieste, for the last time, and reached the Rossetti barracks. When the last one of them had filed into the barracks, the heavy doors were dragged shut behind them. From the opening windows, and roof British troops covered them with rifles, and machine guns; they had to surrender their own arms. They were told that they could go everywhere they liked, women as well as men. Those who wanted to go to Yugoslavia had to form a line on the left, assuming that the others on the right would have stayed, and were escorted to the frontier. British Personnel quickly went to the Difesa Popolare Posts and seized their weapon. However some of them were also given the chance of joining the V.G.P.F., although Richardson's preference was for the former Royal Carabineers and Questura personnel whom he judged a better training material. His office was located at Foro Ulpiano, inside the Trieste Court House, and also included the Deputy Chief of Police, the Legal Advisor and Disciplinary Officer. In March 1955, Col. Richardson became the Commissaire, Chef de la Sureté, Police Générale, in the International zone of Tangier.On May 27 th,1949 the President of the United States, conferred to Col. (temp) Gerald Richardson O.B.E. (282757)The Medal of Freedom with Bronze Palm. Jurisdiction The Morgan Line ceased to exist on September 15, 1947, when the Treaty of Peace with Italy came into effect. The Treaty established the border between Italy and Yugoslavia in the northern sections of the contended territory, as well as the border between Yugoslavia and the Free Territory of Trieste established as new independent, sovereign State under a provisional regime of Government and under the direct responsibility of the United Nations Security Council in its southern part. The Jurisdiction of the Free Territory of Trieste, after Gorizia and Pola zones had been returned to Italy and ceded Yugoslavia respectively, was divided into 5 Zones: City of Trieste, Duino, Opicina, Muggia and Port and Railway. Zones were divided into Districts open 24/7, and Border Posts. Every zone was patrolled on foot and with Emergency car. A system of public emergency calls was started, and the emergency number 223, was available, to request help or assistance by the local population. Uniforms and weapons The V.G.P.F personnel was initially issued a mixture of British, American and Italian equipment and weaponry. The 13th British Army Corps insignia, an Antelope, was adopted as the Corps Insignia. However parade and Police Uniform were under a great British influx, resulting in an undeniable, London Metropolitan Police style. Military training was according to that of the British Army, as well as the drill instruction. The British Army's salute, with the right hand palm facing forwards with the fingers almost touching the cap or beret, was adopted. The corps was equipped with Winchester Carbine mod. 1 and 2, Automatic Colt Pistol cal. 45, Smyth and Wesson revolvers. Commissioned Officers and sergeants were issued Italian Beretta Pistol model 1934. Only night time shifts carried firearms, while during the day no weapons was carried by the personnel on duty. The V.G.P.F identification cards were all bilingual. Ranks Senior Commissioned Officers had a rank tier as follow: Superintendent Assistant, Superintendent and Chief Superintendent. These positions were exclusively held by British and American personnel. Junior Ranks from Deputy Superintendent (Major), Chief Inspector (Captain), Inspector (1st LT), Deputy Inspector (2nd LT), Sergeants (Warrant Officers) of first, second and third class, Corporal and Guard, were open to locals. Strength The Venezia-Giulia Police Force in October 1945 had an initial strength of 2,482 Commissioned Officers and enlisted. At its peak, in 1949, had a strength of 6,097 men and women, decreasing to 4,296 in 1952, and in 1954, when the provisional civil administration of zone A of the FTT was eventually handed over to Italy had a total 4,366 men and women. The V.G.P.F. personnel was created following the Venezia-Giulia ethnic criteria enlisting Italians, Slovenians and Croats. In addition a small group of former Germans and Austrians P.O.W were also allow to enlist. The Trieste riots On November 3, 1953, on the anniversary of the first annexation of Trieste to Italy in 1918, which is also the feast commemorating the patron saint of Trieste, Saint Giusto, the city mayor, Giovanni Bartoli, ignoring a ban of Maj. Gen. Sir Thomas John Willoughby Winterton, displayed the Italian National flag on the city hall. As he hoisted the flag, some British officers quickly removed and confiscated the flag. The day after, some local citizens, coming back from the celebration held at the Redipuglia Italian World War I memorial, improvised a demonstration in support of the Italian rule of the city. The V.G.P.F. was activated to suppress the unauthorized demonstration, and confiscate the flags waved by the demonstrators. This provoked heavy fights which soon spread out throughout the city. On November 5, 1953, the students called a strike and started a demonstration in Sant'Antonio Square, in front of the local church. As a civil police car passed by, the students stoned the vehicle. A British member of the V.G.P.F., Mr. Edwards, got off the car and confronted the demonstrators, was greeted with a hail of stones, insulted and beaten. The V.G.P.F. Riot squad arrived on the spot, to support the superintendent of C.I.D, Villanti and his men, who had witnessed the scene of Mr. Edwards stoning and went to rescue him. The crowd was soon dispersed with truncheons and with the help of a water truck. Some of the students who had found refuge in the church were chased and seriously beaten. During the afternoon the city bishop Mons Antonio Santin decided to re-consecrate the church, according to the Roman Catholic tradition, as violent acts have been committed inside. Thousands of citizens rallied up for the rite, and as the police cars showed up the trouble soon began. Apparently a British officer member of the V.G.P.F, fired warning shots, as well as some police officers did. As a result, two persons, Piero Addobbati and Antonio Zavadil, were killed and several were injured. On November 6, 1953 a large crowd marched towards the government house on Piazza/Square, Unità d'Italia were the AMG had its seat. In the meantime cars and other police facilities in the city were destroyed and burned. The police cordoning the government house opened fire, killing Francesco Paglia, Leonardo Manzi, Saverio Montano and Erminio Bassa. In the three days of rioting, six persons were killed and 162 injured, including 79 policemen. In his memories, Col. Richardson gave this account of the shooting at Piazza Unità d'Italia, in front of the government house, "... Mr Williams was told to go to Piazza Unità d'Italia at the Government house, with a Riot Squad. When there he ordered his men to remain into the vehicles. He went, alone, to remonstrate with the crowd, and in Italian, he appealed to them, but his attempt was unsuccessful. As he went back to his men, several stone struck him, and at that point, since the situation was quickly deteriorating, he gave orders to his men, to unsling carbines and prepare to face the crowd. He led a charge against the mob, meanwhile the Police was under a heavy stone volley. After he had run ahead few yards, he heard shots being fired behind him, but he had given no order to fire.. He immediately turned back and shouted in Italian " Enough, enough! Stop firing!!!" The victims of the riots were: Francesco Paglia (Trieste, 1929), student at the local University, and former bersagliere of the Repubblica Sociale Italiana; Leonardo "Nardino" Manzi (Fiume now Rijeka, 1938), student, a Fiume refugee; Saverio Montano (Bari, 1903), former partisan; Erminio Bassa (Trieste, 1902), Dockworker; Antonio Zavadil (Trieste, 1889), Dockworker; Pietro Addobbati (Zara now Zadar, 1938), student, a Dalmatian region refugee. Aftermath Clement Attlee, at the time leader of the opposition, (by Private Notice) asked the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Sir Anthony Eden, whether he could make any statement regarding the disturbances in Trieste. Police reports indicated that disorders were deliberately provoked and at least partly organized from outside Zone A, by people defined as "Irresponsible elements" who had evidently planned to exploit certain national Italian anniversaries in order to provoke incidents in Trieste. The demonstrations seemed to be aimed at causing a breakdown of law and order and the disruption of the local security forces. Italian sources however labeled the action as a, deliberate repression put into being by the Anglo-American Allied Military Government Authorities, to suppress the Italian sentiment of the local population, and obstruct the process of reunion of Trieste with the motherland. Her Majesty's Government took a grave view of these events, and sincerely deplored the loss of life, the injuries suffered and the destruction of property in Trieste. However, the sole responsibility for these tragic results was given to those extremist elements who deliberately provoked and organized these disorders. In note exchanging the British government made its views quite clear to the Italian Government and urged that they should do all in their power to curb those elements who have been responsible for provoking the disturbances in Trieste and the subsequent anti-allied demonstrations in Italy. Assignment of provisional civil Administration of Trieste to Italy Approximately at 10:00 hrs of October 26, 1954 the Venezia-Giulia Police Force Commissioner, Col. Gerald Richardson, handed over responsibilities to Lt. Col. Diamante the acting Chief Public Safety Officer nominated by the Italian authorities. The V.G.P.F. was placed under the authority of the Italian State Police Force, at the time a paramilitary branch of the Italian Security Forces, and renamed, "Gruppo Polizia Civile" or "Civil Police Group", retaining its uniforms and ranks. This was an unusual status, because the V.G. Police Force was conceived as a Civil Police Force, while Italy had a long tradition, still enduring, of National Police Forces with a Military Status. Deputy Supervisor, Santo Del Piccolo was appointed as Commanding Officer of the "Civil Police Group". The Force, continued to operate as semi-distinct branch of Service of the Italian State Police Force, until law number 1600 was passed on December 22, 1960. The law came into effect on July 18, 1961, definitively dissolving the V.G. Police Force. Its personnel was given the choice to join the Italian State Police Force, acquiring a Military status, join the City of Trieste Municipal Force, or entering into the state administration. Some of the V.G.P.F. Personnel, mostly those with English skills, took the chance offered by the Allied, to emigrate under a special program, in USA, Canada, Australia or United Kingdom. References Aftermath of World War II History of Trieste History of Friuli-Venezia Giulia Law enforcement in Italy 1947 establishments in Italy Free Territory of Trieste
4585349	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-actualization	Self-actualization	Self-actualization, in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, is the highest level of psychological development, where personal potential is fully realized after basic bodily and ego needs have been fulfilled. Self-actualization was coined by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one's full potential: "the tendency to actualize itself as fully as possible is the basic drive ... the drive of self-actualization." Carl Rogers similarly wrote of "the curative force in psychotherapyman's tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities ... to express and activate all the capacities of the organism." Abraham Maslow's theory Definition Maslow defined self-actualization to be "self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for him [the individual] to become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." He used the term to describe a desire, not a driving force, that could lead to realizing one's capabilities. He did not feel that self-actualization determined one's life; rather, he felt that it gave the individual a desire, or motivation to achieve budding ambitions. Maslow's idea of self-actualization has been commonly interpreted as "the full realization of one's potential" and of one's "true self." A more explicit definition of self-actualization according to Maslow is "intrinsic growth of what is already in the organism, or more accurately of what is the organism itself ... self-actualization is growth-motivated rather than deficiency-motivated." This explanation emphasizes the fact that self-actualization cannot normally be reached until other lower order necessities of Maslow's hierarchy of needs are satisfied. While Goldstein defined self-actualization as a driving force, Maslow uses the term to describe personal growth that takes place once lower order needs have essentially been met, one corollary being that, in his opinion, "self-actualisation ... rarely happens ... certainly in less than 1% of the adult population." The fact that "most of us function most of the time on a level lower than that of self-actualization" he called the psychopathology of normality. Maslow's usage of the term is now popular in modern psychology when discussing personality from the humanistic approach. History and development of the concept Maslow's work is considered to be part of humanistic psychology, which is one of several frameworks used in psychology for studying, understanding, and evaluating personality. The humanistic approach was developed because other approaches, such as the psychodynamic approach made famous by Sigmund Freud, focused on unhealthy individuals that exhibited disturbed behavior; whereas the humanistic approach focuses on healthy, motivated people and tries to determine how they define the self while maximizing their potential. Humanistic psychology in general and self-actualisation in particular helped change our view of human nature from a negative point of view – man is a conditioned or tension reducing organism – to a more positive view in which man is motivated to realize his full potential. This is reflected in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and in his theory of self-actualization. Instead of focusing on what goes wrong with people, Maslow wanted to focus on human potential, and how we fulfill that potential. Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those who are fulfilled and doing all they are capable of. It refers to the person's desire for self-fulfillment, namely to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. "The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions." One of Abraham Maslow's earliest discussions of self-actualization was in his 1943 article "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological Review 50, pp. 370–396. Here, the concept of self-actualization was first brought to prominence as part of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory as the final level of psychological development that can be achieved when all basic and mental needs are essentially fulfilled and the "actualization" of the full personal potential takes place. In this treatment, self-actualization is at the top of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and is described as becoming "'fully human' ... maturity or self-actualization." According to Maslow, people have lower order needs that in general must be fulfilled before high order needs can be satisfied: 'five sets of needs physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and finally self-actualization'. As Abraham Maslow noted, the basic needs of humans must be met (e.g. food, shelter, warmth, security, sense of belonging) before a person can achieve self-actualization. Yet, Maslow argued that reaching a state of true self-actualization in everyday society was fairly rare. Research shows that when people live lives that are different from their true nature and capabilities, they are less likely to be happy than those whose goals and lives match. For example, someone who has inherent potential to be a great artist or teacher may never realize their talents if their energy is focused on attaining the basic needs of humans. As a person moves up Maslow's hierarchy of needs, they may eventually find themselves reaching the summit — self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy of needs begins with the most basic necessities deemed "the physiological needs" in which the individual will seek out items like food and water, and must be able to perform basic functions such as breathing and sleeping. Once these needs have been met, a person can move on to fulfilling "the safety needs", where they will attempt to obtain a sense of security, physical comfort and shelter, employment, and property. The next level is "the belongingness and love needs", where people will strive for social acceptance, affiliations, a sense of belongingness and being welcome, sexual intimacy, and perhaps a family. Next are "the esteem needs", where the individual will desire a sense of competence, recognition of achievement by peers, and respect from others. Once these needs are met, an individual is primed to achieve self-actualization. While the theory is generally portrayed as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that the order in which these needs are fulfilled does not always follow this standard progression. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs. Maslow's later-career ideas In his later work, Maslow suggested that there are two additional phases an individual must progress through before achieving self-actualization. These are "the cognitive needs," where a person will desire knowledge and an understanding of the world around them, and "the aesthetic needs," which include a need for "symmetry, order, and beauty." Maslow also added a further step beyond self-actualization, which is self-transcendence. Self-transcendence occurs at the "very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness." Characteristics of self-actualizers A self-actualizer is a person who is living creatively and fully using his or her potentials. It refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for a person to become actualized in what they are potentially. Maslow based his theory partially on his own assumptions or convictions about human potential and partially on his case studies of historical figures whom he believed to be self-actualized, including Albert Einstein and Henry David Thoreau. He considered self-actualizing people to possess "an unusual ability to detect the spurious, the fake, and the dishonest in personality, and in general to judge people correctly and efficiently." Maslow examined the lives of each of these people in order to assess the common qualities that led each to become self-actualized. In his studies, Maslow found that self-actualizers really do share similarities. He also believed that each of these people had somehow managed to find their core-nature that is unique to them, and is one of the true goals of life. Whether famous or unknown, educated or not, rich or poor, self-actualizers tend to fit the following profile. Maslow's self-actualizing characteristics are: Efficient perceptions of reality. Self-actualizers are able to judge situations correctly and honestly. They are very sensitive to the superficial and dishonest. Comfortable acceptance of self, others and nature. Self-actualizers accept their own human nature with all its flaws. The shortcomings of others and the contradictions of the human condition are accepted with humor and tolerance. Reliant on own experiences and judgement. Independent, not reliant on culture and environment to form opinions and views. Spontaneous and natural. True to oneself, rather than being how others want. Task centering. Most of Maslow's subjects had a mission to fulfill in life or some task or problem 'beyond' themselves (instead of outside themselves) to pursue. Humanitarians such as Albert Schweitzer are considered to have possessed this quality. Autonomy. Self-actualizers are free from reliance on external authorities or other people. They tend to be resourceful and independent. Continued freshness of appreciation. The self-actualizer seems to constantly renew appreciation of life's basic goods. A sunset or a flower will be experienced as intensely time after time as it was at first. There is an "innocence of vision", like that of a child. Profound interpersonal relationships. The interpersonal relationships of self-actualizers are marked by deep loving bonds. Comfort with solitude. Despite their satisfying relationships with others, self-actualizing people value solitude and are comfortable being alone. Non-hostile sense of humor. This refers to the ability to laugh at oneself. Peak experiences. All of Maslow's subjects reported the frequent occurrence of peak experiences (temporary moments of self-actualization). These occasions were marked by feelings of ecstasy, harmony, and deep meaning. Self-actualizers reported feeling at one with the universe, stronger and calmer than ever before, filled with light, beauty, goodness, and so forth. Socially compassionate. Possessing humanity. Few friends. Few close intimate friends rather than many perfunctory relationships. Gemeinschaftsgefühl. According to Maslow, the self-actualizers possess "Gemeinschaftsgefühl", which refers to "social interest, community feeling, or a sense of oneness with all humanity." Discussion Maslow's writings are used as inspirational resources. The key to Maslow's writings is understanding that there are no quick routes to self-actualization: rather it is predicated on the individual having their lower deficiency needs met. Once a person has moved through feeling and believing that they are deficient, they naturally seek to grow into who they are, i.e. self-actualization. Elsewhere, however, Maslow (2011) and Carl Rogers (1980) both suggested necessary attitudes and/or attributes that need to be inside an individual as a pre-requisite for self-actualization. Among these are a real wish to be themselves, to be fully human, to fulfill themselves, and to be completely alive, as well as a willingness to risk being vulnerable and to uncover more "painful" aspects in order to learn about/grow through and integrate these parts of themselves (this has parallels with Jung's slightly similar concept of individuation). Although their studies were initially biologically centered (or focused around the more ordinary, psychological self-nature), there have been many similarities and cross-references between various spiritual schools or groups (particularly Eastern spiritual ways) in the past 40 years. Maslow early noted his impression that "impulsivity, the unrestrained expression of any whim, the direct seeking for 'kicks' and for non-social and purely private pleasures...is often mislabelled self-actualization." In this sense, "self-actualization" is little more than what Eric Berne described as the game of '"Self-Expression"...based on the dogma "Feelings are Good"'. Broader criticism from within humanistic psychology of the concept of self-actualization includes the danger that 'emphasis on the actualizing tendency...can lead to a highly positive view of the human being but one which is strangely non-relational'. According to Fritz Perls there is also the risk of confusing "self-actualizing and self-image actualizing...the curse of the ideal." By conflating "the virtue of self-actualization and the reality of self-actualization," the latter becomes merely another measuring rod for the "topdog" – the nagging conscience: "You tell me to do things. You tell me to be – real. You tell me to be self-actualized...I don't have to be that good!" Barry Stevens remarks: "Abe Maslow was unhappy with what happened with many people when they read what he wrote about 'self-actualizing people'. What they did with it was very strange. I have received a fair number of letters saying 'I am a self-actualized person'. Maslow said that he must have left something out. Fritz (Perls) put it in. He saw that most people actualized a self-concept. This is not self-actualizing." Kurt Goldstein's concept The term "self-actualization" was first used by the German psychiatrist Kurt Goldstein. Maslow attributed the term "self-actualization" to Goldstein in his original 1943 paper. Concept 'Kurt Goldstein first introduced the concept of the organism as a whole,' which is built on the assumption that "every individual, every plant, every animal has only one inborn goal to actualize itself as it is." Kurt Goldstein's book, The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man (1939), presented self-actualization as "the tendency to actualize, as much as possible, [the organism's] individual capacities" in the world. The tendency toward self-actualization is "the only drive by which the life of an organism is determined." However, for Goldstein self-actualization cannot be understood as a kind of goal to be reached sometime in the future. At any moment, the organism has the fundamental tendency to actualize all its capacities and its whole potential, as it is present in that exact moment, under the given circumstances. Discussion Goldstein's work was in the context of Classical Adlerian psychotherapy, which also promotes this level of psychological development by utilizing the foundation of a 12-stage therapeutic model to realistically satisfy the basic needs. This then leads to an advanced stage of "meta-therapy", creative living, and self/other/task-actualization. Goldstein's work is also seen in the context of Gestalt therapy. The German term used by Goldstein, translated as "self-actualization", is "Selbstverwirklichung." "Self-realization" may be a more adequate translation than the "self-actualization" used in the translation of "The Organism". Goldstein sets this notion of self-actualization in contrast to "self-preservation" (Selbsterhaltung). "Self-actualization" for Goldstein means something that comes close to realization of one's "essence", one's identity, one's felt sense of oneself; which may in consequence mean that a person is willing to risk his or her life in order to maintain "self-actualization" (Selbsverwirklichung), the realization of his or her "essence" of the person he or she feels that she/he IS. Carl Rogers' concept Carl Rogers used the term "self-actualization" to describe something distinct from the concept developed by Maslow: the actualization of the individual's sense of 'self.' In Rogers' theory of person-centered therapy, self-actualization is the ongoing process of maintaining and enhancing the individual's self-concept through reflection, reinterpretation of experience, allowing the individual to recover, develop, change, and grow. Self-actualization is a subset of the overall organismic actualizing tendency, and begins with the infant learning to differentiate what is "self" and what is "other" within its "total perceptual field," as their full self-awareness gradually crystallizes. Interactions with significant others are key to the process of self-actualization: The process of self-actualization is continuous as the individual matures into a socially competent, interdependent autonomy, and is ongoing throughout the life-cycle. When there is sufficient tension between the individual's sense of self and their experience, a psychopathological state of incongruence can arise, according to Rogers, "individuals are culturally conditioned, rewarded, reinforced, for behaviors which are in fact perversions of the natural directions of the unitary actualizing tendency." In Rogers' theory self-actualization is not the end-point; it is the process that can, in conducive circumstances (in particular the presence of positive self-regard and the empathic understanding of others), lead to the individual becoming more "fully-functioning". Criticism Maslow early noted his impression that "impulsivity, the unrestrained expression of any whim, the direct seeking for 'kicks' and for non-social and purely private pleasures ... is often mislabelled self-actualization." In this sense, "self-actualization" is little more than what Eric Berne described as the game of "'Self-Expression' ... based on the dogma 'Feelings are Good'". Broader criticism from within humanistic psychology of the concept of self-actualization includes the danger that 'emphasis on the actualizing tendency ... can lead to a highly positive view of the human being but one which is strangely non-relational.' According to Fritz Perls there is also the risk of confusing "self-actualizing and self-image actualizing ... the curse of the ideal." For Perls, by conflating "the virtue of self-actualization and the reality of self-actualization," the latter becomes merely another measuring rod for the "topdog" the nagging conscience: "You tell me to do things. You tell me to be real. You tell me to be self-actualized ... I don't have to be that good!" Barry Stevens remarked: According to Paul Vitz, this may be connected with the charge that "Rogers and Maslow both transform self-actualization from a descriptive notion into a moral norm." However, if it is indeed as good a reality as they purport, then a certain eagerness in their communication is understandable. In general, during the early twenty-first-century, "the usefulness of the concepts of self and self-actualization continue to attract discussion and debate." See also Autodidacticism Enlightenment Humanism Ikigai Individuation Jonah complex Outline of self Perfectionism (philosophy) Positive disintegration Self Self-awareness Self-esteem Self-fulfillment Self-handicapping Self-help Self-knowledge (psychology) Self-realization Self-reflection References Further reading Harrington, Anne: Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler, Princeton University Press, 1999. (Includes a comprehensive chapter on Kurt Goldstein and his work.) Heylighen, Francis. (1992). A cognitive-systemic reconstruction of Maslow's theory of self-actualization. Behavioral Science, 37(1), 39–58. doi:10.1002/bs.3830370105 Kress, Oliver (1993)."A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation". Evolution and Cognition 2(4): 319–332. David, R. W. (2011). Montessori, Maslow, and Self-actualization. Montessori Life, 23(4), 16–21. Motivation Personal development Human behavior Happiness Humanistic psychology Psychological concepts Psychological attitude
4585763	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Ebelsberg	Battle of Ebelsberg	The Battle of Ebelsberg, known in French accounts as the Battle of Ebersberg, was fought on 3 May 1809 during the War of the Fifth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars. The Austrian left wing under the command of Johann von Hiller took up positions at Ebersberg on the Traun river. The French under André Masséna attacked, crossing a heavily defended 550-meter-long bridge and subsequently conquering the local castle, thus forcing Hiller to withdraw. Ebelsberg is now a southern suburb of Linz, situated on the south bank of the Traun, a short distance above the place where that stream flows into the Danube River. Separated from the main Austrian army by the battles of Abensberg and Landshut, Feldmarschall-Leutnant Hiller retreated east to Linz by 2 May with the three left wing corps. The Austrians hoped to slow the French advance towards Vienna. The leading elements of Marshal Masséna's corps overran Hiller's rear guard on the west bank of the Traun on the morning of 3 May. In the rout that followed, the first French infantry brigade rushed the bridge and got into the streets of Ebelsberg. At this point, the Austrians began to fight back effectively. To keep from being thrown into the river, the French committed an entire division to the street fight, in which the Ebelsberg castle loomed as the key position. After Masséna threw in a second division, the French finally ejected the Austrians from the castle. Unwilling to recapture the town, Hiller ordered his artillery to set fire to the place. In the blaze that followed, hundreds of wounded soldiers from both armies died. The battle and the heavy casualties were unnecessary because Hiller was already flanked out of position by a second French corps that crossed the Traun upstream. Background On 10 April 1809, the Austrian army of Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen invaded the Kingdom of Bavaria, ally of Emperor Napoleon I of France. During the first week of war, Napoleon's deputy, Marshal Louis Alexandre Berthier mismanaged the deployment of the Franco-German army. Nevertheless, the archduke was unable to take advantage of his opportunities because of the slow marching speed of his troops. Napoleon soon arrived on the scene and, in the first major clash on 19 April, Marshal Louis Davout won the hard-fought Battle of Teugen-Hausen. Thanks to his victory, Davout was able to link up with the main body of Napoleon's army near Abensberg that evening. At the Battle of Abensberg on 20 April 1809, Hiller arrived from the south to take command of Feldmarschall-Leutnant Archduke Louis of Austria's V Armeekorps and Feldmarschall-Leutnant Michael von Kienmayer's II Reserve Armeekorps, in addition to his own VI Armeekorps. Before the battle, Hiller's strength had been weakened by detaching Feldmarschall-Leutnant Karl Friedrich von Lindenau's division from V Armeekorps and General-Major Andreas Schneller's cuirassier brigade from II Reserve Armeekorps to the main army, Andreas Schneller's brigade. plus Feldmarschall-Leutnant Franz Jellacic's division from VI Armeekorps to hold Munich. At Abensberg and at the Battle of Landshut on 21 April, Emperor Napoleon I of France's army roughly handled Hiller's command and forced the Austrian to withdraw to the southeast, away from Archduke Charles and the main army. Between the 19th and the 21st, Hiller lost 12,140 soldiers, 11 guns, and 328 wagons from the V and VI Armeekorps. His wing shrank from 42,000 troops to around 27,000 to 28,000 by the evening of 22 April. On the 22nd, Napoleon marched north with major forces to deal Archduke Charles a defeat at the Battle of Eckmühl. Unaware that the main army retreated north of the Danube River, Hiller turned to face a weak pursuit force. He inflicted a sharp check on Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bessières at the Battle of Neumarkt-Sankt Veit on 24 April. Apprised of the fact that Charles suffered a defeat, the Austrian wing commander quickly pulled back to the southeast. On 24 April Charles sent a message to Hiller ordering him to retreat to Linz, cross to the Danube's north bank, and join the main army. Hoping to overtake and destroy Hiller, Napoleon sent two columns after his foe. The emperor directed Marshal Louis Davout's III Corps, Masséna's IV Corps, and General of Division Dominique Vandamme's VIII Corps along a northern route via Passau on the Inn River. The II Corps of Marshal Jean Lannes and Bessières' force took a more southerly route through Burghausen on the Salzach River. On 26 April, General of Division Claude Juste Alexandre Legrand of Masséna's IV Corps clashed with Hiller's rear guard led by Feldmarschall-Leutnant Josef von Dedovich at Schärding and seized the bridge over the Inn. That same day, another of Masséna's divisions occupied Passau, having captured 400 Austrians. Meanwhile, Hiller was enjoying his independence from Archduke Charles, who was far away in Bohemia. Also, he was in easy communication with Emperor Francis I of Austria who wished to exert his influence on the campaign. Encouraged, Hiller came up with a plan to counterattack Masséna on the 27th and ordered Feldmarschall-Leutnant Emmanuel von Schustekh-Herve to implement it. Nothing came of this scheme and the Austrian retreat continued toward Linz. On 1 May, Legrand and 1,400 troops caught up with Schustekh's 850-man rear guard between Riedau and Kallham. The Dragoon Regiment of the Grand Duchy of Baden charged the 3rd battalion of the Jordis Infantry Regiment # 59, which was drawn up in square. Waiting until the foot soldiers fired a volley, the dragoons then charged and broke into the square. After their commander, Oberstleutnant Beck was cut down, 706 officers and men of the Jordis battalion laid down their weapons. Two squadrons of the Kienmayer Hussar Regiment # 8 suffered 10 killed, 50 wounded, and 23 captured. The Badeners reported losing only three killed and 10 wounded, though a large number of their horses were killed. There was a clash between General of Division Claude Carra Saint-Cyr's vanguard and General-Major Frederick Bianchi, Duke of Casalanza on 2 May at Räffelding, three kilometers southeast of Eferding. The Baden Dragoons lost 14 casualties, while Austrian losses were unreported. After abandoning Regensburg, Archduke Charles first retreated to Cham on the border of Bohemia where he reorganized his army. From there he marched for České Budějovice (Budweis). Fearing Napoleon might follow him into Bohemia, Charles wrote to Archduke John of Austria on 3 May that he planned to fight at Budweis. As late as 6 May, the main army remained in the vicinity of that city. However, detachments under Feldmarschall-Leutnant Johann von Klenau and General-Major Karl Wilhelm von Stutterheim operated closer to Linz on the north side of the Danube. On the night of 2 May, Emperor Francis left Linz, crossed the Danube, and hastened to join the army of his brother Charles. He left instructions for Hiller to delay Napoleon's advance by taking up positions behind the Traun at Ebelsberg and Lambach. If this failed, Hiller could defend the line of the Enns River farther east. Hiller posted General-Major Armand von Nordmann's 3,000-man brigade near Lambach to guard his south flank. Francis appointed his brother-in-law Archduke Maximilian of Austria-Este to command Vienna, but most of the garrison was poorly trained. On 2 May, Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre's Bavarian VII Corps reported sparring with Jellacic at Golling an der Salzach south of Salzburg. Bessières with his cavalry and Lannes with General of Division Nicolas Oudinot's II Corps infantry division reached Wels on the Traun to find the bridge burned. Generals of Division Louis Vincent Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire (III Corps), Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor (IV Corps), and Joseph Laurent Demont (III Corps) were nearby with their divisions and Napoleon arrived at Lambach. Vandamme's Württemberg VIII Corps marched in the vicinity of Riedau. Davout's III Corps was due to arrive in Passau on 3 May, while Napoleon ordered General of Division Marie François Rouyer to leave Regensburg and march to Passau. The 12,000-man Imperial Guard under General of Division Frédéric Henri Walther reached the vicinity of Braunau am Inn at the beginning of May. Battle Rear guard action Early on 3 May, General of Brigade Jacob François Marulaz set out from near Eferding with Masséna's IV Corps cavalry division. Following the mounted troopers, in order, were the infantry divisions of Generals of Division Michel Marie Claparède (on loan from II Corps), Claude Legrand, Carra Saint-Cyr, and Jean Boudet. The French cavalry ran into a small infantry ambush at Wilhering, which is on the Danube about halfway from Alkoven and Linz. At 9:00 AM, the column marched into Linz and took the road south toward Ebelsberg. At 3:00 AM, Hiller put his soldiers on the road. He directed Kienmayer's small II Reserve Armeekorps to lead the march, while the main bodies of the V and VI Armeekorps followed. That morning, the Austrian wing commander deployed four of his eight brigades as rear guards under Bianchi, Schustekh, General-Major Josef Radetzky, and Feldmarschall-Leutnant Karl von Vincent. As the Austrian wagon train filed across the bridge at Ebelsberg, Hiller's staff lost control of the situation, the drivers panicked, and the roadway became jammed with retreating vehicles and troops. Eventually, the mob of troops and wagons squeezed across the span and even Bianchi was across the Traun by 9:00 AM with the Duka Infantry Regiment # 39 and Ignaz Gyulai Infantry Regiment # 60. However, Schustekh was still somewhere to the southwest so Vincent and Radetzky drew up their forces on the west bank and waited for their colleague to make his appearance. Vincent had the Benjowsky Infantry Regiment # 31 and Splenyi Infantry Regiment # 51 of General-Major Josef Hoffmeister's brigade under his orders. He placed one battalion in the village of Klein München and the other five between there and Scharlinz. He screened the infantry with the Rosenberg Chevau-léger Regiment # 6. Radetzky, with two battalions and six squadrons, deployed on Vincent's left, watching for Schustekh. Radetzky's brigade included the Gradiskaner Grenz Infantry Regiment # 8, Merveldt Uhlan Regiment # 1, and Archduke Charles Uhlan Regiment # 3. Smith gives Radetzky 16 squadrons, while Petre counts only six. Schustekh finally appeared with the Kienmayer Hussar Regiment # 8 and General-Major Otto Hohenfeld's brigade, the Klebeck Infantry Regiment # 14 and Jordis Infantry Regiment # 59 and began crossing the bridge. At about 10 AM, Marulaz's troopers came under fire from the woods north of Scharlinz. While waiting for infantry support, he drew up the French 3rd, 14th, 19th, and 23rd Chasseurs à cheval in the first line, the Baden Light Dragoons, Grand Duchy of Hesse Garde Chevau-léger, and Württemberg Chevau-léger Regiments in the second line. Soon, General of Brigade Louis-Jacques Coëhorn's troops appeared and, at Masséna's personal command, attacked Klein München with the bayonet. Coëhorn's brigade included the 4th battalions of the 17th, 21st, 26th, and 28th Light Infantry Regiments, the Tirailleurs du Po, and the Tirailleurs Corses. By this time the Rosenberg Chevau-légers had withdrawn across the bridge at Vincent's orders. The Austrian defenders of the village put up a poor fight and Coëhorn's men drove them from their positions. From the direction of Wels, Bessières showed up with General of Brigade Hippolyte Piré's brigade, a hussar and a chasseurs à cheval regiment, and attacked Radetzky who covered Schustekh's retreat. Radetzky put up a gallant resistance, for which he later earned the Commander's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. Meanwhile, Hoffmeister made a stand behind the millstream on the west bank. His efforts were futile as French infantry and cavalry charged forward. Seeing that the situation was critical, Vincent ordered a retreat and soon the Austrians were stampeding across the bridge in panic. At about 11:00 AM, French troops reached the bridge. The men of the two brown-coated Tirailleur battalions burst through the gate at the west end and raced across the span. The Austrian artillery took the bridge under furious fire, killing friend and foe alike, but its fire was unable to stop the French advance. The bridge had been prepared for burning by Captain Simbschen of Hiller's staff, but the officer was not on the scene to give the orders to set it on fire. Hiller, who had been unconcernedly lunching on the Ebelsberg Castle terrace, finally woke up to the danger and began issuing orders. Cut off by the swift French advance, a squadron of Uhlans swam their horses across the river. An Austrian staff officer grabbed a French shako, crossed with the enemy infantry, and escaped into the town. Generalmajor Ferdinand, Graf Bubna von Littitz became a prisoner, while at least 500 of Hoffmeister's men and large numbers of other soldiers surrendered. The 2nd battalion of the Klebeck Regiment of Schustekh's force was captured in a body with its colors. Smith says Kerpen # 14 was captured but this is a misprint. Other soldiers drowned trying vainly to swim across the snow-melt swollen river. Fight for Ebelsberg When Kienmayer's soldiers reached Ebelsberg that morning, Hiller sent them marching on to Asten, Austria. He halted the V and VI Armeekorps troops on the heights east of the town where they began to cook breakfast. Hiller belatedly sent three battalions of Vienna Volunteers to occupy the town, three companies of the Lindenau Infantry Regiment # 29 (detached from III Armeekorps) to garrison the castle, and an artillery battery to take position near the castle. He failed to order any positions to be fortified before going to the castle for his noontime repast. Yet, Ebelsberg was an excellent defensive position, with the dominating hill-top castle on the north side and two-tiered heights rising behind the town. Coëhorn immediately led a column up the street to the left toward the castle, but the defenders mowed down the front ranks and killed the general's horse. His other troops in the town found themselves under a deadly fire from windows and rooftops, while the numerous Austrian guns on the heights sent projectiles crashing through the streets. One enterprising artillerist, Karl Lenk, inflicted serious losses on the French with his single cannon before retiring to join the other guns on the heights. Claparède added his two other brigades under Generals of Brigade Joseph Lesuire and Florentin Ficatier, to the battle. Lesuire's command included the 4th battalions of the 27th, 39th, 59th, 69th, and 76th Line Infantry Regiments, while Ficatier led the 4th battalions of the 40th, 64th, 88th, 100th, and 103rd Line. These troops were joined by the elite company of the 19th Chasseurs a Cheval and a section of artillery. Masséna organized a 20 gun artillery battery on the west bank to counter the devastating Austrian artillery fire. An Austrian counterattack from the north threatened the French in the town, but by 1:00 PM, Lesuire's brigade had taken the marketplace and was trying to outflank the enemy near the castle. As Lesuire's brigade faltered, Ficatier assaulted the castle in three columns but was repelled. Two battalions of Vienna Volunteers defending a large cemetery drove back a French charge with musketry, then launched a bayonet charge that drove their enemies back. Meanwhile, a third battalion of volunteers took the French in flank and rear from the side streets. The three battalions of Vienna Volunteers charged into the town and, reinforced by four infantry battalions, drove the French toward the marketplace. The 4th and 5th Vienna Volunteers and the Lindenau Regiment were involved in these attacks. As they pressed forward, they captured many prisoners including the commander of the Tirailleurs du Po. Aided by two guns firing point-blank canister rounds, the French desperately held onto the marketplace in house-to-house fighting. Oberst Maximilian Baumgarten was wounded while two French colonels were killed. Austrian pioneers and howitzer shells began setting some houses on fire, adding to the hellish atmosphere. As Masséna raged helplessly on the far bank, some Austrian pioneers set the end of the bridge on fire, but the strong wind blew out the flames. At this critical moment Colonel Jean Pierre Pouget's 26th Light Infantry Regiment appeared at the head of Legrand's division. Amazingly, Pouget got his troops across the bridge with minimal loss. Coëhorn appeared and gave the order, "You are going to follow this street to a chateau occupied by the enemy. You will attack it." Pouget obeyed and, after a climb, led his men within 40 paces of the castle. The castle, now garrisoned by men of the Jordis Infantry Regiment, suddenly erupted in flame and the blast of musketry cut down many French soldiers. Unhit, Pouget noticed that the deadliest fire came from a barred and loopholed window above the castle gate. He directed his men to silence the Austrian fire, but within ten minutes, three officers and 53 carabiniers were down. As the Austrians shot down the leading carabinier company, the rest of his light infantrymen waited in a column, unable to fire. Losses mounted alarmingly, and Pouget finally sent for a Lieutenant Guyot who was known as a crack shot. Guyot got within five meters of the deadly window and began firing shots as fast as loaded muskets could be handed to him. Seeing his example, others began doing the same and the fire from the window began to slacken. Sappers rushed forward and began swinging their axes at the gate while other men entered the castle through the cellar ventilators and fought their way inside. Soon after the sappers smashed in the gate, the garrison was quickly rounded up and captured. Led by General of Brigade François Roch Ledru des Essarts, the fresh 18th Line Infantry Regiment entered Ebelsberg. One battalion flushed the Austrians out of the buildings while the other two battalions swung to the right to flank their enemies out of position. Within half an hour, Legrand had secured the bridge and town gate. However, the bitter fight continued as the French issued out of the east sides of the town and castle. The Austrians stubbornly held their positions on the heights and pushed the French back into the town with cavalry charges. By this time Legrand's Baden brigade had arrived, led by General of Brigade Georges Kister and General-Major Harrant and consisting of 5,500 men in seven battalions. Hiller ordered his howitzers and pioneers to set fire to those parts of the town not already burnt down. Sometime after 4:00 PM, the infantry of Legrand and Claparède were cut off from all reinforcement by the conflagration, which destroyed three-quarters of the houses. As Ebelsberg burned, Hiller issued orders for a retreat. Since Marulaz's cavalry was unable to get through the streets, the French could not mount an effective pursuit. Ironically, one of the few surviving structures was the bridge. Result The Austrians admitted 566 killed, 1,713 wounded, and 2,216 captured, for a total of 4,495 casualties. James R. Arnold pointed out that the French rarely gave accurate casualty figures, but numbered their losses in excess of 4,000, including 700 captured. David Hollins counted Austrian losses as 8,340 and French casualties as 12,000 soldiers. Francis Loraine Petre stated Austrian losses as 2,000 killed and wounded, plus 2,200 captured. He noted that Masséna reported 2,800 total losses, including 1,800 killed, giving an unlikely killed-to-wounded ratio. Of these, Legrand reported losing 701 soldiers, including only 23 from his Baden brigade. Petre wrote that Masséna claimed 7,000–8,000 prisoners, while Napoleon privately wrote Lannes that 4,000 Austrians were captured. Digby Smith asserted that French casualties were 3,605 while Austrian losses were over 7,200, including 4,200 captured. Another source gave Austrian losses as 6,000 and French losses as 3,000. Petre listed total French strength as 22,100 and 20 guns, including Claparède's 8,400, Legrand's 10,000, Marulaz's 2,500, and Piré's 1,200. He gave the Austrians 22,000 troops and 70 guns, not counting Kienmayer's 4,500 infantry and 800 cavalry which Hiller allowed to leave the vicinity. Smith estimated French numbers as 22,000 men and 48 guns. Smith's Austrian totals were marred by a serious typographical error. At 7:00 AM that morning, Lannes' engineers rebuilt the bridge at Wels. Unaware of what was happening at Ebelsberg, Napoleon ordered Bessières' cavalry followed by Oudinot's infantry to cross the new bridge and march for Steyr on the Enns. Meanwhile, Molitor's division was on the road from Lambach to Kremsmünster, halfway to Steyr. When his troops reached there, they were diverted to Ebelsberg. Because of a strong wind, other French forces in the area did not hear the noise of the battle. When Napoleon finally arrived in Ebelsberg at dusk, he was greeted by the sight of many wounded who had burned to death. Though he was accustomed to the sight of dead and dying soldiers, the emperor was aghast at the thickly strewn blackened corpses. Napoleon was aware that the slaughter had been completely unnecessary, since Lannes' upstream crossing of the Traun would have forced Hiller to retire without a battle. The emperor chose not to publicly criticize Masséna and deliberately under-reported his losses. He understood that the aggressiveness and bravery displayed by his generals and troops would be needed in future actions, so he distributed awards. For his heroism, Lieutenant Guyot was named a Baron of the Empire and received a generous sum of money. At a review of the 26th Light the following day, the commander of the Imperial Guard Chasseurs à Pied paid Colonel Pouget a highly public complement. Hiller slipped away from the French and burned the bridges at every major stream during his retreat. On 7 May, the Austrians crossed to the north bank of the Danube at Mautern an der Donau which is near Krems an der Donau. Hiller left 10,000 troops under Dedovich to retreat on the south bank. Archduke Maximilian held Vienna with 35,000 troops, including 14 Landwehr battalions and 6,000 Vienna militia under Feldmarschall-Leutnant Andreas O'Reilly von Ballinlough. There were also eight regular, six Landwehr, and six Vienna Volunteers battalions led by Dedovich; the II Reserve Armeekorps grenadier brigade commanded by Kienmayer and General-Major Konstantin Ghilian Karl d'Aspré; and four battalions and five squadrons jointly led by Nordmann and General-Major Joseph, Baron von Mesko de Felsö-Kubiny. On the evening of 11 May, a French bombardment of Vienna completely unnerved Maximilian. The archduke abandoned the city on the 12th and withdrew with the greater part of the garrison to the north bank of the Danube, burning all the bridges. O'Reilly was left behind to carry out the surrender which included 13 generals, 180 officers, and 2,000 troops. The French found a military chest containing 4.5 million florins and large quantities of food, ammunition, and 100 cannon that Maximilian failed to carry off or destroy. The next major action was the Battle of Aspern-Essling on 21 and 22 May. Commentary Petre called Hiller's generalship, "as feeble as it could possibly be" and that his troops were "miserably handled", noting that he should have crushed Claparède's division or ejected it from the town when the French were at a two-to-one disadvantage. Petre believed that during the rear guard action, the Austrians actually outnumbered Coëhorn, Marulaz, and Piré. Robert M. Epstein called Hiller's counterattacks, "piecemeal and badly coordinated". He noted the large number of Austrian guns available (70) and their effective use to inflict losses on the French and to set fire to the town. Epstein wrote that the French ignored the lesson and carelessly went into the battle at Aspern-Essling against an opponent who was capable of handling large numbers of cannons to good effect. Napoleon indirectly criticized Masséna when he privately wrote to Lannes the next day, "As soon as I knew that they had had the stupidity to attack by force this famous position, and the only redoubtable one on the Traun which it was necessary to take, I feared some misfortune." Arnold believed that Masséna's order to assault the town was "far worse than ill advised". He asserted that this blunder, which sent hundreds of soldiers to a pointless death, showed how far the marshal's abilities had declined from their peak. Explanatory notes Notes References Further reading External links Conflicts in 1809 Battles of the Napoleonic Wars Battles of the War of the Fifth Coalition Battles involving Austria Battles involving France 1809 in the Austrian Empire 1809 in France May 1809 events Austrian Empire–France relations
4585788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanxi%20merchants	Shanxi merchants	Shanxi merchants, also known as Jin merchants (), were the group of merchants from Shanxi province, China. Jin is an abbreviated name of Shanxi. Even though the history of noticeable Shanxi merchants can be dated back to as early as the Spring and Autumn Period, more than 2000 years ago, Shanxi merchants became prominent during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and their dominant influence in Chinese commerce, within the nation and with neighboring Mongolia, Russia, and Japan, lasted for more than 500 years. The Shanxi merchants also operated an early Chinese type of draft bank known as the piaohao; these were the dominant form of banks in China until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. History Shanxi merchants were among the earliest Chinese businessmen and their history could be traced back to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period. Southern Shanxi first came into commercial prominence due to its proximity to the political and cultural centers of ancient China. However, it was not until the Ming and Qing dynasties, that Shanxi merchants really stood out among other Chinese merchant groups, built a strong and long-lasting commercial network and accumulated enormous wealth. At the beginning of Ming dynasty, the newly established government was in constant fighting with the remnant of the expelled Mongolian armies, along the northern border. In order to reduce the cost of logistics to transport food and other essential supplies to the military, the Ming government decided to grant salt sales license to those who deliver supplies for the frontier soldiers. The salt trade, as a high margin trade of essential goods, had been historically monopolized by the government to ensure enough tax, and the distribution of salt sales licenses served as one of the main profit sources for the early Shanxi merchants. Shanxi is located in North China close to the Ming-Northern Yuan border, and Yuncheng city in southern Shanxi has a very large natural salt production lake, therefore the geographical proximity was conveniently exploited by these merchants. In Qing dynasty, merchants from central Shanxi basin, including Yuci, Qixian, Taigu, Pingyao, etc. pioneered the first private financial system, so-called draft banks or Piaohao, throughout and even beyond China. By the end of the nineteenth century, thirty-two piaohao with 475 branches were in business covering most of China, and the central Shanxi region became the de facto financial centres of Qing China. During the Republic of China period, the Qing Shanxi merchants based on conventional draft banks and tea trade had largely fallen. The prominent example of Shanxi merchants during this time is H. H. Kung, who was highly influential in determining the economic policies of the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government. Legacies Business and culture legacy Shanxi merchants were active for more than five hundred years from the early Ming dynasty, creating centuries-old prosperity, leaving significant business and cultural legacies. Among the diverse businesses scope that Shanxi merchants had worked on, there are two main trades, one is the draft bank system, or Piaohao, serving as the main financial institutions, and the other is the tea trade to Mongolia and Russia, in exchange of fur and European goods. All piaohao were organised as single proprietaries or partnerships, where the owners carried unlimited liability. They concentrated on interprovincial remittances, and later on conducting government services. From the time of the Taiping Rebellion, when transportation routes between the capital and the provinces were cut off, piaohao began involvement with the delivery of government tax revenue. Piaohao grew by taking on a role in advancing funds and arranging foreign loans for provincial governments, issuing notes, and running regional treasuries. To successfully run a nationwide financial system, credibility was of paramount importance for the draft banks. There were numerous stories that Shanxi draft banks honored their bank notes even after generations or major disasters. An honorary system to the highest degree was a main legacy of the Shanxi merchants. They widely employed joint ventures among families living in the same villages or towns, yet they generally avoided using direct relative in the business management, direct relatives could only be owners together but not managers. This way they minimized the interference of personal bias based on kinship with professional business management. They were the first to separate the ownership and management of businesses, which is crucial for professional business development, such as draft bank financial systems. The professionalism of Shanxi Merchants was also well-known. Their professionalism was characterized by dedication and focus. The families of Shanxi Merchants were generally different from historically wealthy families, who gained wealth mainly through political privilege with key family members as bureaucrats in the court. A lot of Shanxi merchants tended to run businesses without ambition in politics. Although some of them did eventually seek higher social status by joining the Chinese bureaucratic system, and combined the business network and wealth with political power. China Central Television created an eight-part documentary about them in 2006. Architecture legacy The enormous wealth accumulated from the international trade and the financial institutions had enabled the Shanxi merchants to build luxurious family residences The houses and gardens built by them are culture and architecture heritages now, and most of these buildings are scattered throughout the central Shanxi basin. The notable architecture complexes are: Wang Family Compound in Lingshi, which is the largest of the Shanxi Courtyard Houses. Qiao Family Compound in Qi County Qu Family Compound in Qi County Chang Family Compound in Yuci Cao Family Compound in Taigu The Kung Family Residence in Taigu, where H. H. Kung's family used to live. The Meng Family Courtyard in Taigu, later, this private family compound was transformed to the Ming Hsien school (铭贤学校), which is further incorporated as part of Shanxi Agricultural University. Shen Family Compound, (申家大院) in Changzhi. Origin of Shanxi Banks There is still no consensus on the details of origin of Shanxi Banks. Most scholars believe that the Shanxi banks are a native innovation from China, while some western scholars (initially proposed by Randall Morck) hypothesize a potential influence from Russia or Britain. Rishengchang Rishengchang, the first draft bank or piaohao (票號), originated from Xiyuecheng Dye Company Pingyao in central Shanxi. Rishengchang was estimated to be founded during the Qing dynasty in 1823. However, the exact founding year remains controversial, some scholars argue it was found in 1797 or 1824. To deal with the transfer of large amounts of cash from one branch to another, the company introduced drafts, cashable in the company's many branches around China. Although this new method was originally designed for business transactions within the Xiyuecheng Company, it became so popular that in 1823 the owner gave up the dye business altogether and reorganized the company as a special remittance firm, Rishengchang Piaohao. In the next thirty years, eleven piaohao were established in Shanxi province, including Pingyao and neighboring counties of Qi County, Taigu, and Yuci. By the end of the nineteenth century, thirty-two piaohao with 475 branches were in business covering most of China, and the central Shanxi region became the de facto financial centres of Qing China. The Chinese banking institutions of draft bank or piaohao were also known as Shanxi banks because they were owned primarily by Shanxi merchants. All piaohao were organised as single proprietaries or partnerships, where the owners carried unlimited liability. They concentrated on interprovincial remittances, and later on conducting government services. From the time of the Taiping Rebellion, when transportation routes between the capital and the provinces were cut off, piaohao began involvement with the delivery of government tax revenue. Piaohao grew by taking on a role in advancing funds and arranging foreign loans for provincial governments, issuing notes, and running regional treasuries. Geopolitical Background of Shanxi Draft Bank During the Mongol Empire and Yuan dynasty, the Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanate ruled over the lands of Central Asia and further west, leading to the creation of prosperous business cities like those in Samarkand, Uzbekistan. During this time, the Silk Road was unified under one power, and traders like Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta across Eurasia could travel peacefully. However, after Mongol Empire was succeeded by several smaller states over the centuries, the overland Silk Road had become splintered and less used due to deterioration and political destabilization. Bandits had drained most of the region of commerce, and the subsequent Ming and Qing dynasties of China had overland power struggles with other political powers (the Ming competed with the Northern Yuan, and the Qing declined after the Opium Wars with European powers). From the late 16th century, the Silk Road had become nearly impassable making it desolate for commercial purposes. Thus in the 19th century, the Shanxi merchants did business in the Xinjiang region, which was the entry into western China, but few merchants would trade along the further west along the former route itself at this point. As the trade had ceased in this region Western relic hunters of the 18th and 19th centuries would often describe ruins along the once magnificent trading and commercial route. The Ming dynasty had made trading through the sea illegal and following the Manchu conquest of the Ming dynasty, the Qing had ordered the depopulation of 16 kilometer wide area along the entire Chinese coast. The Qing army leveled all buildings and removed all residents of the area inland in three days, a move done to isolate Southern Ming dynasty rebels on Taiwan. The quarantine band around the Chinese coast which was marked with signs stating "anyone found over this line shall be beheaded instantly", was thoroughly patrolled by the military of the Qing dynasty and the affected area was widened a total of three times. In the year 1683 the coastal areas of China were allowed to be resettled and in the year 1865 at the port cities of Guangzhou, Zhangzhou, Ningpo, and Yuntai a more limited form of international trade was allowed by the government of the Qing dynasty. This very limited form of international trade along some parts of the Chinese coast was ended when, in the year 1757, the Qianlong Emperor had closed off all of these port cities to foreigners once again. Limited trade resumed in Guangzhou following the uninvited arrival of British ships in the year 1759 and the restricted reopening of the city a year later in 1760. The restrictions placed on foreign trade by the government of the Qing dynasty was known as the cohong system (or the kung hung system), only select Chinese merchants were allowed to trade with pre-screened and completely unarmed male foreign merchants on a riverbank outside of the city walls of Guangzhou for a limited time during a designated "trading season", and the trade conducted during these "trading seasons" had strict quotas. These dealings were supervised by corrupt government officials that were seeking bribes from the parties involved. During this era foreigners doing business in China risked unpredictable fines imposed on them by corrupt government officials, enthusiastic torture, imprisonment based on arbitrary accusations, and instant death until the year 1842, this was when the British were victorious in the First Opium War. The government of the Qing dynasty was forced to open four more port cities, known as treaty ports, and Common Law enclaves were established in all five Chinese treaty port cities under the treaty. As the piaohao came into existence during this period of xenophobia, they were an independently formed Chinese parallel to the European banking system created by the Shanxi merchants and because trade along the Chinese coastlines was so restricted the Shanxi merchants managed to form international trade networks across different routes. Trade with the Russian Empire During its history, the banking industry in China has evolved parallel to that of the western world, the sudden appearance of genuine banks and financial companies from Europe in China exposed this. It is suspected that the banks created by the Shanxi merchants might have actually been inspired by western banks due to their trade with Russia. As the Silk Road had become completely choked off by the time of the Qing dynasty, and its government had the Chinese ports basically hermetically sealed off from foreign trade, only a small amount of international trade through the Gobi desert was conducted starting in Shanxi. The Russian Empire was eager to engage in trade with the Chinese, every year the Shanxi merchants would transport various goods such as silk, cloth, tea, sugar, cigarettes, and porcelain to the city of Lanzhou and the territory of Xinjiang, as well as through the city of Kyakhta to the branches of the Shanxi merchants in far away cities like Moscow and the Russian capital city of St. Petersburg. Chinese tea was imported primarily in the form of hefty hard-packed tea bricks which allowed each camel to carry large quantities in a more compact manner and were sometimes used as an alternative currency. The trade routes between imperial Russia and the Qing dynasty was known as the "Tea Road" and following the signing of the Kyakhta Treaty in the year 1727 the trading posts of Kyakhta, Zuluhaitu, and Nerchinsk were opened to trade with the Chinese, though only Kyakhta ever saw any significant trade and basically all goods from and to China went through the city. Kyakhta was strategically located next to Outer Mongolia. The Tea Road was a trade route extending 13,000 kilometers through land, crossing more than 200 cities in China (including Outer Mongolia), and Russia with its influence extending beyond these countries. Initially, the imperial Russian state maintained a complete monopoly on the lucrative trade with China, furthermore the government of the Qing dynasty required a prior preclearance of all exported goods in its capital city of Beijing, this policy initially meant that trade between the two countries was minimal. But in the year 1755, the government of the Qing dynasty dispensed with preclearance. Trade saw another boom when Catherine the Great had opened up the city of Kyakhta to private Russian merchants in the year 1762. By the mid-1800s Shanxi merchants were selling long Boyar caravans full of exported goods that headed to St. Petersburg for resale to the rest of Europe and the Americas. The Shanxi merchants were the dominant Chinese merchants operating in Kyakhta and the rest of Russia along the Tea Road. Both the Russians and the Shanxi merchants benefitted greatly from this trade until the Qing was forced to open up several of its port cities following its defeat in the Opium Wars. The Shanxi province itself did not plant tea itself, but the Shanxi merchants sold Chinese tea around the world through the route. The Tea Road route along which the old Shanxi merchants were the major force behind the international Chinese tea business started from the Wuyi Mountains in the province of Fujian in Southeast China, this mountain was notably the birthplace of many of China's renowned teas. Possible Russian and British influence on modern piaohao While the Shanxi merchants entered Russia, banks in imperial Russia took deposits, they made loans, exchanged different currencies, and let merchants and traders transfer funds to each other, though they primarily only made loans to noblemen they favoured. Furthermore, the banks in Russia were constantly unstable and felt high pressure to lend money to court favourites. The imperial Russian capital city of St. Petersburg was the westernmost known location of a Shanxi merchant operation, furthermore the city was also the doorway of Russia to the rest of Europe. Because of its status, St. Petersburg also housed many branch offices of Western European banking and financial companies, Thompstone in 2004 described the city as being "a 'City of London' in miniature" due to the huge influence of British merchants and their banks over the city of St. Petersburg. The 2010 paper "The Shanxi Banks" by Randall Morck and Fan Yang claimed that it was plausible that Shanxi merchants could have been inspired by these British banks to create the modern piaohao. Shanxi merchant Li Daquan, who while running the Xiyucheng dyed goods company's operations, organized the silver shipments between the city of Tianjin and the province of Shanxi. The goods shipped to Tianjin would have first gone through Kalgan, where the Russian Kyakhta caravans would pass beneath the Great Wall. They proposed that Li Daquan had heard about how the European banking system worked through other Shanxi merchants that had done business in European Russia and that he decided to try it in China. Randall Morck and Fan Yang claimed that Li Daquan deliberately omitted saying that his ideas that established the piaohao were of European origin as an extreme culture of xenophobia existed in the Qing dynasty at the time. Possible reasons for success of Shanxi merchants There are many proposed reasons as to why the Shanxi merchants found success during the Qing dynasty while merchants from other provinces were generally less successful. One proposition is that the province of Shanxi benefitted from gold and silver that was stolen out of the imperial treasury of the declining Ming dynasty. In the year 2007 a coin board of 1.5 ton pre-Ming cash coins was discovered at a construction site in the province of Shanxi, which gave this proposed reason more credence. Another plausible explanation for the position that Shanxi merchants had is based on defecting 1640s Ming soldiers reappearing in the Shanxi province acting as private security to the region's merchants, this gave the merchants from this province a distinct edge under waning rule of law during the transition from Ming to Qing. A similar hypothesis proposes that hiding 1640s Ming soldiers were redirecting their talents to commerce. While locals from Shanxi were oddly absent from the top rank imperial exam records during the Qing dynasty, the dynasty's 19th-century enthusiasm for the services of the piaohao asperses this hypothesis somewhat. The most plausible explanation of the financial prominence of the province of Shanxi states that its salt works at Xiechi Lake fostered mercantile activity that would ultimately need banks. A state salt monopoly held by the imperial government persisted, with only a few minor interruptions, from the Han dynasty until the year 1370 during the second year of the Ming dynasty. In 1370 the army of the Ming began using its salt rights, known as yan yin, which were initially redeemable only at the Xiechi Lake, to pay for transporting provisions to Chinese soldiers stationed on the Great Wall. As the Shanxi merchants were handling this lucrative business from its very beginnings, they managed to get a piece of the Ming state's monopoly and the imperial government quite likely netted more revenues of the salt monopoly because of higher overall efficiency. This policy that benefited the Shanxi merchants remained in effect long enough for them to accumulate a substantial amount of wealth for themselves. This hypothesis regarding the rise of the Shanxi merchants also accords with evidence that the region comprising the current Shanxi province was not an important commercial centre until the reign of the Ming dynasty. See also Shanxi Piaohao Yan Xishan References External links CCTV documentary History of Shanxi Chinese merchants Economic history of China
4585817	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Union%20Hotel%20%28Saratoga%20Springs%2C%20New%20York%29	Grand Union Hotel (Saratoga Springs, New York)	The Grand Union Hotel was located on Broadway in Saratoga Springs, New York. The hotel began as a boarding house, built by Gideon Putnam in 1802, but grew into the world's largest hotel, before it was demolished in 1953. The initial draw to the area were summer vacationers attracted by the mineral spas. Over time this became a luxury hotel that catered to the wealthy elite. Renovations and expansions saw the hotel grow to serve over 2,000 guests as a destination resort. The Grand Union Hotel Stakes race was run at the Saratoga race track until 1958 and was named after this historic hotel. Gideon & Doanda Putnam years (1802–1836) The Grand Union Hotel, built by city founder Gideon Putnam, began as Putnam's Tavern and Boarding House in 1802. The original building would not have been considered a true hotel, because the concept of a modern hotel was invented by American architect Isaiah Rogers decades later in 1823. Putnam bought a one-acre building site adjacent to Congress Spring from Judge Walton. The boarding house was finished in 1803. The building was a mortise and tenon clapboard structure that was described as two Federal style houses placed end to end. It had 10 windows across the front, whitewashed exterior, and dark shutters. The structure was 70 feet long, three stories high, and had 70 guestrooms. The original structure most likely contained small private guestrooms, the Putnam's living spaces, and probably a few formal parlors. A large porch was added in 1822, and Gideon's wife, Doanda Putnam, painted a sign for Putnam's Tavern depicting Israel Putnam's famous eradication of the last wolf in Connecticut During the hotel's early days, it was probably open only during the summer. This was common practice in upstate New York; the similar Sans Souci and Aldridge House hotels in Ballston Spa were also only open in the summertime. The mineral springs, which were purported to have great health effects, were the main attraction for this region and were typically visited only in the summer. Ballston Spa was the original vacation destination, and Putnam hoped to tap into the tourist trade by opening his hotel close to the mineral springs. The first summer that the boarding house was open, it was filled to capacity with 70 guests and was a huge success. During Putnam's lifetime the building was expanded to over twice its original size. Following Gideon Putam's death in 1812, Doanda oversaw the running over the boarding house until 1836. The name of the boarding house was changed to Union Hall sometime prior to Doanda's death. Rockwell and Washington Putnam years (1836–1864) In 1836, following their mother's death, Rockwell and Washington Putnam bought their brothers’ and sisters’ interest in the Union Hall and ran the establishment from 1836–1864. The hotel itself constantly expanded. It retained a “U” shape for most of its existence, with one large section of building fronting Broadway and two large wings extending down the side streets. The entire first floor of the hotel would have been used as public space. In an advertisement dated 1843, the Union Hall was described as having 400 feet of frontage on Broadway and included “spacious saloons, dining halls, and piazzas, and also the delightful garden and pleasure grounds.” These covered about four acres of land. Congress Spring was about 200 feet to the west of the building. This 1846 advertisement claimed that the building “has again undergone thorough repair, been repainted and otherwise renovated, and an addition of 70 feet has been made to the dining hall, so that it is now capable of seating 450 persons.” The dining hall was over 200 feet in length. Whether they were original to the complex or later additions, by 1860 Union Hall had a great number of out-buildings, including sundry barns and stables. The hotel had been renovated to include at least four floors by the 1860s and contained two formal parlors. The piazza out front was three stories high. The main entrance and office was at the center of the Broadway front, in a rotunda, which was 80 feet in diameter and extended to the top of the building, with balconies on each of the five stories overlooking the entrance and grand saloon. To the left of the office were reception rooms and a grand saloon parlor. Beyond the drawing room were smaller private parlors. On the Congress Street wing was the dining hall, which was expanded several times. The dining hall had frescoes and was furnished with mirrors. The rooms of the hotel were furnished with hand-made, elegant furnishings. There were several suites for family use. Summertime at Union Hall was meant to be an event of epic proportions. The dining hall had elaborate meals every day, “it is like attending a dinner party every day, and a full-dress party every night.” There was frequently dancing in the ballroom following dinner, especially on weekends. The elite came to stay at Union Hall, including millionaires, governors, senators, congressmen, judges, presidents, literary figures, and many others. Dinner menus at the Union Hall (1854) included Vermicilli for soup, for fish baked bass with port wine sauce, boiled leg of mutton, corned beef, chicken with pork, beef a la mode, Phipps ham, beef and tongues. Roasts were beef, veal, saddle of mutton, turkey, saddle of lamp, venison with currant jelly, ducks. Entrees included chicken pie French style, mutton with vegetables, rice croquettes flavored with wine, Ficandeau of veal, tomato sauce, breaded lamp chops, broiled pigeons, a la Americans, stewed mutton with potatoes, casserole de Ris a la Finacore, macaroni Italian style. Pastries included pineapple pie, apple pie, charlotte russe a la vanilla, and deserts were raisins, almonds, walnuts, nuts, nutmeg, melons, oranges, apples, and watermelons. In the 1840s, the United States hotel was built by Elias Benedict. For many years, Union Hall and Congress Hall were the most spectacular hotels in Saratoga Springs. When the United States Hotel was built, it passed the Union Hotel in prestige and beauty. The hotel industry was incredibly competitive, and there became a constant need to make improvements, enlargements, and more ornate decorations to the hotels in order to remain competitive in the market and to draw the richest, most elite clientele. Leland Brothers years (1864–1872) Warren Leland, Charles Leland, George E. Leland, and Lewis Leland bought the hotel in 1864. During this period of time, the Grand Union Hotel reached the pinnacle of its popularity and fame. The Leland brothers were already well-known hotel proprietors and also owned additional hotels in the area, such as Montgomery Hall. Under the direction of the Leland brothers, the hotel saw constant improvements and enlargements in order to respond to the growing competition in the hotel industry. The hotel grew to four stories with incredibly ornate interiors. The Leland brothers changed the hotel's name to Union Hall (1864) and then the Grand Union Hotel (1869). The exterior of the hotel morphed until it reflected the Second Empire architectural style. This style was reflected in the ornate mansard roofs with slate shingles (added in 1870), cornices at the tops of the roofs and brackets under the eaves. There were four large rectangular towers with one being larger than the others by one floor and rotunda on the top. All four towers had dormer windows on the top floor and flags flying high on the tops of each tower. There were classical columns along the piazza. The ornamentation was designed to make the structure appear huge, imposing, and expensive. The Leland brothers’ first order of business was to erect a 1,600 seat opera house on the grounds of the Union Hotel, near Federal Street. The Opera House opened on July 4, 1865, and General Ulysses S. Grant, hero of the Civil War and subsequently President of the United States was present for the opening. On either side of the Opera House were erected what were called “cottages,” which were like private houses clustered together and provided private and spacious accommodations for the very wealthy. The dining room was one of the focal points of the hotel's design. The hall was expanded several times until it was able to seat 1000 people, the tables placed across the room at intervals of five feet and a 10-foot passageway down the middle of the room. The dining room was expanded after the Civil War years to serve up to 1,400 people at a time. A billiards room and reading-rooms were added in later expansions. Also, there was a wine storage room purported to be worth $50,000. In an advertisement in 1871, the Leland brothers write “This establishment is by far the largest and most complete hotel in the world, and with its various buildings, cottages, lawns, groves, and promenades, occupies seven acres of land comprising nearly an entire block of the town…four hundred large and airy rooms on the first and second floors, all rendered easy of access by Atwood’s vertical railway. Many of these in suites for the accommodation of families and several detached cottages, built and furnished expressly for family accommodations. Each cottage contains eight airy pleasant rooms with bath and closet. The banqueting room, an important feature of this establishment, has ample and sumptuous accommodations for 1,200. its enormous size—240 feet by 60, ceilings 25 feet high, lighted by 40 large windows and detached from the culinary department renders this superb apartment airy and pleasant at all times.” During this area, private baths were unheard of except for the extremely wealthy, and the Grand Union offered spacious bath houses with hot and cold showers, plunge and swimming baths. Concerts were held every morning on the piazzas of the Grand Union from 1865 on. Evenings were reserved for hops, afternoons for garden parties. Once a week there were children's garden parties. The Canfield Casino (“Morrissey’s Club House”) was built in 1862 by John Morrissey and the Saratoga Race Course opened in 1864. The two gambling locations were received with explosive fame, and attendance to Saratoga Springs and to the Grand Union Hotel increased exponentially. The additions on the building proved too expensive for the Leland brothers, and they declared bankruptcy on February 28, 1872. A. T. Stewart years (1872–1876) Alexander Turney Stewart bought Union Hall from the bankrupt Leland brothers for $532,000 on March 13, 1872 and immediately began adding on. Keeping with tradition the hotel catered to the tourist trade, opening around the first of May and closing around the first of October. Under Stewart's ownership the hotel's frontage was 1400 feet, 450 on Broadway. A rear interior piazza was added in 1876, described in an advertisement a year later "18 feet in width, three stories in height, 1250 feet in length." The whole interior was remodeled, and the 4-acre garden renovated. The second major change in 1876 was the addition of an ornate 60 x 85 foot white and gold ballroom where the Opera House used to be. Three huge partially electric crystal chandeliers, banners, and flags hung from the ceiling. Over a white pine floor hung an allegorical painting by Adolphe Yvon, The Genius of America, weighing 600 pounds. Napier Lothian conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra at the Grand Union Hotel for many years, from 1880 through the 1890s. The Concerts were given every morning on the piazzas of the hotel and hops on occasional evenings in the ballroom. Entertainment for children was held every week. The guestrooms were expanded to accommodate 2000 guests. The dining room is listed as 55 × 280 feet and could accommodate 1200 guests, and the ballroom at 60×85 feet. There are listed bowling alleys and billiard rooms, as well as private dining and supper rooms. Elevators were installed by 1872, possibly earlier. By 1877 there was indoor plumbing, with "ice-cold spring of pure and delicious fresh water, connected by underground pipes, whereby a constant and abundant supply, both hot and cold, is furnished in every room of the hotel." By 1876 the Grand Union Hotel could claim the title as the world's largest hotel. Society's elite stayed in Saratoga Springs during the summertime, and the Hotel sought to attract the most wealthy to it. There is at least one account of Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt and his friend William Wilson Corcoran dining at the Grand Union in August 1866. The famous actress Lillian Russell first appeared in Saratoga with railroad tycoon Diamond Jim Brady on her arm in 1882. Her appearances continued beyond 1900. She often traveled down Broadway in her Victorian carriage and two matching thoroughbreds, or shocked observers by riding a gold-plated bicycle with handlebars bearing her initials spelled out in diamonds and emeralds. In 1877, Henry Hilton, the manager of the hotel and executor of Stewart's will, denied entry to Jewish Joseph Seligman and his family, creating nationwide controversy. It was the first antisemitic incident of its kind in the United States to achieve widespread publicity. After Stewart's death in April 1876, his heirs decided that the enormous hotel was too big a burden. They first leased the building to Woolley and Gerrans in 1892, and W. Edgar Woolley ran it until 1911. Woolley years (1892–1911) W. Edgar Woolley was the father of Edgar Montillion "Monty" Woolley of the stage, radio and screen fame. W. Edgar Woolley leased the Grand Union Hotel during the late 1890s and into the early part of the 1900s. Woolley and Gerrans were prominent in hoteliers in New York State during this time period. Woolley brought the famous Victor Herbert Orchestra to the Grand Union Hotel in 1892, and the orchestra continued to play through at least 1905. During these years, the hotel handled its greatest businesses due in large part to the attraction of the orchestra. The Victor Herbert Orchestra played with over 50 members and held several concerts a day on the piazza and in the ballroom. It is rumored that the famous Babes in Toyland operetta (1903) was written and performed at the Grand Union during this time. Woolley sought to make the Grand Union Hotel a convention center. The Republican State Convention came to the hotel in 1894, 1895, 1896 and 1904. The Department of New York Grand Army of the Republic came to the hotel in June 1896, the Grand Commandery of the Knights Templar of the State of New York and the Sessions of the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court both came in 1905, the Ancient Order of Hibernians and the State Department of the Grand Army of the Republic both came in 1906. The 30th Triennial Convention of the Templar Orders of the United States came to the Grand Union on July 6, 1907 and the National Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic came on September 9–14, 1907. Other conventions included the World's Temperance Congress and the National Hotel Men's Convention, the Grand Council Royal Arcanum, and many others. The Grand Union also sought to cash in on the success of the regatta during this time period that was held on Saratoga Lake. At least one crystal chandelier in the ballroom was purchased for in 1902. Woolley did not renew its lease on the hotel in 1911. At least one article attributes their decline to re-lease the hotel on the ban on horse racing, which occurred in 1911. The hotel was still owned by the Stewart Estate. The legal team representing the owners planned to auction off the furnishings of the hotel and demolish the hotel, claiming that the land would be more valuable than the hotel itself. The hotel was saved from demolition by Frank Hathorn. Frank and Florence Hathorn years (1912-1950) Frank Hathorn purchased the Grand Union Hotel in 1912 to save the hotel for Saratoga Springs, but Hathorn died one year later. His daughter, Florence Hathorn, ran the Grand Union for many years; she sought to modernize the hotel during her proprietorship. She managed to refurnish and redecorate the lobby in green and white colors. She also sought to bring conventions to the hotel as Woolley had done before her, and was successful in bringing the Spanish War Veterans, Grand Lodge of Knights of Pythias, New York State Food Merchants Association, and the New York State CIO in 1944. Dining was still served in the large dining room, and dancing was scheduled for Saturday nights, with music by Bernie Collins, a well-known band leader. The following year the hotel saw 14 conventions booked at the hotel. Rates for a room plus meals were $10 and $12 per day (for a room without a private bathroom). Private baths took up approximately 30% of the hotel, and rates for those rooms were $15 and $18 for singles and $22 to $40 for a double. The managers of the hotel estimated that it would cost $50,000 to get to the hotel ready for the summer season, that cost involving painting, papering, upholstering, plumbing, and restocking the inventory. However, the Great Depression, followed by World War II took a heavy toll on the vacation industry and funds for updating the enormous structure. The city also enforced heavy taxes on the building. Florence Hathorn eventually sold the hotel to Tikvah Associates, Inc. of New York City. Irving Barasch was the president of this company, whose family owned the Empire and Brooklyn Hotels also located in Saratoga Springs. Eventually the, Grand Union Hotel was purchased by a group of citizens as stockholders. The hotel was conducted by the late Edward C. Sweeny until 1950 when it was sold to Broadway Saratoga Corporation, headed by Louis Ginsberg from Glens Falls, for $150,000. The last corporation gave up the struggle to run the hotel after two years and sold it to the Grand Union Company. The turn of the century saw a rise of anti-gambling sentiment. The Canfield Casino closed in 1904, and the Saratoga Race Course did not run in 1911 or 1912. This loss created a major economic loss for the city of Saratoga and for the Grand Union Hotel. The future of the hotel was foreshadowed by the demolition of Congress Hall Hotel in 1913. Frank's father Henry H. Hathorn previously owned and rebuilt the Congress Hall Hotel. 1950 – Demolition The Grand Union Hotel was sold to auctioneers George & Hyman Siegel for $400,000. That price included $100,000 for the furnishings and $300,000 for the real estate. The building was demolished little by little, from 1952 to 1953, on the 150th anniversary of the building of the hotel. Prior to the demolition, the auctioneers sold the contents of the hotel. The famous crystal chandeliers ended up in a hotel in Washington, D.C. after being sold for $1,500, and the inlaid wood floors ended up in a factory in Cohoes, NY. The Genius of America was donated to the New York State Education Department. In the vacant spot, a supermarket was constructed. Ironically, the name of the supermarket was the Grand Union, although the name was purely coincidental. Notes References Demolished hotels in New York (state) Hotel buildings completed in 1802 Buildings and structures in Saratoga Springs, New York Hotels established in 1802 1802 establishments in New York (state) 1953 disestablishments in New York (state) Demolished buildings and structures in New York (state) Buildings and structures demolished in 1953
4585857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College%20tuition%20in%20the%20United%20States	College tuition in the United States	College tuition in the United States is the cost of higher education collected by educational institutions in the United States, and paid by individuals. It does not include the tuition covered through general taxes or from other government funds, or that which is paid from university endowment funds or gifts. Tuition for college has increased as the value, quality, and quantity of education have increased. Many feel that increases in cost have not been accompanied by increases in quality, and that administrative costs are excessive. The value of a college education has become a topic of national debate in the U.S. History Under the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the powers of the federal government are limited to those mentioned explicitly in the Constitution. As education is not mentioned, educational policy and schools are state matters in the United States. The federal government operates military academies, but there is no national university nor national academic standards. The development of national standards has been driven from outside, especially the accounting industry, as more and more money became involved. An important predecessor was the Morrill Act of 1862, which provided for land-grant colleges using surplus federal lands recently acquired. The size and cost of U.S. public higher education increased dramatically after World War II with the introduction of the GI bill and greater federal funding for higher education. Policy makers believed that university-based research had played a critical role in determining the outcome of World War II and would be essential for success in the Cold War. With the launch of the Sputnik satellite by the Soviet Union, many feared that the United States was falling behind on science and technology because it relied on private wealth to fund higher education, in contrast to the Soviet system, which was publicly funded and perceived by some to be more meritocratic and more closely tied to the needs of the economy and the military. In the United States, many families were unable to borrow sufficient funds to finance a high-quality education for their children, and to thereby increase their children's earning capacity and standard of living, until after the introduction of federal student loans. As public subsidies fell and costs and quality of education increased, loans played an increasingly important role in higher education finance. During the late 1960s, as the nation's economic growth slowed, the question of who should pay for higher education came under fresh political scrutiny. Decades-old no-tuition policies at some campuses fell by the wayside as politicians promoted new austerity policies. In California, Governor Ronald Reagan promoted cuts to higher education as a way to win favor with business interests and conservative voters. He justified tuition as necessary given voters' aversion to any increase in taxes. In New York, federal and state politicians forced austerity on New York city to satisfy bond holders. New York reformers claimed that The City University of New York's longstanding no-tuition policy was no longer financially feasible. In the context of a stagnant economy and a growing conservative movement embracing government austerity, no-tuition policies fell out of favor in many areas of the country during this period. Overview of tuition rates in the U.S. The United States has one of the most expensive higher education systems in the world, and also one of the most successful in terms of the boost to earnings from higher education. Public colleges have no control over one major revenue source — the state. In 2016–17, the average cost of annual tuition in the United States ranged from $9,700 for public four-year institutions to $33,500 for private four-year institutions. Private colleges increased their tuition by an average of 1.7 percent in 2016–17, the smallest rise in four decades, according to the U.S. Consumer Price Index. The average college tuition has decreased in the 2020-2021 school year in both private and public schools. Due to the high price of college tuitions about 43 percent of students have to reject their first choice of schools. Causes of tuition increases Cost shifting and privatization Between 2007–08 and 2017–18, published in-state tuition and fees at public four-year institutions increased at an average rate of 3.2% per year beyond inflation, compared with 4.0% between 1987–88 and 1997–98 and 4.4% between 1997–98 and 2007-08. One cause of increased tuition is the reduction of state and federal appropriations to state colleges, causing the institutions to shift the cost over to students in the form of higher tuition. State support for public colleges and universities has fallen by about 26 percent per full-time student since the early 1990s. In 2011, for the first time, American public universities took in more revenue from tuition than state funding. Critics say the shift from state support to tuition represents an effective privatization of public higher education. About 80 percent of American college students attend public institutions. Critics also note that investments in higher education are severely tax disadvantaged compared to other investments. Heavy taxes and inadequate subsidies to higher education contribute to underinvestment in education and a shortage of educated labor, as demonstrated by the very high pre-tax returns to investments in higher education. Bubble theory The view that higher education is a bubble is controversial. Most economists do not think the returns to college education are falling. On the contrary, they appear to be both increasing and much higher than the returns o other investments such as the stock market, bonds, real estate, or private equity. One rebuttal to the claims that a bubble analogy is misleading is the observation that the 'bursting' of the bubble are the negative effects on students who incur student debt. For example, the American Association of State Colleges and Universities reports that "Students are deeper in debt today than ever before...The trend of heavy debt burdens threatens to limit access to higher education, particularly for low-income and first-generation students, who tend to carry the heaviest debt burden. Federal student aid policy has steadily put resources into student loan programs rather than need-based grants, a trend that straps future generations with high debt burdens. Even students who receive federal grant aid are finding it more difficult to pay for college." Student loans Another proposed cause of increased tuition is U.S. Congress' occasional raising of the 'loan limits' of student loans, in which the increased availability of students to take out deeper loans sends a message to colleges and universities that students can 'afford more,' and then, in response, institutions of higher education raise tuition to match, leaving the student back where he began, but deeper in debt. College fees begin to accumulate when people start college, such as orientation and freshman fees, and additional charges upon your departure, such as senior and commencement fees. In 1987, then-Secretary of Education William Bennett argued that "... increases in financial aid in recent years have enabled colleges and universities blithely to raise their tuitions, confident that Federal loan subsidies would help cushion the increase." This statement came to be known as the "Bennett Hypothesis." The nonpartisan New York Fed studied the effect of increased loan supply on tuition following large policy changes in federal aid program maximums available to undergraduate students that occurred between 2008 and 2010 found "that institutions that were most exposed to these [loan limit] maximums ahead of the policy changes experienced disproportionate tuition increases around these changes, with effects of changes in institution-specific program maximums of Pell Grant, subsidized." However, many empirical studies that have tested the effects of student loans on college tuition find no evidence of an increase in tuition, especially net of scholarships and after taking into account increases in the quality of education funded by increases in tuition. Moreover, the widespread availability of private student loans makes it unlikely that public student loan availability limits demand for education. An additional rebuttal to the student loan theory is the fact that even in years when loan limits have not risen, tuition has still continued to climb, and tuition has increased more at public institutions than at private institutions. Public college tuition has jumped 33 percent nationwide since 2000. One recent working paper posted online by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York in 2015 (revised in 2016) concluded that undergraduate institutions more exposed to increases in student loan program maximums tend to respond with modest raises in tuition prices. The working paper has not yet been subject to peer review. Lack of bankruptcy protection A third, novel theory claims that the recent change in federal law removing all standard consumer protections (truth in lending, bankruptcy proceedings, statutes of limits, the right to refinance, adherence to usury laws, and Fair Debt & Collection practices, etc.) strips students of the ability to declare bankruptcy, and, in response, the lenders and colleges know that students, defenseless to declare bankruptcy, are on the hook for any amount that they borrow, including late fees and interest, which can be capitalized and increase the principal loan amount, thus removing the incentive to provide students with a reasonable loan. However, changes in the availability of bankruptcy discharge for private student loans caused no changes in the pricing or availability of private student loans, suggesting that this theory is implausible. Additional factors Other factors that have been implicated in increased tuition include the following: The practice of 'tuition discounting,' in which a college awards financial aid from its own funds. This assistance to low-income students means that 'paying' students have to 'make up' for the difference: increased tuition. According to Inside Higher Ed, a 2011 report from the National Association of College and University Business Officers explains more about the practice of tuition discounting. The article notes that "while the total amount spent on institutional aid for freshmen rose, the average amount that institutions spent per student actually dropped slightly" and gives, as one possible reason for the drop, that between 2008 and 2011 "colleges and universities had to lower the amount they gave to each student to help cover a larger number of students." According to Mark Kantrowitz, a recognised expert in the area, "The most significant contributor to tuition increases at public and private colleges is the cost of instruction. It accounts for a quarter of the tuition increase at public colleges and a third of the increase at private colleges." Kantrowitz' study also found, "Complying with the increasing number of regulations — in particular, with the reporting requirements — adds to college costs," thus contributing to a rise in tuition to pay for these additional costs. Since deregulation, the average cost of tuition and fees at the state's public universities has increased by 90 percent, according to the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. Of the 181 members of the state's 83rd Legislature, more than 50 have voted at least once to advance efforts to end tuition deregulation, and fewer than 20 have consistently voted to uphold it. Many have never voted on the issue, and more than 40 members are freshmen. The rise, however, is not entirely negative. Tuition increases help universities make up for that in their budgets. Recommendations Commentators have recommended certain policies to varying degrees of controversy: State and federal governments should increase appropriations, grants, and contracts to colleges and universities. Federal, state, and local governments should reduce the regulatory burden on colleges and universities. Minimize the risk of investment in higher education through loan forgiveness or insurance programs. The federal government should enact partial or total loan forgiveness for student loans. Colleges and universities should look for ways to reduce costs without reducing quality. Federal lawmakers should return standard consumer protections (truth in lending, bankruptcy proceedings, statutes of limitations, etc.) to student loans which were removed by the passage of the Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1994, which amended the FFELP (Federal Family Education Loan Program). Growth of college tuition "Disproportional inflation" refers to inflation in a particular economic sector that is substantially greater than inflation in general costs of living. The following graph shows the inflation rates of general costs of living (for urban consumers; the CPI-U), medical costs (medical costs component of the consumer price index (CPI)), and college and tuition and fees for private four-year colleges (from College Board data) from 1978 to 2008. All rates are computed relative to 1978. Cost of living increased roughly 3.25-fold during this time; medical costs inflated roughly 6-fold; but college tuition and fees inflation approached 10-fold. Another way to say this is that whereas medical costs inflated at twice the rate of cost-of-living, college tuition and fees inflated at four times the rate of cost-of-living inflation. Thus, even after controlling for the effects of general inflation, 2008 college tuition and fees posed three times the burden as in 1978. Economic and social concerns Economic factors Most economists believe that the benefits of higher education exceed the costs by a wide margin and that higher education more than pays for itself. Social factors Besides economic effects of rapidly-increasing debt burdens placed on students, there are social ramifications to higher student debt. Several studies demonstrate that students from lower income families are more likely to drop out of college to avoid debt. Middle class families are at risk because the increasing cost of college tuition may limit their acquisition of the education that allows them to succeed in their communities. Recent reports also indicate an increase in suicides directly attributable to the stress related to distressed and defaulted student loans. The adverse mental health impacts on the student population because of economic-induced stress are becoming a social concern. Though some universities use a cohort tuition model, many universities raise tuition on current students without proportional increases in financial aid to make up the difference. This forces students to decide between taking out more loans or dropping out. Student loan debt A closely related issue is the increase in students borrowing to finance college education and the resulting in student loan debt. In the 1980s, federal student loans became the centerpiece of student aid received. From 2006–2012, federal student loans more than doubled and outstanding student loan debt grew to $807 billion. One of the consequences of increased student borrowing is an increase in the number of defaults. Meanwhile, two-year default rates increased from 5.2 percent in 2006 to 9.1 percent in 2012 and more than doubled the historic low of 4.5 percent set in 2003. Since data collection began in 1987, the highest two-year default rate recorded was 22.4 percent in 1990. In 2012, the U.S. Department of Education released detailed federal student loan default rates including, for the first time, three-year default rates. For-profit institutions had the highest average three-year default rates at 22.7 percent, and public institutions rates were 11 percent and private non-profit institutions at 7.5 percent. More than 3.6 million borrowers from over 5,900 schools entered repayment during 2008–2009, and approximately 489,000 of them defaulted. For-profit colleges account for 10 percent of enrolled students but 44 percent of student loan defaults. In 2011, the Project on Student Debt reported that approximately two thirds of students who graduated with bachelor's degrees from four-year nonprofit universities had taken out student loans, with an average debt of $25,250, an overall rise of five percent from 2009. In 2010, student loan debt surpassed credit card debt. In his 2012 State of the Union Address, U.S. President Barack Obama addressed the rising cost of higher education in the United States. Through an executive order in 2011, Obama laid out a student loan plan, "Pay As You Earn", which allows former students to pay education debts as a percentage of their incomes. Furthermore, the Obama administration has developed an optional standardized letter to be sent to admitted students indicating the cost of attendance at an institution, including all net costs as well as financial aid received. Since 2012, the total amount of student debt has increased. Due to the coronavirus, the Relief and Economic Security Act was passed in March 2020, which ensured that the interest rate for federal student loans was set to 0% and most of the student loan payments were on hold until September 30, 2021. See also College admissions in the United States Credentialism and educational inflation EdFund Free education Higher education bubble in the United States Higher Education Price Index Post-secondary education Private university Student debt Student loans in the United States Cohort Tuition Tuition payments Tuition freeze References and notes External links "College, Inc.", PBS FRONTLINE documentary, May 4, 2010 by Robert E. Martin Universities and colleges in the United States Education finance in the United States Higher education in the United States Education economics
4586019	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault%20UE%20Chenillette	Renault UE Chenillette	The Renault UE Chenillette is a light tracked armoured carrier and prime mover produced by France between 1932 and 1940. In 1930 the Commission de Vincennes decided to develop a light armoured vehicle able to tow and supply small cannon and mortars. In 1931 the Renault company was given the contract for production of its Renault UE, combined with the Renault UK trailer. In 1937, from a number of competitors, the Renault UE2 was chosen as an improved type for large-scale production. Of both types combined over five thousand were built, including licence production in Romania, and they were part of the standard equipment of all French infantry divisions. Most Renault UE vehicles in French service were unarmed; those in 1940 captured by Germany were used for a variety of purposes, including being armed with machine-guns, antitank-guns and rocket artillery. Development From 1922 onwards it had been the policy of the French Infantry to mechanise as many units as possible. Budgetary restraints made it unrealistic to fully equip them with armoured personnel carriers; but the mass production of smaller armoured vehicles in the roles of munition and supply carrier and weapon carrier for machine guns and mortars seemed feasible. For some years, the decision to produce these types was delayed. But when in 1929 an experiment with an automotive trailer guided by a walking soldier had completely failed, it was decided to develop a single vehicle for both missions. In the spring of 1930 several possibilities were considered, among them a standard 3.5-ton truck and the existing Citroën-Kégresse half-tracks. Brandt, an arms producer having no experience in vehicle development, had already started cooperation with the British Vickers company to build a weapon carrier for its Brandt Modèle 1927 mortar; it proposed producing the British Carden-Loyd Mark VI carrier under licence and presented a smaller and a larger vehicle, together with matching trailers, imported from Britain, for the supply and weapon carrier task respectively. On 24 July 1930 the Commission de Vincennes rejected the truck and half-tracks as being too heavy and opted for the smaller weapon carrier of the Vickers type after limited, though satisfactory, testing. On 7 October development of such a vehicle under the name of Type N was decided upon. Orders for prototypes were placed in December 1930 with three companies: Renault, Citroën and Brandt. Renault however indicated he had no intention to pay licence rights, unless the French state fully compensated him; the three companies were thus invited to build a "similar" vehicle, not an exact copy. The orders were for armoured tractors and matching tracked trailers and for a heavier trailer to carry again the tractor, to be pulled by a truck while the smaller trailer trailed behind. In the summer of 1931, the prototypes were ready for trials. Citroën had received orders for six tractor prototypes: three fully tracked vehicles and three of the half-track type. The first prototype to be ready, not at all resembling the Carden-Loyd carrier, was in the form of a very small half-track fitted with a Kégresse track and manned by only a driver protected by an armoured hood with vision slits, sitting on the left side of the vehicle, with the engine to his right. Only the nose of the vehicle was armoured. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes on 24 July 1931 and tested until 29 July. The commission noted that the cooling system failed and that there was no possibility of decoupling the trailer from inside the driver's cabin. On 31 July the other two half-tracks were delivered together with the first two trailers. The matériel was rejected as being too vulnerable. Citroën discontinued the development of the fully tracked vehicles but rebuilt one of the half-tracks prototypes into the prototype of the larger AMR Citroën Kégresse P 28 half-track, fifty of which would be built. On 10 and 17 December 1930 Brandt had obtained an order for six complete sets: tractor, trailer and tractor-carrying trailer. To honour its commitments to Vickers, it let the trailers and one tractor be built in Britain. To conform to the requirement for production in France, Brandt delegated the task of building a new tractor type to the Latil company, as it had too little experience itself. The Latil prototype, presented on 7 August 1931 was very much on lines of the British type and strongly resembled the later Universal Carrier: fully tracked and with most of the vehicle covered by an open rectangular superstructure to ensure as large a carrying capacity as possible. Only a small driver's and engine section on the front was armoured on top. On 17 July the commission considered the type ready for troop trials. The first prototype to be ready was that of Renault, that also had received orders for six sets. It was tested between 15 and 23 April 1930. Certain defects were found and remedied, after which the prototype was again tested from 3 June. A second prototype, fitted with a rubber track, was tested between 28 April and 12 May. This other track type was shown to be too weak. The project had as factory designation Renault UE, a chronological letter code without further meaning; the smaller trailer was the Renault UK. The Vickers suspension with double track guides was imitated. For Renault this new suspension type, that he patented despite its obvious Vickers ancestry, offered the solution for severe problems he had experienced trying to adapt his existing suspension models, using single track guides, to a high-speed vehicle without increasing the chance that the track would be thrown at higher speeds. Renault hoped to further develop the UE into a light tank by adding a turret; accordingly, the hull resembled a tank chassis rather than a dedicated supply vehicle. In October 1931 the Conseil Consultatif de l'Armement, under strong pressure by the Infantry to reach a quick decision, chose the Renault vehicle for production, even though the trial process had not been completed. On 9 December an order of fifty was made for the Chenillette de ravitaillement d'Infanterie Modèle 1931 R. On 26 March 1932 a preseries of fifty tractor-carrying trailers was ordered, the first was delivered in June. Further orders followed, mass-production commencing in the second half of 1934. The series vehicles differed from the first in having a towing sign plate fitted on the top, new towing hooks and an elongated stowage box on the left side. Orders reached a total of 793 on 1 January 1936 and of about 1,200 by June 1936 — 700 of which had been delivered by June 1936, 920 by October 1936, 976 on 1 January 1937. In December 1936 the military branch of Renault was nationalised as the AMX company which continued production to a total of about 2,200, later joined by Berliet which would build another 100 and Fouga which would produce 300 for a grand total for the Modèle 31 of about 2600. Description The Chenillette ("small tracked vehicle") or tracteur blindé ("armoured tractor") as Renault preferred to call it, was a very small vehicle: just 280 centimetres long, 174 cm wide and having its highest point at 125 cm; the roof was only 103 cm high. Its cargo carrying capacity was rather limited. There was a rectangular armoured bin at the back, 145 cm long (its length corresponds to the width of the vehicle as a whole), 60 cm wide and 36 cm high, able to hold a load of about 350 kg (lower than the original specification of 500 kg); unloading was made easier by the possibility of tilting the bin; the back plate then hinged downwards, forming a slope on which cargo could slide to the ground. The main cargo was carried by the tracked trailer, a close copy of the British type, with a length of its bin of again 145 cm, a width of 110 cm and a height of 35 cm; weighing itself 775 kg, it could hold a load of about 600 kg — whereas the specification had asked for only 400 kg. The tracks could be removed for road transport; there were two road wheels per side. The bin forms the back compartment of the vehicle; the larger front compartment was for the crew and engine. The four-cylinder 38 hp engine is positioned in the centre, with the driver to its left and the commander to its right. The gear box (six speeds forward, two reverse), differential and transmission were placed in front of the engine. These mechanical parts were placed under two projections on the otherwise very steeply sloped armour of the glacis; these can be retracted for maintenance of the mechanical parts. Each crew member, sitting below a hatch that is the only way of entrance or exit, has a fuel tank behind its seat, together having a total capacity of 56 litres, allowing for a range of a hundred kilometres. The exhaust pipe ran in front of the commander to the right ending in a silencer on the right side of the vehicle; in later production vehicles an armoured cover was added. As it tended to overheat a later variant of this cover had cooling slits. To reduce the height of the vehicle it was made impossible for the crew members to retract their heads under the roof. To protect these vital parts two hemispherical armoured hoods (calottes) were fitted. These had vision slits but to improve the field of vision the front section of these hoods can like a visor be pivoted backwards over the back section. As otherwise a bar between the roof and the glacis would have hindered entrance, the forward hinging glacis hatches had an extension forming the roof section that fits around the front part of the hood; if the hood is retracted and the hatch opened, a larger entry space was thus available. An interesting feature of the vehicle was the internal communication system used. When the hoods were closed, the two crewmen, separated by the engine between them, could not directly communicate; neither internal nor external radio communications were possible, as there were no radio sets fitted. A system of white, blue, green and red lights, that could be made to shine continuously or flicker, was used by the commander to direct the driver when buttoned up, based on a predetermined signal code: Forward: continuous white light. To the left: continuous blue light. To the right: continuous green light. Backwards: flickering white light. Slow down: flickering red light. Stop: continuous red light. Decouple the trailer: alternating white and red light. Tilt the bin: alternating green and white light. The suspension system closely resembled the Vickers type. There were 18.4 cm wide tracks with 131 small links and three bogies per side, sprung by small leaf springs, each carrying each two small road wheels. The prototype had an armoured plate protecting this assembly, but it was omitted on the production vehicles to save weight, leaving only two elongated beams to brace the whole. Likewise, the sprocket was simplified: the prototype's had been a closed disk, the production type had six circular holes; later vehicles were fitted with a wheel with six spokes. There were two return rollers. In all the suspension system was flimsy and vulnerable. This was compensated by limiting the official maximum speed to thirty kilometres per hour, although the combination of a weight of just 2.64 metric tons with an engine power of 38 hp would allow for a higher speed; during testing 36 km/h was attainable. This also reduced the chance of accidents while towing the trailer; fully loaded the road speed was reduced to 25 km/h, the cross-country speed to ten km/h. The wading capacity was thirty centimetres; the trench crossing capacity 120 centimetres. The turning circle was three metres; a slope of 50% could be climbed. The value of the Chenillette as an armoured fighting vehicle was limited. In French service, the Modèle 31 carried no armament, although some later vehicles had attachment points for a removable AA-machinegun to be fitted — but this had to be operated from outside the vehicle in an awkward crouched position due to its low height. For the crew to use personal weapons through the hatches while sitting inside the hull was highly impractical. Consideration had been given to arming it with a machine-gun, but the Direction de l'Infanterie feared that if such a weapon were mounted, the UE would be misused as a light tank rather than being dedicated to its correct tactical resupply role. Likewise, the armour protection was minimal. The vertical plates had a thickness of nine millimetres, the other plates, all riveted, were six millimetres thick, just enough to stop normal rifle bullets and shell fragments. Development of the Renault UE2 From 1935, in reaction to the German rearmament, the French Infantry embarked on a major expansion and modernisation programme. Part of this was the project to replace the Chenillette Modèle 31 with an improved type, which however should remain within the weight limit of the earlier vehicle or 2.6 metric tons. Interest from the side of the French industry was high and during 1937 five companies proposed prototypes: Lorraine, Hotchkiss, Fouga, Berliet and Renault. Lorraine de Dietrich, a company specialised in locomotive construction, presented a tractor and trailer to the Commission de Vincennes on 23 April 1937. The prototype was tested between 28 April and 10 June. Though, at a weight of four tons, heavier than specified, the type was approved by the commission on 8 July, with the period of testing extended to 23 August. Compared to the Modèle 31, the Lorraine chenillette was much more a dedicated supply vehicle, the larger size of which allowed for a superior carrying capacity, crew comfort and range, while its suspension with two bogies and four large road wheels ensured a good tactical mobility. On 8 September the commission concluded that there were no objections to series production; already the prototype had on 25 August been presented to the Commission de l'Infanterie at Mourmelon for tactical evaluation. Although the Infantry clearly favoured this type, eventually it was decided to use all production capacity of the company for the longer Lorraine 37L, as there was a lack of heavier movers; a first order of a hundred made early 1939 was in September changed into one for the other type. On 3 November 1937 Hotchkiss presented the prototype of a tractor; on 10 December of a trailer. On both elements however the manufacturer had not done any testing, the vehicles having been transported to Vincennes as soon as they were finished. Therefore, the commission delayed its trials until 27 December to allow Hotchkiss to make final adjustments on the base area. The tractor was tested until 10 February 1938. The type closely resembled the general outline of the Renault UE. The main difference was the presence of two bins instead of one, able to tilt sideways, positioned over the back of the mudguards. This doubled the carrying capacity. Instead of the small hoods, two very large armoured covers, retractable to the back, served as both entrance hatch and visor. The engine, differential and steering system were judged to be acceptable. The suspension system however was considered to be too weak, not having been reinforced to match the larger cargo mass to avoid surpassing the specified total weight. It consisted of two bogies, each with two small road wheels, sprung by narrow horizontal coil springs. A large tension wheel trailed on the ground, which lowered ground pressure to compensate for the larger weight of the bins but also increased track resistance and vibration. The cross-country speed was just 15 km/h. As even during testing when fully loaded entire bogies collapsed, the prototype was rejected. The Fouga aircraft company submitted a prototype tractor and trailer on 2 February 1939. It was tested until 8 May. This vehicle also closely resembled the Renault UE, but had a higher roof, making hoods unnecessary and enlarging the cargo space. Its suspension had two bogies per side with each two road wheels, sprung by leaf springs. The type, its submission too late because a choice had already been made for a rivalling type, was rejected because its mechanical parts were not easily accessible and the vibration level was too high. Berliet obtained an order for a prototype on 4 December 1936. A tractor and trailer were however only presented to the Commission de Vincennes on 6 March 1939, testing starting immediately. The type again resembled the Renault UE but was somewhat higher. It had three bogies per side with two road wheels each, sprung by horizontal coil springs. The weight was 3.05 metric tons, its stop speed 36 km/h, the range 143 kilometres. The first report of the commission was favourable and trials resumed on 24 April, lasting till 20 May. It transpired that the tractor could attain a top speed of 30 km/h even when pulling the trailer. The commission concluded on 8 June that the Berliet chenillette was superior to the Renault UE in speed, range and mechanical reliability and saw no objection against taking it into production. This however was eventually rejected by the Army in order to concentrate all production facilities into a single type, which had already replaced the UE: the UE 2. Renault had been further developing the Renault UE from 1931 onwards. Some features had been introduced to the production series, some expressed into new prototypes; others had remained mere paper projects. Renault always strongly lobbied to attain official, and thus financed, state orders for his development projects and on 20 December 1934 he had managed to obtain one for an improved Renault UE, the Renault UE 2. One by one during 1935 and 1936 improved components were submitted to the Commission de Vincennes to be tested and modified according to the wishes of the Army. These included: reinforced pistons; a new gear box with four speeds forward and one reverse; a reinforced differential; longer front mudguards of which the back part bent upwards to form a continuous plane with the glacis, a semi-automatic attachment system for the trailer and a night light at the lower left back of the vehicle. These changes were not very fundamental — the commission was not even aware this was supposed to end in a new type — but Renault used this very fact as an argument to select the UE 2 as the replacement vehicle: the improvements could be introduced without interrupting production, whereas the switch to a completely different design might cause a fatal delay in the rearmament process. This proved to be a decisive consideration for the Army and November 1937 a choice was made for the Renault UE2 to become the type for mass production: the Chenillette de ravitaillement d'Infanterie Modèle 1937 R. An order was placed with AMX — the nationalised former Renault factory — on 3 December. Other manufacturers were employed also: in fact Fouga had already obtained an order on 2 December; Berliet would be given one on 16 March 1938. These manufacturers however did not immediately take the Modèle 37 into production; they in fact made the Modèle 31 to complete the first production batches; only in the summer of 1939, when the French economy went into full gear to prepare for increased war production, was the gradual transition to the UE 2 really made, though some new features, such as the mudguards, appear already in the summer of 1936; from the summer of 1937 instead of the original Restor headlights the armoured type of Guicherd was fitted. The Army did not discern between the two UE types and eventually in the statistics subsumed all chenillettes received under the denominator Modèle 31. On 1 September 1939 2848 Renault UEs of both models had been manufactured. In 1940 a production of 300 vehicles per month was aimed at. To ensure such a high output Renault bought the SUP factory at Pontlieue, to start another UE 2 assembly line there. On 1 April 1940 AMX had built 1080 Renault UE2s, Fouga 260 and Berliet 310. In May monthly deliveries reached the total number of 509, made possible by emptying the factory matériel stocks; on 1 June 4977 Renault chenillettes of both models had been built, 4557 delivered; total production destined for France was about 5148, on the assumption that about 2300 vehicles had been produced after 1 September. In the seventies it was still assumed that the production realised before December 1937 — mistakenly equated to that of the Modèle 31 — was not included in this number; total production was thus overestimated at about 6200. Armed Renault Chenillettes In the early 1930s, the French Cavalry was in need of a small scouting vehicle. On 27 November 1931, the Section Technique de la Cavalerie asked Renault to rebuild one of his six chenillette prototypes into an armed tankette. Prototype N° 77982 was therefore turned into a Automitrailleuse légère de contact tout terrain in the winter of 1932, by being fitted with a small rectangular superstructure holding in its front a ballmount with machine-gun to be operated by the commander; the hood was placed on top of it. This type was rejected by the Cavalry for being too slow; further developments would however result in the AMR 33 light cavalry tank of which the Renault UE was the direct ancestor. Renault was always very intent on procuring foreign orders, but generally without much success. To improve the attractiveness of his Renault UE he also offered a version with a machine-gun. In March 1936 the government of China placed an order for ten Renault UEs armed with machine-guns, together with twelve Renault ZB tanks. Though the tanks eventually reached China in 1940, the chenillettes were held up in Haiphong from 1938 because France gave in to Japanese pressure; they appear to have been confiscated in 1940 by the French authorities of Indochina. Including these export vehicles, total French Renault UE production was thus about 5158. During the Battle of France, in May 1940 the swiftly deteriorating situation led to an order being issued to arm all available tracked chassis and send them to the front. This included the available FT-17 hulls from which the turret had been removed to turn them into utility vehicles, the Renault ZT 4s that had not yet received their turrets, and also the Renault UE Modèle 37s produced from that moment. On 25 May the Direction d'Infanterie requested that Renault produce a prototype on the lines of his Chinese UEs, with a machine-gun armed superstructure. Another existing 200 vehicles were to be refitted with a simpler external MAC 31 "Reibel" machine-gun mount. It is unknown how many of both types were in fact built or modified; at least one vehicle with a superstructure is still extant. On 31 May for trial purposes a 25 mm Hotchkiss gun was fitted on a single vehicle; this led to an order on 10 June for 150 of such tank destroyers; none were produced. Şenileta Malaxa Tipul UE In 1937, Romania, then still a French ally, bought about ten UEs. As a first step in creating an indigenous armored fighting vehicle industry, the Romanian Defence Minister bought in 1937 the licence for the local production of 300 Renault UE Chenillettes. The vehicle was meant to tow the 47 mm Schneider anti-tank gun. The licence was acquired by the Malaxa factory in Bucharest, the vehicle being subsequently designated Şenileta Malaxa Tipul UE. All of the vehicle's parts except the engine, gearbox and instrument panel were manufactured locally by Malaxa, the former three being delivered by the French AMX factory. Production lasted from the second half of 1939 to March 1941, during which 126 carriers were produced. The production was cut short when the supply of Renault parts was interrupted by the fall of France. Germany then delivered about fifty captured Renault UEs to Romania. The 126 Malaxa chenillettes accounted for the bulk of such vehicles (178 in total) in operation by the Romanian Army at the start of Operation Barbarossa. The chenillette first saw combat service during the Iron Guard rebellion, when two were used by the Iron Guard. The Malaxa chenillette was not an entirely identical copy of the Renault UE. It was heavier by 0.1 tons and was able to carry in its cargo bin 0.15 tons more than its French counterpart. Its length, width and height were all slightly increased by five centimetres, six centimetres and one centimetre respectively. Its engine was slightly weaker by 3 hp, but it still managed to achieve the same top speed and range as its French counterpart. In the Romanian army the type was deployed in the anti-tank companies, towing the — a heavier gun than in the French army, which had considered the Renault UE to be much too light to move guns of this calibre — and as a munition and fuel carrier in the Motorised Cavalry Regiments. After 1943 of the fifty surviving vehicles 33 were used for training; seventeen were from January 1944 until March rebuilt by the Malaxa factory, which reinforced them to allow them to tow the even heavier German 50 mm L/60 anti-tank gun. The Romanian vehicles, including the ten imported, bring the total Renault UE production to about 5294. Projects One of the six Renault UE prototypes had a rubber track; in 1932 this line of development was taken further by rebuilding a vehicle into the Renault UE Neige ("snow") or Renault UE N. For better traction this type had a more robust suspension with a broader rubber track, powered by a stronger six-cylinder engine. In the mid-thirties Chaubeyre produced the prototype of a smoke-laying vehicle, the generator using a thousand litres tank placed on a Renault UK trailer. The system was to be controlled from the commander's position of the main vehicle. After the larger orders had been made in 1937, both AMX and the Renault design bureau, that had not been nationalised, tried to introduce further modifications to improve the production series. Several of these would indeed be incorporated into the UE 2 production run, but these were of a minor nature; there were however much more fundamental changes proposed, aimed at solving the structural suspension problems, that were the reason Berliet and Fouga still tried to obtain approval of their chenillette projects, even after a choice had been made for the Renault UE2: they hoped that eventually the Renault UE would be abandoned altogether. To be able to present immediate alternatives, should the occasion arise, AMX and Renault developed stronger suspension systems. In February 1938 Renault presented stronger tracks and more resistant road wheels, with an improved device to keep the axles waterproof, to the Commission de Vincennes. These were tested from 12 February until 6 July and again from 21 September until 21 November. In July 1938 a prototype of a lengthened chenillette was presented by Renault. It had a fourth bogie in the suspension to reduce track pressure and a third return wheel. To save weight and better dampen shocks the number of leaves in the leaf springs was reduced from six to three. The tracks were obviously longer too, with 156 instead of 131 links. The bin was also "longer" at 72 centimetres, but less "wide" with 123 cm. Internally a new centrifugal ventilator type was fitted. The total length increased to 335 cm, the weight to 3.67 metric tons. Trials took place between 13 July 1938 and 8 February 1939, during which the vehicle was again modified. The top speed without trailer transpired to be reduced to 32.7 km/h; unsurprisingly the trench crossing ability was improved to 160 cm. As the air outlets had been placed higher, the wading capacity was improved to 45 cm. However, the main purpose: ameliorating suspension reliability, was not really achieved. Tracks were still thrown, track guides bent, springs broke and entire bogies were sheared off, just as with the series model. On 22 November 1938 AMX presented its new track. This was fitted only to the right side of a trials vehicle so that direct comparisons could be made with the old track type. After 1,500 kilometres the normal track was completely worn out and the AMX track was now fitted to a second vehicle. Testing resumed on 9 January 1939 but it was not until after 3,700 km, on 21 March, that the new track was worn. The commission concluded that the new type was clearly superior in durability, but that this was caused by the use of chrome steel that made it 70% more expensive, too pricy for the French Army. On 27 September 1939 AMX presented its new suspension system. It resembled that of the Renault R35, with two bogies, horizontal springs (though with oil dampening) and five road wheels per side. The prototype also had a new Chausson radiator and more comfortable suspended crew seats. The new type however was not tested immediately; only after Renault had presented another prototype, this time with seven road wheels — an extra wheel having been inserted in the space created by moving the bogie assembly 20 cm (8 inches) s backward — both types were compared together between 7 and 23 February 1940. It was shown that the AMX suspension, though much sturdier, had a negative influence on the performance: speed and range fell about 15%, mostly due to an incorrect weight distribution. The new seats, though clearly adding to crew comfort, were too high, preventing a soldier of normal height from closing the hood. However, the new Renault suspension offered no clear advantages over the older model in terms of vibration level and crew fatigue, so both models were in the end rejected as possible modification projects of existing vehicles; AMX's type was judged on 11 April 1940 not to be acceptable for future production. Service history The Renault UE was employed at the start of World War II by the French Army, and was subsequently pressed into German Army service, as well as being used in limited numbers by Free France and Romanian forces. French use The chenillette was mainly allocated to the standard Infantry Regiments, the first on 10 September 1932. There were six chenillettes present in the Compagnie Hors Rang (the company not subordinated to any battalion, and serving as the regimental supply, maintenance and replacement unit) and three in the Compagnie Régimentaire d'Engins, the regimental heavy weapons support company. Their primary official function was that of a supply vehicle to provide frontline positions with ammunition and other necessities while under artillery fire. The light armour was sufficient to stop small shell fragments and rifle or machine-gun fire at ranges greater than 300 meters. The Renault UE could carry or tow approximately 1,000 kg of supplies; this included 350 kg in the cargo bin and 600 kg in the trailer. Typical loads included 81 mm Brandt mortar ammunition, ammunition for the 25 mm Hotchkiss anti-tank gun or rifle and machine-gun ammunition. To indicate they were towing, the tractors would erect a small rectangular steel plaque on the roof showing a yellow triangle on a contrasting blue background. The remainder of the vehicle was normally painted a dull bronze green overall, not using the intricate three- or four-colour schemes typical of French armour of the time. The more exposed forward positions would be supplied by the tractors only; their bins, though small, could still hold 150 25 mm rounds or 2,688 machine-gun rounds. Mortar and gun teams were expected to move their own weapons if the move was less than 1,000 meters, otherwise, they were loaded, two each, in UEs for longer movements; likewise four machine-guns could be loaded. The 25 mm gun could optionally be towed. As the tractors were too small to accommodate the weapon crews, these had to move behind, following the vehicles on foot; the piece commander during this procedure sat next to the chenillette driver to indicate the desired new position of his mortar or gun. This was the only occasion that within the Infantry Regiments a second crew member was really present: the driver normally formed the entire crew, although an assistant driver was allocated. A chenillette was thus never permanently attached to an individual weapon system; each 25 mm gun e.g. was normally towed by its own horse-team. For longer distance moves, the chenillette would be normally loaded on a truck, with the Renault UK trailer and (on good roads) possible mortars or guns towed behind. The larger trailer was officially never part of such a tow; it was in short supply, with just one available for four tractors each (two in each regiment) and only used to remove these if they had broken down. In practice it was not uncommon to transport the smaller trailer on the truck, while using the larger to move the tractor, as the prescribed procedure lowered the convoy speed to 15 km/h. Each Infantry Regiment in total had nine Renault UEs; the Compagnie Divisionnaire Antichar (CDAC), the division anti-tank company, also had three chenillettes, making for a total of thirty Renault UEs in the normal infantry division. In the Mechanised Infantry Divisions chenillette strength was much higher however. Their CDAC had twelve chenillettes, one for each 25 mm gun — and in this case each individual gun had its own tractor. In their CREs six Renault UEs were present, again one allocated to each 25 mm gun; and their battalions had in their Compagnies d'Accompagnement two Renault UEs to serve their organic two Brandt mortars and two 25 mm guns. The Mechanised Infantry Regiments thus had eighteen chenillettes each, the MIDs in total 66. These are the official standard numbers; actual strengths (and uses) varied, also dependent on the replacement of the 25 mm gun by the 47 mm Brandt that was considered too heavy to be towed by a chenillette. In total the French Army had an organic strength of about 2500 Renault UEs; as the number of vehicles produced became after September 1939 much higher, Modèle 31s, mostly completely worn out, were gradually phased out. These older vehicles were sometimes unofficially appropriated by engineer and artillery units. Depot strength on 10 May was 1278. Being in principle an unarmed vehicle, the Germans allowed the Renault UE be employed by Vichy France. The type served in various conflicts involving the French colonies, used both by the government forces and the Free French. In May 1943, there was an attempt by the Free French to add the British Ordnance QF 6 pounder anti-tank gun, mounted on the rear of the vehicle with a gun shield. The relative size of the gun and the vehicle meant that it had to be operated from rear, as there was no room for the crew to operate it in the vehicle. After disappointing trial runs, the prototype was reverted to its original role as an artillery tractor. After the Allied invasion of France in June 1944 some vehicles were used by the French irregular and regular forces in France. After the war some units for a few years still made use of the type. Some vehicles were taken into use by the army of Syria. German use In the Fall of France, about 3000 UE and UE2s had been captured by the German armed forces (Wehrmacht). Most were employed unmodified, after an overhaul by the Ateliers de construction d'Issy-les-Moulineaux (AMX) factory under guidance of the German MAN company, as tractors for the 37 mm, 50 mm and, ultimately, 75 mm and 76.2 mm anti-tank guns as the Infanterie UE-Schlepper 630(f), which also was used to tow light and even heavy infantry guns. They might also function in their original primary role of munition carrier, as Munitionsschlepper Renault UE(f), some of these had an armoured roof fitted above the bin, to protect the ammunition load against overhead shell airbursts. Chenillettes were however also modified into self-propelled guns: a German 3.7 cm Pak 36 was fitted just in front of the bin. There was no room for the crew in such a small vehicle: the gun had to be operated while standing behind it. Nevertheless, about 700 of these Selbstfahrlafette für 3.7 cm Pak36 auf Renault UE(f) would be built in 1941. A late modification from 1943 was the UE fitted with four Wurfrahmen 40 launchers for 28/32 cm rockets: the Selbstfahrlafette für 28/32 cm Wurfrahmen auf Infanterie-Schlepper UE(f), forty of which would be built in two versions, one with the launch frames at the sides of the hull, the other with a raised platform on the back. Other modifications included: the Mannschaftstransportwagen Renault UE(f), a personnel carrier produced in two versions; the Gepanzerte-MG-Träger Renault UE(f), simply a Renault UE fitted with a machine-gun in a superstructure above the commander's seat; the Schneeschleuder auf Renault UE(f), a snow plough, fifty of which were modified in 1942; the Schneefräser auf Renault UE(f), also a vehicle intended to combat heavy snow conditions on the Eastern Front, but in the form of a snow miller; the Fernmeldekabel-Kraftwagen Renault UE(f), a telephone cable-laying vehicle and the Panzerkampfwagen-Attrappe auf UE(f), a dummy tank for training purposes, resembling a Soviet T-34. More complicated rebuilds were the Sicherungsfahrzeug UE(f), an airfield security vehicle produced for the Luftwaffe which, besides the 7.92 mm MG 34 casemate on the right, had a special high armoured superstructure fitted on the left back in which a guard could sit armed with a 13 mm machine-gun and the Kleiner Funk- und Beobachtungspanzer auf Infanterie-Schlepper UE(f), a special radio and artillery observation vehicle, forty of which would be modified by the Baukommando Becker (named after Alfred Becker) in France to eventually serve with the 21st Panzer Division. Italian use Germany later delivered many UEs to its allies, such as Italy. The Italian army obtained 64 UE and UE2s in 1941 and used them as ammunition carriers. Some were used in Sicily, where in 1943 during the Allied invasion of Sicily several were captured and used by the US Army. Polish use The Polish 1st and 2nd Grenadier infantry divisions which were established in France in 1939-40 were issued with UE 2s. In addition the Polish Independent Highland Brigade was issued with UE 2s. Seventeen units left over from the Polish Independent Highland Brigade's cancelled mission to Finland ended up in Britain where they were used by the Perth Reconnaissance Battalion and later for driver training by the Polish 3/16th Tank Brigade. Thai use The Royal Thai Army captured a small number of Renault UEs during the 1940-41 Franco-Thai War. Chinese use The National Revolutionary Army used some Renault UEs during Second Sino Japanese War. Surviving Vehicles As of 2023, several UEs are still in existence, albeit in varying degrees of condition. See also C2P artillery tractor References Bibliography Pierre Touzin, Les Engins Blindés Français, 1920–1945, Volume 1, Paris 1976. Pierre Touzin, Les véhicules blindés français, 1900–1944. EPA, 1979. François Vauvillier, Les Matériels de l'Armée Française 1: Les Automitrailleuses de Reconnaissance tome 1: L'AMR Renault modèle 1933 type VM — ses précurseurs, ses concurrentes et ses dérivées Histoire & Collections Paris 2005. Leland Ness, Jane's World War II Tanks and Fighting Vehicles — the complete guide, London 2002. Peter Chamberlain and Hilary L. Doyle, Encyclopedia of German Tanks of World War Two, New York 1978. Pascal Danjou, Focus N°1: Renault UE, Editions du Barbotin 2007. External links Renault UE Jean Erisay Museum of Tosny Normandy France Armoured fighting vehicles of World War II World War II vehicles of France UE Chenillette Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s Vehicles introduced in 1932
4586062	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorraine%2037L	Lorraine 37L	The Lorraine 37L or , ("tank supply tractor 1937 L") is a light tracked armoured vehicle developed by the Lorraine company during the interwar period or interbellum, before the Second World War, to an April 1936 French Army requirement for a fully armoured munition and fuel supply carrier to be used by tank units for front line resupply. A prototype was built in 1937 and production started in 1939. In this period, two armoured personnel carriers and a tank destroyer project were also based on its chassis. Mainly equipping the larger mechanised units of the French Infantry arm, the type was extensively employed during the Battle of France in 1940. After the defeat of France, clandestine manufacture was continued in Vichy France, culminating in a small AFV production after the liberation and bringing the total production to about 630 in 1945. Germany used captured vehicles in their original role of carrier and later, finding the suspension system to be particularly reliable, rebuilt many into tank destroyers () of the Marder I type or into self-propelled artillery. Development In 1934, the order was given to design a munition supply vehicle to increase the operational range of independent tank units. The same year, the Renault 36R was selected for further development; three hundred were ordered from 1938. However, this tractor was only partially armoured; on 17 April 1936, a new set of specifications was drafted for a fully armoured vehicle to deliver fuel and munitions to tanks fighting on the frontline. Early in 1937, the company finished a prototype. It was a lengthened version of a proposed replacement type for the 1931 model Renault UE Chenillette tracked infantry supply tractor. In February 1937, the matériel commission, the , was ordered to test the prototype and to complete an evaluation before 1 November 1937, even if testing had not been finished. The prototype was only presented on 9 July and tested until 4 August. It was equipped with a 2371 cc Delahaye four cylinder 124 F engine. Although the vehicle attained a maximum speed of , this dropped to an unacceptably low when an intended fuel trailer was attached. It was therefore returned to the factory and a more powerful Delahaye 135 engine and stronger clutch were fitted. This vehicle was tested between 22 September and 29 October and achieved the desired . Production The commission approved the type during late 1937, being especially impressed by the rugged suspension system. It was decided in September 1939 to reserve the total production capacity of the suspension elements for the larger tractor. This implied that the shorter Lorraine replacement for the Renault UE, though also favoured over other candidates, would not be taken into production: an order of hundred made early 1939 was that month shifted towards the longer version. In 1938, three orders were made: of 78, 100 and another 100 vehicles of the (TRC 37L); in 1939, before the war, a fourth order of 100 followed, and then a fifth of 74, to which was added the replacement order of 100 for a total of 552. The first vehicle was delivered by Lorraine on 11 January 1939; 212 had been delivered on 1 September 1939. The ambitious plans made after the outbreak of war for the expansion of the number of armoured divisions meant that the Lorraine 37L orders had to be enlarged accordingly, bringing the total to 1012. The intended initial production rate was fifty per month, to be expanded to seventy. To assist in the manufacture, a second assembly hall was erected by Fouga at Béziers, where it was hoped that it could produce at first twenty and later thirty vehicles per month. In reality, this number was never attained; e.g. 20 were made in January, 32 by both companies in May 1940. On 26 May 1940, 432 vehicles had been delivered to the army by Lorraine and Fouga out of 440 produced. Production continued after that date and an estimated total of about 480 to 490 had been reached by 25 June 1940, the end of the Battle of France. Description Being derived from a project, the Lorraine 37 L was a rather small vehicle, just 1.57 metres wide. Space had been found by lengthening the chassis to 4.22 metres, making it rather oblong. Lacking a turret or superstructure its height was also not excessive at just 1.215 metres. The small dimensions combined with a light armour — nine millimetres for the vertical riveted plates, six for the top and bottom and twelve for the cast rounded nose section — ensured a low weight: the basic TRC 37L weighs just 5.24 metric tonnes empty, the trailer adding 1.2 tonnes. Given the vehicle's low weight, the suspension was quite robust and exceptionally reliable in comparison with other systems used on French armour of the time, that were either too complicated or too flimsy. Six large road wheels in three pairs of bogies gave a low ground pressure and good weight distribution. Each bogie was allowed a vertical movement in its entirety, sprung by an inverted leaf spring assembly located just below the upper track run, the three assemblies being placed between the four top rollers. The tracks were wide. The drive sprockets were in the front and driven by a transmission in the nose of the vehicle. The two crew members, the driver on the left, sat in the forward compartment, the drive shaft between them. Entrance to the compartment was by two wide horizontal hatches, the upper hinging upwards, allowing the driver an unobstructed view if opened, the lower hinging downwards. The centrally positioned engine compartment was separated by a bulkhead from the driver compartment in front of it. The external silencer was on the left of the vehicle under an armoured covering. All vehicles in the series were powered by a Delahaye Type 135 six-cylinder 3.556 litre engine developing at 2800 rpm, giving a maximum speed of 35 km/h and an average speed of 20 km/h. The wading capacity was 60 centimetres, a trench of 130 centimetres could be crossed and an incline of 50% climbed. There was a fuel supply of 114 litres, allowing for a range of 137 kilometres. There were five forward drives and one rear drive. At the back was an armoured ammunition bin; a load of 810 kilograms can be carried, bringing the weight to 6.05 tonnes. As with the Renault UE, the TRC 37L was supplied with a tracked, armoured trailer with two road wheels per side, mostly used to carry a 565-litre fuel tank to supply the tank units; total load capacity is 690 kg for a total for the combination of 1.5 tonnes and a total weight of the trailer of 1890 kg. At 155 cm, the trailer was somewhat narrower than the main vehicle, and higher at 133 cm. It increased the length of the combination to 6.9 metres. The trailer also carried a Vulcano fuel pump and stowage boxes for lubrication oil, greases, water and assorted equipment to serve the tank maintenance teams. The Lorraine 37Ls were painted in the standard army green, a rather greyish colour, over which a brown pattern of dark earth was sprayed. Tactical function and operational history In 1939, the Lorraine 37 L was gradually introduced to the supply units of the tank battalions. This coincided with a change in tactical thinking about the use of armour. In the early thirties, French doctrine had favoured the construction of ever deeper defensive belts to counter infantry infiltration tactics to defeat enemy attacks before they could develop into full-scale manoeuvre warfare, a field at which the French were aware of being less adept than their most likely adversary, Germany. Expecting any possible enemy to defend himself likewise, the armour branch of the French Infantry became much preoccupied with the vexing problem of how to break through similar in-depth positions itself, emphasizing close cooperation with the foot soldier. Far less attention was paid to the next phase: the envelopment of the enemy forces. The situation changed in the late thirties. Having at last built a considerable number of modern and well-armoured tanks, the Infantry became confident in its ability to break the enemy line, if sufficient artillery and air support was provided within a combined arms tactic. At the same time the political situation made it likely that large-scale offensives were needed to bring Germany to its knees. Though few officers advocated the creation of armoured divisions able to execute both the breakthrough and the strategic exploitation phase — these required trained personnel in numbers that simply would not be available — it was understood that the "manoeuvre mass" of tanks effecting the break would immediately have to envelop the defensive enemy position and defeat counterattacking enemy armour reserves, otherwise the momentum of the attack would be lost and the breach would not be kept open long enough for the motorised divisions and cavalry armoured divisions to be launched to quickly occupy and hold strategic key positions. However, this posed a serious logistical problem: trucks would not be able to closely follow the tanks on the battlefield. The prescribed procedure for resupplying was for the tanks to return to their start positions to be refitted. While this had still been practical in the previous war with its much slower tempo of operations, it was unacceptable in modern warfare. The tanks would have to be supplied in the field to continue their advance as soon as possible. Thus a tracked supply vehicle was needed that could overcome the expected poor terrain conditions, with many shell-craters and trenches, and it had to be armoured to protect against shell-fragments, given that the breakthrough sector would likely be in range of concentrated enemy artillery. The type was provided to the armoured units of both the Infantry and the Cavalry. Each independent tank battalion of the Infantry, or , had an organic strength of twelve Lorraine tractors: four in the (supply platoon) of each of its three companies. The BCCs incorporated in the armoured divisions and equipped with the Char B1 or Char B1 bis had 27 TRC 37Ls: each of their three companies had six tractors in its supply platoon and furthermore a single tractor organic to each of its three tank platoons. This extra allotment was made to compensate for the large fuel consumption of these heavy tanks, that, apart from being simply bigger, had also a rather limited range. Each group of three tanks was in their case thus directly followed by its own fuel supply. When, during the Battle of France, independent companies were formed, these, too, had their Lorraine tractors — an increased allotment of eight if a Char B1 bis unit, otherwise the standard allotment of four. However, the older FT 17 battalions only used fuel trucks. Likewise, the TRC 37L was not in common use in the colonies; however, when the 67e BCC, which was equipped with the Char D1, was brought over from Tunisia in June, it was provided with tractors. The motorised infantry divisions did not use the TRC 37L. In the Cavalry, each squadron of twenty tanks had three Lorraine tractors, for a total of 24 for each mechanised light division. The AMR 35 or Panhard 178 units did not use the type, just trucks as its speed was considered insufficient. It was proposed to remedy this by fitting a stronger engine, bringing the speed to 50 km/h. The TRC 37L was also not present in the cavalry light divisions. In practice, the supply vehicles would mainly move by road and meet with the tanks at predetermined rendez-vous points. Refuelling was relatively quick as the Vulcano could theoretically pump 565 litres in fifteen minutes. To completely refill a heavy tank would normally take about forty to sixty minutes. The trailer fuel reservoirs could themselves be replenished by the company fuel truck carrying 3600 litres of petrol. The company supplies could again be restocked from battalion stocks, moved by trucks loaded with fifty litre fuel drums. This method of distribution ensured a sufficient fuel supply on the tactical level, but was too cumbersome for strategic movements: if large distances had to be covered on track, the tanks would be directly refuelled from fuel trucks. When the Germans invaded on 10 May, French tank units had an organic strength of 606 Lorraine 37Ls; the numbers produced were thus insufficient to provide each unit with its official complement. About a third had to do without. That day French general headquarters decided to increase the TRC 37L strength of and by a half; these armoured divisions had been earmarked as reserves against an expected German breakthrough attempt in the Gembloux Gap and the low range of the Char B1 bis worried French command. To free enough tractors, , still in the process of being constituted, had to give up its twelve TRC L37s to . However, contrary to French expectations, the main German breakthrough would be at Sedan and was sent to block it — and despite its larger number of fuel tractors, was still surprised by while refuelling on 15 May. During the campaign, the TRC 37L crews quickly saw the need for some armament and began to improvise machine-gun mounts on their vehicles. Variants The first development from the TRC 37L was an armoured personnel carrier, the ("Armoured mounted infantry vehicle 38L"). Like the TRC 37L, this Lorraine 38L was equipped with an armoured tracked trailer. The total capacity was twelve men: the driver and one passenger in the driving compartment, four in the former cargo bay, and six in the trailer. To protect the infantry squad, high box-like armoured superstructures were built over both the bin and the trailer, with doors at their back. The loaded weight of the main vehicle was 7.7 tonnes. A total of 240 VBCP 38L vehicles were ordered, of which nine had been delivered on 1 September 1939 and around 150 by 25 June 1940. In view of the war threat, the order was made before the prototype could be tested. Of all participants in the Battle of France, the French army would thus be the only to employ a fully tracked APC. The vehicles were intended for the , the (single) mechanised infantry battalion within the , or armoured division of the Infantry. However, on 10 May, they had not yet been allocated to these units, who still used half-tracks. During May, the vehicles were hurriedly taken into use by the 5e BCP and 17e BCP of the 1re DCr and 2nd DCr respectively. The 4e DCr did not receive any. An improved model, the VBCP 39L, was created by expanding the cargo bay to carry eight passengers, apart from the two crew members. This model had no trailer and a total capacity of ten persons; extra room was found by raising the upper deck — the passenger compartment was open-topped — and constructing a more forward sloped armour glacis, contiguous with the nose section; the type thus resembled postwar APCs. Some two hundred VBCP 39L vehicles were ordered, to replace the 38L on the production lines from the 241st vehicle onwards, but none had been delivered by June 1940, the manufacture remaining limited to a single prototype. Experimental and limited production models included tank destroyers armed with 47 mm SA 47 guns () and command post vehicles; probably a prototype was produced. Vichy production In 1939 and 1940 the type had been mainly produced in the Lorraine factory at Lunéville. Early 1939 it was decided to erect a factory in a more southern location, less vulnerable to German bombing, at Bagnères-de-Bigorre. This had not made a single vehicle by the time of the armistice between France and Germany, but it was, like the other tractor-producing Fouga factory at Béziers, located in the unoccupied zone of Vichy France. Limited production continued after June 1940 for a total of about 150, although military models were not officially produced. Some of these vehicles had a shortened chassis, their suspension consisting of only two bogies per side. Lorraine tractors were ostensively fitted for use in forestry and construction; in reality they constituted a clandestine armoured fighting vehicle production as they could be easily rebuilt. The AMX factory secretly produced armoured bodies for these vehicles, which were stockpiled. The type was called the . After the German occupation of the south of France in November 1942, many of these chassis were hidden. In the spring of 1944, the French resistance attacked the Bagnères factory on orders from London, the allies assuming that it produced vehicles for Germany. To prevent further attacks, the resistance was informed of and involved in the affair in the summer of 1944 by the promise to arm existing vehicles for their use. The first twenty of these were delivered in January 1945, after the liberation, and the factory continued modifying vehicles for the duration of the war at a rate of about twenty a month, often by fitting an armoured superstructure, armed with a light or heavy machine-gun, to the front or back of the chassis. German use A considerable number of Lorraine tractors, about 360, fell into German hands. Due to its reliability, the type was well suited to the mobile tactics the Germans favoured in 1941 and 1942. They were first used as such, renamed the . As the Germans themselves had not produced a similar type, the Lorraine tractors filled a requirement for fully tracked supply vehicles as or . In July and August 1942, Major Alfred Becker directed the conversion of 170 of these vehicles into the or Marder I, a 75 mm equipped self-propelled anti-tank gun. At the same time, 106 were converted into self-propelled artillery: 94 into the and twelve into the . Also, an artillery observation vehicle was provided: the , thirty of which were produced. A single conversion entailed the fitting of a Soviet 122 mm howitzer: the . The Germans also employed the VBCP 38L as the Lorraine 38L(f). For a time, it has also been assumed that a 47 mm tank destroyer conversion existed: the presumed "4.7cm Pak181(f) auf PanzerJäger Lorraine Schlepper (f)", based on preserved photographs that, however, in reality depicted the French mentioned above, an ad hoc conversion built in June 1940. German designations - The Lorraine tractor as captured. - Supply vehicle - Ammunition carrier - 170 Marder I, a 7.5cm PaK40/1 equipped self-propelled anti-tank gun. - 94 self-propelled artillery vehicles, mounting 15cm sFH13/1 howitzers. - twelve self-propelled artillery vehicles, mounting 10.5cm leFH18/40 L/28 howitzers. - An artillery observation vehicle, thirty of which were produced. - A single conversion mounting a Soviet 122 mm howitzer on the Lorraine chassis. Gallery After the war Lorraine tractors were used after World War II for various experimental roles. A number were sold on the civilian market, being used to carry cranes and digging equipment. However, the factory did not secure, despite lobbying, an order from the French Army, due to the fact that so much discarded Allied matériel could be obtained for free. Likewise, an attempt in 1946 to export the type to Switzerland failed. Some were listed in the army inventories for a few years after the war; the last known user was Syria. The Maurice Dufresne Museum, in Azay-le-Rideau, and the State Military Technical Museum, at Ivanovskoje, exhibit surviving vehicles of the shortened version. Two vehicles of the long version are part of the collection of the at Dresden. Notes References Vauvillier, François & Jean-Michel Touraine, Paris: Editions Ch. Massin, 1992. Pierre Touzin, . EPA, 1979. Bonnaud, Stéphane, , Histoire & Collections — Paris, 2002 External links Chars-francais.net https://tanks-encyclopedia.com/ww2/france/Lorraine-37L.php Australian Government: EIGHTH ARMY'S ADVANCE. HOWITZER AND TANK. GERMANS MOUNTED THIS 150MM. HOWITZER ON A TANK Armoured fighting vehicles of World War II World War II vehicles of France Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s
4586151	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dch%C5%AB%20%C5%8Ctsuka	Hōchū Ōtsuka	is a Japanese voice actor and narrator affiliated with the talent management firm Crazy Box. He is best known for his roles as the voices of Kyao Mirao in Heavy Metal L-Gaim; Mont Blanc Noland in One Piece; Yazan Gable in Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam; Akira Sendō in Slam Dunk; SignalMan in Gekisou Sentai Carranger; Imagin, Deneb in Kamen Rider Den-O, Abuto in Gintama, Makoto Sōda in Captain Tsubasa; Jiraiya in Naruto and Sakonji Urokodaki in Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba. He is also known for dubbing for Jean-Claude Van Damme, Donnie Yen (especially in Ip Man series), Jeff Goldblum, Ray Liotta, Tim Robbins, John C. McGinley, Brent Spiner, Robert Patrick and many more. He was also the first dubbing voice actor of Kiefer Sutherland and Christopher Lambert in their early days. Filmography Television animation 1983 Captain Tsubasa – Makoto Sōda Urusei Yatsura – Kuroko, Man in Glasses 1984 Heavy Metal L-Gaim – Mirauu Kyao 1985 Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam – Yazan Gable Dirty Pair – DJ's Voice (EP 5) High School! Kimengumi – Nihiruda Yo, Kanzenji Ai 1986 Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ – Yazan Gable Fist of the North Star – Aus, David 1987 Metal Armor Dragonar – Tapp Oseano Transformers: The Headmasters – Ultra Magnus, Crosshairs, Wingspan, Ratbat, Deer Stalker 1988 Transformers: Super-God Masterforce – Ranger Anpanman – Katsubushiman 1989 Transformers: Victory – Gaihawk Ranma ½ – Gindo 1992 Aah! Harimanada – Katsumi Shidenkai 1993 Slam Dunk – Akira Sendoh, Norio Hotta Yaiba – Kotarou 1994 Mobile Fighter G Gundam – Chibodee Crocket 1995 Neon Genesis Evangelion – Shiro Tokita (EP 7) 1996 Detective Conan – Kikuji Bancho, Shochiro Hitomi, Takehiko Hitomi, Katsuo Nabeshima 1998 Cowboy Bebop – Session 17, Younger Shaft Brother Pocket Monsters – Kyō (Koga) Kurogane Communication – Cleric 1999 Zoids: Chaotic Century – Gunther Prozen The Big O – Jason Beck Turn A Gundam – Gavane Gooney 2000 Saiyuki – Doctor Ni Jianyi Vandread – Tenmei Uragasami; AKA, Buzam A. Calessa "BC" Brigadoon: Marin & Melan – Melan Blue Kazemakase Tsukikage Ran – Takagaki Koujiro (EP 11) 2001 Noir – Krode Freddi Figure 17 – Isamu Kuroda Earth Maiden Arjuna – Bob Kaze No Yojimbo – Samekichi Shirogane 2002 RahXephon – Masayoshi Kuki 2003 Naruto – Jiraiya Sonic X – Red Pine Yukikaze – Karl Gunow Tantei Gakuen Q – Taiki Yoshinari Saiyuki Reload – Doctor Ni Jianyi Texhnolyze – Kohagura Fuminori Kino's Journey – Riku 2004 One Piece – Montblanc Norland Bleach – Metastacia, Glass-wearing ghost (EP 1) Samurai Champloo – Jouji 2005 Akagi – Kurata Group's dealer (EP 14) Blood+ – George Miyagusuku Full Metal Panic!: The Second Raid – Gates Solty Rei – Hou Chuu Gallery Fake – Roger Warner 2006 009-1 – Number Zero Ergo Proxy – Proxy One Coyote Ragtime Show – Bruce Dochley Sgt. Frog – Nevara 2007 Naruto Shippuden – Jiraiya Fist of the Blue Sky – Zhang Tai-Yan Claymore – Orsay Nodame Cantabile – Miyoshi Takehiro Monster Princess – Dracul Blue Dragon – Killer Bat 2008 Spice and Wolf – Marlheit Soul Eater – Little Ogre Kamen no Maid Guy – Gold Fish Miyatsuguchi (EP 11) Kannagi – Head Maid Cafe Owner (EP 6) Birdy the Mighty: Decode – Kinzel Hower Golgo 13 – AX-3 (EP 14) 2009 Gintama – Abuto Saki – Kazue Nanpo's Grandfather The Sacred Blacksmith – August Arthur Shangri-La – Mi-Ko Souten Kouro – Dong Zhuo 2010 Durarara!! – Narrator (EP 12.5: Narrator of TV program - DVD-only), Also plays the voice of Haruya Shiki (EP 15) Arakawa Under the Bridge – Toru "Shiro" Shiroi Working!! – Mahiru's father Panty & Stocking with Garterbelt – Ghost (EP 4 – High School Nudical) 2011 Kaitou Kid – Snake The Idolmaster – Junjirō Takagi 2012 Love, Chunibyo & Other Delusions – Narrator Star Blazers: Space Battleship Yamato 2199 – Shirō Sanada 2013 Doki Doki! Precure – King Jikochu Maoyu – Crusader Commander Sasami-san@Ganbaranai – Kamiomi Tsukuyomi 2014 Kamigami no Asobi – Zeus Keraunos (adult) 2015 Chaos Dragon – Red Dragon K: Return of Kings – Tenkei Iwafune Durarara!!x2 - Haruya Shiki 2016 Ajin: Demi-Human – Satō 91 Days – Galassia D.Gray-man Hallow – Bookman 2017 The Saga of Tanya the Evil – Hans von Zettour Berserk (Season 2) – Laban Alice & Zoroku – Ryū Naitō Love Tyrant – God March Comes in Like a Lion Season 2 – Sakutarō Yanagihara Restaurant to Another World – Tatsugorou 2018 Pop Team Epic - Pipimi (EP 1-A) Golden Kamuy – Lieutenant Tsurumi Angels of Death – Abraham Gray A Certain Magical Index III – Terra of the Left That Time I Got Reincarnated as a Slime – Hakuro Baki the Grappler – Biscuit Oliva Zombie Land Saga – Master 2019 Revisions – Nicholas Satō Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba – Sakonji Urokodaki Fairy Gone – Marco Bellwood Boruto: Naruto Next Generations - Jiraiya Cop Craft – Zerada Isekai Quartet – Hans von Zettour Carole & Tuesday – Hofner Bungo Stray Dogs 3 – Natsume Sōseki The Legend of the Galactic Heroes: Die Neue These Seiran – Murai Levius – Malcolm Eden 2020 BNA: Brand New Animal – Prime Minister Shiramizu Listeners – Field Marshal Ace Tower of God – Headon Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy – Megatron The Misfit of Demon King Academy – Melheis Boran Baki – Biscuit Oliva Bungou to Alchemist: Shinpan no Haguruma - Taint 2021 That Time I Got Reincarnated as a Slime 2nd Season – Hakuro Mushoku Tensei: Jobless Reincarnation – Talhand The Slime Diaries: That Time I Got Reincarnated as a Slime – Hakuro Edens Zero – Ziggy Odd Taxi - Donraku Shofutei The Duke of Death and His Maid – Rob Life Lessons with Uramichi Oniisan – The Voice of God Restaurant to Another World 2 – Tatsugorou Fena: Pirate Princess – Yukihisa Sanada Blade Runner: Black Lotus – Earl Grant Black Summoner - Guildmaster 2022 Love of Kill – Donny Requiem of the Rose King – Narrator Saiyuki Reload: Zeroin – Ni Jianyi Teasing Master Takagi-san 3 – Narrator Ya Boy Kongming! – Tsuyoshi Kondo The Little Lies We All Tell – Narrator 2023 A Herbivorous Dragon of 5,000 Years Gets Unfairly Villainized (Japanese dub) – Evil Dragon Ravendia My Daughter Left the Nest and Returned an S-Rank Adventurer – Graham The Idolmaster Million Live! – Junjirō Takagi TBA Yōjo Senki: Saga of Tanya the Evil II – Hans von Zettour Unknown date My Sexual Harassment – Niimi Nintama Rantarō – Yasujirō, Susumu Masayuki Rurouni Kenshin – Tokisada Mutō Yawara! A Fashionable Judo Girl – Announcer Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters GX – X OVA/ONA Shin Captain Tsubasa (1989) – Makoto Soda and Hermann Kaltz Dance till Tomorrow (1991) – Daisuke Ikezu The Irresponsible Captain Tylor (1994) – Barusarōmu 3×3 Eyes (1995) – Jake McDonald Gunsmith Cats (1995) – Bill Collins Teenage Mutant Anime Turtles (1996) – Leonardo Blue Submarine 6 (1998) – Alexander David Cekeros DinoZone (1998) – Dino Stego Last Order: Final Fantasy VII (2005) – Martial Artist Turk Hellsing Ultimate (2007) – Tubalcain Alhambra Space Battleship Yamato 2199 (2012) – Shiro Sanada Cute Executive Officer (2021) – Bakery Manager The Way of the Househusband (2021) – Boss Tekken: Bloodline (2022) – Paul Phoenix Onimusha (2023) – Kensuke Matsui Unknown date Giant Robo: The Day the Earth Stood Still – Gen Kamen Rider Den-O: Collection DVD: Imagin Anime – Deneb Legend of the Galactic Heroes – Kahle Willock Theatrical animation Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) – Torumekia soldier Bonobono (1993) – Sunadori Neko-san Yu Yu Hakusho The Movie: Poltergeist Report aka Meikai Shitou Hen - Hono no Kizuna (1994) – Kuronue Tenchi the Movie: Tenchi Muyo in Love (1996) – Sabato Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust (2000) – Kyle Turn A Gundam I: Earth Light (2002) – Gavane Gooney Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam A New Translation I: Heir to the Stars (2004) – Yazan Gable Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam A New Translation II: Lovers (2005) – Yazan Gable Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam A New Translation III: Love is the Pulse of the Stars (2006) – Yazan Gable Fist of the North Star (2007) – Shuh After School Midnighters (2012) – Fred One Piece Film: Z (2012) – Zephyr/Z Ajin Part 1: Shōdō (2015) – Satō Doraemon: Nobita and the Birth of Japan 2016 (2016) – Gigazonbi Kizumonogatari II Nekketsu-hen (2016) – Guillotinecutter Ajin Part 2: Shōtotsu (2016) – Satō Ajin Part 3: Shōgeki (2016) – Satō Batman Ninja (2018) – Alfred Pennyworth City Hunter the Movie: Shinjuku Private Eyes (2019) – Vince Ingrado Saga of Tanya the Evil: The Movie (2019) – Hans von Zettour Crayon Shin-chan: Honeymoon Hurricane ~The Lost Hiroshi~ (2019) That Time I Got Reincarnated as a Slime: The Movie – Scarlet Bond (2022) – Hakuro Black Clover: Sword of the Wizard King (2023) – Edward Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Freedom (2024) – Alexei Konoe Tokusatsu Gekisou Sentai Carranger (1996) – Signalman Kamen Rider Den-O (2007) – Deneb/Kamen Rider Zeronos Vega Form Kamen Rider Den-O: I'm Born! (2007) – Deneb/Kamen Rider Zeronos Vega Form Kamen Rider Den-O & Kiva: Climax Deka (2008) – Deneb/Kamen Rider Zeronos Vega Form Kaizoku Sentai Gokaiger (2011) – Signalman Gokaiger Goseiger Super Sentai 199 Hero Great Battle (2011) – Signalman Kamen Rider Gaim (2013) – Narrator Super Sentai Strongest Battle (2019) – Signalman (Non Credit) Kamen Rider Zi-O (2018-2019) – Deneb/Kamen Rider Zeronos Vega Form Live-action Chimudondon (2022) – College professor Video games Azel: Panzer Dragoon RPG – Skiad-Ops Gash Armored Core 2: Another Age – Emeraude Call of Duty: Black Ops – Viktor Reznov (Japanese-dub release version) Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 – Nikolai (Japanese-dub release version) Destroy All Humans! series – Orthopox 13Future GPX Cyber Formula: A New Challenger – AKF-0/1B NemesisGungrave: Overdose – Rocketbilly RedcadillacGunparade March – Hisaomi SakagamiThe Idolm@ster 2 – Junjirou TakagiKamen Rider: Battride War – Karasu/Susumu KarashimaKamen Rider: Climax Heroes – Kamen Rider Zeronos Vega FormKingdom Hearts 358/2 Days – Xigbar Mobile Suit Gundam Side Story: The Blue Destiny – Alph KamraNew Century Brave Wars - LayzerSly 3: Honor Among Thieves – Captain LeFweeStreet Fighter Alpha 3 – Dee JaySuper Robot Wars – Yazan Gable, Chibodee Crocket, Gavane Gooney, Jason Beck, Miraū Kyao, Tapp Oceano, Masayoshi KukiTales of Rebirth – WaltoTales of Xillia 2 – Nachtigal I. FanTriangle Strategy – Travis Valkyria Chronicles IV – PhoenixWhite Knight Chronicles – DregiazKingdom of Paradise – Lei Gai 1996Enemy Zero - George 1998Panzer Dragoon Saga – GashJoJo's Bizarre Adventure – Young Joseph Joestar 2000Midnight Club: Street Racing - Darren Thurrock 2002Panzer Dragoon Orta – Gash 2005Quantum Leap Layzelber – Layzer/Layzelber/DailayzerKingdom Hearts II – Xigbar 2006Captain Tsubasa – Makoto Sōda and Hermann Kaltz 2008Tales of Symphonia: Dawn of the New World – Tenebrae 2010Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep – BraigZangeki no Reginleiv – OdinYakuza 4 – Kazuo ShibataMetal Gear Solid: Peace Walker – Ramón Gálvez Mena 2011Kikokugai -Reichin Rinrinshan- – Ng Wing ShingTales of Xillia – Nachigal I. Fan 2012Kid Icarus: Uprising – Chariot Master, HadesKingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance – Braig/XigbarBravely Default: Flying Fairy – Barras LehrE.X. Troopers – Kreis RavelProject X Zone – Meden Traore 2013Bravely Default: For the Sequel – Barras LehrJoJo's Bizarre Adventure: All-Star Battle – Hol HorseKamen Rider: Battride War - Callas 2015Yakuza 0 – Kazuo ShibataBravely Second – Barras LehrLego Jurassic World – Dr. Ian Malcolm (Japanese-dub release version)Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain – Evangelos Constantinou 2016Mighty No. 9 – CountershadeFate/Grand Order - Rider of Resistance/Christopher ColumbusSengoku BASARA Sanada Yukimura-den - Sanada Masayuki 2017The Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel III – Rutger Claussell 2019Kingdom Hearts III – Davy Jones, Xigbar/LuxuDeath Stranding – Heartman 2020Nioh 2 – Kashin Koji 2023Resident Evil 4 – Osmund Saddler Dubbing roles Voice-double Jean-Claude Van DammeKickboxer – Kurt SloaneUniversal Soldier – Luc Deveraux / GR44Nowhere to Run – Sam GillenMaximum Risk – Alain Moreau / Mikhail SuverovDouble Team – Jack Paul QuinnUniversal Soldier: The Return – Luc DeverauxDerailed – Jacques KristoffUniversal Soldier: Regeneration – Luc DeverauxAssassination Games – Vincent BrazilDragon Eyes – TianoSix Bullets – Samson GaulU.F.O. – GeorgeWelcome to the Jungle – Storm RothchildJean-Claude Van Johnson – Johnson / Jean-Claude Van DammeKickboxer: Vengeance – Master DurandKill 'Em All – PhillipThe Last Mercenary – Richard Brumère / The Mist Jeff GoldblumJurassic Park – Dr. Ian MalcolmIndependence Day – David LevinsonThe Lost World: Jurassic Park – Dr. Ian MalcolmHoly Man – Ricky HaymanCats & Dogs – Professor BrodyIgby Goes Down – D.H. 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4586331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results%20of%20the%20War%20of%201812	Results of the War of 1812	The results of the War of 1812, which was fought between the United Kingdom and the United States from 1812 to 1814, included no immediate boundary changes. The main result of the War of 1812 has been over two centuries of peace between the two countries. All of the causes for the war had disappeared with the end of the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and France. The destruction of the power of two major prewar pro-British groups in the United States (the organized Native American confederacies and the Federalist Party) opened an "Era of Good Feelings," with reduced partisanship and an exuberant spirit. The British paid little attention to the War of 1812 since they were preoccupied with their final defeat of Napoleon, which occurred in 1815. The Americans failed to gain any territory from British North America, despite many American politicians' hopes and expectations, but still managed to gain land from Spain. British attempts to reclaim New Ireland in present-day Maine, which was a Crown colony of Britain from September 1814 to April 1815, also failed permanently. After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, Britain was no longer at war with France, and restrictions on trade ended. The British suspended their policy of impressment of American sailors since there was no need to resume it. Americans believed that they had regained their honor and proclaimed victory in what they called a "Second War of Independence" after the British defeats at New Orleans, Baltimore, and Plattsburgh when the British tried to invade and take control of the three most important ports in America at the time: New Orleans, Baltimore, and New York City, respectively. It was perceived that Britain was not able to regain control of America in the same sense that the US had failed to take Canada. The threat of secession by New England ended after the failure of the Hartford Convention. In Britain, the importance of the conflict was totally overshadowed by European triumphs since Napoleon returned from exile in March 1815, but he was finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo a few months later. Upper Canada emerged from the war with a sense of unity and pride as part of the British Empire. Anglophone Canadians claimed the war as a victory for their freedom from American control and credited their militia for the repulse of the American invasions. Francophone Canadians largely ignored the war. The Native Americans' westward revolt was weakened. Early peace talks Efforts to end the war began in 1812, when the main American diplomat in London proposed an armistice in return for a renunciation of impressments, but the British refused. Later in 1812, when the British captured Fort Detroit and news of the repeal of the Orders-in-Council reached Washington, DC, Sir George Prevost arranged an armistice with his counterpart, Henry Dearborn. The British frigate HMS Junon was sent to relay the Americans' response to the British squadrons on the North American Station. However, US President James Madison decided to continue the war. In 1813, the Russian Empire offered to mediate a peace, but London rejected the offer for fear of compromising British interests in Europe. Finally, Britain and the United States agreed to peace talks in January 1814. Negotiations In August 1814, peace discussions finally began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations with unrealistic demands. The United States wanted an end to all British maritime practices that it deemed to be objectionable and also demanded cessions of Canadian territory and guaranteed fishing rights off Newfoundland. The British announced, as an essential element of the peace treaty, their longstanding goal of creating a "neutral" Indian barrier state, which would cover most of the Old Northwest, be independent of the United States, and be under the tutelage of the British, who could use it to block American expansion and to build up British control of the fur trade. London dropped that demand when the Americans adamantly refused it and indicated that they would end negotiations. The British had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames in 1813 and no longer controlled adequate supply lines to support a barrier state. Britain also wanted to keep the northeastern parts of Maine that had been captured to provide a land corridor to Quebec from the Maritime Colonies. After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories and defeats, both parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and that there was no real reason to continue the war. Both sides were tired of the war sinport trade was almost paralyzed. Also, after Napoleon had fallen in 1814, France was no longer an enemy of Britain and so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France or to have more seamen. The British were preoccupied in the rebuilding of Europe after the apparently-final defeat of Napoleon. The negotiators agreed to return to the status quo ante bellum, with no changes in boundaries. Both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. The next and final step would be the treaty's formal ratification by both governments. When the treaty was signed, the British but not the Americans knew about the imminent Battle of New Orleans, which would be fought on January 8, 1815. The treaty finally went into effect after it had been formally ratified by both sides in February 1815. The treaty failed to secure official British acknowledgment of American maritime rights, but in the century of peace between the world's naval powers from 1815 to World War I, those rights were not seriously violated. The Royal Navy ended its practices that had angered Americans since they were no longer needed since the fall of Napoleon. American pride and honor were built by the Indian threat being ended and by the rejoicing surrounding American victory at New Orleans. In doing so, the United States had successfully created a sense that it had become fully independent from Britain. Native Americans A key reason that American frontiersmen had been so much for the war in the first place was the threat posed to their continued settlement of territory that was inhabited by Native Americans of various tribes. The frontiersmen blamed Native Americans' attacks on the arms and supplies that were provided by British agents in Canada. In addition, the frontiersmen wanted access to lands for which the British acknowledged belonged to the United States but blocked its expansion by inciting and arming the Native Americans. The 1813 death of Tecumseh in battle removed a powerful obstacle to American expansion although the Native Americans' involvement in the war continued, as did their resistance to American westward expansion after it ended. The Native Americans were the main losers in the war by their loss of British protection and never regained their influence. In the Southeastern United States, Andrew Jackson's destruction of Britain's allies, the Creek Indians, at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, ended the threat of Native American hostilities in that region. That opened vast areas in Georgia and Alabama for settlement as plantations and farmlands. The United States occupied all of West Florida during the war and, in 1819, purchased the rest of Florida from Spain, which prevented the Spanish from arming hostile tribes there. Creek Indians who escaped to Spanish Florida joined the Seminoles there and put up a long resistance, known as the Seminole Wars. In the Treaty of Ghent, the British promised not to arm the Native Americans from Canada or even to trade with them, and the border was largely pacified. However, some Americans assumed that the British had continued to conspire with their former Native American allies in an attempt to forestall American hegemony in the Great Lakes region, but Calloway argued that such perceptions were faulty. After the treaty, the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region became an undesirable burden to British policymakers. Canada Some American politicians had mistakenly expected the population of Upper Canada, which was mostly of American origin, to throw off its "British yoke." However, that did not happen since many of them were United Empire Loyalists and had left, willingly or otherwise, the US out of loyalty to Britain. After 1815, British officials, Anglican clergy, and Loyalists tried to spot and root out American ideals like democracy and republicanism. Thus, the British and Loyalists would set the different colonies of what would later become Canada on a course that was different from that of their former enemy. They also discouraged further immigration from the United States. When the United States attacked British North America, most British forces were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars. Thus, British North America had minimal troops to defend against the United States, whose much larger military force was, however, initially poorly trained. For most of the war, British North America stood alone against a much stronger American force. Reinforcements from Britain did not arrive until 1814, during the final year of the war. The repelling of the American force helped to foster Loyalism in the colonies that later became Canada. The nationalistic sentiment caused suspicion of such American ideas as republicanism, which would frustrate political reform in both Upper and Lower Canada until the Rebellions of 1837. However, the war started the process that ultimately led to Canadian Confederation in 1867. The Canadian writer Pierre Berton wrote that although later events, such as the rebellions and the Fenian raids of the 1860s were more important, Canada would likely have become part of the United States if the war had not taken place since American settlers would have continued to arrive and so Canadian nationalism would not have developed. The war was highly significant in Britain's North American colonies. After the war, Canadian supporters of Britain portrayed the war as a successful fight for national survival against an American democratic force that threatened the peace and stability that the Canadians had desired. Throughout the war, most of Canada's inhabitants assigned the war to an American desire to annex the British colonies, a perception that was reinforced by American Generals such as William Hull, who issued proclamations that stated that Canada would be annexed. Some historians have argued that one myth that emerged from the war was that Canadian militiamen played a decisive role during the war and that British officers were often ineffective. Jack Granatstein has termed that the "militia myth" and felt that to have had a deep effect on Canadian military thinking, which placed more stress on a citizens' militia than on a professional standing army. The United States suffered from a similar "frontiersman myth" at the start of the war and falsely believed that individual initiative and marksmanship could be effective against a well-disciplined British battle line. Granatstein argued that the militia was not particularly effective in the war and that any British military success was the work of British regular forces and the result of British domination over the sea. Isaac Brock, for example, was reluctant to trust the militia with muskets. Others reject that characterization and argue that the Canadian militia played important roles in several key engagements, including the Battle of Chateauguay, in which it was central to the defeat of the American advance on Montreal during the fall of 1813. The historian Robert Henderson referred to that as "The myth of the 'Militia myth.'" In any case, more than 1,600 names of the dead, Canadian (both members of regular units and militia) as well as First Nations Crown allies, are in the Book of Remembrance in the Memorial Chamber in the Parliament of Canada. Many of them were members of Canadian militia units. See also: Canadian Units of the War of 1812 and Books of Remembrance (Canada) During the war, British officers constantly worried that the Americans would block the St. Lawrence River, which forms part of the Canada–United States border. If that had occurred, there would have been no British supply route for Upper Canada, where most of the land battles took place, and British forces would likely have had to withdraw from or surrender all of the western British territory within a few months. British officers' dispatches after the war exhibited astonishment that the Americans never took such a simple step, but the British were not willing to count on their enemy repeating the mistake and so they commissioned the Rideau Canal, an expensive project that connects Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ottawa River, to provide an alternative supply route to bypass the part of the St. Lawrence River along the border. The settlement at the northeastern end of the canal, where it joins the Ottawa River, later became the city of Ottawa, Canada's fourth-largest city and its capital, which was placed inland to protect it from an American invasion and was then known as the "defensible back-country." Because the population far from the St. Lawrence shores was negligible, the British, in the years following the war, took great lengths to ensure that back-country settlement was increased. They settled soldiers, initiated assisted-immigration schemes, and offered free land to farmers, mostly tenants of estates in the south of Ireland. The canal project was not completed until 1832 and was never used for its intended purpose. United Kingdom Unlike in Canada, the War of 1812 is now seldom remembered in the United Kingdom, and the conflict was quickly forgotten by the British public, chiefly because it was overshadowed by the dramatic events of the contemporary Napoleonic Wars. Additionally, Britain neither gained nor lost anything by the peace settlement; it maintained its control of Canada. The Royal Navy was acutely conscious that the US Navy had won multiple single-ship duels during the war's opening stages; while these victories had very little strategic significance, they served as major propaganda victories for the Americans and boosted the prestige of the United States Navy. Despite the fact that the British had dominated the ocean, with almost all of the US Navy blockaded to port, by the end of the conflict, the Royal Navy struggled to overcome feelings of humiliation for its early defeats. The Royal Navy's honor was somewhat restored with the capture of the USS President in January 1815; the frigate was taken to Britain so that "all could see" that the American ships that had supposedly been victorious in the battles of equal force were actually much larger than the British ships that they engaged. However, the captured President would not arrive until after the war had fully concluded. Regardless, the British decided to take President into the Royal Navy as the 50-gun (later 60-gun) fourth-rate . Assigned to the West Indian Squadron, HMS President was intended to taunt the Americans over the ship's capture. However, captured in poor condition, the recommissioned President was described as a "dilapidated ship" despite extensive repairs and had to be broken up in 1818. The Royal Navy proceeded to build a 60-gun frigate to the exact lines of the captured ship, naming it , despite some elements of the design (such as its countered stern) being obsolete. Intended to make a political statement, was designated the flagship of the North American station; the British even designated George Cockburn, who led the Burning of Washington, as the ship's commander. American privateers and commerce raiders captured approximately 1,200 British merchant ships, representing 5% to 7% of all British commerce, increasing insurance rates and embarrassing the Admiralty. Nevertheless by the war's conclusion about 50% of all American privateers were captured by the British. Meanwhile, for every 14 American merchant ships that traded before the start of the war, only one ship dared to leave port during the war, despite the Americans' effort to double their maritime trade. Furthermore, of the few ships that left port, a total of 1,400 were captured. The Royal Navy was able to deploy overwhelming strength to American waters, which had the effect of virtually extinguishing American maritime trade by the end of the war. The British Army regarded the conflict in Canada and America as a sideshow. Only one regiment, the 41st, was awarded a battle honor (Detroit) from the war. The British Army was more interested in the lessons of the Peninsular War in Spain. The Battle of New Orleans could be conveniently attributed to either poor leadership or insuperable physical obstacles, deflecting instead to the Royal Navy's capture of the American flagship. Due largely to the success and the pre-eminence of the Duke of Wellington in Europe against Napoleon, the British Army made no changes to its systems of recruitment, discipline, and awards of commissions for more than half a century. The British suffered 10,000 fatalities in the war, 1,960 of them in combat. United States The gloom in New England, which staunchly opposed the war, culminated in December 1814, as delegates from five states met secretly in the Hartford Convention, which demanded constitutional amendments to protect New England's interests against the West and the South. Talk of secession was rife, and the region might have threatened to secede from the Union if its demands had been ignored, but news of peace ended the movement. The United States had faced a near-disaster in 1814, but victories at the Battle of New Orleans, Battle of Plattsburgh, and the Battle of Baltimore and what seemed to be a successful fight against the British united the Americans into one nation. Meanwhile, the loss of the American frigate President was conveniently overlooked by the public. The best-known patriotic legacy of the war was "The Star-Spangled Banner." Its words are by Francis Scott Key, who, after the bombardment of Fort McHenry, set them to the music of a British drinking song, "To Anacreon in Heaven." In 1889, the US Navy began using "The Star Spangled Banner" at flag-raising ceremonies, a practice that was copied by the US Army. In 1931, the US Congress made it the American national anthem. Although all of their objectives of the war with regards to the invasion of Canada had failed, the American people saw the War of 1812 as evidence of the success of the democratic experiment. The war ushered in a period in American history that has frequently been called "the Era of Good Feelings." At least on the surface, most Americans felt unified behind a common purpose. The war convinced the country that it could fend off any foreign threats and that its focus should be on expansion at home. The United States defeated the British-supported Tecumseh's confederacy and the Red Stick Creek, which was a major goal of the War of 1812. Also during the 1814–15 Gulf Campaign numerous U.S. victories in New Orleans, Mobile, and Pensacola guaranteed that Louisiana and West Florida were permanently off-limits to the British. Because the Gulf Coast's major cities were never taken by Britain this guaranteed that Britain would abide by the Treaty of Ghent, including the evacuation of the re-established Crown colony of New Ireland in 1815. With the collapse of the Hartford Convention and news of the triumph at the Battle of New Orleans, Americans had cause for celebration. In February, President James Madison sent Congress the peace treaty, the Treaty of Ghent. He congratulated the nation on the close of a war "waged with the success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the legislative councils, of the patriotism of the people, of the public spirit of the militia, and of the valor of the military and naval forces of the country." The spirit of nationalism and pride led to the collapse of the antiwar Federalist Party and the new Era of Good Feelings. One indirect result of the War of 1812 was the later election to the presidency of the war heroes Andrew Jackson and later William Henry Harrison. Both men won military fame, which had much to do with their election victories. Another indirect result was the decline of the power of the Federalist Party. American military During the war, roughly 15,000 American soldiers and sailors died, 3,721 in combat. The war cost the United States about $200 million. Neither the United States nor the United Kingdom gained any military advantage, but indirectly, the United States made some gains. A significant military development was the increased emphasis by General Winfield Scott on professionalism in the Army's officer corps, particularly the training of officers at the US Military Academy ("West Point"). The new professionalism would become apparent during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). After the annexation of Texas by the United States, the term "Manifest Destiny" became a widely used political term for those who propagated American expansionism and military pride. In a related development, the United States officially abandoned its reliance on the militia for its defense in favor of a standing army. Moreover, the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which then controlled West Point, began building fortifications around New Orleans as a response to the British attack on the city during the war. That effort then grew into numerous civil river works, especially in the 1830s and the 1850s under General Pierre Beauregard. The Corps remains the authority over works on the Mississippi River and other rivers. The embarrassing defeat of Fort Madison, in what is now Iowa, and Fort Shelby, in Prairie du Chien, led to the fortification of the Mississippi, with the expansion of Fort Belle Fontaine, near St. Louis, and the construction of Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816), in Illinois; Fort Crawford (1816), in Prairie du Chien; and Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota. The removal of all Indians from the Mississippi Valley became a top priority for the American government. Honor The historian Norman Risjord emphasized the central importance of honor as a cause for the war. Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honor and to reject the treatment of their country by Britain as a third-class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response. The quest for honor was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honor. The Chesapeake–Leopard affair in which HMS Leopard attacked the US frigate Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event. Historians have documented the importance of American honor in shaping public opinion in a number of states, including Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and the Territory of Michigan. Americans widely celebrated the conclusion of the war as successful, especially after the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans. For the next century, it was often called "the Second American War for Independence," and it propelled Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison to the White House. Americans felt that they had restored their sense of honor. Lance Banning wrote: National honor, the reputation of republican government, and the continuing supremacy of the Republican party had seemed to be at stake... National honor had [now] been satisfied. Americans celebrated the end of the struggle with a brilliant burst of national pride. They felt that they had fought a second war for independence, and had won. According to historians such as Andrew Lambert and William James, British honor was challenged because deserters from the Royal Navy were granted American citizenship, which led to the impressment of American citizens into the Royal Navy. In 1811, the Little Belt affair would anger the Admiralty, embarrass the United States, and lead to the British having a particular interest in capturing the American frigate President. Although the British would effectively disable the vast majority of the US Navy during the war by having the ships blockaded, the single-ship actions won by the Americans embarrassed the British Admiralty. Specific attention was given to those battles since the Americans claimed that they were between ships of equal force. The British effectively restored their honor by capturing the sloop of war Frolic and, more importantly, the flagship President. Both ships were taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships of the so-called engagements of equal force were much larger than the British ships that they had fought in single-ship duels. Furthermore, the United States failed at abolishing impressment when the treaty was signed, but the British did not continue the practice since the Napoleonic Wars had ended; the British no longer needed as many sailors. In doing so, British honor was restored, but the entire conflict was overshadowed by the defeat of Napoleon. Economic impact Although the War of 1812 severely damaged the American economy because of the British blockade, the aftermath of the war gave a dramatic boost to American manufacturing capabilities. The British blockade of the American coast had created a shortage of cotton cloth, which led the Americans to create a cotton-manufacturing industry that began at Waltham, Massachusetts, by Francis Cabot Lowell. The war also spurred on the construction of the Erie Canal, and the project was built to promote commercial links and was perceived to have military uses if the need ever arose. As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811, the federal government was ill-prepared to finance the war and so resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes. Those actions set a precedent for future federal responses to financial crises. Also, the exposure of the nation's financial weaknesses partly explained the decision for Congress to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The readiness of southern leaders, especially John C. Calhoun, to support such a measure also indicates a high degree of national feeling. Perhaps the clearest sign of a new sense of national unity was the victorious Democratic-Republican Party, with its longtime foes, the Federalist Party, vanishing from national politics. The result was an Era of Good Feelings, which had the lowest level of partisanship that was ever seen. Canadians, however, contrasted their postwar economic stagnation to the booming American economy, which Desmond Morton believed to have led to the Rebellions of 1837. During the war, Bermuda privateers, with their fast Bermuda sloops, were to capture 298 ships. The total captures by all British naval or privateering vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies was 1,593 vessels. See also Chronology of the War of 1812 Origins of the War of 1812 War of 1812 Treaty of Ghent Anglo-American Convention of 1818 References Further reading Berton, Pierre; The Invasion of Canada: 1812–1813 (1980). ; Flames Across the Border: 1813–1814 (1981); reissued as Pierre Berton's War of 1812 (Toronto: Anchor Canada, 2011); popular Canadian narrative; 928pp Bickham, Troy, The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, The British Empire, and the War of 1812 (Oxford University Press, 2012) Black, Jeremy. The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon (2009) by English military historian Borneman, Walter R. 1812: The War That Forged a Nation (2004), the popular American version Burt, A. L. The United States, Great Britain, and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace after the War of 1812. (1940) online edition Heidler, Donald & Jeanne T. Heidler (eds) Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (2nd ed 2004) 636pp; most comprehensive guide; 500 entries by 70 scholars from several countries Hickey, Donald R. Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812. (2006) Hickey, Donald R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. (1990), standard scholarly history. Hickey, Donald R. 187 Things You Should Know about the War of 1812 (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 2012), 170 pp. Hitsman, J. M. The Incredible War of 1812 (1965), survey by Canadian scholar Jensen, Richard. "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812," The Journal of Military History 76#4 (October 2012): 523–556; online version; the debate here on Wikipedia Langguth, A. J. Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence (2006) 495pp, popular history Latimer, Jon, 1812: War with America (Harvard, 2007). A British naval perspective. Perkins, Bradford. Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812–1823. (1964), the standard scholarly diplomatic history Remini, Robert Vincent, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991), pp. 94–122. Stagg, J.C.A. The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (Cambridge Essential Histories, 2012) brief overview by New Zealand scholar Taylor, Alan. The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (2010) by Pulitzer Prize winner Tucker, Spencer C., ed. The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (3 vol: ABC-CLIO, 2012), 1034pp. Zuehlke, Mark. For Honour's Sake: The War of 1812 and the Brokering of an Uneasy Peace. (2007) by Canadian military historian. Memory of the war Austen, Ian. "Canada Puts Spotlight on War of 1812, With the USA as Villain." New York Times 7 October 2012. online Coates, Colin M., and Cecilia Morgan. Heroines and History: Representations of Madeleine de Verchères and Laura Secord (U of Toronto Press, 2002). Eamon, Michael. "The War Against Public Forgetfulness: Commemorating 1812 in Canada" London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 134–185 online Forest, Timothy S. "Epic Triumph, Epic Embarrassment or Both? Commemorations of the War of 1812 Today in Niagara Region," Ontario History 104#1 (2012), pp. 96+. Knowles, Norman. Inventing the Loyalists: The Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts (U of Toronto Press, 1997) MacDonald, Heather. "Heroes and Identity: Two-Hundred Years in the Making," The Great Lakes Journal of Undergraduate History (2013) 1#1 Article 6 online Morgan, Cecilia. "Remembering 1812 in the 1840s: John Richardson and the Writing of the War", London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 39–69 online Robertson, James Tyler. "For God, King, and Country: Nineteenth-Century Methodist Interpretations of the War of 1812" London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 1–38; Canadian Methodists online Sheppard, George. Plunder, Profit, and Paroles: A Social History of the War of 1812 in Upper Canada (McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994) Tiro, Karim M. "Now You See It, Now You Don't: The War of 1812 in Canada and the United States in 2012." Public Historian 35#1 (2013): 87–97. in JSTOR Wasson, Jeffrey. "Inventing a Foundation Myth: Upper Canada in the War of 1812" (Clark University, 2014) online External links A Question of Identity: War of 1812, a 1966 National Film Board of Canada documentary on the war's role in fostering a sense of Canadian identity War of 1812
4586388	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%202006%20in%20sports	April 2006 in sports	Events in sports 30 April 2006 (Sunday) Golf PGA Tour: Chris Couch nabs his first-ever PGA Tour win at the Zurich Classic of New Orleans despite bogeying the 17th hole, and experiencing a weird 18th. On the last hole, Couch hit his drive into a cut of rough, then flew his second shot over the green into the back of the sand bunker behind it. With a funny stance, his third shot only left the bunker onto the rough in front of it. Couch then proceeded to hole his fourth shot to make par and win with an overall score of 19-under, defeating co-runners-up Charles Howell III and Fred Funk by one shot. It was a great ending to an odd week for Couch in the Big Easy. A week earlier, Couch had gotten lost in a bad part of New Orleans, then hitched a ride with strangers who took him into an even worse part of town, where he had to go to a tattoo parlor just to call police so they could help him find his car. (SI.com) NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs Colorado Avalanche 3, Dallas Stars 2 (OT): The plucky Avs pulled off an upset, eliminating the Pacific Division champions. San Jose Sharks 2, Nashville Predators 1: The Sharks hang on to stifle the Tomas Vokoun-less Predators in five games. Auto racing: NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: The Aaron's 499 was postponed due to rain and will be run tomorrow (May 1). Basketball: EuroLeague Final Four Championship: Maccabi Tel Aviv 69–73 CSKA Moscow Third place: FC Barcelona 82–87 TAU Cerámica 29 April 2006 (Saturday) American football 2006 NFL Draft top 11 selections: Houston Texans — Mario Williams, Delaware, NC State New Orleans Saints — Reggie Bush, RB, USC Tennessee Titans — Vince Young, QB, Texas New York Jets — D'Brickashaw Ferguson, OT, Virginia Green Bay Packers — A. J. Hawk, LB, Ohio State San Francisco 49ers — Vernon Davis, TE, Maryland Oakland Raiders — Michael Huff, S, Texas Buffalo Bills — Donte Whitner, S, Ohio State Detroit Lions — Ernie Sims, LB, Florida State Arizona Cardinals — Matt Leinart, QB, USC Denver Broncos — Jay Cutler, QB, Vanderbilt Twelve ACC players are selected in the first round, a record for a conference. Five Ohio State players are chosen in the first round. Besides Hawk and Whitner, the Dallas Cowboys pick LB Bobby Carpenter, the Pittsburgh Steelers WR Santonio Holmes and the New York Jets C Nick Mangold. The biggest losers of the day are USC players. The Texans choose Williams over Bush, the 2006 Heisman Trophy winner, while Leinart, the 2005 Heisman winner, is not chosen until the tenth pick and RB LenDale White winds up going to Tennessee with the 13th pick of the second round (45th overall). The Packers trade WR Javon Walker to the Broncos for a second-round draft pick. Football (soccer) FA Premier League Chelsea 3–0 Manchester United Chelsea clinches back-to-back Premier League Championships for the first time in the club's 100 year history. However, England's hopes for the 2006 World Cup may have suffered a blow when Man U's Wayne Rooney was injured in the 80th minute and will be out for six weeks with a metatarsal fracture in his right foot. (Premierleague.com) Wigan Athletic 1—2 Portsmouth Birmingham City 0—0 Newcastle United Portsmouth's win at JJB Stadium officially sends West Bromwich Albion to relegation while the Blues' scoreless draw at home also relegates them to the Football League Championship. Major League Baseball Albert Pujols sets a new MLB record for home runs in April with 14. His solo shot in the bottom of the eighth inning gives the St. Louis Cardinals a 2–1 win over the Washington Nationals. (MLB.com) NHL 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs New Jersey Devils 4, New York Rangers 2: The Devils swept the Rangers out of the playoffs with a convincing win at Madison Square Garden. Ottawa Senators 3, Tampa Bay Lightning 2: The longest sports championship defense in modern history ended when the Senators knocked out the Lightning in five games. Tampa Bay won the Stanley Cup in 2004, and the 2004–05 season was cancelled due to the lockout between the owners and the players. The Toronto Blue Jays had held the previous record of over one and a half seasons due to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series. 28 April 2006 (Friday) American Football 2006 NFL Draft: The Houston Texans sign DE Mario Williams of NC State, and will take him with their #1 draft pick in the 2006 NFL Draft. (NFL.com) He received a six-year deal worth $54 million, including a $26.5 million signing bonus. (ESPN.com) Major League Baseball In a 7–6 loss to the Cleveland Indians, Texas Rangers outfielder Kevin Mench hits a solo home run in the eighth inning, making him the first right-handed batter in MLB history to homer in seven consecutive games. Mench is one game shy of the record held by Dale Long, Don Mattingly, and Ken Griffey Jr. (MLB.com) St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Albert Pujols hits his 13th homer of the season, a solo shot in the eighth inning of an 8–3 loss to the Washington Nationals. Pujols ties a major-league record for homers in April, previously set by Griffey in 1997 and Luis Gonzalez in 2001. (MLB.com) Basketball EuroLeague Final Four from Sazka Arena, Prague: Semifinals Maccabi Tel Aviv 85–70 TAU Cerámica The two-time defending champions win a rematch of the 2005 Euroleague final. (Euroleague.net) FC Barcelona 75–84 CSKA Moscow The Russians come back from a 12-point deficit in the third quarter to advance to the final, ending a string of three consecutive losses in the Euroleague semis. (Euroleague.net) Rugby union Sale Sharks defeat Bath 38–12 at Edgeley Park, Stockport, ensuring that they will finish on top of the table when the 2005–06 Guinness Premiership regular season finishes. (Guinnesspremiership.com) 27 April 2006 (Thursday) Football (soccer): 2005–06 UEFA Cup, Semi-final, Second leg, teams progressing to the Final in bold. Sevilla 1–0 Schalke 04 (aet) (Sevilla wins on aggregate 1–0.) Middlesbrough 4–2 Steaua Bucharest (Middlesbrough wins on aggregate 4–3.) For the second successive round, Middlesbrough require to score four goals to win – and for the second successive round Massimo Maccarone scores the 4th goal in the 89th minute. (uefa.com) Major League Baseball MLB Chief Operating Officer Bob DuPuy announced that Major League Baseball is prepared to select an ownership group for the Washington Nationals at the May 17 – 18 owners' meeting in New York City. MLB is asking for $450 million, and there are eight active bids, including one led by former Seattle Mariners owner Jeff Smulyan. (ESPN.com) 26 April 2006 (Wednesday) Cricket: Brian Lara is appointed captain of the West Indian cricket team, his third stint as captain. This follows Shivnarine Chanderpaul's resignation earlier this month. (Cricinfo) Football (soccer): 2005–06 UEFA Champions League, Semi-final, Second leg, team progressing to the Final in bold. Barcelona 0–0 A.C. Milan (Barcelona win 1–0 on aggregate) (uefa.com) 25 April 2006 (Tuesday) Football (soccer): 2005–06 UEFA Champions League, Semi-final, Second leg, team progressing to the Final in bold. Villarreal 0–0 Arsenal (Arsenal win 1–0 on aggregate) Jens Lehmann saves a last-minute penalty to ensure Arsenal proceed from a nervy semi-final, Arsenal's 10th successive Champions League match without conceding a goal. (uefa.com) Baseball Former Major League star Brett Butler was admitted to a hospital after suffering chest pains following a Lancaster JetHawks Minor League game he was managing. The JetHawks are the High-A affiliate for the Arizona Diamondbacks in the California League. 22 April 2006 (Saturday) Auto racing Indy Racing League: Hélio Castroneves wins the 300-mile race at Twin Ring Motegi, Japan. NASCAR: Kevin Harvick completes a weekend sweep of the spring races at Phoenix International Raceway by winning the NEXTEL Cup Subway Fresh 500 after taking the Busch Series Bashas' Supermarkets 200 the night before. Boxing: Wladimir Klitschko beats Chris Byrd in the seventh round to win the IBF world heavyweight champion. Major League Baseball The Milwaukee Brewers hit a record-tying five home runs in the fourth inning, scoring seven runs, as they defeat the Cincinnati Reds, 11–0. Bill Hall, Damian Miller, Brady Clark and J. J. Hardy all hit their home runs off Brandon Claussen before the first out was recorded in the inning. Prince Fielder hit the fifth homer off Chris Hammond with two outs. Miller and Clark hit two-run homers, while the rest were solo. (MLB.com) Barry Bonds hit his first home run of the season off Aaron Cook in the San Francisco Giants' 6–4 victory over the Colorado Rockies. With 709 career home runs, he is now within five of Babe Ruth's 714 for second on the all-time list. (MLB.com) 20 April 2006 (Thursday) Cricket: Australian cricket team in Bangladesh in 2005–06 Australia defeats Bangladesh to win two-Test series 2–0. Second Test at Chittagong: Bangladesh 197 (Rajin Saleh 71) and 304 (Shahriar Nafees 79, Mohammad Rafique 65, Warne 5/113) lose to Australia 581/4 declared (Gillespie 201 not out, Hussey 182) by an innings and 80 runs. (ABC Sport) This match will be remembered for Jason Gillespie's remarkable double century, the only instance in Test cricket in which a nightwatchman passed 200. Gillespie later admitted it was "ridiculous ... I was just lucky that the shots came off and I had a bit of a laugh all the way." Football (soccer): 2005–06 UEFA Cup, Semi-final, first leg. Schalke 04 0–0 Sevilla Steaua Bucharest 1–0 Middlesbrough (UEFA.com) The Toronto Maple Leafs fire head coach Pat Quinn after the team fails to make the playoffs. 19 April 2006 (Wednesday) Cricket: New Zealand in South Africa First Test at Centurion: South Africa 276 and 299 (de Villiers 97) defeated New Zealand 327 (Oram 133, Vettori 81, Ntini 5/94) and 120 (Steyn 5/47, Ntini 5/51) by 128 runs. South Africa leads three-Test series 1–0. (Scorecard) Football (soccer): 2005–06 UEFA Champions League, Semi-final, first leg. Arsenal 1–0 Villarreal In the last European match at Highbury, Arsenal take their Champions League record of clean sheets to 9. Villarreal suffer their first-ever loss against an English team. Kolo Touré scored the only goal of the match, to send Arsenal to Spain next Tuesday with an advantage. (uefa.com) Rugby union: Super 14 SA Rugby, the commercial arm of the South African Rugby Union, announces that the Southern Spears franchise will not be admitted to the Super 14 in 2007. The franchise had been controversially guaranteed a spot in the 2007 and 2008 competitions. (Planet-Rugby.com) 18 April 2006 (Tuesday) Football (soccer): 2005–06 UEFA Champions League, Semi-final, first leg. A.C. Milan 0–1 Barcelona Ludovic Giuly gives Barcelona the all-important away goal in this tie. (uefa.com) 17 April 2006 (Monday) Football (soccer) With a 1–0 win at Paris Saint-Germain, Lyon become the first team in French history to win five consecutive top division titles. 15 April 2006 (Saturday) Football (soccer) Liverpool mark the 17th anniversary of the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 that killed 96 fans. Originally scheduled to play Blackburn today, the match was put back by a day to allow for the Liverpool players to attend the memorial ceremony at Anfield. 14 April 2006 (Friday) Football (soccer) FA Premier League: Sunderland become the first team to be relegated to The Championship after a scoreless draw with Manchester United at Old Trafford. Sunderland have yet to win a home game this league season. (Premierleague.com) 13 April 2006 (Thursday) Cricket: Australia in Bangladesh First Test, Dhaka: Australia narrowly avoids defeat against Bangladesh, winning by three wickets in Dhaka. (Scorecard) A Test century by Shahriar Nafees led Bangladesh to an impressive score of 427 in their first innings. Australia struggled, precariously placed at 145/6 at stumps on Day 2. On the third day of play, Adam Gilchrist led Australia's revival with an innings of 144. Bangladesh squandered their impressive lead, dismissed for 148 in the second innings, leaving Australia 307 runs to claim victory. Australian captain Ricky Ponting's undefeated innings of 118 guided Australia to victory midway through the fifth and final day's play. Australia leads the series 1–0, with one Test to play. 11 April 2006 (Tuesday) Cricket: West Indies captain Shivnarine Chanderpaul announces his intention to resign as captain, effective immediately. A replacement will be announced soon. (Cricinfo Report) 9 April 2006 (Sunday) Auto racing NASCAR: For the second time this season, Kasey Kahne was on the pole and wins a NEXTEL Cup race, this time the Samsung/Radio Shack 500 at Texas Motor Speedway. Golf: Phil Mickelson wins The Masters for the second time in three years. His final round of 69 (3 under par) gave him a score of −7 for the tournament, two shots ahead of South African Tim Clark. Canadian football: The CFL announces the suspension of the Ottawa Renegades franchise for the 2006 season. (TSN) Football (soccer): Dutch Eredivisie: With a 1–1 home draw against Groningen, PSV Eindhoven clinch their 19th Eredivisie title in Guus Hiddink's last season as coach. Rugby union The London Wasps defeat the Llanelli Scarlets 26 points to 10 in the final of 2005–06 Powergen Cup to claim the championship at Twickenham in London. 7 April 2006 (Friday) Football (soccer): Germany national coach Jürgen Klinsmann announces that Jens Lehmann will be the team's first-choice goalkeeper for the 2006 FIFA World Cup over 2002 FIFA World Cup MVP Oliver Kahn. 6 April 2006 (Thursday) Major League Baseball: Jimmy Rollins' hitting streak ends at 38 games as he went 0-for-4 in a Philadelphia Phillies 4–2 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. Football (soccer): 2005–06 UEFA Cup – Quarter finals, second leg, progressing teams shown in bold. Zenit St. Petersburg 1–1 Sevilla Schalke 04 1–1 Levski Sofia Steaua Bucharest 0–0 Rapid Bucharest Middlesbrough 4–1 FC Basel: Middlesbrough stage an amazing comeback from their 2–0 first leg defeat, and after conceding an away goal to Basel, to score 4, the winner coming in the final minutes of the match. (UEFA.com) American Football: The NFL releases its schedule for the 2006 season. This is the first year that the NFL will use a "flexible-scheduling" system in order to show the biggest games during prime time. In the system, new Sunday Night Football rights holder NBC will have a choice of all the games played on Sunday afternoons starting with Week 11. However, CBS and FOX will have the right to protect some of their biggest games. 5 April 2006 (Wednesday) Major League Baseball: Phillies shortstop Jimmy Rollins extended his two-season hitting streak to 38 games with a lead-off double. However, the St. Louis Cardinals won the game, 4–3. Because of the ongoing investigation about player behavior, Duke University men's lacrosse coach Mike Pressler resigned, and in turn, the school announced the cancellation of the remainder of their 2006 season. Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League – Quarter finals, second leg, progressing teams in bold. Juventus 0–0 Arsenal: Arsenal set a Champions League record of eight matches without conceding a goal. FC Barcelona 2–0 Benfica (UEFA.com) Pakistan in Sri Lanka: Second Test, Kandy: Mohammad Asif takes 11 wickets in the second Test match, including five for 27 in the second innings when Sri Lanka were bowled out for 73, as Pakistan turn a 109-run deficit on first innings into an eight-wicket win. Asif is named Man of the Match and Man of the Series. (Scorecard) Ice hockey: The University Cup, the symbol of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport men's ice hockey championship, is reported stolen by the Alberta Golden Bears. The Golden Bears had claimed their record 12th University Cup by beating the Lakehead Thunderwolves on March 27. TSN 4 April 2006 (Tuesday) Cricket: Australia in South Africa: Australia completes a clean-sweep of the three-Test series against South Africa after its victory in Johannesburg. Third Test, Johannesburg: South Africa 303 (Prince 93) and 258 (Boucher 63) lose to Australia 270 (Hussey 73, Ntini 6/100) and 294/8 (Martyn 101, Hussey 89, Ntini 4/78) by two wickets. (Complete scorecard) Justin Langer's landmark 100th Test. Unfortunately, the Australian opener was hit on the helmet by a Makhaya Ntini delivery and was forced to retire hurt, having faced only the one delivery. Langer played no further part in the Test. Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League – Quarter finals, second leg, progressing teams shown in bold. Villarreal 1–0 Internazionale A.C. Milan 3–1 Lyon: Lyon came within three minutes of progressing to their first-ever Champions League semi-final, before two late goals see Milan through for the third time in four years. (UEFA.com) 2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Final at TD Banknorth Garden, Boston, Massachusetts (2 Albuquerque) Maryland 78, (1 Bridgeport) Duke 75 (OT) Major League Baseball Toronto Blue Jays 6, Minnesota Twins 3 3 April 2006 (Monday) 2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Final at RCA Dome, Indianapolis, Indiana (3 Minneapolis) Florida 73, (2 Oakland) UCLA 57: Final Four Most Outstanding Player Joakim Noah leads the Gators to their first NCAA basketball championship, scoring 16 points and setting a championship-game record with six blocked shots. Major League Baseball, Opening Day Games National League New York Mets 3, Washington Nationals 2 Milwaukee Brewers 5, Pittsburgh Pirates 2 Chicago Cubs 16, Cincinnati Reds 7 St. Louis Cardinals 13, Philadelphia Phillies 5: The Phillies' Jimmy Rollins, who ended 2005 with a 36-game hitting streak, begins 2006 with a double in the opener, extending his two-season hitting streak to 37 games. Colorado Rockies 3, Arizona Diamondbacks 2 (11 innings) Atlanta Braves 11, Los Angeles Dodgers 10 Houston Astros 1, Florida Marlins 0 San Diego Padres 6, San Francisco Giants 1 American League Boston Red Sox 7, Texas Rangers 3 Baltimore Orioles 9, Tampa Bay Devil Rays 6 Detroit Tigers 3, Kansas City Royals 1 Los Angeles Angels 5, Seattle Mariners 4 New York Yankees 15, Oakland Athletics 2 2 April 2006 (Sunday) Major League Baseball, Opening Game Chicago White Sox 10, Cleveland Indians 4 2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Final Four At TD Banknorth Garden, Boston, Massachusetts (2 Albuquerque) Maryland 81, (1 Cleveland) North Carolina 70 (1 Bridgeport) Duke 64, (1 San Antonio) LSU 45 Rugby union Sevens: In the final of the Hong Kong Sevens, Ben Gollings scores and converts a try at the death to enable England to defeat Fiji 26–24. The result narrows Fiji's lead over England in the World Sevens Series to 6 points. Auto racing Formula One: Fernando Alonso wins the 2006 Australian Grand Prix, ahead of Kimi Räikkönen and Ralf Schumacher. NASCAR: Tony Stewart pulled away late in the race to win the DirecTV 500 at Martinsville Speedway. 1 April 2006 (Saturday) 2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Final Four At RCA Dome, Indianapolis, Indiana (3 Minneapolis) Florida 73, (11 Washington, D.C.) George Mason 58 (2 Oakland) UCLA 59, (4 Atlanta) LSU 45 References 04
4586481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maidstone%20%28film%29	Maidstone (film)	Maidstone is a 1970 American independent film drama written, produced and directed by Norman Mailer. It stars Mailer, Rip Torn and Ultra Violet. The film concerns famous film director Norman Kingsley, who runs for president while a group of friends, relatives, employees and lobbyists gather to discuss possible assassination plots against him. While producing his latest film about a brothel, Kingsley's brother Raoul continues to cling to him for his money. The film's title refers to a town in England called Maidstone. Critical reviews were generally negative. Plot Norman T. Kingsley is a filmmaker who is known as the "American Buñuel," and he is working on a sexually provocative drama about a brothel. Kingsley has his friends, actors, wannabe actresses and others join him on his estate in Upstate New York to audition for and work on his sexual drama. The twelve chapters in Maidstone are filmed in documentary form, and they depict Kingsley's everyday life as an actor and filmmaker. Kingsley refers to himself as a narcissist. Several attractive women are shown auditioning for a role in his film, and Kingsley is shown criticizing them heavily. He places himself within the film to show the actresses what he is looking for in his film. Kingsley is very realistic and convincing in his own acting. In addition to directing his film, he is also campaigning to become president and in doing so, he attracts journalists, scholars and some African-American radicals who question him about his campaign. Some of the attention that he draws leads to a group of people known as PAX,C discussing the need to have Kingsley assassinated. Chapter One: A Meeting of High Officials The film opens with a male voice presenting a series of newscasts by British commentator Jean Cardigan, who is known in England for the intimacy in her portraits of the great and the near-great. She is also described as "the sauciest bite in Britain." Next, Jean Cardigan appears and begins speaking about Norman T. Kingsley running for president. Her purpose is to keep a watch on Kingsley. The next scene is "The Meeting of High Officials," in which a group of people are sitting in a living room and listening to a man describe Kingsley. They say that his dominant nationality is Welsh, and that he went to different schools in pursuit of a degree in architecture. Kingsley is described as "indigenous, original, and a bit bizarre." The film then changes to a clip in which Kingsley begins auditioning women for his film. It then returns to the High Officials discussing Kingsley and his biography. Chapter Two: The Director Kingsley continues auditioning women and critiquing them heavily. He asks the women if they would be prepared to take off their clothes if the film called for it. At the same time, the High Officials provide psychoanalytic theories of Kingsley. They mention that Kingsley lives in New York, is separated from his wife and has had no contact with his five children. One official wants to know Kingsley's position on Red China, Soviet Russia, the new African states, Israel and the Arab states, presumably in reference to his presidential campaign. They introduce Mrs. Oswald, who works for Kingsley, because she knows the most about him. She claims that she knows as much about Kingsley as do everyone else. The High Officials mention the Buñuel movie, and then first mention assassination. The chapter concludes with a backyard boxing fight between Kingsley and Raoul Rey O'Houlihan. Kingsley demands to not to be hit in his face because he will appear in his own film. Chapter Three: PAX,C & Cash Box Jean Cardigan talks about the new secret elite peace organization called Prevention of Assassination Experiments, Control (PAX,C). Cardigan says that she heard that PAX,C incites assassinations rather than prevents them. She was accused of being a member of the British equivalent of PAX,C, but she denies involvement. The scene changes back to the High Officials discussing the Cash Box. It is explained that Rey is Kingsley's half-brother. The scene changes back to Kingsley, who says that he is on top of the Cash Box and that Rey is right under him. A photographer takes pictures of the potential actresses, and then an older woman speaks with Kingsley about using her estate for filming. Chapter Four: Instructions to the Cast Kingsley speaks with his chosen film cast. He explains that the film is about a brothel in which men work to mate women. He explains the sexual nature of the film. The scene changes back and forth between two men fishing and Kingsley speaking to the cast. Chapter Five: Politicking in the Grass Chapter five is titled "Politicking in the Grass". It starts with the Cash Box members talking to each other. The scene changes to Ms. Cardigan talking about how Kingsley is receiving political delegations while he is making his "sex movie." She says that she saw one girl undress another while they were filming on the lawn of the estate, with the Cash Box to be seen in the open. She feels that a man running for president should not be associated with something like the Cash Box, and that the film shoot is chaotic. After that, Kingsley speaks to a group of black men about poverty and life. The men are convinced that Kingsley is merely seeking the black vote in his run for president. Then the president of the ladies' college appears and says that she does not want to have a myth in the presidential office, and asks Kingsley about his credentials as a candidate. An argument ensues between a few men, and a shirtless Kingsley is seen lying on a lawn, speaking to a woman about voting. Kingsley engages in a conversation about sexual freedom in America and someone who hangs himself while having an erection. Chapter Six: A Commencement of Filming The chapter begins with Kingsley and the cast clearing out a room to start filming. It transitions into a somewhat sexual scene between a male and a female who are presumably cast members of Kingsley's film. Kingsley is next shown speaking to a different female cast member. They discuss the type of men whom she prefers. She talks in depth about her sexual curiosity to be with a black man, stating "I heard they are good." Kingsley kisses her and they get into bed together. Kingsley is next shown talking to a different woman about an Irish poet who said, "The devil is the most beautiful creature God ever created." This is a paraphrase from John Milton's Paradise Lost. Next, Ms. Cardigan says that the latest bulletin from NTK sexual front is that "Ultraviolet," the star of Andy Warhol films, is going to appear in Kingsley's film having sex with a Black man. This is supposed to be a "cinematic first" for Kingsley. More conversation is shown with the cast members. Kingsley is then shown sexually caressing yet another female. Chapter Seven: Portents The High Officials discuss the manner in which they think Kingsley should be assassinated. A man from Kingsley's film is then shown making unusual whooping noises with his mouth. Chapter Eight: Return of an Old Love A man interrupts Kingsley to tell him that Valarie Bruenelle is at the estate. Kingsley says that the last time he saw her she was very "rapid." Kingsley meets with Bruenelle and they sit at a table smoking, talking and singing. Kingsley asks why Bruenelle came to see him and asks if it was to wish him well. Bruenelle says that she does not know if she wishes him well. Some photos are flashed across the screen showing Ms. Bruenell in her younger years. Chapter Nine: The Death of A Director With sexually induced female moaning in the background, a man is shown falling to the floor, and then a man is shown playing the piano. This chapter changes scenes quickly, in a random flashing manner, showing images of back roads, Ms. Cardigan, Kingsley, Kingsley's wife and children, the estate and other miscellaneous events. A sexual scene is shown with Kingsley speaking about his film becoming pornographic. The chapter then transitions into flashes of events occurring during Kingsley's presidential campaign. Several flashes of Kingsley and women are then shown, one with a fully nude woman. Kingsley says that his film is very close to sexual exploitation. Several more sex scenes are shown, one with Ms. Cardigan exposing her almost-bare chest as her dress is open and loose on top. Ms. Cardigan is shown very disheveled, in an almost demonic state, holding a baby doll and screaming, "I hate NTK!" The final scene shows several people walking down a dirt road, away from the camera. Chapter Ten: The Grand Assassination Ball The chapter opens with a party for Kingsley's presidential campaign. The High Officials and Kingsley's wife are in attendance. Two cast members say that the "king has been assassinated" and suddenly scream. Kingsley makes his way on stage, where he yells "Silence! The king is ready to speak!" He makes a speech about how much he trusts everyone who is there until they betray him for the first time. As the music continues to play, everyone is dancing and appears to be enjoying themselves, except for the High Officials, who look mad. One of the young black men from the cast tries to attack Kingsley. It takes several men to subdue him to the ground and to escort him out of the ball. After this, the music stops, Kingsley's brother walks up to his brother and yells out to the crowd, "Is my brother for freedom?", to which his wife yells out, "Come on! Play some freedom! Play some freedom! You don't know nothing about freedom!" The scene ends by going completely black into the next scene, in which Kingsley's wife is sitting in his house smoking a cigarette. Chapter Eleven: A Course in Orientation This chapter begins with Kingsley entering his home where his wife awaits him. He sits down and she angrily accuses him of getting "even" with her by not calling her into work. He discusses the actors with whom he worked during filming. His wife says that he is afraid of real talent because it might steal something from him. The next scene shows Kingsley, his wife, and his children on a sailboat in the ocean. A yard scene is then shown in which Kingsley is discussing the film with the cast and his crew. He says that they have made a film by a "brand-new process" that is akin to a military operation and that they have been making an attack on the nature of reality. He asks "What is reality?" The cast and crew begin to discuss Kingsley and the film. One of the females did not like the ball because she felt that since the cast trusted him, they had been "manipulated, exploited, developed and educated" by Kingsley. He says that he made the film to show how a man runs for president, and how his character as a complete contradiction with the actor himself. He says that in a fantasy world, his character could run for president. He and his cast and crew give a thankful round of applause to their host throughout the film, Robert Gardiner. The scene ends with the camera crew riding away from the house where the film was shot. Chapter Twelve: The Silences of An Afternoon The final chapter shows Kingsley's wife and children walking on a dirt road and some other cast members walking around, relaxing because filming is complete. It then changes to a clip in which Rey grabs his hammer and carries it with him. Another short clip shows Rey talking to one of the High Officials, and then Rey suddenly attacks Kingsley with the hammer, saying that Kingsley must die but not Mailer. Kingsley and Rey both fall into the grass, wrestling. Kingsley says, "No baby, you trust me." He repeats this several times to calm his brother while his hands are pinned to the ground. His wife starts screaming when she sees Kingsley on top of Rey, not because he is trying to hurt Rey, but because Rey tries to strangle Kingsley. Rey bites Kingsley's ear and draws blood. Kingsley's wife hits him and his children are crying. Rey then claims that the film required Kingsley's death. Rey then asks Kingsley why he thinks he returned, but Rey says that he doesn't need to come back. After the two brothers start walking up the dirt road, they call each other offensive names, and soon after Rey proclaims that everything that just happened was a scene from a "Hollywood whorehouse movie." The last scene shows the two dirt roads surrounded by woods. Cast Other cast members: Paul Austin Ann Barry Eddie Bonette Steve Borton Robert Byrne Paul Carroll Lang Clay Harold Conrad Billy Copley John De Menil Tony Duke Tim Hickey Ron Hobbs Kahlil Evelyn Larson Robert Lucid Mara Lynn Diana MacKenzie John Maloon John Manazanet Michael McClure Carolyn McCullough David McMullin Penny Milford Glenna Moore Leonard Morris Adeline Naiman Ula Ness Alfonso Ossorio Noel E. Parmentel, Jr. Maggie Peach Alice Raintree Jack Richardson Joe Roddy Lee Roscoe Bianca Rosoff Peter Rosoff Barney Rosoff Shari Rothe Cliff Sager Lucy Saroyan Brenda Simley Lane Smith Sally Sorrell Greer St. John Carol Stevens Danae Tom José Torres Hervé Villechaize Jan Pieter Welt Bud Wirtschafter Harris Yulin Penelope Milford Justin Bozung points out that Mailer's determination to cast non-actors in Maidstone and other films supports his belief that "we are all actors in our daily lives." Mailer's determination to blur reality and fiction as scenarios unfold could only be achieved by capturing true responses to situations. Many of Mailer's casts were chosen from friends who "reflect facets of his persona." Production Maidstone is the final of three underground films written and directed by Norman Mailer in the late 1960s and was his largest production in terms of capital expenses and physical and emotional expenditures. The film began production in 1968 and was not completed until 1970. Production occurred over five days at various East Hampton estates, and "[t]he actors worked without a script, without a net, and often, without any idea what they were doing." Mailer relied on his own acting as a method of directing while prodding cast members to react on film rather than reading from a script. The original footage was 45 hours long, but after the editing process the producers came up with a 110-minute film. It took them three weeks to watch the 45 hours of film, then about six months to cut it into 7.5 hours. According to Mailer, the crew worked a long time before they could get down to the 3.5-hour version, which no longer exists. "At that point, down from 7 ½ hours, it's a totally different film. It was endlessly long and slow and had all sorts of interesting corners, pursued all sorts of angles, that never quite got developed enough." Mailer pointed to his lack of experience as an inadvertent film producer as the main factor for inflated spending on his films Wild 90, Beyond the Law and Maidstone. The film cost $200,000 to produce, causing Mailer to sell part of his interest in The Village Voice. The film would eventually bankrupt Mailer before completion. Filming location Four estates in the Hamptons were rented, providing five continuous miles of estate to five different camera teams. Barney Rosset let the crew use his estate for shooting, and a woman named Elizabeth Brackman also gave the film crew permission to use her house as the shooting scene. A mansion used in one of the scenes belonged to Alfonso Ossorio. The crew worked "from mansion to estate back to another mansion to an island." Along with a cast of 50-60 individuals, cameramen were advised to follow unprompted actions for Mailer to piece together in production. Music There is no official soundtrack for the film, but it did use scores created by composers Isaac Hayes and Wes Montgomery. The theme music was composed and sung by Carol Stevens. Performed by Isaac Hayes: "Precious, Precious" "I Just Want to Make Love to You" "Rock Me Baby" Performed by Wes Montgomery: "Love Theme from The Sandpiper (The Shadow of Your Smile)" Background Produced during the media height of Armies of the Night and leading to the writing of Miami and the Siege of Chicago, Maidstone was created during a politically and culturally changing era of American history. Although released in 1970-1971, Maidstone was produced just one month after the assassination of Robert Kennedy and three months after Martin Luther King, Jr.'s assassination. John D'Amico couples Maidstone with chants of "The whole world is watching!" on the American political timeline of the 1960s and along a year of "nerve-wracked" cinema "desperately grasping for a new way of living." Although 1960s cinema is typically disregarded as drug-induced, D'Amico credits the totalitarian-littered world in which these filmmakers were born as fuel in their rage against the politically oppressive utilization of perfect order. Analysis Filmmaker Michael Mailer, Norman Mailer's son, credits Maidstone as a sociological statement and an embodiment of the "indulgence to the point of mental hazard" that ultimately caused the 1960s to "implode." The character of Norman Kingsley was based on Robert F. Kennedy as the next "cool" political candidate. According to Sarah Bishop, Maidstone's purpose was to "demonstrate the violence" caused by media representations of individuals who had the cultural authority and technological power to shape these representations. Driven by the assassinations of the 1960s, Maidstone serves as a test of counterculture's promised political equality and social freedoms' ability to "hold up under the spotlights." Feminist response Mailer's director character was considered a male chauvinist. At one point in the film, referring to his ability to analyze women, Kingsley says, "I wish women were horses. I would be a multi-millionaire." His take on the Hollywood casting couch portrayed a director conducting cruel interviews with women. Lines were sometimes blurred between his character and Mailer himself, so he received much scorn from supporters of the women's movement in the 1970s. "In Maidstone, all the interviews are with women and each is crueler than the next. I paid for that for 40 years," said Mailer. "The women's movement picked it up as if it were manna from heaven. They had found their number-one sexist pig in America." Mailer viewed feminism as "potentially, part of the drift toward totalitarianism," which inspired the book The Prisoner of Sex, which he wrote as a response to the movement. Additionally, during a town hall meeting hosted by a group of feminists, Mailer stated that "the whole question of women's liberation is the deepest question that faces us." John D'Amico references "Chapter Four: Instructions to the Cast" to illustrate the treatment of actresses as "needling and taunting," as Mailer's character Kingsley calls one woman a "ninny" if she refuses to strip for a scene. In addition to nitpicking over one actress' wrinkles, Kingsley makes racist remarks toward a Black actress by demanding that she "be a slave to be a good actor." Reception Release An early edit was previewed at the Whitney Museum in New York. The film ran for two weeks, five times a day, and sold about 7,000 tickets, breaking several house records for the theater. With some extra money in the bank, and feeling optimistic about its reception, Mailer opened the film at The Lincoln on 57th Street. It ran for seven days, and delivered the worst business in the history of the theater. A friend with film expertise commented on its poor performance: "Norman, the answer is that there were just 7,000 people in New York who were interested in seeing that film." Maidstone was shown in a select few theaters in 1971. After that, it all but disappeared from the public eye until 35 years later when a DVD was released in France in 2006. This led to a number of public screenings at that time, but until then the film remained in obscurity. These limited screenings may have lessened its potential direct influence on future films. The film has been shown at several festivals and movie theaters since its first release. In 2008, it appeared during the film festival "Cinema '68" in the UK. Five years later, it was shown in New York at the Film Forum. Critical response According to Mailer, Maidstone never received "the one great review we were hoping for." Vincent Canby of The New York Times lauded Mailer's creativity and ambition, but his review remained negative: Like many viewers, he found the Rip Torn hammer attack to be the only intriguing moment: Sam Adams of the Los Angeles Times calls the Torn/Mailer fight "the greatest scene in Norman Mailer's filming career" and states that "watching the film doesn't lack for force. It is indeed like being attacked, and it is Mailer that is doing the attacking." Legacy The film is now famous for the improvised fight between Mailer and Torn. As the camera rolled, Torn struck Mailer in the head with a hammer, intending to "kill his character." Mailer's scalp opened up, and a vicious fight ensued. With the camera still rolling, Torn energetically strangled Mailer until the fight was broken up by Mailer's wife Beverly and their wailing children. During the melee, Mailer bit off a small chunk of Torn's ear. The fight, in which the actors called each other by their real names, made it into the film. This "Maidstone Brawl" has over 490,000 views on YouTube, despite the film's remaining 101 minutes having less popularity. The fight was later used as evidence in Torn's case against Dennis Hopper, who claimed that Torn attacked him with a knife after being replaced by Jack Nicholson in Easy Rider. Torn won his case on the claim that "he could not have possibly killed Hopper as he was, at the time, on the set of Maidstone trying to kill Norman Mailer." In his essay "Overexposed: My First Taste of Film-Making", Michael Mailer recounts this final scene as his first experience with trauma. Shortly before Norman Mailer's death, he spoke with his son about the final scene of Maidstone and its impact as the "clear" force that drove Michael into the film business. See also List of American films of 1970 Independent drama film References Citations Bibliography External links Thank you letter to Norman Mailer Thank You One and All 1970 films 1970 drama films American independent films Films with screenplays by Norman Mailer Films directed by Norman Mailer American drama films 1970s English-language films 1970s American films English-language drama films
4586598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaze%20to%20Ki%20no%20Uta	Kaze to Ki no Uta	is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Keiko Takemiya. It was serialized in the manga magazine Shūkan Shōjo Comic from 1976 to 1980, and in the manga magazine Petit Flower from 1981 to 1984. One of the earliest works in the (male–male romance) genre, follows the tragic romance between Gilbert Cocteau and Serge Battour, two students at an all-boys boarding school in late 19th-century France. The series was developed and published amid a significant transitional period for manga (manga for girls), as the medium shifted from an audience composed primarily of children to an audience of adolescents and young adults. This shift was characterized by the emergence of narratively more complex stories focused on politics, psychology, and sexuality, and came to be embodied by a new generation of manga artists collectively referred to as the Year 24 Group, of which Takemiya was a member. The mature subject material of and its focus on themes of sadomasochism, incest, and rape were controversial for manga of the 1970s; it took nearly seven years from Takemiya's initial conceptualization of the story for her editors at the publishing company Shogakukan to agree to publish it. Upon its eventual release, achieved significant critical and commercial success, with Takemiya winning the 1979 Shogakukan Manga Award in both the and (manga for boys) categories for and Toward the Terra, respectively. It is regarded as a pioneering work of , and is credited by critics with widely popularizing the genre. An anime film adaptation of the series, , was released as an original video animation (home video) in 1987. Synopsis The series is set in late 19th-century France, primarily at the fictional Lacombrade Academy, an all-boys boarding school located on the outskirts of the city of Arles in Provence. Serge Battour, the teenaged son of a French viscount and a Roma woman, is sent to Lacombrade at the request of his late father. He is roomed with Gilbert Cocteau, a misanthropic student who is ostracized by the school's pupils and professors for his truancy and sexual relations with older male students. Serge's efforts to befriend his roommate and Gilbert's simultaneous efforts both to drive away and to seduce Serge form a complicated and disruptive relationship between the pair. Gilbert's apparent cruelty and promiscuity are the result of a lifetime of neglect and abuse, as perpetrated chiefly by his ostensible uncle Auguste Beau. Auguste is a respected figure in French high society who has physically, emotionally, and sexually abused Gilbert since he was a child. His manipulation of Gilbert is so significant that Gilbert believes that the two are in love, and he remains beguiled by Auguste even after he later learns that he is not his uncle, but his biological father. Despite threats of ostracism and violence, Serge perseveres in his attempts to bond with Gilbert, and the two eventually become friends and lovers. Faced with rejection by the faculty and students of Lacombrade, Gilbert and Serge flee to Paris and live for a short while as paupers. Gilbert is unable to escape the trauma of his past, and descends into a life of drug use and prostitution. While hallucinating under the influence of opium, he runs in front of a moving carriage and dies under its wheels, convinced that he has seen Auguste. Some of the pair's friends, who have recently rediscovered the couple, find and console the traumatized Serge. Characters The transliteration of the characters' names is sourced from the Italian edition of the manga, which the author approved. Voice actors in are noted where applicable. Primary characters A fourteen-year-old student at Lacombrade from an aristocratic family in Marseille. He is the illegitimate child of his mother Anne Marie and her brother-in-law Auguste Beau, the latter of whom has abused Gilbert physically, emotionally, and sexually since he was a child. This abuse has left Gilbert as an antisocial cynic, unable to express love or affection except through sex. Gilbert is initially antagonistic and violent towards his new roommate Serge, and rejects his early attempts to befriend him. Serge's persistent altruism slowly wins Gilbert over, and the two flee to Paris as lovers. Gilbert has difficulty adjusting to their new lives of genteel poverty and begins using drugs and engaging in prostitution, and dies after being struck by a carriage while under the influence of opium. A fourteen-year-old student at Lacombrade, and heir to an aristocratic house. The orphaned son of a French viscount and a Roma woman who faces discrimination for his mixed ethnicity, Serge is a musical prodigy with a noble and humanistic sense of morality. Despite Gilbert's initial ill treatment of him, he remains devoted in his attempts to help and understand him. His attraction to Gilbert causes him confusion and distress, particularly when he finds that he can depend on neither the church nor his friends for guidance and support. He gradually grows closer to Gilbert as they become friends and later lovers, and the two flee Lacombrade together. Secondary characters Gilbert's legal uncle, later revealed to be his biological father. Adopted into the house of Cocteau as a child, Auguste was raped by his elder step-brother in his own youth and has abused Gilbert from a young age. At first attempting to raise Gilbert to be an "obedient pet", he later works to transform him into a "pure" and "artistic" individual through neglect and manipulation of Gilbert's obsessive love for him. Upon learning of Serge's relationship with Gilbert, he works to separate the pair. An eccentric, iconoclastic classmate of Serge and Gilbert and a close friend of the former. A super senior who is dismissive of religion and classical education, he insists upon the importance of science and takes it upon himself to teach Serge about sexuality. Though mildly attracted to Gilbert, he is the most frankly heterosexual of Serge's confidants, and helps to introduce Serge to women. Serge's first friend at Lacombrade. A gentle, pious boy who struggles with his attraction to Gilbert. The sadistic student superintendent at Lacombrade, nicknamed the "White Prince". A distant relative of the Cocteau family, he was raped by Auguste at the age of 15. Rosemarine cooperates with Auguste's manipulation of Gilbert, but forms a friendship with Serge and ultimately aids Gilbert and Serge in their escape to Paris. A student supervisor at Lacombrade, and Rosemarine's childhood friend. His aristocratic family's fortune was lost with the death of his father, and he is only able to attend Lacombrade through his intelligence and friendship with Rosemarine. He provides comfort and guidance to Gilbert and Rosemarine through their troubles. Development Context Keiko Takemiya made her debut as a manga artist in 1967, and though her early works attracted the attention of manga magazine editors, none achieved any particular critical or commercial success. Her debut occurred in the context of a restrictive manga (girls' manga) publishing culture: stories were marketed to an audience of children, were focused on uncomplicated subject material such as familial drama or romantic comedy, and favored Cinderella-like female protagonists defined by their passivity. Beginning in the 1970s, a new generation of artists emerged who created manga stories that were more psychologically complex, dealt directly with topics of politics and sexuality, and were aimed at an audience of teenage readers. This grouping of artists, of which Takemiya was a member, came to be collectively referred to as the Year 24 Group. The group contributed significantly to the development of manga by expanding the genre to incorporate elements of science fiction, historical fiction, adventure fiction, and same-sex romance: both male–male ( and ) and female–female (). Takemiya was a close friend to fellow Year 24 Group member Moto Hagio, with whom she shared a rented house in Ōizumigakuenchō, Nerima, Tokyo, from 1971 to 1973. The house was nicknamed the "Ōizumi Salon", and came to be an important gathering point for Year 24 Group members and their affiliates. Their friend and next-door neighbor was a significant influence on both artists: though Masuyama was not a manga artist, she was a manga enthusiast motivated by a desire to elevate the genre from its status as a frivolous distraction for children to a serious literary art form, and introduced Takemiya and Hagio to literature, magazines, and films that came to inspire their works. Of the works Masuyama introduced to Takemiya, novels by writer Herman Hesse in the Bildungsroman genre were particularly relevant to the development of . Masuyama introduced Takemiya and Hagio to Beneath the Wheel (1906), Demian (1919), and Narcissus and Goldmund (1932); Demian was especially impactful on both artists, directly influencing the plot and setting of both Takemiya's and Hagio's own major contribution to the genre, The Heart of Thomas (1974). Though none of Hesse's stories are explicitly homoerotic, they inspired the artists through their depictions of strong bonds between male characters, their boarding school settings, and their focus on the internal psychology of their male protagonists. Other works that informed the development of were the European drama films if.... (1968), Satyricon (1969), and Death in Venice (1971), which screened in Japan in the 1970s and influenced both Takemiya and Hagio in their depiction of "preternaturally beautiful" male characters; Taruho Inagaki's essay , which influenced Takemiya to select a school as the setting for her series; and issues of , the first commercially circulated Japanese gay men's magazine. Production Takemiya initially conceived of the story of in 1970, following which she stayed up through the night with Masuyama discussing the series over the telephone. She wrote a detailed outline of the plot in December of that year, and drew the first 50 pages of the manga in a sketchbook in January 1971. Takemiya showed the sketchbook draft to multiple editors, but none were interested in publishing the series, citing its controversial subject material. Several editors advised her to move the opening scene of the series, which depicts Gilbert in bed with an older male student, to later in the story; she refused, stating, "I want to put the page that best reflects the story at the beginning." At the time, manga censorship codes specifically forbade depictions of male–female sex, but ostensibly permitted depictions of male–male sex. Takemiya's decision to focus on male over female protagonists – still a relatively new practice in manga at the time – was born from her desire to write a sexually explicit story that she believed would appeal to female readers. Per Takemiya, "if there is a sex scene between a boy and a girl, [readers] don't like it because it seems too real. It leads to topics like getting pregnant or getting married, and that's too real. But if it's two boys, they can avoid that and concentrate on the love aspect." In developing the main characters of the series, Takemiya considered that Gilbert's complex background necessitated the creation of an equally compelling background for Serge, prompting her to place focus on Serge's deceased parents. She drew inspiration for Serge's mixed ethnic background from (1852), saying "if you had to tell a story about a child of a viscount, I thought, you had no other choice but . In the December 1970 issue of Bessatsu Shōjo Comic, Takemiya published a one-shot (standalone single chapter) manga titled ("Snow and Stars and Angels and..."), which was later re-published under the title ("In the Sunroom"). Takemiya describes the one-shot as a "compact" version of : both stories focus on a Roma teenager named Serge Battour, who enters a relationship with a blond boy who dies at the conclusion of the story. Aware that a male–male romance story was likely to be heavily revised or rejected by her editor, Takemiya intentionally submitted immediately before the magazine's publication deadline. Her gambit was successful, and the one-shot was published without edits; became the first work in the genre that would become known as and granted Takemiya greater critical recognition. Takemiya contributed a "one-page theater" (a page in which an author discusses miscellaneous thoughts and impressions with essay-like illustrations) to Shūkan Shōjo Comic in September 1973, in which she described her desire to write . She noted that it had been three years since she conceived of the story and characters, and that she still wished to see it published. She told readers, "Please remember the name 'Gilbert'. I'm sure I will draw it!" Along with the editorial barriers she faced, Takemiya found it difficult to develop the story as she felt she lacked sufficient knowledge of its European setting. In 1973, Takemiya traveled to Europe with Hagio, Masuyama, and Year 24 Group member Ryoko Yamagishi. She stated that the trip made her "more concerned with details. After I knew how to make a stone-paved street, I also watched repairs on it and stared at the blocks which were used." European art of the 19th century became a major influence on the art style of ; Takemiya has specifically cited the black ink drawings of Aubrey Beardsley and the landscapes of the Barbizon school as influences. Takemiya continued to visit Europe annually, staying in different countries for a month each time. In an effort to overcome the low level of editorial freedom and autonomy that was preventing her from publishing , Takemiya sought to build her profile as an artist by creating a manga series that would have mass appeal. That series, (, "The Pharaoh's Tomb", 1974–1976), follows the ("noble wandering narrative") story formula of an exiled king who returns to lead his kingdom to greatness, which Takemiya chose specifically because it was popular in manga at the time. Shortly after began serialization, Takemiya published a 16-page preview of in the first collected volume of her manga series (, "I Love the Sky!", 1971–1972). The preview, titled , was included at the end of the volume without notice or explanation. Takemiya said she wanted to "expose" a part of , and she was curious to see how readers would react to it. was ultimately a commercial success that succeeded at boosting Takemiya's profile as an artist, especially among female readers, and granted her the necessary influence at her publisher Shogakukan to be able to publish . In all, it took nearly seven years for Takemiya to, in her words, "earn the right" to publish the series. Release began serialization in the February 29, 1976 ( 10) issue of Shūkan Shōjo Comic. It attracted controversy for its sexual depictions, particularly its opening male–male sex scene and its depictions of sadomasochism, incest, and rape. Takemiya has stated that she was concerned how parent–teacher associations would react to the series, as Shūkan Shōjo Comic publisher Shogakukan was a "stricter" company best known for publishing academic magazines for schoolchildren. Reader letters in Shūkan Shōjo Comic were divided between those who were offended by the subject material of the series, and those who praised its narrative complexity and explicit representations of sex. Gilbert was initially unpopular with readers, though as the series progressed to depict his backstory and early childhood, he subsequently became more popular than Serge. In 1980, Shūkan Shōjo Comic editor became the founding editor of Petit Flower, a new manga magazine aimed at an audience of adult women that published titles with mature subject material. moved to the new magazine, and the last chapter of the series published in Shūkan Shōjo Comic was released in the November 5, 1980 (No. 21) issue. Serialization continued in Petit Flower beginning in the Winter 1981 issue (cover dated as February 1981), where it continued until the conclusion of the series in the June 1984 issue. The series, which was significantly longer than Takemiya's previous works, was collected as seventeen volumes published under Shogakukan's Flower Comics imprint from May 1977 to August 1984. It was re-released as nine hardcover volumes published under Shogakukan's Sōsho imprint from July 1988 to March 1989. Since then, has been reprinted several times by different Japanese publishers, including a nine-volume edition published as part of "The Complete Keiko Takemiya" collection under Kadokawa Shoten's Asuka Comics DX imprint from August 1990 to March 1991; a four-volume edition published under Chuokoron-Shinsha's Chuko Aizōban imprint from August to November 1993; a ten-volume edition published under Hakusensha's Bunko imprint from March to September 1995; and an eight-volume edition published under Chuokoron-Shinsha's Chuko Bunko Comic-ban imprint from July 2002 to January 2003. The series was also released as sixteen e-book volumes by in 2010. was translated and published outside of Japan for the first time in 2018, by Spanish-language publisher Milky Way Ediciones. It was released in ten omnibus volumes based on the 1995 Japanese edition, featuring color pages and new cover art chosen by Takemiya. The series was also published by Italian-language publisher in late 2018, under their J-Pop Manga imprint. It was initially released in a ten-volume box set, the individual volumes later being released once a month. Themes and analysis Gender The primary characters of are ( "beautiful boys"), a term for androgynous male characters that sociologist Chizuko Ueno describes as representing "the idealized self-image of girls". Takemiya has stated that her use of protagonists that blur gender distinctions was done intentionally, "to mentally liberate girls from the sexual restrictions imposed on us [as women]". By portraying male characters with physical traits typical of female characters in manga – such as slender bodies, long hair, and large eyes – the presumed female reader is invited to self-identify with the male protagonist. This device led psychologist Hayao Kawai to remark in his analysis of that "perhaps no other work has expressed the inner world of the adolescent girl to such an extent". This self-identification among girls and women assumes many forms; art critic Midori Matsui considers how this representation appeals to adolescent female readers by harking back to a sexually undifferentiated state of childhood, while also allowing them to vicariously contemplate the sexual attractiveness of boys. James Welker notes in his field work that members of Japan's lesbian community reported being influenced by manga featuring characters who blur gender distinctions, specifically citing and The Rose of Versailles by Year 24 Group member Riyoko Ikeda. This self-identification is expressed in negative terms by psychologist who sees manga as a "narcissistic space" in which operate simultaneously as "the perfect object of [the readers'] desire to love and their desire for identification", seeing as the "apex" of this tendency. Manga scholar Yukari Fujimoto argues that female interest in is "rooted in hatred of women", which she argues recurs throughout the genre in the form of misogynistic thoughts and statements expressed by male characters. She cites as evidence Gilbert's overt disgust towards women, arguing that his misogynistic statements serve to draw the reader's attention to the subordinate position women occupy in society; as the female reader is ostensibly meant to self-identify with Gilbert, these statements expose "the mechanisms by which women cannot help falling into a state of self-hatred". To Fujimoto, this willingness to "[turn] around" these misogynistic statements against the reader, thus forcing them to examine their own internalized sexism, represents "one of the keys" to understanding the influence and legacy of and works like it. Sex and sexual violence allowed manga artists to depict sex, which had long been considered taboo in the medium. There has been significant academic focus on the motivations of Japanese women who read and created in the 1970s, with manga scholar Deborah Shamoon considering how permitted the exploration of sex and eroticism in a way that was "distanced from the girl readers' own bodies", as male–male sex is removed from female concerns of marriage and pregnancy. Yukari Fujimoto notes how sex scenes in are rendered with a "boldness" that was unprecedented in manga at the time, depicting "sexual desire as overwhelming power". She examines how the abuse suffered by Gilbert has rendered him as "a creature who cannot exist without sexual love" and who thus suffers "the pain of passivity". By applying passivity, a trait that is stereotypically associated with women, to male characters, she argues that Takemiya is able to depict sexual violence "in a purified form and in a way that protects the reader from its raw pain". These scenes of sexual violence "would be all too realistic if a woman were portrayed as the victim"; by portraying the subject as a man, "women are freed from the position of always being the one 'done to', and are able to take on the viewpoint of the 'doer', and also the viewpoint of the 'looker'." Midori Matsui similarly argues Gilbert exists as a "pure object of the male gaze", an "effeminate and beautiful boy whose presence alone provokes the sado-machochistic desire of older males to rape, humiliate, and treat him as a sexual commodity". She argues that Gilbert represents a parody of the femme fatale, and at the same time "his sexuality evokes the subversive element of abjection." That is to say, Gilbert's backstory as a victim of rape – a status that is often associated with women – allows the female reader to identify with him, and experience an abject and vicarious fear that reflects her own fear of rape. Gilbert's contradictory status as both femme fatale and sexual assault victim therefore contradicts the stereotype of "feminine power of seduction that usurps the rationality of the masculine subject", at the same time reinforcing "conventional metaphors of feminine sexuality as a dark seducer". Kazuko Suzuki considers that although society often shuns and looks down upon women who are raped in reality, depicts male characters who are raped as still "imbued with innocence" and typically still loved by their rapists after the act. She cites as the primary work that gave rise to this trope in manga, noting how the narrative suggests that individuals who are "honest to themselves" and love only one other person monogamously are regarded as "innocent". That is, so long as the protagonists of "continue to pursue their supreme love within an ideal human relationship, they can forever retain their virginity at the symbolic level, despite having repeated sex in the fictional world". Occidentalism The French setting of is reflective of Takemiya's own interest in European culture, which is in turn reflective of a generalized fascination with Europe in Japanese girls' culture of the 1970s. Takemiya has stated that interest in Europe was a "characteristic of the times", noting that gravure fashion magazines for girls such as An An and Non-no often included European topics in their editorial coverage. She sees the fascination as stemming in part from sensitivities around depicting non-Japanese settings in manga in the aftermath of the Second World War, stating that "you could draw anything about America and Europe, but not so, about 'Asia' as seen in Japan". Manga scholar Rebecca Suter asserts that the recurrence of Christian themes and imagery throughout the series – crucifixes, Bibles, churches, Madonnas and angels appear both in the diegesis and as symbolic representations in non-narrative artwork – can be seen as a sort of Occidentalism. Per Suter, Christianity's disapproval of homosexuality is represented primarily in as a narrative obstacle to be overcome by Gilbert and Serge as they pursue their relationship, a means to "complicate the plot and prolong the titillation for the reader". She argues that the series' appropriation of western religious symbols and attitudes for creative purposes "parallels and subverts" the Orientalist tendency to view Asia as more spiritual, "superstitious, and backwards". Works by the Year 24 Group often used western literary tropes, especially those associated with the Bildungsroman genre, to stage what Midori Matsui describes as "a psychodrama of the adolescent ego". Takemiya has expressed ambivalence about that genre label being applied to ; when artist Shūji Terayama described the series as a Bildungsroman, Takemiya responded that she "did not pay attention to such classification" when writing the series, and that when she heard Terayama's comments she "wondered what Bildungsroman was" as she "did not know literary categories". In this regard, several commentators have contrasted to Moto Hagio's The Heart of Thomas through their shared inspirations from the Bildungsroman novels of Herman Hesse. Both and Thomas follow similar narrative trajectories, focusing on a tragic romance between boys in a European setting, and where the death of one boy figures heavily into the plot. is significantly more sexually explicit than both The Heart of Thomas and Hesse's novels, with anime and manga scholar Minori Ishida noting that "Takemiya in particular draws on latent romance and eroticism between some male characters in Hesse's writing". Midori Matsui considers as "ostensibly a Bildungsroman" that is "surreptitious pornography for girls" through its depiction of male characters who openly express and act upon their sexual desires, contrasting the largely non-sexual Heart of Thomas. Related media Adaptations An anime film adaptation, , was released by Pony Canyon as an original video animation (OVA) on November 6, 1987. The sixty-minute film was produced by Shogakukan, Herald Enterprise, and Konami and directed by Yoshikazu Yasuhiko, with Sachiko Kamimura as animation director. Animation for the film was done in cooperation between Tranquilizer Product Company, Kugatsusha, Triangle Staff, and Tokyo Media Connections. The film's soundtrack, which features classical compositions by Bach and Chopin and original compositions by , was also released by Pony Canyon in 1987. Sanctus adapts the introductory chapters of the manga, bookended by scenes of a now-adult Serge re-visiting Lacombrade; multiple sequels were planned, but were never produced. Internationally, Sanctus was licensed by Italian distributor Yamato Video in 2006, which released the film as a DVD containing both the original Japanese audio and an Italian dub starring Marisa Della Pasqua as the voice of young Serge and Paola Della Pasqua as the voice of Gilbert. A radio drama adapting the first volume of aired on TBS Radio, with Mann Izawa as scriptwriter and Hiromi Go as the voice of Gilbert. The series has also been adapted for the stage several times: by the theater company April House in May 1979, with as Gilbert and Shu Nakagawa as Serge; and in the early 1980s by an all-female troupe modeled on the Takarazuka Revue. Tie-ins Two image albums have been released by Nippon Columbia: the self-titled , composed by Seiji Yokoyama, in 1980; and , composed by , in 1984. , a remix album of Gilbert no Requiem, was released in 1985. In 1985, Shogakukan published , an artist's book featuring original illustrations by Takemiya of characters from . reprinted the book in 2018, with eight new illustrations and new scans of the original artwork produced by Genga' (Dash), an art preservation project Takemiya developed at Kyoto Seika University. In 2016, Takarajimasha published , a limited edition artist's book containing thirty-two illustrations chosen by Takemiya and new illustrations originally drawn by Takemiya for her solo art exhibitions. Sequels , a serial novel sequel to , was published in the magazine June from 1990 to 1994. The novel was written by Norie Masuyama, under the pen name Norisu Hāze. Takemiya produced eighty-one illustrations to accompany chapters in the series but otherwise had no creative involvement in , instead granting permission to Masuyama to write a continuation of the manga series. follows , a descendant of the Battour family, and , a student at the Conservatoire de Paris, as they investigate what happened to Serge after the death of Gilbert. During their research, they encounter , a descendant of the Cocteau family related to Gilbert. The novel's chapters were collected into three hardcover volumes published by Kōfūsha Shuppan from 1992 to 1994, each featuring an original cover illustration by Takemiya. The hardcover editions were re-released by Fukkan.com in 2018, to mark Takemiya's 50th anniversary as a manga artist. The Fukkan.com re-release includes Takemiya's illustrations from the original June serialization, which were not included in the Kōfūsha Shuppan edition. is a 48-page sequel and side story to . Set three years after Gilbert's death, the story focuses on the relationship between Jules and Rosemarine, who meet again by chance at Serge's piano concert in Paris. was written and illustrated by Takemiya, and was published in her artist's book , released by Kadokawa Shoten in November 1991. Reception and legacy Critical response In 1980, Takemiya won the 25th (1979) Shogakukan Manga Award in both the and (manga for boys) categories for and Toward the Terra, respectively. Roughly 5million copies of collected volumes of have been sold as of 2019. Although some Japanese critics dismissed as a "second rate imitation" of The Heart of Thomas upon its initial release, it has received wide critical acclaim, and has been described as a "masterpiece" of the genre. Masaki Satō, a gay writer who originated the debate of the 1990s, said he was "saved" by manga like , and poet and playwright Shūji Terayama compared the series' publication to "the great events that occurred in the Parisian literary world", likening it to Story of O by Anne Desclos and Justine by the Marquis de Sade and writing that "from now on, comics will probably be called ' and thereafter'". The series inspired several works: Kentaro Miura cited as an influence on his manga series Berserk, stating that both and The Rose of Versailles prompted him to change his approach to the series and write a story "with sad and painful human relationships and emotions"; Chiho Saito believes that heavily influenced the anime and manga series Revolutionary Girl Utena she developed as part of the artist collective Be-Papas, noting the many similarities between the works in a 2016 essay she wrote about Takemiya. In an overview of the filmography of Yoshikazu Yasuhiko for Anime News Network, critic Michael Toole praised as a "subtle piece" that is "vibrant and beautiful", favorably comparing it to the 1981 film adaptation of Takemiya's . In a review of the film for THEM Anime Reviews, Julian Malerman wrote that the short length of Sanctus makes it feel "like a prelude, or a summary" of the original manga, describing it as it "collection of compelling but largely disconnected scenes". He nonetheless offers praise for its visual direction, particularly its "gorgeous hand-painted background art" and character designs, and the central relationship between Gilbert and Serge, which he assesses as "solid enough, if rather melodramatic". Impact is credited with widely popularizing the genre. Yukari Fujimoto writes that (along with The Heart of Thomas and ) made male homosexuality part of "the everyday landscape of manga" and "one of its essential elements", and manga scholar Kazuko Suzuki cites as "one of the first attempts to depict true bonding or ideal relationships through pure male homosexual love". James Welker concurs that and The Heart of Thomas "almost certainly helped foster increasingly diverse male–male romance narratives within the broader manga genre from the mid-1970s onward". In particular, contributed significantly to the development of male–male romance manga through its depiction of sex. Previously, sex in manga was confined almost exclusively to (self-published manga); the popularity of prompted a boom in the production of commercially published beginning in the late 1970s, and the development of a more robust subculture. This trend towards sex-focused narratives in male–male romance manga accelerated with the founding of the manga magazine June in 1978, for which Takemiya was an editor and major contributor. June was the first major manga magazine to publish and exclusively, and is credited with launching the careers of dozens of manga artists. has been invoked in public debates on sexual expression in manga, particularly debates on the ethics and legality of manga depicting minors in sexual scenarios. In 2010, a revision to the Tokyo Metropolitan Ordinance Regarding the Healthy Development of Youths was introduced that would have restricted published media containing sexual depictions of characters who appeared to be minors, a proposal that was criticized by multiple anime and manga professionals for disproportionately targeting their industry. Takemiya wrote an editorial critical of the proposal in the May 2010 issue of , arguing that it was "ironic" that , a series that "many of today's mothers had grown up reading, was now in danger of being banned as 'harmful' to their children". In a 2016 interview with the BBC, Takemiya responded to the charge that depictions of rape in condone the sexualization of minors by stating that "such things do happen in real life. Hiding it will not make it go away. And I tried to portray the resilience of these boys, how they managed to survive and regain their lives after experiencing violence." Notes References Bibliography External links 1976 manga 1984 comics endings 1987 anime OVAs Anime and manga set in France Comics set in the 19th century Drama anime and manga Keiko Takemiya Romance anime and manga School life in anime and manga Shogakukan franchises Shogakukan manga Shōjo manga Shōnen-ai anime and manga Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for shōjo manga Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for shōnen manga
4587079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSU%20Tigers%20and%20Lady%20Tigers	LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers	The LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers are the athletic teams representing Louisiana State University (LSU), a state university located in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. LSU competes in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). Nickname The Louisiana State University official team nickname is the Fighting Tigers, Tigers or Lady Tigers. At one time, the "Lady Tigers" nickname was used only in sports that have teams for both men and women—specifically basketball, cross country, golf, swimming and diving, tennis, and track and field (indoor and outdoor); however, since 2017, only women's basketball, cross country, and track and field use the "Lady Tigers" moniker. Sports sponsored With LSU primarily competing in the Southeastern Conference and the women's beach volleyball program competing in the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association, LSU sponsors teams in nine men's and twelve women's NCAA sanctioned sports. By winning the SEC championship in men's basketball for the 2008–2009 season, LSU became the first SEC school to win at least 10 SEC championships in each of the big three sports of football, men's basketball, and baseball. LSU was the first SEC school to win at least one national championship in each of the big three sports. Baseball The LSU baseball team has won seven national championships since 1991. The team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Jay Johnson. They play home games at Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field. National Championships (7): 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2009, 2023 CWS appearances (19): 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2023 SEC Championships (17): 1939, 1943, 1946, 1961, 1975, 1986, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2017 Conference Tournament Championships (12): 1986, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2000, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2014, 2017 Men's basketball The LSU men's basketball team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Matt McMahon. They play home games at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center. National Championships (1): 1935† Final Four appearances (4): 1953, 1981, 1986, 2006 Sweet Sixteen appearances (10): 1953, 1954, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1986, 1987, 2000, 2006, 2019 SEC Championships (11): 1935, 1953, 1954, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1991, 2000, 2006, 2009, 2019 Women's basketball The LSU women's basketball team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Kim Mulkey. They play home games at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center. National Championships (1): 2023 AIAW/NCAA Final Four appearances (7): 1977, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2023 NCAA Sweet Sixteen appearances (14): 1984, 1986, 1989, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2013, 2023 SEC Championships (3): 2005, 2006, 2008 Women's beach volleyball The women's beach volleyball team participates in the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association (CCSA) and is coached by Russell Brock. They play home games at the LSU Beach Volleyball Stadium. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (N/A): — sport is not sponsored by the SEC Men's cross country The men's cross country team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home meets at Highland Road Park. National Championships - Men (0): none SEC Championships - Men (0): none Women's cross country The women's cross country team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home meets at Highland Road Park. National Championships - Women (0): none SEC Championships - Women (0): none Football The LSU Tigers football team competes in the Division I - Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) and the Western Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). They play in Tiger Stadium, which has a capacity of 102,321. LSU has won four national championships, including two in the last decade. The first national championship was following the regular season in 1958. LSU played Clemson in the 1959 Sugar Bowl on January 1, 1959, following the team being named national champions. LSU won their second national championship during the 2003 season by defeating the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2004 BCS National Championship Game. A controversy arose as the USC Trojans were awarded the Associated Press National Championship even though they did not play in the BCS Championship Game. LSU's win in the 2008 BCS National Championship Game (2007 season) was the Tigers third national championship. They became the first two-loss team to compete for and win the national championship, and the first team to win two Bowl Championship Series titles. During the 2019 season, LSU defeated the Clemson Tigers 42–25 in the 2020 College Football Playoff National Championship game in New Orleans for their fourth national title. The team is currently coached by Brian Kelly. National championships (4): 1958, 2003, 2007, 2019 Conference championships (15) SIAA championships (2): 1896, 1908 SoCon championships (1):1932 SEC championships (11): 1935, 1936, 1958, 1961, 1970, 1986, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2019 Divisional championships (6): 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2011, 2019 Men's golf The men's golf team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Chuck Winstead. The University Club of Baton Rouge is the home venue for the team. National Championships (5): 1940 (co-champion with Princeton), 1942 (co-champion with Stanford), 1947, 1955, 2015 SEC Championships (16): 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1942, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1953, 1954, 1960, 1966, 1967, 1986, 1987, 2015 Individual national champions (3): Fred Haas (1937), Earl Stewart (1941), John Peterson (2011) Women's golf The women's golf team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Garrett Runion. The University Club of Baton Rouge is the home venue for the team. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (1): 1992 Individual national champions (1): Austin Ernst (2011) Former coaches Karen Bahnsen Buddy Alexander Mary Holmes Women's gymnastics The women's gymnastics team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Jay Clark . The Pete Maravich Assembly Center is the home venue for the team. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (1): 1981, 2017, 2018, 2019 Women's soccer The soccer team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Sian Hudson. They play home games at the LSU Soccer Stadium. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (0): none Softball The softball team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Beth Torina. They play home games at Tiger Park. National Championships (0): none WCWS appearances (5): 2001, 2004, 2012, 2015, 2016, 2017 SEC Championships (5): 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004 Men's swimming and diving The men's swimming and diving teams participate in the Southeastern Conference. The swim team is currently coached by Dave Geyer and the diving team is currently coached by Doug Shaffer. They host home swim meets at the LSU Natatorium. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (1): 1988 Women's swimming and diving The women's swimming and diving teams participate in the Southeastern Conference. The swim team is currently coached by Dave Geyer and the diving team is currently coached by Doug Shaffer. They host home swim meets at the LSU Natatorium. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (0): none Men's tennis The men's tennis team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by co-head coaches Andy Brandi and Chris Brandi. They play home matches at the LSU Tennis Complex. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (4): 1976, 1985, 1998, 1999 Former coaches Jeff Brown Jerry Simmons Steve Strome Steve Carter Dub Robinson Mike Donahue Charles Diel Paul Young Women's tennis The women's tennis team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by co-head coaches Julia Sell and Michael Sell. They play home matches at the LSU Tennis Complex. National Championships (0): none SEC Championships (0): none Former coaches Tony Minnis Geoff Macdonald Phillip Campbell Betty Sue Hagerman Karen McCarter Elliot Pat Newman Men's indoor track and field The men's indoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Carl Maddox Field House. National Championships (2): 2001, 2004 SEC Championships (4): 1957, 1963, 1989, 1990 Women's indoor track and field The women's indoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Carl Maddox Field House. National Championships (11): 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2004 SEC Championships (11): 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2007, 2008, 2011 Men's outdoor track and field The men's outdoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Bernie Moore Track Stadium. National Championships (5): 1933, 1989, 1990, 2002, 2021, SEC Championships (22): 1933, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1951, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1963, 1988, 1989, 1990 Women's outdoor track and field The women's outdoor track and field team participates in the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Dennis Shaver. They host home track meets at the Bernie Moore Track Stadium. National Championships (14): 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012 (vacated) SEC Championships (8): 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1996, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012 Women's volleyball The volleyball team participates in the Western division of the Southeastern Conference and is currently coached by Fran Flory. They play home games at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center. National Championships (0): none Final Four appearances (2): 1990, 1991 SEC Championships (4): 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991 Former varsity sports Boxing LSU boxing started as a club sport in 1929 and enjoyed its first varsity season in 1930. The Tigers held matches at the Huey P. Long Field House and starting in 1937 at the John M. Parker Agricultural Coliseum. In LSU's first season, the team had a record of 5–2; they went 6–1 in the ensuing 1931 campaign. In 1934, LSU won its first Southeastern Conference title by beating rival Tulane. Late in the 1930s, LSU won additional SEC titles and finished with a second-place finish in the 1939 NCAA Tournament and a third-place finish in 1940 NCAA Tournament. Some Tiger stalwarts during this period were Heston Daniel, Al Michael, Snyder Parham and Dub Robinson. World War II interrupted the sport, but LSU returned to varsity boxing in 1948. The 1949 campaign, LSU's second season after the war, proved to be its best. Paced by individual national champions Wilbert "Pee Wee" Moss and Edsel "Tad" Thrash and coached by Jim Owen, the Tigers went undefeated in regular season play. They finished the year by beating South Carolina in front of 11,000 fans in Parker Coliseum, en route to its first and only national title. Boxing at LSU continued as a varsity sport during the early 1950s as LSU fans watched LSU greats Calvin Clary, Crowe Peele and Bobby Freeman. Late in the decade, a dwindling number of schools in the region that sponsored boxing as a varsity sport led to higher travel costs for the LSU team. Ultimately, LSU announced in 1956 it would no longer support boxing on the varsity level. LSU recorded an all-time dual meet record of 101–22–6, one national championship, 31 individual conference champions, 11 individual NCAA champions and 12 NCAA runners-up. Men's wrestling LSU fielded a varsity men's wrestling team from 1968 to 1985. It won seven Southeastern Conference titles. The team also had two eighth-place finishes in the NCAA Tournament in 1983 and 1984. The wrestling program was dropped as a result of Title IX compliance in 1985. From 1968 to 1978, LSU was coached by Dale Ketelsen. His teams won two Southeastern Conference wrestling tournament titles. He produced 15 individual conference champions and was also a member of the NCAA wrestling rules committee while at LSU. From 1979 to 1985, the team was coached by Larry Sciacchetano. His teams won five Southeastern Conference titles. Men's wrestlers Phil Bode was the 1971 and 1972 SEC champion. Jules Plaisance enrolled at LSU in 1969 and won three Southeastern Conference championships at 142, 150, & 158 lb. weight classes. He finished second once. John Tenta, who went on to fame in the World Wrestling Federation, was a heavyweight wrestler at LSU. Non-varsity sports Men's rugby Founded in 1970, LSU rugby has played its matches at the UREC Field Complex since 2006. LSU has a tradition of success since its founding, highlighted by its 22-game winning streak during the 1996–97 season. LSU won the national collegiate championship tournament in 1976. More recently, LSU rugby has been successful in conference play and in national competition. LSU plays in the Southeastern Conference against its traditional SEC rivals. In 2009, LSU defeated Colorado and Air Force to advance to the national quarterfinals before losing to San Diego State, and in 2010, LSU again defeated Colorado to qualify for the sweet 16 round of the national playoffs. LSU competed at the 2011 Collegiate Rugby Championship, finishing 9th in a tournament broadcast live on NBC. LSU finished first in the SEC West Division in 2012, with a 5–2 record. Men's soccer Founded in 1964, the LSU men's soccer team has competed in the Collegiate Soccer League of Louisiana (CSLL) since 2016. The team plays its home games at the UREC Field Complex. In 1998, the team won its only national title, winning the NIRSA National Open Division. In 2012, the team earned its first-ever bid to the NIRSA National "Closed" Championship Division. Men's volleyball The LSU men's volleyball team competes in the Southern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association. The competes with other teams throughout the region. The team competes for championship honors in the SIVA tournament. Other sports Championships LSU has won 51 team national championships, placing them 19th all-time in total national championships. 45 of these were recognized by the NCAA, ranking them 9th overall. Men's (20) Baseball (7): 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2009, 2023 Boxing (1): 1949 Golf (5): 1940, 1942, 1947, 1955, 2015 Indoor Track & Field (2): 2001, 2004 Outdoor Track & Field (5): 1933, 1989, 1990, 2002, 2021 Women's (26) Basketball (1): 2023 Indoor Track & Field (11): 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2004 Outdoor Track & Field (14): 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012 (vacated) Other national team championships Men's Football (4): 1958, 2003, 2007, 2019 Basketball (1): 1935 Rugby (1): 1976 NACDA Directors' Cup The National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) ranks athletic departments on an annual basis. Each institution is awarded points in a pre-determined number of sports for men and women. The overall champion is the institution which has a broad-based program, achieving success in many sports, both men's and women's. The winner in each division receives a crystal trophy. NACDA All-Sports Rankings Source: Athletic facilities The following is a list of the athletic facilities for the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers. It includes LSU's outdoor stadiums, indoor arenas, and training and practice facilities. Tiger Stadium Tiger Stadium is the home stadium of the LSU football team. The stadium is also known by its nickname, "Death Valley". It opened in 1924 with an original seating capacity of 12,000. Tiger Stadium currently has a seating capacity of 102,321, making it the sixth largest stadium in the NCAA and the ninth largest stadium in the world. Tiger Stadium also has some unique features. Unlike most football fields, where only the yard lines ending in "0" are marked, Tiger Stadium also marks the yard lines ending in "5". It also has "H" style (or "offset") goal posts, as opposed to the more modern "Y" ("slingshot" or "tuning fork") style used by other schools today, although they are not the true "H" goal posts which were once ubiquitous on American football fields, since the posts are behind the uprights and connected to the uprights by curved bars. This "H" style allows the team to run through the goal post in the north end zone. The crossbar from the goalposts which stood in the north end zone of Tiger Stadium from 1955 through 1984 is now mounted above the door which leads from LSU's locker room onto the playing field. The crossbar is painted with the word "WIN!", and superstition dictates every player entering the field touch the bar on his way out the door. Charles McClendon Practice Facility The Charles McClendon Practice Facility is the name of the LSU Tigers football practice facility. The facility features the LSU Football Operations Center, the Tigers Indoor Practice Facility and four outdoor 100-yard football practice fields. In 2002, it was named after former LSU head coach and College Football Hall of Fame member, Charles McClendon. LSU Football Operations Center The LSU Football Operations Center, built in 2006 and renovated in 2019, is an all-in-one facility that includes the Tigers locker room, players' lounge, weight room, training room, equipment room, video operations center and coaches offices. The operations center atrium holds team displays and graphics, trophy cases and memorabilia of LSU football. A nutrition center for student athletes is being added to the facility. LSU Indoor Practice Facility The LSU Indoor Practice Facility, built in 1991, is a climate-controlled 82,500 square feet facility connected to the Football Operations Center and adjacent to LSU's four outdoor 100-yard football practice fields. The facility holds the 100-yd Anderson-Feazel LSU Indoor field. LSU Outdoor Practice Fields The LSU Outdoor Practice Fields consist of four outdoor practice fields that are directly adjacent to the football operations center and indoor practice facility. Three of the fields are natural grass, while the fourth has a Momentum Field Turf by SportExe playing surface. Pete Maravich Assembly Center The Pete Maravich Assembly Center, opened in 1972, is the home arena to the Louisiana State University Tigers and Lady Tigers basketball teams, Tigers gymnastics team and Tigers indoor volleyball team. The stadium is also known by its nicknames, "Deaf Dome" and "PMAC". It has a current seating capacity of 13,215. It was originally known as the LSU Assembly Center, but was renamed in honor of LSU basketball legend Pete Maravich, shortly after his death in 1988. The auxiliary gym located underneath the north section of the arena is the practice facility for the volleyball team. The offices for the Tiger Athletic Foundation (TAF) are also located in the arena. TAF is a private, non-profit corporation dedicated to supporting Louisiana State University (LSU) and its athletics program. It is the primary source of private funding for LSU athletics. LSU Basketball Practice Facility The LSU basketball practice facility which is connected to the Maravich Center was completed in 2010. The facility features separate, full-size duplicate gymnasiums for the men's and women's basketball teams. They include a regulation NCAA court in length with two regulation high school courts in the opposition direction. The courts are exact replicas of the Maravich Center game court and have two portable goals and four retractable goals. The facility also houses team locker rooms, a team lounge, training rooms, a coach's locker room and coach's offices. The building also includes a two-story lobby and staircase that ascends to the second level where a club room is used for pre-game and post-game events and is connected to the Maravich Center concourse. The lobby includes team displays and graphics, trophy cases and memorabilia of LSU Basketball. Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field is the home stadium of the LSU Tigers college baseball team and has a seating capacity of 10,326. The stadium section (and LSU's previous baseball stadium 200 yards to the north) were named for Simeon Alex Box, an LSU letterman (1942), Purple Heart and Distinguished Service Cross recipient, who was killed in North Africa during World War II. In 2013, the field was named in honor of former LSU head baseball coach and athletic director Skip Bertman. The first game in the new stadium was played February 20, 2009 versus Villanova. Bernie Moore Track Stadium Bernie Moore Track Stadium is the outdoor stadium for the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers track & field teams. The facility, built in 1969, has a seating capacity of 5,680. In 1971, the facility was renamed after former LSU football coach, track & field coach and SEC Commissioner Bernie Moore. Moore coached the LSU Track and Field teams for 18 years (1930–47) and led the Tigers to their first NCAA National Championship in 1933. He was SEC Commissioner from 1948–1966. Located in Bernie Moore Track Stadium is the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers track and field teams' weight room. The weight room is a 2,000 square foot facility and features 10 multi-purpose power stations, 5 dumbbell stations, 4 power racks, 5 sets of competition plates, 10 competition Olympic bars, 2 multi-purpose racks and an assortment of selectorized machines. Carl Maddox Field House Carl Maddox Field House is the indoor stadium for the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers track & field teams. It was built in 1975, renovated in 2014 and has a seating capacity of 2,000. In 1998, the facility was renamed in honor of former LSU Athletic Director Carl Maddox. Highland Road Park Highland Road Park is the home course for the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers cross country teams. LSU Beach Volleyball Stadium Occupying and renovating the former W.T. "Dub" Robinson Stadium in 2019; LSU Beach Volleyball now plays in the heart of LSU's campus. The revitalization of the previous tennis facility, originally built in 1970, will give the Tigers every opportunity they need to continue growing to new heights. The new stadium features six competition courts with 24-inch deep sand. The courts are state-of-the-art in sand permeability subsurface drainage and sand quality with a smooth sand to concrete transition. They feature an underground irrigation and wetting system that will facilitate competition play during hot days, cooling the sand for comfortable play. Dating back to the program's first season in 2014, the Tiger's played their home matches at Mango's Beach Club in Baton Rouge. LSU Gymnastics Training Facility The LSU Gymnastics Training Facility is the practice venue for the LSU Tigers women's gymnastics team. The new facility opened in 2016 and provides 38,000 square feet of training and team space. LSU Natatorium The LSU Natatorium, opened in 1985, is the home arena for the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers swimming and diving teams. The stadium has a seating capacity of 2,200. The Natatorium features a 50-meter pool, which can be converted into two 25-meter or 25-yard pools with the use of bulkheads and includes a championship diving well with one- and three-meter springboards and five-, seven- and 10-meter platforms. LSU Soccer Stadium The LSU Soccer Stadium is the home stadium for the LSU Tigers women's soccer team. The two-level stadium has a seating capacity of 2,197. LSU Tennis Complex The LSU Tennis Complex, completed in 2016, serves as the home of the LSU Tigers and LSU Lady Tigers tennis teams. The facility provides six indoor tennis courts with a second floor grandstand covering 75,000 square feet and seating for 300. The complex includes 12 lighted outdoor courts with a grandstand that seats 1,400. Tiger Park Tiger Park is the home stadium of the LSU Tigers softball team. The park, built in 2009, has an official seating capacity of 1,289. The stadium also features an outfield berm that can accommodate an additional 1,200 fans. University Club of Baton Rouge The University Club of Baton Rouge is the home of the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers golf teams. The course is a 7,700 yard, Par 72 Championship-Caliber, 300-acre course originally designed in 1998 and later redesigned by former LSU All-American and PGA golfer David Toms and original designer Jim Lipe. Mary and Woody Bilyeu Golf Practice Facility The Mary and Woody Bilyeu Golf Practice Facility functions as the golf-learning center for the LSU Tigers and Lady Tigers golf teams. The clubhouse features a team meeting room, locker rooms and coaches offices. Martin J. Broussard Center for Athletic Training The Martin J. Broussard Center for Athletic Training is the athletic training and rehabilitation center for LSU athletics. The two-story, 22,000 square foot facility, built in 1998, serves as the main athletic training facility for treatments and rehabilitations. The facility is located adjacent to Tiger Stadium and is staffed by full-time certified staff athletic trainers, certified graduate assistants and athletic training students. LSU Strength and Conditioning facility The LSU Strength and Conditioning facility or LSU North Stadium weight room, is a strength training and conditioning facility at Louisiana State University. Built in 1997, it is located adjacent to Tiger Stadium. Measuring 10,000-square feet with a flat surface, it has 28 multi-purpose power stations, 36 assorted selectorized machines and 10 dumbbell stations along with a plyometric specific area, medicine balls, hurdles, plyometric boxes and assorted speed and agility equipment. It also features 2 treadmills, 4 stationary bikes, 2 elliptical cross trainers, a stepper and stepmill. LSU Cox Communications Academic Center for Student-Athletes The LSU Cox Communications Academic Center for Student-Athletes is located in the Gym/Armory building. The building opened in 1930 and was completely renovated and reopened in 2002 to house the Academic Center for Student-Athletes. The goal of the academic center is to offer a comprehensive framework tailored to improve the academic skill set of each student-athlete. The 54,000 square foot Academic Center for Student-Athletes is complete with an entry/atrium, 1,000-seat Bo Campbell auditorium, computer labs, instructional technology lab, resource library with tech center, study area, tutorial center, meeting rooms, classrooms, student learning center, Shaquille O'Neal life skills labs and offices, Eric Hill communications studio, career center and Academic Hall of Fame. Former athletic facilities Alex Box Stadium — Baseball (1938–2008) First LSU Diamond — Baseball (1929–1935) Huey P. Long Field House — Boxing (1932–1936) and Men's and women's swimming and diving (1932–1984) John M. Parker Agricultural Coliseum — Men's basketball (1937–1971) and Boxing (1937–1956) LSU Gym/Armory — Men's basketball (1930–1937) and Wrestling (1968–1971) Second LSU Diamond — Baseball (1936–1937) State Field — Baseball (1908–1924), Men's basketball (1893–1924) and Football (1893–1924) Original Tiger Park — Softball (1997–2008) W.T. "Dub" Robinson Stadium — Men's and women's tennis (1976–2014) Non-varsity athletic facilities Student Recreation CenterThe Student Recreation Center is an athletic facility on the campus of Louisiana State University that is used for badminton, basketball, indoor soccer, powerlifting, racquetball, sand volleyball, squash, swimming, table tennis, tennis and volleyball. It is home to the LSU men's basketball club team, powerlifting team, tennis club team, men's volleyball and women's volleyball club teams. The facility includes two gyms (West Gym: six multi-purpose wood courts, East Gym: one multi-purpose wood court and one synthetic court), indoor climbing area, eight lane 25-yard indoor lap pool, eight lane 25-yard lighted outdoor lap pool, powerlifting room, nine racquetball courts, one squash court, an indoor track, nine lighted outdoor tennis courts, two sand volleyball courts and locker rooms. UREC Field ComplexThe UREC Field Complex (formerly LSU Sport & Adventure Complex) is an athletic facility on the campus of Louisiana State University that is used for flag football, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, softball and ultimate frisbee. It is the home of the LSU men's and women's lacrosse teams, men's and women's rugby teams, men's soccer and women's soccer club teams and men's and women's ultimate frisbee club teams. The complex includes eight lighted multi-purpose grass fields and four lighted grass softball fields. The facility also includes locker rooms and spectator seating. Planet Ice Skating and Hockey ArenaThe Planet Ice Skating and Hockey Arena is an ice hockey rink in Lafayette, Louisiana that is the home game and practice rink for the LSU men's ice hockey team. LSU traditions Mike the Tiger Mike the Tiger is the official mascot of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana and serves as the graphic image of LSU athletics. Mike is the name of both the live and costumed mascots. Mike the Tiger lives in a habitat (situated between Tiger Stadium and the Pete Maravich Assembly Center) which includes among its amenities lush plantings, a waterfall, a flowing stream that empties into a wading pond, and rocky plateaus. School colors LSU's official colors are Royal Purple and Old Gold. There is some discrepancy in the origin of LSU's current official colors. It is believed that purple and gold were first worn by an LSU team in the spring of 1893 when the LSU baseball squad beat Tulane in the first intercollegiate contest played in any sport by Louisiana State University. In another story, before LSU's first ever football game, football coach/chemistry professor Dr. Charles E. Coates and some of his players purchased ribbon to adorn their gray jerseys as they prepared to play the first LSU football game versus Tulane. Stores were stocking ribbons in the colors of Mardi Gras—purple, gold and green—for the coming Carnival season. However, none of the green had arrived, so all of the purple and gold stock were purchased. LSU's original school colors were white and blue chosen by Superintendent/President David F. Boyd (1865–1880). "Fight for LSU" "Fight for LSU" is the university's official fight song. The band plays "Fight for LSU" often, most notably when the team enters the field (while the band is in a tunnel formation at the end of its pregame performance), successfully kicks a field goal, scores an extra point, or completes a two-point conversion. Following a halftime performance, the band often exits the field while playing "Fight for LSU." Louisiana State University Tiger Marching Band The Louisiana State University Tiger Marching Band (also called The Golden Band from Tigerland or simply the Tiger Band) is known by LSU fans and foes alike for the first four notes of its pregame salute sounded on Saturday nights in Tiger Stadium. This 325-member marching band performs at all LSU football home games, all bowl games, and select away games and represents the university at other functions as one of its most recognizable student and spirit organizations. On football game days, the band marches from the band hall to Tiger Stadium, stopping along the way at Victory Hill, located right outside the stadium. "Thousands of fans lining North Stadium Drive listen for the cadence of drums announcing the band's departure from the Greek Theatre" and await the impending arrival of the band. The band stops on the hill and begins to play the opening strains of the "Pregame Salute." Then, while playing the introduction to "Touchdown for LSU," the band begins to run in tempo through the streets and down the hill amidst the crowd of cheering fans. The band also marches from the stadium to the band hall upon the conclusion of the game, a practice not usually employed by other bands. One of the most celebrated traditions carried on by the band is its pregame performance at each home football game. The performance includes pieces from the band's expansive repertoire of school songs, including "Pregame Salute"/"Touchdown for LSU". The band begins the performance in the south end zone of the stadium and is called to attention by the drum major right before he marches out across the end zone in front of the band. Stopping at the goal line, the drum major wields his mace and uses his whistle to signal the band to take the field. The band marches out of the end zone to the beat of a single bass drum. The Golden Girls and color guard accompany the band on the field. The band stands at attention and then plays the opening chords of the salute (which are taken from the tune "Tiger Rag"), the band turns to face all four corners of the stadium. The crowd explodes in cheers. Once the band salutes each part of the stadium, the pace of the music and the marching picks up, the music transitions into Long's "Touchdown for LSU," and the band sweeps the field. Toward the end of the song, the band breaks the fronts and spells out "LSU." In the "LSU" formation, the band plays the "LSU Alma Mater" and the "Star-Spangled Banner. The band then plays LSU's official fight song, "Fight for LSU" as it salutes both sides of the stadium. Upon switching formations, the band plays the second half of "Tiger Rag," which culminates in the crowd chanting "T-I-G-E-R-S, TIGERS!' in unison. This is followed the "First Down Cheer," to which the crowd in unison responds to each of the three refrains with "GEAUX! TIGERS!" and to the final refrain with "LSU!" The band immediately breaks into an encore performance of "Touchdown for LSU" as it marches to the north end zone, and then breaks to form a tunnel through which the football team will enter the field. The band also performs on first, second, and third down when the Tigers are on offense. The "First Down Cheer" includes the "Hold that Tiger" musical phrase from "Tiger Rag." The "Third Down Cheer" is based on the song "Eye of the Tiger" made famous by Survivor. The piece, "Tiger Bandits" was created to pay homage to the defensive unit from the 1958 national championship football team. Coach Paul Dietzel called the unit the "Chinese Bandits." The title of the song was eventually changed to "Tiger Bandits" (or just simply "Bandits"). The band plays the song when the LSU defense forces the opposing team to give up possession of the football. With arms extended out, LSU fans bow to pay homage to the defensive stop. Bengal Brass The Bengal Brass is a group of 60 members selected from the ranks of the band constitute the Bengal Brass Basketball Band, often simply referred to as Bengal Brass. This group of all-brass musicians (and percussionist on a trap set) is often split into two squads—purple and gold—and performs at LSU select home volleyball matches, many home gymnastics meets, all home men's basketball, and all home women's basketball games in the Pete Maravich Assembly Center. Bengal Brass also travels with the men's and women's basketball teams during postseason play. Golden Girls and Colorguard The LSU Golden Girls, a feature unit with the Tiger Band and the oldest and most established danceline on the LSU campus, was created in 1959 as the Ballet Corps by then director of bands Thomas Tyra. The Golden Girl moniker became official in 1965. Today, the line includes 14 to 18 dancers who audition each year to make the line and who are often members of private dance studios. The Golden Girls fall under the Department of Bands in the School of Music. Blair Buras Guillaume is the director of the team. Members must audition every year, and receive college credit for participation. The LSU Colorguard, a flag twirling unit not to be confused with a traditional military colorguard, was established in 1971. Twenty-four to twenty- eight female twirlers are selected from an audition process. LSU Cheerleaders The LSU Cheerleaders consist of both male and female cheerleaders that perform at LSU football and men's and women's basketball games. The cheerleaders lead the crowd in numerous cheers during game play and breaks. Prior to home football games the LSU cheerleaders ride atop Mike the Tiger's mobile unit, lead the crowd in cheers such as the "Geaux Tigers" cheer and lead the football team onto the field prior to the game and after halftime. The cheerleaders are located on both sidelines during football games and are located along the baseline for home basketball games. LSU's cheerleaders also compete against other universities cheerleading squads in competitions sanctioned by the Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA). The 1989 Tiger cheerleaders won the UCA National Championship. LSU Tiger Girls The LSU Tiger Girls, were established as a danceline for the LSU men's and women's basketball teams. The all-female squad performs during all home games and other university and non-university sponsored functions. The Tiger Girls also compete against other universities dance teams in competitions sanctioned by the Universal Dance Association (UDA). LSU Bat Girls The LSU Bat Girls are a support squad that contributes to the LSU Baseball program. The Bat Girls consist of 30 individuals who work in teams of 10 at all home games, post-season games and various charity events. The squad serves as hostesses at Alex Box Stadium, Skip Bertman Field and their responsibilities include selling game day programs, recovering foul balls, retrieving bats and helmets, answering fans questions, assisting with game day promotions and giveaways and checking on umpires. They also assist the athletic department with many different aspects of the game such as attending coaches committee meetings. Rivalries Football Traditional rivals for the LSU Tigers football team include long running rivalries with the Ole Miss Rebels and Tulane Green Wave. More current football rivalries include the Alabama Crimson Tide, Arkansas Razorbacks, Auburn Tigers, Florida Gators, Mississippi State Bulldogs and Texas A&M Aggies. LSU Athletic Hall of Fame The Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame recognizes members of the athletics program that have made a lasting impact on the university. To be eligible for the LSU Hall of Fame in the Athlete category, an individual must have earned a college degree and gained national distinction through superlative performance. Hall of Fame candidates must also have established a personal reputation for character and citizenship. To be eligible in the Coach/Administrator category, the individual must have made significant contributions to LSU Athletics and gained national distinction through exceptional accomplishments in his or her field of expertise while establishing an image that reflects favorably upon the university. The Jack and Priscilla Andonie Museum located on the campus of LSU in Baton Rouge, Louisiana is the physical location of the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame. Tiger Athletic Foundation The Tiger Athletic Foundation or TAF is a private, non-profit corporation dedicated to supporting Louisiana State University (LSU) and its athletics program. It is the primary source of private funding for LSU athletics and contributions to TAF benefit every athlete and every team at LSU. TAF has become a critical element in the success of LSU Athletics by providing private funding for scholarships, academic rewards, new athletic facilities and facility upgrades. In addition to contributions to the athletic scholarship fund, TAF will continue to provide funding for academic programs and facilities that benefit all LSU students. Athletic directors Broadcast information The LSU Sports Radio Network's flagship station for men's sports is WDGL-FM ("The Eagle 98.1") in Baton Rouge and the flagship station for women's sports is WBRP-FM (Talk 107.3) in Baton Rouge. Current As of the 2017–18 season: Former "Voice of the Tigers" John Ferguson – Play-by-play commentator (men's basketball, football) (1946–1958, 1961–1987) J.C. Politz – Play-by-play commentator (men's basketball, football) (1959–1960) Jim Hawthorne – Play-by-play commentator (baseball, men's basketball, football) (1979–2016) See also Bengal Punch List of NCAA Division I institutions List of NCAA schools with the most Division I national championships References External links
4587558	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota%20Vios	Toyota Vios	The Toyota Vios is a nameplate used for subcompact cars produced by the Japanese manufacturer Toyota, primarily for markets in Southeast Asia, China and Taiwan since 2002. Slotted below the compact Corolla, the Vios serves as the replacement to the Tercel (marketed as Soluna in Thailand since 1997 and Indonesia since 2000), which filled the subcompact or B-segment sedan class in the region. It is also successor to the entry-level variants of the E110 series Corolla in some markets such as the Philippines and Vietnam. From 2005, the Vios was also marketed alongside its hatchback complement known as the Yaris in many countries globally. The second-generation Vios was released in 2007, which was marketed as the Belta in Japan and Toyota Yaris sedan in the Americas, the Middle East and Australia. The second-generation model shares its platform with the XP90 series Vitz/Yaris. The third-generation Vios was released in 2013, which shares the platform with the XP150 series Yaris hatchback. It is marketed in regions outside Southeast Asia, China and Taiwan as the Yaris sedan. Through a major refresh in 2017, the Vios shares the same styling as the refreshed XP150 series Yaris hatchback. The heavily facelifted model also gained more global presence by local production in Brazil, India and Pakistan as the Yaris sedan. A separate, less major refresh was introduced for the Chinese market Vios in 2016 alongside a hatchback model marketed as the Toyota Vios FS. In Thailand, the 2017 facelifted model was marketed as the Toyota Yaris Ativ, which shares the smaller 1.2-litre engine with the Yaris hatchback. The 1.5-litre Vios continued to be sold alongside the Yaris Ativ until 2022, using the Chinese market facelift styling. The fourth-generation model was released in 2022 in Thailand as the Yaris Ativ. It was designed and engineered by Daihatsu using its DNGA platform. The "Vios" name is derived from the Latin word "vio", meaning "go or travel (forward)", while Toyota marketed the car in Indonesia in 2007 with the backronym "Very Intelligent, Outstanding Sedan". In Indonesia, downgraded models of the Vios to cater for taxi fleet was marketed as the Toyota Limo through three generations. First generation (XP40; 2002) The first-generation Vios, codenamed XP40, was first previewed as a prototype model called the Toyota T-1, which was showcased in Beijing during Auto China 2002 in June. It is based on the Echo, which was sold in China as the Xiali 2000. Toyota mentioned that the T-1 has a . In October 2002, the XP40 series Vios was started to be assembled in China by Tianjin FAW Toyota. It was also produced at Thailand's Toyota Gateway Plant in Gateway City, Amphoe Plaeng Yao, Chachoengsao Province, as part of a cooperative project between Thai engineers and Toyota's Japanese designers. The Vios was adapted from the Platz with modified body panels and portions of the car feature design cues from the E120 series Corolla. Like the Vitz and Platz, the Vios features instrument panel mounted on the top center of the dashboard. In Thailand, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia and Taiwan, the Vios is equipped with a 1.5 L 1NZ-FE engine with VVT-i. The smaller 1.3 L 2NZ-FE engine is offered in the Philippines. In China, the Vios () comes with the 1.3 L 8A-FE and 1.5 L 5A-FE. Trim levels for Southeast Asian markets include J, E, G and S, while the DLX, GL, GLX and GLXi are offered in China. In September 2005, the Vios received minor cosmetic changes to its exterior and interior for the 2006 model year. Updates included the front bumper, headlights and tail lights, redesigned alloy rims, speedometer dial design, and added a console box in the interior. The Vios was campaigned in the Touring Car Championships in Indonesia and One Make Races in Thailand. Taxicab versions marketed in Indonesia have less equipment and is rebadged as the Limo. This is not to be confused with certain taxis with the same name in Thailand, which use Corollas. Markets China In China, the Vios was produced from 2004 to 2008 equipped with the 1.3 L 8A-FE and 1.5 L 5A-FE engines paired with a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission. The 5A-FE engine was replaced by the 2SZ-FE engine and 3SZ-VE engine in 2006. Trim levels consist of the DLX, GL, GLX and GLXi trims. Philippines In the Philippines, the Vios was launched in June 2003 with two trim levels; E and G. The 1.3 E was powered by a 2NZ-FE VVT-i engine, mated to a 5-speed manual transmission. It came with an analog gauge cluster and 14-inch 5-spoke alloy wheels. The 1.5 G was powered by a 1NZ-FE VVT-i engine. Additional features were fog lights, power side mirrors and a digital gauge cluster. It was mated to either a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission. The base model J was introduced in June 2004. It had no power features (except for Steering) and 13-inch steel wheels. The 1.5 S was added to the lineup in early 2007 featuring a sportier body kit. Singapore In Singapore, the Vios came in E and S trim levels and powered by a 1.5 L 1NZ-FE engine. The top-of-the-line S trim comes with only a 4-speed automatic transmission. It has a digital speedometer, silver steering wheel trims, foldable wing mirrors, foglamps, chrome door handles and boot lid garnish. The E trim was available in either 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission and has a conventional speedometer. Malaysia In Malaysia, the specs and engines are generally similar as Singapore, the only difference is that in Malaysia, it is sold in E and G trim levels and comes with 15-inch alloy wheels and mudguards, while Singapore versions do not. Taiwan In Taiwan, the Vios comes with a 1.5 L 1NZ-FE engine in J and E trim levels. The first-generation Vios was sold and produced until the first quarter 2014. Vios Turbo A Turbo variant of the first-generation Vios was made available only in Thailand, which only 600 cars were produced. A turbocharged 1.5 L engine with an air-to-air intercooler produces with light boost at 6,400 rpm with of torque. It can accelerate from 0– in 8.1 seconds. About 600 units were produced. Standard on the Vios Turbo are a functional scoop on its hood, wrap-around body kits, stiffer springs, firmer shock-absorbers and 16-inch alloy wheels. Colours available were red, black and silver. The transmission ratio and differential ratios were based on that of a MR-S. Second generation (XP90; 2007) The second-generation Vios is a renamed Japanese market Belta sedan with varying trim levels and equipment sold in Southeast Asian countries between April 2007 and March 2013. It was also sold as the Yaris sedan in North America and Australia. The model received a facelift in mid-2010 and the second time in 2012. Third generation (XP150; 2013) The third-generation Vios (designated XP150) for the Asian market was unveiled on 25 March 2013 at the 34th Bangkok International Motor Show in Thailand. Its design was previewed by the Dear Qin sedan concept that was first displayed at the April 2012 Auto China. Toyota aimed to designate the third-generation Vios as a global model, for markets outside of Asia. The car was sold in Thailand shortly after, and from the second quarter in Asia. The exterior was enlarged over the front and rear sections and its styling outline was later followed by the XP150 series Yaris hatchback for the Southeast Asian market. The instrument cluster position is no longer mounted on the centre of the dashboard. In regions such as Africa, South America, the Caribbean and the Middle East, it is marketed as the Yaris Sedan. In Mexico and certain South American countries, the XP150 series Vios (for global markets) was sold as the Yaris Sedán. It was sold alongside the Mazda2-based Yaris R. In 2017, a major facelift model was released, which introduced newer sheet metal, interior design, while sharing the same front styling with the Yaris hatchback. The platform was revised with additional weldings for more rigidity and also with additional emphasis on noise, vibration, and harshness. Based on Toyota's internal estimates, it saw an 11 percent improvement in this sector, with the dashboard alone received 40 percent more sound insulation than before. The facelifted model was marketed in Thailand with the 1.2-litre as the Yaris Ativ to be eligible with the Eco Car program, while the Vios continued to be sold with the Chinese facelift styling and a 1.5-litre engine as a more powerful alternative. However, the Yaris Ativ-based styling was used for most markets instead of the facelifted Vios sold exclusively in China and Thailand. The XP150 series Vios/Yaris sedan, is not offered in the United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The second-generation (XP90 model) sedan was sold in these countries as the Yaris, but it was dropped in late 2011 due to lacklustre sales, with only the XP130 model being offered from the 2012 model year. Yaris sedans subsequently sold in North America from 2015 are based on the Mazda2 and produced for Toyota by Mazda. The Vios has been campaigned in One Make Races in Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand. Facelift The facelifted third-generation Vios was unveiled at the April 2016 Auto China. For the facelift model, there are projector headlamps with integrated LED light guides, a wider T-shaped grille and fog lamps shifted to the lower air-dam with vertical LED DRLs affixed on the bumper, similar to that of the pre-facelift XV70 series Camry. At the rear, the tail lamps feature LED-type units with revised graphics and feature a thinner linking chrome boot lid bar. This facelifted model is exclusively available in Thailand and China. In most Asian countries (excluding Japan and Hong Kong), the facelifted Vios was sold from 2018 as a major facelift model and uses model NSP151 model code for the cars with 1.5-litre engine, or NSP150 for the 1.3-litre models. It is also offered in India, the Middle East and Latin American countries as the Yaris Sedan. It measures an additional in length and in width. Although the roof and chassis used are based on the Vios sold in China and Thailand, the body panels and interior of this facelifted Vios are different from the NCP150 Vios. The facelifted Vios is sold in Singapore, Brunei, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Taiwan, the Philippines, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia. In the first 6 countries, the Vios is offered with the 1.5-litre 2NR-FE engine, while in the last 3 countries, it only powered by the smaller 1.3 L 1NR-FE engine. Both engines are offered in the Philippines. The facelifted Vios received a minor facelift in July 2020 with a redesigned front bumper and grille, with integrated DRL dual lens LED headlamp for the range topping models. It also received added safety suite for the range topping variants. The facelifted Vios received another minor facelift on 10 May 2023 in Vietnam. Markets Thailand The third-generation Vios was launched in March 2013 with four trim levels: J, E, G and S. The J and E trims were offered in either manual or automatic transmission. A TRD Sportivo model was introduced in May 2015. From 2016 in Thailand, the 1NZ-FE VVT-i engine was replaced by the flex-fuel 2NR-FBE 1.5-litre Dual VVT-i engine. The four-speed automatic transmission was replaced with a CVT gearbox with seven-speed mode. The five-speed manual was dropped from the lineup, while the safety kit has been given an upgrade. An "Exclusive" version was introduced for 2016 to replace TRD Sportivo model. The facelifted Vios was launched in Thailand in January 2017, featuring the same front fascia as Chinese market model. Trim levels offered include J, E, G and S, later categorised as Entry, Mid, and High trim levels from 2018. Singapore The Vios was first unveiled in Singapore in May 2013. It is available in two trim levels: E and G variants. Both are equipped with an automatic transmission. In January 2017, the Vios was reintroduced to the lineup with the newer 2NR-FE engine and continuously variable transmission (CVT) with 7-speed sport sequential mode and was available for a short period of time until April 2017. In December 2017, the facelifted Vios was introduced once more for the 2018 model year. The Vios for the Singapore market is offered in E and G model grades with only automatic CVT with a 1.5-litre 2NR-FE engine. In January 2021, the Vios received a minor facelift. Brunei The third-generation Vios was launched in Brunei in mid-2013 and the model were offered in E (4-speed automatic transmission) and J (5-speed manual transmission) variants powered in 1.5-liter 1NZ-FE petrol engine, which the models were imported from Indonesia. In 2017, the Vios received an update with new 2NZ-FE Dual VVT-i petrol engine (E and J grade) and 7-speed CVT (E grade). In mid-2018, the Vios was received a first facelift with new updates: front fog lamps, daytime running lights (E grade), new alloy wheels, paddle shifters (E grade), 7 airbags, reverse sensors (E grade), VSC and hill-hold assist. In January 2021, the Vios was received a second facelift with 7-inch touchscreen infotainment display (E grade), and the daytime running lights for the E grade have been dropped. Malaysia The third-generation Vios was launched in Malaysia in October 2013, and was sold in five different trim choices which are J manual, J automatic, E automatic, G automatic and TRD Sportivo automatic. In September 2016, the third-generation Vios received a newer engine and additional features. The 1NZ-FE VVT-i engine was replaced by the 2NR-FE Dual VVT-i engine across the lineup and the four-speed automatic transmission was replaced by a CVT with seven-speed mode. In January 2015, April 2017, and January 2018, the vehicle received minor updates which mainly consists of additional features. In July 2017, a "Sports Edition" trim was introduced based on the J trim. The facelifted Vios was launched in January 2019. The GX and TRD Sportivo trim was discontinued, leaving only J, E and G trim in the lineup. Manual transmission is no longer offered on the J trim. In December 2020, the second facelift model went on sale. The same J, E and G trim has been retained. Alongside the existing trim levels, the GR-S trim was introduced. It is a locally engineered model and the first model to wear the GR Sport badge in the Malaysian market. The headlining features are the "10-speed CVT" – which Toyota programmed the stepless automatic gearbox to have 10 virtual ratios in its manual mode, and sports-tuned suspension. It is equipped with 17-inch black multi-spoke wheels. The GR-S trim is available exclusively at GR Garage outlets and Toyota dealers participating in the Vios Challenge, a one-make race series in Malaysia. Philippines In the Philippines, the third-generation Vios was launched in July 2013 with the same 4 trim levels as the outgoing model: 1.3 Base, 1.3 J, 1.3 E, and 1.5 G. Toyota Motor Philippines produces the Vios in their production plant in Santa Rosa, Laguna. It is equipped with either a 1.3-litre 2NZ-FE or a 1.5-litre 1NZ-FE engine. In 2015, the TRD Sportivo trim with TRD alloy wheels and body kit was released. In July 2016, the Vios received a newer engine, the 1.3-litre 1NR-FE and 1.5-litre 2NR-FE engine with Dual VVT-i, both available with both 5-speed manual and CVT transmission. The facelifted Vios was launched in July 2018. Trim levels on offer are the 1.3 Base, 1.3 J, 1.3 E, 1.5 G, and two newer trim levels, the 1.3 E Prime and 1.5 G Prime, which replaced the TRD Sportivo trim. In April 2019, the XE trim was added into the lineup. In November 2019, the XLE trim was also added into the lineup. In July 2020, the second facelift model was released, along with additional features and the E Prime and G Prime trims had removed at the same time. In March 2021, the GR-S trim was added to the lineup. It is also the flagship taxi of the Philippines. Indonesia The third-generation Vios was launched for the Indonesian market in May 2013 and initially imported from Thailand. Starting from December 2013, the Vios had been made locally assembled in Karawang, where the vehicles were exported to Brunei and GCC countries under the Yaris sedan nameplate. It was the only sedan model to be manufactured at TMMIN Karawang Plant 2. Two trim levels were available; the 1.5 E and 1.5 G which were powered by the 1.5-litre 1NZ-FE engine. The TRD Sportivo trim was launched in September 2014. A downgraded model was sold for the fleet taxi market as the Limo. The Vios received an update in November 2016 with the newer 1.5-litre 2NR-FE Dual VVT-i engine mated to a 5-speed manual transmission or CVT along with minor cosmetic updates. The major facelift Vios was launched in April 2018. Only the E and G were offered, the TRD Sportivo was discontinued. The Limo model was replaced by the Avanza-based Transmover. The second facelift model was not released due to limited demand of the sedan in the country. Vietnam In Vietnam, the Vios is offered in 2 trim levels; E (5-speed manual and CVT) and G (CVT). All trims have the 1.5-litre engine. The first and second facelift models based on the Yaris Ativ sedan was launched in August 2018 and February 2021 respectively, the trim levels are carried over from the pre-facelift model and in the 2021 facelift, the GR-S model was also added to the lineup. The model is the best-selling car in Vietnam continuously from 2014 to 2018, with 67,787 cars sold during the period. The Vios continued at the top of yearly sales charts through to 2020. Taiwan In Taiwan, the third-generation Vios was available from the second quarter of 2014. Three models have since been available in Classic, Elegant and Luxury variants. All models use the same 1.5 L 1NZ-FE engine from the previous model. In the second quarter of 2016, the 1NZ-FE engine was replaced by the 2NR-FE engine and a CVT. In March 2018, the facelift model with a refreshed exterior was launched. China The Vios was launched in China in November 2013 after its debut at the Shanghai Auto Show in April. The Vios is now only available in either 1.3- or 1.5-litre engine variants with the higher end 1.6 L model dropped. The Vios for the Chinese market are produced by the FAW Toyota joint venture. Both models are powered by newer Dual VVT-i engines 4NR-FE and 5NR-FE specially developed for the Chinese market. In 2016, a facelifted hatchback version of the third-generation Vios was launched exclusively in China by the FAW Toyota joint venture. Based on the Yaris hatchback, it is known as the Vios FS (). The Chinese market also received the Vios-based Yaris L sedan. A 5-speed manual and CVT option are standard for both engines. Safety ASEAN NCAP Fourth generation (AC100; 2022) The fourth-generation Vios (designated AC100) debuted on 9 August 2022 in Thailand as the Yaris Ativ (the "Vios" nameplate had discontinued there). It is developed by Daihatsu through a joint Toyota-Daihatsu internal company known as Emerging-market Compact Car Company (ECC) under the lead of executive chief engineer Hideyuki Kamino. The fourth-generation Vios is based on the DNGA-B platform shared with the W100 series Avanza/Veloz, although unlike any other Daihatsu-developed models, the Daihatsu-badged equivalency is not offered. The model is introduced with a longer wheelbase at . Compared to its predecessor, the car features a fastback-like sloping rear roof section which stretched the window line further back. The interior of the AC100 Vios/Yaris is said to be more premium in appearance than past Vios models, with many areas covered by soft touch materials and an optional 64-colour ambient lighting system (only available in higher grades). Other optional equipment in some markets include an electronic parking brake, a 7-inch digital instrument cluster and a Pioneer-branded speakers (also only available in higher grades). Markets Asia Thailand The Yaris Ativ in Thailand is available in four grades: Sport, Smart, Premium and Premium Luxury. Eligible under the Eco Car tax incentive program, it is equipped with the 1.2-litre 3NR-VE engine with Dual VVT-iE technology rated at and , paired with a Toyota-made CVT gearbox marketed as Super CVT-i. Advanced driver-assistance systems package branded as Toyota Safety Sense is standard. The model also indirectly replaced the 1.5-litre Vios in the country. Produced at the Gateway plant in Chachoengsao, sales figures target in Thailand is set at 3,500 units per month, with exports planned to over 35 countries. Laos The fourth-generation Vios was launched in Laos on 1 September 2022, powered by the 1.3-litre 1NR-VE engine rated at and . Toyota Safety Sense is standard for 1.3 Hi grade. Cambodia The fourth-generation Vios was released in Cambodia on 7 October 2022. It is only offered in Premium grade with the 1.3-litre 1NR-VE engine, paired with the CVT. Toyota Safety Sense is standard. Indonesia The fourth-generation Vios was launched in Indonesia on 12 October 2022, and is imported from Thailand instead of being assembled locally. It is powered by the 1.5-litre 2NR-VE engine rated at and . It was initially available in two grade levels: E with 5-speed manual transmission and G with CVT; an optional Toyota Safety Sense package is available for the latter. The E grade was discontinued in September 2023. Brunei The fourth-generation Vios was launched in Brunei on 18 December 2022, and is imported from Thailand instead of Indonesia from previous generation. It is powered by the 1.3-litre 1NR-VE petrol engine mated to a CVT in a single grade. Malaysia The fourth-generation Vios was launched in Malaysia on 20 March 2023. It is offered in two variants, 1.5E (AT) and 1.5G (AT) in five colour options with Spicy Scarlet being a new choice. The new model is produced locally at Assembly Services Sdn Bhd (ASSB) in Bukit Raja, Klang. GCC The model was introduced in GCC markets such as Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates as the Yaris in September 2022. Unlike the previous generation, the Yaris is imported from Thailand instead of Indonesia. The GCC market Yaris is powered by 1.3-litre 1NR-VE and 1.5-litre 2NR-VE petrol engines. Americas Costa Rica The fourth-generation Vios was released in Costa Rica on 10 October 2022 as the Yaris sedan. Powered by the 1.5-litre 2NR-VE engine as standard powertrain, it is offered in New Line (manual and CVT) and Highline (CVT only) grade levels. Toyota Safety Sense is standard for Highline grade. Mexico The fourth-generation Vios was released in Mexico on 12 October 2022 as the Yaris sedan. Powered by the 1.5-litre 2NR-VE engine as standard powertrain, it is offered in Base (manual and CVT), S (manual and CVT) and S Hi (CVT only) grade levels. Toyota Safety Sense is standard for S Hi grade. Peru The fourth-generation Vios was released in Peru on 2 November 2022 as the Yaris sedan. Powered by the 1.3-litre 1NR-VE engine as standard powertrain, it is offered in Base (manual) and GLi (manual and CVT) grade levels, with LPG and CNG versions are also available as options. Chile The fourth-generation Vios was released in Chile on 15 March 2023 as the Yaris sedan. Powered by the 1.5-litre 2NR-VE engine as standard powertrain, it is offered in I (manual) and E (manual and CVT) grade levels. Side collision test manipulation On 28 April 2023, Daihatsu confirmed that the company had committed "wrongdoings" in approval application for side collision tests under UN-R95 requirements for four vehicles, including the AC100 series Yaris Ativ / Vios which was developed by the company. According to Daihatsu, the inside lining of the front seat door was improperly modified with a "notch" to prevent the part from breaking into pieces with sharp edges that could injure occupants during a side airbag deployment. These modifications are not present in production vehicles. 76,289 units of the model are affected, which are already sold in Thailand, GCC, Mexico, and others. In response, Toyota chairman Akio Toyoda and Toyota president Koji Sato publicly apologized. According to Toyota, Daihatsu conducted an internal retest without the modification, and the car passed the test. Another retest was conducted on 28 April 2023. The car also passed this test, and was verified by an independent testing agency that was present during the test. However, Toyota suspended deliveries to Thailand until the vehicles are retested for the third time to satisfy a specific "witness testing" requirement in that market. Safety In August 2023, the vehicle was tested for automotive safety by ASEAN NCAP. It received five stars out of a possible five. Sales Notes: The sales data above only apply to models sold under the Toyota Vios nameplate (except for Thailand, 2004 - 2007 which include Toyota Soluna Vios and Indonesia which include Toyota Limo).The Toyota Soluna, Toyota Yaris Sedan, Toyota Yaris Ativ and Toyota Belta nameplates are not included. References External links (Malaysia) Vios Cars introduced in 2002 2010s cars 2020s cars Subcompact cars Sedans Hatchbacks Front-wheel-drive vehicles Vehicles with CVT transmission ASEAN NCAP superminis
4587587	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonpartisan%20blanket%20primary	Nonpartisan blanket primary	A nonpartisan blanket primary is a primary election in which all candidates for the same elected office run against each other at once, regardless of the political party. Partisan elections are, on the other hand, segregated by political party. Nonpartisan blanket primaries are slightly different from most other elections systems with two-rounds/runoff, aka "jungle primaries" (such as the Louisiana primary), in a few ways. The first round of a nonpartisan blanket primary is officially the "primary." Round two is the "general election." Round two must be held, even if one candidate receives a majority in the first round. In addition, there is no separate party nomination process for candidates before the first round. Also, political parties are not allowed to whittle down the field using their internal techniques (such as party primaries or conventions). It is entirely possible that multiple candidates of the same political party advance to the general election. In most cases, two winners advance to the general election, in which case it is also called a top-two primary. If more than two candidates are selected for the general election, it may be known as a top-four primary or top-five primary. It is also known as a jungle primary. This system theoretically elects more moderate candidates, since winning might require appealing to voters of both parties in a two-party system. However, all primaries use plurality voting and are susceptible to vote-splitting: the more candidates from the same party that run in the primary, the more likely that party is to lose. Research on California's primaries have shown no increase in moderate candidates, and no increase in turnout among nonpartisan voters. Some have proposed using other voting systems in the primary to alleviate this problem, such as the unified primary based on approval voting for its first round. The top-two system is used for all primaries in Washington and California except presidential primaries, and Alaska began using a top-four primary system in the 2022 Alaska's at-large congressional district special election using ranked-choice voting. The so-called Louisiana primary is similar, with a first round to pick the top two candidates and a second round to choose between these two. The difference is that the first election is the general election, whereas the second is a later "runoff" election that is held if no candidate wins more than half of the vote in the first round. Candidate party preference and ballot disclaimer The nonpartisan blanket primary is different from the blanket primary. They are similar in that voters can vote in the first round for a candidate from any political party. The partisan blanket primary was used in Washington for nearly 65 years and briefly in California. However, the blanket primary was ruled unconstitutional in 2000 by the Supreme Court of the United States in California Democratic Party v. Jones, as it forced political parties to associate with candidates they did not endorse. The nonpartisan blanket primary disregards party preference in determining the candidates to advance to the general election, and for that reason, it was ruled facially constitutional by the Supreme Court in the 2008 decision Washington State Grange v. Washington State Republican Party. Chief Justice John Roberts concurred in the 2008 decision, stating: "If the ballot is designed in such a manner that no reasonable voter would believe that the candidates listed there are nominees or members of, or otherwise associated with, the parties the candidates claimed to 'prefer', the I–872 primary system would likely pass constitutional muster." Each candidate for partisan office can state a political party that they prefer. Ballots must feature disclaimers that a candidate's preference does not imply the candidate is nominated or endorsed by the party or that the party approves of or associates with the candidate. Subsequent as applied challenges were struck down by lower courts. On October 1, 2012, the US Supreme Court refused to hear appeals from Washington Libertarian Party and Washington State Democratic Party. The Washington State Republican Party had earlier dropped out of the appeal process. United States Both Washington and California implement a two-winner nonpartisan blanket primary by plurality vote. The plan is used in Texas and other states in special elections but not primaries. A notable example involved former US Senator Phil Gramm, who in 1983 (while a member of the House of Representatives), after switching from the Democratic to the Republican Party, resigned his seat as a Democrat on January 5, ran as a Republican for his own vacancy in a special election held on February 12, and won rather handily. There have also been efforts in Oregon to pass a similar law. However, the Oregon Senate rejected it in May 2007, and it failed in a November 2008 referendum as Measure 65. Oregon voters defeated it again in November 2014 as Measure 90, despite a $2.1 million donation from former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and a $2.75 million donation from former Enron executive John D. Arnold to support it. Maryland has explored a top-two primary, erroneously naming it an open primary, such as in 2019 House Bill 26. Testimony was provided by several organizations, including FairVote and Common Cause, and independent constituents, and included statements about Condorcet systems, proportional representation and single transferable vote, and concerns that a top-two rather than top-three or more primary would not supply adequate choice for voters. Florida voters rejected an amendment to adopt the top-two primary in 2020. Alaska In the 2020 Alaska elections, voters approved Measure 2, which will replace party primaries with a single non-partisan blanket primary, a top-four primary. The top 4 candidates will advance to a general election that uses ranked-choice voting. It will be used for all state and federal elections except for the president. California California's blanket primary system was ruled unconstitutional in California Democratic Party v. Jones in 2000. It forced political parties to associate with candidates they did not endorse. Then in 2004, Proposition 62, an initiative to bring the nonpartisan blanket primary to California, failed with only 46% of the vote. However, Proposition 14, a nearly identical piece of legislation, passed on the June 2010 ballot with 53.7% of the vote. Under Proposition 14, statewide and congressional candidates in California, regardless of party preference, participate in the nonpartisan blanket primary. However, a candidate must prefer the major party on the ballot that they are registered in. After the June primary election, the top two candidates advance to the November general election. That does not affect the presidential primary, local offices, or non-partisan offices such as judges and the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The California Secretary of State now calls the system a "Top-Two Primary". Federal elections The 2012 general election was the first non-special election in California to use the nonpartisan blanket primary system established by Proposition 14. As a result, eight congressional districts featured general elections with two candidates of the same party: the 15th, 30th, 35th, 40th, 43rd, and 44th with two Democrats, and the 8th and 31st with two Republicans. In the 2014 general election, eight congressional districts featured general elections with two candidates of the same party: the 17th, 19th, 34th, 35th, 40th, and 44th with two Democrats, and the 4th and 25th with two Republicans. In the 2016 general election, the U.S. Senate race featured two Democrats running against each other and seven congressional districts with two Democrats running against each other: the 17th, 29th, 32nd, 34th, 37th, 44th, and 46th. There were no races with two Republicans running against each other. California 15th Congressional District, 2012 The 15th district is based in the East Bay and includes Hayward and Livermore. Democrat Pete Stark, who represented the 13th district from 1993 to 2013 and its predecessors since 1973, lost reelection to fellow Democrat Eric Swalwell in the general election after Stark won the primary. Washington (state) Along with California and Alaska, Washington had a blanket primary system that allowed every voter to choose a candidate of any party for each position. That kind of system was ruled unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in California Democratic Party v. Jones (2000) because it forced political parties to endorse candidates against their will. The Washington State Legislature passed a new primary system in 2004, which would have created a top-two nonpartisan blanket primary system. It provided an open primary as a backup, giving the Governor the option to choose. Although Secretary of State Sam Reed advocated the blanket, non-partisan system, on April 1, 2004, the Governor used the line-item veto to activate the Open primary instead. In response, Washington's Initiative 872 was filed on January 8, 2004, by Terry Hunt from the Washington Grange, which proposed to create a nonpartisan blanket primary in that state. The measure passed with 59.8% of the vote (1,632,225 yes votes and 1,095,190 no votes) in 2004. On March 18, 2008, the US Supreme Court ruled, in Washington State Grange v. Washington State Republican Party, that Washington's Initiative 872 was constitutionally permissible. Unlike the earlier blanket primary, it officially disregards party affiliation while allowing candidates to state their party preference. However, the court wanted to wait for more evidence before addressing the chief items in the complaint and remanded the decision to the lower courts. Washington state implemented this Top 2 primary, starting in the 2008 election which applies to federal, state, and local elections, but not to presidential elections. There is no voter party registration in Washington, and candidates are not restricted to stating an affiliation with an established major or minor party. The candidate has up to 16 characters to describe on the ballot the party that they prefer. Some candidates state a preference for an established major party, such as the Democratic Party or the Republican Party, while others use the ballot to send a message, such as Prefers No New Taxes Party or Prefers Salmon Yoga Party. Since this is a "preference" and not a declaration of party membership, candidates can assert party affiliation without the party's approval or use alternate terms for a given party. Gubernatorial candidate Dino Rossi's 2008 stated preference was for the "GOP Party", although he is a prominent Republican. Washington state legislature, 14th district, 2010 First Ballot, August 17, 2010 Second Ballot November 2, 2010 In this race a three-way primary led to a two-way race between two members of the same party (Republicans) in the general election. With over 20% of the population voting for the Democrat and neither Republican winning close to a majority in the primary, both of the Republican candidates had to appeal to Democrats and other voters who did not support them in the first round. For example, incumbent Norm Johnson came out in favor of same-sex civil unions, moving to the left of challenger Michele Strobel, who opposed them. Washington state legislature, 38th district, State Senate, 2010 First Ballot August 17, 2010 Second Ballot November 2, 2010 In this heavily Democratic district, Berkey was officially endorsed by the 38th District Democratic Party. However, Democratic challenger Nick Harper bankrolled ads for the Republican candidate to "Squeeze the Middle" and prevent the moderate incumbent Berkey from running in the general election. When Berkey placed third in the primary by a margin of 122 votes, the Moxie Media scandal ensued: the state's election watchdog committee unanimously voted to refer the case to the state Attorney General Rob McKenna, who within hours "filed suit, alleging multiple campaign-finance violations". Despite the call of several former state senators to hold another election, the election results were upheld, and Berkey was prevented from running in the general election. Harper easily won the subsequent uncompetitive runoff election. Washington state US Senate race, 2010 First Ballot, August 17, 2010 (only top three vote-getters listed) Second Ballot November 2, 2010 In this race, the three leading candidates' competition resulted in a more moderate and popular Republican facing off against the incumbent Democrat, with a relatively close general election. Clint Didier and Dino Rossi were the two main Republicans vying to run against the incumbent Democratic Senator Patty Murray. Rossi had much greater name recognition, had narrowly lost two races for governor, and was favored by the party establishment. Didier, a former tight end for the National Football League's Washington Redskins, had never run for elected office and was endorsed by Tea Party favorites Ron Paul and Sarah Palin. Didier might have been able to win the GOP nomination from Rossi in a closed primary that rewards candidates for appealing to the hardline of their base, but the more moderate Rossi was easily able to defeat Didier in the Top Two primary. While one might expect more Democrats in the Top Two primary to vote tactically for Didier, the Republican candidate who was doing much worse in polls against Murray, most Democrats seemed content voting for Murray. If any tactical voting occurred, it seemed to be on the Republican side, with the vast majority of the Republican voters choosing Rossi, perceived as a more electable candidate. In this case, the Top Two primary resulted in a more moderate Republican candidate running against the Democratic incumbent, and likely a much more competitive race than if the Tea Party candidate had run against Murray. Washington 4th Congressional District, 2014 The 4th district is a large and predominantly rural district in Central Washington that encompasses numerous counties and is dominated by the Tri-Cities and Yakima areas. Republican Doc Hastings, who represented the 4th district since 1995, retired. The two winners of the top two primary were the Tea Party candidate Clint Didier (endorsed by Ron Paul) and Dan Newhouse, the former Director of the Washington State Department of Agriculture under Christine Gregoire and Jay Inslee and former State Representative. In a close general election, Newhouse prevailed. Analysis Though the intention is to allow multiple candidates from the majority party to advance to the second round, critics note that this can also happen to a minority party when that party runs fewer candidates than another and thus faces less vote-splitting. Under the nonpartisan blanket primary, a party with two candidates and only 41% popular support would beat a party with three candidates and 59% popular support if voters split their votes evenly among candidates for their own party. For example, in Washington's 2016 primary for state treasurer, Democrats won a majority of the vote but failed to move on to the general election: Political science professor Todd Donovan published an article in 2012 for the California Journal of Politics & Policy called "The Top Two Primary: What Can California Learn from Washington?" Donovan was the only expert witness in favor of the top-two idea, for the as applied court challenge of Top-Two. His academic paper states, "The partisan structure of Washington's legislature appears unaltered by the new primary system." Donovan concluded, "The aggregate of all this did not add up to a legislature that looked different or functioned differently from the legislature elected under a partisan primary." In Washington, major parties originally used an alternate process of party endorsement for partisan legislative and county administrative positions. This would ensure that one official party candidate will be in the primary, theoretically reducing the risk of intra-party vote-splits. However, the law does not allow nominations or endorsements by interest groups, political action committees, political parties, labor unions, editorial boards, or other private organizations to be printed on the ballot. The indication of party preference as opposed to party affiliation opens the door for candidates to misrepresent their leanings or otherwise confuse voters. In 2008, a Washington gubernatorial candidate indicated party preference as "G.O.P." instead of Republican. A public poll found that 25% of the public did not know that the two terms mean the same thing. Further research on California's 2012 jungle primaries suggests that a jungle primary does not tend to lead to large amounts of crossover votes. Most voters who crossed over did so for strategic reasons. Furthermore, there is evidence that having the top two candidates from the same party could lead to a drop in voter participation in the second round. With regards to reducing political polarization, this does not seem to hold true. Due to lack of crossover votes, an extreme candidate from the majority party can still win over a moderate from the other party. Though the intention of the system is to get a moderate from the majority party, this will not happen if there is no moderate, if the moderate lacks name recognition, or if voters are unsure of which candidate is more moderate. See also Instant-runoff voting Two-round system Two-party-preferred vote References Notes External links Land of a Thousand Liebermans analysis by Nate Silver of FiveThirtyEight.com Will California's 'Top Two' Primary Work? The New York Times provides six views on new California primary Washington's top-two primary gets voters the better choice The Seattle Times editorial praising Top Two primary in Washington state 2010 elections Top Two primary worth considering advocating Top Two primary for Arizona Pros and cons of a top-two primary The Los Angeles Times presents two views on the Top Two primary Stop Top Two Free and Equal Elections Foundation, a coalition of independent and minority party activists opposing the Top Two primary Washington State Grange v. Washington State Republican Party upholding top-two primary California elections Washington (state) elections Electoral systems Primary elections Elections in the United States
4588798	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Church%20in%20India	Catholic Church in India	The Catholic Church in India is part of the worldwide Catholic Church under the leadership of the Pope. There are over 20 million Catholics in India, representing around 1.55% of the total population, and the Catholic Church is the single largest Christian church in India. There are 10,701 parishes that make up 174 dioceses and eparchies, which are organised into 29 ecclesiastical provinces. Of these, 132 dioceses are of the Latin Church, 31 of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church & 11 of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church. Despite the very small population that Indian Catholics make up percentage wise, India still has the second-largest Christian population in Asia after the Catholic Church in the Philippines. All Catholic bishops from all dioceses, come together to form the Catholic Bishops Conference of India, first convened in British India, 1944. The Vatican City's representative ambassador to the government of India is the Apostolic Nuncio to India. The diplomatic mission of the Holy See to India, similar to an embassy, was established as the Apostolic delegation to the East Indies in 1881. It was raised to an Internunciature by Pope Pius XII in 1948, and to a full Apostolic Nunciature by Pope Paul VI in 1967. Archbishop Leopoldo Girelli is the current Apostolic Nuncio named by Pope Francis on 13 March 2021. The Nunciature is located at 50-C, Niti Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi. History Early Christianity in India Christianity reached India in AD 52 when Thomas the Apostle reached Muziris in Malabar Coast presently called the state of Kerala. He preached Christianity in Eastern and Western coasts of India. These Saint Thomas Christians are known as Nasrani, which is a Syriac term meaning Follower of the Nazarene Jesus. The Christian community in India later came under the jurisdiction of Bishops from Persia. Historians estimate this date to be around the fourth century. As a result, they inherited East Syriac liturgy and traditions of Persia. Later, when the Western missionaries reached India, they accused this community of practicing Nestorianism, a heresy that separates Christ's divinity from his human nature. They formed the most ancient church, diocese, and metropolitan province in the Indian subcontinent and the Far East. The East Syriac diocese of India was elevated as a metropolitan province in the eighth century by Patriarch Ishoyab III. In the words of Pope John Paul II, this community, while being a part of the East Syriac Church, had never broken the communion with the worldwide catholic Church explicitly. Today, the continuity of this early Christian community is found in the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, an Oriental Church in communion with Catholic Church, following East Syriac traditions. Early missionaries John of Monte Corvino was a Franciscan sent to China to become prelate of Peking in around 1307. He travelled from Persia and moved down by sea to India, in 1291, to the Madras region or "Country of St. Thomas". There he preached for thirteen months and baptised about one hundred persons. From there Monte Corvino wrote home, in December 1291 (or 1292). That is one of the earliest noteworthy accounts of the Coromandel coast furnished by any Western European. Travelling by sea from Mailapur, he reached China in 1294, appearing in the capital "Cambaliech" (now Beijing). Friar Odoric of Pordenone arrived in India in 1321. He visited Malabar, touching at Pandarani (20 m. north of Calicut), at Cranganore, and at Kulam or Quilon, proceeding thence, apparently, to Ceylon and to the shrine of St Thomas at Maylapur near Madras. He writes he had found the place where Thomas was buried. Father Jordanus Catalanus, a French Dominican missionary, followed in 1321–22. He reported to Rome, apparently from somewhere on the west coast of India, that he had given Christian burial to four martyred monks. Jordanus is known for his 1329 "Mirabilia" describing the marvels of the East: he furnished the best account of Indian regions and the Christians, the products, climate, manners, customs, fauna and flora given by any European in the Middle Ages – superior even to Marco Polo's. The Diocese of Quilon headquartered at Kollam is the first Roman Catholic diocese in India in the state of Kerala, first erected on 9 August 1329 and re-erected on 1 September 1886. In 1329 Pope John XXII (in captivity at Avignon) erected Quilon as the first Diocese in the whole Indies as suffragan to the Archdiocese of Sultany in Persia, through the decree "Romanus Pontifix" dated 9 August 1329. By a separate Bull "Venerabili Fratri Jordano", the same Pope, on 21 August 1329 appointed the French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani de Severac (OP) as the first Bishop of Quilon. (Copies of the Orders and the related letters issued by Pope John XXII to Bishop Jordanus Catalani (OP) and to the diocese of Quilon are documented and preserved in the diocesan archives). In 1347, Giovanni de Marignolli visited the shrine of St Thomas near the modern Madras, and then proceeded to what he calls the kingdom of Saba, and identifies with the Sheba of Scripture, but which seems from various particulars to have been Java. Taking ship again for Malabar on his way to Europe, he encountered great storms. Another prominent Indian traveller was Joseph, priest over Cranganore. He journeyed to Babylon in 1490 and then sailed to Europe and visited Portugal, Rome, and Venice before returning to India. He helped to write a book about his travels titled The Travels of Joseph the Indian which was widely disseminated across Europe. Arrival of the Portuguese In 1453, the fall of Constantinople, a bastion of Christianity in Asia Minor to Islamic Ottoman Empire, marked the end of the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire, and severed European trade links by land with Asia. This massive blow to Christendom spurred the age of discovery as Europeans were seeking alternative routes east by sea along with the goal of forging alliances with pre-existing Christian nations. Along with pioneer Portuguese long-distance maritime travellers, that reached the Malabar Coast in the late 15th century, came Portuguese missionaries who introduced the Latin Catholic church in India. They made contact with the St Thomas Christians in Kerala, which at that time were following Eastern Christian practices and were under the jurisdiction of Church of the East. In the 16th century, the proselytism of Asia was linked to the Portuguese colonial policy. The Papal bull Romanus Pontifex, written on 8 January 1455 by Pope Nicholas V to King Afonso V of Portugal, confirmed to the Crown of Portugal dominion over all lands discovered or conquered during the age of discovery. Further, the patronage for the propagation of the Christian faith (see "Padroado") in Asia was given to the Portuguese. The missionaries of the different orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, Augustinians, etc.) flocked out with the conquerors, and began at once to build churches along the coastal districts where the Portuguese power made itself felt. The history of Portuguese missionaries in India starts with the neo-apostles who reached Kappad near Kozhikode on 20 May 1498 along with the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama who was seeking to form anti-Islamic alliances with pre-existing Christian nations. The lucrative spice trade was further temptation for the Portuguese crown. When he and the Portuguese missionaries arrived they found no Christians in the country, except in Malabar known as St. Thomas Christians who represented less than 2% of the total population and the then-largest Christian church within India. The Christians were friendly to Portuguese missionaries at first; there was an exchange of gifts between them, and these groups were delighted at their common faith. During the second expedition, the Portuguese fleet comprising 13 ships and 18 priests, under Captain Pedro Álvares Cabral, anchored at Cochin on 26 November 1500. Cabral soon won the goodwill of the Raja of Cochin. He allowed four priests to do apostolic work among the early Christian communities scattered in and around Cochin. Thus Portuguese missionaries established Portuguese Mission in 1500. Dom Francisco de Almeida, the first Portuguese Viceroy, got permission from the Kochi Raja to build two church edifices – namely Santa Cruz Basilica (founded 1505) and St. Francis Church (founded 1506) using stones and mortar which was unheard of at that time as the local prejudices were against such a structure for any purpose other than a royal palace or a temple. Primate of the East In the beginning of the 16th century, the whole of the East Indies were under the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Lisbon. On 12 June 1514, Cochin, Goa& Bombay-Bassein became the prominent fields of missionary activity, under the newly created Diocese of Funchal in Madeira. In 1534, Pope Paul III, by the Bull Quequem Reputamus, raised Funchal as an archdiocese and Goa as its suffragan, deputing the whole of India under the diocese of Goa. This created an episcopal see – suffragan to Funchal, with a jurisdiction extending potentially over all past and future conquests from the Cape of Good Hope to China. Portuguese explorers arrived in Chennai in 1523 and built the Santhome Church over the tomb of Saint Thomas the Apostle, it was the first church in Chennai. In 1545, Saint Francis Xavier visited this church, prayed in the Tomb of St. Thomas and stayed for about one year before his Apostolic trip to China. This church was later elevated to the status of a cathedral in 1606 by Pope Paul V, with the inauguration of the Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapore at the request of Portuguese King. Later the cathedral church was rebuilt by the British in 1896 with the style of Neo Gothic. It was made a basilica in 1927 by Pope Pius XII. Around 1540, missionaries from the newly founded Society of Jesus arrived in Goa. The Portuguese government supported their work, as well as the work of the other religious orders in Goa (Dominicans, Franciscans, etc.) who had been arriving since the Portuguese conquest of Goa in 1510. Native Goans who converted were rewarded by the government with Portuguese citizenship. At the same time, many New Christians from Portugal migrated to India as a result of the Portuguese Inquisition. Many of them were suspected of being Crypto-Jews and Crypto-Muslims, converted Jews and Muslims who were secretly practicing their old religions. Both were considered a threat to the solidarity of Christian belief. Saint Francis Xavier, in a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, requested the Goan Inquisition but the tribunal was set up only in 1560. In 1557, Goa was made an independent archbishopric, and its first suffragan sees were erected at Cochin and Malacca. The whole of the East came under the jurisdiction of Goa and its boundaries extended to almost half of the world: from the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, to Burma, China and Japan in East Asia. In 1576 the suffragan See of Macao (China) was added; and in 1588, that of Funai in Japan. The death of the last East Syriac metropolitan Archbishop – Mar Abraham of the Saint Thomas Christians, an ancient body formerly part of the Church of the East in 1597; gave the then Archbishop of Goa Menezes an opportunity to bring the native church under the authority of the Latin Catholic hierarchy. He was able to secure the submission of Archdeacon George, the highest remaining representative of the native church hierarchy. Menezes convened the Synod of Diamper between 20 and 26 June 1599, which introduced a number of reforms to the church and brought it fully into his control. Following the Synod, Menezes consecrated Francis Ros, SJ, as Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Angamalé for the Saint Thomas Christians; this created another suffragan see to Archdiocese of Goa and Latinisation of St Thomas Christians started, against the wish of St Thomas Christians (East Syrian Tradition). The Saint Thomas Christians were pressured to acknowledge the authority of the Pope and most of them eventually accepted the Catholic faith, but a part of them switched to West Syriac Rite. Resentment of these measures led some part of the community to join the Archdeacon Thomas, in swearing never to submit to the Portuguese or to accept Jesuits as their masters in the Coonan Cross Oath in 1653. Those who accepted the West Syrian theological and liturgical tradition of Mar Gregorios became known as Jacobites. The ones who continued with East Syriac liturgical tradition came to be formally known as the Syro-Malabar Church from the second half of the 19th century onward. The Diocese of Angamaly was transferred to Diocese of Craganore in 1605; while, in 1606 a sixth suffragan see to Goa was established at San Thome, Mylapore, near the modern Madras. The suffragan sees added later to Goa were the prelacy of Mozambique (1612) and in 1690 two other sees at Peking and Nanking in China. Missionary work progressed on a large scale along the western coasts, chiefly in Portuguese Bombay and Bassein, that extended from Damaon and Diu, to Salsette Island& Chaul, the missions were a great success until the Mahratta Invasions of Goa and Bassein, during which a number of churches and convents were demolished. Conversions were also carried out on the eastern coasts at San Thome of Mylapore and as far as Portuguese Chittagong, and beyond Bengal in the East Indies. In the southern districts the Jesuit mission in Madura was the most famous. It extended to the Krishna river, with a number of outlying stations beyond it. The mission of Cochin, on the Malabar Coast, was also one of the most fruitful. Several missions were also established in the interior northwards, e.g., that of Agra and Lahore in 1570 and that of Tibet in 1624. Still, even with these efforts, the greater part even of the coast line was by no means fully worked, and many vast tracts of the interior northwards were practically untouched. With the decline of the Portuguese power, other colonial powers – namely the Dutch and British and Christian organisations – gained influence. 18th century Bettiah Christians, the northern Indian subcontinent's oldest Christian community, was established in the 18th century by Italian Christian missionaries belonging to the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, a Roman Catholic religious order. The patron of the Bettiah Christian Mission was Maharaja Dhurup Singh, king of the Bettiah Raj in Hindustan, who requested Giuseppe Maria Bernini to treat his ill wife and was successful in doing so. The Bettiah Christian Mission flourished under the patronage of the royal court of the Bettiah Rajas, growing in number. The Portuguese spread the Catholic faith in Goa, then in Cape Comorin, inland districts of Madurai and the western coast of Bassein, Salcette, Bombay, Karanja, and Chaul. With the advent of suppression of Jesuits in 1773 the missionary expansion declined in India along with the need for organisations within the Church in India. Especially when the Vicar Apostolate of Bombay was erected in 1637 which was under the direct ruling from Rome, this caused misunderstanding between the Portuguese missionary and the Apostolate. The Inquisition of Goa had caused strained relationship and mistrust with the Hindus of India. The strained relations between the Church and the Portuguese missionaries reached a climax when in 1838 the Holy See cancelled the jurisdiction of the three suffragan Sees of Crangaqnore, Cochin, and Mylapur and transferred it to the nearest vicars Apostolic, and did the same with regard to certain portions of territory which had formerly been under the authority of Goa itself. Finally in 1886 another concordat was established, and at the same time the whole country was divided into ecclesiastical provinces, and certain portions of territory, withdrawn in 1838, were restored to the jurisdiction of the Portuguese sees. Role in the Indian independence movement On 30 October 1945 in the All India Conference of Indian Christians (AICIC) formed a joint committee with the Catholic Union of India to form a joint committee that passed a resolution in which, "in the future constitution of India, the profession, practice and propagation of religion should be guaranteed and that a change of religion should not involve any civil or political disability." This joint committee enabled the Christians in India to stand united, and in front of the British Parliamentary Delegation "the committee members unanimously supported the move for independence and expressed complete confidence in the future of the community in India." The office for this joint committee was opened in Delhi, in which the Vice-Chancellor of Andhra University M. Rahnasamy served as President and B.L. Rallia Ram of Lahore served as General Secretary. Six members of the joint committee were elected to the Minorities Committee of the Constituent Assembly of India. In its meeting on 16 April 1947 and 17 April 1947, the joint committee of the All India Conference of Indian Christians and All India Catholic Union prepared a 13 point memorandum that was sent to the Constituent Assembly, which asked for religious freedom for both organisations and individuals; this came to be reflected in the Constitution of India. Social services Concern with charity was common to Catholics and Protestants, but with one major difference: whilst the former believe that salvation comes from faith in God which manifests itself in good works such as charity, the latter could not rely on such a possibility, since they believe that only one's faith is a requisite of salvation, and that one's works are insufficient to gain or lose salvation. Consequently, Catholic charitable efforts in India have been extensive. In Portuguese India, for instance, Saint Francis Xavier and his fellow missionaries were especially careful to help the local charitable institutions by tending to the sick, both spiritually and physically, and performing other works of mercy. The Jesuits' educational institutions have left a prestigious impact through their education institutions. Education has become the major priority for the Church in India in recent years with nearly 60% of the Catholic schools situated in rural areas. Even in the early part of the 19th century, Catholic schools had emphasised relief for the poor and their welfare. In 2019, Father Vineeth George, a 38-year-old Catholic priest, was awarded as the 'Best Citizen of India'. The title is an acknowledgment of his work with the marginalized in the north of the country. Statistics Statistics for 2011 Bishops: 126 Diocesan priests: 9,322 Religious priests: 6,765 Religious brothers: 2,528 Religious Sisters: 50,112 Colleges and schools: 14,429 Training Institutes: 1,086 Hospitals and dispensaries: 1,826 Publications: 292 See also Bombay East Indian Catholics Catholic Church in Bhutan Catholic Church in Nepal Catholic Church in Tibet Catholic Church in Sri Lanka Goan Catholics Goan Catholics under the British Empire Latin Catholics of Malabar List of Catholic dioceses in India List of Catholic churches in India List of saints of India Reddy Catholics Bettiah Christians Mangalorean Christians Christianity in India References Literature External links GCatholic.org Catholic Encyclopedia article on India Catholic Bishop's Conference of India Syro-Malankara Church Syro Malankara Catholic Church International website Our Lady of Snow Kallikulam, Tamil Nadu, India Our Lady of Snows Church, Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu, India Catholic Church by country Catholicism in India 1st-century establishments in India
4588814	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20McClellan	Fort McClellan	Fort McClellan, originally Camp McClellan, is a decommissioned United States Army post located adjacent to the city of Anniston, Alabama. During World War II, it was one of the largest U.S. Army installations, training an estimated half-million troops. After the war it became the home of the Military Police Corps, the Chemical Corps and the Women's Army Corps. From 1975 and until it was closed in 1999, Fort McClellan was home of the Military Police Corps and the One Station Unit Training (OSUT) Military Police School. Also after World War II and until it was closed in 1999, it was home of the Chemical Corps School, which trained soldiers in chemical warfare. In 1988, Fort McClellan was used as an alternate training academy for the United States Border Patrol. Before its closure by the Base Realignment and Closure commission (BRAC), the post employed about 10,000 military personnel (half of whom were permanently assigned) and about 1,500 civilians. It underwent unexploded ordnance (UXO) clean up from 2003 to 2014. Since 2010, about 3,000 acres of the post's brownfield land have been redeveloped as a mixed-use community. Early history Located in the Choccolocco Foothills of the Appalachian Mountains, Woodstock, Alabama, was founded as a private industrial town by the Woodstock Iron Company in 1872. Woodstock was later renamed Anniston and was opened to the public in 1883; by 1890, it had a population of near 10,000 persons. While Fort McClellan was the first and only long-lived United States Army post near Anniston, a temporary facility named Camp Shipp existed there during 1898–1899. Camp Shipp – Spanish–American War The Spanish–American War ended in 1898, but with a final peace settlement still in the future, the U.S. Army had an immediate need for a facility to quarter a Military reserve force from Alabama should the hostilities start anew. Anniston was on a north–south railroad that continued to Mobile, Alabama, a major seaport for Cuba-bound departures, and successfully sought the reserve facility. Camp Shipp was established in August 1898 within the northwest city limits of Anniston; an artillery range was planned to be on the nearby Blue Mountain. By October, nearly 10,000 troops of the 3rd Alabama Volunteer Infantry were at Camp Shipp, but by the end of the year they began to rapidly move out. The camp never fully realized its intended purpose; it was used temporarily as a hospital for patients of the influenza epidemic sweeping Army posts, and then phased out in March 1899. The camp was named for Lt. William E. Shipp of the 10th Cavalry Regiment who was killed in action at Santiago, Cuba while leading a charge in the Battle of San Juan Hill. Camp McClellan – World War I In 1912, there was renewed interest in Anniston for having a nearby Army training facility. Alabama's Third District congressman Henry D. Clayton Jr. brought to the Department of War's attention to the potential of the Choccolocco Mountains for artillery training. Twenty-thousand National Guardsmen were sent to the area for maneuvers. Officials of the participating Army War College found the terrain highly suitable for artillery training, and advocated purchase of the land. On 17 March 1917, the Federal Government acquired of this land for . On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war on Germany and it has been suggested that without it "it’s likely that Fort McClellan as we remember it would never have been born". The Department of War formally established Camp McClellan on 18 July 1917, named in honor of Major General George B. McClellan, General-in-Chief of the Union Army, 1861–1862. Camp McClellan was one of 32 mobilization camps formed to quickly train men for World War I. Like the other National Guard mobilization facilities, Camp McClellan used hastily constructed wooden buildings for headquarters, mess halls, latrines, and showers, with rows of wooden-floored tents for housing the troops. There were 26 blocks of training areas composed of central buildings and tents, each designated for a particular function (infantry, artillery, ammunition, etc.). Overall, about 1,500 buildings were built, including a base hospital with 118 buildings. The Anniston city limit at that time was a circle 1.3 miles (2.1 kilometers) in diameter. The Camp McClellan reservation was approximately a square some 3.0 miles (4.8 kilometers) on each side, adjoining the northeast quarter arc of the city limits and extending northward along the Anniston to Jacksonville, Alabama, pike. The training blocks were in the northern part of the reservation. An existing Southern Railway line was close by the western boundary; a terminal facility called Remount Depot was built near the southwest corner of the reservation and, farther north, a spur into the camp was constructed. The first troops arrived in late August 1917; by October there were more than 27,000 men from units in New Jersey, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and the District of Columbia training at the camp under the 29th Infantry Division, commanded by Major General Charles G. Morton. Other troops included the 1st Separate Negro Company of Maryland, the 6th Division, the 157th Depot Brigade, the 11th and 12th Training Battalions, and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Development Regiments. Fort McClellan – permanent post Following the Armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918 and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles (18 June 1919) officially ending the war, most of the mobilization camps were closed. Nine facilities were placed on "caretaker status"; Camp McClellan was included, intended to be used for special training in the Army's 9th Corps Area. Congress and the public had little interest in maintaining these camps, much less in upgrading them as permanent facilities. In 1926, however, Congress approved funds for permanent facilities, and new buildings were started at Camp McClellan for the headquarters, officer quarters, barracks, and a central hospital. On 1 July 1929, by War Department order, the post was designated Fort McClellan and a permanent installation. This would be a post for one regiment of Infantry having 1,500 officers and men and a summer camp with a capacity for 6,400 civilian trainees. As the Great Depression started, unspent funds initially allocated for military construction were diverted into programs to stem the unemployment. Construction on the permanent facilities slowed, but in 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt allocated Works Progress Administration (WPA) funds for Fort McClellan. In the next three years, an estimated in WPA funds was used for constructing new roads, the Fort McClellan Army Airfield, and additional permanent buildings. Included was a radio facility with a high-power transmitter (call letters WUR) for Morse-code communications, Most of the buildings were Spanish Colonial Revival architecture in style. During the 1930s, the Army 22nd Infantry Regiment had the role of Post Garrison, responsible for training units of the Army's Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC), units within the Organized Reserve, and the annual encampment of the Alabama Army National Guard (the 32nd Infantry Division). In addition the Post Garrison maintained the headquarters for District "D" of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), handling 45 CCC camps in Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, and Tennessee. World War II As World War II approached, the facilities at Fort McClellan underwent considerable expansion. Although the central area of permanent buildings remained the headquarters, many new temporary wooden buildings were constructed and all of the buildings remaining from World War I were upgraded. In October 1940, the 27th Infantry Division of the New York National Guard was inducted into federal service and sent to Fort McClellan. New housing for trainees was not yet available; the majority of the men of the 27th lived in tents until leaving at the start of the war in December 1941, and were soon deployed throughout the Pacific Theater of Operations. Major expansion (1941–44) About $6.5 million in Federal Funding was made available for construction to accommodate quarters and other facilities for up to 50,000 military personnel at Fort McClellan. Overall improvements included 74 miles (118 km) of new roads, sewage facilities for 50,000 persons, a huge general hospital with 80 wooden buildings connected by 4.5 miles (7.2 km) of catwalks, 5 theaters plus an amphitheater seating 12,000 persons, 27 warehouses, and many ammunition–storage bunkers. Hundreds of five- and fifteen-man hutments, arranged in Company-level groups, were built for personnel being trained. Colonel John L. Jenkins was the Commanding Officer (1941–1944) during most of the construction period. The land area of Fort McClellan was also greatly expanded. Directly to the east, a mountainous peninsula connecting to the Talladega National Forest was acquired, allowing access to this Federal Area for training maneuvers. This increased the reservation to a total of 42,286 acres (169.1 km2). A few miles to the west, a 22,168-acre (86.7-km2) tract was purchased for $675,000 and used for artillery and heavy mortar ranges, tank firing, and bivouac areas. This is directly north of another Army facility, the Anniston Army Depot. The range was initially called Morrisville Maneuvering Area and later changed to Pelham Range, named for John Pelham, a hero in the Confederate cavalry during the American Civil War, who was raised in that area. At peak, there were officially 2,170 officers and 42,126 enlisted personnel at Fort McClellan. The station complement tripled in number; this complement included two detachments of the Women's Army Corps (WAC). In the war years, a total of nearly 500,000 men were trained at Fort McClellan. Basic and special training Replacing the 27th Division, in 1942, the Army began training new recruits and draftees at Fort McClellan under what was called the Branch Immaterial Training Center. Recruits received eight weeks of basic training, and were then sent elsewhere for combat training or specialized schools. In 1943, this became the Infantry Replacement Training Center (IRTC). Under IRTC, the basic training was increased to nine weeks and included situations corresponding to combat in European areas such as training within simulated urban areas, actions under live artillery fire, and crouching in foxholes with tanks moving overhead. In addition to the IRTC, there was training at Fort McClellan of special troops such the 92nd Infantry Division with African-American soldiers from all states. The 92nd Division trained during 1942–1943, then were deployed overseas to fight in Italian campaigns. Prisoner of war camp During the war, Fort McClellan became the temporary home for many captured enemy soldiers; a 3,000-capacity Prison Internment Camp for prisoners of war (POWs) was built in 1943. The camp also served to receive prisoners who would go on to three other POW camps in Alabama. At the end of the war in Europe, the camp at Fort McClellan held 2,546 men. A cemetery on the reservation marks 26 German and 3 Italian prisoners of war who died while in captivity. Post–World War II missions After the war ended with Germany and then Japan, the IRTC at Fort McClellan trained soldiers for occupation duty until November 1946, at which time the activity was redesignated a Recruit Training Center. The number of troops being trained dwindled rapidly, and the installation was placed on inactive status on 30 June 1947; only a small maintenance crew remained on the post. Under pressure from the Alabama Congressional Delegation, in early 1950, the Army began plans to again use the area for National Guard training. With the onset of the Korean War in June 1950, these plans were accelerated. Brigadier General Theodore R. Wessels was assigned as Commander (1950–1952) and in funds were allocated for facility restoration. In 1951, Fort McClellan was officially reactivated, with missions to have a National Guard Training Brigade and to operate the Chemical Corps replacement training center. Wessels is often called the "Father of the New Fort McClellan." Chemical Corps Funding was appropriated to build specialized facilities at Fort McClellan for what was initially called the Chemical Corps School (CCS). In 1952, the CCS began operations and facilities were completed in 1954. The CCS offered eight weeks of basic training followed by eight weeks devoted to chemical warfare training. In September 1953, Operation Top Hat was conducted at the CCS. Highly secret at the time, and very controversial when revealed, Top Hat used Chemical Corps personnel to test decontamination methods for biological and chemical weapons, including sulfur mustard and nerve agents. In 1962, the name of the CCS was changed to the U.S. Army Chemical Center and School. Also in 1962, the U.S. Army Combat Development Command Chemical Biological-Radiological Agency, moved to Fort McClellan. In 1973 both of these operations were relocated to Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland, aka Aberdeen Proving Ground. In 1979 the moves were reversed, with the U.S. Army Chemical School (ACS) relocating from Edgewood to Fort McClellan. After reorganizing, the ACS provided numerous courses for officers, non-commissioned officers, and initial-entry soldiers, ranging from general in nature to highly technical. Several allied countries sent their military to train at the School. Upon base closure in 1999 it was transferred to Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. In 2017–2018, H.R. 3666, The Fort McClellan Health Registry Act, was introduced to Congress, aiming to establish a registry of persons who were exposed to chemical agents during their military service at Fort McClellan. Military Police Corps The Military Police Corps is one of the youngest branches of the U.S. Army, being officially established in September 1941. A Military Police School, earlier operating at Fort Gordon, Georgia, was officially transferred to Fort McClellan on 11 July 1975. The Military Police School provided training programs in general policing activities, corrections and detention operations, police and criminal intelligence operations, combat support operations, and security. The School also operated the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute. The Military Police School was transferred to Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, in 1999. Women's Army Corps The Women's Army Corps (WAC) was the women's branch of the U.S. Army. In 1942 it was created as an auxiliary unit, the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) and converted to the WAC in 1943. The Women's Army Corps School was founded at Fort McClellan on 25 September 1952. About two years later, official ceremonies were conducted to establish the post as the first permanent home of the U.S. Women's Army Corps Center, the WACC. The WAC provided the receiving, processing, and training operations for all female officers and enlisted personnel entering the U.S. Army. Civilian summer training was also conducted at the WAC during the 1950s. Fort McClellan remained its home until the Corps was disestablished and its flag retired in 1978. Participating in the final ceremony was Major General Mary E. Clarke, the last director of the Women's Army Corps and soon appointed the Commanding General of Fort McClellan (1978–1980), the first female officer ever to command a major U.S. Army installation. Vietnam War training In 1966, to meet special infantry needs of the Vietnam War, an Advanced Individual Training Infantry Brigade was activated at Fort McClellan. The Fort was renamed the U.S. Army School/Training Center and Fort McClellan. During 1969, this Training Brigade, along with the Women's Army Corps Center and the Army Chemical School, made Fort McClellan the only U.S. Army installation in the United States with three major missions. After training more than 30,000 men forces in Vietnam were reduced, and the Training Infantry Brigade was deactivated in April 1970. US Border Patrol training The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 authorized the hiring of 500 additional United States Border Patrol Agents. The original Border Patrol academy was not able to accommodate such a large class size, so a satellite academy was built on Fort McClellan. The 226th class of Border Patrol basic training was the only class to utilize the satellite academy. Despite plans for additional basic training classes, the Border Patrol never returned and the idea was abandoned. Closing and present use During the last decades of the 20th century, Fort McClellan was 'home' for an average military population of about 10,000 people, including about 5,000 who were permanently assigned, and employed about 1,500 civilians. In 1995, the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission voted to permanently close Fort McClellan. No Troops were sent to this base after 1995 due to it being closed, except for basic training, the chemical school and the MP school. The official closing ceremony was held on 20 May 1999, at which Major General Ralph G. Wooten, Commanding General and Chemical School Commandant (1996–1999), conveyed thanks from the Department of the Army to Fort McClellan and the surrounding communities: At the time of closure, Fort McClellan was home to the U.S. Army Chemical School, the U.S. Army Military Police School, the Training Brigade, and the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute. The Chemical School, Military Police School, and the Training Brigade relocated to Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, integrating with their Engineer School to form the U.S. Army Maneuver Support Center of Excellence. The DoD Polygraph Institute relocated to Fort Jackson, South Carolina. Military and Governmental occupants A portion of Fort McClellan continues to be operated by the Alabama National Guard including the Fort McClellan Training Center for field training, as well the Alabama National Guard Officer Candidate School. AAFES still runs a post exchange. Fort McClellan is also home to the Center for Domestic Preparedness (CDP) of the Department of Homeland Security. The Noble Training Facility (NTF) was integrated into the CDP training center. McClellan community In early 1999, the local community leaders of Anniston and Calhoun County established the Fort McClellan Joint Powers Authority for the purpose of overseeing the redevelopment and reuse of Fort McClellan. On 30 April 2009, Alabama Governor Bob Riley signed into law Act # 2009-337 authorizing "the incorporation of development authorities for the purpose of developing real and personal property of closed military installations in Alabama." In March 2010, the McClellan Development Authority was officially certified as a non-profit public corporation charged with the future economic development of the former fort. In 2014, ordnance cleanup was completed after 11 years of environmental remediation. As of September 2015, more than 3,100 acres are back in use 3,000 are for sale, and a little more than 3,000 acres are set to go up for sale in the next three to five years. Carved from the developed portions of the original reservation, McClellan is a 10,000-acre (40.0-km2) master-planned, mixed-use community offering opportunities for residential, commercial, industrial, retail, education, research, and technology development. Since its opening, McClellan has become home to over 900 residents and a work place for more than 3,000 employees. Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge In 2003, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior, established the Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge on 9,016 acres (36.1 km2) in undeveloped land on the reservation of the former Fort McClellan. It takes its name from some of the last-remaining mountain longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests in the southeastern United States. As a relatively new wildlife refuge, Mountain Longleaf has not yet developed any sizable tourist facilities. A single information kiosk is located at the junction of Bain's Gap Road and Ridge Road South, near the center of the McClellan community. Additionally, part of the reserve is closed to the general public, pending environmental cleanup. Otherwise, there are limited opportunities for hiking, photography, and wildlife observation at the refuge. Work is underway to restore the environment from the ecological problems introduced by the long use of the area for Army field training. Public Health Issues Recently the Veterans Administration has established a page under the heading "Potential Exposure at Fort McClellan - Public Health" That page in part, states the following: "Some members of the U.S. Army Chemical Corp School, Army Combat Development Command Chemical/Biological/Radiological Agency, Army Military Police School and Women's Army Corps, among others, may have been exposed to one or more of several hazardous materials, likely at low levels, during their service at Fort McClellan". In 2016, a group of former service veterans from Fort McClellan compiled original environmental engineering sources papers that strongly indicates that the Fort was a former remote test location for the Chemical Weapons experiments program out of Edgewood, Maryland and the former Biowarfare Germ Program out of Fort Detrick, Maryland. The veterans are currently working towards obtaining a new GAO Office report on the spill sites at the base, to confirm whether or not it was a part of the infamous PROJECT 112 battery of military experiments that started up in the 1960s. Fort McClellan was also the site of open air burn pits that were used in staging the CBRNE tests around the base until 1975. Potential exposures could have included, but are not limited to, the following: Radioactive compounds (cesium-137 and cobalt-60) used in decontamination training activities in isolated locations on base; Chemical warfare agents (mustard gas and nerve agents) used in secret military experiments and CBRNE field tests on the troops without ever warning them; friable indoors asbestos pollution inside the barracks buildings which all required remedial cleanup actions; a (TCE) SuperFund contamination site at the Anniston Army Depot where commuter workforce veterans worked who were living at the barracks at Fort McClellan; and full-face exposures to CS Riot Control gas for military qualifying classes. There was also a regional-sized PCB contamination zone from 1950 to 1998 stemming from a Monsanto Factory in the neighboring town where Fort McClellan soldiers had to use public travel stations, and a retail district that soldiers used for their off-duty hours. There was also a total of three landfills which were found to be toxic and leaching which required remedial cleanup actions. Fort Detrick had also used the site for spraying germ warfare bacteria spores around the base without ever coordinating with other service units. The McClellan Vets group points to this Bacillus spraying as a direct match to the other CBRNE test sites that included PROJECT SHAD. To date, there are a total of ten significant environmental spill sites that have been identified by the medical patient group of the Fort McClellan service veterans. The veterans argue that the sciences for toxicity have changed over the years, and that multiple or mixtures or combinations of low-dose exposures are just as harmful to human health as short bursts of high-dose events.https://www.gao.gov/products/NSIAD-98-228 In 2008, the Environmental Protection Agency issued a final Pathways Report on the aroclor PCB contamination zone caused by a former Monsanto Factory, and the Fort McClellan Veterans are covered by the exposed population declarations in this report under the defined category of "Commercial Visitors". http://www.annistoncag.org/uploadedFiles/Final_Pathways_Analysis_Report%20%20Nov%2008(1).pdf To date, the Dept. of Veterans Affairs has refused to acknowledge or comply with this important toxic exposure declaration. The Dept. of Veterans Affairs has repeatedly refused to do any health studies whatsoever on the Fort McClellan service veterans, and then has tried to use the patient lockout as their reason to not acknowledge that the soldiers are actually a toxic exposure patient group. In 2015 it was discovered that the VA didn't even know how to conduct a national Cumulative Health Risk Assessment on the veterans, and were still holding onto the obsolete patient screening practices of "aggregate" or single-source toxic assessments. The service veterans contend that their illnesses are a medical match to the industry known health risks from each of the ten toxic spill sites that makes up their exposure profile. Clinical lab testing for the veterans is not a viable detection option because they have been away from the original toxic sources at Fort McClellan for a time that exceeds the active Half-Life period for all of the known toxic sources at the base. References External links Fort McClellan official website Commanders of Fort McClellan and individual buildings , , , , Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge Official US Army's Anniston Army Depot Website McClellan Development Authority Closed installations of the United States Army McClellan Anniston, Alabama Buildings and structures in Calhoun County, Alabama History of Alabama Spanish–American War World War I sites in the United States World War II sites in the United States Historic American Buildings Survey in Alabama Towns in Alabama Ghost towns in North America
4589986	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doratodon	Doratodon	Doratodon is an extinct genus of Late Cretaceous crocodylomorph that may have been a member of the Sebecosuchia. Doratodon was a relatively small animal with ziphodont teeth, meaning the teeth had flattened sides and serrated edges. Two species of Doratodon are known to science: D. carcharidens from Austria (Grünbach Formation) and Hungary (Csehbánya Formation), the type species; and D. ibericus from Spain (Sierra Perenchiza Formation). Teeth similar to those of Doratodon are also known from Italy and Romania, though they cannot be confidently assigned to this genus. Due to its relationship with crocodylomorphs native to Gondwana, Doratodon is considered to be an important indicator for the repeated faunal interchange between Europe and Africa during the Cretaceous. It was a cosmopolitan genus widespread throughout the islands that formed Europe during its time. History and naming The first remains of Doratodon were discovered by geologist Eduard Suess in a coal mine in Muthmannsdorf near Wiener Neustadt, Austria in 1859. Excavations at the site, now known as the Grünbach Formation (a part of the more extensive Gosau Group), yielded a variety of crocodylomorph remains including the holotype mandible PIUW 2349/57 and various other cranial remains. The mandible was described by Emanuel Bunzel as Crocodilus carcharidens in 1871 while referring the additional material only to Crocodilus on a genus level. Harry Govier Seeley however cast doubt over Bunzel's designation in 1881, proposing that the material instead belonged to a dinosaur he called Doratodon, coining the genus name. Although the name was kept, later researchers including Franz Nopcsa and Charles Craig Mook would return to Bunzel's classification of the material as a type of crocodyliform. In 1979 the Austrian crocodyliform material was reviewed by French paleontologist Éric Buffetaut, who concluded that among the additional material, a maxilla, parietal bone and some isolated teeth could all be assigned to Doratodon. However some of the reasoning is not elaborated on by Buffetaut. Between its discovery and today, Doratodon has changed classification several times, at times considered to be a dinosaur, a goniopholid neosuchian, a hsisosuchid and recently most often as a sebecosuchian. Additional material in the form of an incomplete lower jaw was later discovered in the Sierra Perenchiza Formation of Valencia, Spain. The specimen, MGUV 3201, displays the same ziphodont dentition as the type species and was named as a new species of Doratodon, D. ibericus, by Company et al. in 2005. In 2015 Márton Rabi and Nóra Sebők report the discovery of various isolated Doratodon remains from the Santonian Csehbánya Formation of Hungary, making these the oldest confirmed remains of this taxon currently known. The Hungarian material consists of a premaxilla, a maxilla, isolated teeth and two fragments of the lower jaw. Less complete remains sometimes assigned to Doratodon are known from Romania's Hateg Island and Italy's Polazzo fossil site, dating to the Maastrichtian and Coniacian-Santonian respectively. However, in both instances these remains consist of isolated teeth only, with the referral to Doratodon being solely based on its status as the only named truly ziphodont crocodyliform of Cretaceous Europe (although Ogresuchus is also a sebecosuchian from Cretaceous Europe, it lacked serrated teeth). Due to this, Dalla Vecchia and Andrea Cau argue that such isolated remains can only be referred to indetermined Notosuchians. D. carcharidens was named for its triangular, serrated teeth which resemble those of sharks ("carcharias" in Ancient Greek) while the species name of D. ibericus is derived from the Iberian peninsula. Description Doratodon was a small-bodied ziphosuchian with a narrow but deep skull, with much of that depth being formed by the maxillae. Among its defining features is the presence of an antorbital fenestra between the nares and the eye sockets. The premaxilla also shows that the snout was rather tall, as expected from a sebecosuchian, and the nares were located towards the rostrum's tip, positioned in a way that causes them to open primarily dorsolaterally (upward and to the sides) and slightly towards the front. At least four teeth were present in the premaxilla of Doratodon, the first facing somewhat forward and separated from the following three by a diastema, a brief toothless area. The largest of the premaxillary teeth appears to be the 4th. The premaxillary toothrow is not entirely straight and shows a gentle curvature. Based on known remains the maxillary toothrow is thought to have been straight, without the undulating curves seen in many modern crocodiles. However, since most maxillary fossils are believed to be located further towards the back of the skull, it is possible that the front, closer to the premaxilla, could have had more defined curves. Most of the material known from Doratodon represents the lower jaw. When viewing this part of the skull of D. ibericus from the side, two clearly defined waves can be seen, the first more abrupt raise reaches its apex at the 4th dentary tooth while the second raise peaks with the 10th before more gently transitioning into the surangular bone. This wave-like toothrow is however less pronounced in D. carcharidens and limited to a single raise. The external opening of the mandibular fenestra is closed, which is also seen in Wanosuchus but not in other ziphosuchians. Both sides of the lower jaw features pits on the inner side of the mandibular teeth that received the larger teeth of the upper jaw. Overall Doratodon only possessed a small number of teeth, 11 in D. ibericus and up to 13 in D. carcharidens. However, both Buffetaut as well as Rabi and Sebök argue for a higher tooth count in D. carcharidens, possibly up to 20 teeth on either side of the lower jaw. The two species of Doratodon can generally be differentiated by the size variation found among the teeth of the lower jaw. In the type species, D. carcharidens, the teeth show very little variation in size, with the dental alveoli generally ranging between in length with the 4th tooth being the largest (though not hypertrophied as in Baurusuchus). The difference in tooth size in D. ibericus is more developed and noticeable. In this species the 4th tooth of the lower jaw is also enlarged, with the subsequent teeth initially decreasing in size noticeably before increasing again from the 8th tooth onward, culminating in the 10th dentary tooth, the largest of the lower jaw. While the Austrian fossil likely stems from an adult based on the heavily ornamented bone surface, it has been suggested that the curvature of the tooth row may vary between animals of different ages instead of representing a difference between species. Regardless, another way to tell the two species apart is by the number diastemas. In D. carcharidens, only a single diastema is present, located between the 2nd and 3rd tooth of the lower jaw. D. ibericus on the other hand possesses an additional diastema right behind the 7th tooth. The teeth of Doratodon are ziphodont, which means they are compressed along their sides and lined by a serrated ridge created by a series of small denticles, clearly differentiating their teeth from the smooth, conical teeth of modern crocodilians. The shape of the individual teeth, although consistently ziphodont, can be separated into 4 morphotypes with subtle differences. The first type is relatively weakly compressed, almost conical and slender with a noticeable curve of the crown. The second morphotype, to which one of the largest teeth belongs to, is overall similar in shape to the first morphotype. It is however more strongly compressed, not as slender (twice as long as wide at the base) and with a less developed curvature. There are fossils assigned to these two morphotypes that show varying degrees of serrations, with some having reduced denticles towards the tip or along the front-edge of the tooth. This however may not be an inherent trait and could instead represent the teeth being worn down, as some instances still show the faint remains of the serration. The third tooth type takes on the form of an isosceles triangle, curving barely and being even more compressed than the second morphotype. Some of these teeth are three times longer at their base than they are wide. The fourth and final morphotype is the most extreme in this regard, showing the greatest compression but also being the lowest of the toothrow. Based on the overall form of these teeth and the shape of the tooth sockets, it is thought that they transition into one another along the toothrow, with the more conical teeth at the front and the most compressed teeth being placed at the back of the jaw. While the absence of postcranial remains makes it difficult to estimate the size of Doratodon, it is thought to have been a rather small animal. Between the two species, D. ibericus appears to have been larger, with the dentary bone being estimated to have reached a length of up to if complete. This is notably larger than the dentary of D. carcharidens, which measures only . Overall, the Spanish species also appears to have been proportionally more robust. Phylogeny Besides Seeley, who considered Doratodon a type of dinosaur, most researchers agree that the animal represents a type of crocodyliform. Nopcsa was the first to draw parallels between Doratodon and notosuchians, suggesting that it might have had affinities with Notosuchus. This interpretation was mostly dismissed during the early to mid 20th century in favor of Mook's suggestion that it was a goniopholid, a type of neosuchian that more closely resembles modern crocodiles. In 1968 similarities to notosuchians were once again recognized, this time by Othmar Kühn who noted that the teeth resembled those of sebecosuchians. Yet another hypothesis was suggested by Éric Buffetaut, who considered Doratodon to be related to the Asian Hsisosuchus in 1979, this hypothesis was however refuted by Wu et al. (1994). Phylogenetic analysis conducted following the discovery of Doratodon ibericus confirmed the relationship between the genus and sebecosuchians. Company et al. (2005) for instance found Doratodon as the sistertaxon to Sebecosuchia as shown below. Increased understanding of Notosuchian diversity only served to solidify Doratodon'''s position in the group. Using both the holotype dentary and the Hungarian material, Rabi and Sebök recovered Doratodon as a basal member within Sebecosuchia itself, rather than a sister taxon to the group. While this tree is only poorly resolved, this is not the fault of Doratodon alone, as other wildcard taxa also add to the imprecise results. Regardless, this result is generally in line with what was previously recovered by Company et al. and marks a clear shift in classification between pre- and post-cladistic systematics. Still, Rabi and Sebök also consider the idea that Doratodon may have been more closely related to members of the Peirosauridae given the absence of sebecids in Cretaceous Africa, or to other crocodyliforms like the Planocraniidae given their geographic range and ziphodont dentition. The phylogenetic tree recovered by this study is shown below. Palaeobiology PalaeoecologyDoratodon is a cosmopolitan genus known from various European countries, which at the time would have been split into a series of islands and archipelagos separated by the Tethys Sea. Doratodon carcharidens has been found in the Campanian Grünbach Formation of Austria and the Santonian Csehbánya Formation of Hungary. Doratodon ibericus has only been found in the Sierra Perenchiza Formation in Spain, also dating to the Campanian. Its presence in Italy and on Romanias Hateg Island during the Coniacian to Maastrichtian is also possible, but not certain. It has been suggested that Doratodon, like other ziphodont Notosuchians, was a terrestrial animal, which makes it an outlier in the Cretaceous crocodyliform fauna of Europe which is otherwise primarily composed of neosuchians, which favor more aquatic lifestyles. Doratodon was a predatory animal, actively hunting the animals of its habitat, judging from the triangular, serrated teeth. The localities that preserve Doratodon are generally dominated by dinosaurs as the primary terrestrial fauna, especially rhabdodontids and the ankylosaur Struthiosaurus. Crocodylomorphs are also common, but primarily in the form of Neosuchians. For instance, Acynodon was found to inhabit Hateg and Spain while Iharkutosuchus was found in Hungary. Iberia was home to Musturzabalsuchus, Ischyrochampsa and Arenysuchus. Allodaposuchus was another example of a cosmopolitan crocodyliform with a wide distribution across the European archipelago, being found in Romania, Hungary, Spain and various countries that have not yet yielded Doratodon fossils. Both Hateg and the Csehbánya Formation additionally preserve remains of crocodylomorphs with heterodont and pseudo-ziphodont teeth distinct from Doratodon as well as the remains of the small terrestrial atoposaurids. Paleobiogeography The classification of Doratodon as a sebecosuchian or at the very least some type of crocodyliform with Gondwanan relations is an important aspect in determining the paleobiogeography of Cretaceous Europe and Africa. Notosuchians are a traditionally Gondwanan group, primarily found in the Cretaceous of South America and Africa. While some groups such as peirosaurids, uruguaysuchids and mahajangasuchids were found around the Mediterranean, sebecosuchians were incredibly rare in this region until the onset of the Cenozoic, when Eremosuchus lived in Algeria while Bergisuchus and Iberosuchus appeared in Europe. The one exception in addition to Doratodon is Ogresuchus from the Tremp Formation of Spain. This already suggests that sebecosuchians must have been much more widespread than currently known, especially given the fact that phylogenetic analysis failed to find any close relationship between Doratodon and the other European sebecosuchians. Two major models have been proposed to explain the fauna native to the European archipelago and northern Africa during this time. According to the Eurogondwana model, Europe remained connected to Gondwana in some capacity until the Hauterivian, after the fauna of Asia and America had already been isolated from the other continents. The model further proposes that what followed was a period of isolation for Europe until making contact with Asiamerica during the Barremian to Campanian, allowing for a faunal interchange between the two regions. The Antlantogea model meanwhile suggests that during the Campanian to Maastrichtian Europe once again connected to Africa, by that point split from the rest of Gondwana, allowing for fauna to move between the continents until the Eocene. The discovery of Doratodon remains from the Santonian of Hungary indicates that the connection proposed by the Atlantogea model must have begun at the latest during this time period, pushing the onset of the faunal interchange back by several million years. Further support for this is offered by other vertebrate remains at the locality, which includes Gondwanan groups like bothremydid turtles and abelisaurs. Discoveries from the Coniacian of Italy and the Cenomanian of France may push the faunal interchange back even further, as does the presence of carcharodontosaurs, spinosaurs and pholidosaurs from the Barremian to Aptian on both continents. In general, this clashes with the idea that Africa and Europe became fully isolated from one another after the Hautverian. Since truly ziphodont crocodyliforms are not known from Europe prior to the appearance of Doratodon, Rabi and Sebök suggest that it must have been a true Late Cretaceous immigrant, rather than the result of a lineage that had arrived in the European archipelago during the Early Cretaceous. Likewise, later European sebecids such as Bergisuchus and Iberosuchus likely arrived through separate events during the Paleogene, as they show no signs of being descendants of Doratodon and instead are considered to be much more derived members of Sebecosuchia. The same applies to Ogresuchus'', which nests deep within Sebecidae and is thought to have migrated to Europe independently during the Cretaceous, although its precise relationships are also uncertain. References Late Cretaceous crocodylomorphs of Europe Prehistoric life of Europe Prehistoric pseudosuchian genera Fossils of Austria Fossil taxa described in 1881 Taxa named by Harry Seeley
4590232	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Family%20Matters%20characters	List of Family Matters characters	Family Matters is an American sitcom revolving around the Winslow family, a middle-class African-American family living in Chicago. The series ran for nine seasons (eight of which were broadcast on ABC, one on CBS) and is a spin-off of Perfect Strangers. The series features a total of 12 main characters, some of which have been portrayed by multiple actors. Casting Jo Marie Payton originally appeared on Perfect Strangers in 1987 in the recurring role of Harriette Winslow, the elevator operator for the Chicago Chronicle. Reginald VelJohnson later made one appearance on Perfect Strangers in the 1989 episode "Crimebusters" as Carl Winslow, policeman and husband of Harriette Winslow. Due to the large popularity of Payton's character with audiences, the character was spun off to its own show, Family Matters. While Payton, VelJohnson, and Telma Hopkins (as Harriette's widowed sister Rachel) were initially the stars of the show, centered around the Winslow family, Jaleel White was introduced as nerdy neighbor, Steve Urkel, during the middle of the first season in the episode "Laura's First Date." Urkel, the lovesick pursuer of Laura Winslow (portrayed by Kellie Shanygne Williams), quickly became a popular breakout character with audiences. Shortly after the introduction of White as Steve Urkel, Shawn Harrison was cast in the role of Waldo Faldo, initially as the sidekick to a bully portrayed by Larenz Tate who terrorized everyone, and Urkel. When Tate and Harrison were offered the chance to return to the show on a recurring basis, only Harrison took up the offer. As a result, his character was rewritten to be the best friend of Eddie Winslow (portrayed by Darius McCrary). Harrison eventually joined the main cast in the 1992–1993 season. Soon after, Michelle Thomas was cast in the role of Myra Monkhouse, love interest and later girlfriend of Steve Urkel. Thomas was initially only scheduled to appear occasionally, but became a permanent member of the main cast in the 1994-1995 season. In the 1996–1997 season, Orlando Brown was added to the cast as Jerry Jamal "3J" Jameson, a troubled youth mentored by Urkel, who later becomes the foster child of the Winslows. Main characters The series featured 12 main characters, whose actors appeared during the opening credits. Carl Winslow Played by Reginald VelJohnson. Carlton "Carl" Otis Winslow, who originally appeared in the Perfect Strangers episode "Crimebusters" alongside his wife Harriette, is the son of Estelle Winslow and the late Samuel, brother-in-law of Rachel Crawford, father of Eddie, Laura, and Judy Winslow, uncle of Richie Crawford and adoptive father of "3J" Jameson. He is a short-tempered, miserly man, but still has a kind and humble nature. He mentioned in the season one episode "The Mama Who Came to Dinner" as having three brothers: Frank (who later appeared in the season 8 episode, "The Brother Who Came to Dinner"), Walter and Calvin; and in another episode from that same season, "The Party", a brother named Darryl. His initials spell "COW" and he is often teased because of this. He holds his position as "King of the Castle" (a self-proclaimed "Big Kahuna") very seriously; however, he is easy to admit defeat to Harriette when involved in typical marital disputes. Carl is constantly annoyed, irritated, and bothered by his pesky neighbor, Steve Urkel, who has great respect for Carl and affectionately calls him "Big Guy". Although Steve is relentlessly annoying and has cost the Winslow family large amounts of time and money from his own clumsy demeanor, he has shown he's more mature than Eddie is in accepting responsibility. Carl is often there to back Steve up and help him out in times of distress. Although he continues to be exasperated and irritated by his antics, over the progression of the show, Carl develops a fondness for Steve that surprises even himself. Carl is an officer for the Chicago Police Department. He takes his job seriously and it is often suggested that he is very good at what he does, despite working with several incompetent bosses. In the episode, "Good Cop, Bad Cop", it was revealed that Carl's own experience of being racially discriminated due to him being an African American descent was what motivated him to become a police officer to make differences in his community. He inevitably makes enemies in criminals in the city, but most are incompetent and always fail in their revenge against him. Fitting into the cop stereotype, he has an avid love for doughnuts and other junk food. This plays into the fact that he is overweight and in several stories throughout the series, Carl's physical health plays a role (in the season 4 episode "Driving Carl Crazy", he is revealed to have high blood pressure, which got dangerous because he tried to dodge dieting). Despite the stress of his job, he neither abuses alcohol or tobacco to cope with them; he rather depends on his family for comfort and support. Carl starts the series as a police sergeant; he is later promoted to lieutenant in season 5's "That's What Friends Are For," and eventually captain in season 9's "Who's Afraid of the Big Black Book?". Carl is also the only character to appear in every single episode of the series. Harriette Winslow Played by Jo Marie Payton (1989–1997), and Judyann Elder (1998). Harriette Baines Winslow is Carl's wife, Rachel's big sister, biological mother of Eddie, Laura and Judy, aunt of Richie, adoptive mother of 3J and daughter of Jimmy and Darlene Baines. Harriette is a very conservative and strong-willed woman. She holds her role in society as a mother and working woman with high regard. Harriette is very reluctant to tell people what they want to hear, as she is very frank and upfront about her feelings. She first appeared in Perfect Strangers as an "elevator operator" for the Chicago Chronicle, before being laid off and later rehired as Director of Security in the season one episode "Two-Income Family" and then fired from the Chronicle in the season five episode "A Matter of Principle" for refusing to reduce her security staff during a budget crisis. She was later employed by Ferguson's Department Store, beginning with the season six episode "The Looney Bin," initially as a service clerk, then later promoted to Head of Sales in the season nine episode "Out With the Old". Previously, Harriette was enrolled to the police academy to become a police officer, where she met Carl, and graduated. However, Harriette didn't join the police force after she and Carl got married, instead uses her police skills on her security job and neighborhood watch. As the voice of reason, she is quite competent at mediating conflicts in her family, often pointing out faults to everyone, but this also makes her very reluctant to take sides. For example, she is usually supportive of her husband, Carl, but during his feuds with another character, she rarely takes his side. Instead, she would criticize both him and the other person, hoping to reconcile them with each other. This especially makes it difficult for Carl to discipline their rebellious son, Eddie, who rarely learned from his mistakes. Conversely, she is especially strict towards her daughter, Laura, despite being far more responsible, obedient and trustworthy. Sometimes Harriette would go as far as turning against her own husband. She is fully aware that Carl is constantly harassed by their neighbor, Steve Urkel, but flat out sides with the nerd instead, due to his fragile feelings thereby winning her sympathy and their shared belief that Carl's agony is due to his own impatient attitude. Nonetheless, all of her reasoning, however self-righteous, is motivated by her love for her family and her hopes that all sides can reconcile with each other. Only on one occasion was she forced to side exclusively with Carl which was during his feud with their second neighbor, Nick Neidermeyer, because her first attempt to reprimand both of them failed, with Neidermeyer still unrepentant and mocking Carl's obedience to his wife. Eddie Winslow Played by Darius McCrary. Edward James Arthur Winslow is a casual NBA, NFL fan and jock. He is the oldest child of Carl and Harriette Winslow and their only son until they adopt 3J in season eight. During the early years of the series, he was a high school student with stereotypical traits of a high school slacker. He had mediocre grades, irresponsible behavior and was always pursuing beautiful girls. In the first season, he appeared good-intentioned and responsible, despite being academically challenged. In the pilot episode, he approached his father to make an exception and let him stay out past curfew and confessed to his father that his straight-A report card was a classmate's prank once he found out. As the series progressed, Eddie gradually became more rebellious, making many poor choices that landed him in trouble. Eddie frequently had a stormy relationship with his father, especially concerning Carl's strict rules but also because of Eddie's immature attitude and penchant for breaking rules. Being a rebel and hedonist, his viewpoint of adulthood is very childish, believing that all adults are free from rules, authority and punishment. He despises being treated like a kid and demands to be treated like an adult but at the same time, he scarcely acts like an adult and fiercely avoids adult responsibilities as often as possible. It was shown a few times that Eddie was prone to gambling, getting into trouble but refusing to go to Carl for help, getting him into more trouble than not, such as dealing with a pool hustler in season 2's "Fast Eddie Winslow". When getting into trouble or debt, Eddie would often try to solve the problem himself, refusing to confess to his father at the risk of being punished, which would likely land him into trouble with his father anyway. Once, after damaging the family car in the Season 2 episode, "Busted", he was caught illegally gambling at an underground casino, hoping to win money and pay for repairs without telling his parents. In the season 3 episode, "Jailhouse Blues", after getting caught joyriding in a stolen car with his delinquent cousin, he attempted to sweet talk himself out of punishment, which only got him punished for the remainder of the year. In the season five episode "Money Out the Window", after getting into gambling debt once again, he attempts to sell Carl's rare stamp, hoping to buy it back before being caught by his father. Once more, after getting scammed in season 7 episode "Scammed", he lied to his father to borrow money to pay an illegally overpriced bar tab. However, on a few occasions, he has shown he was willing to go to his father for help, such as when he was sold a stolen stereo system in season 4's "Hot Stuff" and got racially profiled by two white cops (an unapologetic racist senior officer and his obedient rookie partner) when cited for a traffic violation that he did not commit in season 5's "Good Cop, Bad Cop". Eddie, like his father and sister, is often constantly irritated, annoyed and harassed by their neighbor, Steve Urkel. During the first two seasons, he was friends with classmate Rodney Beckett. From the third season onwards, Eddie's best friends were Waldo Faldo and Steve Urkel. He also on occasion, would hang out with "Weasel". Initially, his relationship with Steve – who considered Eddie his "best bud" and often affectionately called him "Eddo" – was little more than out of pity (because Steve was an unpopular nerd). Eddie remained loyal to Steve and he eventually accepted him as a true friend. Eddie has dated a very large number of girls throughout the series, sometimes more than one at the same time, with very few of them reappearing as his girlfriend. Even Steve has remembered the names of many of Eddie's girlfriends but cannot keep track of which one Eddie currently dates. When he met one and attempted to guess her name, Steve foolishly blurted out many names, likely the names of Eddie's past girlfriends, which leads to Eddie chasing after the nerd. When Steve tried to invite Eddie's friends to his birthday party, he was tricked by Laura to call numbers from Eddie's "little black book", resulting in the entire family room flooded with attractive women, much to Eddie's ironic horror. However, Eddie has shown that he is not beyond desiring true love and pursuing an honest and serious relationship. His most enduring, successful, and ultimately final relationship is with Greta McClure. His relationship with Greta developed throughout the series and faced many obstacles, most notably in the forms of Myrtle Urkel and Greta's father Dave McClure (owner of Eddie's employer Mighty Weenie). Eddie has two main adversaries on the show. The first was Myrtle Urkel, the cousin of Steve Urkel and a rich Southern belle whose infatuation with Eddie mirrored Steve's infatuation to Laura. However, unlike Steve, Myrtle never respected Eddie's personal space and kept pursuing him much to his extreme terror. She waited until season seven (beginning with the episode "She's Back") to try and win his love, but he was dating Greta at the time. Unlike Laura's would-be boyfriends when it came to Steve, Greta was more successful in warding Myrtle off. Undaunted, Myrtle made her last push to win Eddie's heart by getting a makeover but he was still not impressed. She soon relinquished her love for him in season nine's "Don't Make Me Over," and set her sights on other guys. Eddie's second main adversary was his former boss, Dave McClure, who did not approve of Eddie dating his daughter and tried to keep them apart in three episodes (including "My Bodyguard" and "Walking My Baby Back Home" in season seven). As of the series finale, Eddie and Greta are still dating and are living together in an apartment, in spite of Mr. McClure having disowned her. Eddie has shown to have matured and become more responsible and hardworking throughout the series. Though he started as a mediocre student, he got accepted into college. He worked at a Mighty Weenie restaurant and became its manager. When his academic challenges restarted in college, Eddie switched his focus to become a police officer like his father. Eddie enrolled at the police academy in the season 9 episode "Breaking Up Is Hard to Do," eventually getting hired by the Chicago Police Department as a rookie officer at the end of the series in "Lost in Space (Part 1)". Laura Lee Winslow Played by Kellie Shanygne Williams. Laura Lee Winslow (nee "Felicia") is the oldest daughter of Harriette and Carl Winslow, the object of Steve Urkel's affections, and an aspiring attorney. In school, Laura was essentially the ideal girl; beautiful, popular and received very good grades. Unlike her brother, who was a slacker and more into sports, Laura was very independent and focused with her education and was even distraught when her straight-A streak was broken by a mere B+. She often tried to do everything to succeed by herself, which was not always the right choice. She tried to start a babysitting business when she was a child, sneaked out of the house to burn herself out studying for a test despite her parents' insistence to rest and worked a graveyard shift to save money to buy a car. She eventually got accepted to Harvard University in season seven's "Twinkle Toes Faldo," but decided to decline the offer because her parents could not afford the tuition, though she told them it was because she could not live so far from home. Laura, along with her father and brother & Aunt is also often bothered by their annoying neighbor, Steve Urkel. Laura began as quite vain, often in pursuit of popular good-looking boys, being dismissive towards Steve and showing little respect for her academically challenged older brother. She was not always a good judge of character, as a majority of her would-be boyfriends were antagonists in their appearances. She had many boyfriends who would bully Steve and who would cheat on her but would ultimately end with Steve warding them off. Laura generally had little patience for Steve's antics but her seeming dislike of him only seemed to egg him on further. She eventually grew wiser and demonstrated better judgement. She has shown appreciation to Steve when he selflessly helped her and the Winslows out when they needed him. Laura eventually learned to love Steve. They became a couple in the final (ninth) season episode "Crazy for You” and were engaged to be married in the third-to-last episode, "Pop Goes the Question". Judy Winslow Played by Valerie Jones (pilot only), and Jaimee Foxworth (1989–1993). Judith "Judy" Winslow is the younger daughter and youngest biological child, of Carl and Harriette Winslow. Her middle name is unknown (Laura's middle name is Lee and Eddie's middle names are James and Arthur). She is nine years old as the series begins and remains in the series until she is thirteen. It is suggested that she enjoys a close relationship with her sister Laura. She attends elementary school, and later attends middle school for sixth grade. Following the fourth-season episode "Mama's Wedding", the character disappears from the series altogether, with no explanation given. Series co-creator and executive producer William Bickley said she was cut due to a "budget consideration". She can be seen in archive footage on season 6 episode “ What’s Up Doc ?” Estelle Winslow / Thomas Played by Rosetta LeNoire (1989–1995, 1996, 1997). Estelle Winslow is the mother of Carl Winslow and his four brothers, Harriette's mother-in-law and grandmother of Eddie, Laura and Judy Winslow. Estelle is a very wise woman and always very defensive of her grandchildren. Estelle moves into her son's household at the start of the series. She (unlike all of the other Winslows) was a friend of Steve Urkel for the entire series and loved him like a grandson. She loved when Steve came to the Winslow house and instead of trying to make him leave, she wanted him to stay. Steve always affectionately called her "Estelle, my Belle," which she loved. Estelle is street-wise and keeps up to date with the latest pop culture and trends, much to the surprise of her family. In later seasons (beginning with season two's "Requiem for an Urkel"), she begins a relationship with Fletcher Thomas, which Carl disapproves of initially before eventually accepting the relationship. The two later got married at the Winslow home in season four's "Mama's Wedding". Estelle would often say her catchphrase "way to go, Carl," usually to Carl when he did something wrong. Steve Urkel Played by Jaleel White. Steven "Steve" Quincy Urkel is the Winslows' extremely annoying, boisterous, clumsy neighbor. As the quintessential nerd, he has large, thick eyeglasses, "high-water" pants held up by suspenders, a high-pitch nasal-tone voice and a snorting laugh. He first appeared in the season one episode "Laura's First Date" and was also known for his massive crush on Laura Winslow, whose affections he was constantly attempting to win. He became known for his signature "Urkel Dance", a novelty dance that he frequently performed. While highly intelligent, he is also quite accident-prone (spawning his catchphrase, "Did I do that?") and socially awkward. As a nerd, he gradually grows to become an inventor, and soon, his ill-conceived inventions form a large bulk of the accidents which he does to the Winslow house, causing Carl to yell at him. He has also created numerous inventions that were otherwise considered impossible, such as a machine which turned him into his suave alter-ego, Stefan Urquelle, as well as alter his personality into other celebrities whose DNA he inexplicably collected, such as the crime-fighting Bruce Lee Urkel. Steve is generally portrayed as odd and dorky but kindhearted and good-natured character. However, he tends to be socially tone-deaf and other people, especially the Winslows, find him annoying. Steve's saving grace is that he is a genuinely good person who cares about others (often putting their needs and wants ahead of his own) and over time others come to genuinely like him and treat him with more respect, even as he remains a walking sight gag and prone to random disasters. While some of the main characters are more welcoming towards him, it is Carl, Eddie and Laura, who are the most tormented by his shenanigans, because they are the ones he most wants to be closest to and be himself around, resulting in extremely little formality and respect. And while he has a kind heart, he often doesn't care how he affects others with his behavior (in a way, Urkel was a forerunner of the Sheldon Cooper character on The Big Bang Theory, who was also a genius and rarely noticed/cared about the way he made other people feel). Among Steve's most antagonistic tendencies are his refusal to accept responsibility, his manipulation of others, his delusions, and his persistence. He is extremely adept at pulling the strings of sympathetic people, particularly the Winslows, to feel sorry for him and forgive him, or more precisely, apologize for hurting his feelings and take blame for him. This allows him to end numerous episodes dismissing his mistakes and all criticism, and preserving his delusion of innocence. And while oftentimes fully aware of how much grief he causes the Winslows, and how much he damages their home, his immediate response is always to keep doing whatever he is doing, until they give up ordering him to stop. This effectively makes Steve Urkel the most remorseless main character in the series. He has even admitted at least thrice that he's fully aware of how much he burdens them, but doesn't want to change anything because he's comfortable with the way things are. While Steve is mostly known for having a strong sense of integrity and general responsibility (succeeding at school, refusal to cheat, obeying the law), his social lifestyle remained largely uncompromising, incapable of accepting No for an answer, and undisciplined, completely unfamiliar with consequences for his actions. A likely reason for rarely being punished is that his parents and larger family were unsupportive and cold towards him, often leaving him to fend for himself and seek his family needs elsewhere. His attachment to the Winslow family makes sense in this context. By the end of the series, Steve has made it plain that he considers Carl Winslow to be his "real father" and that he doesn't care if his actual family is a factor in his life anymore. Despite how blessed he is for being tolerated by the Winslows, he quickly became extremely spoiled around them. He enters their home and eats their food without any permission, frequently disobeys their orders, stalks their daughter, and admits to using electronic devices to spy on the whole family. Overall, Steve Urkel treats the Winslows absolutely however he wants, knowing that no matter how much they protest and resist, they always eventually give up, as long as he persists and fights back. However, Urkel finds himself more considerate of other people after enduring being stalked by Myra and finding out what it's like being unwillingly pursued, although he would still continue clinging to Laura, both to be with her as well as to escape from Myra. It is only after he lets go of Laura and accepts Myra, after much reluctance, that he no longer clings so much to others and his relationships finally become more stable. Rachel Crawford Played by Telma Hopkins (1989–1993; recurring, 1994–1995, 1997). Rachel Baines Crawford was Harriette's attractive and widowed younger sister. She moved in with the Winslows shortly after her husband, Robert, died. She is the mother of Richard "Richie" Crawford and the daughter of Jimmy Baines, who appeared in the season two episode "Finding the Words" to reconcile with her and Harriette, after he walked out on them when they were little. A budding singer, she is also a writer and an entrepreneur, opening Rachel's Place (a hangout for teenagers, much in the vein of Arnold's from Happy Days) in the season two episode "Rachel's Place," which replaced Leroy's, a similar hamburger joint that Urkel had accidentally burned down while working there. Rachel is seen throughout the first three seasons; & appears infrequently for a number of episodes in the fourth season due towards her getting her own sitcom after a year's absence (due to Telma Hopkins leaving the show full-time to star in the short-lived sitcom Getting By), she made occasional appearances during the sixth and ninth seasons. Rachel considered herself more beautiful than Harriette. Rachel's trademark during the early seasons were her hats. Her final appearance was in the Christmas-themed episode "Deck the Malls" from the ninth season. Richie Crawford Played by Joseph & Julius Wright (credited as Joseph Julius Wright) (1989–1990); and Bryton McClure (1990–1997). Richard "Richie" Crawford was the only son of Robert and Rachel Crawford; Robert dies before Richie was born, which in part prompts Rachel's move into the Winslow household. There, Carl effectively fills the "father" role left vacant by Robert's death. Richie is almost a year old in the show's first season and was age-advanced to 3-years-old in beginning with the season two premiere "Rachel's Place". He is a typical mischievous child and even idolizes Steve; in fact, due to the nerd's constant visits and unrelenting crush on Laura, Richie calls him "Uncle Steve". In later episodes, Richie becomes the friend to a young orphan named 3J (whom the Winslows eventually adopt). His final appearance in the series was in the Christmas-themed episode "Deck the Malls" from the ninth season. He was often paired with and had a sibling rivalry like relationship with Judy. Jerry Jamal Jameson Played by Orlando Brown (1996–1998). Jerry Jamal Jameson, referred to as 3J, is a young boy whom Carl and Harriette adopted in the season eight episode "3J in the House". He was introduced as Urkel's "Little Brother" (in the season seven episode "My Big Brother," which pays homage to the Big Brothers/Big Sisters of America program) and later becomes friends with Richie. His street-wise, smart-mouthed demeanor is a cover for his loneliness and desire to have a stable, permanent family; his birth mother had given him up for adoption shortly after he was born and frequently moved around. He was living with his aunt for a time until he was placed in a children's shelter, when she could no longer afford to keep him. The Winslows, seeing that he needed love, decide to adopt him. It is revealed in the episode "Whose Man is it Anyway?," that his mother is a waitress and Carl took him there (not realising the connection) for lunch and that one day she would like to reunite with him but until then, Carl promises to take care of him and would remain keeping in contact with her. Waldo Geraldo Faldo, Jr. Played by Shawn Harrison (1990–1996; 1997). For most of the time that Waldo was featured on the show, he was a friend of Eddie Winslow (the son of the show's main characters, Carl and Harriette Winslow) and the Winslows' quintessential nerdy neighbor, Steve Urkel. When he was introduced in the season two episode "Requiem for an Urkel," he started off as Willie Fuffner's friend but though he generally had no ill intent and was not quite the bully that Willie was, he still nonetheless ignorantly followed Willie's lead. The two got arrested for bringing alcohol to a party in "Life of the Party," and Waldo presumably ended their friendship afterwards out of guilt for nearly endangering Urkel. His character was rewritten as a good guy and to serve as a friend of Eddie's. Like Steve Urkel (the show's most famous character), Waldo was an outlandish, almost surrealistic person. While Steve was the resident nerd, Waldo was the resident idiot. Waldo eventually reached a point in his lack of intelligence to where he even manages to annoy Steve. In the season three episode "Food, Lies and Videotape," Waldo was discovered to be an excellent chef. It is later revealed that Waldo did not learn how to walk, until he was 10. He dated Laura's best friend Maxine for many seasons (beginning with the season four episode "Pulling Teeth") until breaking up with her in season eight's "Love Triangle" after he left for culinary school (In real life, Shawn Harrison said his contract expired). He is also mentioned to have a sister named Quesadilla. Waldo says when asked why his sister was given that name that it was because she was born at a Taco Bell and his parents weighed over naming her either Quesadilla or Burrito Grande ("And that's a stupid name!" as he quipped regarding the latter). His extended family includes cousins such as American Gladiator Sabre (who, as a favor to settle a dispute between Carl and Steve, got them to compete against each other on the show), a short-statured but good-natured cousin named Babalabadingdong (whom he'd set Laura up with on a blind date), one of the members of the R&B group Portrait (who'd made Waldo promise to not reveal that they were related when the group was performing at a school dance), his aunt Bababababara-Ann (Babalabadingdong's mother), His aunt Velveeta and her husband, Jalapeño and another uncle whose head is in a jar in a science lab at Harvard University. Waldo's most famous trait was his dimwittedness and his uncanny ability to misinterpret a simple question, comment or directive. His catchphrases include: "coo" (cool), "no prob, Bob!" and "sup". Waldo has also shown that he has a sense of morality in three key episodes. In season three's "A Test of Friendship," he comes to Steve's defense by calling Eddie out for wanting to cheat on their chemistry test and tells him that he should have known the consequences. In season seven's "Talk's Cheap," Waldo revealed he was the one who called a daytime talk show that Eddie, Steve, Myra, Laura, Myrtle and Stefan appear as guests on in that episode and brought everyone back to their senses with Stefan's help. In "Tips For A Better Life," he refused to let Eddie move into his house after he hurt his feelings by insulting him while he was drunk. Waldo mentions that anyone who drinks and insults friends is no friend of his, though in true Waldo fashion he was most angered that Eddie's drunken slam that Waldo would win the gold medal "at the Stupid Olympics" referred to an event that didn't exist. Before playing Waldo, Harrison previously appeared in Season 1's "The Party" as a guest at the titular party Eddie was trying to stop, credited as "Guy in Towel". Myra Monkhouse Played by Michelle Thomas (1993–1998). Myra Boutros Monkhouse was introduced midway through the fourth season in "A Thought in the Dark" as a possible girlfriend for Steve. She was the cousin of Laura's then-boyfriend, Ted Curran, who set up the date to get nerdy Steve out of his way. Myra was originally intended to be a one-time character (as Steve had been envisioned as when he was introduced in season one) but ultimately became a recurring character in the series. Although Ted was dropped from the show after the season four episode "Heart Strings" and ultimately never referred to again, Myra would become a regular character throughout the rest of the series starting in season six. Myra is an attractive girl who is attracted to nerdy boys and polka music. She has a very perky and persistent personality. In the season five episode "A Matter of Principle," Myra transferred to Vanderbilt High School to be closer to whom she affectionately calls her "Stevie-kins". Steve is also attracted to Myra but he never grew to love her over the course of the show. He only agrees to date her, on the condition that his friendship with Laura remain intact. This frequently causes Myra to feel in competition with Laura for Steve's affections; Laura would often try to correct the misunderstanding but Myra would only become more convinced that Laura was after Steve. However, since Laura does not really show any attraction for Steve, Myra is willing to accept a truce, although the Laura-Myra relationship remains testy and adversarial, even in the most banal, non-Urkel situations. After Steve decided to go steady with Myra in the season six episode "Paradise Bluff," Myra's character calmed and developed and she began to fit together more comfortably with the rest of the main characters. She became less persistent and less aggressive in clinging onto Steve, and Steve became more comfortable and welcoming with her. She became more friendly towards Laura and formed a trio of sorts with her and Steve (with herself in between, of course). She is also grouped together with Laura and Maxine. In the ninth season, Steve and Myra grow apart. In "Breaking Up Is Hard To Do" from that season, she hated his makeover (which he did in that season's premiere episode "Out with the Old," in an attempt to become less grating to other people) and demanded him to change back to the nerd she loved so much. When Steve refused, Myra broke up with him right away. However, it only turned out to be a ploy and she only pretended to break up with him in order to get him to renounce his love for Laura and stay with her. That failed and Steve decides to start a real relationship with Laura. However, Myra never fully accepted the idea of their relationship being officially over. From here, Myra's character regressed and devolved to an antagonistic role, competing with Laura for Steve's affections and pursuing Steve relentlessly, similarly to her early appearance. When Steve asks Laura on a date and Laura accepts in "Crazy for You," she grows furious at her loss. Myra pairs up with Stefan Urquelle (Jaleel White) and both set out to win them back. Although both were successful in stopping it in the following episode "Crazier For You," Stefan soon felt guilty of trying to break Steve and Laura up and decides to leave them alone. However, Myra continues to try multiple times, including spying on Steve, until he learned the truth and ordered her to renounce her love for him. She refused and he had Myra arrested by the end of that episode when he exposed her for stalking him with illegal spy gear in her room to the police. At the time of the show's series finale "Lost in Space," Steve and Laura were officially engaged to be married. When Myra learned about their engagement, she was furious and continued to carry the torch for him as he drifted off into outer space. It is unknown what happened to her after that. The actress who played Myra, Michelle Thomas, fell ill with cancer in August 1997, and died in December 1998. This limited her screentime as Myra in the final seasons of the show. Recurring actors Lt. Murtaugh (played by Barry Jenner; 1990–1992) Lieutenant Murtaugh is Carl's unreliable and obnoxious second boss at the Chicago Police Department. He has a crush on an unwilling Rachel and tries to date her in season two's "Skip to My Lieu". Murtaugh is seemingly tolerant of Steve Urkel when they bond over root beer floats about their love lives at the end of that episode, but later impudently takes Steve's money over a poker game in season three's "A Pair of Ladies". Capt. Marion Savage (played by Sherman Hemsley; 1994–1995) Introduced in season six's "Par For the Course," Captain Savage is Carl's loudmouthed third boss who is much more obnoxious than Murtaugh. As revealed in "Midterm Crisis," his fiancée Lois works as a stripper, although he is not too happy when Carl tells him about it as he already knew. Savage and Urkel are revealed to be members of the same cheese club. Commissioner Geiss (played by Dick O'Neill; 1996–1998) Carl's final boss, introduced in season seven's "Chick-a-Boom". Although somewhat gruff, he was far more tolerable and showed more patience, respect and faith in Carl than his previous bosses. He eventually promotes Carl to captain in season nine's "Who's Afraid of the Big Black Book?," when his son expresses that Carl deserves the position more. Jolene Santiago (played by Bridgid Coulter; 1990–1991) Eddie's first serious girlfriend, introduced in season two's "Rachel's Place". Greta McClure (played by Tammy Townsend; 1995–1998) Eddie's second serious and final girlfriend in the series, who first appears in the season six episode "My Bodyguard", and another one of Laura's friends. She has difficulty coping with her ill-tempered, tyrannical and unreasonable father, who does not approve of her relationship with Eddie. She and Myrtle Urkel became enemies immediately upon their first meeting in season seven's "She's Back," and several episodes that follow centered on their battle to win Eddie's love. However, Greta was more successful in warding Myrtle off than Laura's would be boyfriends are with Urkel. Townsend first appeared in the Season 3 episode "The Love God" as one of the girls in Steve's fantasy. Alex "Weasel" Park (played by Shavar Ross; 1992–1994) Another friend of Eddie and Waldo from high school, who was also a friend of one of Laura's ex-boyfriends, Ted Curran. "Weasel" was an obnoxious and highly irresponsible jerk, having persuaded Eddie to break curfew and to gamble on football games (in "Money Out the Window") without having enough money to pay the lost bet. His favorite past time is mooning Meter Maids which Carl finds extremely offensive to Law Enforcement Officers in general. Penny Peyser (played by Ebonie Smith; 1989–1990) Laura's best friend from season one, who like Rodney, had little patience for Urkel's antics. She also had a crush on Eddie. Maxine Johnson (played by Cherie Johnson; 1990–1998) Laura's best friend and Waldo's girlfriend until Waldo's departure from the series. Although Maxine is the series' longest recurring secondary character, she was never officially part of its main cast. Maxine has been attracted to many handsome boys and dated several boyfriends throughout the course of the series, both seen and unseen. However, Maxine's judge of character regarding boys is arguably as inept as Laura's, as she has similarly dated many selfish and unfaithful boyfriends, and even shared some of the same antagonistic suitors as Laura. Eventually, she would begin dating Waldo in season five and was surprised to establish a loving and enduring relationship with him. After Waldo's departure from the series, Maxine set her sights on other boys. Her feelings towards Urkel were much softer than that of Penny's and even Laura's own, mainly due to Maxine's and Steve's coming from neglectful families. Ted Curran (played by Patrick J. Dancy; 1992–1993) Laura's boyfriend and cousin of Myra Monkhouse. Although once antagonistic towards Urkel, and even to Laura, he was one of Laura's few consistent and level-headed boyfriends, even seeking forgiveness for betraying Laura's trust and reconciling with her. While his role in the series was brief, he played a critical role by being the one who introduced his cousin, Myra Monkhouse, to Urkel. While Myra became a permanent character soon afterwards, Ted was dropped after the season four episode "Heart Strings," after he and Laura argued and broke up offscreen. Curtis Williams (played by J. Lamont Pope; 1995–1997) Another one of Laura's boyfriends and a race car enthusiast. Steve did not like his profession and was against Laura being a passenger in his race car in season seven's "Hot Rods to Heck". Despite his first appearance in that episode depicting him as a more antagonistic character, he and Laura restarted their relationship stronger after the cloned Stefan's stay in Paris following the season eight premiere "Paris Vacation". After Stefan returned in "It Came Upon a Midnight Clear," Curtis and Laura broke up and he started dating Maxine several episodes later in "Love Triangle". Pope previously played Chain in Season 3's "Born to be Mild" and a hospital orderly in Season 4's "Number One with a Bullet". Cassie Lynn Nubbles (played by Kim Valentine; 1991–1992) A stereotypical arrogant and popular blonde student and Laura's rich and spoiled rival who tried to get everything she wanted, including using underhanded tactics to win the student council president election at Vanderbilt High in season three's "Woman of the People". When Cassie attempted to use unflattering photos to blackmail Laura in that episode, Urkel enlisted Eddie to shoot photos of the nerd kissing her to blackmail her back, forcing her to compete for the student president election fairly, which ended in Laura's victory. Principal Shimata (played by Clyde Kusatsu; 1990–1994) The principal of Vanderbilt High, Shimata is friendly towards Steve, but has been annoyed by him before. He and Steve often converse with each other in Japanese. It is inferred that he may have a crush on Ms. Steuben. Ms. Irene Steuben (played by Susan Krebs; 1990–1992) Steve and Laura's teacher at Vanderbilt High. Although she is a competent teacher to other students, she is very easily annoyed by Urkel and expresses many headaches around the nerd. Alfred Looney (played by Tom Poston; 1994–1995) Mr. Looney is a janitor at Vanderbilt High School, who is introduced in season six's "The Looney Bin". He insists that his last name is supposed to be pronounced "Lou-né" (stating "It's French" each time it comes up). He gets along well with Steve Urkel, who is the only character who actually called him "Lou-né", or simply Alfred. He enjoys singing, dancing, and theater, and has sung and danced a few times with Urkel for fun. He almost got married in "Wedding Bell Blues," but after he was left at the altar by his bride-to-be, he nearly committed suicide by jumping off a bell tower. Steve and Carl ultimately stopped him, risking their lives while trying to get him off the bell tower in the process, before Mr. Looney reunited with another old female friend. Nick Neidermeyer (played by Ron Orbach; 1995–1997) Harriette's former boss (and later, obnoxious neighbor in "Dream Date") who was an antagonist to both Carl and Harriette; he is introduced in season seven's "Bugged," when Harriet asks Carl to have him sit in with Carl's friends during a poker game. She immediately regretted it because of his obnoxious behavior, and when he revealed that he transferred to another department, thus having no authority to fire Harriet, she and Carl happily threw him out. In season eight's "Revenge of the Nerd," Carl tries to become friends with him, after realizing how their feud has become a bad influence on 3J and Richie, and though Nick was still annoying, he eventually opened up to Carl about his failed marriage and his mistake of not building a beautiful family like Carl. Nick never reappeared afterwards, and it is unknown if he and Carl became friends, though it can be assumed that their feud is over. Nick and Steve Urkel never appeared in any scenes together. Fletcher Thomas (played by Arnold Johnson; 1990–1995), Whitman Mayo (1995), and Edmund Cambridge in 1995) Estelle "Mother" Winslow's lover, whom she marries in season four (and was introduced in the season two episode "Requiem for an Urkel"). Carl was initially cold to him and disliked his mother dating anyone due to his attachment to his late father, but eventually warmed up to him after learning to fix his behavior. Estelle and Fletcher get married in a wedding ceremony held at the Winslow's backyard in the episode "Mama's Wedding". Rodney Beckett (played by Randy Josselyn; 1989–1990) Eddie's best friend in high school (introduced in season one's "Straight A's"), who is depicted as a practical joker. Like Penny, he had no patience for Urkel's antics and did not care for him at all. The character last appears in the season two episode "Fast Eddie Winslow". K.C. (played by Venus DeMilo Thomas; 1993-1996) One of Laura's friends who hangs out with her and Maxine a lot. Vonda Mahoney (played by Danielle Nicolet; 1991–1992) Eddie's short-term girlfriend in season three. After Steve tutored her in a class she was failing at in the episode "The Love God," she gratefully offered herself to him sexually to which Steve declines. Worried that she may sell herself just to have guys date her, Steve teaches Vonda the dangers of making herself easy, and she learns to accept and respect herself more. Though she felt better about it, Eddie wanted to beat up Steve for interfering. Gwendolyn (played by Naya Rivera; 1992–1993) The daughter of the Winslows' next door neighbor, introduced in season four's "Just One Date," who has a crush on Richie. Little G (played by Gary LeRoi Gray; 1993–1995) Richie's best friend. Vice Principal Mallet (played by Fred Willard; 1994–1996) The vice principal of Vanderbilt High School. He does not like Steve because of his clumsiness and tried to keep him out of the school's public affairs. Zoohair Bhutto (played by Iqbal Theba; 1995–1997) Carl's poker friend. Willie Fuffner (played by Larenz Tate; 1990–1991) Vanderbilt High School's resident bully, to whom Waldo was formerly a friend and henchman. Though he likes bullying Steve, he was mainly antagonistic towards Laura for rejecting him for another boy and forced the guys to the dating sidelines. Steve stood up for her in the season two episode "Requiem for an Urkel," leading to a supervised boxing match between Steve and Willie. Willie and Waldo were also arrested in the episode "Life of the Party" later that season, for spiking Steve's punch with alcohol. Coach Westfield (played by Mike Genovese; 1991–1992) The second coach at Vanderbilt High School. Johnny Gill (1991–1996) Singer Johnny Gill appeared as himself in three episodes (season two's "I Should Have Done Something", season three's "Love and Kisses", and season eight's "Home Again" (to promote the reunion of New Edition)). Steve pays him a rare baseball card to serenade Laura in order to impress her in the latter episode. Science Teacher (played by Patrick Cronin; 1992–1994) The science teacher at Vanderbilt High School. Stefan Urquelle (played by Jaleel White; 1993–1998) Stefan Urquelle was Steve's suave and charming alter-ego, who was everything Laura desired in a boyfriend. First appearing in season five's "Dr. Urkel and Mr. Cool," Steve developed this personality as a way to get Laura to love him, but changed back at the end of the episode due to his self-centered personality. Steve soon improved his alter-ego's personality, and originally intended to become Stefan permanently, but found himself juggling between accepting his true self or receiving his long desired love from Laura. Though he learned to accept himself, he would still occasionally and temporarily turn into Stefan when needed. In the season seven episode "Send In the Clone," Steve created an identical clone of himself, whom he had enter into the transformation chamber to become a permanent Stefan. Myrtle Urkel (played by Jaleel White; 1990–1998) Myrtle Urkel was introduced in season two's "Cousin Urkel" as Steve's rich Southern belle cousin whose love for Eddie mirrors that of Steve's for Laura. However, unlike Steve, she never respected Eddie's personal space and kept forcing herself on him much to his extreme horror. Myrtle and Greta McClure became quick adversaries the moment they met in the episode "She's Back" from season seven. In season 9's "Don't Make Me Over", Myrtle gets a makeover with Laura and Maxine's help. However upon realizing that Eddie loves Greta, she relinquishes her love for him and decides to set her sights on other men. When Eddie tries to get her to stay regardless as his life would be boring without her mixing it up by reaffirming her love for him, Myrtle refuses and leaves. Notable guest stars Mason Adams Thom Adcox-Hernandez All-4-One Essence Atkins James Avery Robert Axelrod Shaun Baker Garcelle Beauvais James Belushi Lamont Bentley Earl Billings Earl Boen Johnny Brown Ron Canada T. K. Carter Ellen Albertini Dow Christopher B. Duncan Jason David Frank Missy Elliott Ken Foree Vivica A. Fox Johnny Gill Ron Glass Randee Heller Robert Hooks Amy Hunter Terrence Howard Immature Stoney Jackson Freddie Jackson Larry Johnson Walter Emanuel Jones Shanice Christel Khalil Bill Kirchenbauer Richard Kline Dave Koz Ted Lange Emmanuel Lewis Elise Neal Sanaa Lathan Aaron Lohr Mark Linn-Baker Ziggy Marley Pat Morita New Edition LaWanda Page Holmes Osborne Stuart Pankin Portrait Kyla Pratt Freddie Prinze Jr. Greg Proops Kelly Perine Tanika Ray Charles Nelson Reilly Jennifer Rhodes J. August Richards Jack Riley Bumper Robinson Debra Jo Rupp David Ruprecht Shai Sam Sarpong Marley Shelton Bubba Smith Kristoff St. John Mindy Sterling Tracie Spencer Donna Summer Fred Willard The Bushwhackers Ron Taylor Rachel True Trina McGee-Davis Valarie Rae Miller Terri J. Vaughn Lark Voorhies Melanie Wilson Paul Winfield Stoney Jackson Kimberly Russell References Lists of American sitcom television characters Characters
4590257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatta%27s%20War	Vatta's War	Vatta's War is a science fiction series by American writer Elizabeth Moon, comprising five books: Trading in Danger (2003), Marque and Reprisal (2004) (Moving Target in UK and Australia), Engaging the Enemy (2006), Command Decision (2007), and Victory Conditions (2008). They have been characterized as military science fiction similar in style to the works of Lois McMaster Bujold (Vorkosigan Saga), David Weber and Walter Jon Williams (Dread Empire's Fall). The books follow the adventures of Kylara Vatta, a young member of the Vatta family, which runs the interstellar shipping corporation Vatta Enterprises. She had sought a life outside the family business by enrolling in the Slotter Key Spaceforce Academy, but she is forced to resign in her final year and assigned to captain an old trading ship for the corporation. Her military training is put to good use, however, during the crises she faces, first as a ship captain in dangerous situations, and later as the representative of a family under attack. The first book, Trading in Danger, is narrowly focused on Ky and the local crisis in which she becomes involved. The perspective expands in the later books as connections between piracy and ansible attacks on the one hand and Vatta Enterprises and InterStellar Communications Corporation (ISC) on the other are revealed. In 2017 Cold Welcome was published. It is the first book of the new Vatta's Peace series. It also features Kylara Vatta and is set after the events of Vatta's War. Plotlines Trading in Danger Kylara Vatta, the daughter of the CFO of Vatta Transport Ltd., a space shipping firm based out of the wealthy world of Slotter Key, is forced to resign in disgrace from the Slotter Key spaceforce academy after she is tricked by another cadet. Hoping to get her out of the limelight and make the best of her skills, her family give her the command the old, decrepit freighter Glennys Jones on its final journey to the scrapyards of Lastway. At the young Belinta colony she is told that a sorely needed shipment of agricultural machinery never arrived and a sizable payment is available to anyone who can bring the goods from the Sabine system. Determined to save the Glennys Jones from being scrapped, Ky deviates from the mission in an attempt to gain enough credit to refit the ship. An engine malfunction strands her at Sabine until she can raise funds to replace critical parts, but the two planets in the system are sliding towards open conflict. Just as she prepares to call home to request funds, the ansibles that link Sabine to outside systems are attacked and mercenary warships from the Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation appear in the system. They board the Glennys Jones and Ky is injured when a young man who had joined her ship at Belinta tries to attack them. After recovering she agrees to host the hostages the mercenaries have taken from the other merchant vessels in the system. Though conditions aboard ship are crowded and difficult, Ky manages to keep her passengers in line until a group of captains and senior officers mutiny and temporarily gain control of critical ship systems. Ky confronts them and kills the leading mutineers, but only at the cost of her own crewman Gary Tobai. They discover that the mutineers, who have sent the ship off-course, and sabotaged the communications system and the ship's emergency identification beacon, are connected in some way with piracy and the destruction of the ansibles. Help finally arrives with the return of the mercenaries, now co-operating fully with the InterStellar Communications ansible monopoly, and Vatta captain Josiah Furman, the bane of Ky's apprenticeship voyage years ago. He attempts to order her to scrap her ship at Sabine and come with him but she refuses. She quickly get funds for full repairs from ISC, which is grateful for her information regarding the pirates, but has to re-register the ship under a new name because of the sabotage to the identification beacon. She chooses Gary Tobai in honor of her late cargo master. The return voyage to Belinta is without incident and the agricultural equipment is delivered in fine shape. Marque and Reprisal (This book is called Moving Target in the UK and Australia) While on Belinta, completing the delivery of her shipment and looking for new cargo to take to Sabine, Kylara Vatta is attacked by trained assassins and an attempt is made to bomb the Gary Tobai. The Slotter Key consul provides assistance, but soon word comes that Vatta ships and facilities have been attacked on Slotter Key as well and the government is distancing itself from the corporation. Soon the Slotter Key ansible fails, leaving Ky unable to ascertain the condition of her family back home. Looking for allies, she hires Gordon Martin, a spaceforce sergeant from the Belinta consulate as cargomaster and security chief. Arriving on Lastway, Ky faces continued attacks but manages to acquire both a personal sidearm and a defensive suite for her ship. She also receives a letter from Master Sergeant MacRobert, an instructor she had known at the Spaceforce Academy. He has sent her a letter of marque and instructions for acquiring some defensive mines to arm her ship. Meanwhile, on Slotter Key co-ordinated attacks on the headquarters of Vatta transport and the private family compound leave most senior family members, including Ky's parents, dead. Command of the survivors falls to Gracie Lane Vatta who assigns her niece Stella Vatta Constantin to find Ky and give her the cranial implant from her CFO father Gerard Vatta which contains critical family data and codes. Stella heads for Lastway, with the implant concealed in one of Aunt Gracie's infamous fruitcakes, aboard an ISC courier. While stopped briefly at Allray, she discovers young Toby Vatta, who alone has survived an attack on the Vatta ship Ellis Fabery. While dodging assassins on Allray, Toby and Stella run across her old flame Rafael "Rafe" Madestan who agrees to partner with them for the trip to Lastway. Upon reaching Lastway and finding Ky, they give her an update on the situation and Rafe reveals himself to be the son of ISC president Garston Dunbarger. He agrees that ISC and Vatta interests run together for the present and enters an extended partnership with Ky. She is also contacted by the Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation whose insystem personnel are running dangerously short of funds. She hires them to provide security for herself and ship as she seeks to find and protect surviving Vatta family members. In co-operation with Rafe they assassinate the corrupt local ISC agent and restore ansible functionality in the system. In order to spread the costs of hiring the mercenary force, Ky forms a convoy with three other traders and they set off for Garth-Lindheimer. At an intermediate jump point in an uninhabited system they detect the ship Fair Kaleen which is registered to Vatta Transport and captained by family black sheep Osman Vatta. It soon becomes clear that Osman is in league with the enemies of Vatta, and Ky devises a plan to foil his attack on the Gary Tobai. She successfully uses her mines to disable the Fair Kaleen, but Osman attempts to re-enter the airlock and plant a mine of his own. Ky orders her crew to direct an EM pulse to disable it (along with critical ship systems) and kills Osman in single combat in zero-g. The mercenaries arrive in time to destroy the pirate ships that Osman has summoned and assist the Gary Tobai in the aftermath of the battle. Ky claims the Fair Kaleen both as stolen property and a prize and transfers over to it along with Martin, Rafe, and a small prize crew. Engaging the Enemy Arriving in the Garth–Linheimer system together with the convoy, Ky finds her title to the Fair Kaleen is in question. She refuses to submit to a legal adjudication of her rights and sets off at once for Rosvirein. Stella, left behind as captain of the Gary Tobai, is furious at Ky for putting her in a situation for which she is not trained without an adequate crew. She hires a shipmaster and pilot and follows as soon as the ship is repaired and reloaded. On Rosvirein, Ky sells off enough of Osman's presumably stolen cargo to pay for repairs of her own ship and hire crewmen qualified to run the ship's missile and beam weapons. She also hires Hugh Pritang, a mercenary veteran with a prosthetic arm, to be her executive officer now that she has decided to use her letter of marque to justify seeking out and destroying the pirates who have attacked her family. When suspected pirate ships appear in the system, she undocks from the station to avoid being trapped in the event of an attack. The Rosvirein Peace Force orders all undocked ships to leave the system to prevent collusion with the pirates and so Ky is unable to wait for Stella. At Sallyon, Ky's next port of call, she learns that a fleet of pirates led by one Gammis Turek has attacked Bissonet and forced the planetary government to surrender to them. She attempts to convince other ship captains, including Slotter Key privateer N. W. Argelos, that a concerted response along the lines of a true interstellar space navy is required to defend trade against the pirate threat. The Sallyon government interprets this as rabble rousing and demands that she leave the system. On her way out she passes the Gary Tobai which is inbound and informs Stella of her predicament. Stella, concerned that Ky is no longer focusing on the needs of the Vatta family in her zeal to rid the universe of piracy, is not amused at being left behind again. In the rigidly formal Moscoe Confederation, gross discourtesy carries the death penalty. Ky delivers medical supplies to the planet Cascadia and waits for Stella to arrive. But before she does, Captain Furman appears and declares that Ky cannot be the real Kylara Vatta, whom he knows to be dead, and must be an impostor planted by Osman. The Cascadian government secures the Fair Kaleen to prevent it from leaving until Furman docks at the station and his claim can be formally adjudicated. Once Stella arrives in system, she is shocked to hear Furman's accusations, but still angry with Ky for leaving her behind and plotting a wild war rather than the rebuilding of the Vatta business empire. While she is on course for Cascadia, both she and Ky independently uncover evidence that Furman has been in secret, and illegal, cooperation with Osman for years. At the trial genetic testing of Stella, Toby, Ky, and a tissue sample from Osman reveals that Ky is not Osman's daughter (as Furman had alleged) — but that Stella is. The court concludes that there is no evidence that Ky has falsified her identity. Furman explodes in anger cursing both Ky and the court and is arrested for making mortal insults. Ky takes possession of the Katrine Lamont and manages to convince Stella that she is the one who needs to run Vatta Enterprises while Ky focuses on organizing effective resistance to the pirate threat. Argelos arrives to tell Ky that Petrea Andreson, a Bissonet privateer, is organizing a force to attempt to retake that system. Ky, in her newly renamed Vanguard, agrees to join her. During their training, however, they are betrayed and attacked. Andreson and her ally Battersea are killed, but Ky manages to organize Argelos and Pettygrew, another Bissonet privateer, into an effective resistance, and they escape. Command Decision After orchestrating a galaxy-wide failure of the communications network owned and maintained by the powerful ISC corporation, Turek and his marauders strike swiftly and without mercy. First they shatter Vatta Transport. Then they overrun entire star systems, growing stronger and bolder. No one is safe from the pirate fleet. But while they continue to move forward with their diabolical plan, they have made two critical mistakes. Their first mistake was killing Kylara Vatta's family. Their second mistake was leaving her alive. Now Kylara is going to make them pay. But with a “fleet” consisting of only three ships – including her flagship, the Vanguard, a souped-up merchant cruiser – Kylara needs allies, and fast. Because even though she possesses the same coveted communication technology as the enemy, she has nowhere near their numbers or firepower. Meanwhile, as Kylara's cousin Stella tries to bring together the shattered pieces of the family trading empire, new treachery is unfolding at ISC headquarters, where undercover agent Rafael Dunbarger, estranged son of the corporation's CEO, is trying to learn why the damaged network is not being repaired. What he discovers will send shock waves across the galaxy and crashing into Kylara's newly christened Space Defense Force (Third fleet) at the worst possible moment. Victory Conditions Kylara now has a fleet of significant size, with commitments of additional forces. Stella, on Cascadia, discovers that her ward Toby has become friends with a girl whose father is an agent of Gammis Turek. Realizing that Turek must have more ships to take and hold more systems, Kylara and her team eventually discover that someone has ordered a great many large warships from the shipyards at Moray. This buyer has made progress payments, but Kylara suspects that he intends to steal the ships and rushes to organize her fleet into something that can meet his at Moray. She partially succeeds, denying the pirate lord much of his fleet, but her own flagship Vanguard strikes a minefield and explodes. Her cousins and friends believe her dead, a fiction she fosters in hopes of catching Turek off guard during a future engagement. Rafael Dunbarger continues to purge ISC of elements in league with Turek or merely incompetent, eventually discovering that this rot reaches into the government of Nexus. His fleet in disrepair due to the machinations of Lewis Parmina, Rafe struggles to salvage enough fighting ships and men to assist in the defense of Nexus. He discovers that his sister, largely recovered from her mistreatment at the hands of Parmina's henchmen, has the strength and wits to assist him in running ISC. He'll need that help, because Turek and his fleet have set their sights on Nexus. If they can conquer it, they will control all galactic communications save for a handful of individuals with semi-portable ansible units. Ultimately, Kylara's new Space Defense Fleet combines with elements of the ISC fleet, Slotter Key Spaceforce, Moscoe Confederation and ships of the Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation in a huge battle for control of Nexus. There are many losses, but ultimately Kylara confronts a desperate Gammis Turek as he sends his doomed flagship in a suicide run towards Nexus. She manages to break the pirate fleet and destroy the pirate leader, but the actions of Turek have forever changed certain aspects of galactic commerce and interplanetary relations. But now Rafe and Ky have the chance to pursue their strong mutual attraction. They celebrate victory by having Rafe 'peel a lime' for her (and prepare to show what he can do with a pear). Story elements Characters Main characters Kylara Evangeline Dominique Vatta: Protagonist of the series. Appears in all five novels as a viewpoint character. Gerard Avondetta Vatta: CFO of Vatta Enterprises and father of Kylara. Appears in Trading in Danger and Marque and Reprisal as a viewpoint character. Gracie Lane Vatta: Great Aunt of Kylara and maker of the galaxy's most inedible fruitcakes. With a history in security and intelligence from her military past, it was often joked that she was "Vatta's Spy Service". She appears in the 2nd–5th books as a viewpoint character. Helen Stamarkos Vatta: Wife of the CEO, Stavros Vatta, and known for her beauty. Later widowed by terrorist attacks on the Vatta Enterprises Headquarters. Stella Maria Celeste Vatta Constantin: Kylara's cousin. Known for her beauty and giving the family's secret access codes to her first lover. Appears in all but Trading In Danger as a viewpoint character. Current Vatta CEO. Stavros Vatta: CEO of Vatta Enterprises and father to Stella Vatta. Toby Randolph Lee Vatta: 14-year-old technical genius brought under the care of Stella. Only survivor of the sabotage of the ship Ellis Fabery, the ship on which he was serving his apprenticeship. Tech wiz, responsible for modifying ship type ansibles. Osman Vatta: Family outcast and pirate infamous for being a sexual predator and known to leave illegitimate children everywhere he went. He captained the Fair Kaleen, which was a cargo ship he stole from Vatta Transport, Ltd. when he was kicked out of the company. Biological father of Stella. He influenced the pirates to target the Vatta family as revenge for his excommunication decades ago. Rafael "Rafe" Dunbarger: Spy, thief, and romantic rogue. Rafe is the son of ISC chairman and was banished as part of a long plot to eliminate him from succession to his father's position. Always loyal to the corporation he uses his many technical abilities to reactivate ansibles where he can. Has a history with Stella (a past romantic affair) and falls in love with Kylara later in the series. Has a great deal of practical technical skill in hacking and repairing ansibles, and is one of two people known to have ansible transmission technology as part of his cybernetic chip. Appears as a viewpoint character in the 3rd–5th books. Current CEO of ISC. Others Anders MacRobert: Master Sergeant of Cadets at the Slotter Key Spaceforce Academy. Arlen Becker: Former Field Commander and current CEO of the Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation. Cally Ray Pitt: Master Sergeant and twenty-eight-year veteran in the Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation Gammis Turek: Formerly a little-known gang boss based out of Woosten - though thanks to time and planning – is now leader of the biggest pirate organization in the history of the universe. Garston Dunbarger: Rafe's father and CEO of the InterStellar Communications Corporation. Gary Tobai: Cargo master of the Glennys Jones. Killed at Sabine. The ship was later renamed in his honor. Gordon Martin: Security chief and cargo master on the Gary Tobai and later Fair Kaleen/Vanguard. Former Staff Sergeant in the Slotter Key Spaceforce. Dies in the Battle of Moray. Hugh Pritang: Kylara Vatta's First Officer on Fair Kaleen/Vanguard. Lost his left arm in his fifth year in a mercenary company, however, his advanced prosthetic arm allows him to do more than he could before. Dies in the Battle of Moray. Jim Hakusar: A "twenty-three"-year-old stowaway on the Gary Tobai from Belinta. Later becomes a valued bodyguard and crew member only after extensive training from Chief Gordon Martin. Dies in the Battle of Moray. John Mackensee: Founder of the Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation, often referred to as "Old John" behind his back by those who know him. Jon Gannett: Formerly a Master Gunner in Calvert's Company, a small mercenary group that ceased operation with its Commander's passing. Now leader of the Gannett group which took up residence in the Fair Kaleen/Vanguard as weapons teams for its missile batteries. Dies in the Battle of Moray. Josiah Furman: Senior Vatta Transport captain who holds the most lucrative trade route, and is prized for his excellent on-time delivery stats. The Katrine Lamont is his ship. Executed for discourtesy by the government of Cascadia. Revealed to be in league with Osman. Lewis Parmina: Garston Dunbarger's protégé and chosen successor to take over ISC as CEO. Good friend to the Vatta Family. Revealed to be an ally of Gammis Turek, which causes ISC to suspect the Vatta family as a whole. Lee Quidlin: Junior pilot on the Glennys Jones/Gary Tobai and later Senior Pilot on the Fair Kaleen/Vanguard. Dies in the Battle of Moray. Quincy Robin: Chief of Engineering on the Glennys Jones/Gary Tobai with sixty-plus years of experience. Been with Vatta Transport her entire life. Theodore "Teddy" Albert Driscoll Ransome: The charismatic but popinjay leader of the colorful Ransome's Rangers, a pirate-hunting group based on antiquated ideas of chivalry and honor in war (in his Romantic phase). Zori: Toby's girlfriend. Daughter of Turek spy on Cascadia. Ships Bassoon: A warship formerly part of the Bissonet Space Militia captained by Daniel Pettygrew. Later becoming a part of the Space Defense Force, Third Fleet led by Kylara Vatta. Glennys Jones/Gary Tobai: A small, outdated Vatta Transport freighter with slow engines and no defensive capability. Kylara Vatta was assigned to Captain it to the outer systems to scrap it as a 'milk run' assignment primarily to take her out of the media attention for a year. Ky followed a tradition of 'Trade and Profit' in an attempt to generate enough funds to restore the drive problems and make it hers. With the fall of the Vatta Trade Corporation, the old ship was pressed back into service as a trader and eventually was captained by Stella Vatta after the Fair Kaleen was captured and used as Ky Vatta's flagship. Fair Kaleen/Vanguard: An old Vatta Transport ship captained by Osman Vatta and outfitted by him as a well-armed pirate raider. It sacrificed cargo space to equipped 2 forward mounted beam lasers, 8 missile bays and the ability to release mine payloads (about 200). Captured by Kylara Vatta at the end of book 1, the Fair Kaleen was instrumental in allowing ship based ansible communication technology to become known to non-pirates. Captained by Kylara Vatta from book 2 to book 5 it was destroyed in battle at Moray. Vanguard II - A Moray heavy military grade warship with fleet command functions captained by Kylara Vatta, that replaces the Vanguard I as flagship. Katrine Lamont: Large Vatta Transport freighter captained by Josiah Furman. Sharra's Gift: Helmed by Captain Argelos, a former Slotter Key privateer. This ship is a cargo ship fitted for use as a warship. Later becoming a part of Ky's Space Defense Force along with Bassoon. He is now using Sharra's Gift II, same type as Vanguard II. My Bess: A merchant trader captained by Solein Harper that traveled in convoy with Kylara Vatta. Lacewing: A smallish merchant trader that is faster than Gary Tobai. Captained by Polly Tendel. Tendel seemed to take a dislike to Kylara Vatta. Traveled in convoy with Kylara Vatta in the Gary Tobai. Beauty of Bel: A merchant trader operated by Sindarin Gold. Traveled in convoy with Kylara Vatta in the Gary Tobai. Gloucester: A mercenary cruiser operated by the Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation. Described by a Mackensee officer as "capable of handling anything by major ships of the line". Donna Florenzia: A privateer from Ciudad. Captained by Isak Zavala. Destroyed by pirates while warning Kylara Vatta of treachery. Belcanto: A privateer from Urgayin. Captained by Ernst Muirtagh. In league with pirates. Cornet: A warship formerly part of the Bissonet Space Militia captained by Simon Battersea. Glorious: The lead ship of the 'Space Rangers'. A privately owned ship used to hunt pirates. Small, fast and highly maneuverable escort class ships with missile capability. The ship was noted for its colorful and flamboyant exterior which matched the outrageous personality of Captain Theodore "Teddy" Albert Driscoll Ransome, a gaudy self-stylized rogue on a quest for adventure and glory. Joined with Ky Vatta early on for no other reason than 'it would be jolly good fun'. Because of their lack of military discipline, Ky and her captains thought them to be cannon fodder; to everyone's surprise, they actually became effective recon ships for the SDF fleet. Mandan Reef, Bailey's Reef, Seegan Reef, and Adelie Reef (heavy cruisers). Rapier, Arbalest, Trebuchet, Warhammer, Scimitar (light cruisers). Slotter Key's military fleet commanded by Admiral Padhjan. Planets and systems Allray: A planet with a wide array of indigenous lifeforms suited for the exotic. Allray station was later the host of a terrorist attack on the Vatta cargoship, Ellis Fabery. Belinta: Newly colonized and primarily agricultural, Belinta is widely considered provincial and uncultured. Its people are known for their subdued fashions and distrust of outsiders. Bissonet: A major manufacturing center with a populace desiring art and culinary additives. Its system falls to large groups of pirates later on. Garth–Lindheimer: A prosperous and respectable trading station in a system with three habitable planets. Privateers must submit to a lengthy adjudication process in order to keep "prizes" brought in here. Gretna: A system that, with the collapse of the ansible network, fell into xenophobia, in-system piracy, and slavery. Populated heavily by bigots who dislike anyone who is not Aryan in addition to humods. Lastway: Near the edge of explored space, Lastway is home to MilMart, a large and reputable military supply store. Leonora: Located midway on the route from Belinta to Lastway, it is a developing world that reacts with paranoid fervour to any possible threat, going so far as to close all access to the system and shoot at unarmed traders who came too close at the first sign of problems in the beginning or Moving Target (book 2). Moscoe Confederation: A central system with three inhabited worlds. The largest, Cascadia, is known for its arboriform space station and its strict code of conduct which requires perfect courtesy at all times. Nexus: One of the biggest and wealthiest systems, and home of the ISC. As such, Nexus II is the communications center for all – or most of – human-occupied space. Pulson: A poor system with a nexus of multiple FLT jump points. Also captured by pirates. Rosvirein: A "live-and-let-live" world where indiscretions that don't interfere with local citizens are ignored and the criminal element has a large presence. On the other hand, "The death penalty is frequently imposed and [they] do not have an appellate court system." Sabine: Contains three inhabited planets, Prime, Secundus, and the mining colony Tertius. The relations between Prime and Secundus have not always amicable due to religious differences. Sabine Prime is the center for the manufacture of basic agriculture, mining, and construction equipment for many of the colony worlds in its sector. Sallyon: A wealthy system along lucrative trade routes. Prefer to be oblivious to any outside threats with superior confidence in their ability to be looked over by pirates. It is later attacked on a trumped-up claim by the pirates as a way of intimidating other systems. Slotter Key: Wealthy and technologically advanced, this world is the headquarters of Vatta Enterprises and the home world of the Vatta family. Slotter Key is known for its clement weather and extensive, island-studded oceans. Organizations Vatta Transport LTD: The Vatta Family Transport Company, formerly one of the largest merchant transport companies with an excellent reputation. One of the targets of the conspiracy. Headed by Stella's "father" as CEO and Ky's father as CFO. A raid by agents of Gammis Turek (and incited by Osman Vatta) killed many Vattas and badly damaged Vatta Transport early in the saga. New CEO Stella Vatta and other survivors work to rebuild it as a subplot throughout books 2–5. Crown & Spears Commercial Bank: Very reputable and secure bank found in most stations and developed planets. The bank of preference for the Vatta family. InterStellar Communications (ISC): Controls and maintains the Ansible system that makes faster-than-light communication between planets possible. Also operates a large space fleet to protect its hardware and interests. Mackensee Military Assistance Corporation: Perhaps the most respected and widely known mercenary force offering everything from consultancy to medical backup and – if the price is right – warships to fight a war. Deepspace Benevolent Association: The official name of Gammis Turek's pirate fleet. In one engagement, however, the group called itself the Blueridge Defense Alliance as a front for an attack. Space Defense Force: A multi-system space navy founded by Ky along with captains Pettygrew and Argelos in response to the pirate threat. It eventually gains support from all but the systems that are anti-humod. Technology ansible: A means of nearly instantaneous communication. InterStellar Communications operates as a monopoly and controls all ansible relay stations. Such stations function as a network of store and forward message routers. Tampering with such a station, even to repair it, results in fines and occasionally military reprisals by ISC. Because governments depend on the system, they permit this. Smaller ship mounted ansibles and cranial ansibles that are part of an implant are later revealed as being held by Turek's forces and Rafe respectively. humod: A portmanteau of human and modification, this general term describes anything from a person bearing an implant to a person significantly altered for specific work. Alterations include but are not limited to limb and sensory organ replacements and specialized hardware that grants enhanced capabilities. implant: essentially a personal digital assistant implanted into and connected to the user's brain. An implant may be removed and replaced without surgery, but not quickly. A new implant usually requires an adjustment period. Almost everyone with significant responsibility uses such devices and cannot perform their duties without them. Implants can often connect to nearby equipment, allowing users to exchange data and exert control over their surroundings by thought. skullphone: a personal communications device embedded within the body, usually part of an implant. CCC: Central Communications Command. Vanguard I had a smaller portable version (which saved Ky when ship blew), Vanguard II (as military ship) had one built -in from the beginning, located on her bridge. FTL drive: Faster-than-light. An FTL trip can take from few days to few weeks, ships' occupants are awake and live normally during the flight, but there is no way to communicate with other ships or planets. Cover art Book covers on this page are from the publisher Del Rey. Those from the publisher Orbit have ships on the cover. Reviews Book 1: Trading in Danger SciFi.com Weekly - B+ \| SFReviews.net - 3 / 5 \| BookLoons.com - 3 / 3 Book 2: Marque and Reprisal: SciFi.com Weekly - A \| SFReviews.net - 2.5 / 5 \| BookLoons.com - 3 / 3 Book 3: Engaging the Enemy: SciFi.com Weekly - B+ \| SFReviews.net - 3 / 5 \| BookLoons.com - 2 / 3 Book 4: Command Decision: SciFi.com Weekly - B+ \| SFReviews.net - 3.5 / 5 \| BookLoons.com - 3 / 3 Book 5: Victory Conditions: SciFi.Com Weekly - B+ \| BookLoons.com - 3 / 3 Library Journal References External links ElizabethMoon.com The Author's Latest News GraphicAudio.net GraphicAudio Productions Del Rey books Novels by Elizabeth Moon Science fiction book series
4590393	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majungasaurus	Majungasaurus	Majungasaurus (; ) is a genus of abelisaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in Madagascar from 70 to 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous Period, making it one of the last known non-avian dinosaurs that went extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The genus contains a single species, Majungasaurus crenatissimus. This dinosaur is also called Majungatholus, a name which is considered a junior synonym of Majungasaurus. Like other abelisaurids, Majungasaurus was a bipedal predator with a short snout. Although the forelimbs are not completely known, they were very short, while the hind limbs were longer and very stocky. It can be distinguished from other abelisaurids by its wider skull, the very rough texture and thickened bone on the top of its snout, and the single rounded horn on the roof of its skull, which was originally mistaken for the dome of a pachycephalosaur. It also had more teeth in both upper and lower jaws than most abelisaurids. The genus is one of the first abelisaurs to be discovered, first being found in 1896 (although it was thought to be a species of Megalosaurus) and being named in 1955. Known from several well-preserved skulls and abundant skeletal material, Majungasaurus has recently become one of the best-studied theropod dinosaurs from the Southern Hemisphere. It appears to be most closely related to abelisaurids from India rather than South America or continental Africa, a fact that has important biogeographical implications. Majungasaurus was the apex predator in its ecosystem, mainly preying on sauropods like Rapetosaurus, and is also one of the few dinosaurs for which there is direct evidence of cannibalism. Discovery and naming French paleontologist Charles Depéret described the first theropod remains from northwestern Madagascar in 1896. These included two teeth, a claw, and some vertebrae discovered along the Betsiboka River by a French army officer and deposited in the collection of what is now the Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1. Depéret referred these fossils to the genus Megalosaurus, which at the time was a wastebasket taxon containing any number of unrelated large theropods, as the new species M. crenatissimus. This name is derived from the Latin word crenatus ("notched") and the suffix -issimus ("most"), in reference to the numerous serrations on both front and rear edges of the teeth. Depéret later reassigned the species to the North American genus Dryptosaurus, another poorly known taxon. Numerous fragmentary remains from Mahajanga Province in northwestern Madagascar were recovered by French collectors over the next 100 years, many of which were deposited in the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. In 1955, René Lavocat described a theropod dentary (MNHN.MAJ 1) with teeth from the Maevarano Formation in the same region where the original material was found. The teeth matched those first described by Depéret, but the strongly curved jaw bone was very different from both Megalosaurus and Dryptosaurus. Based on this dentary, Lavocat created the new genus Majungasaurus, using an older spelling of Mahajanga as well as the Greek word (meaning "lizard"). Hans-Dieter Sues and Philippe Taquet described a dome-shaped skull fragment (MNHN.MAJ 4) as a new genus of pachycephalosaur (Majungatholus atopus) in 1979. This was the first report of a pachycephalosaur in the Southern Hemisphere. In 1993, scientists from the State University of New York at Stony Brook and the University of Antananarivo began the Mahajanga Basin Project, a series of expeditions to examine the fossils and geology of the Late Cretaceous sediments near the village of Berivotra, in Mahajanga Province. Among these scientists was paleontologist David W. Krause of Stony Brook. The first expedition turned up hundreds of theropod teeth identical to those of Majungasaurus, some of which were attached to an isolated premaxilla that was described in 1996. The following seven expeditions would turn up tens of thousands of fossils, many of which belonged to species new to science. The Mahajanga Basin Project claims credit for quintupling the known diversity of fossil taxa in the region. Fieldwork in 1996 turned up a spectacularly complete theropod skull preserved in exquisite detail (FMNH PR 2100). On top of this skull was a dome-shaped swelling nearly identical to the one described by Sues and Taquet as Majungatholus atopus. Majungatholus was redescribed as an abelisaurid rather than a pachycephalosaur in 1998. Although the name Majungasaurus crenatissimus was older than Majungatholus atopus, the authors judged the type dentary of Majungasaurus too fragmentary to confidently assign to the same species as the skull. Further fieldwork over the next decade turned up a series of less complete skulls, as well as dozens of partial skeletons of individuals ranging from juveniles to adults. Project members also collected hundreds of isolated bones and thousands of shed Majungasaurus teeth. Taken together, these remains represent nearly all the bones of the skeleton, although most of the forelimbs, most of the pelvis and the tip of the tail are still unknown. This fieldwork culminated in a 2007 monograph consisting of seven scientific papers on all aspects of the animal's biology, published in the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoirs. The papers are in English, although each has an abstract written in Malagasy. In this volume, the dentary described by Lavocat was re-evaluated and determined to be diagnostic for this species. Therefore, the name Majungatholus was replaced by the older name Majungasaurus. Although the monograph is comprehensive, the editors noted that it describes only material recovered from 1993 through 2001. A significant quantity of specimens, some very complete, were excavated in 2003 and 2005 and await preparation and description in future publications. The dentary was made the neotype specimen after a 2009 petition to the ICZN. Description Majungasaurus was a medium-sized theropod that typically reached in length and weighed . Fragmentary remains of larger individuals indicate that some adults could have been similar in size to its relative Carnotaurus, possibly exceeding in length. The skull of Majungasaurus is exceptionally well-known compared to most theropods and generally similar to that of other abelisaurids. Like other abelisaurid skulls, its length was proportionally short for its height, although not as short as in Carnotaurus. The skulls of large individuals measured long. The tall premaxilla (frontmost upper jaw bone), which made the tip of the snout very blunt, was also typical of the family. However, the skull of Majungasaurus was markedly wider than in other abelisaurids. All abelisaurids had a rough, sculptured texture on the outside faces of the skull bones, and Majungasaurus was no exception. This was carried to an extreme on the nasal bones of Majungasaurus, which were extremely thick and fused together, with a low central ridge running along the half of the bone closest to the nostrils. A distinctive dome-like horn protruded from the fused frontal bones on top of the skull as well. In life, these structures would have been covered with some sort of integument, possibly made of keratin. Computed tomography (CT scanning) of the skull shows that both the nasal structure and the frontal horn contained hollow sinus cavities, perhaps to reduce weight. The teeth were typical of abelisaurids in having short crowns, although Majungasaurus bore seventeen teeth in both the maxilla of the upper jaw and the dentary of the lower jaw, more than in any other abelisaurid except Rugops. The postcranial skeleton of Majungasaurus closely resembles those of Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus, the only other abelisaurid genera for which complete skeletal material is known. Majungasaurus was bipedal, with a long tail to balance out the head and torso, putting the center of gravity over the hips. Although the cervical (neck) vertebrae had numerous cavities and excavations (pleurocoels) to reduce their weight, they were robust, with exaggerated muscle attachment sites and ribs that interlocked for strength. Ossified tendons attached to the cervical ribs, giving them a forked appearance, as seen in Carnotaurus. All of these features resulted in a very strong and muscular neck. Uniquely, the cervical ribs of Majungasaurus had long depressions along the sides for weight reduction. The humerus (upper arm bone) was short and curved, closely resembling those of Aucasaurus and Carnotaurus. Also like related dinosaurs, Majungasaurus had very short forelimbs with four extremely reduced digits, first reported with only two very short external fingers and no claws. The hand and finger bones of Majungasaurus, like other majungasaurines, lacked the characteristic pits and grooves where claws and tendons would normally attach, and its finger bones were fused together, indicating that the hand was immobile. In 2012, a better specimen was described, showing that the lower arm was robust, though short, and that the hand contained four metatarsals and four, probably inflexible and very reduced, fingers, possibly with no claws. The minimum phalanx formula was 1-2-1-1. Like other abelisaurids, the hindlimbs were stocky and short compared to body length. The tibia (lower leg bone) of Majungasaurus was even stockier than that of its relative Carnotaurus, with a prominent crest on the knee. The astragalus and calcaneum (ankle bones) were fused together, and the feet bore three functional digits, with a smaller first digit that did not contact the ground. Classification and systematics Majungasaurus is classified as a member of the theropod clade Abelisauridae, which is considered a family in Linnaean taxonomy. Along with the family Noasauridae, abelisaurids are included in the superfamily Abelisauroidea, which is in turn a subdivision of the infraorder Ceratosauria. Abelisaurids are known for their tall skulls with blunt snouts, extensive sculpturing on the outer surfaces of the facial bones (convergent with carcharodontosaurids), very reduced (atrophied) forelimbs (convergent with tyrannosaurids), and stocky hindlimb proportions, among other features. As with many dinosaur families, the systematics (evolutionary relationships) within the family Abelisauridae are confused. Several cladistic studies have indicated that Majungasaurus shares a close relationship with Carnotaurus from South America, while others were unable to firmly place it in the phylogeny. The most recent analysis, using the most complete information, instead recovered Majungasaurus in a clade with Rajasaurus and Indosaurus from India, but excluding South American genera like Carnotaurus, Ilokelesia, Ekrixinatosaurus, Aucasaurus and Abelisaurus, as well as Rugops from mainland Africa. This leaves open the possibility of separate clades of abelisaurids in western and eastern Gondwana. A cladogram by Tortosa et al. 2013 places Majungasaurus in a new subfamily, Majungasaurinae. A simplified version showing the taxa within the group is shown below. Paleobiology Skull ornamentation Majungasaurus is perhaps most distinctive for its skull ornamentation, including the swollen and fused nasals and the frontal horn. Other ceratosaurs, including Carnotaurus, Rajasaurus, and Ceratosaurus itself bore crests on the head. These structures are likely to have played a role in intraspecific competition, although their exact function within that context is unknown. The hollow cavity inside the frontal horn of Majungasaurus would have weakened the structure and probably precluded its use in direct physical combat, although the horn may have served a display purpose. While there is variation in the ornamentation of Majungasaurus individuals, there is no evidence for sexual dimorphism. Feeding Scientists have suggested that the unique skull shape of Majungasaurus and other abelisaurids indicate different predatory habits than other theropods. Whereas most theropods were characterized by long, low skulls of narrow width, abelisaurid skulls were taller and wider, and often shorter in length as well. The narrow skulls of other theropods were well equipped to withstand the vertical stress of a powerful bite, but not as good at withstanding torsion (twisting). In comparison to modern mammalian predators, most theropods may have used a strategy similar in some ways to that of long- and narrow-snouted canids, with the delivery of many bites weakening the prey animal. Abelisaurids, especially Majungasaurus, may instead have been adapted for a feeding strategy more similar to modern felids, with short and broad snouts, that bite once and hold on until the prey is subdued. Majungasaurus had an even broader snout than other abelisaurids, and other aspects of its anatomy may also support the bite-and-hold hypothesis. The neck was strengthened, with robust vertebrae, interlocking ribs and ossified tendons, as well as reinforced muscle attachment sites on the vertebrae and the back of the skull. These muscles would have been able to hold the head steady despite the struggles of its prey. Abelisaurid skulls were also strengthened in many areas by bone mineralized out of the skin, creating the characteristic rough texture of the bones. This is particularly true of Majungasaurus, where the nasal bones were fused and thickened for strength. On the other hand, the lower jaw of Majungasaurus sported a large fenestra (opening) on each side, as seen in other ceratosaurs, as well as synovial joints between certain bones that allowed a high degree of flexibility in the lower jaw, although not to the extent seen in snakes. This may have been an adaptation to prevent the fracture of the lower jaw when holding onto a struggling prey animal. The front teeth of the upper jaw were more robust than the rest, to provide an anchor point for the bite, while the low crown height of Majungasaurus teeth prevented them from breaking off during a struggle. Finally, unlike the teeth of Allosaurus and most other theropods, which were curved on both the front and back, abelisaurids like Majungasaurus had teeth curved on the front edge but straighter on the back (cutting) edge. This structure may have served to prevent slicing, and instead holding the teeth in place when biting. Examination of the teeth of Majungasaurus indicates that the theropod replaced its teeth anywhere from 2-13 times faster than other theropods, replacing the entire set within a span of two months. Gnawing on bone may have been a significant reason for such rapid tooth replacement. Majungasaurus was the largest predator in its environment, while the only known large herbivores at the time were sauropods like Rapetosaurus. Scientists have suggested that Majungasaurus, and perhaps other abelisaurids, specialized on hunting sauropods. Adaptations to strengthen the head and neck for a bite-and-hold type of attack might have been very useful against sauropods, which would have been tremendously powerful animals. This hypothesis may also be supported by the hindlegs of Majungasaurus, which were short and stocky, as opposed to the longer and more slender legs of most other theropods. While Majungasaurus would not have moved as fast as other similar-sized theropods, it would have had no trouble keeping up with slow-moving sauropods. The robust hindlimb bones suggest very powerful legs, and their shorter length would have lowered the animal's center of gravity. Thus Majungasaurus may have sacrificed speed for power. Majungasaurus tooth marks on Rapetosaurus bones confirm that it at least fed on these sauropods, whether or not it actually killed them. Cannibalism Although sauropods may have been the prey of choice for Majungasaurus, discoveries published in 2007 detail finds in Madagascar that indicate the presence of other Majungasaurus in their diet. Numerous bones of Majungasaurus have been discovered bearing tooth marks identical to those found on sauropod bones from the same localities. These marks have the same spacing as teeth in Majungasaurus jaws, are of the same size as Majungasaurus teeth, and contain smaller notches consistent with the serrations on those teeth. As Majungasaurus is the only large theropod known from the area, the simplest explanation is that it was feeding on other members of its own species. Suggestions that the Triassic Coelophysis was a cannibal have been recently disproven, leaving Majungasaurus as the only non-avian theropod with confirmed cannibalistic tendencies, although there is some evidence that cannibalism may have occurred in other species as well. It is unknown if Majungasaurus actively hunted their own kind or only scavenged their carcasses. However, some researchers have noted that modern Komodo monitors sometimes kill each other when competing for access to carcasses. The lizards will then proceed to cannibalize the remains of their rivals, which may suggest similar behavior in Majungasaurus and other theropods. Respiratory system Scientists have reconstructed the respiratory system of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae (UA 8678) recovered from the Maevarano Formation. Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities (pneumatic foramina) that may have resulted from the infiltration of avian-style lungs and air sacs. In birds, the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac, the upper back vertebrae by the lung, and the lower back and sacral (hip) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac. Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs. These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian-style 'flow-through ventilation,' where air flow through the lungs is one-way, so that oxygen-rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with carbon dioxide. This method of respiration, while complicated, is highly efficient. The recognition of pneumatic foramina in Majungasaurus, besides providing an understanding of its respiratory biology, also has larger-scale implications for evolutionary biology. The split between the ceratosaur line, which led to Majungasaurus, and the tetanuran line, to which birds belong, occurred very early in the history of theropods. The avian respiratory system, present in both lines, must therefore have evolved before the split, and well before the evolution of birds themselves. This provides further evidence of the dinosaurian origin of birds. Brain and inner ear structure Computed tomography, also known as CT scanning, of a complete Majungasaurus skull (FMNH PR 2100) allowed a rough reconstruction of its brain and inner ear structure. Overall, the brain was very small relative to body size, but otherwise similar to many other non-coelurosaurian theropods, with a very conservative form closer to modern crocodilians than to birds. One difference between Majungasaurus and other theropods was its smaller flocculus, a region of the cerebellum that helps to coordinate movements of the eye with movements of the head. This suggests that Majungasaurus and other abelisaurids like Indosaurus, which also had a small flocculus, did not rely on quick head movements to sight and capture prey. Inferences about behavior can also be drawn from examination of the inner ear. The semicircular canals within the inner ear aid in balance, and the lateral semicircular canal is usually parallel to the ground when the animal holds its head in an alert posture. When the skull of Majungasaurus is rotated so that its lateral canal is parallel to the ground, the entire skull is nearly horizontal. This contrasts with many other theropods, where the head was more strongly downturned when in the alert position. The lateral canal is also significantly longer in Majungasaurus than in its more basal relative Ceratosaurus, indicating a greater sensitivity to side-to-side motions of the head. Pathology A 2007 report described pathologies in the bones of Majungasaurus. Scientists examined the remains of at least 21 individuals and discovered four with noticeable pathologies. While pathology had been studied in large tetanuran theropods like allosaurids and tyrannosaurids, this was the first time an abelisauroid had been examined in this manner. No wounds were found on any skull elements, in contrast to tyrannosaurids where sometimes gruesome facial bites were common. One of the specimens was a phalanx (toe bone) of the foot, which had apparently been broken and subsequently healed. Most of the pathologies occurred on the vertebrae. For example, a dorsal (back) vertebra from a juvenile animal showed an exostosis (bony growth) on its underside. The growth probably resulted from the conversion of cartilage or a ligament to bone during development, but the cause of the ossification was not determined. Hypervitaminosis A and bone spurs were ruled out, and an osteoma (benign bone tumor) was deemed unlikely. Another specimen, a small caudal (tail) vertebra, was also found to have an abnormal growth, this time on the top of its neural spine, which projects upwards from the vertebrae, allowing muscle attachment. Similar growths from the neural spine have been found in specimens of Allosaurus and Masiakasaurus, probably resulting from the ossification of a ligament running either between the neural spines (interspinal ligament) or along their tops (supraspinal ligament). The most serious pathology discovered was in a series of five large tail vertebrae. The first two vertebrae showed only minor abnormalities with the exception of a large groove that extended along the left side of both bones. However, the next three vertebrae were completely fused together at many different points, forming a solid bony mass. There is no sign of any other vertebrae after the fifth in the series, indicating that the tail ended there prematurely. From the size of the last vertebrae, scientists judged that about ten vertebrae were lost. One explanation for this pathology is severe physical trauma resulting in the loss of the tail tip, followed by osteomyelitis (infection) of the last remaining vertebrae. Alternatively, the infection may have come first and led to the end of the tail becoming necrotic and falling off. This is the first example of tail truncation known in a non-avian theropod dinosaur. The small number of specimens preserved with pathologies in Majungasaurus suggest that the multitude of injuries that occurred were obtained over the course of the lives of the individuals studied. Furthermore, the small number of injured Majungasaurus specimens observed amongst those recovered indicates most well preserved individuals generally lack observable pathologies, while a few select individuals were shown to have possessed multiple pathologies, a general pattern also noted in other large, nonavian theropods. Such patterns may be the result of a snowball effect where one injury or an infection increased the likelihood of additional maladies and injuries due to functional impairment or compromised immune systems in individuals once an initial injury had occurred. Ontogeny and growth Majungasaurus, being known from many well-preserved specimens of different ages, is well studied in regards to its growth and development. Throughout ontogeny, the skull of Majungasaurus (more specifically, the jugal, postorbital, and quadratojugal) seems to have become taller and more robust; additionally, the skull bones became more fused and the eye sockets became proportionally smaller. This indicates a shift in dietary preferences between juveniles and adults. Research by Michael D'Emic et al indicates that it was among the slowest-growing theropods. Based on studies of the lines of arrested growth in several bones, it was found that Majungasaurus took twenty years to reach maturity, which may have been a result of the harsh environment in which it lived. However, other abelisaurids have also been found to have comparably slow growth rates. Paleoecology All specimens of Majungasaurus have been recovered from the Maevarano Formation in the Mahajanga Province in northwestern Madagascar. Most of these, including all of the most complete material, came from the Anembalemba Member, although Majungasaurus teeth have also been found in the underlying Masorobe Member and the overlying Miadana Member. While these sediments have not been dated radiometrically, evidence from biostratigraphy and paleomagnetism suggest that they were deposited during the Maastrichtian stage, which lasted from 70 to 66 Ma (million years ago). Majungasaurus teeth are found up until the very end of the Maastrichtian, when all non-avian dinosaurs became extinct. Then as now, Madagascar was an island, having separated from the Indian subcontinent less than 20 million years earlier. It was drifting northwards but still 10–15° more southerly in latitude than it is today. The prevailing climate of the time was semi-arid, with pronounced seasonality in temperature and rainfall. Majungasaurus inhabited a coastal flood plain cut by many sandy river channels. Strong geological evidence suggests the occurrence of periodic debris flows through these channels at the beginning of the wet season, burying the carcasses of organisms killed during the preceding dry season and providing for their exceptional preservation as fossils. Sea levels in the area were rising throughout the Maastrichtian, and would continue to do so into the Paleocene Epoch, so Majungasaurus may have roamed coastal environments like tidal flats as well. The neighboring Berivotra Formation represents the contemporaneous marine environment. Besides Majungasaurus, fossil taxa recovered from the Maevarano include fish, frogs, lizards, snakes, seven distinct species of crocodylomorphs, five or six species of mammals, Vorona and several other birds, the possibly flighted dromaeosaurid Rahonavis, the noasaurid Masiakasaurus and two titanosaurian sauropods, including Rapetosaurus. Majungasaurus was by far the largest carnivore and probably the dominant predator on land, although large crocodylomorphs like Mahajangasuchus and Trematochampsa might have competed with it closer to water. See also Timeline of ceratosaur research Evolution of dinosaurs References External links Press release about the Majungasaurus mount erected in 2006 at Stony Brook University. Majungasaurines Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Africa Dinosaurs of India and Madagascar Maevarano fauna Prehistoric animals of Madagascar Maastrichtian genera Fossil taxa described in 1955 Taxa named by René Lavocat
4590600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20New%20Hampshire%20University	Southern New Hampshire University	Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU) is a private university between Manchester and Hooksett, New Hampshire. The university is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education, along with national accreditation for some hospitality, health, education and business degrees. SNHU is one of the fastest-growing universities nationwide with 135,000 online students and 3,000 on campus. History The university was founded in 1932 by second-generation Russian Americans Harry A.B. "H.A.B." Shapiro, an accountant, and his wife, Gertrude Gittle Crockett Shapiro, as an institution focused on teaching business, under the name New Hampshire School of Accounting and Secretarial Science. H.A.B. Shapiro died in 1952; there were 25 students enrolled at that time, and his widow, who had increasingly administered the school as her husband's health declined, then ran the school until 1971, continuing as president emerita until 1986. In 1961, the school was incorporated and renamed the New Hampshire College of Accounting and Commerce. The state of New Hampshire granted the college its charter in 1963, which gave it degree-granting authority. The first associate degrees were awarded that year, and the first bachelor's degrees were conferred in 1966. The college became a nonprofit institution under a board of trustees in September 1968, and its name was shortened to New Hampshire College in 1969. The 1970s were a time of growth and change. The college moved from its downtown Manchester site to the now campus along the Merrimack River, at the northern border of Manchester with the town of Hooksett, in 1971. Academic offerings expanded with the Master of Business Administration program in 1974, as well as the human services programs adopted from Franconia College, which closed in 1978. In 1981, New Hampshire College received authorization from the New Hampshire legislature to offer Master of Science degrees in business-related subjects, as well as Master of Human Services degrees. (All human services programs would be transferred to Springfield College in Massachusetts by the end of the decade.) That same year, the college opened its North Campus on the site of the former Mount Saint Mary College, which had closed three years earlier. The North Campus became the home of the culinary arts program, which was established in 1983. Ultimately, the North Campus was sold, and its academic programs were consolidated back to the main campus. This spurred several major construction projects on the main campus in the mid-1990s: Washington Hall, a residence hall; Webster Hall, home to the School of Business; the Hospitality Center, home of the Quill (a student-run restaurant) and culinary arts programs; and Belknap Hall, now home to the Institute for Language Education, the School of Education, and several university offices. In 1995, New Hampshire College began offering distance learning programs through the Internet. In 1998, the school expanded academic degrees to include a Ph.D. in community economic development and the Doctor of Business Administration. New Hampshire College became Southern New Hampshire University on July 1, 2001. The same year, the university completed a new residence hall, New Castle Hall, followed by a new academic facility, Robert Frost Hall, containing the McIninch Art Gallery, in 2002. When nearby Notre Dame College closed, three of Notre Dame's graduate education programs and two undergraduate education programs transferred to SNHU. When president Paul LeBlanc took over in 2003, the early 2000s recession had affected SNHU with rising tuition and shrinking enrollment. LeBlanc addressed this in 2009 with an increased focus on the College of Online and Continuing Education. Rapid revenue growth from the division helped save the struggling main campus where enrollment had slumped. SNHU focused on increasing graduation rates and adjusting the online college to meet the needs of working adults who comprise most of its student body. Student housing continued to grow with Conway and Lincoln Halls opening in 2004, and Hampton and Windsor Halls in 2006. SNHU became New Hampshire's first carbon-neutral university in 2007, when president LeBlanc signed the American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment The Academic Center and the Dining Center were completed by 2009. A new 152-room residence hall, Tuckerman Hall, was opened in the fall of 2013. A Learning Commons was opened in 2014, housing the library, the information technology help desk, a café, and media production services. The former Shapiro Library was reopened as the William S. and Joan Green Center for Student Success, a student center housing conference rooms and meeting space, along with student services for women, learning disabilities, veterans and other groups. The university purchased naming rights to the downtown Manchester Civic Arena in September 2016, naming it SNHU Arena for at least 10 years in a deal that included internships for students and use of the facility for graduation and athletic events. SNHU absorbed the faculty and staff at Daniel Webster College along with the engineering and aviation programs, operating the college's campus in Nashua for the rest of the 2016-17 academic year after its parent company, ITT Technical Institute, filed for bankruptcy. SNHU purchased the college's aviation facilities (including a flight center, tower building, and hangar) at Nashua Airport, for $410,000 and enrolled up to 30 students in their Aviation Operations and Management bachelor's degree program. An undisclosed Chinese university, which plans to open a satellite campus, outbid SNHU for the former campus. To accommodate the new students, SNHU converted an unused warehouse on campus into space for classrooms, laboratories, and a machine shop. A dedicated engineering and technology building was later completed in January 2020. Three major construction projects were completed in 2017: the Gustafson Center, a new welcome center named for the former university president Richard A. Gustafson; Penmen Stadium, a 1,500-seat outdoor stadium; and Monadnock Hall, an apartment-style residence hall. In November 2017, the university announced a $100 million project including a 1,700 space parking garage and an additional 500 jobs at its downtown Manchester offices supporting the online college. In 2017, a fire burned down Greely Hall, one of the original residence halls on campus. The fire forced 50 students to evacuate into a nearby hotel (provided by the university) until new accommodations could be made. Nobody was injured, and the students returned to on-campus housing within two days of the fire to select dormitories with extra space. No longer salvageable, the building was demolished to make additional space for a new dormitory, Kingston Hall, which opened in August 2018. In addition to Greely Hall, Kingston Hall replaced three other original dormitories on campus (Chocorua, Kearsarge, and Winnisquam halls). In 2020, President LeBlanc reported that the school was on its way to reduce student tuition to $10,000 a year, which required a close look at inefficiencies in labor and programming. Academics SNHU has an admissions rate of 88%.<ref name=":US Department of Education" In 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked the university #131-171 in Regional Universities North. Colleges and schools Southern New Hampshire University offers undergraduate, graduate, doctoral, and certificate programs through its multiple colleges and schools. The colleges and schools that compose SNHU are: College for America (CfA) School of Engineering, Technology & Aeronautics (SETA) College of Online & Continuing Education (COCE) School of Arts & Sciences School of Business School of Education School of International Engagement Honors program The three-year Honors Program is a custom-designed, integrated academic experience that is offered over the course of six semesters for business majors. As a result, students earn an undergraduate business degree in three years rather than four. It was started using a challenge grant from the U.S. Department of Education in 1995. SNHU offers similar accelerated programs to undergraduate students majoring in creative writing and justice studies as well. Faculty SNHU's faculty consists of 161 full-time instructors, 5,798 part-time instructors, and 20 instructional graduate assistants. According to The Century Foundation, SNHU spent more than $11 million on advertising from August 2016 to January 2017, and only 18 cents for every dollar was spent on instruction. Regional centers Southern New Hampshire University's COCE offers programs both online and at its three regional centers. The university's main campus serves as a regional center, in addition to satellite campuses in Salem, New Hampshire and Brunswick, Maine. After Trinity College in Vermont closed in 2001, SNHU established the Vermont Center in Colchester, which houses the field-based graduate program in education. Online programs Enrollment in the College of Online & Continuing Education (COCE), based in downtown Manchester, has increased rapidly: from 8,000 students in 2001 to 34,000 in 2014, to over 135,000 according to SNHU. As the online program has grown, the COCE has hired more full-time professors (as of 2014, most of the more than 2,700 faculty members were part-time instructors located throughout the United States and abroad). Alumni and educators outside SNHU have criticized the university's aggressive recruiting techniques and nationwide advertising campaigns, comparing them to those used by for-profit institutions such as the University of Phoenix and the now-defunct ITT Technical Institute. In response, president LeBlanc stated that SNHU has "borrowed the best of operational practices from the for-profits (customer service, data analytics, a sense of urgency and accountability) while eschewing the practices that cast them in such a poor light." SNHU's College for America (CfA) operated from 2013 until it was subsequently retired. CfA offered degrees that relied on competency-based learning rather than traditional credit hours, based in part on programs at Western Governors University. In 2013, the CfA became the first of its kind to gain federal approval from the U.S. Department of Education. In 2017, it formed a partnership with the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, making all federal employees eligible for CfA courses. Costs and student outcomes Beginning in the fall of 2021, campus tuition will be reduced to $15,000 per year (and $10,000 per year for select programs). The graduation rate for campus students is 68% and median salary after attending is $45,800. In the 2017–2018 award year, 43,067 students received the federal Pell Grant. Accreditation and memberships Since 1973, Southern New Hampshire University has been accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education and is approved by the New Hampshire Department of Education Division of Higher Education—Higher Education Commission. The School of Business is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs. Some programs have specialized accreditation, such as the sport management programs, which are recognized by the North American Society for Sport Management, and the hospitality administration program, which is recognized by the Accreditation Commission for Programs in Hospitality Administration. Nationally, it is a member of the Association of American Colleges and Universities, the American Council on Education, and the National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities. At the state level, it is a member of the New Hampshire College & University Council (NHCUC), a consortium of higher learning institutions in New Hampshire. Recognitions and awards The university's community economic development program received a 2007 New England Higher Education Excellence Award, the Robert J. McKenna award, named for the former Rhode Island state senator and New England Board of Higher Education chair. It is presented each year to an outstanding academic program. In 2012, Fast Company named SNHU the 12th most innovative organization in the world in its World's 50 Most Innovative Companies edition. In 2013, the university was recognized by The Chronicle of Higher Education as one of the best colleges for which to work. In 2014, the School of Business and the COCE won multiple "Best of Business" Awards, for Best MBA Program and Best Online Degree Program, respectively. These awards are presented annually by the New Hampshire Business Review. U.S. News & World Report ranked Southern New Hampshire University at #112 in Regional Universities North (out of 196 institutions), and #1 in Most Innovative Schools in the 2019 rankings. Student activities Southern New Hampshire University has many student organizations on campus, including Radio SNHU (the campus radio station) and The Penmen Press (the student newspaper). SNHU also publishes The Penmen Review, an online creative writing journal for students and alumni. Athletics Southern New Hampshire University participates in NCAA Division II athletics. It is a member of the Eastern College Athletic Conference and the Northeast-10 Conference. The teams' nickname, the Penmen, is an homage to the university's history as an accounting school. The university's mascot is named "Petey Penmen". Lou D'Allesandro was appointed the first athletic director and head coach of the men's basketball team in 1963. Future NBA head coach P.J. Carlesimo coached the men's basketball team during the 1975–1976 season, compiling a 14–13 record and winning the Mayflower Conference championship. The Stan Spirou Field House is named after longtime men's basketball coach Stan Spirou, whose career spanned from 1985 to 2018. He is considered one of the most successful NCAA Division II basketball coaches, compiling a career winning percentage of .652 (522–279), four New England Collegiate Conference Coach of the Year awards (1993, 1994, 1995, 1999), and was named National Coach of the Year in 1994 by Division II Bulletin. His teams have averaged 22 wins per season and also have 14 NCAA tournament appearances, four NCAA regional titles, and six NECC tournament championships. In 1989, when it was known as New Hampshire College, the Penmen won their first NCAA Men's Soccer Championship, against UNC Greensboro. In 2002, the men's soccer team returned to the NCAA Division II championship game, but lost to Sonoma State. On December 7, 2013, the Penmen won their second NCAA men's soccer national title, defeating Carson-Newman, 2-1. SNHU is a recipient of the NCAA Foundation Academic Achievement Award, which recognizes high graduation rates among student athletes. SNHU took home the award for the highest graduation rate among all Division II institutions. SNHU also earned the Northeast-10 Conference Academic Achievement Award after the 2001–02 school year. List of teams Men's sports (8) Baseball Basketball Cross country Golf Ice hockey Lacrosse Soccer Tennis Women's sports (11) Basketball Cheerleading Cross country Field hockey Lacrosse Soccer Softball Tennis Track and field Volleyball Athletic facilities Dr. George J. Larkin Field (soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, intramurals) Ice Den (ice hockey) Lake Sunapee Country Club / Concord Country Club (golf) Penmen Stadium (soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, track & field) SNHU Baseball Field SNHU Softball Field Stan Spirou Field House (basketball, volleyball) Tennis Courts (tennis) Notable alumni Rebecca Adamson (born 1950), Cherokee businessperson and advocate Felix G. Arroyo (born 1979), former Boston city councilor Preston Burpo (born 1972), former MLS player and goalkeeping coach for the New York Red Bulls Chuck Collins (born 1959), author, co-founder of United for a Fair Economy, and senior scholar at the Institute for Policy Studies Ed Davis (born 1956), former commissioner of the Boston Police Department Elaine Duke (born 1958), former U.S. deputy secretary of homeland security Jack Flanagan (born 1957), former New Hampshire state representative Ron Fortier (born 1946), comic book writer Peter Holland (born 1991), professional hockey player Marjoie Kilkelly, former Maine state senator and state representative Marjorie Herrera Lewis (born 1957), author Stephen D. Lovejoy, former Maine state representative Paul Mark, current Massachusetts state representative Garrett Mason (born 1985), former Maine state senator Peggy Morgan (born 1981), professional mixed martial artist Marc R. Pacheco (born 1952), current Massachusetts state senator and former state representative Pam Patenaude (born 1961), former U.S. deputy secretary of housing and urban development Rob Paternostro (born 1973), former professional basketball player and head coach of the Leicester Riders Deonna Purrazzo (born 1994), professional wrestler Benjamin Ramos (born 1956), former Pennsylvania state representative Annette Robinson (born 1940), former New York state assemblywoman Abuhena Saifulislam (born 1963), U.S. Navy chaplain serving with troops in the Marine Corps Mohd Sidek Hassan (born 1951), chairman of Petronas, former president of the International Islamic University Malaysia, and 12th chief secretary to the government of Malaysia Samia Suluhu (born 1960), current president and former vice president of Tanzania, the first woman to hold either these positions Chris Tsonis (born 1991), professional soccer player Tate Westbrook, U.S. Navy officer who commanded the USS Spruance (DDG-111) from 2010 to 2012 Corey Wilson (born 1985), U.S. Marine Corps veteran and former Maine state representative References External links Official athletics website 1932 establishments in New Hampshire Air traffic controller schools Aviation schools in the United States Educational buildings in Manchester, New Hampshire Universities and colleges established in 1932 Hooksett, New Hampshire Universities and colleges in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire Universities and colleges in Merrimack County, New Hampshire Private universities and colleges in New Hampshire
4590764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockburn%20%28surname%29	Cockburn (surname)	Cockburn ( , ) is a Scottish surname that originated in the Borders region of the Scottish Lowlands. In the United States most branches of the same family have adopted the simplified spelling 'Coburn'; other branches have altered the name slightly to 'Cogburn'. The French branch of the family uses the spelling 'de Cockborne', with the middle "ck" being pronounced. Family origins The Cockburn surname had appeared by the early 13th century, when it was employed to identify individuals from a district or location called Cockburn (modern spelling). The name Cockburn has been viewed as originating from the juxtaposition of 'Cock', derived from the Old English word 'cocc' meaning 'moor-cock', 'wild bird' or 'hill', with 'burn' derived from the old word 'burna' meaning 'brook' or 'stream'. There are several possible candidates for this geographical name including: a former 'Cokoueburn' district in early medieval Roxburghshire; a place called 'Calkesburne' that was mentioned in a charter from 1162 to 1190 that awarded the land of Hermanston in East Lothian; the hill called Cockburn Law, north of present-day Duns in Berwickshire, which was fortified in Iron Age times; and the town of Cockburnspath, originally known as 'Kolbrand's Path', on the eastern coast of Scotland. There are several Cockburn placenames that are located near Cockburn Law along Whiteadder Water including Cockburn farm, Cockburn Mill, and the now ruined farm Cockburn East. A Cockburn Tower reportedly existed in this same general area. It is unclear, however, whether this region in Berwickshire is in fact the true origin of the family name. In perhaps the first recorded mention of a Cockburn, a Petro de Cokburne witnessed a charter in the "Register of the House of Soltre" that described a gift of arable land in Lempitlaw, just east of Kelso in Roxburghshire in about 1190–1220, during the reign of King William "the Lion" (1165–1214). However, the dating of this document has been recently revised to 1251–1274. A Robert de Cockburn is mentioned as a ‘serviens’ (servant or sergeant) in a charter, dating from 1232 to 1242, in which land is granted to the Chapel of St. Nicholas, next to a bridge over the River Spey in Moray. The knight Sir Roberto de Cokeburn (perhaps the same Robert) is mentioned in a charter that was prepared in Chirnside on 4 November 1261 during the reign of Patrick III, Earl of Dunbar (1248–1270). Sir Roberto de Cokeburne is mentioned in another charter (dated to 1269–1289) as being the constable of the royal burgh of Roxburgh. A Petro de Kokeburne is mentioned on a document, dated from 15 May 1285, that records the sale of land to Kelso Abbey, near Roxburgh. In the mid 13th century, the landowner Johannes de Kocburn (John de Cockburn) granted land near his property at Collessie in Fife to Lindores Abbey. In the summer of 1296, along with the bulk of the Scottish nobility and senior clergy, Pieres de Cokeburn and Thomas de Cokeburn 'del counte de Rokesburgh' signed the Ragman Roll pledging their allegiance to King Edward I of England. However, it appears that at least one other Cockburn landowner incurred the disfavor of Longshanks at about this time. In a charter dated March 20, 1312, King Edward II restored to Nigel de Cockburn his former land in Megget (likely the same land, along the Megget Water now in Selkirkshire, that later became known as Henderland). This land had been awarded to another man by the previous English king because Nigel had been declared a rebel. Possibly Nigel de Cockburn had chosen to avoid signing the Ragman Roll back in 1296. Perhaps Edward II was attempting to secure new Scottish allies prior to his next invasion of Scotland because in the same charter the king restored land to eleven other former Scottish rebels. Historically there have been many alternative spellings of the family name. Early medieval spellings included 'Cokburne', 'Cokeburne', 'Kokeburne' and other variations. In Scotland the spelling of the family name had stabilized to 'Cockburn' by the late 17th century, and this is the spelling most commonly used today in British Commonwealth countries. In the United States, the simplified spelling 'Coburn' is more widely used than 'Cockburn'. In Cumberland, England, the 'Cockbain' family emerged from Scottish Cockburn ancestors. A branch of the family was established in France in the 16th century by mercenary soldiers under the terms of the Auld Alliance. In 1494, a Thomas Cocquebourne was serving as an archer in the Garde Écossaise, which was the personal bodyguard of the King of France. Many more Cockburn mercenaries served the Kings of France in this elite unit over the next century. Cockburn descendants in France today use the family name 'de Cockborne'. Another branch of the family used the name Cokborgne and formed part of the nobility of Champagne. The early 17th century mercenary leader Samuel Cockburn used the spelling 'Cobron' while working for the King of Sweden. In the late 17th century, a Cockburn merchant established a German branch of the family, which adopted the surname 'Kabrun' in the Hanseatic port of Danzig. A great-grandson of this Scottish-German Kabrun was the wealthy merchant and renowned book collector, art collector and philanthropist Jacob Kabrun Jr. (1759–1814). The Cockburn name was well known in the English possessions of the Caribbean from the 17th century onwards. By the early 18th century, Cockburns were living in the Bahamas, Barbados and Jamaica. Cockburn Town, the capital of the Turks and Caicos Islands, was founded in 1681 by salt traders from the Bahamas. Dr. James Cockburn (b. c1659 in Langton, Scotland – d. 1718 in Jamaica), Dr. Thomas Cockburn (1700-c1769) and Dr. James Cockburn (c1770-1798) were three generations of medical doctors from the same Cockburn family in Jamaica. The first doctor in this line was the third son of Sir Archibald Cockburn, 2nd Baronet of Langton. Admiral Sir George Cockburn led successful naval operations against the French and Spanish in the Caribbean during the Napoleonic Wars. Sir Francis Cockburn was a colonial administrator in both the British Honduras (1830–37) and the Bahamas (1837-4). Cockburn Town, the administrative center of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas, was named after Sir Francis. Some Scottish Cockburn men settled in the area and married Caribbean women, and their descendants live today in Trinidad and Tobago and elsewhere in the Caribbean and North America. The rise and fall of the Cockburn landowners In 13th-century written charters, several Cockburns appear as landowners in Roxburghshire and Fifeshire. The land around Cockburn Law in Berwickshire was possibly the location of the residence of the 13th-century Pieres de Cokeburn; however, the nearby land may have been held by Cockburns as vassals of a more powerful land-owning family, such as the Dunbars. Cockburn Tower, a small fortified house (now a ruin) that occupied a site on the southern slope Cockburn Law overlooking the Whiteadder Water, was the seat of the Cockburns of that Ilk from about 1527 to 1696. The surrounding land was purchased in about 1527 by William Cockburn from Alexander Lindsay, 4th Earl of Crawford. The Tower and surrounding land were auctioned off in 1696 to pay off the debts of Sir James Cockburn of that Ilk. In 1330, Sir Alexander de Cokburne became the Baron of Langton (in Berwickshire), Carriden (in West Lothian) and Bolton (in East Lothian) following his marriage to the wealthy Anglo-Norman heiress Mariota de Veteriponte (also known as Maria de Vipont). The Langton estate was located to the southwest of Duns, about 6 km from Cockburn Tower. Sir Alexander's second marriage to the heiress Maria de Monfode added the estate of Skirling (in Peeblesshire). The greatly enlarged Cockburn lands were split up among Sir Alexander's three sons; however, the barony of Langton and Carriden remained with the eldest son Alexander. For the next 400 years, the Cockburns of Langton were prominent landowners in Berwickshire. Other branches of the family acquired estates in Ormiston and Clerkington (just southwest of Haddington) in East Lothian. The Cockburns of Henderland held land in Megget then in southern Peeblesshire, while the Cockburns of Skirling held land in the western part of Peebleshire. William Cockburn of Henderland was a notorious border reiver in early part of the 16th century. His well-known thievery and his purported close connections with his English counterparts just south of the border made him a target for the young King James V, who wished to clearly establish his authority over the more lawless parts of his kingdom. William Cockburn was arrested in 1530, taken to Edinburgh, tried, convicted of treason and beheaded. His lands and property were forfeited to the Crown. His son, also a William, succeeded in regaining his family's estate following an appeal in 1542 to the Regent, James, 2nd Earl of Arran. However, his great-great-grandson, Samuel Cockburn, found it necessary to sell the Henderland estate in 1634. By the middle of the 18th century, as a result of financial difficulties, the Langton and Ormiston branches of the Cockburn family lost most of their land holdings. Sir Archibald Cockburn, 4th Baronet of Langton borrowed increasing sums of money, primarily from the Cockburn of Cockburn branch of the family, to help finance ambitious agricultural reforms on his Langton estate. These financial difficulties were not resolved by the three succeeding baronets of Langton. At time of the death of Sir Alexander Cockburn, 7th Baronet at Fontenoy in 1745, the financial situation of the Langton branch had become critical. In 1747, his heir, Sir James Cockburn, 8th Baronet, was unable to fend off the claims of his creditors, which included Sir James Cockburn, 3rd Baronet Cockburn of that Ilk, Thomas Hay, and others. The decision of the Lords of Session in Scotland in favor of the creditors was appealed to the House of Lords in London, but the earlier decision was upheld. The resulting bankruptcy led to the auctioning off of the Estate of Langton, which was purchased in 1757 by David Gavin. Despite the loss of their land, the Langton branch of the Cockburn family would continue to be prominent in Great Britain well into the 19th century, but now in the military and judicial arenas. The Cockburn of Langton baronetcy went dormant in 1880 when the 12th Baronet, Sir Alexander Cockburn, died without legitimate issue. The Ormiston branch of the Cockburn family stems from the marriage in 1370 of John Cokburne, second son of Sir Alexander de Cokburne, to Johanetta de Lyndessay, an heiress who owned the estate of Ormiston in East Lothian. John Cockburn of Ormiston and his brother Ninian Cockburn were Protestant supporters of the Scottish Reformation and came to support the English cause in 1548 during the war of the Rough Wooing. John Cockburn of Ormiston was another enthusiastic proponent for the modernization of Scottish agricultural practice. The financial consequences of his plans were as ruinous to the Ormiston branch of the Cockburns as they were to the Langton branch. He attempted to demonstrate the benefits of his reforms in a model community at Ormiston. His ambitious schemes ran into financial difficulties and he was required to sell the estate of Ormiston in 1747 to John Hope, 2nd Earl of Hopetoun. Notable Cockburns Notable people with the surname Cockburn include: Adam Cockburn of Ormiston, Lord Ormiston (1656–1735), Scottish judge and Lord Justice Clerk Adam Cockburn (actor), Australian actor and DJ Alexander de Cokburne, Sir Alexander de Cokburne, Baron of Langton, Carriden, Bolton and Skirling, (c. 1310–c. 1370), prominent landowner in the Scottish Lowlands Sir Alexander Cockburn, 12th Baronet (1802–1880), the 12th Baronet Cockburn of Langton and Lord Chief Justice Alexander Cockburn (1941–2012), Irish-American journalist Alison Cockburn (1712–1794), Scottish poet Alistair Cockburn, software methodologist Andrew Cockburn (ornithologist), Australian ornithologist Andrew Cockburn (1947–), Irish-American journalist Archibald Cockburn (1738–1820), Scottish judge Bill Cockburn (1937–1995), English footballer Bronte Cockburn (born 1941), Australian basketball player Bruce Cockburn (1945–), Canadian singer-songwriter Catherine Trotter Cockburn (1679–c. 1749), British writer Claud Cockburn (1904–1981), British journalist Claudia Cockburn (1933–1998), British activist for the disabled David Cockburn, Scottish coffee planter and District Collector in early 19th century Tamil Nadu, India David Cockburn (1941–), British philosopher Don Cockburn (1930-2017) Irish journalist, presenter and newsreader Sir Francis Cockburn (1780–1868), British officer and colonial administrator George Cockburne (died 1770), British captain and Comptroller of the Navy from 1756 to 1770 Sir George Cockburn (1772–1853), the 10th Baronet Cockburn of Langton and British naval admiral George Bertram Cockburn, British chemist and pioneer aviator Hampden Zane Churchill Cockburn (1867–1913), Canadian Army officer and recipient of the Victoria Cross Henry Cockburn (bishop) (died 1476), 15th century Scottish bishop Henry Thomas Cockburn (1779–1854), Scottish Whig, writer, lawyer, judge, Solicitor General for Scotland Henry Cockburn (consul) (1859–1927), British consul Henry Cockburn (footballer), English (soccer) footballer Hermione Cockburn, British presenter Jack Cockburn, Australian Rules footballer James Cockburn (Royal Navy officer) (1817–1872), commanded ships during the Crimean War and then Commander-in-Chief, East Indies Station James Cockburn (politician, born 1819) (1819–1883), Canadian politician and a Father of the Canadian Confederation of 1867 James Cockburn (minister) (1882–1973), Scottish scholar and Church of Scotland clergyman James Pattison Cockburn (1779–1847), British artillery officer and important painter of watercolors in Upper and Lower Canada John Cockburn of Ormiston, 16th-century Scottish landowner John Cockburn (Scottish officer) (c. 1620–c. 1680), 17th-century Scottish Governor of Stirling Castle and Hume Castle John Cockburn (Scottish politician), John Cockburn of Ormiston (c. 1685–1758), Scottish politician, landowner and agricultural reformer John Cockburn (Australian politician) (1850–1929), Australian politician John Cockburn (test pilot) (1937–2017), British test pilot of English Electric "Lightning" Karen Cockburn (1980–), Canadian gymnast Kofi Cockburn (born 1999), Jamaican basketball player Leslie Cockburn (1952–), American writer and filmmaker Martin Cockburn (1731–1818), Jamaican-born American planter (Fairfax County, Virginia). Neighbor and close friend of George Mason. Ninian Cockburn (died 1579), 16th-century intriguer Olivia Wilde (born Olivia Cockburn in 1984), American actress Patrick Cockburn (1950–), Irish journalist Peter Cockburn, president of the Royal Philatelic Society London Richard Cockburn of Clerkington (c. 1565–1627), Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland Richard Cockburn Maclaurin, American educator and physicist Robert Cockburn, Scottish bishop and diplomat during the Renaissance Robert Cockburn (wine merchant) (1781–1844), soldier, wine merchant and founder of Cockburn's Port House Robert Cockburn (physicist) (1909–1994), British physicist and key developer of electronic countermeasures during WWII Rodney Cockburn (1877–1932), author of a book on South Australian place names Sally Cockburn, Canadian-American mathematician Sarah Cockburn (1939–2000), barrister and writer who used the pseudonym Sarah Caudwell Samuel Cockburn (mercenary leader) (1574–1621), Scottish soldier who served in the Swedish army Samuel Cockburn (physician and homeopath) (1823–1915), outspoken Scottish advocate for homeopathy Stewart Cockburn (1921–2009), South Australian journalist and author, son of Rodney Cockburn William Cockburn (cavalry officer) (c. 1605–1683), Scottish Royalist cavalry officer who led operations against Covenanter leaders in Ayrshire and Galloway William Cockburn (physician) (1669–1739), Scottish physician who sold to the British Royal Navy a purported cure for dysentery Cockburn baronetcies There have been two Cockburn Baronetcies in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia. See also Cockburn (disambiguation) Coburn (disambiguation) References External links Sir Robert Cockburn, Bart., and Harry A. Cockburn, The Records of the Cockburn Family, Edinburgh (1913) Cockburn-Hood, Thomas H., The House of Cockburn of that Ilk, Edinburgh (1888) Paradox of Medieval Scotland (PoMS) database Cockburn Family DNA Project Website Dunbar Surname DNA Project L257 A North Sea Tribe Cockburn Scottish surnames Surnames of Lowland Scottish origin Cockburn Word play
4590842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basankusu	Basankusu	Basankusu is a town in Équateur Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the main town and administrative centre of the Basankusu Territory. In 2004, it had an estimated population of 23,764. It has a gravel airstrip, covered and open markets, a hospital, and three cellphone networks, the first of which was installed in 2006. The town is also known as a centre for bonobo conservation efforts. Despite such developments, most inhabitants live at a subsistence level: hunting, fishing, keeping chickens and keeping a vegetable plot. In 2010, the workers at the local palm plantation would earn an average monthly salary of $40 (US dollars), most others would have much less. The location of the town on the Lulonga River, a tributary of the Congo, at the confluence of the Lopori and Maringa Rivers has contributed to its success as a centre for trade in the region. Set deep in tropical rainforest, the rivers serve as the highways for transport of people as well as goods. Historically, Basankusu holds some stories of exploitation during the times of the Abir Congo Company but was also the gateway to much of Equateur Province for those individuals involved in the reforms which came from the Casement Report and the Berlin conference of 1884-5. History Origin of the name The name Basankusu is said to have been misunderstood by its European explorers and colonisers, who lacked knowledge of the local language. The Mongo group that founded Basankusu were the Okutsu; their descendants were called the Basaa Okutsu, meaning the "children of the Okutsu". This name was contracted slightly into the name Basaa'kutsu. Another account of the etymology of Basankusu is that it comes from basa ba nkoso, meaning "quarrelling parrots", or possibly Baasa bankoso, "small parrots". Abir Congo Company See also Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape and Abir Congo Company. Basankusu was the first trading post of the Abir Congo Company (ABIR) along the Congo River from Kinshasa (then known as Leopoldville), the capital of the Congo. Later known as the Compagnie du Congo Belge, the Abir Congo Company harvested natural rubber in the 19th and early 20th century. It was granted a large concession with the rights to tax the inhabitants, taken in the form of rubber. The collection system revolved around a series of trading posts along the two main rivers in the concession – the Lopori and the Maringa. Each post was commanded by a European agent and manned with armed sentries to enforce taxation and punish any rebels. ABIR would sell a kilogram of rubber in Europe for up to 10 francs (fr), which cost them only 1.35 fr to collect and transport. However, this came at a cost to the human rights of those who could not pay the tax, with imprisonment, flogging, and other corporal punishments recorded. The Casement Report comprises a multitude of individual statements gathered by the British Consul, Roger Casement, including several detailing the grim tales of killings, mutilation, kidnapping, and cruel beatings of the native population by soldiers of the Congo administration of King Leopold. The British Parliament demanded a second meeting of the 14 signatory powers of the 1885 Berlin Conference, at which time the Belgian Parliament forced a reluctant Leopold to set up an independent commission of enquiry. This led to the arrest and punishment of several officials who had been responsible for murders during a rubber-collection expedition in 1903. The reforms that followed the Casement Report, including those that concerned ABIR at Basankusu, set the foundation for the colonial Belgian state of Congo. Cathedral The original Roman Catholic cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, built by Jan de Koning, a brother in the Mill Hill Missionaries society, during World War II, Demolition in 2012; it was rebuilt to a very similar design. The new building used computer design technology, and used reinforced concrete in place of kiln-fired brick. It remains the tallest building in Basankusu. The Mill Hill Missionaries, and later with some support from the Congregatio Immaculati Cordis Mariae missionaries, supported the establishment of the Diocese of Basankusu, which has its episcopal seat at the cathedral. On Sunday, October 21, 2018, ten bishops and a hundred priests concelebrated Mass at which Bishop Joseph Mokobe, Bishop of Basankusu, presided, for the inauguration of the newly rebuilt cathedral. Geography Basankusu is situated on the Lulonga River, a tributary of the Congo, at the confluence of the Lopori and Maringa Rivers. This location allows for transporting and receiving local goods to and from the cities of Mbandaka and Kinshasa. Because Basankusu is the last port of substance before the wilderness of the Lopori Basin, conservation efforts for the bonobo, use the town as a base. Being slightly more than 1° north of the Equator, Basankusu has a tropical rainforest climate. There is no real dry season, with monthly rainfall in the town ranging between averages of 69 mm and 213 mm, with most months at the higher end of that range. Average high temperatures over a year are between 30 °C and 33 °C, although throughout the day a high of 37 °C is not uncommon. Evening lows average around 20 °C. Being close to a major river and enduring frequent, heavy tropical rainfall, Basankusu is prone to the damaging effects of water. In July, 2010, the town was affected by flooding, with 1,400 people made homeless. Roads, which are all non-metalled, and bridges were also affected. Such frequent harsh weather conditions have an effect on the quality of life for local people. Waterborne diseases can become more prevalent, and the transport of goods, such as food, medicine, and trade goods, becomes more difficult. Commerce Basankusu is a centre for palm oil production and treatment. One company, Compagnie de Commerce et des Plantations (CCP), produces palm oil from plantations of African oil palms at nearby villages Lisafa and Ndeke. The factory at Lisafa is responsible for the treatment of the palm oil and production of soap. The plantation areas are as follows: 3,488 hectares (ha) of oil palms, and 372 ha given over to coffee. It is a major local employer, with almost 4,000 workers on its payroll. Although CCP is one of the successful businesses in the area, it is in dispute with village chiefs regarding land acquisition. In 2010, a worker would earn an average monthly salary of $40 (US dollars), depending on output. Basankusu's distance from the capital Kinshasa and the recent upheaval due to the First and Second Congo Wars have made trade with the outside world difficult. However, the distribution of local products, such as maize, cassava, rice, palm oil, peanuts, and rubber, is starting to increase as more river-boats make the journey from the capital. The frustration of local producers was brought to the attention of the press by Mlle Jeanne-Marie Abanda, Director of Caritas Basankusu, when she explained their difficulties in December 2009: The same information is reported by the Congolese Control Office (Office Congolais de Controle). Jef Dupain, an African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) primatologist, who has spent more than a decade on the frontlines in the Congo working with bonobos, has also stated the devastating impact a lack of transport for trade has on conservation: "You can't just tell the local people not to eat bushmeat. You're not taken seriously." Because of this, an AWF-funded cargo barge, the Ferbo I, now travels up and down the Congo and Maringa Rivers in the Congo to collect agricultural products from local farmers. Communication and transportation The isolated situation of the town makes communication with the wider world challenging. During the military conflict of 1998–2003, Basankusu was in rebel (Movement for the Liberation of Congo, MLC) hands and cut off from trade and relief from the rest of the world. The roads within Basankusu are non-metalled and prone to erosion from the frequent, torrential downpours. Roads to other towns and villages are also non-metalled; their condition has continued to decline since the country's independence from Belgium in 1960. The metal Bailey bridges, which span ravines and streams along the roads, are also in very poor condition and in danger of collapse in some cases. Motor vehicles are rare and are usually only owned by businesses, hospitals, Christian missions, and government organisations. The rivers provide the most obvious means of transporting goods and people. A 700-kilometre boat journey from Basankusu to the capital, Kinshasa, can take several weeks. Major barge operators are Transports Fluvial et Commerce de l'Equateur (TFCE) and Office National des Transports (ONATRA). Passengers often travel in cramped conditions, in some cases travelling atop the logs being pushed along the river by the barges. They are victim to high prices for food and other essentials along the way. The frequent breakdown of these river boats puts passengers in a precarious position regarding daily sustenance; a delay of several days can oblige passengers to sell all their belongings so that they can buy a meal. The poor communication within the country, generally, means that passengers cannot be helped by friends or family. There is an airport, consisting of a 1,480-metre gravelled airstrip and a small building where passengers can wait. One 28-seater passenger plane to and from Kinshasa lands at Basankusu Airport each week, and an occasional 16-seat capacity plane associated with the palm oil plantation. Several cargo planes also land here. The cost of a flight, however, is beyond the means of most private individuals; passengers tend to be people working for NGOs or businesses in Kinshasa. There is no postal service in Basankusu. To send letters, the custom is to give them to someone who is travelling or the pilot of a plane, who will send them from Kinshasa or Europe. Until recently, there was no telephone system in Basankusu. The installation of two mobile phone masts, in 2006, each with its own generator and watchman, has made a large difference in the lives of many people. The phone networks, one of which is the South African company Vodacom, enable people to keep in touch with family and friends who have migrated to Kinshasa or further afield. The signal stops as you leave Basankusu. Local food Cassava (yuca), which originated in South America and the Caribbean, is the staple food in Basankusu. The roots are made into cassava bread, known as kwanga, and other cassava-based dishes. The leaves are also used as a green vegetable and are compared to spinach for taste and texture. Moambe mwambi or mwambe (), is the name given to the sauce of palm oil or peanuts. Moambe chicken is also considered a national dish. The chicken meat is coated in the rich moambe sauce and is usually accompanied by rice, cooked cassava leaves (mpondu), and chili pepper (pili-pili). The people of Basankusu usually keep vegetable gardens away from the town itself. They are cut into the forest and fit the slash and burn model of farming. These plots of land are often only partially cleared, with house-sized termite hills and the trunks of felled trees left to supply firewood for the year's cooking. Cassava is the main crop. It can be grown for the table as well as for the market-place. Peanuts, maize, papaya, pineapples, avocados, oil palms, and other fruits and vegetables are also grown. Maize, although sold steaming hot as a fast food in the market, is primarily produced for alcohol production. Heads of corn are cut up and boiled into a mash, which is then fermented and distilled using improvised stills made from cut oil drums. Because of the woody core of the cobs of corn, the alcohol produced contains high levels of methanol, which is toxic. It is known as lotoko or bompulo. Palm wine, on the other hand, is made from the sap of a wild palm tree, is fermented by natural yeasts, and gives an alcohol content of between five and seven percent. The marketplace is a place for buying and selling locally grown foods and also foodstuffs from further afield, which have come up the river from centres of import, such as Kinshasa. Bananas, palm nuts, onions, cassava, and cassava leaves are sold — as well as some seasonal extras such as the savoury African plum (safu) and caterpillars (mbinzo) (similar to the Mopane worms of Zimbabwe). Bread, produced in cottage bakeries, is available, as is locally grown and imported rice, although neither of these products is comparable to cassava in popularity. Meat often comes from hunting. Conservation groups are concerned that, with the rise in the human population, many animal species are in danger of extinction because of the trade in bushmeat. Chimpanzee, bonobo, wild boar, monkey, antelope, and other wild animals are often sold in the market or at impromptu stalls around the town. In 1998, Jeff Dupain and others catalogued the types of bushmeat available in the two main Basankusu markets; they interviewed the stallholders to find out where the animals were hunted. Many people keep livestock around the family home. Chickens, pigs, and, less frequently, sheep and goats provide fresh food and a source of income. The rivers provide a great variety of fish, and locals often spend several days at a time fishing from improvised fishing villages along the river. Languages The dominant people of Basankusu are the Mongo; therefore, the Bantu language Lomongo, which carries with it many Mongo beliefs and customs through its proverbs and sayings, is spoken as a first language by most people. The lingua franca, Lingala (also a Bantu language), is spoken to cross the tribal divide – as it is in a great deal of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Because of the country's Belgian colonial heritage, French is spoken in all lessons in secondary schools and in government offices. Housing Bricks for houses are of several types. Termite hills are used to produce cement-free, cost-free, durable mud bricks in Basankusu, although fired and non-fired clay bricks are also used. Palm-thatched roofs and hard-earth floors are found in the majority of houses, but variations in construction include concrete floors and corrugated metal or fired-clay tiled roofs. Houses tend to have an outside sitting area, because of the warm climate, and overhanging roofs to create a sheltered area from the heavy tropical rain. The kitchen is usually a separate wattle and daub structure, behind the main house. The toilet, in a town without water mains, is normally a simple cubicle concealing a pit or "long drop" dry toilet. Basankusu is fortunate for having a good underground water supply and many houses have on-site water hand pumps. Habitat for Humanity has an established housing project here. Basankusu has grown rapidly since the recent national troubles of the two Congo Wars. Reasons for this may be the large increase in the population nationally, as well as migration from outlying villages. Migration is partly due to hardship caused by the lack of river transport and the poor access to everyday goods that has resulted. Basenji dogs The Basenji is a breed of hunting dog that is often seen in Basankusu. They are small, elegant-looking, short-haired dogs with erect ears, a tightly curled tail, and a graceful neck. They are also known as "bush dogs" or "Congo dogs". They produce unusual howls, yodels, and other undulated vocalisations, in contrast to the characteristic bark of modern dog breeds. The sounds are sometimes called a barroo and are due to the unusually shaped larynx of the dogs. This trait also gives the Basenji the nickname "barkless dog". Over centuries, its structure and type have been fixed by adaptation to its habitat, as well as use – primarily net hunting in extremely dense old-growth forest vegetation. Although these hunting dogs are often mixed with European breeds in Basankusu, pure Basenjis can be found in villages further upriver. In 2010, Basankusu served as a base for an expedition to collect breeding stock for the American market. Quality of life indicators Since the independence of the 1960s, there has been an increasing deterioration in the quality of life for people of Basankusu and the Democratic Republic of Congo generally. This decline has been especially bad because of the violent conflicts that have ravaged the country. The results have been catastrophic nationally: 80% of the people survive on less than one dollar per day. 75% of the population live in a precarious situation regarding food. 54% of the population do not have access to healthcare. One child in five dies before the age of five years. These numbers are not unusual for the Congo. Having been in an area of fighting during the military conflicts that took place from 1998 onwards, the population is still recovering from the resulting long-term effects. Basankusu was captured by the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC) on 29 November 1999, in a takeover that happened very quickly with no civilian casualties. However, food was taken from people's vegetable gardens during this time, although reports about treatment by the armed forces were generally positive. The health system in the Congo has eroded, not only as a result of war, but also after years of government neglect. Prevalent illnesses include meningitis, dysentery, cholera, trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), and mpox. Basankusu was the first place for an occurrence of monkeypox in humans to be recorded. There have been outbreaks of whooping cough, some cases with fatal results. In June 2010 an unidentified illness killed fourteen people in the nearby village of Songo. In 2015, Francis Hannaway, a British national, opened a therapeutic feeding centre in Basankusu, together with a team of 12 local volunteers. As of April 2020, the centre has treated over 4,000 malnourished children. Conservation See also Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape. Basankusu is an important staging post for conservation projects, for example, those relating to the bonobo. The town falls within the western limits of what has become known as the Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape, a proposed conservation area in the basin of the Maringa and Lopori rivers that includes the Luo Scientific Reserve around the village of Wamba. The landscape consists of dense forest to the east of Basankusu and north of the village of Baringa. Project stakeholders include the Max Planck Institute, African Wildlife Foundation, Source de Lomako (SoLo), Pygmy Chimpanzee Protection Fund, Bonobo Conservation Initiative, and Milwaukee Zoological Society. Over 400 species of birds can be found in the conservation area. In certain places, the density of Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis) – a species endemic to the centre and northeast of the Congolese forests, with feathers of deep blue with a metallic green and violet tinge – is probably the highest in the country. At least eleven species of diurnal primates have been observed in the Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape. The Dryas monkey (Cercopithecus dryas) is endemic to the basins of the Maringa and the Lopori, and only two examples of the species are known. The bonobo (Pan paniscus), Thollon's red colobus (Procolobus tholloni), the golden-bellied mangabey (Cercocebus chrysogaster), and the black mangabey (Lophocebus aterrimus) are found here. Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) is endemic to the flooded or floodplain forests of the Central Basin, and the Angolan colobus (Colobus angolensis) is known only in the Central Basin, the northeast of the Congo, and the Africa Great Lakes region. Other large mammals include the elephant (Loxodonta africana), the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), the bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros) – which is an antelope characterised by a striking reddish-brown coat, white-yellow stripes, and long, slightly spiralled horns – the African golden cat (Profelis aurata), and the leopard (Panthera pardus). Images See also Roman Catholicism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo References External links Basankusu: typical houses in the Congolese rainforest (YouTube video) Basankusu - Google Maps Basankusu Testimonies Populated places in the province of Équateur Communes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Articles containing video clips
4590862	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20BladeCenter	IBM BladeCenter	The IBM BladeCenter was IBM's blade server architecture, until it was replaced by Flex System in 2012. The x86 division was later sold to Lenovo in 2014. History Introduced in 2002, based on engineering work started in 1999, the IBM eServer BladeCenter was relatively late to the blade server market. It differed from prior offerings in that it offered a range of x86 Intel server processors and input/output (I/O) options. The naming was changed to IBM BladeCenter in 2005. In February 2006, IBM introduced the BladeCenter H with switch capabilities for 10 Gigabit Ethernet and InfiniBand 4X. A web site called Blade.org was available for the blade computing community through about 2009. In 2012, the replacement Flex System was introduced. Enclosures IBM BladeCenter (E) The original IBM BladeCenter was later marketed as BladeCenter E. Power supplies have been upgraded through the life of the chassis from the original 1200 to 1400, 1800, 2000 and 2320 watt. The BladeCenter (E) was co-developed by IBM and Intel and included: 14 blade slots in 7U Shared Media tray with Optical drive, floppy drive and USB 1.1 port 1 (upgradable to 2) Management modules Two slots for Gigabit Ethernet switches (can also have optical or copper pass-through) Two slots for optional switch or pass-through modules, can have additional Ethernet, Fibre Channel, InfiniBand or Myrinet 2000 functions Power: Two (upgradable to four) power supplies, C19/C20 connectors Two redundant high-speed blowers IBM BladeCenter T BladeCenter T is the telecommunications company version of the original BladeCenter, available with either AC or DC (48 V) power. Has 8 blade slots in 8U, but uses the same switches and blades as the regular BladeCenter E. To keep NEBS Level 3 / ETSI compliant special Network Equipment-Building System (NEBS) compliant blades are available. IBM BladeCenter H Upgraded BladeCenter design with high-speed fabric options, announced in 2006. Backwards compatible with older BladeCenter switches and blades. Features: 14 blade slots in 9U Shared Media tray with Optical drive and USB 2.0 port 1 (upgradable to 2) Advanced Management modules Two slots for Gigabit Ethernet switches (can also have optical or copper pass-through) Two slots for optional switch or pass-through modules, can have additional Ethernet, Fibre Channel, InfiniBand or Myrinet 2000 functions Four slots for optional high-speed switches or pass-through modules, can have 10 Gbit Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X. Optional Hard-wired serial port capability Power: Two (upgradable to four) power supplies, with Souriau UTG input connectors Two redundant high-speed blowers IBM BladeCenter HT BladeCenter HT is the telecommunications company version of the BladeCenter H, available with either AC or DC (48 V) power. Has 12 blade slots in 12U, but uses the same switches and blades as the regular BladeCenter H. But to keep NEBS Level 3 / ETSI compliant special NEBS compliant blades are available. IBM BladeCenter S Targets mid-sized customers by offering storage inside the BladeCenter chassis, so no separate external storage needs to be purchased. It can also use 120V power in the North American market, so it can be used outside the datacenter. When running at 120V , the total chassis capacity is reduced. Features: 6 blade slots in 7U Shared Media tray with optical drive and 2× USB 2.0 ports 1 Advanced Management module as standard (no option for secondary module) Storage: Up to 12 hot-swap 3.5" (or 24 2.5") SAS or SATA drives with RAID 0, 1, and 1E capability (RAID 5 and SAN capabilities optional with two SAS RAID controllers) Two optional Disk Storage Modules for HDDs, six 3.5" SAS/SATA drives each 4 hot-swap I/O switch module bays Power: Two 950/1450-watt, hot-swap modules and ability to have two optional 950/1450-watt modules, offering redundancy and power for robust configurations; C19/C20 connectors Four hot-swap redundant blowers (plus one fan in each power supply) Blade nodes list Intel based Modules based on x86 processors from Intel. HS12 (2008) Features: Processor: Celeron single-core 445 to quad-core Intel Xeon up to 2.83GHz Memory: 6 DIMM slots (up to 24GB) Hot-swap drives HS20 (2002–2006) Features: Processors: One or two Intel Xeon DP (single or dual-core) Memory: 4 DIMM slots Option for one or two 2.5" drives (ATA100, SCSI U320 or Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) depending on generation) Two 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) HS21 (2007–2008) This model can use the High-speed IO option of the BladeCenter H, but is backwards-compatible with the regular BladeCenter. Features: Processors: One or two Intel Xeon DP (dual or quad-core) Memory: 4 DIMM slots Option for one or two SAS 2.5" drives Two 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10Gbit/s Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) HS21 XM (2007–2008) This model can use the High-speed IO option of the BladeCenter H, but is backwards compatible with the regular BladeCenter. Features: Processors: One or two Intel Xeon DP (dual or quad-core) Memory: 8 DIMM slots Option for one SAS 2.5" drive or one or two SAS-based Solid State drives Two 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10Gbit/s Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X as well as additional Fibre-Channel or Ethernet ports) HS22 (2009–2011) Features: Processors: One or two Intel Xeon 5500 or 5600 series (up to 3.6GHz 4-core or 3.46GHz 6-core) Memory: up to 192GB DDR3 (12 VLP DIMM slots) Option for two hot swap SAS 2.5" drives or SSD (RAID 0 and 1 are possible) Two 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports (Broadcom 5709S) 1 CIOv slot (standard PCI-Express daughter card) and 1 CFFh slot (high-speed PCI-Express daughter card) for a total of 8 ports of I/O to each blade, including 4 ports of high-speed I/O Requires Advanced Management Module HS22v (2010–2011) Features are very similar to HS22 but: Memory: up to 288GB DDR3 (18 VLP DIMM slots) Up to two 1.8" disks (SSD, not hot swapable) Requires Advanced Management Module HS23 (2012) Features: Single-wide Processors: One or two Intel Xeon E5-2600 Memory: 16 DIMM slots, up to 1600MHz 2 hot-swappable HDDs (SATA/SAS) or SSDs Dual 10G/1G Ethernet onboard expandable to Virtual Fabric / vNic's onboard Requires Advanced Management Module HS23E (2012) Features: Single-wide Processors: One or two Intel Xeon E5-2400 Memory: 12 DIMM slots, up to 1600MHz 2 hot-swappable HDDs (SATA/SAS) or SSDs Dual Gigabit Ethernet onboard ports with TOE Requires Advanced Management Module HS40 (2004) Features: Double-wide (needs 2 slots) Processors: One to four Intel Xeon MP Memory: (8 DIMM slots) Option for one or two ATA100 2.5" drives Four 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports Two expansion slots for up to four additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) HC10 (2008) This blade model is targeted to the workstation market, Features: Processor: Single Intel Core 2 Duo Memory: 8GB max (4 DIMM slots) NVidia video adapter One SATA 60GB HDD Two 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports HX5 (2010–2011) This blade model is targeted at the server virtualization market. Features: Processors: 2 to 4 Intel E7, 6500 or 7500 series Xeon (410 cores per CPU, up to 2.67GHz) Memory: 256GB Max (16 DIMM slots); Expandable to 40 slots with a 24 DIMM MAX 5 memory blade (640GB total). Two 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports per blade AMD based Modules based on x86 processors from AMD. LS20 (2005-2006) Features: Processors: One or two AMD Opteron (single or dual-core) Memory: DDR (4 VLP DIMM slots) Option for one or two SCSI U320 2.5" drives Two 1Gbit/s Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) LS21 (2006) This model can use the high-speed I/O of the BladeCenter H, but is also backwards compatible with the regular BladeCenter. Features: Processors: One or two AMD Opteron (dual-core), support 65nm Quad core after BIOS update (tested) Memory: up to 32GB of RAM (8 DIMM slots) Option for one SAS or SATA 2.5" drive Two Gigabit Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre-Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10Gbit/s Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) LS22 (2008) Upgraded model of LS21. Features: Processors: One or two 45nm AMD Opteron (quad or 6-core) Memory: up to 64GB of RAM (8 DIMM slots) Option for two SAS or SATA 2.5" drive Two Gigabit Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre-Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10 Gbit Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) LS41 (2006–2007) This model can use the High-speed IO option of the BladeCenter H, but is backwards compatible with the regular BladeCenter. Features: Double-wide (needs 2 slots) Processors: One to four AMD Opteron (dual-core) Memory: up to 64GB of RAM (16 DIMM slots) Option for one or two SAS 2.5" drives Four Gigabit Ethernet ports Two expansion slots for up to four additional ports (Fibre-Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10Gbit/s Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) Data Storage Capacity ? LS42 (2008–2009) Upgraded model of LS41. Features: Double-wide (needs 2 slots) Processors: One to 4 AMD Opteron (quad or 6-core) Memory: up to 128GB of RAM (16 DIMM slots) Option for one or two SAS 2.5" drives Four Gigabit Ethernet ports Two expansion slots for up to four additional ports (Fibre-Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10Gbit/s Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) Power based Modules based on PowerPC- or Power ISA-based processors from IBM. JS20 (2006) Features: Can run AIX or Linux Processors: Two PowerPC 970 at 1.6 or 2.2 GHz Memory: 4 DIMM slots for PC2700 ECC (max 8 GB) Option for one or two ATA100 2.5" drives Two Gigabit Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) JS21 (2006) This model can have the High-speed IO option of the BladeCenter H, but is backwards compatible with the regular BladeCenter. Features: Can run AIX or Linux Can do virtualization, with Dynamic Logical Partitioning (DLPAR) capabilities Processors: Two PowerPC 970FX single-core at 2.7 GHz or two PowerPC 970MP dual-core at 2.5 GHz Memory: 4 DIMM slots for PC2-3200 or PC2-4200 ECC (max 16 GB) Option for one or two SAS 2.5" drives Two Gigabit Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10 Gbit Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) JS22 (2009) Features: Can run IBM i, AIX or Linux Supports virtualization, with Dynamic Logical Partitioning (DLPAR) and IBM Integrated Virtualization Manager (IVM) Processors: Two POWER6 dual-core at 4.0 GHz Memory: 4 DIMM slots ECC Chipkill DDR2 SDRAM (max 32 GB) One 2.5" SAS drive up to 146 GB Two Gigabit Ethernet ports card One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10 Gbit Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) JS23 (2009) Features: Can run IBM i, AIX or Linux Supports virtualization, with Dynamic Logical Partitioning (DLPAR) and IBM Integrated Virtualization Manager (IVM) Processors: Two POWER6 dual-core at 4.2 GHz 64 MB L3 cache (32 per processor) Memory: 4 DIMM slots ECC Chipkill DDR2 SDRAM (max 64 GB) One 2.5" SAS up to 300 GB or one SSD drive Two Gigabit Ethernet ports card One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10 Gbit Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) One CIOv PCIe expansion slot JS43 Express Features: Double-wide Can run IBM i, AIX or Linux Supports virtualization, with Dynamic Logical Partitioning (DLPAR) and IBM Integrated Virtualization Manager (IVM) Processors: 4 POWER6 dual-core at 4.2 GHz 128 MB L3 cache (32 per processor) Memory: 8 DIMM slots ECC Chipkill DDR2 SDRAM (max 128 GB) Up to two 2.5" SAS (up to 300 GB) or up to two SSD drives Two Gigabit Ethernet ports card One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10 Gbit Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) Two PCIe CIOv expansion slots JS12 Express Features: Can run IBM i, AIX or Linux Supports virtualization, with Dynamic Logical Partitioning (DLPAR) and IBM Integrated Virtualization Manager (IVM) Processor: One POWER6 dual-core at 3.8 GHz Memory: 8 DIMM slots ECC Chipkill DDR2 SDRAM (max 64 GB) Zero to two 2.5" SAS drive up to 146 GB Two Gigabit Ethernet ports, with optionan dual Gbit card One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre-Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (4 Gbit/s Fibre Channel, iSCSI, or InfiniBand 4X) PS700 Branded as part of IBM Power Systems. Features: Can run IBM i, AIX or Linux on Power Can do virtualization, with Dynamic Logical Partitioning (DLPAR) capabilities. Processor: One POWER7 quad-core at 3 GHz Memory: max 64 GB Two Gigabit Ethernet ports, with optionan dual Gbit card PS701 Features are very similar to PS700, but Processor: 8-core Memory: max 128 GB PS702 Think two PS701 tied together back-to-back, forming a double-wide blade PS703 Features are very similar to PS701, but Processors: Two 8-core at 2.4 GHz PS704 Think two PS703 tied together back-to-back, forming a double-wide blade. Cell based Modules based on Cell processors from IBM. QS20 Features: Double-wide (needs 2 slots) Can run Linux Processors: Two Cell processors at 3.2 GHz Memory: 1 GB XDRAM (512 MB per processor) 40 GB IDE100 2.5" drive Two Gigabit Ethernet ports Optional InfiniBand 4X connectivity QS21 Features: Single-wide Can run Linux Processors: Two Cell processors at 3.2 GHz Memory: 2 GB (1 GB per processor) Two Gigabit Ethernet ports One expansion slot for up to two additional ports (Fibre-Channel storage, additional Ethernet, Myrinet 2000 or InfiniBand) One High-speed expansion slot for up to two additional ports (10 Gbit Ethernet or InfiniBand 4X) QS22 Features: Single-wide Can run Linux Processors: Two PowerXCell 8i at 3.2 GHz Memory: Up to 32 GB of DDR2 SDRAM Two Gigabit Ethernet ports Expansion slots for SAS daughter card, InfiniBand 4X DDR daughter card and 8 GB uFDM Flash Drive UltraSPARC based: 2BC Themis computer announced a blade around 2008. It ran the Sun Solaris operating system from Sun Microsystems. Each module had one UltraSPARC T2 with 64 threads at 1.2 GHz and up to 32 GB of DDR2 SDRAM processor memory. Advanced network: PN41 Developed in conjunction with CloudShield, features: Single-wide Processor: Intel IXP2805 network processor Full payload screening with deep packet inspection (DPI) Full Layer 7 processing and control User programmability using Eclipse-based IDE and RAVE open development language Quad 1 Gbit + quad 10 Gbit Ethernet controllers Up to 20 Gbit/s DPI throughput per blade Selective traffic capture, rewrite and redirect Has LAN and WAN Interfaces Modules Switch modules The BladeCenter can have a total of four switch modules, but two of the switch module bays can take only an Ethernet switch or Ethernet pass-though. To use the other switch module bays, a daughtercard needs to be installed on each blade that needs it, to provide the required SAN, Ethernet, InfiniBand or Myrinet function. Mixing of different type daughtercards in the same BladeCenter chassis is not allowed. Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet switch modules were produced by IBM, Nortel, and Cisco Systems. BLADE Network Technologies produced some switches, and later was purchased by IBM. In all cases speed internal to the BladeCenter, between the blades, is non-blocking. External Gigabit Ethernet ports vary from four to six and can be either copper or optical fiber. Storage Area Network A variety of SAN switch modules have been produced by QLogic, Cisco, McData (acquired by Brocade) and Brocade ranging in speeds of 1, 2, 4 and 8 Gbit Fibre Channel. Speed from the SAN switch to the blade is determined by the lowest-common-denominator between the blade HBA daughtercard and the SAN switch. External port counts vary from two to six, depending on the switch module. InfiniBand A InfiniBand switch module has been produced by Cisco. Speed from the blade InfiniBand daughtercard to the switch is limited to IB 1X (2.5 Gbit). Externally the switch has one IB 4X and one IB 12X port. The IB 12X port can be split to three IB 4X ports, giving a total of four IB 4X ports and a total theoretical external bandwidth of 40 Gbit. Pass-through Two kinds of pass-through module are available: copper pass-through and fibre pass-through. The copper pass-through can be used only with Ethernet, while the Fibre pass-through can be used for Ethernet, SAN or Myrinet. Bridge Bridge modules are only compatible with BladeCenter H and BladeCenter HT. They function like Ethernet or SAN switches and bridge the traffic to InfiniBand. The advantage is that from the Operating System on the blade everything seems normal (regular Ethernet or SAN connectivity), but inside the BladeCenter everything gets routed over the InfiniBand. High-speed switch modules High-speed switch modules are compatible only with the BladeCenter H and BladeCenter HT. A blade that needs the function must have a high-speed daughtercard installed. Different high-speed daughtercards cannot be mixed in the same BladeCenter chassis. 10 Gigabit Ethernet A 10 Gigabit Ethernet switch module was available from BLADE Network Technologies. This allowed 10 Gbit/s connection to each blade, and to outside the BladeCenter. InfiniBand 4X There are several InfiniBand options: A high-speed InfiniBand 4X SDR switch module from Cisco. This allows IB 4X connectivity to each blade. Externally the switch has two IB 4X ports and two IB 12X ports. The 12X ports can be split to three 4X ports, providing a total of eight IB 4X ports or a theoretical bandwidth of 80 Gbit. Internally between the blades, the switch is non-blocking. A High-speed InfiniBand pass-through module to directly connect the blades to an external InfiniBand switch. This pass-though module is compatible with both SDR and DDR InfiniBand speeds. A high-speed InfiniBand 4X QDR switch module from Voltaire (later acquired by Mellanox Technologies). This allows full IB 4X QDR connectivity to each blade. Externally the switch has 16 QSFP ports, all 4X QDR capable. Roadrunner TriBlade (custom module) The IBM Roadrunner supercomputer used a custom module called the TriBlade from 2008 through 2013. An expansion blade connects two QS22 modules with 8 GB RAM each via 4 PCIe x8 links to a LS21 module with 16 GB RAM, two links for each QS22. It also provides outside connectivity via an Infiniband 4x DDR adapter. This makes a total width of four slots for a single TriBlade. Three TriBlades fit into one BladeCenter H chassis. See also BladeCenter Extension (zBX) Based on BladeCenter supercomputers: The IBM Roadrunner was implemented with BladeCenter components from 2008 through 2013 All supercomputers of Spanish Supercomputing Network; This includes Magerit and Marenostrum (the two most powerful supercomputers of Spain) and 6 small supercomputers. Ljubljana Supercomputing Center employs the BladeCenter Weta Digital uses BladeCenter to render The Lord of the Rings and other films Aquasar — watercooled BladeCenter prototype References External links IBM BladeCenter homepage Lenovo Press - replaced IBM Redbooks for Bladecenter IBM BladeCenter Products and Technology - IBM Redbooks BladeCenter HS23 (E5-2600) Product Guide Lenovo BladeCenter E Product Guide - Lenovo Press Installing VMware vSphere 5.5 on IBM BladeCenter H22 IBM BladeCenter Product Publications Quick Reference - IBM Redbooks Intel Server Products x4live.com - Latest News and Links on Modular System x, Modular BladeCenter and Systems Management IBM's Online Server Configurator coreipm.com - Board Management Controller (BMC) firmware & other information for building BladeCenter compatible blades BladeCenter BladeCenter Cell BE architecture Blade servers Computer-related introductions in 2002
4591548	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgency%20in%20Balochistan	Insurgency in Balochistan	The Insurgency in Balochistan is an insurgency or revolt by Baloch nationalists and Islamist militants against the governments of Pakistan and Iran in the Balochistan region, which covers the Pakistani province of Balochistan, Iranian province of Sistan and Baluchestan Province in southeastern Iran, and the Balochistan region of southern Afghanistan. Rich in natural resources like natural gas, oil, coal, copper, sulphur, fluoride and gold, this is the largest, least populated and least developed province in Pakistan. Armed groups demand greater control of the province's natural resources and political autonomy. Baloch separatists have attacked civilians from other ethnicities throughout the province. In the 2010s, attacks against the Shia community by sectarian groups—though not always directly related to the political struggle—have risen, contributing to tensions in Balochistan. In Pakistan, the ethnic separatist insurgency is low-scale but ongoing mainly in southern Balochistan, as well as sectarian and religiously motivated militancy concentrated mainly in northern and central Balochistan. In Pakistan's Balochistan province, insurgencies by Baloch nationalists have been fought in 1948, 1958–59, 1962–63 and 1973–1977, with an ongoing low-level insurgency beginning in 2003. This insurgency has begun to weaken. In an article titled "The End of Pakistan's Baloch Insurgency?", Baloch analyst Malik Siraj Akbar reported that Baloch militants had begun killing their own commanders. Furthermore, separatists in recent times have also accused their own groups of being involved in wide spread crime, robbery and rapes against Baloch women, with some claiming that what started as an idealistic political fight for their people's rights has turned into gangs extorting, kidnapping and even raping locals. However, Akbar called anger towards provincial Chief Minister Abdul Malik Baloch "growing and often uncontrollable". Baloch militants have taken some reconciliation offers from the government and offered to hand in their weapons. In April 2016, four militant commanders and 144 militants had surrendered under reconciliation. 600 rebels were killed and 1,025 surrendered after accepting reconciliation as of August 2016. In April 2017, another 500 Baloch rebels surrendered to the state, including members of BRA, UBA, and LeB. Baloch separatists argue they are economically marginalised and poor compared to the rest of Pakistan. China has invested $46 billion in the region. The Balochistan Liberation Army, designated as a terrorist organisation by Pakistan, the United Kingdom and the United States, is the most widely known Baloch separatist group. Since 2000 it has conducted numerous deadly attacks on Pakistani military troops, police, journalists, civilians and education institutions. Other separatist groups include Lashkar-e-Balochistan and the Balochistan Liberation United Front (BLUF). By 2005, the insurgency by Baloch separatists had once again resurged in Iran. The fight over the Iranian Baloch region bordering Pakistan has "not gained" as much ground as the conflict in Pakistan. Though since the mass unrest in Iran following the death of Mahsa Amini in 2022, protests and unrest in Iran's Sistan and Baluchistan province have surged, resulting in a bloody crackdown by the Iranian regime on its Baloch population.Human rights activists have accused nationalist militants, Government of Pakistan and Iran of human rights abuses in its suppression of the insurgency. The News International reported in 2012 that a Gallup survey conducted for DFID revealed that the most of the Balochistan province does not support independence from Pakistan, with only 37% of ethnic Baloch and 12% of Pashtuns in Balochistan favoring independence. However, 67% of Balochistan's population favored greater provincial autonomy, including 79% of ethnic Baloch and 53% of Pashtuns in the province. Area of dispute Historical Balochistan covers the southern part of the Iranian Sistan and Baluchestan Province in the west, the Pakistani province of Balochistan in the east, and, in the northwest, part of Afghanistan's Helmand Province. The Gulf of Oman forms its southern border. Mountains and desert make up much of the region's terrain. A majority of Baloch inhabit the region of Balochistan that predominantly falls within Pakistan's borders. Geographically, Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan (comprising 44% of the country's total area), but it is the least developed and least inhabited, comprising only 5% of the total population. Sunni Islam is the predominant religion throughout the Balochistan region. Stuart Notholt, in his Atlas of Ethnic Conflict, describes the unrest in Balochistan as a "nationalist/self-determination conflict". History Background The origins of the secessionist movement are believed to have started around the uncertainty regarding the Khanate of Kalat, established in 1666 by Mir Ahmad. The Khanate of Kalat occupied central portions of territory in present day Balochistan, and was one of the four princely states of the modern day province under British rule, namely Makran, Las Bela, Kharan and Kalat. Under Nasir I of Kalat in 1758, who accepted the Afghan paramountcy, the boundaries of Kalat stretched up to Dera Ghazi Khan in the east and Bandar Abbas in the west. However, in November 1839, the British invaded Kalat, and the Khan was killed in action during the invasion. Afterwards, the British influence in the region gradually grew. In 1869, the British Political Agent Robert Groves Sandeman ended up mediating a dispute between the Khan of Kalat and the Sardars of Balochistan, and established the British primacy in the region. The tribal areas of Marri, Bugti, Khetran and Chaghi were brought under the direct administration of a British Agent, eventually to become the Chief Commissioner's Province of Balochistan. Lasbela and Kharan were declared Special Areas with a different political system. The remaining areas of Sarawan, Jhalawan, Kacchi and Makran were retained as the Khanate of Kalat, supervised by a Political Agent of Kalat. In the 20th century, the educated Baloch middle class harboured hopes of their independence from British colonial rule. They formed a nationalist movement Anjuman-e-Ittehad-e-Balochistan in 1931. One of their first campaigns was to fight for the accession of Azam Jan as the Khan of Kalat and a constitutional government to be established under him. They were successful in establishing Azam Jan as the Khan but the new Khan sided with the Sardars and turned his back on the Anjuman. His successor Mir Ahmad Yar Khan was more sympathetic to Anjuman but he was averse to upsetting his relations with the British. The Anujman, transformed into the Kalat State National Party (KSNP), continued to fight for independence from the British. It was declared illegal by the Khanate in 1939 and its active leaders and activists were exiled. This paved the way for the formation of new political parties, Balochistan Muslim League allied to the Muslim League in June 1939 and Anjuman-i-Watan allied to the Indian National Congress in the same year. Led by Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai, the Anjuman-i-Watan was opposed to the partition of India and wanted a united India after the country gained independence from Britain. During British rule Balochistan was under the rule of a Chief Commissioner and did not have the same status as other provinces of British India. The Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the period 1927-1947 strived to introduce reforms in Balochistan to bring it on par with other provinces of British India. During the time of the Indian independence movement, public opinion in Balochistan, at least in Quetta and other small towns in northern Balochistan, was overwhelmingly in favour of Pakistan. The pro-India Congress, which drew support from Hindus and some Muslims, sensing that geographic and demographic compulsions would not allow the province's inclusion into the newly Independent India, began to encourage separatist elements in Balochistan, and other Muslim majority provinces such as NWFP. The Khan of Kalat lent great support to the Pakistan Movement but also desired to declare independence. Lord Mountbatten, however, made it clear that the princely states with the lapse of British paramountcy would have to join either India or Pakistan, keeping in mind their geographic and demographic compulsions. On 19 July, Mountbatten called a Round Table Conference meeting between representatives of the State of Kalat and Government of Pakistan. Mountbatten discussed with them the status of the Kalat State. The representatives of Kalat argued that Kalat, as per the treaty of 1876, was an independent and sovereign state and not an Indian state. Mountbatten accepted this position for the purpose of negotiation, although Kalat had always been a princely state. Thus, Mountbatten confined the topic of discussion to the leased areas of Quetta, Nushki, Nasirabad and Bolan. He explained that Pakistan rejected Kalat's claims that these areas should be returned to Kalat. Pakistan's position was that it would inherit all treaty obligations incurred by India to the foreign states. Kalat argued that the leases clearly stated that the other party besides Kalat was the British Government alone. Kalat argued that it was a personal agreement and there was no provision that the leases to the British would be inherited by others. Therefore, since the agreement was between Kalat and the British Government, Pakistan could not be the latter's successor party. Pakistan did not agree that the agreement was personal as personal agreements by nature implied that only a particular person was involved. Mountbatten also said that according to international law, treaties such as the one being discussed were inherited by successors and not invalidated by a transfer of power. Mountbatten also suggested that in case there was no agreement the matter could be put before an Arbitral Tribunal. Kalat wished to have further discussions on the matter. Kalat also argued that in case of a vote in the leased areas between joining Kalat and joining Pakistan then the vote would go in favour of the former. Pakistan did not agree that the vote would have such a result. Kalat also expressed its deepest desire to remain on friendly terms with Pakistan and stated that it understood that Jinnah, who was anxious for a correct decision, wanted more time to study the issues between Kalat and Pakistan. Mountbatten, however, suggested that Jinnah not be brought into the discussions. Mountbatten insisted that Kalat and Pakistan sign a standstill agreement, which both countries did. The Standstill Agreement also stipulated that both parties would discuss as soon as possible about their relationship concerning Defence and External Affairs. According to the Article I, 'The Government of Pakistan agrees that Kalat is an independent State, being quite different in status from other States of India'. However, the Article IV stated: Through this agreement, the British Paramountcy was effectively transferred to Pakistan. However, without making any agreement with Pakistan and in violation of the Standstill Agreement the Khan of Kalat declared independence. Later on, the ruler of Kalat unconditionally signed an Instrument of Accession with Pakistan on 27 March 1948, contrary to the wishes of his state's legislature, being the last of all princely states to do so. First conflict Balochistan contained a Chief Commissioner's province and four princely states under the British Raj. The province's Shahi Jirga and the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality opted for Pakistan unanimously on 29 June 1947. Three of the princely states, Makran, Las Bela and Kharan, acceded to Pakistan in 1947 after independence. But the ruler of the fourth princely state, the Khan of Kalat, Ahmad Yar Khan, who used to call Jinnah his 'father', declared Kalat's independence as this was one of the options given to all of the 535 princely states by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee. Kalat finally acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948 after the 'strange help' of All India Radio and a period of negotiations and bureaucratic tactics used by Pakistan. The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision in July 1948. Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim, refused to lay down arms, leading the Dosht-e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950. The Princes fought a lone battle without support from the rest of Balochistan. Jinnah and his successors allowed Yar Khan to retain his title until the province's dissolution in 1955. Second conflict Nawab Nauroz Khan took up arms in resistance to the One Unit policy, which decreased government representation for tribal leaders, from 1958 to 1959. He and his followers started a guerrilla war against Pakistan, and were arrested, charged with treason, and imprisoned in Hyderabad. Five of his family members, sons and nephews, were subsequently hanged on charges of treason and aiding in the murder of Pakistani troops. Nawab Nauroz Khan later died in captivity. Nawab Nauroz Khan fought a lone battle as the rest of Balochistan did not support the uprising. Third conflict After the second conflict, a Baloch separatist movement gained momentum in the 1960s, following the introduction of a new constitution in 1956 which limited provincial autonomy and enacted the 'One Unit' concept of political organisation in Pakistan. Tension continued to grow amid consistent political disorder and instability at the federal level. The federal government tasked the Pakistan Army with building several new bases in key areas of Balochistan. Sher Muhammad Bijrani Marri led like-minded militants into guerrilla warfare from 1963 to 1969 by creating their own insurgent bases. Their goal was to force Pakistan to share revenue generated from the Sui gas fields with the tribal leaders. The insurgents bombed railway tracks and ambushed convoys. The Army retaliated by destroying the militant camps. This insurgency ended in 1969, with the Baloch separatists agreeing to a ceasefire. In 1970 Pakistani President Yahya Khan abolished the "One Unit" policy, which led to the recognition of Balochistan as the fourth province of West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan), including all the Balochistani princely states, the High Commissioners Province, and Gwadar, an 800 km2 coastal area purchased from Oman by the Pakistani government. Fourth conflict, 1973–1977 The unrest continued into the 1970s, culminating in a government-ordered military operation in the region in 1973. In 1973, citing treason, President Bhutto dismissed the provincial governments of Balochistan and NWFP and imposed martial law in those areas, which led to armed insurgency. Khair Bakhsh Marri formed the Balochistan People's Liberation Front (BPLF), which led large numbers of Marri and Mengal tribesmen into guerrilla warfare against the central government. Assisted by Iran, Pakistani forces inflicted heavy casualties on the separatists. The insurgency fell into decline after a return to the four-province structure and the abolishment of the Sardari system. Fifth conflict, 2004–present In early 2005, the rape of a female doctor (Shazia Khalid) at the Sui gas facility re-ignited another long running conflict. Her case and the unusual comment by then Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf about the controversy, stating on national television that the accused rapist, an officer identified only as Captain Hammad, was "not guilty", led to a violent uprising by the Bugti tribe, disrupting the supply of gas to much of the country for several weeks. In 2005, the Baluch political leaders Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti and Mir Balach Marri presented a 15-point agenda to the Pakistan government. Their stated demands included greater control of the province's resources and a moratorium on the construction of military bases. On 15 December 2005 the inspector general of the Frontier Corps, Major General Shujaat Zamir Dar, and his deputy Brigadier Salim Nawaz (the current IGFC) were wounded after shots were fired at their helicopter in Balochistan Province. The provincial interior secretary later said that, after visiting Kohlu, "both of them were wounded in the leg but both are in stable condition." However, a 2006 cable from the Embassy of the United States, Islamabad leaked by WikiLeaks noted that,“There seems to be little support in the province, beyond the Bugti tribe, for the current insurgency.” In August 2006, Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti, 79 years old, was killed in fighting against the Pakistan Army, in which at least 60 Pakistani soldiers and 7 officers were also killed. Pakistan's government had charged him with responsibility for a series of deadly bomb blasts and a rocket attack on President Pervez Musharraf. In April 2009, Baloch National Movement president Ghulam Mohammed Baloch and two other nationalist leaders (Lala Munir and Sher Muhammad) were seized from a small legal office and were allegedly "handcuffed, blindfolded and hustled into a waiting pickup truck which is in still [sic] use of intelligence forces in front of their lawyer and neighboring shopkeepers." The gunmen were allegedly speaking in Persian (a national language of neighbouring Afghanistan and Iran). Five days later, on 8 April, their bullet-riddled bodies were found in a commercial area. The BLA claimed Pakistani forces were behind the killings, though international experts have deemed it odd that the Pakistani forces would be careless enough to allow the bodies to be found so easily and "light Balochistan on fire" (Herald) if they were truly responsible. The discovery of the bodies sparked rioting and weeks of strikes, demonstrations, and civil resistance in cities and towns around Balochistan. On 12 August 2009, Khan of Kalat Mir Suleiman Dawood declared himself ruler of Balochistan and formally announced a Council for Independent Balochistan. The council's claimed domain includes Sistan and Baluchestan Province, as well as Pakistani Balochistan, but does not include Afghan Baloch regions. The council claimed the allegiance of "all separatist leaders including Nawabzada Bramdagh Bugti." Suleiman Dawood stated that the UK had a "moral responsibility to raise the issue of Balochistan's illegal occupation at international level." The Economist wrote: In the aftermath of Akbar Bugti's killing, support for the insurgency surged with a large amount of support coming from Balochistan's burgeoning middle class. US-based exiled Baloch journalist and newspaper editor Malik Siraj Akbar writes that the ongoing Baloch resistance has created "serious challenges" for the Pakistan government, "unlike the past resistance movements", because it has lasted longer than previous insurgencies, has greater breadth—including the entire province "from rural mountainous regions to the city centers", involves Baloch women and children at "regular protest rallies", and has drawn more international attention—including a 2012 hearing by the US Congress. Islamabad has accused its neighbour India of supporting the insurgency in Balochistan. However infighting between insurgent groups as of late 2014 has weakened the movement. On 23 November Chinese Consulate was attacked by BLA fighters. As of 2018, the Pakistani state was using Islamist militants to defeat Balochi separatists. Academics and journalists in the United States have been approached by Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence spies, who threatened them not to speak about the insurgency in Balochistan, as well as human rights abuses by the Pakistani Army or else their family would be harmed. On 16 February 2019, armed men killed two Frontier Corps in Loralai. On 17 February 2019, another attack took place on Pakistani security personnel in which four members of the Frontier Corps were killed in the Gardab area of Panjgur District. On 15 October 2020, at least 14 security personnel were killed in the first incident after a convoy of state-run Oil & Gas Development Company (OGDCL) was attacked on the coastal highway in Balochistan's Ormara, Radio Pakistan reported. On 27 December 2020, seven soldiers were killed in a gun attack on a Frontier Corps (FC) Balochistan post in Harnai district. Through 2020, Pakistan recorded 506 fatalities (69 civilians, 178 SF personnel, and 159 militants), of which Balochistan alone accounted for 215 fatalities (84 civilians, 94 SF personnel, and 37 militants). The Province was a close second only to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which recorded 216 fatalities (61 civilians, 57 SF personnel, and 98 militants). According to the PIPS report, Balochistan is the second most affected province by Pakistan in 2021. The report said that 136 people were killed in 81 terrorist attacks in Balochistan last year, which were carried out by religious militants and Baloch nationalist organizations. Of the 81 terrorist attacks in the province in 2021, 71 were carried out by banned nationalist organizations such as the Baloch Liberation Army, Balochistan Liberation Front, Baloch Republican Army and Baloch Republican Guards. According to the PIPS report, 95 people were killed in attacks by nationalist organizations. In addition, 14 people were killed in five terrorist incidents in Punjab and 13 in six terrorist incidents in Sindh. On 18 January 2022, at least five people were injured on Tuesday when an improvised explosive device (IED) planted near a railway track in the Mashkaf area of Balochistan's Bolan district. On 20 January 2022, at least three people were killed and over 20 others injured by a bombing in Anarkali Bazaar, Lahore. Spokesperson of the Baloch Nationalist Army, claimed responsibility for this attack and said that it targeted bank employees. On 25 January 2022, militants stormed a check post belonging to Pakistani military in the Sabdan area of Dasht, Kech District in Balochistan killing at least 10 security personnel and injuring 3 others. The clash lasted for five hours in which militants also suffered several casualties. The militants also seized weapons that were present in the check post. On 28 January 2022, at least four people were killed and 10 others were injured in a blast in Mat area of Sui in Balochistan's Dera Bugti district. Balochistan Awami Party (BAP) leader Sarfraz Bugti claimed that "Baloch Republican Army terrorists" were behind the attack. On 30 January 2022, 17 people, including two policemen, were injured in a grenade attack in Dera Allahyar town of Jaffarabad district. In January 2022, militants carried out six attacks in which 17 people were killed, most of whom were security forces (14 security forces; 3 civilians), and 32 people were injured, most of whom were civilians (26 civilians; 6 security forces). On 2 February 2022, 9 militants and 12 soldiers were killed at Panjgur and Nushki districts of Pakistan's Balochistan province after forces responded to their attack. The Balochistan Liberation Army, claimed to have killed more than 100 soldiers at two military camps, claims rejected by Pakistan government. On 4 February 2022, at Chaman, a town bordering Afghanistan at least six people were injured in a grenade attack at para-military post. On 8 February 2022, a blast in Balochistan's Dera Murad Jamali town has killed one person and injured another two. A man identified as Dildar Ali was killed and two were injured. On 2 March 2022, a massive explosion took place at Fatima Jinnah Road in Quetta killing three people including a Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP) and wounding 25 others including two police personnel. On 8 March 2022, at least seven security personnel were killed in an explosion in Sibi, several minutes after President Arif Alvi addressed a colourful concluding ceremony of the Sibi Mela at a venue. on 15 March 2022, at least four soldiers of the Frontier Corps (FC) were killed and six were seriously injured when an improvised explosive device (IED) exploded near a security forces' convoy in the area of Sangan in Sibi, Balochistan. Conflict in Iran In 2014 there were about two million ethnic Baloch in Iran. In 1928, the new Pahlavī government of Iran was sufficiently well established to turn its attention to Baluchistan. Dost Mohammad Khan Baloch refused to submit, trusting in the network of alliances he had built up over the whole of the province south of the Sarḥadd. However, as soon as Reżā Shah's army under General Amīr Amanullah Jahanbani arrived in the area, the alliances dissolved. Dūst-Moḥammad Khan was left with a relatively small force and few allies of any consequence. The Persian army had little difficulty in defeating him. Once again Baluch political unity proved highly brittle. Dūst-Moḥammad eventually surrendered and was pardoned on condition he live in Tehran. After a year, he escaped while on a hunting trip. In due course, he was recaptured, and having killed his guard in the escape was hanged for murder. Baloch activists complained that the new governance was centralised and dominated by the Persians, "forcing the Baloch community and other minorities to fight to protect their rights." Baloch people in Iran have several grievances. The Shi'ite Islamic revolution perceived the predominantly Sunni Baloch as a "threat". Sistan-e-Balochistan, the province where Baloch have traditionally lived in Iran, has the country's worst rates for life expectancy, adult literacy, primary school enrolment, access to improved water sources and sanitation, infant mortality rate, of any province in Iran. Despite its important natural resources (gas, gold, copper, oil and uranium), the province has the lowest per capita income in Iran. Almost 80% of the Baloch live under the poverty line. Attacks by insurgents In the early 2000s the radical Islamist group Jundallah became active in Balochistan. The al Qaeda-linked extremist organisation has branches in both Iran and Pakistan. From 2003 to 2012, an estimated 296 people were killed in Jundullah-related violence in Iran. Attacks in Iran included bombings in Zahedan in 2007, which killed 18 people, and another bombing in 2009 that killed 20 people. In 2009, 43 people were killed in a bombing in Pishin. In July 2010, 27 people were killed in bombings in Zahedan. In 2010, a suicide bombing in Chabahar killed 38 people. Among the deaths in the Pishin bombings were two Iranian Revolutionary Guards generals: Noor Ali Shooshtari, the deputy commander of the Revolutionary Guards' ground forces, and Rajab Ali Mhammadzadeh, the Revolutionary Guards' Sistan and Baluchistan provincial commander. In 2010 the leader of Jundallah, Abdolmalek Rigi, was killed, causing fragmentation of the group but not an end to insurgent attacks. In October 2013, the group Jaish al-Adl (JAA, Army of Justice), killed 14 Iranian border guards in an ambush in the town of Rustak, near the town of Saravan. Shortly thereafter, the Iranian authorities executed 16 Balochs, on charges ranging from terrorism to drug trafficking. Another group, Harakat Ansar Iran (Partisan Movement of Iran, HAI) killed two Basij officers and wounded numerous civilians in an October 2012 suicide bombing against the mosque of Imam Hussein, in the port city of Chabahar (Sistan and Baluchestan Province). According to analyst Daniele Grassi, "Salafism plays an increasingly central role" for the "post-Jundallah" militants of JAA and HAI. "The rhetoric of groups such as HAI and JAA uses strongly anti-Shia tones. The two groups often refer to the Iranian Islamic Republic as a Safavid regime, in reference to the Safavid dynasty which introduced Shiism in Iran." Iran is also concerned about anti-Shia co-operation between the two groups and ISIS. Iran has accused America of supporting Jundallah "for years". The US government, which has officially designated Jundallah a terrorist organisation, has denied this charge. Iran has been angered by JAA's use of Pakistani territory as a refuge, and has threatened military operations in Pakistan to counter insurgent groups "on several occasions". Drivers of insurgency In Balochistan, Pakistan, "drivers" of insurgency have been economic, cultural, involving immigration and human rights. The immediate reasons for joining one of the several separatist militant groups vary among militants with citing the allure of power and excitement, a desire to honor their centuries-old tribal codes, gaining recognition for their region’s distinct ethnicity and even a belief in hard-line communism. Another cited reason by some is employment and funding to work as mercenaries for foreign state agencies. Economic inequality Economic inequality, and Balochistan's status as a "neglected province where a majority of population lacks amenities" is a dimension in the conflict. Since the mid-1970s Balochistan's share of Pakistan's GDP has dropped from 4.9 to 3.7%. Balochistan has the highest infant and maternal mortality rate, the highest poverty rate, and the lowest literacy rate in Pakistan. On the other hand, according to a report published in the Pakistani English-language Dawn newspaper, members of Balochistan's elite society, including provincial government ministers and officials, own "pieces of land greater in size than some small towns of the country", and had luxury vehicles, properties, investments and businesses valued at millions of rupees. Development issues Gas revenue Balochistan receives less per/unit in royalties than Sindh and Punjab provinces, since Balochistan's wellhead price five times lower than in Sindh and Punjab (the gas wellhead price is based on per capita provincial income in 1953). Furthermore, the government has returned little of the royalties owed to the province, citing the need to recover operating costs. Consequently, Balochistan is heavily in debt. Balochistan Province receives Rs 32.71 per unit on gas revenues, including a royalty of Rs 13.90, excise duty of Rs 5.09, and gas development surcharge of Rs 13.72. Many private individuals with gas deposits on their land also receive payments. Many Balochs argue that such royalties are too low. In response, in 2011 Prime Minister Syed Yusuf Raza Gilani announced an addition of Rs. 120 billion (US$2.5 billion) to the gas development surcharge and royalty portion of the "Aghaz-e-Haqooq-e-Balochistan" package. However, royalties often do not trickle down to the common people in Balochistan due to the corruption and wealth-hoarding of Baloch tribal chiefs. This has hindered the growth of infrastructure. Regional inequality Extensive road and rail links developed by British colonialists in northern parts of Balochistan province have brought greater economic development to areas mainly inhabited by ethnic Pashtuns, which has also heightened nationalism among ethnic Balochs living in the southern parts of the within the province. Gwadar Purchased by the government of Pakistan from Oman in 1958, the construction of the megaport of Gwadar beginning in 2002 became another source of grievances. Baloch complain that construction of the port relies on Chinese engineers and labourers, and few Balochs have been employed. A parallel town for workers at Gwadar is being built close to the old one to segregate Balochs from the growing influx of outsiders. The Pakistani government has stationed soldiers in the area to secure it from insurgent attacks. Multiculturalism and immigration Due to the historical shortage of skilled labour in Balochistan, skilled workers are often imported from other regions. Their arrival means new industries can develop, boosting the local economy; however, nationalists argue that this creates resentment amongst the local inhabitants. After the Soviet invasion, around 4 million refugees from Afghanistan arrived and settled in the region which has resulted in substantial demographic imbalance. Perceived marginalisation as a result of increased Pashtun migration from Afghanistan during the Afghan War drives the insurgency. Education issues A major factor in the Balouchistan conflict is education, which nationalists feel has been neglected. The government of Pakistan recognises that importing skilled labour from other regions has caused tensions in the region, and has thus sought to encourage scholarships for Balochi students so they can participate in development programmes. The quota for Baloch students in Punjab university was doubled in 2010 under the Cheema Long Scheme, on the order of CM Shabaz Sharif. The provincial governments of Sindh, Punjab and KP said they would take steps to encourage Balochistan students to enroll and benefit from 100% scholarships. Military response Many Balochis have not tended to look favourably on Pakistan and the army's intervention in politics as they see the military as dominated by Punjabis and the interests of the Punjabis (who make up 45% of Pakistan's population) and lacking Baloch representation. In the insurgencies themselves, the military's "harsh response" has led to "a spiral of violence". (See Human Rights Issues below.) A report by the Pakistan Security Research Unit notes, "Islamabad's militarized approach has led to ... violence, widespread human rights abuses, mass internal displacement and the deaths of hundreds of civilians and armed personnel." According to the International Crisis Group the attempt to crush the insurgency as in earlier insurgencies is feeding Baloch disaffection. Moderate Balochs have been alienated from the government by the imprisonment of civilians without charges, and routine kidnapping of dissidents. Foreign support Afghanistan Afghanistan has provided sanctuary and training to Baloch separatists in 1948, in the mid-1950s, and more vigorously under the regime of Afghan President Mohammed Daoud Khan. In the 1970s, Daoud Khan's government established training camps in Afghanistan, at Kabul and Kandahar, for Baloch rebels. These were the first modern training camps in the country. The camps in Kabul were under the supervision and control of Republican guards. The former Pakistani ambassador to the US, Hussain Haqqani, wrote that in the 1970s training camps were set up in Afghanistan by Daoud to support Baloch separatists in Pakistan. According to a student paper, "Pakistan's fear that a communist Afghanistan would embolden the Baloch and Pashtun Marxist separatists in the western Pakistani province of Balochistan was confirmed when Daoud began supporting Marxist Baloch and Pashtun groups in eastern Afghanistan". Daoud Khan ended hostilities against Pakistan following a 1975 Panjshir uprising led by Ahmad Shah Massoud against Khan's government. Visiting Pakistan in 1976, and again in 1978, Daoud Khan expressed his desire for peace between the two countries. In 1978, however, he was removed from office by a communist coup in Afghanistan, after which Nur Muhammad Taraki seized power and established the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Nur Muhammad Taraki reopened the Baloch training camps in Afghanistan and once again started offering arms and aid to Baloch rebels. According to WikiLeaks cables published in 2010, the then-president of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, had been providing shelter to Brahumdagh Bugti for several years. Brahumdagh Bugti, along with some 20 separatists, had fled to Afghanistan in 2006, and his presence in Afghanistan had created tensions between Pakistan and Afghanistan. In 2007 Pakistan's president, Pervaiz Musharraf, stated that Bugti was freely traveling between Kabul and Kandahar, raising money and planning attacks against Pakistani security forces. Musharraf repeatedly asked Hamid Karzai to hand over Bugti, which Karzai refused to do. In public, Afghan officials denied providing shelter to Bugti, but later, following a 2009 meeting between UN officials and Karzai, admitted that Bugti was indeed living in Kabul. While speaking to The Guardian, Bugti admitted that he was leading the fight against Pakistan's army. In 2010 he travelled to Switzerland and took up residence there. In 2017, his request for political asylum was rejected by Swiss authorities on the grounds that he had been linked to "incidents of terrorism, violence and militant activities". The Chief of Frontier Corps troops in Balochistan, Major General Obaidullah Khan Khattak, said in June 2012 that "over 30 militant camps" had been established in Afghanistan. The camps receive support from Afghanistan and are used "to launch terrorist and anti-state activities in Balochistan". Malik Siraj Akbar, a Washington-based analyst, states that Afghanistan has always been a relatively safe hideout for the Baloch nationalist militants. On 25 December 2018, Aslam Baloch, alias Achu, and six other Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) commanders were killed in a suicide attack in Kandahar, Afghanistan. A BLA spokesman confirmed their deaths. Afghan officials stated that General Abdul Raziq Achakzai had housed Aslam Baloch and other separatist in Kandahar for years. Moreover, the Afghan news channel TOLOnews reported that Aslam Baloch had been residing in Afghanistan since 2005. According to Kandahar police chief Tadin Khan Achakzai, Aslam Baloch and Abdul Raziq Achakzai were 'close friends' and that 'Afghans will continue supporting separatist groups in their fight against the government of Pakistan'. On 23 May 2019, a similar attack took place in Aino Mina, Kandahar. Laghari Bugti and three other Baloch insurgents were killed, while a further twelve were injured. Afghan provincial council member Yousaf Younasi . said it was the second attack on Baloch Liberation Army members in recent years in Kandahar's posh Aino Mina residential area, and that Aslam Baloch, alias Achu, had been killed in the same area. Baloch separatist leader Sher Muhammad Bugti confirmed that the attack had taken place, but said that target of the attack was a senior separatist leader, Shah Wali Bugti. He said that 'Baloch separatist are not safe in Kandahar and they have come under attack in three places over the past few months'. Kandahar Police Chief Tadin Khan stated that the attack in Aino Mena took place outside the house of a former National Directorate of Security (NDS) official. India Avinash Paliwal claims that in the 1970s, Junior level Indian intelligence officers were actively involved in operations in Balochistan. In a book he authored, Paliwal says these officers claim that "we gave Baloch everything, from money to guns, during the 1970s, everything". He further states that, like Pakistan and India, Iraq and Iran were bitter rivals. As a result, Pakistan and Iran had developed closer relations with each other, while India and Iraq did likewise. Arming Baloch insurgents in Iran and Pakistan was in the interest of both Iraq and India. Militant groups like Pasthun Zalmay, which were made up of Baloch and Pashtun militants, were in direct contact with Kabul as well as with Indian and Iraqi missions in Afghanistan. Pashtun Zalmay was responsible for a series of bomb blasts and other insurgent activities in Pakistan. As a consequence, relations between Iran and India deteriorated so much that in 1975, Indian diplomat Ram D. Sathe sent a secret letter to the Indian ambassador in Tehran in which he claimed that "it will be [only] a few more days before Iranians will stridently back Pakistanis (on Kashmir) ... Personally I do not think we should be under any illusion about this matter. I think Iranians will definitely back the Pakistanis". Later on, in 2008, Paliwal claimed that if there had ever been an India-Afghanistan axis on Balochistan, it would likely have been in full play during this period. Afghan intelligence chief Amarullah Saleh and Indian diplomat Mayankote Kelath Narayanan were closely engaged with Baloch militants. Paliwal claims that even if Indian intelligence agencies denied direct support to Baloch insurgents, it was unlikely that they would have remained aloof from unfolding dynamics. Atul Khare, who observed these events on a regular basis, confirmed that India had contacts with Baloch militants. India had given (limited) protection to sons and grandsons of Baloch leaders, as well as Akbar Bugti. However, Khare claims that India did not help Akbar Bugti when he was killed during the fight with the Pakistan Army. In January 2009, Baloch militants continued their attacks against Pakistan. Both Pakistan and the United Kingdom believed that India was providing support to the Baloch militants. The Indian newspaper The Hindu reported that Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) commanders had, in the past, sought medical treatment in India's hospitals, often in disguise or with fake identities. In one such case, a militant commander in charge of Khuzdar city was based in Delhi for at least six months in 2017 while he underwent extensive treatment for kidney-related ailments. Baloch militants' visits to India were often under assumed identities. Similarly, another Baloch Liberation Army commander, Aslam Baloch (alias Achu), was also alleged to have visited India, where he met with people who were sympathetic to the Balochi cause. Aslam Baloch was also alleged to have been treated at a hospital in New Delhi. Jitendranand Saraswati, the founder of the Hind Baloch forum, claimed that Indians were actively contributing to the "freedom struggle of Balochistan". According to Malik Siraj Akbar, a Baloch journalist living in exile, there is a consensus among Pakistani authorities that India is behind the insurgency in Balochistan, without feeling a need to share evidence of Indian involvement. Pakistan has repeatedly accused India of supporting Baloch rebels, starting with an attack in Gwadar in 2004 in which three Chinese engineers were killed. Wright-Neville writes that the Pakistani government and some Western observers believe that India secretly funds the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA). The former American Af-Pak envoy Richard Holbrooke said in 2011 that while Pakistan had repeatedly shared its allegations with Washington, it had failed to provide any evidence to the United States that India was involved with separatist movements in Balochistan. He did not consider Pakistan's accusations against India credible. Holbrooke also strongly rejected the allegation that India was using its consulates in Afghanistan to facilitate Baloch rebel activity, saying he had "no reason to believe Islamabad's charges", and that "Pakistan would do well to examine its own internal problems". In 2009, a Washington-based think tank, the Center for International Policy, published a report stating that no evidence of Indian involvement in Balochistan had been provided by Pakistan, and that the allegations made by Pakistan lacked credibility, as Baloch rebels had been fighting with "ineffectual small arms". India has categorically denied the allegations, pointing to Pakistan's failure to provide evidence. Brahamdagh Bugti stated in a 2008 interview that he would accept aid from India, Afghanistan, and Iran in defending Balochistan. When asked about the alleged links between his group and India, he is reported to have laughed and said, "Would our people live amid such miserable conditions if we enjoyed support from India?" Baloch National Front secretary Karima Baloch claims that the allegations against India are an "excuse to label [the] ingrown Balochistan freedom movement as a proxy war to cover up the war crimes [the] Pakistani state has committed in Balochistan". On 29 March 2016, the Pakistani government announced that it had apprehended a serving Indian naval officer, Kulbhushan Yadav, who, in a video interview, admitted that he had been tasked by the Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) with destabilizing Pakistan. The Indian government confirmed that Yadav was a former naval officer but denied that "this individual was involved in subversive activities in Pakistan at our [the Indian government's] behest", and asserted that he operated "a legitimate business in Iran", from where he may have been "abducted" by Pakistan or, alternatively, by the extremist militant organization Jaishul Adil. In 2016, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi criticized Pakistan and alleged human rights issues in Balochistan during an Independence Day speech. Pakistan condemned Modi's remarks, calling it an attempted diversion from violence in Kashmir and a reiteration of Pakistani allegations vis-a-vis Indian involvement in Balochistan. Modi's comments were welcomed by exiled Baloch separatist leaders but sparked anti-India protests by political organizations and locals in Balochistan. On 8 October 2015, the Indian newspaper The Hindu confirmed the presence of Balaach Pardili, a representative of the Balochistan Liberation Organisation (BLO), in India. Balaach Pardili hails from Afghanistan and has been living in Delhi since 2009. Hyrbyair Marri, leader of the Baloch Liberation Army (BLA), had assigned Pardili the task of representing him in public events in India. Mr. Pardili appeared in public on 4 October 2015, under the banner of Bhagat Singh Kranti Sena (BSKS). His presence in India angered Pakistan. A Pakistani diplomat stated that in response to Pardili's presence in India, Pakistan could take up the issue in India's troubled North-Eastern region. Naela Quadri Baloch and her son Mazdak Dilshad Baloch also live in India. Mazdak Dilshad Baloch organizes campaigns in India to support the Baloch cause, while his mother, Naela Quadri Baloch, is trying to gain support for the establishment of a Baloch Government-in-exile in India. However, Naela Quadri Baloch's proposal for a Government-in-exile has been strongly opposed by other Baloch separatist leaders, such as Brahamdagh Bugti, who claim that Naela Quadri does not represent the Baloch people. On 7 May 2020, a retired Indian Army Major speaking on live television threatened to harm Pakistani soldiers in Balochistan. Iraq On 10 February 1973, Pakistani police and paramilitary raided the Iraqi embassy in Islamabad, seizing a large cache of small arms, ammunition, grenades and other supplies, which were found in crates marked 'Foreign Ministry, Baghdad'. The ammunition and weaponry was believed to be destined for Baloch rebels. Pakistan responded by expelling and declaring persona non grata the Iraqi Ambassador Hikmat Sulaiman and other consular staff. In a letter to U.S. President Nixon on 14 February, Bhutto blamed India and Afghanistan, along with Iraq and the Soviet Union, for involvement in a "conspiracy ... [with] subversive and irredentist elements which seek to disrupt Pakistan's integrity." Israel According to author Mark Perry, CIA memos revealed that in 2007 and 2008 Israeli agents posed as American spies and recruited Pakistani citizens to work for Jundallah (BLA affiliate) and carried out false flag operations against Iran. The Baloch Society of North America (BSO-NA) was a Baloch lobbying group founded in 2004 in Washington, D.C. by Dr. Wahid Baloch, a graduate of Bolan Medical College who had gone into self-imposed exile in the United States in 1992. Between 2004 and 2014, his group had been trying to gain American (as well as Israeli) support for the independence of Balochistan. He held meetings with several American Congressmen and allegedly had meetings with several CIA officials. Dr. Baloch had long claimed that the Pakistani government was committing acts of genocide against the Baloch people, and that Islamabad's aim was to plunder the province's vast mineral resources. In January 2014 he released a letter appealing to the United States and Israel for direct assistance in preventing an alleged "killing spree of Baloch people" by the "Pakistani army". In May 2014, Dr. Baloch disbanded the BSO-NA, claiming that the War of Independence of Balochistan was actually a "war of independence of Khans, Nawabs and Sardars". He has since formed the Baloch Council of North America (BCN), which has dedicated itself to working with all democratic and nationalist forces in Pakistan to secure Baloch rights through democratic, nonviolent means, within the federation of Pakistan. Soviet Union Pakistani scholar Syed F. Hasnat alleged that during the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989), the Soviet Union helped establish the Balochistan Liberation Army which chiefly operates from southern Afghanistan. United States The US State Department's official policy rejects secessionist forces in the Pakistani part of Balochistan, in support of the country's "unity and territorial integrity". The US has, however, expressed concerns over human rights issues and urged parties in Pakistan to "work out their differences peaceably and through a valid political process." In February 2010 a Jundullah leader captured by Iran, Abdulmalek Rigi, alleged on Iranian TV "that the US had promised to provide" Jundullah "with military equipment and a base in Afghanistan, near the Iranian border" for its fight against Iran. Rigi did not mention assistance in fighting Pakistan (which Iran accuses of backing the Jundullah, according to the BBC). The US has denied links with Jundullah, and according to the BBC, "it is not possible" to determine whether Abdolmalek Rigi "made the statement freely or under duress." In late 2011, the Balochistan conflict became the focus of dialogue on a new US South Asia strategy brought up by some US congressmen, who said they were frustrated over Pakistan's alleged continued support to the Afghan Taliban, which they said led to the continuation of the War in Afghanistan. Although this alternative to the Obama Administration's Af-Pak policy has generated some interest, "its advocates clearly do not yet have broad support". In the 1980s the CIA, the Iraqi Intelligence Service, Pakistani Sunni extremist group Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan, and the Mujahedin e-Kalq supported a Baluchi tribal uprising against Iran. A February 2011 article by Selig S. Harrison of the Center for International Policy called for supporting "anti-Islamist forces" along the southern Arabian Sea coast, including "Baluch insurgents fighting for independence from Pakistan", as a means of weakening the "rising tide of anti-American passion" in Pakistan and heading off any alliance between Islamabad and Beijing – Pakistan having granted China access to a naval base at Gwadar. United States of America has also designated Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) as a global terrorist organization on 2 July 2019. Decline in insurgency The separatist insurgency peaked after the death of nationalist leader Akbar Bugti in 2006. However, since 2013, the strength and intensity of insurgency has gradually declined. 2013 Elections resulted in the formation of coalition among Baloch and Pashtun ethno-nationalist political parties and they ruled the province for the next four years. The decline of Marxist ideology is also one of the factors which limit the scope of the nationalist insurgency. The separatist groups follow Marxism. However, the ideology itself has died across the world. Hence, the founding fathers of the Baloch revolution are dead and there are no ideologies to succeed them. Similarly, disagreement which most of the time lead to clashes among the separatist groups and attacks on pro-government leaders and politicians who are willing to take part in election has also contributed to the decline in separatist appeal. Another factor which limits the scope of nationalist insurgency is the infighting among the separatist groups. Separatists have also been fighting among themselves. On 30 June 2015, Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) clashed with United Baloch Army (UBA), which resulted in death of twenty separatist on both sides. Previously, BLA had attacked and captured one of the commander of UBA and killed four other members of UBA. Moreover, the separatists have been losing ranks. Though the exact strength of Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) is not known, analyst believe that BLA now only has several hundred fighters based out of Afghanistan Balochistan borderland. The group is the only one to survive out of other separatist groups (UBA, BLF, BLUF and LeB) who once operated in the region. Furthermore, Baloch separatist themselves stand accused of rights abuses. Human Rights Watch (HRW) published a 40-page report which criticised Baloch nationalists of killing, threatening and harassing teachers. Human Right Watch (HRW) has also held separatist responsible for attacks on schools across the province. Another factor which limits the scope of nationalist insurgency is the lack of support from locals as majority of locals don't support separatist groups. Locals support political parties who use legislature to address their grievances. Human rights issues Human Right Organisations have held Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) responsible for ethnic cleansing in the province as Brahamdagh Bugti (alleged leader of BLA), during a TV interview on 15 April 2009, urged separatists to kill non-Baloch residing in Balochistan. His actions allegedly lead to the death of 500 non-Baloch citizens in the province. According to The Economist around 800 non-Baloch settlers and Baloch have been killed by Baloch militant groups since 2006. Similarly, Human Right Watch have also held Baloch militants groups like Baloch liberation army (BLA) and Balochistan Liberation United Front (BLUF) to be responsible for attacks on schools, teachers and students in the province. As a result, many teachers have sought transfer to secure areas such as Quetta or have moved out of province entirely. Separatist militants groups have also claimed responsibility for attacking and killing Journalists in the province. Apart from Human Right Organisations, Baloch separatists themselves have accused each other of being involved in Human right violations. In the period 2003 to 2012, it is estimated that 8000 people were abducted by Pakistani security forces in Balochistan. In 2008 alone, more than 1100 Baloch people disappeared. There have also been reports of torture. An increasing number of bodies "with burn marks, broken limbs, nails pulled out, and sometimes with holes drilled in their heads" are being found on roadsides as the result of a "kill and dump" campaign allegedly conducted by Pakistani security forces, particularly Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and the Frontier Corps (FC). A 2013 report from the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan identified ISI and Frontier Corps as the perpetrators for many disappearances, while noting a more cooperative stance from these agencies in recent years as perceived by local police forces. The Pakistan Rangers are also alleged to have committed a vast number of human rights violations in the region. No one has been held responsible for the crimes. However, Pakistani security officials have rejected all the allegations made against them. Major General Obaid Ullah Khan claim that Baloch militants are using Frontier Corps (FC) uniform to kidnap people and malign the good name of Frontier Corps. Baloch militants have also been found using military uniform which resembles the one used by Frontier Corps while carrying out their activities. A senior Pakistani provincial security official claims that missing person figures are 'exaggerated', that 'in Balochistan, insurgents, immigrants who fled to Europe and even those who have been killed in military operations are declared as missing persons'. Reports have shown that many people have fled the province to seek asylum in other countries because of the unrest caused by separatist militants. Militant groups like Lashkar-e-Jhangvi have systematically targeted Shia Muslims in Balochistan, with about 600 being killed in attacks in recent years. During a camp at Broken Chair, Geneva, Baloch Republican Party (BRP) leader Sher Baz Bugti alleged that Baloch youth, women and children were kept in "torture cells". BRP chief Brahumdagh Bugti called upon human rights organisation, including the United Nations, to take steps to stop the alleged "Baloch genocide". Sunni extremism and religious persecution of Zikris The activities of terrorist organisations such as Lashkar-i-Jhangvi and Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, have produced a surge in religious extremism in Balochistan. Hindus, Shias (including Hazaras) and Zikris have been targeted, resulting in the migration of over 300,000 of them from Baluchistan. Baloch Liberation Front (BLF) and Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) have also targeted Zikris in the province. Supreme Court investigation There are more than 5,000 cases of 'forced disappearances' in Balochistan. Many are innocent and stuck in Pakistan's slow court system whilst others are in prison awaiting charges on a range of things such as gun smuggling and robbery. The chief justice of an apex court of Pakistan asked about the situation and said it was going out of control in Balochistan. The Supreme Court is currently investigating the "missing persons" and issued an arrest warrant for the former Military Dictator Pervez Musharaff. Furthermore, the Chief Justice of the court said the military must act under the government's direction and follow well-defined parameters set by the Constitution. Missing people found In June 2011, the prime minister was informed that 41 missing people had returned to their homes, false cases against 38 had been withdrawn and several others had been traced. The PM urged police to trace the missing people and help them to return to their homes. In 2011, government established a commission which registered 5,369 missing person's complaints. The commission claims to have traced more than 3,600 people. In October 2018, Balochistan National Party (Mengal) (BNP-M) claimed that around 300 missing Baloch persons had returned their homes. Similarly in January 2019, Voice of Baloch Missing People (VBMP) decided to end their suspend their protest after around dozens of returned to their homes. VBMP gave a list of 110 missing people which the VBMP expects the government recover them within two months. On 29 June 2019, around 200 missing Baloch people were recovered according to Balochistan Home Minister Mir Ziaullah Langove. According to Mir Ziaullah Langove VBMP had provided provincial authorities a list of 250 missing people and that the commission on enforced disappearances was also hearing about 40 cases of missing persons. Supreme Court orders The Supreme Court apex court headed by Justice Iqbal decided ordered the government to the grant of subsistence allowance to the affected families. Justice Iqbal advised families not to lose hope. He said the issue of missing persons had become a chronic problem and, therefore, the Commission of Inquiry on Enforced Disappearances, constituted on the orders of the apex court, should be made permanent. Effect of and remedies for the insurgency Development issues The government of Pakistan has repeatedly stated its intention to bring industrialisation to Balochistan, and continues to claim that progress has been made by way of the "Aghaz-e-Haqooq-e-Balochistan" package of political and economic reforms issued in 2009. This is challenged by Baloch nationalist groups, who argue the benefits of these policies have not accrued to native Baloch residents of the province. Baloch nationalist groups continue to highlight the extraction of natural resources, especially natural gas, from the province, without discernible economic benefit to the Baloch people. Nonetheless, the government of Pakistan continues to insist that industrial zones are planned along the new Gawadar-Karachi highway. According to the government, this development is envisaged to bring accelerated progress in the future for the Baloch. In February 2006 three Chinese engineers assisting in the construction of a local cement factory were shot and killed in an attack on their automobile, while another 11 injured in a car bomb attack by BLA. China recalled its engineers working on the project in Balochistan. The progress in the hydro-power sector has been slow since then. The people of the region have largely maintained a nomadic lifestyle marked by poverty and illiteracy. The indigenous people are continuously threatened by war and other means of oppression, which have resulted in the loss of thousands of innocent lives over many years. Presently, according to Amnesty International, Baluch activists, politicians and student leaders are among those that are being targeted in forced disappearances, abductions, arbitrary arrests and cases of torture and other ill-treatment. Economic effects and shortage of skilled workers and goods The chief minister of the province has said "A large number of professors, teachers, engineers, barbers and masons are leaving the province for fear of attacks, This inhuman act will push the Baloch nation at least one century back. The Baloch nation will never forgive whoever is involved in target killings... He said the government has approved three university campuses, three medical colleges and hospitals for Turbat, Mastung, Naseerabad and Loralai districts but there was shortage of teachers in the area". Rice traders from Punjab have also been killed in target killing, this has resulting in higher prices of foods items in Balochistan. Almost 40 people of non-Balochi ethnic groups were killed in 2009. MPA personal development budget Funding for Balochistan's annual development programme in 2010–11 was R27 billion, as compared to R13 billion in 2007–08. This allowed each Member of the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan a personal development budget of 180 million for his or her constituency, with the figure increasing to 250 million in 2011–2012. However, critics argue that development funding is not a fix for deep political issues, and that MPAs have no incentive to find political solutions with the insurgents when they believe they will receive more funding as long as the insurgency continues. There have also been allegations that MPAs are exploiting the PSDP programme to arrange kickback schemes and other forms of corruption. Gadani Energy Corridor Four coal-fired power plants will be built Gadani, creating a power corridor in Balochistan based on the Houston Energy Corridor. This was announced by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif during a visit to the region. The Gadani Power Park and it is expected to generate 5200 MW. Some nationalist groups objected to the project, saying they had not been consulted and instead favored expanding access to electricity in the province rather than increasing capacity. Farm subsidy The Federal government announced it would transfer Rs4 billion subsidy to Provincial Government to be passed onto farmers in Balochistan to promote for tube-wells. The Provincial Government announced it would spend further Rs3 billion to support the Federal Programme. However, high levels of corruption amongst civil servants and senior ministers may mean the common man only gets partial benefit. Army Education City at Sui In January 2011 then Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army, General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, announced the establishment of Education City in Sui. The military said it had built colleges in Balochistan, such as Balochistan Institute of Technical Education (BITE) and the Gwadar Institute of Technical Education (GITE) with approximately 1,673 graduates. Around 22,786 Baloch students attend military-run educational institutions. See also Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province) Baloch nationalism Las Bela Kharan Khanate of Kalat Baluchistan States Union Human rights violations in Balochistan Forced disappearance in Pakistan Balochistan Liberation Army Notes References Bibliography External links Unrest simmers in Pakistan province The real Balochistan by Sana Baloch Balochistan in focus by Rahimullah Yusufzai Ethnicity and Provincialism in Pakistan by Adnan Syed. Government of Liaquat Ali Khan Government of Yousaf Raza Gillani Government of Shaukat Aziz History of Balochistan Imran Khan administration Nawaz Sharif administration Politics of Balochistan, Pakistan Provincial disputes in Pakistan Proxy wars Separatism in Pakistan 20th-century conflicts 20th century in Afghanistan 20th century in Iran 20th century in Pakistan 21st-century conflicts 21st century in Afghanistan 21st century in Iran 21st century in Pakistan Insurgency
4591594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%20Stelmach	Ed Stelmach	Edward Michael Stelmach (; born May 11, 1951) is a Canadian politician who served as the 13th premier of Alberta, from 2006 to 2011. The grandson of Ukrainian immigrants, Stelmach was born and raised on a farm near Lamont and fluently speaks the distinctive Canadian dialect of Ukrainian. He spent his entire pre-political adult life as a farmer, except for some time spent studying at the University of Alberta. His first foray into politics was a 1986 municipal election, when he was elected to Lamont County council. A year into his term, he was appointed reeve. He continued in this position until his entry into provincial politics. In the 1993 provincial election, Stelmach was elected as the Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) for Vegreville-Viking (later Fort Saskatchewan-Vegreville). A Progressive Conservative, he served in the cabinets of Ralph Klein—at various times holding the portfolios of Intergovernmental Relations, Transportation, Infrastructure, and Agriculture, Food, and Rural Development—where he developed a reputation as a low-key politician who avoided the limelight. When Klein resigned the party's leadership in 2006, Stelmach was among the first to present his candidature to replace him. After a third-place finish on the first ballot of the leadership race, he won an upset second ballot victory over former provincial treasurer Jim Dinning. Stelmach's premiership was heavily focused on management of the province's oil reserves, especially those of the Athabasca Oil Sands. He rejected calls from environmentalists to slow the pace of development in the Fort McMurray area, and similarly opposed calls for carbon taxes. Other policy initiatives included commencing an overhaul of the province's health governance system, amendments to the Alberta human rights code, a re-introduction of all-party committees to the Legislature, and the conclusion of a major labour agreement with Alberta's teachers. His government also attracted controversy for awarding itself a 30% pay increase shortly after its re-election, and featured strained relations with Calgary, one of Klein's former strongholds. Despite this, Stelmach increased the Progressive Conservatives' already substantial majority in the 2008 election. With the advent of the late-2000s recession, Stelmach had to cope with a deteriorating economic situation and the Alberta government's first budget deficit in 16 years. Stelmach was succeeded as Premier by Alison Redford on October 7, 2011. He joined the board of Covenant Health a year later, and has been its chair since January 2016. Background Edward Michael Stelmach was born on a farm near Lamont, Alberta, the grandson of immigrants from Zavyche, Ukraine. His grandparents settled near Andrew, Alberta in 1898, after bypassing Saskatchewan because they did not care for the terrain. His parents, Nancy (née Koroluk) and Michael N. Stelmach, had five children, of whom Edward was the youngest, ten years younger than his closest sibling. Stelmach was raised speaking Ukrainian, and did not learn English until he started attending school. He was raised a Ukrainian Catholic, and continues to attend church regularly, sing in the church choir, and act as a volunteer caretaker for the cemetery. Through high school, he worked as a well-digger and a Fuller Brush salesman, where he said his grasp of Ukrainian helped him make sales. After graduating high school—his grade 12 yearbook called him a future Prime Minister of Canada—he attended the University of Alberta, intending to become a lawyer. He continued there, working as an assistant manager at Woodward's, until 1973, when his oldest brother, Victor, died. While his family had intended for Victor to take over the farm that his grandparents had settled 75 years before, Stelmach dropped out of university, returned home, and bought the land from his parents. He continues to farm the land today. As a teenager, he met Marie Warshawski at the wedding of a mutual friend. They married in 1973, and have three sons and a daughter. Stelmach entered politics in 1986 with his election to the council of Lamont County; one year later, he was appointed county reeve, a position he held until his entry into provincial politics in 1993. MLA and minister Stelmach ran for the Legislative Assembly of Alberta as a Progressive Conservative in the 1993 provincial election, defeating incumbent New Democrat Derek Fox in the riding of Vegreville-Viking. Stelmach became a member of the Deep Six, a group of enthusiastically fiscally conservative rookie MLAs; in addition to supporting Premier Ralph Klein's aggressive deficit-cutting, Stelmach practiced fiscal restraint himself, incurring low office expenses and declining a government vehicle. During his first term, Stelmach served as Deputy Whip and, later, Chief Government Whip for the P.C. caucus. As a backbencher, he sponsored the Lloydminster Hospital Act Repeal Act. This was a government bill that dissolved the then-existing Lloydminster hospital board in preparation for an arrangement compliant with both the Alberta government's new system of regional health authorities and the Saskatchewan government's system. Lloydminster sits on the border of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the hospital, although built and operated by the Alberta government, sits on the Saskatchewan side. It passed the legislature with little debate. In 1996, shortly before an April by-election in Redwater, Stelmach was accused of "pork barrel politics" for presenting, along with colleague Peter Trynchy and P.C. candidate Ross Quinn, a large cheque to a local seniors centre. Stelmach said that he had only stepped in to help the riding after its MLA, Nicholas Taylor, had been appointed to the Senate. After the 1997 provincial election, Klein appointed Stelmach Minister of Agriculture, Food, and Rural development. While he held this office, his department encouraged the establishment of feedlots. The opposition parties charged that the government was not regulating these sufficiently, but Stelmach responded that municipalities had the authority necessary to effectively regulate them. On the Canadian Wheat Board controversy, Stelmach sided with farmers who wanted an end to the federal body's monopoly on grain sales in the western provinces. Legislatively, Stelmach sponsored five bills while in the Agriculture, Food, and Rural Development portfolio, all of which passed through the legislature. 1997's Meat Inspection Amendment Act required meat inspectors to acquire a search warrant before entering a private dwelling, but also allowed for fines to be voluntarily paid without requiring a court case. It was called by Liberal agriculture critic Ken Nicol "a really good bill". The Livestock and Livestock Products Amendment Act of the same year eliminated government guarantee of the Livestock Patrons' Assurance Fund, designed to protect cattle producers from payment defaults by livestock dealers, in favour of leaving the Fund entirely in the hands of the industry. It too was supported by the Liberals, with Nicol calling it "very easy for us to accept". In 1998, Stelmach sponsored the Agriculture Statutes (Penalties) Amendment Act, which overhauled the penalty system for violation of various agricultural statutes, setting maximum fines and leaving the precise amount up to judges on a case-by-case basis. It also passed with Liberal support, as MLA Ed Gibbons said that it "really makes a lot of sense". Another 1998 bill was the Marketing of Agricultural Products Amendment Act, which allowed provincial agricultural marketing boards to revise their marketing plans, and was supported by the opposition. Finally, Stelmach initiated the Agriculture Statutes (Livestock Identification) Amendment Act, which allowed the government to delegate the inspection of branding to the cattle industry. The bill was the subject of considerable debate on second reading, but was ultimately supported by the Liberals on the third and final reading. In 1999, Klein shifted Stelmach to the new Infrastructure portfolio, where he made traffic safety a priority, increasing fines for traffic offenses, sometimes by as much as 700%. He also briefly aroused controversy by proposing reversing the slow and fast lanes on provincial highways, on the grounds that this would equalize the rate at which the lanes broke down and therefore save on maintenance costs; nothing came of the proposal. He established a fund for capital projects, but was criticized for not doing enough to address the deterioration of the province's infrastructure. In 2001, Klein separated Transportation out of the Infrastructure portfolio and appointed Stelmach to it, where the new minister advocated the use of public-private partnerships to build ring roads around Edmonton and Calgary. He also introduced a program of graduated driver licensing and initiated a review of traffic safety programs. Stelmach was re-elected by his largest majority yet during the 2001 election, and retained the Transportation portfolio until 2004, when he was reassigned to the position of Minister of Intergovernmental Relations. He resigned this position in 2006 in order to contest the P.C. leadership election (Klein had required that ministers intending to campaign to succeed him resign from cabinet). As minister, Stelmach kept a low profile. Mark Lisac, who was the Edmonton Journal's provincial affairs columnist during much of Stelmach's time in cabinet, later recalled that Stelmach "never did anything that was flashy or controversial in any way" and that "not a thing" stood out about Stelmach's ministerial service. This low-key style earned Stelmach the moniker "Steady Eddie", which would follow him to the Premier's office. 2006 leadership election Stelmach was the first candidate to declare his intention to run for the P.C. leadership, and picked up endorsements from nineteen members of his caucus (including cabinet ministers Pearl Calahasen and Iris Evans). However, former provincial Treasurer Jim Dinning had twice as many caucus endorsements (despite not having held elected office since 1997) and was generally considered the race's front-runner. Stelmach ran a low-profile campaign, touring the province in a custom-painted campaign bus, while most media attention was focussed on the rivalry between and the socially conservative Ted Morton. According to the race's rules, the three candidates receiving the most votes on the first ballot would move on to a second ballot, which would use a preferential voting system to select a winner. Stelmach finished third on the first ballot with 15.3% of the vote, 3,329 votes ahead of fourth place Lyle Oberg and 10,647 votes behind second place Morton. However, the fourth, fifth, and sixth place candidates (Oberg, Dave Hancock, and Mark Norris) all endorsed Stelmach for the second ballot. On this ballot, he finished in first place on the first count, fewer than five hundred votes ahead of Dinning. A majority of Morton's votes went to Stelmach on the second count, and he was elected leader. Financing Stelmach raised more than $1.1 million for his leadership campaign. After his victory, he revealed the names of the donors of 85% of this money, but declined to release the names of eighty supporters, citing their requests for privacy. These supporters had donated a total of more than $160,000. Party rules did not require any disclosure, and the disclosures by candidates varied—Norris named all of his donors, while Morton did not reveal any. Stelmach's partial disclosure was deemed insufficient by opposition leaders and Democracy Watch, whose head suggested that Albertans should assume that Stelmach's anonymous donors placed him in a conflict of interest until he proved otherwise. Stelmach also acknowledged receiving a $10,000 donation from the Beaver Regional Waste Management Service's Commission, a landfill operator owned by five municipalities in Stelmach's riding. While asserting that the donation was legal, Stelmach admitted that it was "clearly unethical", blamed overzealous campaign volunteers for soliciting it, and returned it after the end of the campaign. In the wake of the leadership campaign, Stelmach, along with Oberg, Hancock, and Norris, organized two $5,000 per plate dinners in January 2007 to pay campaign debts. After critics argued that the dinners were essentially selling access to the premier and two senior ministers, Stelmach cancelled them. Premier 2008 election Stelmach was sworn in as Premier December 14, 2006. On February 4, 2008, immediately after Lieutenant Governor Norman Kwong read the throne speech to open the legislative session, Stelmach requested a dissolution of the legislature with an election to follow March 3. Shortly before the writ was dropped, a group calling itself Albertans for Change began to buy print and television ads that attacked Stelmach for lacking a plan and portrayed him as unfit to lead the province. The group was funded by the Alberta Building Trades Council and the Alberta Federation of Labour, which led to a series of ads purchased by the National Citizens Coalition and Merit Contractors, in which it was accused of "putting your [union members'] money where [union leadership's] mouths are." Despite a campaign that was called disorganized and uninspired, Stelmach's Progressive Conservatives won 72 seats in the 83-seat Legislative Assembly, an increase from the 62 that the party had won in the previous election and only two seats short of Ralph Klein's 2001 landslide. Political analysts attributed the party's win to its ability to present Stelmach as "a cautious, straightforward and hard-working man with a plan for Alberta's future". The voter turnout in the election was 41%, the lowest in Alberta's history, and roughly a quarter of these had to swear an oath on election day after discovering they weren't on the voter's list. Opposition politicians and media blamed Stelmach's government for these problems, arguing that riding-level returning officers, who were nominated by Progressive Conservative constituency associations and who were responsible for voter enumeration, were not appointed early enough. According to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, "about half" of the 83 returning officers in the 2008 election had ties to the P.C. Party; the returning officer in Stelmach's Fort Saskatchewan–Vegreville riding had donated between $500 and $1,000 to Stelmach's leadership campaign. Alberta Chief Returning Officer Lorne Gibson, as one of his 182 post-election recommendations to the government, suggested that the appointment of returning officers be handled by his own, non-partisan, office. He had previously made this suggestion in 2006, but the government had not acted on it. He also recommended following the election that his office, rather than the government's Justice department, be responsible for prosecuting election-related offenses; the latter did not lay charges in any of 19 alleged campaign finance violations Gibson brought to its attention. In February 2009, Gibson appeared before the legislature's all-party committee on legislative offices to answer questions about the conduct of the election; there, he echoed opposition claims that the government, and not his office, was to blame for most problems. Shortly after, the committee voted 8–3 against re-appointing him, with all Progressive Conservatives on the committee opposing his re-appointment and all opposition MLAs supporting it. Opposition leaders David Swann and Brian Mason suggested that Gibson was being punished for criticizing the government. Energy and environmental policy Much of Stelmach's term as Premier was dominated by questions related to the Athabasca Oil Sands. The rapid development of these reserves was fuelling the Alberta economy's strong growth, but also raised environmental questions. After winning the Premiership, Stelmach emphasized that he had no intention of taking measures that would slow down oilsands development and suggested that the economy would find its own appropriate growth rate. He aggressively defended Alberta's oil at home and abroad, and called the idea that it was extracted at an unacceptably high environmental cost "a myth". When Liberal Party of Canada leader Stéphane Dion proposed a federal carbon tax to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, Stelmach rejected the policy on the basis that it would hurt the economy and would unfairly penalize the western provinces. Instead, he championed the development of carbon capture technology. In July 2008, Stelmach announced $2 billion worth of funding for carbon capture initiatives, for which he was applauded by industry groups. However, the Canadian Federation of Independent Business called it "a huge amount of money to spend on something that isn't proven", and Mike Hudema of Greenpeace suggesting that there were better environmental uses of the money available. Though Stelmach pledged not to do anything to curb the development of the oilsands, he did promise to review royalty rates—the rates paid by oil companies for the privilege of extracting Alberta's oil. He also committed to reducing the proportion of bitumen that left Alberta to be upgraded out of province, likening the export of bitumen to "scraping off the top soil" from farmland. Soon after becoming Premier, he commissioned the Alberta Royalty Review panel to make recommendations on the province's royalty regime; opposition politicians had accused the government of undercharging substantially. Stelmach rejected many of the panel's recommendations, and claimed to increase royalty rates by approximately 20% (25% less than recommended by the panel), however instead of an increase in royalties on oil and gas, Alberta collected $13.5 billion less from 2009 to 2014. Just after the 2008 election, Stelmach's government announced a five-year royalty break worth $237 million per year to encourage development that it feared would have become uneconomical under the new plan. He was less decisive in increasing in-province bitumen upgrading; in 2008 he conceded that Alberta would continue upgrading between sixty and sixty-five percent of the bitumen it produced for the foreseeable future, rather than the seventy-two percent target he had previously announced for 2016. This admission came in the wake of his government's approval of three new pipelines designed to export bitumen. In January 2008, Stelmach unveiled the province's "made in Alberta"—as distinct from imposed by the federal government or by international treaty—plan to cut carbon emissions in order to fight global warming. The plan called for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 14% (from 2007 levels) by 2050. Environmental groups and opposition parties suggested that this was insufficient in light of British Columbia's plan to cut emissions by 80% (from 2007 levels) during the same period, but Stelmach argued that Alberta's position as a supplier of oil to the rest of the country justified higher emissions. This was followed in June by the unveiling of the government's campaign to ask Albertans to make "one simple act"—such as composting, using reusable shopping bags, and replacing incandescent light bulbs with the more efficient fluorescent bulbs. Opponents argued that the emphasis on personal responsibility by individuals did nothing to address the greater environmental damage caused by the development of the Athabasca Oil Sands. In late April 2008 hundreds of ducks landed in a northern Alberta tailings pond belonging to Syncrude, where most died. The incident was a blow to Stelmach's efforts to convince the world that Alberta's oil sands were environmentally friendly. The number of ducks that died was originally reported at around 500, but in March 2009 Syncrude revealed that the number was in fact more than 1,600. In response to accusations from opposition and environmental groups that his government, which had known the actual number since the summer of 2008, had participated in covering it up to save face, Stelmach asserted that it had refrained from making the higher number public for fear of jeopardizing its investigation of whether Syncrude had violated any provincial regulations in the incident. Investigations were centred around the questions of whether Syncrude had immediately reported the incident as required (the government had first heard of it from an anonymous tip, though Syncrude reported it several hours later) and whether the company had the required measures in place to prevent ducks from landing on its tailings ponds (it had noisemakers designed to deter waterfowl, but these had not been set up at the time of the incident due to winter weather conditions). Syncrude was eventually charged with "failing to have systems in place to divert waterfowl", which carries a maximum fine of $800,000. Partially in an effort to counter-act negative publicity from oil sands-related issues—for example, the March 2009 edition of National Geographic Magazine contained a 20-page article portraying Alberta's oil sands operations as being highly environmentally damaging—in 2009 Stelmach's government spent $25 million on a rebranding campaign for the province. Among other things, it replaced the "Alberta Advantage" slogan that had long been in use with "Alberta: Freedom to create. Spirit to achieve." The campaign became the subject of some ridicule when the Edmonton Journal revealed that one of the photos used in it was not taken in Alberta, but at a North Sea beach in Northumberland. While the government initially claimed that it had intentionally used a foreign image to represent Alberta's engagement with the world, it later admitted that this was not the case, and that the photo had been used in error. Stelmach responded to the image, which showed two children running along a beach, by saying that "children, no matter where they are around the world, they are the next generation. And air quality, water quality, no matter where we live on this big globe, we're all responsible, and that's the message we're trying to portray." Energy and Utilities Board affair and land use policy In June 2007, the government-mandated Alberta Energy and Utilities Board admitted that it had hired private investigators to spy on landowners who opposed the construction of a major power line in the Rimbey area. Stelmach initially downplayed the incident, but ordered a judicial investigation once the province's Information and Privacy Commissioner initiated an investigation of his own. This investigation found that the EUB had violated provincial law and infringed on the landowners' privacy, while the judicial investigation criticized the EUB's tactics as "repulsive". The opposition parties called for the dismissal of the entire EUB and Energy Minister Mel Knight; Stelmach instead opted to appoint a new EUB chair. Stelmach's government also responded with legislation entitled the Alberta Utilities Commission Act (Bill 46), which would split the EUB into two parts: the Alberta Utilities Commission (responsible for regulating utilities) and the Energy Resources Conservation Board (responsible for regulating oil and gas). The legislation was controversial, as elements of the EUB's governing legislation that provided for public notice and consultation in the event of energy construction projects were left out. Opposition parties and advocacy groups charged that this was an assault on both landowners' rights and the environment. The legislation ultimately passed, and took effect at the beginning of 2008. Stelmach clashed with rural landowners again in 2009 when his government introduced the Land Assembly Project Area Act, designed to make it easier for the government to acquire large blocks of land for public purposes such as ring roads or reservoirs. The act allowed the government to identify land that it may be interested in expropriating at some point in the future and to indefinitely prohibit any development on that land that could conflict with the government's purposes. Despite vigorous opposition from landowners and the opposition parties, the bill passed the legislature in late April. Fiscal policy Ralph Klein's major focus for much of his premiership had been the elimination of the provincial deficit, and the government ran a record $8.9 billion surplus during Stelmach's first year in office. Alberta was in the midst of a major economic expansion driven by high energy prices and major oilsands development. This growth continued into 2007–2008, when the government's surplus was $4.6 billion. Both of these surpluses were higher than expected, and Stelmach's government followed a policy of placing one third of unanticipated surpluses into savings and two-thirds into construction projects. Critics, including Liberal MLA Laurie Blakeman and the Canadian Taxpayers Federation, charged that the government was not saving enough money in anticipation of a fall in energy prices. In her April 2008 budget, Stelmach's Finance Minister Iris Evans forecast a $1.6 billion surplus for 2008–2009. By August, she had revised this prediction to $8.5 billion. The major reason for this change is an increase in oil prices: while she had estimated in April that they would average $78 per barrel over the fiscal year, by August increases—including a high of $147 per barrel in July—have led her to make a new estimate of a $119.25 per barrel average. By November, prices had fallen to $55 per barrel, and Evans estimated a $2 billion surplus. By February 2009, the government of Alberta appeared poised to run a $1 billion deficit. In April 2009, Evans released her budget for 2009–2010, in which she anticipated a $4.6 billion deficit. This is the largest deficit in Alberta's history, and its first in sixteen years. The government's fiscal plan includes deficits until 2012–2013, when it again anticipates a surplus. Stelmach's approach to this deteriorating fiscal situation, part of a global recession, was to invest heavily in infrastructure in an effort to stimulate the economy and take advantage of low construction costs. He went as far as to advocate borrowing for capital construction, a departure from the Klein government's notoriously anti-debt approach. However, his government was also one of only two in Canada (the other being Saskatchewan's) to cut overall spending in the 2009–2010 budget. This approach drew the ire of Liberal leader David Swann, who supported increased government spending for economic stimulus purposes, but drew support from some economists and was defended by Evans on the basis that capital spending was at twice the per capital level of the Canadian average. Teachers pension liability During his first year in office, Stelmach and his education minister Ron Liepert concluded a deal with the Alberta Teachers Association (ATA) in which the province agreed to contribute $2.1 billion towards the $6.6 billion unfunded pension liability. This liability resulted from insufficient contributions to the teachers' pension plan during the period leading up to 1992. In exchange, the ATA agreed to a five-year contract extension. The deal was applauded by the opposition Liberals and New Democrats, but was criticized by the Canadian Taxpayers Federation, which called for a plebiscite on the issue. Pay increases Shortly after winning an increased majority in the 2008 election, Stelmach's cabinet approved substantial raises for themselves, increasing the salary paid to cabinet ministers from $142,000 to $184,000 and that paid to the Premier from $159,450 to $213,450. The increases also affect the severance paid to ministers who resign or are defeated in elections—under the program implemented by Ralph Klein's government to replace the previously existing pension program, departing MLAs receive three months' pay for every year they served, with the level of the pay based on their three highest-earning years. The increases were attacked by the Canadian Taxpayers Federation and the opposition parties, but Stelmach defended the raises as the first received by cabinet ministers in fifteen years and as being necessary to attract qualified people to politics. In early 2009, in response to the Late-2000s recession, Stelmach announced that his caucus would decline an automatic 4.9% cost of living pay increase. The following week, the legislature's all-party Standing Committee on Member Services extended this to all MLAs by voting unanimously to freeze MLA salaries for the fiscal year. Health policy Stelmach's policy on health care was highlighted by his removal of the province's health care premiums effective the end of 2008. Critics had denounced the premiums as being regressive, both because they were the same amount regardless of the payer's income and because people with better-paying jobs often had their premiums covered by their employer. The opposition Liberal and New Democratic parties had long called for their removal. This elimination was announced in a throne speech immediately before the dissolution of the legislature for the 2008 election, although it was initially promised to take effect by 2012. During this campaign, Stelmach promised to increase the capacity of Alberta universities to train doctors and nurses over four years, eventually resulting in the graduation of 225 more doctors, 350 more registered nurses, and 220 licensed practical nurses. After the registrar of the Alberta College of Physicians and Surgeons called the plan unfeasible, Health Minister Dave Hancock clarified that most of the increase would in fact come from the immigration of foreign doctors to Alberta, rather than from in-province training. Following the election, Stelmach's new Minister of Health, Ron Liepert, released the government's new health plan. In it, Liepert refused to characterize the problems in the health care system as being the result of doctor shortages, and instead promised structural reforms. He indicated that these may include consolidating health authorities, closing rural hospitals, and de-listing some health services from coverage under the province's public health insurance scheme. In May, the government took the first step in implementing these structural reforms by combining the province's nine health authorities into one health "superboard". In June 2008, three senior health officials announced that they would be leaving the province's employment at the expiration of their contracts in August. Liepert blamed their departures on better offers from other employers, although New Democrat leader Brian Mason speculated that the government's health restructuring may have been to blame. Detractors pointed out that the optics of allowing the employees to depart for more money elsewhere soon after the government had approved a substantial pay hike for cabinet ministers were not good. As the province's fiscal situation worsened in late 2008, the government adapted its health policy. In December, Liepert announced a new seniors drug plan that made drugs free for seniors making less than $21,325 but required those making more to pay as much as $7,500 for their drugs. In response to protests from seniors, he amended the plan in April 2009 to reduce both the income level at which seniors would have to start paying and the amount which those seniors would have to pay. Liepert said that the plan, $10 million more expensive than the one he had announced in December, would see 60% of seniors pay less than they did under the status quo. The same month, Stelmach's government's budget revealed changes to which medical services it would cover: those de-listed included chiropractic services, at an annual savings of $53 million, and sex change operations, at an annual savings of $700,000. While the Canada Health Act requires the federal government to financially penalize provinces that do not support all "medically necessary" procedures, Liepert maintained that the de-listed services were not "medically necessary" from the perspective of the act, and said that he anticipated no trouble from the federal government. During the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, Stelmach initially announced that the government would make the vaccine available to all Albertans, though vaccine shortages resulted in a limited number of clinics, which experienced long lineups. In response, Liberal leader David Swann accused the government of managing limited vaccine supplies poorly by not giving priority to the most vulnerable groups. Liepert defended the government's record by saying that high risk populations had been given priority, but that the government's policy was to turn nobody away; he blamed many of the problems on the federal government's delivery to the province of fewer doses of the vaccine than promised. Further controversy erupted when it was revealed that hockey players on the Calgary Flames were vaccinated with vaccine received directly from Alberta Health Services, which prompted Stelmach to announce an investigation. Two Alberta Health Services employees were fired as a result of the investigation. Human Rights, Citizenship, and Multiculturalism Act In spring 2009, Stelmach's government announced its intention to overhaul the Alberta Human Rights, Citizenship, and Multiculturalism Act. In 1998's Vriend v. Alberta, the Supreme Court of Canada had found that the legislation's failure to include sexual orientation among the grounds on which discrimination was prohibited violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and had "read in" this protection. However, the text of the act continued not to mention sexual orientation. Gay rights activists and opposition politicians hoped that the government's proposed changes to the act would change this. This section had been used to try to prosecute Ezra Levant for publishing the cartoons at the centre of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in his Western Standard magazine, and to successfully prosecute the Red Deer Advocate for publishing a letter to the editor entitled "Homosexual agenda wicked". The changes that were eventually tabled included the enshrining of sexual orientation as protected grounds but not the removal of the section dealing with "exposing to contempt." This omission was criticized, Levant said that it made him "deeply embarrassed as a conservative," but Stelmach said that his caucus was comfortable that another provision, requiring that the impugned section should not "be deemed to interfere with the free expression of opinion on any subject", protected Albertans against its abusive use. The proposal also included a section entitling parents to advance notice from schools if their children were going to be taught "subject-matter that deals explicitly with religion, sexuality or sexual orientation" and the right to remove their children from such classes. Stelmach called this a "very, very fundamental right" and suggested that it would allow parents to opt out of having their children learn about evolution, though his Education Minister Dave Hancock argued that the new wording didn't extend beyond current practice. Alberta Teachers' Association President Frank Bruseker expressed concern that this would make the teaching of science and geography in public schools very difficult, and suggested that parents who did not wish to have their children exposed to evolution should home school them or send them to private school. New Democratic Party leader Brian Mason suggested that the changes would make Alberta "sound like Arkansas". Democratic reform Klein's government had received criticism for reducing the importance of the legislature by sitting it fewer days than any other province's legislature and for directing business through standing policy committees of the Progressive Conservative caucus. These committees met in private, unlike the legislature's all-party committees, which fell almost entirely out of use during the Klein years. In April 2007, Stelmach initiated the creation of four new legislative "policy field committees" which would include opposition representation. The same month, his government introduced new legislation on conflicts of interest, such that former cabinet ministers would have to wait one year before doing business with the government or lobbying it on behalf of third parties (up from six months). It also created a similar cooling-off period for senior bureaucrats, which lasted six months. However, an Order in Council passed by Stelmach's cabinet shortly before the 2008 election delayed the implementation of these rules until one month after the election, meaning that cabinet ministers who retired or lost their bids for re-election would be exempt from the new rules. Relationship with Calgary Critics of Stelmach suggest that, as a farmer from the central part of the province, he is biased against Calgary and urban Alberta in general. They pointed to the fact that the city, which was considered the heartland of Jim Dinning's support during the leadership race, had only three members (Ron Liepert, Ron Stevens, and Greg Melchin) in his first eighteen-member cabinet (Stelmach supporters pointed out that Edmonton had only one minister, Dave Hancock). Stelmach also found himself in a feud with Calgary mayor Dave Bronconnier during his first year as premier as Bronconnier accused Stelmach of failing to keep a promise to the city regarding infrastructure spending during his first budget. Several Stelmach supporters suggested that the mayor, a Liberal, might be angling to take over as leader of the official opposition if Kevin Taft fumbled. During the by-election to fill Ralph Klein's Calgary Elbow seat, P.C. candidate Brian Heninger went so far as to tell a voter he'd like to choke his party's leader (Stelmach told media that this was the sort of enthusiasm he wanted from his MLAs). Heninger was defeated by Liberal Craig Cheffins and, in the 2008 election, Calgary was the only area of the province in which Stelmach lost seats on his way to an increased majority. After Deputy Premier Ron Stevens resigned his Calgary-Glenmore seat to accept a judgeship, a 2009 by-election elected outgoing Wildrose Alliance Party (WRA) leader Paul Hinman to replace him. Hinman had been the WRA's only MLA until he lost his Cardston-Taber-Warner to Progressive Conservative Broyce Jacobs in the 2008 election. Shortly after Hinman's election, polls showed that the Wildrose Alliance, under new leader Danielle Smith, was the second most popular party province-wide, and led the Conservatives 34 percent to 30 percent in Calgary. Politics and public opinion Critics at first compared Stelmach to Harry Strom, the last Social Credit premier of the province. Strom was regarded as honest but ineffective and lacking charisma; he survived only long enough as Premier to lose the 1971 election soundly. Thus ended the last long one-party rule, and observers asked if history would repeat with Stelmach. After Stelmach's landslide win in the 2008 election, however, the comparisons largely ceased. In late 2009, the Conservatives' plunging popularity at the polls and the surge in support for the right-wing Wildrose Alliance led to speculation that Stelmach would receive lukewarm support at his mandatory leadership review, to be held at the November 2009 Progressive Conservative convention. Klein's resignation came in the wake of his receiving only 55% support at such a review, and Klein suggested that Stelmach should resign if he received less than 70%. The question was whether party leaders would blame Stelmach for the party's decline and look for new leadership in the face of Stelmach's own weakening poll numbers. Instead, Stelmach met the criterion set up by his critics and won 77.4% support, a strong endorsement. Resignation On January 25, 2011, Stelmach announced that he would not seek re-election; he also promised a leadership race before the next election. He did not specify his date of resignation at that time, however he submitted his letter of resignation in June, writing that he would leave office on October 1. In the early hours of October 2, 2011, Alison Redford was declared the new leader of the party, and Stelmach resigned as premier on October 7. Awards and recognitions Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, Class III (Ukraine, 2009) Alberta Order of Excellence (2020) Electoral record Party leadership contests References External links 1951 births Premiers of Alberta Canadian members of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church Living people People from Lamont County Canadian people of Ukrainian descent Leaders of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta MLAs Alberta municipal councillors Farmers from Alberta 21st-century Canadian politicians Members of the Alberta Order of Excellence Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 3rd class
4591876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOCATA%20TBM	SOCATA TBM	The SOCATA TBM (now Daher TBM) is a family of high-performance single-engine turboprop business and utility light aircraft manufactured by Daher. It was originally collaboratively developed between the American Mooney Airplane Company and French light aircraft manufacturer SOCATA. The design of the TBM family originates from the Mooney 301, a comparatively low-powered and smaller prototype Mooney developed in the early 1980s. Following Mooney's acquisition by French owners, Mooney and SOCATA started a joint venture for the purpose of developing and manufacturing a new, enlarged turboprop design, which was designated as the TBM 700. Emphasis was placed upon the design's speed, altitude, and reliability. Upon its entry onto the market in 1990, it was the first high-performance single-engine passenger/cargo aircraft to enter production. Shortly after launch, the TBM 700 was a market success, which led to the production of multiple variants and improved models, often incorporating more powerful engines and new avionics. The TBM 850 is the production name assigned to the TBM 700N, an improved version of the aircraft powered by a single Pratt & Whitney PT6A-66D. In March 2014, an aerodynamically refined version of the TBM 700N, marketed as the TBM 900, was made available. Development Origins In the early 1980s, the Mooney Airplane Company of Kerrville, Texas, designed a six-seat pressurised light aircraft, powered by a single piston engine, which they designated the Mooney 301. On 7 April 1983, the prototype 301 conducted its maiden flight. During 1985, the Mooney Aircraft Company was acquired by new French owners, who promptly took an interest in the further development of the fledgling 301. Coinciding with the company's acquisition, French light aircraft manufacturer SOCATA, who had identified a vacant market position for a purpose-built optimised single-engine aircraft capable of fast personal transport and light cargo duties, identified the piston-powered 301 as a potential starting point to satisfy this niche. Accordingly, talks soon commenced between Mooney and SOCATA on the subject of producing a turboprop-powered derivative of the 301. The product that emerged from these discussions was a new design, referred to as the TBM 700, which was considerably heavier than the original 301 while provisioned with more than twice the available power. The prefix of the designation, TBM, originated from the initials "TB", which stands for Tarbes, the French city in which SOCATA is located, while the "M" stands for Mooney. At the time of its conception, while several aviation companies had studied or were otherwise considering the development of such an aircraft, the envisioned TBM 700 was the first high-performance single-engine passenger/cargo aircraft to enter production. From the onset, key performance criteria were established for the design, demanding a high level of reliability while also being capable of an unequalled speed/altitude combination amongst the TBM 700 other single-engined peers. Consequently, during June 1987, a joint venture, named TBM International, was established with the aim of completing development of the TBM 700 design and to perform the manufacture of the new aircraft; the ownership of the joint venture was divided between Mooney and SOCATA's parent company Aérospatiale. A pair of separate production lines for the TBM 700 were planned, one located at Mooney's facility in Kerrville, Texas, which was intended to cater to the American market, and the other based at SOCATA's factory in Tarbes, which was set to produce aircraft for customers throughout the rest of the world. However, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, Mooney was afflicted by persistent fiscal shortfalls; consequently, in May 1991, Mooney chose to withdraw from participation in the joint venture, leaving SOCATA as the primary company involved in the programme. On 14 July 1988, the first TBM 700 prototype conducted the type's maiden flight. Flight testing proved that virtually all of the established goals of the design had been achieved, leading to quick progress towards production. On 31 January 1990, type certification was received from French authorities; it was followed by the awarding of US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification on 28 August 1990. During early 1990, the first delivery of a TBM 700 occurred; the first production batch of 50 aircraft were sold out almost instantly. Early feedback received from operators and pilots was typically positive about the capabilities of the new aircraft, often praising its speed and generous power margins amongst other attributes. Further development According to aerospace publication Flying, while the TBM 700 had rapidly proved popular on the market and a good aircraft on its own merits, the services and support facilities SOCATA provided for the aircraft were an initial point of weakness. Early on, customers were often faced with lengthy delays in acquiring spare parts and other services; negative feedback on the after sales support for the TBM 700 has been attributed as the cause of a downturn in sales during the 1990s. SOCATA, recognising the critical importance of an effective support infrastructure, decided to invest heavily in improving worldwide support for the type; instead of being solely reliant upon third parties and partnership arrangements with other companies, the firm developed their own facilities. SOCATA opened its own service center in Florida, as well as establishing a network of distributors capable of both sales and services for the TBM 700. Consequently, during the late 1990s, sales of the type within the North American market rose dramatically. Early on, the TBM 700 was available in several different configurations and models. The introduction of the TBM 700C2, which increased the maximum takeoff weight from , enabled operators to fly with both fully laden fuel tanks and maximum cabin occupancy instead of compromising between the two due to weight restrictions. The modifications made upon this model included the addition of a baggage compartment aft of the rear pressure bulkhead, the strengthening of the wing and landing gear, and seat crashworthiness certification for up to 20 G to accommodate for an elevated stall speed at higher weights. Around the same time, SOCATA decided to re-design the interior of the aircraft, both in terms of the fittings and finish, along with the adoption of a new integrated environmental control system, to improve passenger comfort levels. The TBM 850 is the production name for the TBM 700N, an improved version of the aircraft powered by a single Pratt & Whitney PT6A-66D engine, which is flat rated at . The TBM 850 is limited to for takeoff and landing; however, during cruise flight, the engine power can be increased to ; this extra power provides the aircraft with a higher cruising speed than the TBM 700 models, especially at high altitudes (due to the flat-rating). The outside appearance of the TBM 850 has remained similar to that of the standard TBM 700. The TBM 850 has a typical range of . Beginning with the 2008 model, the TBM 850 has been equipped with the Garmin G1000 integrated flight deck as standard equipment. In 2014, an improved version of the aircraft, marketed as the TBM 900 was introduced, featuring 26 individual modifications, including the adoption of in-house-designed winglets, a redesigned air intake and the fitting of a five-blade Hartzell-built propeller, with the aim of delivering improved aerodynamics and performance. The adoption of a sharp strake, located forward and beneath the leading edge of the left wing, also provides for improved stall characteristics over the earlier TBM variants. According to aircraft publication Aviation Week, various subtle exterior changes were made for drag reduction purposes, including the addition of inner main landing gear doors, the re-contouring of the tail cone and of the engine nacelle. In comparison with the TBM 850, the TBM 900 is around faster in cruise flight, uses less fuel, requires less runway length, climbs faster, and produces noticeably less interior and exterior noise alike. This is partially due to the elimination of the limitation for takeoff present on previous TBM models; all of the PT6A-66D engine is normally available. In combination with a more efficient air inlet, which boosted the available torque and ram recovery, and reshaped exhaust stacks, which increased thrust output, makes the plane faster. According to Aviation Week, due to its greater speed, the TBM 900 can more effectively compete against light jets. They observed that it is faster on a mission, and burns 26% less fuel than the Cessna Citation Mustang. At the June 2018 Eurosatory, an ISR configuration with underwing hardpoints and electrical connections for sensors and aerial photography was offered for defense, security, medical evacuation and transport missions. Competing with heavier aircraft and MALE UAVs, it benefits from its short field performance and speed, offers six hours of surveillance and can be reconfigured for other duties. It was validated with a 110-pound (50-kg) camera and a multi-sensor optronics retractable turret, SAR/ground MTI radar, communication interception system, and secure transmission with a quick-change console for tactical situation monitoring. In March 2019, Daher introduced the $4.13 million TBM 940 with autothrottle and automatic deicing, to be certified for the April AERO Friedrichshafen. EcoPulse demonstrator At the June 2019 Paris Air Show, Daher, Airbus and Safran teamed up to develop the TBM-based EcoPulse demonstrator for a hybrid electric aircraft. The project is kick-started by the French Civil Aviation Research Council (CORAC) with support from the French DGAC. Safran will provide the distributed hybrid propulsion system: turbogenerator, electric power management system and electric motors and propellers. Airbus will install the batteries and optimize the aerodynamics, and Daher will install components and systems, and will be responsible for the flight testing and overall analysis. With half of the €22 million ($25 million) demonstration funded by the DGAC, the maiden flight is scheduled for the summer of 2022 before a hypothetical 2025-30 certification. The aircraft's existing engine will be supplemented by six Safran electric motors on the wings fed by a APU or batteries. Similar to the NASA X-57 Maxwell, the distributed propulsion reduces wingtip vortices and add low speed lift by blowing the wing, enabling a smaller, lower drag wing. The high voltages required, over 500 volts, is a new challenge in aviation and special cables and protection were developed by Safran. After a year of testing, a follow-on commuter aircraft might be built by Daher. Airbus Defence and Space is developing the lithium-ion battery to be mounted on the fuselage underside, weighting for a power of . By May 2022, Daher was planning a maiden flight by the end of the year, beginning a 100 flights test programme over 18 to 24 months. By May 2023, the demonstrator had flown 15 hours with the electric propellers feathered, while the hybrid-electric powertrain was to be flight tested after June 2023. Design The SOCATA TBM is a single-engined turboprop-powered low-wing monoplane, capable of seating a maximum of six people. It is composed mainly of aluminium and steel construction, but with the tail surfaces built of Nomex honeycomb. The wing features a very effective Fowler flap, comprising 80 per cent of the trailing edge's span, for the purpose of lowering the aircraft's stall speed. The TBM 700 is outfitted with a retractable tricycle landing gear arrangement, newer models feature stronger main landing gear wheels and tougher tyres. The TBM 900 model features automatic torque limiting for “set and forget” power management, which is particularly useful during takeoff; according to Aviation Week, while this function does reduce the high workload associated with managing the PT6A engine, it is not as capable as a full FADEC arrangement. The cockpit design of the TBM strives to be user-friendly and as uncomplicated to operate as possible. For pilot convenience, an automatic fuel selector automatically switches between fuel tanks periodically to effortlessly maintain fuel balance throughout flight; manual selection of fuel tanks is also possible, which remains overseen by a low fuel warning system. The ice protection system is as automated as possible, the windshield being electrically heated, the air inlet being kept warm by engine exhaust and the de-ice boots automatically cycling once activated. The electrically actuated flaps are monitored by a sophisticated split-flap protection system to prevent asymmetric deployment. An onboard air data computer calculates various values to support the pilot, such as the aircraft's true air speed, wind, and power advisory notices based upon current external temperature and altitude. The Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-64 engine, providing up to 700 shp (522 kW). According to Flying Magazine, the PT6A-64 engine is "the secret to the TBM 700's performance. At sea level, the engine is capable of generating a maximum , which is intentionally limited to on early TBM models; the limit allows the aircraft to maintain up to 25,000 ft (7,620 m) on a typical day. Engine reliability and expected lifespan are also enhanced by the limitation. While the typical engine overhaul life is set as 3,000 flight hours between overhauls, on-condition servicing can also be performed due to various engine parameters being automatically recorded by the engine trend monitoring (ETM) system. Data from the ETM can be reviewed by the engine manufacturer to determine the level of wear and therefore the need for inspection or overhaul. The ETM, which is connected to the aircraft's air data computer, also provides information to enable easy power management by the pilot. The cockpit of the TBM seats a pair of flying crew. According to Flying Magazine, even in the standard configuration, the cockpit is provided with a generous suite of avionics and equipment. It features an electronic flight instrument system (EFIS), traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS), terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS), weather radar, lightning detection, dual Garmin GNS 530 navigation/communication systems, Bose headsets, dual transponders, dual compasses, and full cockpit instrumentation for both positions. Pilots can enter the cockpit either from the main cabin or via a small pilot's door on the left hand side, forward of the wing; in a cargo configuration, the pilot's door eliminates the need to clamber over the cargo payload. The pilot's door is an optional extra, and is not installed upon all aircraft. From the TBM 700B onwards, an enlarged cabin entry door was introduced, which later became standard upon subsequent models. The TBM 900 model features several ergonomic improvements within the cockpit, increasing both simplicity and automation. A new single power lever integrates the power, propeller and condition lever controls. Various switches and controls, such as some formerly present upon the overhead panel, have been eliminated. The electrical system is powered by a single main generator, which is supplemented by a belt-driven alternator. On the TBM 900, electrical load distribution changes enable the Garmin G1000 glass cockpit to power up in sync with the switch-on of the battery with little battery drain. The G1000 also has upgraded displays, including an ISA temperature deviation indication, integrated weather radar and MFD map, and automatic landing field elevation inputs to the pressurization controller. In a passenger configuration, the pressurised cabin of the TBM is typically fitted with highly finished interiors, often featuring luxury materials such as high quality leathers and wood veneers. The seats are certified for their crashworthiness for up to 20 G. From the TBM 850 onwards, a combined air conditioner/environmental control system was integrated into the cabin, being simpler and requiring less adjustment than the prior arrangement. At cruise altitudes, the cabin of the TBM 900 is noticeably quieter than its predecessors; the reduction is due to the adoption of a new five-bladed propeller and the reduction of vibration levels via greater isolation between the engine and the airframe. Later built models are equipped with winglets, which were developed by SOCATA primarily to reduce drag when flown at high angles of attack, such as during takeoffs, as well as to enhance the aircraft's aesthetics. The TBM 900 saw the adoption of a new five-bladed propeller, specially optimised by Hartzell based upon airflow simulations conducted of the TBM's forward section. According to SOCATA, Hartzell's selection over a similar advanced counterpart from MT-Propeller was made due to the former raising the cruise speed by around 3 to 5 kn (5.5 to 9 km/h). In October 2017 Daher advertised that the design had a fuel burn and US$213–228 maintenance cost per flight hour. Variants TBM 700A Initial production version with one Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-64 turboprop engine. TBM 700B Variant with wide entrance door, increased maximum zero fuel weight and other improvements. TBM 700C1 Improved version with rear unpressurised cargo compartment, reinforced structure, new air conditioning system and other improvements. TBM 700C2 C1 with increased maximum takeoff weight. TBM 700N Initial production name of the TBM 850. TBM 850 Higher-performance version fitted with a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-66D engine, rated at 850 hp in flight (700 hp at take-off). TBM 850 G1000 TBM 850 with a G1000 Integrated Flight Deck and a fuel tank extension modification. TBM 850 Elite Updated version of the TBM 850, including four cabin seats in a forward-facing configuration, allowing for an increased cargo area aft of the cabin. TBM 900 Improved version of the TBM 850 with various aerodynamic refinements, including winglets and a redesigned induction system. Maximum cruise speed increased to 330 kn (611 km/h) at FL310. Range of 1,730 nmi (3,204 km)—with 45-minute standard IFR reserves—at 252 kn (467 km/h) and 37 gph (140 L/h), or 1,585 nmi (2,935.42 km) at 290 kn (537 km/h). The 40% larger intake frees up airflow, giving an boost for the same fuel flow and shortening the take-off roll by 20%. The previously optional Hartzell five-blade carbon fiber propeller is now standard, increasing performance and decreasing cabin noise. TBM 910 New version introduced in April 2017, with the upgraded avionics suite Garmin G1000 NXi. The 910 replaced the 900 in the TBM lineup and as of June 2022 is offered alongside the new 960. In 2023, its equipped price was $4.546M. TBM 930 introduced in April 2016, with upgraded interior and avionics, including the Garmin G3000 touchscreen avionics suite. The TBM 930 did not replace but augmented the 900 in the TBM lineup. TBM 940 introduced in March 2019, with autothrottle and automatic deicing. It was certified by EBACE show in May. On a standard day, the TBM 940 climbs to FL280 in 17min ½, within 64nmi (119km), for a 7,600ft cabin altitude with the pressurisation, fuel flow is 59 US gallons (223 litres) per hour at maximum cruise power, reaching at ISA +13°C instead of on a standard day. In 2021, its equipped price was $4.575M. The TBM 940 replaced the 930 in the lineup. TBM 960 introduced on 5 April 2022 at Sun 'n Fun in Florida, powered by a PT6E-66XT controlled by a dual-channel full authority digital engine control (FADEC) that Daher calls an EPECS (Engine and Propeller Electronic Control System)—a first for the TBM line, five-Blade Hartzell Propeller Raptor, autoland function, a MTOW increase to , priced at US$ 4.57 million, 4.8 million with an optional prestige cabin. The TBM 960 replaced the 940 in the TBM lineup and as of June 2022 is offered alongside the baseline TBM 910 model. In 2023, its price was $4.998M. Production By June 2018, the TBM fleet had logged a combined 1.6 million flight hours. By July 2018, 900 aircraft had been delivered. By October 2019, 954 TBMs had been built and flew 1.76 million hours, with 734 delivered in North America and 158 in Europe. By July 2023, 1,155 TBM series aircraft had been produced. Production: TBM overall series – 1,155 (by July 2023) TBM 700 – 324 built between 1990 and 2005 TBM 850 – 338 built between 2006 and 2013 TBM 900/910/930/960 – 488 built (by July 2023) TBM 900 – 114 built between 2014 and 2016 TBM 910 – 29 built since 2017 TBM 930 – 74 built since 2016. TBM 960 – 80 built to July 2023. Operators Since its introduction, around 30 have served in commercial aviation and in October 2018, 17 were still used for the role in 10 companies, mostly in the US, among a global fleet of 900. In 2017, 57 units were shipped. Daher claims direct operating costs are $2.48 per nautical mile. Owner-operators fly 90% of all TBMs, while they account for 20% to 30% of the larger Pilatus PC-12 sales. The aircraft is used by both private individuals, corporations and charter and hire companies. Military operators French Air and Space Force – 15 in service (2016). French Army Light Aviation (ALAT) – 8 in service (2016). Accidents and incidents The Aviation Safety Network wikibase (added by its users) reports 44 accidents and incidents between 15 November 1991 and 3 October 2019, including 19 having caused fatalities - an average of fatalities per accident. Specifications (TBM 900) See also References External links 1980s French business aircraft TBM Low-wing aircraft Single-engined tractor aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1988 Single-engined turboprop aircraft
4592363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wounded%20Knee%20Occupation	Wounded Knee Occupation	The Wounded Knee Occupation, also known as Second Wounded Knee, began on February 27, 1973, when approximately 200 Oglala Lakota (sometimes referred to as Oglala Sioux) and followers of the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, United States, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The protest followed the failure of an effort of the Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO) to use impeachment to remove tribal president Richard Wilson, whom they accused of corruption and abuse of opponents. Additionally, protesters criticized the United States government's failure to fulfill treaties with Native American people and demanded the reopening of treaty negotiations to hopefully arrive at fair and equitable treatment of Native Americans. Oglala and AIM activists controlled the town for 71 days while the United States Marshals Service, FBI agents, and other law enforcement agencies cordoned off the area. The activists chose the site of the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre for its symbolic value. In March, a U.S. Marshal was shot by gunfire coming from the town, which ultimately resulted in paralysis. Frank Clearwater (of Cherokee and Apache nations) was shot and wounded on April 17, dying 8 days later on April 25, 1973, and Lawrence "Buddy" Lamont (Oglala) was shot and killed on April 26, 1973. Ray Robinson, a civil rights activist who joined the protesters, disappeared during the events. It was later determined that he had been buried on the reservation after allegedly being killed during a confrontation with AIM members. The occupation attracted wide media coverage, especially after the press accompanied two U.S. Senators from South Dakota to Wounded Knee. The events electrified Native Americans, and many Native American supporters traveled to Wounded Knee to join the protest. At the time there was widespread public sympathy for the goals of the occupation, as Americans were becoming more aware of longstanding issues of injustice related to Natives. Afterward AIM leaders Dennis Banks and Russell Means were indicted on charges related to the events, but their 1974 case was dismissed by the federal court for prosecutorial misconduct, a decision upheld on appeal. Wilson stayed in office and in 1974 was re-elected amid charges of intimidation, voter fraud, and other abuses. The rate of violence climbed on the reservation as conflict opened between political factions in the following three years; residents accused Wilson's private militia, Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOONs), of much of it. According to AIM, there were 64 unsolved murders during these years, including opponents of the tribal government, such as Pedro Bissonette, director of the Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO), but this is disputed, with an FBI report in 2000 concluding that there were only 4 unsolved murders and that many of the deaths listed were not homicides or political. Background The Indian Relocation Act of 1956 was one law among others through the 1940s and 1950s that are referred to as Indian Termination. It was an effort by the U.S. government to hasten the assimilation of American Indians. Some scholars have characterized the law as an attempt to encourage people to leave Indian reservations for urban areas, which resulted in poverty, joblessness, homelessness for many in the new urban environment. By 1968, AIM was founded in urban Minneapolis, Minnesota, and other activist groups were established in cities after termination. For years, internal tribal tensions had been growing over the difficult conditions on the Pine Ridge Reservation, which has been one of the poorest areas in the United States since it was set up. Many of the tribe believed that Wilson, elected tribal chairman in 1972, had rapidly become autocratic and corrupt, controlling too much of the employment and other limited opportunities on the reservation. They believed that Wilson favored his family and friends in patronage awards of the limited number of jobs and benefits. Some criticism addressed the mixed-race ancestry of Wilson and his favorites, and suggested they worked too closely with Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) officials who still had a hand in reservation affairs. Some full-blood Oglala believed they were not getting fair opportunities. "Traditionalists" had their own leaders and influence in a parallel stream to the elected government recognized by the United States. The Traditionalists tended to be Oglala who held onto their language and customs, and who did not desire to participate in US federal programs administered by the tribal government. In his 2007 book on the twentieth-century political history of the Pine Ridge Reservation, historian Akim Reinhardt notes the decades-long ethnic and cultural differences among residents at the reservation. He attributes the Wounded Knee Occupation more to the rising of such internal tensions than to the arrival of AIM, who had been invited to the reservation by OSCRO. He also believes that the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 did not do enough to reduce U.S. federal government intervention into Sioux and other tribal affairs; he describes the elected tribal governments since the 1930s as a system of "indirect colonialism". Oglala Sioux opposition to such elected governments was long-standing on the reservation; at the same time, the limited two-year tenure of the president's position made it difficult for leaders to achieve much. Officials of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, administrators, and police still had much influence at Pine Ridge and other American Indian reservations, which many tribal members opposed. Specifically, opponents of Wilson protested his sale of grazing rights on tribal lands to local white ranchers at too low a rate, reducing income to the tribe, whose members held the land communally. They also complained about his land-use decision to lease nearly one-eighth of the reservation's mineral-rich lands to private companies. Some full-blood Lakota complained of having been marginalized since the start of the reservation system. Most did not bother to participate in tribal elections, which led to tensions on all sides. There had been increasing violence on the reservation, which many attributed to Wilson's private militia, Guardians of the Oglala Nation, attacking political opponents to suppress opposition. The so-called "GOONs" were initially funded with $62,000 from the BIA to be "an auxiliary police force". Another concern was the failure of the justice systems in border towns to prosecute white attacks against Lakota men who went to the towns for their numerous saloons and bars. Alcohol was prohibited on the reservation. Local police seldom prosecuted crimes against the Lakota or charged assailants at lesser levels. Recent murders in border towns heightened concerns on the reservation. An example was the January 27, 1973, murder of 20-year-old Wesley Bad Heart Bull in a bar in Buffalo Gap, which the tribe believed was due to his race. On February 6, AIM led about 200 supporters to a meeting at the courthouse in Custer, where they expected to discuss civil rights issues and wanted charges against the suspect raised to murder from second-degree manslaughter. They were met by riot police, who allowed only five people to enter the courthouse, despite blizzard conditions outside. Reinhardt notes that the confrontation became violent, during which protesters burned down the chamber of commerce building, damaged the courthouse and destroyed two police cars, and vandalized other buildings. Native American protests had only recently been receiving media attention regarding their civil rights. Preceding the Wounded Knee Occupation was the Occupation of Alcatraz that started November 20, 1969, lasted for two years, and inspired more indigenous activism. The 1972 Trail of Broken Treaties march ended with a six-day AIM led occupation of the BIA offices in Washington, D.C. Three weeks before the Wounded Knee Occupation, the tribal council had charged Wilson with several items for an impeachment hearing. However, Wilson was able to avoid a trial, as the prosecution was not ready to proceed immediately, the presiding official would not accept new charges, and the council voted to close the hearings. Charges had been brought by a coalition of local Oglala, grouped loosely around the "traditionalist", the OSCRO, and tribal members of AIM. Wilson opponents were angered that he had evaded impeachment. U.S. Marshals offered him and his family protection at a time of heightened tensions and protected the BIA headquarters at the reservation. Wilson added more fortification to the facility. Occupation After AIM's confrontation at the Custer courthouse, OSCRO leaders asked AIM for help in dealing with Wilson. The traditional chiefs and AIM leaders met with the community to discuss how to deal with the deteriorating situation on the reservation. Women elders such as OSCRO founder Ellen Moves Camp, Gladys Bissonette, and Agnes Lamont urged the men to take action. They decided to make a stand at the hamlet of Wounded Knee, the renowned site of the last large-scale massacre of the American Indian Wars. They occupied the town and announced their demand for the removal of Wilson from office and for immediate revival of treaty talks with the U.S. government. Dennis Banks and Russell Means were prominent spokesmen during the occupation; they often addressed the press, knowing they were making their cause known directly to the American public. The brothers Clyde and Vernon Bellecourt were also AIM leaders at the time, who operated in Minneapolis. On February 28, 1973, AIM leaders Russell Means (Oglala) and Carter Camp (Ponca), together with 200 activists and Oglala of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, including children and the elderly. They opposed Oglala tribal chairman Richard Wilson, occupied the town of Wounded Knee to protest Wilson's administration, as well as against the federal government's persistent failures to honor its treaties with Native American nations. U.S. government law enforcement, including FBI agents, surrounded Wounded Knee the same day with armed reinforcements. They gradually gained more arms. Disputed facts According to former US Senator for South Dakota James Abourezk, "on February 25, 1973, the U.S. Department of Justice sent out 50 U.S. Marshals to the Pine Ridge Reservation to be available in the case of a civil disturbance." This followed the failed impeachment attempt and meetings of opponents of Wilson. The American Indian Movement says that its organization went to Wounded Knee for an open meeting and "within hours police had set up roadblocks, cordoned off the area and began arresting people leaving town ... the people prepared to defend themselves against the government's aggressions." By the morning of February 28, both sides began to be entrenched. Roadblocks The federal government established roadblocks around the community for 15 miles in every direction. In some areas, Wilson stationed his GOONs outside the federal boundary and required even federal officials to stop for passage. About ten days into the occupation, the federal government lifted the roadblocks and forced Wilson's people away as well. When the cordon was briefly lifted, many new supporters and activists joined the Oglala at Wounded Knee. Publicity had made the site and action an inspiration to American Indians nationally. On March 8, the leaders declared the territory of Wounded Knee to be the independent Oglala Nation and demanded negotiations with the U.S. Secretary of State, William P. Rogers. The nation granted citizenship to those who wanted it, including non-Indians. A small delegation, including Frank Fools Crow, the senior elder, and his interpreter, flew to New York to attempt to address and be recognized by the United Nations. While they received international coverage, they did not receive recognition as a sovereign nation by the UN. John Sayer, a Wounded Knee chronicler, wrote that: The data gathered by the historians Record and Hocker supports this: "barricades of paramilitary personnel armed with automatic weapons, snipers, helicopters, armored personnel carriers equipped with .50-caliber machine guns, and more than 130,000 rounds of ammunition". The statistics on the U.S. government force at Wounded Knee vary, but all accounts agree that it was a significant military force including "federal marshals, FBI agents, and armored vehicles". One eyewitness and journalist described "sniper fire from ... federal helicopters", "bullets dancing around in the dirt", and "sounds of shooting all over town" from both sides. On March 13, Harlington Wood Jr., the assistant attorney general for the Civil Division of the U.S. Justice Department (DOJ), became the first government official to enter Wounded Knee without a military escort. Determined to resolve the deadlock without further bloodshed, he met with AIM leaders for days. While exhaustion made him too ill to conclude the negotiation, he is credited as the "icebreaker" between the government and AIM. Siege After 30 days, the government's tactics became harsher when Kent Frizell was appointed from the DOJ to manage the government's response. He cut off electricity, water, and food supplies to Wounded Knee, when it was still winter in South Dakota, and prohibited the entry of the media. The US government tried starving out the occupants, and AIM activists smuggled food and medical supplies in past roadblocks "set up by Dick Wilson and tacitly supported by the US government". Keefer, a Deputy U.S. Marshal at the scene, said there were no persons between federal agents and the town, and that the federal marshals' firepower could have killed anyone in the open landscape. The Marshals Service decided to wait out the AIM followers in order to reduce casualties on both sides. Some activists organized an airlift of food supplies to Wounded Knee. Carter Camp, an AIM spokesperson and organizer of the occupation is quoted saying, "We have 10 or 12", referring to hostages that were allies of Tribal President Richard Wilson. On April 1, the FBI began to hint at division within AIM leadership and other occupiers, but this was refuted by Means and Banks the next day. Sometime during March, Leonard Crow Dog, the spiritual leader of The American Indian Movement, brought back the Ghost Dance. He claims in his book Crow Dog: Four Generations Sioux of Medicine Men, "My great-grandfather's spirit gave me a vision to do this. The vision told me to revive this ceremony at the place where Chief Big Foot's ghost dancers, three hundred men, women, and children, had been massacred by the army, shot to pieces by cannons, old people, babies." With the help of Wallace Black Elk they got together as many people as possible to participate in the dance that had not been done in 83 years. Before dancing they first had to do the sweat lodge, a purification ritual, then Leonard ran the ghost dance with around 30 dancers, the way his father and uncle (Henry Crow Dog and Dick Fool Bull) had described it to him. On March 1, Senators James Abourezek and George McGovern came to talk with AIM. Abourezk was sympathetic for his son's house in Pine Ridge was fire-bombed, however McGovern had no likeness for what AIM was doing. On March 3, the government sent Colonel Volney Warner, chief of staff of the 82nd Airborne, to see whether or not the army would need to use force to take back Wounded Knee. Warner was also sympathetic to AIM, changing the FBI order from "shoot to kill" to "shoot to wound" and finally to "do not shoot at all", reporting that AIM would not harm anyone. On March 6, the federal spokesman, Erikson, told AIM to "surrender, or else" and to "send all women and children out of Wounded Knee before darkness fell on March 8th" but nothing was made of this threat. On March 11, four postal inspectors, thought to be spies by AIM, drove into the town and said they were there to inspect the post office and trading post. AIM's security stopped and disarmed them, finding handguns, handcuffs, and badges. Security took them to the museum and Leonard Crow Dog gave them food and an around 30 minute lecture on Indian history and why they were occupying Wounded Knee, afterwards escorting them to the federal lines. Both AIM and federal government documents show that the two sides traded fire through much of the three months. U.S. Marshal Lloyd Grimm was shot early in the conflict and suffered paralysis from the waist down. Among the many Indian supporters who joined the protest were Frank Clearwater and his pregnant wife, who were Cherokee from North Carolina. He was shot in the head April 17, within 24 hours of his arrival, while resting in an occupied church, during what was described by both sides as a vicious fire fight with federal forces. AIM supporters evacuated Clearwater from the village but he died in a hospital on April 25. When Lawrence "Buddy" Lamont, a local Oglala, was killed by a shot from a feds sniper bullet that went through the heart on April 26 during the biggest shoot-out of the siege and the next day on April 27 it was reported he had died. He said during the occupation, "If something happens to me I want to stay at Wounded Knee. Don't make any fuss over me. Just bury me in my bunker." He was then buried in his bunker, close to the long trench where the 300 were buried in a Sioux ceremony by Leonard Crow Dog and Wallace Black Elk. After his death, tribal elders called an end to the occupation. Knowing the young man and his mother from the reservation, many Oglala grew sorrow from his death. Both sides reached an agreement on May 5 to disarm. The terms included a mandated meeting at Chief Fools Crow's land to discuss reinstating the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. With the decision made, many Oglala Lakota began to leave Wounded Knee at night, walking out through the federal lines. Three days later, the siege ended and the town was evacuated after 71 days of occupation; the government took control of the town. Ray Robinson, a black civil rights activist, went to South Dakota to join the Wounded Knee occupation. He was seen there by both a journalist and a white activist. He disappeared during the siege and his body was never found. One AIM leader, Carter Camp, said years later that Robinson had walked away under his own power, seeking aid for a wounded leg. Others have recalled open conflict between Robinson and activists over FBI claims. His widow Cheryl Robinson believes he was murdered during the incident. In 2004, after the conviction of a man for the murder of Anna Mae Aquash, Robinson renewed her calls for an investigation into her husband's death. Paul DeMain, editor of News From Indian Country, has said that based on interviews, he believes "Robinson was killed because, based on a misinformation campaign, some thought he was an FBI spy." In 2014, the FBI confirmed that Robinson had been killed and buried on the reservation in April 1973. Robinson was allegedly killed by AIM members during a confrontation. Robinson's remains have not been found. The FBI said it had closed his case. Public support Public opinion polls revealed widespread sympathy for the Native Americans at Wounded Knee. They also received support from the Congressional Black Caucus as well as various actors, activists, and prominent public figures, including Marlon Brando, Johnny Cash, Angela Davis, Jane Fonda, William Kunstler, and Tom Wicker. After DOJ prohibited the media from the site, press attention decreased. However, actor Marlon Brando, an AIM supporter, asked Sacheen Littlefeather, President of the National Native American Affirmative Image Committee, to speak at the 45th Academy Awards on his behalf, as he had been nominated for his performance in The Godfather. She appeared at the March 27 ceremony in traditional Apache clothing. When his name was announced as the winner, she said that he declined the award due to "the treatment of American Indians today by the film industry ... and on television and movie reruns and also with recent happenings at Wounded Knee" in an improvised speech, as she was told she could not give the original speech given to her by Brando and was warned that she would be physically taken off and arrested if she was on stage for more than a minute. Afterwards, she read his original words about Wounded Knee backstage to many of the press. This recaptured the attention of millions in the United States and world media. AIM supporters and participants thought Littlefeather's speech to be a major victory for their movement. Although Angela Davis was turned away by federal forces as an "undesirable person" when she attempted to enter Wounded Knee in March 1973, AIM participants believed that the attention garnered by such public figures forestalled U.S. military intervention. Aftermath Following the end of the 1973 stand-off, the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation had a higher rate of internal violence. Residents complained of physical attacks and intimidation by President Richard Wilson's followers, the so-called GOONS or Guardians of the Oglala Nation. The murder rate between March 1, 1973, and March 1, 1976, averaged 56.7 per 100,000 per annum (170 per 100,000 over the whole period). Detroit had a rate of 20.2 per 100,000 in 1974 and at the time was considered "the murder capital of the US". The national average was 9.7 per 100,000. More than 60 opponents of the tribal government allegedly died violently during this period, including Pedro Bissonette, executive director of OSCRO. AIM representatives said many were unsolved murders, but in 2002 the FBI issued a report disputing this. According to Ward Churchill, despite the FBI's claims, there were many suspicious events surrounding murders of AIM activists and their subsequent investigations or lack thereof. Churchill states that the deaths of AIM activists went uninvestigated, even though there was an abundance of FBI agents on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation at the time. For instance, Annie Mae Aquash was an activist who had been present at Wounded Knee and was later suspected of being a spy for the government. It was later revealed that most of this campaign to discredit her can be traced to Douglass Durham, an FBI informant. Aquash was found dead near Highway 73 on February 24, 1976. Her cause of death was initially ruled as exposure, suggesting that alcohol had been involved, even though there was none in her bloodstream. Dissatisfied with this finding, an exhumation was requested by OSCRO, which found that Aquash had been shot in the back of her head at close range. AIM members Arlo Looking Cloud and John Graham were convicted of Aquash's murder in 2004 and 2010; both received life sentences. Additionally, AIM activist Thelma Rios pled guilty as an accessory to the kidnapping. In 2000, the FBI released a report regarding these alleged unsolved violent deaths during this time on Pine Ridge Reservation and accounted for most of the deaths, and disputed the claims of unsolved and political murders. The report stated that only 4 deaths were unsolved and that some deaths were not murders. 1974 Tribal Chairman election: Means vs. Wilson In 1974, Russell Means ran against Wilson. Wilson won the election, even though he lost to Means in the primary. At AIM's behest, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights investigated the election and found that it had been "permeated with fraud". The fraudulent actions included voter fraud, a lack of poll watchers, and a lack of oversight. However, no formal action was taken to rectify this, and Wilson remained in charge. 1974 trial of Banks and Means, 1975 appeal After an eight-and-a-half-month trial the U.S. District Court of South Dakota (Fred Joseph Nichol, presiding judge) dismissed the charges against Banks and Means for conspiracy and assault (both Banks and Means were defended by William Kunstler and Mark Lane). The jury had voted 12–0 to acquit both defendants of the conspiracy charge, but before the second vote one juror suffered a stroke and could not continue deliberations. The government refused to accept a verdict of eleven jurors and sought a mistrial; in the meantime, the defense team filed a motion for judgment of acquittal. The judge ruled to dismiss, citing prosecutorial misconduct, stating: "It is my belief, however, that the misconduct by the government in this case is so aggravated that a dismissal must be entered in the interests of justice." In 1975 the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals held that the government's appeal was barred by the Double Jeopardy Clause and dismissed it, "despite Government's argument that jurisdiction should be assumed due to the public interest in fair trials designed to end in just judgements". Leonard Crow Dog's arrest On September 5, 1975, FBI marshals came into Leonard Crow Dog's home (Crow Dog's Paradise) and arrested him for preventing federal officers from performing their assignment. His trial was not held until January 1976 in Rapid City, South Dakota, where he was found guilty in under an hour. He was later released in September of 1976 after his legal team brought in thousands of support letters from around the globe. Legacy The legacy of the Siege of Wounded Knee is rife with disagreements, due to the controversial approaches of AIM and the FBI. The FBI has faced criticism for their speculated underhanded attempts to undermine AIM through COINTELPRO-like methods, such as releasing false information and having undercover individuals sow disorder within AIM and Wounded Knee. It has also been suggested that the FBI and the federal government in general were too focused on Watergate at the time to give the situation at Wounded Knee the attention it deserved. If the federal government were more focused on Wounded Knee, it might not have lasted as long as it did. AIM's handling of Wounded Knee has also met its fair share of critics. Special Agent in Charge at the time, Joseph H. Trimbach, has argued that AIM used federal funds to purchase weaponry, rather than aid the American Indian people. Trimbach and others have also suggested that AIM members murdered Anna Mae Aquash because they thought she was a spy. Even individuals within the movement, such as Mary Crow Dog, have been critical of AIM. In her autobiography, Mary Crow Dog says, "There were a lot of things wrong with AIM. We did not see these things, or did not want to see them." On June 30, 1980, the Great Sioux Reservation won a legal case in the Supreme Court that acknowledges the illegality of U.S. acquisition of reservation land in 1876. The Sioux claim had perpetually been tossed out by the courts since the 1920s, and the case reached the Supreme Court through no coincidence. Following a decade of media exposure and fights for Tribal Sovereignty, the American Indian narrative became known, as opposed to being brushed away. During the one-hundred-year anniversary of the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre, in 1990, Russell Means barred South Dakota Governor George S. Mickelson from taking part in commemorating the dead there. Means argued, "It would be an insult because we live in the racist state of South Dakota, and he is the Governor." Despite disputes about the handling of Wounded Knee, the incident shed a light on the problems facing American Indians and showed them that they could have a voice. Wounded Knee is now an important symbol of American Indian activism, fittingly building on its initial symbolic meaning of the atrocities committed by the US government against American Indian people. See also Lakota Woman, 1990 memoir by Mary Brave Bird concerning in part the Wounded Knee Occupation Thunderheart, 1992 film, a loosely based fictional portrayal of events relating to the Wounded Knee incident in 1973 Leonard Peltier List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States References Further reading R. A. Bonney, (1977). "The Role of AIM Leaders in Indian Nationalism" [Electronic version]. American Indian Quarterly, 3, 209–224. Mary Crow Dog and Richard Erdoes (1990). Lakota Woman, Harper Perennial (). Steve Hendricks (2006). The Unquiet Grave: The FBI and the Struggle for the Soul of Indian Country, Thunder's Mouth Press () Akim D. Reinhardt (2007). Ruling Pine Ridge: Oglala Lakota Politics from the IRA to Wounded Knee, Texas Tech University Press Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Allen Warrior. (1996) Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee, New York: The New Press Vicky Waltz (2009). "Interview with William Means: From Wounded Knee to Comm Ave", BU Today, Boston University, April 21, 2009 Joseph H. Trimbach and John M. Trimbach, (2007). American Indian Mafia: An FBI Agent's True Story about Wounded Knee, Leonard Peltier, and the American Indian Movement (AIM), Outskirts Press (self-published) Sayer, John William. Ghost Dancing the Law: The Wounded Knee Trials. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997). Akard, William Keith. "Wocante Tinza: A History of The American Indian Movement." (P.d.D thesis, Ball State University, 1987). Busacca, Jeremy. "Seeking Self-Determination: Framing, the American Indian Movement, and American Indian Media." (P.h.D Dissertation, Claremont University, 2007). Chastang, Amanda B. "Reclaiming Identity: How the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement Challenged External Media Misrepresentations through Self-Representation." (Master's Thesis, The University of Tulsa, 2018). External links "Records of Wounded Knee Legal Defense/Offense Committee", available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society Owen Luck Photographs Collection, 1973–2001, Princeton University, open for research. Luck was at the incident and took 39 photographs held in this collection. 1973 protests Conflicts in 1973 American Indian Movement Rebellions in the United States Native American history of South Dakota Battles involving Native Americans Crimes in South Dakota 1973 in South Dakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation Occupations (protest) Armed standoffs in the United States February 1973 events in the United States March 1973 events in the United States April 1973 events in the United States May 1973 events in the United States
4592701	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICE%201	ICE 1	The ICE 1 is the first batch-produced German high-speed train and one of six in the Intercity Express family. Revenue service at speeds up to started in 1991. It was raised to in May 1995 and temporary reduced to again, as a result of the Eschede accident. Trainsets consist of two power cars (Class 401) and up to 14 intermediate cars (Classes 801 to 804). Occasionally, power cars and intermediate cars of the ICE 2 are used as well (Classes 402, 805 to 808). Trainsets always operate as a whole train and cars cannot be coupled in regular service. One of the 60 trainsets (trainset 51) was destroyed in the Eschede train disaster. The others were refurbished between 2005 and 2008 and will remain in service for ten to fifteen additional years. Formation ICE 1 trains consist of two powerheads and 9 to 14 intermediate cars. Because trainsets are not separated in regular service, they can be seen as multiple units from an operational point of view. During the refurbishment, which was completed in late 2008, trainsets were standardized to 12 intermediate cars. Until the refurbishment was completed, there had been three different configurations of ICE 1 trainsets: Refurbished trainsets consist of two power cars and 12 intermediate cars. These include four first class cars, including the service car with the conductors' compartment (numbered 9, 11, 12, 14), one restaurant car (8) and seven second class cars (1 to 7). Smoking is prohibited in all cars. Cars 1, 3, 9, 11 and 14 are equipped with cellular repeaters. Non-refurbished trainsets for domestic service consisted of three first class cars (11, 12 and 14), seven second class cars (1 to 7), a service car (9) and a restaurant car (10). Car number 7 might have been one of three types: an original second class car of the ICE 1, a second-class-car from the ICE 2 or a first class car from the ICE 1, marked as second class. The first class car number 13 was removed; this was one of two first class cars for smokers, but without the additional equipment of car 14 (video, telephone) Non-refurbished trainsets for service into Switzerland consisted of four first class cars (11 to 14) and six second class cars (1 to 6) plus a service and a restaurant (9 and 10) A train consisting of 14 cars has a length of . Prior to the refurbishment this train would have had 192 seats in first class, 567 seats in second class and 40 seats in the restaurant car plus four in the conference compartment. Two spaces for wheelchairs are available. Most cars of the ICE 1 offer both compartments and rows of seats, just like the seating in German InterCity cars. Cars at the ends of the trainsets used to be smoking areas. There are "quiet" cars as well as cars that were later equipped with cell phone repeaters. Some seats were designed to turn to face the direction of travel, but this was never used in revenue service. Power Cars (Class 401) The class 401 power car includes the cab and the engine compartment. Besides the driver's seat and controls, the cab features a second seat and several controls behind the seats. The engine compartment has a central corridor with door at both ends as well as a door on each side of the power car. Both bogies are powered by four forced-air cooled traction motors each. Each motor has a continuous power rating of , the UIC power rating of the vehicle is , and the largest starting tractive effort . The drive system uses asynchronous three-phase AC motors pioneered in the Henschel-BBC DE 2500 locomotives as well as the InterCityExperimental. These motors are fitted between bogies and frame using pneumatics that are electronically adjusted depending on the current speed ("Umschaltbare Antriebsmasse UmAn," i.e., switchable drive mass). The power cars are directly derived from the Class 120 locomotives. At the time they entered into service, the power cars were considered exceptionally advanced technology. Each power car alone had ten computer systems. Displays on both sides of the driver's console allowed, for example, controlling operating conditions or entering failure notifications, that were automatically reported to the maintenance facility via radio. While the InterCityExperimental's power cars were higher than the intermediate cars, both heights would be adjusted for the ICE 1 series. A significant change to the predecessor is the pressure-sealed cab. Power cars 001 to 020 and 501 to 520 had conventional power converters. All other power cars (051 to 090 and 551 to 591) have power converters that use GTO thyristors which are responsible for the distinctive "melody" when the power car is brought up to speed. Power cars with conventional power converters weigh about , those with GTO power converters two and a half tons less. In October 2007, Deutsche Bahn tendered refitting two power cars with IGBT power converters instead of the GTOs. After field testing, up to 36 additional power cars were converted. The power converters are rated to . The transformers output : for traction and for heating, air-conditioning and auxiliary circuits. On the front, power cars feature a Scharfenberg coupler underneath a cover. Contrary to all other variants of ICE trains, the coupler of ICE 1 power cars is not used in regular service. The ICE 2 power cars (Class 402) are compatible to the intermediate cars of the ICE 1 and are used with ICE 1 trains when necessary. Two ICE 2 power cars were ordered specifically for powering ICE 1 trains (402 045 and 402 046). Power cars for service into Switzerland are equipped with a second pantograph matching Swiss specifications and the Swiss Integra-Signum safety system as well as ETCS. The other power cars are prepared for fitting a second pantograph. Usually the power car 401 0xx is coupled to the first class cars, while the power car 401 5xx is coupled to the second class end of the train. First Class Intermediate Car (Class 801) When delivered, these cars were divided into two main areas. One area had rows of seats in a 2+1 arrangement further divided by a coat rack in the middle of the area. Seats were spaced apart and the aisle was wide. The other area comprised three compartments with five seats each. Between the compartments and the doors were the toilet, three display cabinets, lockers and several trash cans. The first order of ICE 1 trains (41 trainsets) included 105 cars of this type. First Class Intermediate Car with Special Equipment (Class 801.8) These cars are the same as the class 801 car, except for a C-Netz telephone, that was placed between the toilet and the first compartment. The first order of ICE 1 trains included 41 cars of this type. Second Class Intermediate Car (Class 802) These cars are divided into two main areas as well. One part comprises two toilets and four passenger compartments with six seats each. The other part is fitted with rows of seats in a 2+2 arrangement, divided in two halves by a coat rack. Prior to the refurbishment, this area had six tables with seats arranged on both sides. This has been reduced to four in favor of additional seats. Seats were spaced apart before the refurbishment, and the backrests could be reclined up to 40 degrees. Each car was designed in one of three different sets of colors for carpets and seat covers. Some units, running as car number 1 (smokers' car second class), had one compartment refitted for storing luggage containers for the AIRail Service. This was used for airline passengers travelling between Stuttgart and Frankfurt Airport. These special compartments were removed during the refurbishment. The first order of ICE 1 trains (41 trainsets) included 246 cars of this type. Second Class Car with Special Configuration (Class 802.9) The order for the ICE 2 trainsets in October 1993 included additional cars to be coupled into ICE 1 trainsets. 24 second class cars (class 806.9) and one first class car (class 805.9) were collectively designated class 802.9 and coupled into ICE 1 trainsets as car number 7, after two years of passenger service had shown that second class capacity was too low. Service Car (Class 803) Prior to the refurbishment, the class 803 service car had 39 second class seats, two wheelchair spaces and a conference compartment with four seats. Additionally, there is the conductors' compartment, one compartment for employees of the restaurant car and a wheelchair-accessible toilet including a changing table. The doors are wider compared to other cars to improve accessibility for wheelchairs. There is an additional toilet reserved for employees of the restaurant car to ensure food safety. The second class seats were arranged just like in the usual second class intermediate cars. Originally, these cars also held the train's second phone booth. At the time of commissioning, the conference compartment was equipped with a large table, four freely movable chairs, an electronic typewriter, a fax machine, a telephone and power sockets. It could be used with a reservation of at least three seats. Originally, first-class tickets were necessary. If there were no reservations in the conference compartment, it could be used at the head conductor's discretion. In 1992, demand was high: the conference compartments were booked 8197 times. A year later, that number dropped to 4400. Before the refurbishment program, the train's only power sockets for passengers were located in the conference compartment. The train's information displays are controlled from the conductor's compartment, which is also where announcements are usually recorded. The first order of ICE 1 trains (41 trainsets) included 41 cars of this type. Restaurant Car (Class 804) The restaurant car (class 804, also referred to as Bordrestaurant, former spelling BordRestaurant) has a total of 40 seats. On the side facing the first class cars is a dining area, where guests are served at eight tables with 24 seats in a 2+1 arrangement. The central part of the car comprises the galley that is connected to a counter facing the BordBistro area (formerly referred to as Bord-Treff "on-board meeting point"). This self-service area is designed for 16 seated and 10 standing guests. The restaurant car can easily be recognized by its raised roof, which is higher than the rest of the train. This was necessary in order for all the kitchen equipment to fit into the car. Unlike all other intermediate cars, the restaurant car has no sideways doors for passengers to enter or exit the car from the platform. There is, however, a door in the kitchen area that can only be opened from inside. In the refurbishment program, the galley was redesigned. It now includes a microwave oven, storage space for containers and a new coffeemaker. There is one restaurant car in every ICE 1 trainset. Originally, it was planned to serve meals at the tables of the neighboring first-class car as well, if all seats in the restaurant car were taken. History The trains are based on the experimental vehicle InterCityExperimental which was completed in 1985. Project planning of the series had already started the year before. Specification and a project schedule were completed in 1985, but because of the lack of practical experience it was considered provisional. After many details were changed, Deutsche Bundesbahn published tender documents on 2 January 1986. Procurement A first series of 41 trainsets was eventually ordered after lengthy discussion between the Bundesbahn and the Federal Ministry of Transport. The development of the power cars was tendered in March 1986, with development of the intermediate cars in June. By the end of the year, all contracts were awarded. At the delivery ceremony of the first Class 120 locomotive on 13 January 1987, Werner Dollinger, the federal minister for transport, said: "I hereby empower the board of the Deutsche Bundesbahn to order the first ten units of the series version of the ICE from the industry at once. Financing is assured." ("Hiermit ermächtigte ich den Vorstand der Deutschen Bundesbahn, sofort zehn Exemplare der Serienausführung des ICE bei der Industrie in Auftrag zu geben. Die Finanzierung ist gesichert.") Prior to that statement there had been speculation that the federal government would not provide funding for the trains that were necessary to effectively use the high-speed lines that were designed for speeds of . When the high-speed lines were to be opened in 1991, plans called for 40 to 50 ICE trainsets ready for service. The power output of the power cars was designed for trains with 14 intermediate cars at a speed of , while bogies and brakes were designed to . Using a letter of intent, Bundesbahn ordered 82 power cars in September 1987 and 482 intermediate car in July 1988 (according to a different source, 492 intermediate cars). The Federal Ministry of Transport approved of the order in July 1988. The contracts were officially awarded to the consortiums on 20 January (power cars) and 20 February 1989 (intermediate cars). Delivery of the first power car was planned for August 1989, the first intermediate car was to be delivered in April 1990, and testing of the trains was to start in spring of 1990. The purchase price of the first 41 trainsets ordered was about 1.8 billion DM, about 1.2 billion DM of which was for the electric equipment. The Bundesbahn claims to have reduced the price by about 300 million DM through negotiations. One power car cost 8.7 million, a restaurant car four million, a service car three million and a regular intermediate car 2.7 million DM. In July 1990, Bundesbahn ordered 19 additional trainsets of two power cars and twelve intermediate cars (including one service car) for another billion DM. These 19 trainsets were approved for service in Switzerland and made services past Basel via Bern to Interlaken and to Zurich possible. Delivery of these units started in the fall of 1991. A further development of the ICE 1 into a multi-system train for international services was specified as ICE-M. While this concept was later implemented in the ICE 3M, while plans for a fast freight train for piece goods based on the ICE 1 (called ICE-G) were shelved. Power Cars Production of the power cars began in the fall of 1988, based just on a letter of intent, however, the production contract became legally binding much later. The first 82 power cars received fleet numbers 401 001 to 020, 401 051 to 071, 401 501 to 520 and 401 551 to 571. When production of the power cars started in the fall of 1988, bogies and other parts were already in production. The skeletons of the bodies were built at Krauss-Maffei at Munich. Further construction of the bodies was shared in equal parts between Krauss-Maffei, Krupp (Essen) and Thyssen-Henschel (Kassel). A consortium of ABB (BBC), AEG and Siemens supplied the electrical equipment. The first power car of the serial production was officially delivered to Bundesbahn on 26 September 1989 at Krauss-Maffei's factory in Munich. Numerous guests of honor were present for the ceremony, including the federal minister of transport Friedrich Zimmermann, the federal minister of research Heinz Riesenhuber and Bundesbahn CEO Reiner Gohlke. Delivery of the first 41 trainsets was planned to be completed by April 1991, while in early 1989 complete delivery had been planned for September 1991. Commissioning of the first vehicle began shortly after delivery, with one power car being delivered every week. After some initial delays, delivery was back on schedule by spring 1990. By the end of May 1990, 35 power cars had been delivered. In the spring of 1990, 401 015 and 401 515 were delivered, which were the first power cars equipped with additional pantographs for service in Switzerland. The first presentation of the ICE outside Europe was the Technogerma exposition at Seoul from 27 February to 9 March 1991. Power car 401 555 and one intermediate car were brought there by ship. Intermediate Cars Development and production of the intermediate cars was lead-managed by LHB (Salzgitter). Main partners were Duewag (Krefeld-Uerdingen), Waggon Union (Berlin), and MBB Verkehrstechnik (Donauwörth). MAN and several smaller companies were involved as well. Preparations for production began in mid-1988, actual production started one year later. The bodies were a lightweight construction made from large extruded profiles of an aluminium-silicon alloy, the base plan was built as a hollow chamber profile. The first car (of class 802) was delivered by MBB at Donauwörth on 2 July 1990. The first cars of classes 801 and 803 were delivered by Duewag at Krefeld-Uerdingen on 13 August. The first restaurant cars followed in the fall of the same year. Commissioning When the first ICE 1 power cars were commissioned in late 1989, the intermediate cars were not yet available. Instead, they were coupled to retired couchette cars (type yl) that were homologated for . These were fitted with special couplings for compatibility to the power cars. Usually, Class 110 locomotives served as Angstlok as well as for pulling the train on the return trip. For braking tests, the locos were sometimes coupled between two power cars, with match wagons on both sides. The test runs usually started at the Opladen repair workshop and used lines in the vicinity. Fast runs at up to were to Bielefeld and Bremen. Because of time pressure, some power cars were used for tests that had not yet been accepted by Bundesbahn. For longer test runs, two "dummy trainsets" comprising eleven couchette cars and ten InterCity cars (type Bm 235) respectively were used to replace the missing intermediate cars. Besides the test runs, the first power cars were used for various other purposes. 401 006 was sent to the Bundesbahn school at Munich-Aubing for three weeks in April 1990. Later the same month 401 005 was used for fine-tuning the new depot at Hamburg-Eidelstedt to the trains. Starting 22 May, 401 504 and 401 008 were used to train drivers for acceptance runs at Nuremberg. At the same time, 401 503 was sent to Nuremberg for a test disassembly. In early June 1990, 401 010 was sent to the environmental test chamber at the Austrian Research and Test Center Arsenal. When the first intermediate cars became available, the first complete ICE 1 trains underwent trials between Fulda and Würzburg on the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line, where they reached speeds of . Distinctive features Compared to the InterCity, the new train had several distinctive features. Besides the increased top speed ( instead of ), traveling comfort was improved significantly. The ICE 1's cars are 20 centimeters wider than the newest IC cars at the time, the number of seats per second class car was reduced from 88 to 66 while the car length remained the same. All passenger cars were air conditioned. The passages between the cars were wide and without doors, the seat pitch of (second class) and (first class) was larger than on any other German train. Furthermore, the doors were unusually wide and featured steps that deployed automatically when the doors were opened to make entry as convenient as possible, and the glass doors dividing the two major areas of the intermediate cars were opened by proximity sensors. The ICE 1 was the first German train in which smokers and non-smokers were separated not into different parts of the same car, but to different cars altogether. Each seat featured a standard 3.5 mm audio jack with controls for switching between eight channels: three radio programs from public broadcasters, three programs played from Compact Disc and two audio channels for video programs. In both classes, some seats featured video monitors in the backrests of the seats. Luggage could be stored both above and below the seats. The main part of the car was divided by a coat rack. Every seat had its own reading lamp and information monitors in the entrance areas switched between displaying the train's route and the current speed. Because they were conceived in the 1980s, the trainsets had no power sockets available to travellers except for the conference compartment prior to the refurbishment. The few power sockets were placed in order to operate cleaning equipment and were usually disabled during the journey. Start of operation Service trials of the first ICE 1 trainsets started in the fall of 1990, about a year later than originally planned. On 28 February 1991 the ICE 1 was officially presented to the press at Fulda, on 8 March the press was invited for a run from Hamburg to Ulm and back. The first regularly scheduled ICE train, Münchner Kindl, departed from in Hamburg at 5.53 am on 2 June 1991. For the inauguration of the ICE system, ICE 1 trainsets operated on one ICE line from Hamburg to Munich, via Hanover, Fulda, Frankfurt, Stuttgart and Augsburg, at hourly intervals. This coincided with the inauguration of the first two German high-speed rail lines Mannheim-Stuttgart and Hanover-Würzburg, which required 18 trainsets. At the time of the inauguration a total of 25 trainsets were available. Originally, the trainsets were made up of 13 intermediate cars: four first class, restaurant car, service car and seven cars second class. In 1991 and 1992, ICE 1 trainsets gradually took over additional services between Hamburg/Bremen and Munich. On 31 May 1992, this IC service was officially transferred to the ICE. On the same day, the ICE Sprinter service was introduced. In 1992 and 1993, the IC service from Hamburg to Basel via Frankfurt and Karlsruhe was gradually transferred to the ICE 1. Starting 27 September 1992, some trains continued into Switzerland to Zurich for the first time. Since 23 May 1993, some ICE services have started in Berlin instead of Hamburg or Bremen. With three lines operating, the planned requirements of rolling stock increased to 48 trainsets. On 28 May 1995, some services were extended to Interlaken, on 24 May 1998 an ICE service to Vienna was introduced. Further Development On 12 August 1995, the Chinese head of state Jiang Zemin travelled on board the ICE from Ludwigsburg (near Stuttgart) of Rolandseck (near Bonn). For this purpose, a special trainset had been coupled from two power cars and six intermediate cars, one of which had been converted to a palace car. The Guest of the State was accompanied by the Federal Minister of Transport Matthias Wissmann, DB chief of passenger operations Klaus Daubertshäuser and several board members of AEG and Siemens. The train reached a maximum speed of . A visit to the cab that was scheduled for five minutes was extended to about 30 minutes by the Guest of the State. The companies involved hoped to sell ICE technology for the Beijing to Shanghai connection. Starting 29 May 1995, ICE 1 trains were allowed to travel at their top speed of . This was used on ICE line 3 (Hamburg–Frankfurt–Basel) in conjunction with other measures to cut travel time by a total of 17 minutes. This significantly improved the trains' connections for Switzerland's synchronized timetable. In 1998, the top speed was again lowered to . Since mid-2006, single ICE 1 services on the Nuremberg–Ingolstadt high-speed railway travel at . In 2008, the ICE 1 service ICE 783 uses its top speed on the Hanover–Würzburg line. Since 1 September 2007, smoking has been prohibited in all of Deutsche Bahn's trains. Smoking areas had gradually been reduced to both cars at the very ends of the ICE 1 trainsets (cars 1 and 14). Until 30 September 2006, smoking was allowed in the Bistro area of the restaurant car. The restaurant area had always been smoke-free. Starting in late 2005, smoking in the first class cars of refurbished trains had already been limited to the three compartments of car 14. First Refurbishment By mid-2005, each ICE 1 trainset had travelled 6.5 to 7.9 million kilometers and had been in revenue service for up to 14 years. In the summer of 2005 a refurbishment program was started, referred to by Deutsche Bahn as "Redesign". It was planned to toughen up all trainsets for another 10 to 15 years of service at the Nuremberg main railway workshop completing in December 2008. For the refurbishment, trainsets were taken out of service for five weeks (25 work days). Refurbishing a single ICE 1 trainset costs about three million Euro, a fraction of the cost of buying new trains. The entire program cost about 180 million Euro. About 80 percent of the materials are re-used, including 16,000 tons of steel and 1,200 tons of copper from the power cars' traction motors. Compared to buying new trains, the program saves about 1.3 billion Euro. About 35,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions were avoided as well as about 500,000 tons of industrial waste. After several weeks of testing, the first refurbished ICE 1 (trainset 11 "Nürnberg") went back into service on 5 August 2005. By March 2006, eleven trainsets had been refurbished, by February 2007 half the fleet (30 trainsets), by June 2007 37 of the 59 trainsets. In 2005, nine trainsets were refurbished, in 2006 and 2007 20 each. Until the end of 2007, two trains underwent refurbishment at the same time. The remaining trainsets were refurbished one-by-one. The refurbishment program uses the full capacity of the Nuremberg workshop with 320 jobs. In each of the 708 intermediate cars, about 3500 parts were removed, processed or replaced and reinstalled. This included 42,000 seats, 40,000 square meters of carpets, 5000 tables, 42,000 reservation displays and 11,000 window shades. The interior design was adapted to the newer ICE generations. Interior changes included: new colors, brighter lights panelling from teak wood, similar to the second-generation ICE 3 interior reduction to the seat pitch in second class to 920 mm. This allows the installation of 60 additional seats per trainset. Because the window arrangement was not changed, this resulted in some "wall window seats": Window seats without windows next to them. power sockets on the seats and luggage racks in the center of the car. For supplying the power sockets, four additional power circuits were installed in each car. passenger information displays were modernized and displays indicating reserved seats were installed. new design of the restaurant car, which now resembles the restaurant cars of the first series ICE T the accessible toilet now features a panic button. Buttons to call for assistance have been installed at the wheelchair spaces. reduced maximum power due to set IGBT instead of GTO. During the refurbishment, the audio and video systems were removed as well as the phone booths, the foot-rests in second class, the terminals for timetable information and the buttons in first class that were used to call the conductor. The backrests in second class compartments do not recline any more, those in second class row seats only by a limited amount. The seat cushion can still be moved to the front by about five centimeters. The power cars received new bogie frames and a new power supply for the air conditioning. The power cars of trainsets 01 to 20 were refitted with GTO power converters. Smaller measures included diagnosis and subsequent repair of the driver's brake valve, the installation of new relays into some safety circuits and some software changes. After the refurbishment, all trainsets were coupled to a standardized combination of 12 intermediate cars. During the refurbishment, seats that differ between both versions cannot be reserved. Field tests Starting in mid-1993, a newly developed bogie with air suspension was tested in a first class intermediate car (801 088-6) in scheduled service. The two-year trial was to prove that the bogie that was homologated for 300 km/h was ready to go into production for the ICE 2. Since 1995, two ICE 1 trainsets have been used as so-called idea trains ("Ideenzüge") on services from Hamburg to Basel and Stuttgart. These trainsets were used to test cellular repeaters, returnable bottles in the restaurant car and different concepts for in-train Internet access. Later these trainsets were used in regular ICE service, without tests being conducted. During the refurbishment, the additional installations were removed. For the early-morning service Ernst Barlach from Hamburg to Munich, two compartments in cars 1 and 7 were reserved for the storage of skis in early 1995. In each compartment, racks for 28 pairs of skis were installed. This service was offered at no extra cost, reservation of storage space was not possible. From 13 January to 23 March 1996, the same service was offered in a compartment of car 5 of ICE trains 585 and 588 from Hamburg to Garmisch-Partenkirchen and back. On a pair of ICE trains between Berlin Zoo and Interlaken this was offered as well on specific dates from mid-December 1995 to mid-April 1996. In 1995, some ICE 1 cars were used to field-test new air conditioning units that used air as cooling agent and therefore did not require special refrigerants. These units were later installed in the ICE 3. In the late 1990s, trainset 13 had ICE 2 power cars and a new intermediate car with traction motors for testing the distributed traction concept. The train was referred to as ICE D. ICE train North America tour In June 1993, an eight-car trainset was shipped from Bremerhaven to the United States. The trainset included two power cars 401 084 and 584, one first class car, two second class cars, one restaurant car, and one service car. Starting in April 1993. the train had been adapted to service on the Northeast Corridor. Changes included adaptations to the 11 kV, 25 Hz electrification system and changed wheel profiles. The trainset did presentation runs to 25 cities in the US and Canada. Starting 4 October, it was used in Metroliner service between Washington, D.C., and New York City for two months. On other lines the train was pulled by diesel locomotives, specifically the experimental F69PHAC. Siemens and AEG-Westinghouse hoped to win a contract by Amtrak for 26 trainsets for a fast Boston–New York–Washington service that would eventually become the Acela Express. Had the bid been won, the trainsets would have been built at five plants of the GM Electro-Motive Division in the United States. Other attempts to sell ICE 1 technology outside Germany remained unsuccessful as well. In 1993/1994 AES and Siemens offered the ICE to Taiwan, hoping to win an order for 45 trainsets. The Taiwanese Minister for Transport Liu Chao-shiuan tested the ICE in the summer of 1993, while in Germany. Swiss speed record On 8 November 2007, trainset 89, which had been shortened to about , set a Swiss land speed record for railed vehicles during trial runs for the ETCS cab signalling inside the Lötschberg Base Tunnel. The trainset reached . The trainset had a modified pantograph, but two of the eight traction motors had been disabled. Second Refurbishment Starting from 2019 all ICE 1 trainsets will receive a second major overhaul to stay in service until at least 2030. The first of these refurbished sets was finished in April 2020, and is used in passenger service since June of the same year. Changes include: Each trainset being shortened from 12 to 9 cars, with one First Class Car and two Second Class Cars being removed. These cars will be used as donors for spare parts. The Service Car being refurbished as a Second Class Car. LED displays (viewable from outside of the cars) and passenger information system screens (viewable from the inside) are installed at the doors, displaying the ICE's line number, next stops and Terminus, similar to those installed in the ICE 2 cars. Additional storage room for the passengers' luggage. A renovation of the restrooms and the Family Areas. New seats in the cabs. The refurbished units are planned to be used on the ICE Sprinter lines and on routes with medium high traffic. On those with high to extremely high traffic they are to be replaced by the ICE 4 trains . Accidents Eschede On 3 June 1998 ICE 1 set 151 derailed on the Hanover–Hamburg railway at Eschede, approximately north of Hanover. The train was on its way from Munich to Hamburg as ICE 884 "Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen", when the wheel of a first class car broke, and changed the setting of a railroad switch. Subsequently, the following cars derailed and crashed into the pillars of a bridge the train was just passing under, causing it to collapse on top of the train. 101 people were killed and 88 were seriously injured. It remains the worst rail disaster in the history of the Federal Republic of Germany and the worst high speed rail disaster worldwide. Set 151 was almost completely destroyed; only the almost undamaged power car 410 051 as well as a few other intermediate cars have been reused in other sets. The trailing power car was used for the reconstruction of power car 401 573. Technology Traction of the ICE 1 trainsets is achieved by the eight driven axles of both power cars. Because relatively few axles have traction, the steepness of the grade the trains can safely negotiate are limited. The ICE 1 is limited to grades of about 3.5%. Steeper grades cannot be negotiated safely, because the wheels could slip due to the low adhesion under adverse conditions, which may lead to a stopped train becoming stuck on a grade. This is one of the reasons the ICE 1 is not homologated for the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line, which has grades of up to 4%. The intermediate cars sit on type MD 522 bogies with steel suspension and an axle base of . New wheels have a diameter of . They are replaced when they reach a diameter of . The cars are coupled above the rails by a semi-automatic coupling that was designed specifically for the ICE 1. It couples two brake pipes, two electric trainlines, cables and two fibre optic cables. The passage between two cars is wide and high. Unlike on the InterCityExperimental, they are not positive locked on the outside. The acceleration distance of a trainset with 14 cars to − starting at standstill, on level terrain − is given as (66 seconds), to on (200 s) and to on (380 s). Braking distance of a service stop under LZB control (0,5 m/s²) from is given as that of a fast braking (1,05 m/s²) at . For braking all cars have disc brakes. Additionally, the power heads use regenerative brakes, the intermediate cars have electromagnetic track brakes. The power cars have spring-loaded parking brakes; intermediate cars use screw brakes for the same purpose. The bogies facilitate replacing the track brakes with eddy current brakes. The pantograph type DSA-350 S was specifically developed by Dornier for use in the ICE 1. At they were considered very lightweight with minimal resonance. Unlike its predecessor InterCityExperimental, the ICE 1 does not have a high-voltage connection of both power cars. Because of this, the pantographs of both power cars are raised during operation. In the 1990s, the two phone booths inside each trainset were connected to Deutsche Telekom's C-Netz by 13 so-called Funkfeststationen. Inside the tunnels of the first two high-speed lines, repeaters were installed at a distance of 1500 meters that communicated with the trains using leaky feeders. Between the tunnels, directional antennas were used. Inside the trains, antennas were installed in the service cars. Calls cost 0.7 DM per time unit. The same time unit cost 0.23 DM when using a landline. ETCS Cab Signalling The 19 ICE 1 trainsets used for service into Switzerland were equipped with the European Train Control System (ETCS) in 2007 The cost of 34 million Swiss Francs was paid by the Swiss government. Spending tax money for refitting foreign trains has been a target for criticism. Switzerland paid for the equipment after Deutsche Bahn had announced the it would not convert any of their high-speed lines to ETCS cab signalling within the following ten years. Because of this, DB claimed to have no interest in refitting ICE trainsets with ETCS. If ETCS is used on any high-speed line in Germany within ten years, Switzerland has to be paid back part of the cost. ETCS is used in Switzerland on the newly built Mattstetten–Rothrist line that has been used by ICE 1 trains since 10 December 2006. Currently, the line is used by three to four pairs of ICE trains each day, including one intra-Swiss ICE from Bern to Basel. Design The exterior design of the InterCityExperimental by Alexander Neumeister was applied to the series production with only minor adjustments. Neumeister's concept for the interior however was not used. The interior was designed by Jens Peters. The same team had designed the InterRegio trains in the mid-1980s. Aerodynamic reasons led to the design of the power cars' front as well as the flush fitting of the windows and the low skirts. In places without windows, thick glass is used to continue the ribbon glazing. The exterior design is very similar to that of the ICE 2. A major difference to all other ICE generations is the raised roof of the restaurant car. The ICE 1 is the only ICE without electronic displays for route information of the outside; the car numbers are indicated by adhesive labels. ICE 1 trainsets have car numbers ranging from 1 to 14, while all other ICE trains have car numbers from 21 to 44. Operation Deutsche Bahn is the sole operator and owner of ICE 1 trains. There are currently 59 units of twelve intermediate cars. At about 750 seats and a length of 360 meters, the ICE 1 trainsets are the longest ICE trains that have been built yet. Other ICE trains have the same length and capacity when two (sometimes three) trainsets are coupled. The trainsets are used in synchronized schedules on the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line: Hamburg-Altona via Hannover–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Frankfurt (Main)–Mannheim–Karlsruhe–Baden-Baden–Freiburg to Basel (ICE line 20) or to Stuttgart (branching off at Mannheim, ICE line 22) Berlin via Wolfsburg–Braunschweig–Hildesheim–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Fulda–Hanau–Frankfurt (Main)–Mannheim to Karlsruhe–Offenburg–Basel (ICE line 12) or Stuttgart–Ulm–Augsburg–Munich (ICE line 11) Hamburg-Altona via Hannover–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Würzburg–Nuremberg–Ingolstadt to Munich (ICE line 25) Hamburg-Altona to Berlin (part of ICE line 28) Additionally, there are single trains of other ICE lines serviced by ICE 1 trainsets. Until December 2007, ICE trains from Germany to Innsbruck and Vienna were ICE 1 services as well. Because they exceed the UIC loading gauge, ICE 1, ICE 2 and Metropolitan trainsets are collectively referred to as ICE A in internal use. All 59 trainsets are based at Hamburg-Eidelstedt. Names Since October 2002, certain ICE trainsets have carried the names of cities: See also List of high-speed trains Sources Railway coaches of Germany Deutsche Bundesbahn locomotives Electric multiple units of Germany Electric multiple units with locomotive-like power cars Intercity Express Articles containing video clips Passenger trains running at least at 250 km/h in commercial operations Train-related introductions in 1989
4593156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailey%20%28surname%29	Bailey (surname)	Bailey is an English or Scottish surname. It is first recorded in Northumberland, where it was said to have been changed from Balliol due to the unpopularity of Scottish king John Balliol (d. 1314). There appears to be no historical evidence for this, and Bain concludes that the earliest form was Baillie or Bailli (recorded in the early 14th century). The origin of the name is most likely from Anglo-Norman bailli, the equivalent of bailiff; bailie remains a regional Scottish variant of the term bailiff. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the Norman name may have been locational, derived from Bailleul-En-Vimeu in Normandy. A Aaron Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Aaron Bailey (American football) (born 1971), American football player Abe Bailey (1864–1940), South African diamond tycoon, politician, financier and cricketer Abigail Abbot Bailey (1746–1815), American memoirist Ace Bailey (1903–1992), Canadian ice hockey player Adrian Bailey (born 1945), British politician Sir Alan Bailey (1931–2023), British civil servant Albert Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Albert Bailey (cricketer) (1872–1950), English cricketer whose name may have been Alfred Albert Bailey (rugby league), English rugby league footballer of the 1930s Bert Bailey (politician) (1915–1999), Australian politician Aleen Bailey (born 1980), Jamaican athlete Alexander Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Alfred Marshall Bailey (1894–1978), American ornithologist and museum director Alfred Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Alfred Bailey (poet) (1905–1997), Canadian academic and poet Alice Bailey (1880–1949), British theosophist Alison Bailey, New Zealand academic Alison Bailey, American academic Allen Bailey (born 1989), American footballer Alvin Bailey (born 1991), American footballer Amari Bailey (born 2004), American basketball player Andrew Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Andrew Bailey (banker) (born 1959), British banker Andrew Bailey (baseball) (born 1984), American baseball pitcher Angela Bailey (1962–2021), Canadian athlete Anne Bailey (1742–1825), British-born American frontier scout Anne Howard Bailey (1924–2006), American writer Anne Bailey (ten-pin bowling) (born 1951), British ten-pin bowler Anthony Bailey (author) (1933–2020), English author Anthony Bailey (PR advisor) (born 1970), Irish-British-Antiguan campaigner and PR consultant Arthur Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people B Barbara B. 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Bailey (born 196?), faculty manager of WMUL, Marshall University Chip Bailey (1921–1963), New Zealand trade unionist Chloe Bailey (born 1998), American actress and singer-songwriter (of Chloe x Halle) Chris and Christopher Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Chris Bailey (musician, born 1950), member of the rock bands The Angels and Gang Gajang Chris Bailey (musician, born 1956), co-founder and singer of rock band The Saints Chris Bailey (artist) (born 1965) New Zealand Māori carver and sculptor Chris Bailey (tennis) (born 1968), English tennis player, TV sports commentator and property consultant Chris Bailey (ice hockey) (born 1972), American ice hockey player Chris Bailey (rugby league) (born 1982), Australian rugby league player Chris Bailey (animator) (born 19??), American animator Christopher Bailey (fashion designer) (born 1971), English fashion executive Christopher Bailey (screenwriter) (born 19??), British lecturer and Doctor Who screenwriter Cindy-Lu Bailey (born 1965), Australian deaf swimmer and the most decorated woman in Deaflympics history Clarence Bailey (1963–2006), American football player Clifton George Bailey III (born 1967), Jamaican reggae artist known as Capleton Colin Bailey (drummer) (1934–2021), British-born American jazz drummer Colin B. Bailey (born 19??), British museum director Corinne Bailey Rae (born 1979), British singer Cory Bailey (born 1971), American baseball pitcher Cullen Bailey (born 1985), Australian cricketer D D. R. Shackleton Bailey (1917–2005), British classical scholar Dan, Daniel and Danny Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Dan Bailey (conservationist) (1904–1982), American conservationist Dan Bailey (American football) (born 1988), American football placekicker Daniel A. 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Bailey (born 1961), British Afro-Caribbean curator, photographer and writer David M. Bailey (1966–2010), American Christian singer-songwriter David Bailey (economist) (born 1966), British academic and commentator David Bailey (rugby league) (born 1969), New Zealand rugby league footballer David Bailey (basketball) (born 1981), American basketball player David Bailey (writer) (born 19??), British editor and science fiction author Dawayne Bailey (born 19??), American guitarist Dean Bailey (1967–2014), Australian rules football player and coach DeFord Bailey (1899–1982), American country musician Dennis Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Dennis Bailey (footballer born 1935), English association football player Dennis Bailey (footballer born 1965), English association football player Dennis Bailey (rugby league), British rugby league footballer of the 1990s Derek Bailey (guitarist) (1930–2005), British guitarist Derek Bailey (tribal chairman) (born 1972), Native American tribal chairman and US Congressional candidate Dermot Bailey (born 1994), British professional wheelchair tennis player Derrick Bailey (1918–2005), British cricketer and aviation entrepreneur Derrick Sherwin Bailey (1910–1984), British theologian Dion Bailey (born 1992), American football safety Dona Bailey (born 19??), American computer game designer Donald Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Sir Donald Bailey (civil engineer) (1901–1985), British civil engineer Donald Bailey (musician) (1934–2013), American jazz drummer Donald A. Bailey (1945–2020), American politician and lawyer Donald Bailey (architect) (born ????), Australian architect Donovan Bailey (born 1967), Jamaican-Canadian athlete Dot Bailey (born 19??), New Zealand cricketer Doug Bailey (1933–2013), American political consultant Doug Bailey (footballer), Australian rules football E Ed Bailey (1931–2007), American baseball player Edward Bailey (1814–1903), American missionary and painter Edward Battersby Bailey (1881–1965), English geologist Edwin Bailey (born 1959), American gridiron football player Edwin C. 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Lee Bailey (1933–2021), American attorney Florence Merriam Bailey (1863–1948), American ornithologist Fran Bailey (born 1946), Australian politician Frank Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Frank Bailey (financier) (1865–1953), New York businessman and philanthropist Frank Bailey (footballer, born 1800s) (fl. 1901–1902), English footballer Frank Bailey (footballer, born 1907) (1907–1969), English footballer Frank I. Bailey Jr. (born 1936), American politician Frank Bailey (author) (born 1970), former aide to then Alaska governor Sarah Palin, and author Fred and Frederick Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Fred Bailey (1895–1972), American baseball player Frederick Manson Bailey (1827–1915), Australian botanist Frederick Marshman Bailey (1882–1967), known as Eric, British Intelligence officer and explorer Frederick Bailey (cricketer) (1919–1985), English cricketer G G. W. Bailey (born 1944), American actor Gamaliel Bailey (1807–1859), American journalist Garnet Bailey (1948–2001), Canadian hockey player Gary Bailey (born 1958), English footballer Gene Bailey (1893–1973), American baseball player Geoff Bailey (born 19??), British archaeologist Geoffrey Bailey (1899–19??), British WWI flying ace George Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people George Bailey (cricketer, born 1853) (1853–1926), Australian cricketer George Edwin Bailey (1879–1965), British electrical engineer and industrialist George Bailey (racing driver) (1900–1940), American racecar driver George Bailey (athlete) (1906–2000), English steeplechase runner George Bailey (footballer) (1919–1998), Australian rules footballer for Carlton and Perth George Bailey (cricketer, born 1982) (born 1982), Australian cricketer Gerald Bailey (1903–1975), British politician Gillian Bailey (born 1955), British actress and academic Glenda Bailey (born 1958), British journalist Graeme Bailey (born 1943), Australian racing driver Graham Bailey (born 1920), English footballer Guy Bailey (born 1950), American educator H H. B. Bailey (1936–2003), American racing driver H. C. Bailey (1878–1961), British writer H. E. Bailey (died 1976), Oklahoma politician Hachaliah Bailey (1775–1845), American circusman Halle Bailey (born 2000), American actress and singer-songwriter (of Chloe x Halle) Harold Walter Bailey (1899–1996), English linguistic scholar Harold Bailey (gridiron football) (born 1957), American football player Harry Bailey (footballer) (1919–1996), footballer for Leicester Fosse Harry Bailey (1922–1985), Australian psychiatrist Harvey Bailey (1887–1979), American bank robber Hedley Bailey (1895–1968), English footballer Helen Bailey (1965–2016), British author Henry Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Henry Bailey (Canadian politician) (1818–1897), politician in Nova Scotia Henry Bailey (Australian politician) (1876–1962), Australian politician Henry Bailey (American football) (born 1973), American football wide receiver Homer Bailey (born 1986), American baseball player Horace Bailey (1881–1960), English footballer I Ian Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Ian Bailey (footballer) (born 1956), English footballer Ian Bailey (author) (born 1959), head buyer and later financial director of Games Workshop Ian Bailey (British Army soldier) (born 1959), Corporal in the Parachute Regiment who won the Military Medal during the Falklands War Imogen Bailey (born 1977), Australian model Irving Widmer Bailey (1884–1967), American botanist J J. A. Bailey (1930–2018), English cricketer and cricket administrator J. Michael Bailey (born 1957), American psychologist and professor at Northwestern University J. O. Bailey (1903–1979), American literary academic J. R. Bailey (1932–1980), American singer-songwriter Jack Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people Jack Bailey (footballer, born 1901) (1901–????), English football player Jack Bailey (actor) (1907–1980), American actor and daytime game show host Jack Bailey (footballer, born 1921) (1921–1986), English football player Jackson Bailey (1925–1996), American academic (Japanese language, culture and history) Jacob Bailey (author) (1731–1808), Church of England clergyman and author Jacob Whitman Bailey (1811–1857), American naturalist Jake Bailey (American football) (born 1997), American football player James Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people James Bailey (American politician) (1801–1880), mayor of Houston, Texas James Bailey (classical scholar) (c. 1802 – 1864), English schoolmaster James E. Bailey (1822–1885), United States Senator from Tennessee James Bailey (British politician) (1840–1910), British Conservative Party politician, MP 1895–1906 James Montgomery Bailey (1841–1894), American journalist James Anthony Bailey (1847–1906), co-founder of Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus James E. Bailey (Medal of Honor) (fl. 1870s) recipient during the Indian Wars James R. A. 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P. Bailey (fl.1864–1871), English cricketer Warren Worth Bailey (1855–1928), American congressman from Pennsylvania Wendell Bailey (born 1940), American congressman from Missouri Wesley Bailey (1808–1889), American newspaper editor and Wilford S. Bailey (1921–2000), American academic administrator Wilfrid Norman Bailey (1893–1961), British mathematician Wilfred Bailey, 3rd Baron Glanusk (1891–1948), British peer and soldier William Bailey (disambiguation), multiple people William J. 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Bailey (1884–1949), Harvard University dropout who falsely claimed to be a doctor of medicine William Bailey (actor) (1886–1962), American actor William Bailey (cyclist) (1888–1971), British Olympic cyclist William Bailey (Canadian politician) (1889–1975), member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, 1930–1935 William H. Bailey (artist) (1930–2020), artist William Bruce Bailey (born 1962), American rock singer-songwriter known as Axl Rose Willie Bailey (born 1946), American politician in Mississippi Z Zac Bailey (born 1999), Australian rules footballer Zack Bailey (born 1995), American football player Fictional characters Beetle Bailey, eponymous cartoon character of Mort Walker Beth Bailey, fictional character from Spooks George Bailey, lead character in the 1946 film "It's a Wonderful Life" Harry Bailey (Coronation Street), fictional character from the British soap opera June Bailey, fictional character from Wonder Park Kelly Bailey (Misfits), fictional character from the British TV series Misfits Kira Bailey, American Girl character, "Girl of the Year" for 2021 Miranda Bailey, fictional character from Grey's Anatomy Rachel Bailey, fictional character from English TV show Scott and Bailey Sarah Bailey, a lead character in the film The Craft Will Bailey, fictional character from The West Wing The Bailey family on Coronation Street, consisting of: James Bailey Ed Bailey Michael Bailey Aggie Bailey Ronnie Bailey See also Bailey (disambiguation) Baillie (surname) Bailie (name) Baily (surname) Bayly (surname) Bailey v. Alabama, a Supreme Court of the United States case which overturned the peonage laws of Alabama Andy Bailey Provincial Park, in British Columbia, Canada The Bill Bailey trilogy by Catherine Cookson Carl Bailey Company Building, historic commercial building in North Little Rock, Arkansas RNLB H F Bailey (disambiguation), several RNLI lifeboats H. E. Bailey Turnpike, toll road in southwestern Oklahoma Henry Bailey (sternwheeler), a sternwheel steamboat that operated on Puget Sound Jonathan Bailey House (disambiguation), either of two buildings on the American Register of Historic Places Justice Bailey (disambiguation) Lea Bailey Light Railway, narrow gauge heritage railway in the United Kingdom Lydia Bailey (novel), 1947 historical novel Lydia Bailey, 1952 American film from the book of the same title Port Bailey Seaplane Base, public seaplane base in the Kodiak Islands, Alaska R. D. Bailey Lake, reservoir in West Virginia, USA Sam Bailey Building, historic school building in Griffin, Georgia, U.S. Scott & Bailey British detective drama series that debuted on ITV on 29 May 2011 References English-language surnames Surnames of English origin Occupational surnames English-language occupational surnames Surnames of Scottish origin
4593332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Excalibur	Project Excalibur	Project Excalibur was a Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) Cold Warera research program to develop an X-ray laser system as a ballistic missile defense (BMD) for the United States. The concept involved packing large numbers of expendable lasers around a nuclear device, which would orbit in space. During an attack, the device would be detonated, with the X-rays released focused by each laser to destroy multiple incoming target missiles. Because the system would be deployed above the Earth's atmosphere, the X-rays could reach missiles thousands of kilometers away, providing protection over a wide area. Anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems of the time only attacked the enemy nuclear warheads after they were released by ICBMs. A single ICBM could carry as many as a dozen warheads, so dozens of defense missiles were required per attacking missile. A single Excalibur device contained up to fifty lasers and could potentially destroy a corresponding number of missiles, with all of the warheads still on board. A single Excalibur could thus destroy dozens of ICBMs and hundreds of warheads for the cost of a single nuclear bomb, dramatically reversing the cost-exchange ratio that had previously doomed ABM systems. The basic concept behind Excalibur was conceived in the 1970s by George Chapline Jr. and further developed by Peter L. Hagelstein, both part of Edward Teller's "O-Group" in LLNL. After a successful test in 1980, in 1981 Teller and Lowell Wood began talks with US president Ronald Reagan about the concept. These talks, combined with strong support from The Heritage Foundation, helped Reagan ultimately to announce the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) in 1983. Further underground nuclear tests through the early 1980s suggested progress was being made, and this influenced the 1986 Reykjavík Summit, where Reagan refused to give up the possibility of proof-testing SDI technology with nuclear testing in space. Researchers at Livermore and Los Alamos began to raise concerns about the test results. Teller and Wood continued to state the program was proceeding well, even after a critical test in 1985 demonstrated it was not working as expected. This led to significant criticism within the US weapons laboratories. In 1987, the infighting became public, leading to an investigation on whether LLNL had misled the government about the Excalibur concept. In a 60 Minutes interview in 1988, Teller attempted to walk out rather than answer questions about the lab's treatment of a fellow worker who questioned the results. Further tests revealed additional problems, and in 1988 the budget was cut dramatically. The project officially continued until 1992 when its last planned test, Greenwater of Operation Julin, was cancelled. History Conceptual development The conceptual basis of short-wavelength lasers, using X-rays and gamma rays, is the same as that of their visible-light counterparts. There were discussions of such devices as early as 1960, the year the first ruby laser was demonstrated. The first announcement of a successful X-ray laser was made in 1972 by the University of Utah. Researchers spread thin layers of copper atoms on microscope slides and then heated them with pulses from a neodymium glass laser. This caused spots to appear on X-ray film in the direction of the layers and none in other directions. The announcement caused great excitement, but it was soon overshadowed by the fact that no other labs could reproduce the results, and the announcement was soon forgotten. In 1974, the University of Paris-Sud announced lasing in an aluminum plasma created by a pulse of laser light, but, once again, the results were regarded skeptically by other labs. DARPA had been funding low-level research into high-frequency lasers since the 1960s. By late 1976 they had all but given up on them. They commissioned a report by Physical Dynamics, which outlined possible uses of such a laser, including space-based weapons. None of these seemed promising, and DARPA dropped funding for X-ray laser research in favor of the more promising free electron laser. In June 1977, two well-known Soviet researchers, Igor Sobel'man, and Vladilen Letokhov, displayed a film exposed to the output of plasmas of chlorine, calcium and titanium, similar to the Utah results. They were careful to point out that the results were very preliminary and further study was required. Over the next few years, a small number of additional papers on the topic were presented. The most direct of these was Sobel'man's statements at a 1979 conference in Novosibirsk when he said he was observing lasing in a calcium plasma. As with earlier announcements, these results were met with skepticism. First attempts at Livermore George Chapline had been studying the X-ray laser concept through the 1970s. Chapline was a member of Teller's speculative-project "O-Group" and began to discuss the concept with fellow O-Group member Lowell Wood, Teller's protégé. The two collaborated on a major review of the X-ray laser field in 1975. They suggested such a device would be a powerful tool in materials science, for making holograms of viruses where a conventional laser's longer wavelength did not provide the required optical resolution, and as a sort of flashbulb for taking images of the nuclear fusion process in their inertial confinement fusion devices. This review contained the calculations that demonstrated both the rapid reaction times needed in such a device and the extremely high energies required for pumping. Chapline attended a meeting where Sobel'man's work on X-ray lasers was presented. He had learned of the unique underground nuclear tests made on behalf of the Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA), where the burst of X-rays produced by the nuclear reactions were allowed to travel down a long tunnel while the blast itself was cut off by large doors that slammed shut as the explosion approached. These tests were used to investigate the effects of X-rays from exoatmospheric nuclear explosions on reentry vehicles. He realized this was a perfect way to pump an X-ray laser. After a few weeks of work, he came up with a testable concept. At this time the DNA was making plans for another of its X-ray effects tests, and Chapline's device could easily be tested in the same "shot". The test shot, Diablo Hawk, was carried out on 13 September 1978 as part of the Operation Cresset series. However, the instrumentation on Chapline's device failed, and there was no way to know if the system had worked. Congress directed that $10million be given to both Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) and Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) for weapons tests on entirely new concepts. Chapline was given the go-ahead to plan for a new test dedicated to the X-ray laser concept. In the DNA tests, the reentry vehicle had to be retrieved for study after the test, which demanded the complex system of protective doors and other techniques that made these tests very expensive. For the X-ray laser test, all of this could be ignored, as the laser was designed to be destroyed in the explosion. This allowed the laser to be placed at the top of the vertical access shaft, which greatly lowered the cost of the test from the typical $40million needed in a DNA shot. Given the schedule at the Nevada Test Site, their test would have to wait until 1980. Dauphin success Peter Hagelstein was in an undergraduate physics program at MIT in 1974 when he applied for a Hertz Foundation scholarship. Teller was on the Hertz board, and Hagelstein soon had an interview with Lowell Wood. Hagelstein won the scholarship, and Wood then went on to offer him a summer position at LLNL. He had never heard of the lab, and Wood explained they were working on lasers, fusion, and similar concepts. Hagelstein arrived in May 1975, but nearly left when he found the area to be "disgusting" and immediately surmised they were working on weapons research when he saw the barbed wire and armed guards. He stayed on only because he met interesting people. Hagelstein was given the task of simulating the X-ray laser process on LLNL's supercomputers. His program, known as XRASER for "X-Ray laser", eventually grew to about 40,000 lines of code. He received his master's degree in 1976 and took a full-time job at the lab, intending to lead the development of a working laser. The idea was to use the lab's powerful fusion lasers as an energy source, as Hagelstein and Wood had suggested in their review paper. Hagelstein used XRASER to simulate about 45 such concepts before he found one that appeared to work. These used the lasers to heat metal foils and give off X-rays, but by the late 1970s, none of these experiments had been successful. After the Diablo Hawk failure, Hagelstein reviewed Chapline's idea and came up with a new concept that should be much more efficient. Chapline had used a lightweight material, a fiber taken from a local weed, but Hagelstein suggested using a metal rod instead. Although initially skeptical, Wood came to support the idea and successfully argued that both concepts be tested in Chapline's shot. The critical test was carried out on 14 November 1980 as Dauphin, part of Operation Guardian. Both lasers worked, but Hagelstein's design was much more powerful. The lab soon decided to move forward with Hagelstein's version, forming the "R Program", led by another O-Group member, Tom Weaver. Renewed interest Hagelstein published his PhD thesis in January 1981 on the "Physics of Short-wavelength-laser Design". In contrast to Chapline and Wood's earlier work which focused on civilian applications, the thesis' introduction mentions several potential uses, even weapons taken from science fiction works. Hagelstein soon returned to the civilian side of the X-ray laser development, initially developing a concept in which the lab's fusion lasers would produce a plasma whose photons would pump another material. This was initially based on fluorine gas confined inside a chromium foil film. This proved to be too difficult to manufacture, so a system more like the earlier Soviet concepts was developed. The laser would deposit enough energy in a selenium wire to cause 24 of the electrons to be ionized, leaving behind 10 electrons that would be pumped by collisions with the free electrons in the plasma. After several attempts using the Novette laser as an energy source, on 13 July 1984 the system worked for the first time. The team calculated that the system produced laser amplification of about 700, which they considered to be strong evidence of lasing. Dennis Matthews presented the success at the October 1984 American Physical Society Plasma Physics Meeting in Boston, where Szymon Suckewer of Princeton University presented their evidence of lasing in carbon using a much smaller laser and confined the plasma using magnets. Teller in Washington, AvWeek "leaks" The success of the Dauphin test presented a potential new solution to the BMD problem. The X-ray laser offered the possibility that many laser beams could be generated from a single nuclear weapon in orbit, meaning a single weapon would destroy many ICBMs. This would so blunt the attack that any US response would be overwhelming in comparison. Even if the Soviets launched a full-scale attack, it would limit US casualties to 30million. In February 1981, Teller and Wood traveled to Washington to present the technology to the policy makers and request greater financial support to pursue the development. This presented a problem. As fellow LLNL physicist Hugh DeWitt put it, "It has long been known that Teller and Wood are extreme technological optimists and super salesmen for hypothetical new weapons systems," or as Robert Park puts it, "Anyone who knows Teller's record recognizes that he is invariably optimistic about even the most improbable technological schemes." Although this salesmanship had little effect in US military circles, it proved to be a continual annoyance in Congress, having a negative effect on the lab's credibility when these concepts failed to pan out. To avoid this, Roy Woodruff, the associate director of the weapons section, went with them to ensure the two did not oversell the concept. In meetings with various congressional groups, Teller and Wood explained the technology but refused to give dates on when it might be available. Only days later, the 23 February 1981 edition of Aviation Week and Space Technology carried an article on the ongoing work. It described the Dauphin shot in some detail, going on to mention the earlier 1978 test, but incorrectly ascribing that to a krypton fluoride laser (KrF). It went on to describe the battle-station concept in which a single bomb would be surrounded by laser rods that could destroy as many as fifty missiles, and stated that "X-Ray lasers based on the successful Dauphin test are so small that a single payload bay on the Space Shuttle could carry to orbit a number sufficient to stop a Soviet nuclear weapons attack." This was the first in a series of such articles in this and other sources based on a "steady leak of top secret information". High Frontier By this time, LLNL was not the only group lobbying the government about space-based weapons. In 1979, Daniel O. Graham had been asked by Ronald Reagan to begin exploring the idea of missile defense, and in the years since had become a strong advocate of what was earlier known as Project BAMBI (Ballistic Missile Boost Intercept), but now updated as "Smart Rocks". This required dozens of large satellites carrying many small, relatively simple missiles which would be launched at the ICBMs and track them like a conventional heat seeking missile. That same year, Malcolm Wallop and his aide Angelo Codevilla wrote an article on "Opportunities and Imperatives in Ballistic Missile Defense", which was to be published later that year in Strategic Review. They were later joined by Harrison Schmidt and Teller in forming what became known as the "laser lobby", advocating the building of laser-based BMD systems. Their concept, known simply as the Space Based Laser, used large chemical lasers placed in orbit. Graham was able to garner interest from other Republican supporters, and formed a group who would help advocate for his concept. The group was chaired by Karl Bendetsen and was provided space at The Heritage Foundation. The group invited the laser lobby to join them to plan a strategy to introduce these concepts to the incoming president. At one of the Heritage Foudation meetings, Graham said there was a serious problem with the Excalibur concept, noting that if the Soviets launched a missile at the satellite, the US had only two choicesthey could allow the missile to hit Excalibur and destroy it, or it could defend itself by shooting down the missile, which would also destroy Excalibur. In either case, a single missile would destroy the station, which invalidated the entire concept of the system in terms of having a single weapon that would destroy a large portion of the Soviet fleet. At the time, Teller was stumped. At the next meeting, he and Wood had an answer, apparently Teller's own concept. Instead of being based on satellites, Excalibur would be placed in submarines and "pop-up" when the Soviets launched their missiles. This would also bypass another serious concern, that nuclear weapons in space were outlawed and it was unlikely the government or public would allow these. The group first met with the president on 8January 1982. Planned to last 15 minutes, the meeting went on for an hour. Present were Teller, Bendetsen, William Wilson and Joseph Coors of the "Kitchen Cabinet". Graham and Wallop were not represented and the group apparently dismissed their concepts. The same group met with the president another three times. Meanwhile, Teller continued to attack Graham's interceptor-based concept, as did other members of the group. There had been extensive studies on BAMBI in the 1960s and every few years since. These invariably reported the concept was simply too grandiose to work. Graham, seeing the others outmaneuver him after the first meetings, left the group and formed "High Frontier Inc.", publishing a glossy book on the topic in March 1982. Before publication, he had sent a copy to the US Air Force for comment. They responded with another report stating the concept "had no technical merit and should be rejected". In spite of this review, the High Frontier book was widely distributed and quickly found followers. This led to a curious situation in early 1982, later known as the "laser wars", with the House supporting Teller and the Senate supporting Wallop's group. Later that summer, Teller complained to William F. Buckley on Firing Line that he did not have access to the president. This led to a 4September meeting with the president without the rest of the High Frontier group. Teller said recent advances in Soviet weapons would soon put them in a position to threaten the US and they needed to build Excalibur without delay. Without Woodruff to temper his comments, Teller told the president the system would be ready for deployment in five years and that it was time to talk about "assured survival" instead of "assured destruction". Aviation Week reported that Teller had asked for $200million a year "over the next several years" to develop it. Early skepticism George A. Keyworth, II had been appointed to the position as Reagan's science advisor at the suggestion of Teller. He was present at the first meeting with the Heritage group, and a few days later at a White House staff meeting he was quoted expressing his concerns that the concepts had "very difficult technical aspects". Shortly thereafter, Edwin Meese suggested Keyworth form an independent group to study the feasibility of such a system. The work was passed to Victor H. Reis, formerly of the Lincoln Laboratory and now the assistant director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy. He formed a panel including Charles Townes, Nobel winner as the co-inventor of the maser and laser, Harold Agnew, former director of LANL, and chaired by Edward Frieman, vice president of military science contractor Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC). Keyworth gave them a year to study the issues, and did not interfere with their process. The formation of this panel apparently worried Teller, who suspected they would not agree with his assessments of Excalibur's viability. In response, he stepped up his fundraising efforts, spending a considerable time in 1982 in Washington lobbying for a Manhattan Project-level effort to bring the system to production as soon as possible. While he was not part of the Frieman panel, he was part of the White House Science Council, and appeared at their meetings to continue pressuring for further development. In June 1982, the Frieman panel asked LLNL to review their own progress. Led by Woodruff, the lab returned a fairly conservative review. They suggested that if they were provided $150–$200million a year over six years they could decide whether the concept was feasible. They said a weapon could not possibly be ready before the mid-1990s, at the very earliest. In its final report, the panel concluded that the system simply could not be thought of as a military technology. Teller was apoplectic, and threatened to resign from the Science Council. He ultimately agreed to a second review by LLNL. This review was even more critical of the concept, stating that, due to energy limits, the system would be useful only against missiles at short range and that would limit it to those missiles launched from locations close to the United States, like submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In the meantime, while Keyworth continued to support the concepts publicly, he was careful not to make statements that sounded like outright support. He spoke of the promise of the systems and their potential. But when asked about Excalibur after receiving the Frieman report, he was much more blunt and told reporters the concept was probably unusable. In 1985, he quit the position and returned to private industry. Teller's continual presence in Washington soon came to the attention of his former friend, Hans Bethe. Bethe had worked with Teller on the H-bomb but had since gone on to become a major critic of the bomb industry, and especially ABM systems. He wrote several seminal articles in the 1960s highly critical of the US Army's efforts to build an ABM system, demonstrating that any such system was relatively inexpensive to defeat and would simply prompt the Soviets to build more ICBMs. Bethe remained an opponent of ABM systems, and when he heard of the Excalibur effort he arranged a trip to LLNL to grill them on the concept. In a two-day series of meetings in February 1983, Hagelstein managed to convince Bethe the physics was sound. Bethe remained convinced the idea was unlikely to be able to stop a Soviet attack, especially if they designed their systems knowing such a system existed. He soon co-authored a report by the Union of Concerned Scientists outlining objections to the concept, the simplest being that the Soviets could simply overwhelm it. SDI Reagan had long been deeply critical of current nuclear doctrine, which he and his aides derided as a "mutual suicide pact". He was extremely interested in the Heritage group's proposals. While he made no overt moves at the time, he spent a significant amount of time in 1982 gathering information from various sources on whether or not the system was possible. Reports by both the Department of Defense and the White House's own Science Council would feed into this process. In early 1983, before many of these reports had been returned, Reagan decided to announce what would become SDI. Few people were told of this decision and even Keyworth learned of it only a few weeks before it was going to be announced. When he showed a draft of the speech to Reis, Reis said it was "Laetrile", referring to the quack cure for cancer. He suggested Keyworth demand a review by the Joint Chiefs of Staff or resign. Keyworth did neither, prompting Reis to resign a short time later, taking a position at SAIC. After a year of presentations from The Heritage Foundation and others, on 23 March 1983 Reagan went on television and announced that he was calling "upon the scientific community who gave us nuclear weapons to turn their great talents to the cause of mankind and world peace: to give us the means of rendering these nuclear weapons impotent and obsolete." Many historical overviews place much of the impetus for this speech directly on Teller and Wood's presentations, and thus indirectly on Hagelstein's work. On the same day the president was giving his speech, the Department of Defense was presenting its report to the Senate on the progress of DARPA's ongoing beam weapon research. The director of the Directed Energy Program said that while they offered promise, their "relative immaturity" made it difficult to know if they would ever be used, and in any event would be unlikely to have any effect until the "1990s or beyond". The Undersecretary of Defense, Richard DeLauer, later said these weapons were at least two decades away and development would have "staggering" costs. The Secretary of Defense, Caspar Weinberger formed the Strategic Defense Initiative Office in April 1984, appointing General James Abrahamson as its head. Early estimates were for a budget of $26billion over the first five years. Further tests, instrumentation issues Only a few days after Reagan's speech, on 26 March 1983, the second test of Hagelstein's design was carried out as part of the Cabra shot in the Operation Phalanx test series. Instrumentation again proved to be a problem and no good results were obtained. The identical experiment was carried out on 16 December 1983 in the Romano shot of the following Operation Fusileer series. This test showed gain and lasing. On 22 December 1983, Teller wrote a letter on LLNL letterhead to Keyworth saying the system had concluded its scientific phase and was now "entering engineering phase". When Woodruff learned of the letter he stormed into Teller's office and demanded a retraction. Teller refused, so Woodruff wrote his own, only to be ordered not to send it by Roger Batzel, the lab's director. Batzel rebuffed Woodruff's complaints, saying Teller was meeting the president as a private citizen, not on behalf of Livermore. Shortly after, LLNL scientist George Maenchen circulated a memo noting that the instrument used to measure the laser output was subject to interactions with the explosion. The system worked by measuring the brightness of a series of beryllium reflectors when they were illuminated by the lasers. Maenchen noted that the reflectors themselves could give off their own signals when heated by the bomb, and unless they were separately calibrated, there was no way to know if the signal was from the laser or the bomb. This calibration had not been carried out, rendering the results of all of these tests effectively useless. By this time, Los Alamos had begun developing nuclear anti-missile weapons of its own, updated versions of the 1960s Casaba/Howitzer concepts. Given the constant stream of news about Excalibur, they added a laser to one of their own underground tests, shot Correo, also part of the Fusileer series. The 2August 1984 test used different methods to measure the laser output, and these suggested that little or no lasing was taking place. George Miller received a "caustic" letter from Paul Robinson of Los Alamos, which stated they "doubted the existence of the X-ray laser had been demonstrated and that Livermore managers were losing their credibility because of their failure to stand up to Teller and Wood." Concerned Scientists present concerns The Union of Concerned Scientists presented a criticism of Excalibur in 1984 as part of a major report on the entire SDI concept. They noted that a key problem for all the directed energy weapons is that they work only in space, as the atmosphere quickly disperses the beams. This meant the systems had to intercept the missiles when they were above the majority of the atmosphere. Additionally, all of the systems relied on using infrared tracking of the missiles, as radar tracking could be easily rendered unreliable using a wide variety of countermeasures. Thus, the interception had to take place in the period where the missile motor was still firing. This left only a brief period in which the directed energy weapons could be used. The report said this could be countered by simply increasing the thrust of the missile. Existing missiles fired for about three to four minutes, with at least half of that taking place outside the atmosphere. They showed it was possible to reduce this to about a minute, timing things so the motor was burning out just as the missile was reaching the upper atmosphere. If the warheads were quickly separated at that point, the defense would have to shoot at the individual warheads, thus facing the same poor cost-exchange ratios that had made the earlier ABM systems effectively useless. And once the rocket had stopped firing, tracking would be far more difficult. One of the key claims for the Excalibur concept was that a small number of weapons would be enough to counter a large Soviet fleet, whereas the other space-based systems would require huge fleets of satellites. The report singled out Excalibur as particularly vulnerable to the problem of quick-firing missiles because the only way to address this would be to build many more weapons so more would be available in the remaining short time window. At that point, it no longer had any advantage over the other systems, while still having all of the technical risks. The report concluded that the X-ray laser would "offer no prospect of being a useful component" of a BMD system. Excalibur+ and Super-Excalibur Faced with the twin problems of the original experiments apparently failing and the publication of a report showing that it could be easily defeated even if it worked, Teller and Wood responded by announcing the Excalibur Plus concept, which would be a thousand times more powerful than the original Excalibur. Soon after, they added Super-Excalibur, which was another thousand times more powerful than Excalibur Plus, making it a trillion times as bright as the bomb itself. Super-Excalibur would be so powerful it would be able to burn through the atmosphere, thereby countering the concerns about fast-firing missiles. The extra power also meant it could be divided up into more beams, making a single weapon able to be directed into as many as a hundred thousand beams. Instead of dozens of Excalibur weapons in pop-up launchers, Teller suggested that a single weapon in geostationary orbit "the size of an executive desk which applied this technology could potentially shoot down the entire Soviet land-based missile force if it were to be launched into the module's field of view." At this point, no detailed theoretical work on the concepts had been carried out, let alone any practical tests. In spite of this, Teller once again used LLNL letterhead to write to several politicians telling them of the great advance. This time Teller copied Batzel, but not Woodruff. Once again Woodruff asked to send a counterpoint letter, only to have Batzel refuse to let him send it. Cottage test Super-Excalibur was tested on the 23 March 1985 Cottage shot of Operation Grenadier, exactly two years after Reagan's speech. Once again the test appeared to be successful, and unnamed researchers at the lab were reported to have said the brightness of the beam had been increased six orders of magnitude (i.e. between one and ten million times), a huge advance that would pave the way for a weapon. Teller immediately wrote another letter touting the success of the concept. This time he wrote to Paul Nitze, the head negotiator of START, and Robert McFarlane, head of the US National Security Council. Nitze was about to begin negotiations on the START arms limitations talks. Teller said Super-Excalibur would be so powerful the US should not seriously negotiate on any sort of even footing and that the talks should be delayed because they included limits or outright bans on underground testing, which would make further work on Super-Excalibur almost impossible. Commenting on the results, Wood set an optimistic tone saying, "Where we stand between inception and production I can't tell you... [but] I am much more optimistic now about the utility of X-ray lasers in strategic defense than when we started." In contrast, George H. Miller, LLNL's new deputy associate director, set a much more cautious tone, stating that while the lasing action had been demonstrated, "what we have not proven is whether you can make a militarily useful X-ray laser. It's a research program where a lot of the physics and engineering issues are still being examined..." Several months later, physicists at Los Alamos reviewed the Cottage results and noted the same problem Maenchen had mentioned earlier. They added such calibration to a test they were already carrying out and found that the results were indeed as bad as Maenchen has suggested. The targets contained oxygen that glowed when heated and produced spurious results. On top of this, Livermore scientists studying the results noted that the explosion created sound waves in the rod before the lasing was complete, ruining the focus of the laser. A new lasing medium would be required. Livermore ordered an independent review of the program by Joseph Nilsen, who delivered a report on 27 June 1985 agreeing the system was not working. Given the gravity of the situation, a further review by the JASONs was carried out on 26 and 27 September and came to the same conclusion. It now appeared there was no conclusive evidence that any lasing had been seen in any of the tests, and if it had, it was simply not powerful enough. In July, Miller went to Washington to brief the SDI Office (SDIO) on their progress. While the instrumentation concerns had been publicly reported on multiple occasions by this point, he failed to mention these issues. Several sources noted this, one saying they "were furious because Miller used the old view graphs on the experiment, which did not take into account the new disturbing findings". Woodruff leaves Shortly after the Cottage test, Teller once again met with Reagan. He petitioned the President for an additional $100million in order to carry out additional underground testing the next year, which would roughly double the Excalibur budget for 1986. He said this was needed because the Soviets were stepping up their own research. Later that year, Abrahamson, head of SDIO, called a 6September 1985 meeting to review the status of the programs. Roy Woodruff was there to present LLNL's status. Teller arrived in the middle of the meeting and said Reagan had agreed that $100million should be turned over to Excalibur. Without questioning this, Abrahamson then assigned $100million to him, taking it from other programs. As one official noted, "Do you really want to challenge someone who says he's talked to the President? Do you really want to risk your status by asking Reagan if that's what he really said?" At this point Woodruff, who had attempted to rein in Teller and Wood's continual overselling of the project, finally had enough. He filed a grievance with LLNL management, complaining that Teller and Wood "undercut my management responsibility for the X-ray laser program" and had repeatedly made "optimistic, technically incorrect statements regarding this research to the nation's highest policy-makers". When he learned that Teller and Wood had made another presentation to Abrahamson, on 19 October 1985 he resigned his position and asked to be moved. At the time he said little about it, although there was widespread speculation in the press over why he had quit the program. The lab dismissed press speculation that it was punishment due to a critical review in the influential journal Science which appeared the same day. Teller refused to talk about the matter, while Woodruff simply pointed reporters to a statement put out by the lab. Woodruff found himself banished to a windowless room he called "Gorky West", referring to the Russian city of Gorky where Soviet dissidents were sent on internal exile. Miller replaced him as associate director. A few months later, Woodruff began receiving condolences from other members of the lab. When he asked why, he was told that Batzel had said he resigned his position due to stress and a midlife crisis. Woodruff went to Harold Weaver, head of the Berkeley-based lab oversight committee, to tell his side of the story. He learned that the group had already investigated, by sending a liaison to meet with Batzel, but had not bothered to talk to Woodruff. He attempted to explain his concerns about the overselling of the technology, but as Weaver later put it, "we were bamboozled by the laboratory." Increased scrutiny Starting in late 1985 and through 1986, a series of events turned opinion against Excalibur. One of the many arguments used to support Excalibur, and SDI as a whole, was the suggestion that the Soviets were working on the same ideas. In particular, they said the Soviets published numerous papers on X-ray lasers until 1977 when they suddenly stopped. They argued this was because they had also begun a military X-ray laser program, and were now classifying their reports. Wood used this line of argument during congressional meetings on SDI as an argument to keep funding Excalibur. He was then asked to expand on the possibility of a Soviet version of Excalibur and what a US response might be. Wood said X-ray lasers could be used against any object in space, including Soviet Excaliburs, referring to this use as a "counter-defensive" role. This statement was quickly turned against him; if Excalibur could destroy a Soviet SDI system, then a Soviet Excalibur could do the same to theirs. Instead of ending the threat of nuclear weapons, Excalibur appeared to end the threat of SDI. More worryingly, when one considered such scenarios, it appeared the best use of such a system would be to launch a first strike; Soviet Excaliburs would destroy US defenses while their ICBMs attacked the US missile fleet in their missile silos, the remaining Soviet Excaliburs would then blunt the enfeebled response. Miller immediately sent a letter countering Wood's statements, but the damage was done. Shortly thereafter, Hugh DeWitt wrote a letter to The New York Times about Excalibur. He explained the actual state of the program, saying it was "still in its infancy" and that developing it completely "might require 100 to 1200 more nuclear tests and could easily require ten to twenty more years". DeWitt and Ray Kidder then wrote to Edward Kennedy and Ed Markey to complain that LLNL's objection to ongoing talks of a nuclear test ban rested solely on the X-ray program. Focusing failures While this was taking place in the press, LLNL was preparing for another test shot, Goldstone, a part of Operation Charioteer scheduled for December 1985. After the problems with the earlier tests were noted, Los Alamos had suggested LLNL design a new sensor for this shot. LLNL refused, saying this would delay the test about six months and would have "unfavorable political repercussions for the program". Instead, Goldstone used a new reflector consisting of hydrogen gas which would address the calibration concerns. The new instruments demonstrated that the output of the lasers was at best ten percent of what the theoretical predictions required, and at worst, had produced no laser output at all. Focusing was the primary concern of the next test, Labquark, carried out on 20 September 1986. This was apparently successful, suggesting the major problems with focusing had been addressed. A follow-up focusing test, Delamar, was carried out on 18 April 1987. This test demonstrated that the focusing in both this test and Labquark appeared to be an illusion; the beam had not narrowed and was not focused enough for long-range interceptions. When the news broke, Teller blamed Woodruff, saying he had not been "a constructive member of the team". Teller continued to say the tests were actually a success, but that he was prevented from telling the real story due to government secrecy. APS report on directed energy weapons In 1984 the American Physical Society (APS) approached Keyworth with the idea of setting up a blue-ribbon panel to study the various weapons concepts independent of the labs. Keyworth and Abrahamson both agreed with this idea, giving the team complete access to classified materials as required. The APS panel took almost a year to form, and was co-chaired by Nicolaas Bloembergen, who won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on lasers, and Kumar Patel, who had invented the CO2 laser. The sixteen other members of the panel were similarly distinguished. The report was completed in eighteen months, but due to the classified contents, it required about another seven months to clear the censors before the redacted version was released to the public in June 1987. The report, "The Science and Technology of Directed Energy Weapons", stated that the technologies in question were at least a decade away from the stage where it could be clearly stated whether or not they would even work. Some of the systems appeared to be theoretically possible but needed more development. This was the case for the free electron laser, for instance, where the panel was able to offer specific information on the required improvements, calling for two or more orders of magnitude in energy (100 times). In contrast, the report's section on Excalibur suggested it was not clear it could ever work even in theory and was summarized thus: The report also noted that the energy requirements for a directed energy weapon used as a BMD asset was much higher than the energy needed for the same weapon to be used against those assets. This meant even if the SDI weapons could be successfully developed, they could be attacked by similar weapons that would be easier to develop. The movement of space-based assets in well-known orbital paths also made them much easier to attack and exposed to attack for longer times compared to the same systems being used to attack ICBMs, whose initial positions were unknown and disappeared in minutes. The report noted this was particularly true of pop-up X-ray lasers. They noted that: A specific concern, in this case, was the susceptibility of the optics, and especially their optical coatings, of the various space-based weapons. Even relatively low-intensity laser light could damage these devices, blinding their optics and rendering the weapons unable to track their targets. Given the light weight of the Excalibur-type weapons, the Soviets could rapidly pop-up such a device just prior to launching an attack, and blind all the SDI assets in the region even with a low-powered weapon. Woodruff affair, GAO report During the later half of 1987, Woodruff found that no work was being assigned to him. With little to do, the lab threatened to cut his salary. On 2February 1987, Batzel gave him a memo saying any problems he had were his own making. His final appeal, to the university president David Gardner, was likewise turned down. In response, in April 1987 Woodruff filed two official grievances. This prompted a private review by John S. Foster Jr. and George Dacey at the urging of the Department of Energy. This report apparently had no effect. The story became known within the labs, and the way Batzel retaliated against Woodruff became a major point of concern among the employees. A number of scientists in the lab were so upset at his treatment they wrote an April 1987 letter about it to Gardner. When they asked for people to sign the cover letter, they were "practically stampeded" by volunteers. This was one of many signs of growing turmoil in the labs. In October 1987, someone sent a copy of Woodruff's grievance to the Federation of American Scientists, who then turned it over to the newspapers. Woodruff was visiting Los Alamos when the first stories came in over the Associated Press wire, which resulted in a standing ovation by the other scientists. The press, now largely turned against SDI, made it a major issue they came to refer to as the "Woodruff Affair". The press articles on the topic, which were generally more widespread in California newspapers, came to the attention of California Congressman George Brown Jr. Brown triggered an investigation by the General Accounting Office (GAO). Brown later said Teller's version of events was "politically motivated exaggerations aimed at distorting national policy and funding decisions". The GAO report stated that they found a wide variety of opinions on the X-ray laser project, but Teller and Wood were "essentially off the scale on the optimistic side". They noted that Woodruff's attempts to correct these statements were blocked and that his complaints about the lab's behavior resulted in him becoming what the lab insider called a "nonperson" in which longtime colleagues stopped talking to him. But the report also generally agreed with the lab on most other points, and then went on to accuse Woodruff of falsely stating he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa. It was later revealed that a letter submitted by Ray Kidder for inclusion in the report had been removed. Kidder strongly agreed with Woodruff's version of events and said Woodruff's attempt to send letters "provided a frank, objective and balanced description of the Program as it existed at the time". Batzel had already decided to retire by this time, and his position was filled by John Nuckolls. Nuckolls gave Woodruff the position as an assistant associate director for treaty verification efforts, a position of some importance as SDI began to wind down while at the same time new treaties made such verification efforts important. Nevertheless, in 1990 Woodruff left to take a position at Los Alamos. As Woodruff had feared, the result was to seriously erode the reputation of LLNL in the government. John Harvey, LLNL's director for advanced strategic systems, found that when he visited Washington he was asked: "what's the next lie that's going to come out?" Brown later commented: "I'm not inclined to call it an earthshattering report, but what has happened has created a lot of questions about the objectivity and reliability of the laboratory." Excalibur ends In 1986, it was reported that the SDIO saw Excalibur primarily as an anti-satellite weapon, and perhaps useful as a discrimination tool to tell warheads from decoys. This, along with the results from the most recent tests, made it clear it was no longer considered to be useful as a BMD weapon on its own. By the late 1980s, the entire concept was being derided in the press and by other members of the lab; The New York Times quoted George Maenchen as stating "All these claims are totally false. They lie in the realm of pure fantasy." The stories prompted a 60 Minutes interview with Teller, but when they began to question him on Woodruff, Teller attempted to rip off the microphone. Funding for Excalibur peaked in 1987 at $349million and then began to rapidly reverse. The March 1988 budget ended development as a weapon system, and the original R group was shut down. In the 1990 budget, Congress eliminated it as a separate item. X-ray laser research continued at LLNL, but as a purely scientific project, not as a weapons program. Another test, Greenwater, had already been planned but was ultimately canceled. In total, ten underground tests were used in the development program. Brilliant Pebbles begins With Excalibur effectively dead, in 1987 Teller and Wood began pitching Wood's new concept, Brilliant Pebbles. They first presented this to Abrahamson in October and followed up with a March 1988 meeting with Reagan and his aides. The new concept used a fleet of about a hundred thousand small independent rockets weighing about each to destroy the missiles or warheads by colliding with them, no explosive required. Because they were independent, attacking them would require an equally huge number of interceptors. Better yet, the entire system could be developed in a few years and would cost $10billion for a complete fleet. Brilliant Pebbles was essentially an updated version of the Project BAMBI concepts Graham had been suggesting in 1981. At that time, Teller had continually derided the idea as "outlandish" and used his influence to ensure the concept did not receive serious attention. Ignoring his previous concerns with the concept, Teller went on to promote Brilliant Pebbles using arguments he had previously dismissed when raised about Excalibur; among them, he now stressed that the system did not place or explode nuclear weapons in space. When critics said the idea fell prey to the issues raised by the Union of Concerned Scientists, Teller simply ignored them. In spite of all of these red flag issues, and the decades-long string of Air Force and DARPA reports suggesting the concept just would not work, Reagan once again enthusiastically embraced their latest concept. By 1989 the weight of each pebble had grown to and the cost of a small fleet of 4,600 of them had ballooned to $55billion. It remained the centerpiece of the US BMD efforts into 1991 when the numbers were further cut to somewhere between 750 and 1,000. President Clinton indirectly canceled the project on 13 May 1993 when the SDI office was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and focused their efforts on theater ballistic missiles. Teller, SDI and Reykjavík Throughout SDI's history, journalist William Broad of The New York Times was highly critical of the program and Teller's role within it. His works have generally ascribed the entire basis for SDI to Teller's overselling of the Excalibur concept, convincing Reagan a credible defensive system was only a few years away. According to Broad, "Over the protests of colleagues, Teller misled the highest officials of the United States Government into the deadly folly known as Star Wars [the nickname for SDI]." In particular, Broad points to the meeting between Teller and Reagan in September 1982 as the key moment in SDI's creation. Years later, Broad described the meeting this way: "For half an hour, Teller deployed X-ray lasers all over the Oval Office, reducing hundreds of incoming Soviet missiles to radioactive chaff, while Reagan, gazing up ecstatically, saw a crystal shield, covering the Last Hope of Man." This basic telling of the story is recounted in other contemporary sources; in their biography, Edward Teller: Giant of The Golden Age of Physics, Blumberg and Panos essentially make the same statement, as does Robert Park in his Voodoo Science. Others give less credence to Teller's persuasive capabilities; Ray Pollock, who was present at the meeting, described in a 1986 letter that "I sat in on the mid-September 1982 meeting Teller had in the Oval Office... Teller got a warm reception but that is all. I had the feeling he confused the president." In particular, he notes Teller's opening comment about "Third generation, third generation!" as being a point of confusion. Keyworth was later quoted as calling the meeting "a disaster". Others report that Teller's bypassing of official channels to arrange the meeting angered Caspar Weinberger and other members of the Department of Defense. Others debate Excalibur's role in SDI from the start. Park suggests that Reagan's "kitchen cabinet" was pushing for some sort of action on BMD even before this period. Charles Townes suggested the key impetus to move forward was not Teller, but a presentation by the Joint Chiefs of Staff made only a few weeks before his speech that suggested shifting some development funding to defensive systems. Reagan mentioned this during the speech introducing SDI. Nigel Hey points to Robert McFarlane and the United States National Security Council as a whole. In a 1999 interview with Hey, Teller himself would suggest that he had little to do with the president's decision to announce SDI. He also did not want to talk about the X-ray laser and said he did not even recognize the name "Excalibur". There is considerable debate on whether or not Excalibur had a direct effect on the failure of the Reykjavík Summit. During the October 1986 meeting, Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev initially considered the issue of the destabilizing effect of intermediate-range missiles in Europe. As both proposed various ideas to eliminate them, they quickly began to ratchet up the numbers and types of weapons being considered. Gorbachev started with his acceptance of Reagan's 1981 "double zero option" for intermediate-range missiles but then countered with an additional offer to eliminate fifty percent of all nuclear-armed missiles. Reagan then countered with an offer to eliminate all such missiles within ten years, as long as the US was free to deploy defensive systems after that period. At that point, Gorbachev offered to eliminate all nuclear weapons of any sort within that same time period. At this point SDI came into the negotiations. Gorbachev would consider such a move only if the US limited their SDI efforts to the laboratory for ten years. Excalibur, which Teller's letter of only a few days earlier once again said was ready to enter engineering, would need to be tested in space before that point. Reagan refused to back down on this issue, as did Gorbachev. Reagan attempted one last time to break the logjam, asking if he would really "turn down a historic opportunity because of a single word" ("laboratory"). Gorbachev said it was a matter of principle; if the US continued real-world testing while the Soviets agreed to dismantle their weapons, he would return to Moscow to be considered a fool. Physics Lasers Lasers rely on two physical phenomena to work, stimulated emission and population inversion. An atom is made of a nucleus and a number of electrons orbiting in shells around it. Electrons can be found in many discrete energy states, defined by quantum mechanics. The energy levels depend on the structure of the nucleus, so they vary from element to element. Electrons can gain or lose energy by absorbing or emitting a photon with the same energy as the difference between two allowable energy states. This is why different elements have unique spectrums and gives rise to the science of spectroscopy. Electrons will naturally release photons if there is an unoccupied lower energy state. An isolated atom would normally be found in the ground state, with all of its electrons in their lowest possible state. But due to the surrounding environment adding energy, the electrons will be found in a range of energies at any given instant. Electrons that are not in the lowest possible energy state are known as "excited", as are the atoms that contain them. Stimulated emission occurs when an excited electron can drop by the same amount of energy as a passing photon. This causes a second photon to be emitted, closely matching the original's energy, momentum, and phase. Now there are two photons, doubling the chance that they will cause the same reaction in other atoms. As long as there is a large population of atoms with electrons in the matching energy state, the result is a chain reaction that releases a burst of single-frequency, highly collimated light. The process of gaining and losing energy is normally random, so under typical conditions, a large group of atoms is unlikely to be in a suitable state for this reaction. Lasers depend on some sort of setup that results in many electrons being in the desired states, a condition known as a population inversion. An easy to understand example is the ruby laser, where there is a metastable state where electrons will remain for a slightly longer period if they are first excited to even higher energy. This is accomplished through optical pumping, using the white light of a flash lamp to increase the electron energy to a blue-green or ultraviolet frequency. The electrons then rapidly lose energy until they reach the metastable energy level in the deep red. This results in a brief period where a large number of electrons lie at this medium energy level, resulting in a population inversion. At that point any one of the atoms can emit a photon at that energy, starting the chain reaction. X-ray lasers An X-ray laser works in the same general fashion as a ruby laser, but at much higher energy levels. The main problem in producing such a device is that the probability of any given transition between energy states depends on the cube of the energy. Comparing a ruby laser that operates at 694.3nm to a hypothetical soft X-ray laser that might operate at 1nm, this means the X-ray transition is 694, or a little over 334million times less likely. To provide the same total output energy, one needs a similar increase in input energy. Another problem is that the excited states are extremely short-lived: for a 1nm transition, the electron will remain in the state for about 10 seconds. Without a metastable state to extend this time, this means there is only this fleeting time, much less than a shake, to carry out the reaction. A suitable substance with a metastable state in the X-ray region is unknown in the open literature. Instead, X-ray lasers rely on the speed of various reactions to create the population inversion. When heated beyond a certain energy level, electrons dissociate from their atoms entirely, producing a gas of nuclei and electrons known as a plasma. Plasma is a gas, and its energy causes it to adiabatically expand according to the ideal gas law. As it does, its temperature drops, eventually reaching a point where the electrons can reconnect to nuclei. The cooling process causes the bulk of the plasma to reach this temperature at roughly the same time. Once reconnected to nuclei, the electrons lose energy through the normal process of releasing photons. Although rapid, this release process is slower than the reconnection process. This results in a brief period where there are a large number of atoms with the electrons in the high-energy just-reconnected state, causing a population inversion. To produce the required conditions, a huge amount of energy needs to be delivered extremely rapidly. It has been demonstrated that something on the order of 1watt per atom is needed to provide the energy required to produce an X-ray laser. Delivering so much energy to the lasing medium invariably means it will be vaporized, but the entire reaction occurs so rapidly this is not necessarily a problem. It does imply such systems will be inherently one-shot devices. Finally, another complication is that there is no effective mirror for X-ray frequency light. In a common laser, the lasing medium is normally placed between two partial mirrors that reflect some of the output back into the medium. This greatly increases the number of photons in the medium and increases the chance that any given atom will be stimulated. More importantly, as the mirrors reflect only those photons traveling in a particular direction, and the stimulated photons will be released in the same direction, this causes the output to be highly focused. Lacking either of these effects, the X-ray laser has to rely entirely on stimulation as the photons travel through the medium only once. To increase the odds that any given photon causes stimulation, and to focus the output, X-ray lasers are designed to be very long and skinny. In this arrangement, most of the photons being released naturally through conventional emissions in random directions will simply exit the medium. Only those photons that happen to be released traveling down the long axis of the medium have a reasonable chance of stimulating another release. A suitable lasing medium would have an aspect ratio on the order of 10,000. Excalibur Although most details of the Excalibur concept remain classified, articles in Nature and Reviews of Modern Physics, along with those in optics-related journals, contain broad outlines of the underlying concepts and outline possible ways to build an Excalibur system. The basic concept would require one or more lasing rods arranged into a module along with a tracking camera. These would be arranged on a framework surrounding the nuclear weapon in the center. Nature'''s description shows multiple lasing rods embedded in a plastic matrix forming a cylinder around the bomb and tracking device, meaning each device would be able to attack a single target. The accompanying text, however, describes it as having several aimable modules, perhaps four. Most other descriptions show multiple modules arranged around the bomb that can be separately aimed, which more closely follows the suggestions of there being several dozen such lasers per device. In order to damage the airframe of an ICBM, an estimated 3kJ/cm2 would need to hit it. The laser is essentially a focusing device, taking the radiation falling along the length of the rod and turning some small amount of it into a beam traveling out the end. One can consider the effect as increasing the brightness of the X-rays falling on the target compared to the X-rays released by the bomb itself. The enhancement of the brightness compared to the unfocused output from the bomb is , where is the efficiency of conversion from bomb X-rays to laser X-rays, and is the dispersion angle. If a typical ICBM is in diameter, at a distance of represents a solid angle of 10−12 steradian (sr). Estimates of the dispersion angles from the Excalibur lasers were from 10−12 to 10−9. Estimates of vary from about 10−5 to 10−2; that is, they have laser gain less than one. In the worst-case scenario, with the widest dispersion angle and the lowest enhancement, the pump weapon would have to be approximately 1MT for a single laser to deposit enough energy on the booster to be sure to destroy it at that range. Using best-case scenarios for both values, about 10kT are required. The exact material of the lasing medium has not been specified. The only direct statement from one of the researchers was by Chapline, who described the medium on the original Diablo Hawk test being "an organic pith material" from a weed growing on a vacant lot in Walnut Creek, a town a short distance away from Livermore. Various sources describe the later tests using metals; selenium, zinc and aluminum have been mentioned specifically. BMD Missile-based systems The US Army ran an ongoing BMD program dating from the 1940s. This was initially concerned with shooting down V-2-like targets, but an early study on the topic by Bell Labs suggested their short flight times would make it difficult to arrange an interception. The same report noted that the longer flight times of long-range missiles made this task simpler, in spite of various technical difficulties due to higher speeds and altitudes. This led to a series of systems starting with Nike Zeus, then Nike-X, Sentinel and finally the Safeguard Program. These systems used short and medium-range missiles equipped with nuclear warheads to attack incoming enemy ICBM warheads. The constantly changing concepts reflect their creation during a period of rapid changes in the opposing force as the Soviet ICBM fleet was expanded. The interceptor missiles had a limited range, less than , so interceptor bases had to be spread across the United States. Since the Soviet warheads could be aimed at any target, adding a single ICBM, which were becoming increasingly inexpensive in the 1960s, would (theoretically) require another interceptor at every base to counter it. This led to the concept of the cost-exchange ratio, the amount of money one had to spend on additional defenses to counter a dollar of new offensive capability. Early estimates were around 20, meaning every dollar the Soviets spent on new ICBMs would require the US to spend $20 to counter it. This implied the Soviets could afford to overwhelm the US's ability to build more interceptors. With MIRV, the cost-exchange ratio was so one-sided there was no effective defense that could not be overwhelmed for little cost, as mentioned in a famous 1968 article by Bethe and Garwin. This is precisely what the US did when the Soviets installed their A-35 anti-ballistic missile system around Moscow; by adding MIRV to the Minuteman missile fleet, they could overwhelm the A-35 without adding a single new missile. X-ray based attacks During high-altitude tests in the late 1950s and early 1960s, it was noticed that the burst of X-rays from a nuclear explosion were free to travel long distances, unlike low altitude bursts where the air interacted with the X-rays within a few tens of meters. This led to new and unexpected effects. It also led to the possibility of designing a bomb specifically to increase the X-ray release, which could be made so powerful the rapid deposit of energy on a metal surface would cause it to explosively vaporize. At ranges on the order of , this would have enough energy to destroy a warhead. This concept formed the basis of the LIM-49 Spartan missile and its W71 warhead. Due to the large volume in which the system was effective, it could be used against warheads hidden among radar decoys. When decoys are deployed along with the warhead they form a threat tube about a wide and as much as ten miles long. Previous missiles had to get within a few hundred yards (meters) to be effective, but with Spartan, one or two missiles could be used to attack a warhead anywhere within this cloud of material. This also greatly reduced the accuracy needed for the missile's guidance system; the earlier Zeus had a maximum effective range of about due to the limits of the resolution of the radar systems, beyond this it did not have enough accuracy to stay within its lethal radius. The use of X-ray based attacks in earlier generation BMD systems had led to work to counter these attacks. In the US, these were carried out by placing a warhead (or parts of it) in a cavern connected by a long tunnel to a second cavern where an active warhead was placed. Before firing, the entire site was pumped into a vacuum. When the active warhead fired, the X-rays traveled down the tunnel to hit the target warhead. To protect the target from the blast itself, huge metal doors slammed shut in the tunnel in the short time between the X-rays arriving and the blast wave behind it. Such tests had been carried out continuously since the 1970s. Boost-phase attacks A potential solution to the problem of MIRV is to attack the ICBMs during the boost phase before the warheads have separated. This destroys all the warheads with a single attack, rendering MIRV superfluous. Additionally, attacking during this phase allows the interceptors to track their targets using the large heat signature of the booster motor. These can be seen at distances on the order thousands of miles, given that they would be below the horizon for a ground-based sensor and thus require sensors being located in orbit. DARPA had considered this concept starting in the late 1950s, and by the early 1960s had settled on the Ballistic Missile Boost Intercept concept, Project BAMBI. BAMBI used small heat-seeking missiles launched from orbiting platforms to attack Soviet ICBMs as they launched. In order to keep enough BAMBI interceptors within the range of the Soviet missiles while the interceptor's launch platforms continued to move in orbit, an enormous number of platforms and missiles would be required. The basic concept continued to be studied through the 1960s and 1970s. A serious problem was that the interceptor missiles had to be very fast to reach the ICBM before its motor stopped firing, which required a larger motor on the interceptor, meaning higher weight to launch into orbit. As the difficulties of this problem became clear, the concept evolved into the "ascent phase" attack, which used more sensitive seekers which allowed the attack to continue after the ICBM's motor had stopped firing and the warhead bus was still ascending. In all of these studies, the system would require an enormous amount of weight to be lifted into orbit, typically hundreds of millions of pounds, well beyond any reasonable projections of US capability. The US Air Force repeatedly studied these various plans and rejected them all as essentially impossible. Excalibur's promise and development issues The Excalibur concept appeared to represent an enormous leap in BMD capability. By focusing the output of a nuclear explosion's X-rays, the range and effective power of BMD were greatly enhanced. A single Excalibur could attack multiple targets across hundreds or even thousands of kilometers. Because the system was both small and relatively lightweight, the Space Shuttle could carry multiple Excaliburs into orbit in a single sortie. Super Excalibur, a later design, would theoretically be able to shoot down the entire Soviet missile fleet singlehandedly. When first proposed, the plan was to place enough Excaliburs in orbit so at least one would be over the Soviet Union at all times. But it was soon noted that this allowed the Excalibur platforms to be directly attacked; in this situation, the Excalibur would either have to allow itself to absorb the attack or sacrifice itself to shoot down the attacker. In either case, the Excalibur platform would likely be destroyed, allowing a subsequent and larger attack to occur unhindered. This led Teller to suggest a "pop-up" mode where an Excalibur would be placed on SLBM platforms on submarines patrolling off the Soviet coastline. When a launch was detected, the missiles would be launched upward and then fire as they left the atmosphere. This plan also suffered from several problems. Most notable was the issue of timing; the Soviet missiles would be firing for only a few minutes, during which time the US had to detect the launch, order a counter-launch, and then wait for the missiles to climb to altitude. For practical reasons, submarines could salvo their missiles only over a period of minutes, which meant each one could launch only perhaps one or two Excaliburs before Soviet missiles were already on their way. Additionally, the launch would reveal the location of the submarine, leaving it a "sitting duck". These issues led the Office of Technology Assessment to conclude that "the practicality of a global scheme involving pop-up X-ray lasers of this type is doubtful." Another challenge was geometric in nature. For missiles launched close to the submarines, the laser would be shining through only the uppermost atmosphere. For ICBMs launched from Kazakhstan, some from the Arctic Ocean, the curvature of the Earth meant an Excalibur's laser beam would have a long path-length through the atmosphere. To obtain a shorter atmospheric path-length, Excalibur would have to climb much higher, during which time the target missile would be able to release its warheads. There was the possibility that a powerful enough laser could reach further into the atmosphere, perhaps as deep as altitude if it was bright enough. In this case, there would be so many X-ray photons all the air between the battle station and the target missiles would be completely ionized and there would still be enough X-rays left over to destroy the missile. This process, known as "bleaching", would require an extremely bright laser, more than ten billion times brighter than the original Excalibur system. Finally, another problem was aiming the lasing rods before firing. For maximum performance, the laser rods needed to be long and skinny, but this would make them less robust mechanically. Moving them to point at their targets would cause them to bend, and some time would be required to allow this deformation to disappear. Complicating the issue was that the rods needed to be as skinny as possible to focus the output, a concept known as geometric broadening, but doing so caused the diffraction limit to decrease, offsetting this improvement. Whether it was possible to meet the performance requirements within these competing limitations was never demonstrated. Countermeasures Excalibur worked during the boost phase and aimed at the booster itself. This meant the X-ray hardening techniques developed for warheads did not protect them. While many of the other SDI weapons had simple countermeasures based on the weapon's required dwell time, like spinning the booster and polishing it mirror-bright, Excalibur's zero dwell time rendered these ineffective. Thus the primary way to defeat an Excalibur weapon is to use the atmosphere to block the progress of the beams. This can be accomplished using a missile that burns out while still in the atmosphere, thereby denying Excalibur the tracking system information needed for targeting. The Soviets conceived of a wide array of responses during the SDI era. In 1997 Russia deployed the Topol-M ICBM which utilized a higher-thrust engine burn following take-off, and flew a relatively flat ballistic trajectory, both characteristics intended to complicate space-based sensor acquisition and interception. The Topol fires its engine for only 150 seconds, about half the time of the SS-18, and has no bus, the warhead is released seconds after the engine stops. This makes it far more difficult to attack. In 1976, the organization now known as NPO Energia began development of two space-based platforms not unlike the SDI concepts; Skif was armed with a CO2 laser while Kaskad used missiles. These were abandoned, but with the announcement of SDI they were repurposed as anti-satellite weapons, with Skif being used against low-orbit objects and Kaskad against higher altitude and geostationary targets. Some of these systems were tested in 1987 on the Polyus spacecraft. What was mounted on this spacecraft remains unclear, but either a prototype Skif-DF or a mockup was part of the system. According to interviews conducted years later, mounting the Skif laser on the Polyus was more for propaganda purposes than as an effective defense technology, as the phrase "space based laser" carried political capital. One of the statements is that Polyus would be the basis for deployment of nuclear "mines" which might be fired from outside the range of the SDI components and reach the United States within six minutes. In popular culture A similar laser weapon, also named Excalibur, appears in the video games Ace Combat Zero: The Belkan War and Ace Combat Infinity''. In both of its appearances, Excalibur is presented as a gigantic, ground-based laser system that utilises mirror satellites to direct its laser beam; the device was originally designed to counter ICBMs, but was repurposed into an anti-aircraft weapon. See also Directed-energy weapon Explanatory notes References Citations Bibliography Further reading OTA-ISC-285. External links Anti-ballistic weapons Cold War weapons of the United States Directed-energy weapons Nuclear weapons program of the United States Strategic Defense Initiative
4593459	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Irish%20constituencies	List of Irish constituencies	The following list identifies every constituency used in Parliamentary etc. elections in Ireland (including Northern Ireland). The list consists of 'index names' for the seat and to identify what is potentially to be covered in a single constituency article. The index name, which may vary from the official name or the name commonly used for a constituency in some respects, is constructed by putting the name of the geographical area first. If necessary (to distinguish between a borough constituency and a county constituency with the same geographical name) 'Borough', 'Cities', 'City' or 'Town' will be the second word of the Index Name to indicate the borough constituency. A compass point or more distinctive divisional name is to be placed next. Special cases: Dublin. The PHC constituency combined the city and county and its index name is 'Dublin'. The IHC and HC (pre-1885) constituencies follow the usual rule and are indexed as 'Dublin' and 'Dublin City'. The Dublin Harbour division of Dublin City is indexed simply as 'Dublin Harbour'. There have been North and South divisions of both the county and city as well as the complication that the Republic of Ireland ceased the division between borough and county constituencies in the 1970s. The modern North Dublin and South Dublin seem descended from the county rather than the city equivalents but the names commonly used do not make this clear. The index names used for the Dublin City divisions are 'Dublin City North' and 'Dublin City South'. The inclusion of county in the official names of the county divisions is not reflected in the index names. Universities. 'National University of Ireland' and 'Queen's University of Belfast' are special cases. Institutions The institutions included in this list are: Irish House of Commons (IHC) Irish seats in First Protectorate Parliament of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland (PP) Irish (and Northern Irish) seats in the United Kingdom House of Commons (UKHC) Dáil Éireann (DÉ) House of Commons of Southern Ireland (SIHC) House of Commons of Northern Ireland (NIHC) University constituencies in Seanad Éireann (SE) Northern Ireland Assembly (NIA) Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention (NICC) Northern Ireland Forum (NIF) Irish and Northern Irish constituencies in the European Parliament (EP) List of Constituencies A Antrim: County Antrim (UKHC) Antrim (NIHC) Antrim Bann Side (NIHC). See: Bannside Antrim: Antrim Borough (NIHC) County Division Antrim (IHC) Borough Antrim Carrick (NIHC) See: Carrick County Antrim (IHC) Antrim East See under "East Antrim" Antrim Larkfield (NIHC) See: Larkfield Antrim Larne (NIHC) See: Larne Antrim Mid See under "Mid Antrim" Antrim Newtownabbey (NIHC) See: Newtownabbey Antrim North See under "North Antrim" Antrim South See under "South Antrim" Ardee (IHC) Ardfert (IHC) Ards (NIHC) Armagh: Armagh (NIA) Armagh (NIHC) Armagh (UKHC) Armagh Borough (IHC) Armagh Central (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Central Armagh Armagh City (UKHC) County Armagh (IHC) County Armagh Mid (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Mid Armagh (UKHC) Armagh North (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See under "North Armagh" Armagh South (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: South Armagh Askeaton (IHC) Athboy (IHC) Athenry (IHC) Athlone: Athlone (IHC) Athlone (UKHC) Athlone–Longford (DÉ) Athy (IHC) Augher (IHC) B Ballynakill (IHC) Ballyshannon (IHC) Baltimore (IHC) Baltinglass (IHC) Banagher (IHC) Bandonbridge (IHC) Bandon (UKHC) Bandon and Kinsale (PP) Bangor: Bangor (IHC) Bangor (NIHC) Bannow (IHC) Bannside (NIHC) Belfast: Belfast IHC Belfast (UKHC) Belfast Ballynafeigh (NIHC) Belfast Bloomfield (NIHC) Belfast Central (NIHC) Belfast Cromac: Belfast Cromac (DÉ) Belfast Cromac (NIHC) Belfast Cromac Belfast Dock (NIHC) Belfast Duncairn: Belfast Duncairn (NIHC) Belfast Duncairn (UKHC) Belfast East: Belfast East (NIA) Belfast East (NICC) Belfast East (NIF) Belfast East (NIHC) Belfast East (UKHC) Belfast Falls: Belfast Falls (NIHC) Belfast Falls (UKHC) Belfast North: Belfast North (NIA) Belfast North (NICC) Belfast North (NIF) Belfast North (NIHC) Belfast North (UKHC) Belfast Oldpark (NIHC) Belfast Ormeau (UKHC) Belfast Pottinger: Belfast Pottinger (NIHC) Belfast Pottinger (UKHC) Belfast St Anne's: Belfast St Anne's (NIHC) Belfast St Anne's (UKHC) Belfast Shankill: Belfast Shankill (NIHC) Belfast Shankill (UKHC) Belfast South: Belfast South (NIA) Belfast South (NICC) Belfast South (NIF) Belfast South (NIHC) Belfast South (UKHC) Belfast Victoria: Belfast Victoria (NIHC) Belfast Victoria (UKHC) Belfast West: Belfast West (NIA) Belfast West (NICC) Belfast West (NIF) Belfast West (NIHC) Belfast West (UKHC) Belfast Willowfield (NIHC) Belfast Windsor (NIHC) Belfast Woodvale: Belfast Woodvale (NIHC) Belfast Woodvale (UKHC) Belturbet (IHC) Blessington (IHC) Boyle (IHC) C Callan (IHC) Carlingford (IHC) Carlow (borough): Carlow (IHC) Also named "Carlow Town" Borough Carlow (UKHC) County Carlow: County Carlow (IHC) County Carlow (UKHC) Carlow–Kildare (DÉ) Carlow–Kilkenny: Carlow–Kilkenny (DÉ) Carlow–Kilkenny (SIHC) Carlow, Wexford, Kilkenny and Queen's (PP) Carrick: Carrick (IHC) Carrick (NIHC) Carrickfergus: Carrickfergus (IHC) Carrickfergus (UKHC) Carrickfergus and Belfast (PP) Carysfort (IHC) Cashel Cashel IHC Cashel (UKHC) Castlebar (IHC) Castlemartyr (IHC) Causeway (UKHC) Cavan: Cavan (UKHC) Cavan (DÉ) County Cavan (IHC) County Cavan (IHC) County Cavan East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: County Cavan (UKHC) Cavan, Fermanagh and Monaghan (PP) Cavan–Monaghan (DÉ) Cavan West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Cavan (UKHC) Central Armagh (UKHC) Charlemont (IHC) Charleville (IHC) City of Londonderry Clare: County Clare (IHC) Clare (UKHC) Clare (SIHC) Clare (DÉ) Clare East See: East Clare Clare–South Galway (DÉ) Clare West See: West Clare Clogher (IHC) Clonakilty (IHC) Clonmel: Clonmel (IHC) Clonmel (UKHC) Clonmines (IHC) Coleraine: Coleraine (IHC) Coleraine (UKHC) Connacht–Ulster (EP) Cork and Youghall (PP) Borough Cork Borough: Cork Borough (DÉ) Cork Borough (SIHC) Cork City: Cork City (IHC) Cork City (DÉ) Cork City (UKHC) Cork City North-West (DÉ) Cork City South-East (DÉ) County Cork: County Cork (PP) County County Cork (UKHC) Cork East (DÉ) See also under "East Cork" Cork East and North East: Cork East and North East (DÉ) Cork East and North East (SIHC) Cork Mid (DÉ) See also under "Mid Cork" Cork Mid, North, South, South East and West: Cork Mid, North, South, South East and West (DÉ) Cork Mid, North, South, South East and West (SIHC) Cork North (DÉ) See also under "North Cork" Cork North-Central (DÉ) Cork North-East (DÉ) Cork North-West (DÉ) Cork South (DÉ) See also under "South Cork" Cork South-Central (DÉ) Cork South-East (DÉ) Cork South-West (DÉ) Cork West (DÉ) See also under "West Cork" County Limerick (UKHC) County Louth (UKHC) County Wexford (UKHC) D Derry and Coleraine (PP) Borough Derry, Donegal and Tyrone (PP) Dingle (IHC) Donegal: Donegal (DÉ) County Donegal (UKHC) County Donegal (IHC) County Donegal (IHC) Donegal East (DÉ) Donegal East (UKHC) See: East Donegal (UKHC) Donegal–Leitrim (DÉ) Donegal North (UKHC) See: North Donegal (UKHC) Donegal South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Donegal (UKHC) Donegal North-East (DÉ) Donegal South-West (DÉ) Donegal West (DÉ) Donegal West (UKHC) See: West Donegal (UKHC) Doneraile (IHC) Down: County Down (IHC) County County Down (UKHC) County Down, Antrim and Armagh (PP) Down Ards (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Ards Down Bangor (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Bangor (NIHC) Down East: Down East (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: East Down Down East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Down Down Iveagh (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Iveagh Down Mid: Down Mid (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Mid Down Down Mid (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: Mid Down Down Mourne (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Mourne Down North: Down North (Assembly constituency) (NIA) See: North Down Down North (NICC) Down North (NIF) Down North (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: North Down (NIHC) Down North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Down (UKHC) Down South: Down South (Assembly constituency) (NIA) See: South Down (NIA) Down South (NICC) Down South (NIF) Down South (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: South Down Down South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Down Down West: Down West (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: West Down Down West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Down Downpatrick: Downpatrick (IHC) Downpatrick (UKHC) Drogheda: Drogheda (IHC) Drogheda (UKHC) Dublin (EP) Dublin Artane (DÉ) Dublin Ballyfermot (DÉ) Dublin Cabra (DÉ) Dublin Central (DÉ) Dublin City: Dublin City (IHC) Dublin City (UKHC) Dublin Clontarf: Dublin Clontarf (DÉ) Dublin Clontarf (UKHC) Dublin College Green: Dublin College Green (DÉ) Dublin College Green (UKHC) County Dublin: County Dublin (IHC) County Dublin (UKHC) Dublin Finglas (DÉ) Dublin Harbour (UKHC) Dublin Mid (DÉ) Dublin Mid-West(constituency): Dublin Mid-West (DÉ) Dublin Mid West (SIHC) Dublin North(constituency): Dublin North (DÉ) Dublin North (DÉ) Dublin North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Dublin (UKHC) Dublin North-Central (DÉ) Dublin North-East (DÉ) Dublin North-West: Dublin North-West (DÉ) Dublin North West (SIHC) Dublin Pembroke (UKHC) Dublin Rathdown (DÉ) Dublin Rathmines (UKHC) Dublin Rathmines West (DÉ) Dublin St James's (UKHC) Dublin St Michan's (UKHC) Dublin St Patrick's (UKHC) Dublin St Stephen's Green (UKHC) Dublin South: Dublin South (SIHC) Dublin South (DÉ) Dublin South (DÉ) Dublin South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Dublin Dublin South-Central (DÉ) Dublin South-East (DÉ) Dublin South-West (DÉ) Dublin Townships (DÉ) Dublin University: University of Dublin (IHC) University of Dublin (UKHC) University of Dublin (DÉ) University of Dublin (SIHC) University of Dublin (SE) Dublin West (DÉ) Duleek (IHC) Dún Laoghaire (DÉ) Dundalk: Dundalk (IHC) Dundalk (UKHC) Dungannon: Dungannon (IHC) Dungannon (UKHC) Dungarvan: Dungarvan (IHC) Dungarvan (UKHC) Dunleer (IHC) E East (EP) East Antrim: East Antrim (NIA) East Antrim (NIF) East Antrim (UKHC) East Cavan (UKHC) East Clare (UKHC) See also under "Clare East" East Cork (UKHC) See also under "Cork East" East Donegal (UKHC) See also "Donegal East" East Down: East Down (NIHC) See also "Down East" East Down (UKHC) East Galway (UKHC) East Kerry (UKHC) East Limerick (UKHC) See also under "Limerick East" East Londonderry: East Londonderry East Londonderry (NIA) East Londonderry (NIF) East Mayo (UKHC) See also under "Mayo North" East Tipperary (UKHC) East Tyrone East Tyrone (UKHC) East Waterford (UKHC) East Wicklow (UKHC) Ennis: Ennis (IHC) Ennis (UKHC) Enniscorthy (IHC) Enniskillen: Enniskillen (IHC) Enniskillen (NIHC) Enniskillen (UKHC) F County Fermanagh (IHC) County Fermanagh and Tyrone: Fermanagh and Tyrone (NIHC) Fermanagh and Tyrone (UKHC) Fermanagh and South Tyrone: Fermanagh and South Tyrone (NIA) Fermanagh and South Tyrone (NICC) Fermanagh and South Tyrone (NIF) Fermanagh and South Tyrone (UKHC) Fermanagh Enniskillen (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Enniskillen (NIHC) Fermanagh Lisnaskea (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Lisnaskea (NIHC) Fermanagh North: Fermanagh North (DÉ) Fermanagh North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Fermanagh Fermanagh South: Fermanagh South (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: South Fermanagh (NIHC) Fermanagh South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Fermanagh Fethard: Fethard (IHC) Fethard (IHC) Fore (IHC) Foyle: Foyle (NIA) Foyle (NIF) Foyle (NIHC) Foyle (UKHC) G Galway (DÉ) Galway and Mayo (PP) County Galway Borough: Galway (IHC) Galway (UKHC) Galway Connemara (UKHC) County Galway (IHC) Galway East: Galway East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Galway Galway East (DÉ) Galway North: Galway North (UK Parliament constituency)(UKHC) See: North Galway Galway North (DÉ) Galway North-East (DÉ) Galway South: Galway South (DÉ) Galway South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Galway Galway West (DÉ) Gorey (IHC) Gowran (IHC) Granard (IHC) H Harristown (IHC) Hillsborough (IHC) I Inistioge (IHC) Ireland East (European Parliament constituency) (EP) See: East Ireland North-West (European Parliament constituency) (EP) See: North-West Ireland South (European Parliament constituency) (EP) See: South Iveagh (NIHC) See also "Down Iveagh". J Jamestown (IHC) K Kells (IHC) County Kerry, Limerick and Clare (PP) Kerry–Limerick West: Kerry–Limerick West (DÉ) Kerry–Limerick West (SIHC) County Kerry (IHC) Kerry East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Kerry (UKHC) Kerry North (constituency: Kerry North (DÉ) Kerry North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Kerry (UKHC) Kerry South: Kerry South (DÉ) Kerry South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Kerry (UKHC) Kerry West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Kerry (UKHC) Kilbeggan (IHC) Kildare Borough (IHC) County Kildare (IHC) Kildare North: Kildare North (DÉ) Kildare North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Kildare (UKHC) Kildare South: Kildare South (DÉ) Kildare South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Kildare (UKHC) Kildare–Wicklow: Kildare–Wicklow (PP) Kildare–Wicklow (DÉ) Kildare–Wicklow (SIHC) Kilkenny City: Kilkenny City (IHC) Kilkenny City (UKHC) County Kildare (IHC) Kilkenny North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Kilkenny Kilkenny South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Kilkenny Killybegs (IHC) Killyleagh (IHC) Kilmallock (IHC) King's County: King's County (IHC) King's County (UKHC) King's County Birr (UKHC) King's County Tullamore (UKHC) Kinsale: Kinsale (IHC) Kinsale (UKHC) Knocktopher (IHC) L Lagan Valley: Lagan Valley (NIA) Lagan Valley (NIF) Lagan Valley (NIHC) Lagan Valley (UKHC) Lanesborough (IHC) Laois–Offaly: Laois–Offaly (SIHC) Laois–Offaly (DÉ) Larkfield (NIHC) Larne (NIHC) Leinster (EP) Leitrim: County Leitrim (IHC) County Leitrim (UKHC) Leitrim (DÉ) Leitrim North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Leitrim Leitrim South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Leitrim Leitrim–Roscommon North (DÉ) Leitrim–Sligo (DÉ) Lifford (IHC) Limerick (DÉ) Limerick City: Limerick City (DÉ) Limerick City (UKHC) Limerick City (IHC) Limerick City and Killmallock (PP) Limerick City–Limerick East: Limerick City–Limerick East (SIHC) Limerick City–Limerick East (DÉ) County Limerick: County Limerick (IHC) County Limerick )(UK Parliament constituency) See: County Limerick Limerick East: Limerick East (DÉ) Limerick East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Limerick Limerick West: Limerick West (DÉ) Limerick West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Limerick Lisburn: Lisburn (IHC) Lisburn (UKHC) Lisburn (IHC) Lismore (IHC) Lisnaskea (NIHC) Londonderry: Londonderry (UKHC) Londonderry (NIA) Londonderry (NIHC) Londonderry (NICC) Londonderry City: Londonderry City (IHC) Londonderry City (DÉ) Londonderry City (UKHC) Londonderry City (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: City of Londonderry Londonderry City (IHC) County Londonderry (IHC) Londonderry East: See "East Londonderry" Londonderry Mid (NIHC) See: Mid Londonderry Londonderry North: See "North Londonderry" Londonderry South: Londonderry South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Londonderry Londonderry South (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Mid Londonderry Longford (UKHC) Longford Borough (IHC) County Longford (IHC) Longford North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Longford Longford–Roscommon (DÉ) Longford South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Longford Longford–Westmeath: Longford–Westmeath (SIHC) Longford–Westmeath (DÉ) Louth (Dáil constituency): Louth (DÉ) Louth (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: County Louth (UKHC) County Louth (IHC) Louth–Meath: Louth–Meath (SIHC) Louth–Meath (DÉ) Louth–Meath (PP) Louth North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Louth Louth South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Louth M Mallow: Mallow (IHC) Mallow (UKHC) Maryborough (IHC) Mayo: County Mayo (IHC) County Mayo (DÉ) Mayo (UKHC) Mayo East: Mayo East (DÉ) Mayo East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Mayo Mayo North: Mayo North (DÉ) Mayo North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Mayo Mayo North and West: Mayo North and West (DÉ) Mayo North and West (SIHC) Mayo South: Mayo South (DÉ) Mayo South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Mayo Mayo South–Roscommon South: Mayo South–Roscommon South (DÉ) Mayo South–Roscommon South (SIHC) Mayo West: Mayo West (DÉ) Mayo West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Mayo Meath: County Meath (IHC) Meath (DÉ) Meath (UKHC) Meath East (DÉ) Meath North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Meath Meath South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Meath Meath West (DÉ) Meath–Westmeath (DÉ) Mid Antrim: Mid Antrim (DÉ) Mid Antrim (NIHC) Mid Antrim (UKHC) Mid Armagh (UKHC) Mid Cork (UKHC) See also under "Cork Mid" Mid Down: Mid Down (NIHC) See also under "Down Mid" Mid Down (UKHC) Mid Londonderry (NIHC) Mid Tipperary (UKHC) Mid Tyrone: Mid Tyrone Mid Tyrone (UKHC) Mid Ulster: Mid Ulster (NIA) Mid Ulster (UKHC) Midleton (IHC) Monaghan (Dáil constituency): Monaghan (DÉ) County Monaghan (SIHC) County Monaghan (UKHC) County Monaghan (IHC) County Monaghan (IHC) Monaghan North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Monaghan (UKHC) Monaghan South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Monaghan Mourne (NIHC) Mullingar (IHC) Munster (EP) N Naas (IHC) National University of Ireland: National University of Ireland (Dáil constituency) (DÉ) National University of Ireland (Dáil constituency) (SIHC) National University of Ireland (Seanad Éireann constituency) (SE) National University of Ireland (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) Navan (IHC) New Ross: New Ross (IHC) New Ross (UKHC) Newcastle (IHC) Newry: Newry (IHC) Newry (UKHC) Newry (IHC) Newry and Armagh: Newry and Armagh (NIA) Newry and Armagh (NIF) Newry and Armagh (UKHC) Newtownabbey (NIHC) Newtown Limavady (IHC) Newtownards (IHC) Northern Ireland (EP) North Antrim: North Antrim (NIA) North Antrim (NICC) North Antrim (NIF) North Antrim (NIHC) North Antrim (UKHC) North Armagh (UKHC) See also under "Armagh North" North Cork (UKHC) See also under "Cork North" North Dublin (UKHC) North Donegal (UKHC) See also under "Donegal North" North Down: See also under "Down North" North Down (NIA) North Down (NIHC) See also under "Down North" North Down North Fermanagh (UKHC) North Galway (UKHC) North Kilkenny North Kildare (UKHC) See also "Kildare North" North Kerry (UKHC) See also "Kerry North" North Leitrim North Londonderry: North Londonderry (UKHC) North Londonderry (NIHC) North Longford (UKHC) North Louth (UKHC) North Mayo (UKHC) See also under "Mayo North" North Meath (UKHC) North Monaghan (UKHC) North Roscommon (UKHC) North Sligo (UKHC) North Tipperary (UKHC) North Tyrone: North Tyrone (NIHC) North Tyrone (UKHC) North East Tyrone (UKHC) North West Tyrone (UKHC) North Westmeath (UKHC) North Wexford (UKHC) North-West (EP) O Old Leighlin (IHC) P Philipstown (IHC) Portarlington (UKHC) Portarlington (IHC) Q Queen's County: Queen's County (IHC) Queen's County (UKHC) Queen's County Leix (UKHC) Queen's County Ossory (UKHC) Queen's University of Belfast: Queen's University of Belfast (NIHC) Queen's University of Belfast (UKHC) R Randalstown (IHC) Rathcormack (IHC) Ratoath (IHC) Roscommon: Roscommon (DÉ) Roscommon (UKHC) Roscommon (IHC) County Roscommon (IHC) Roscommon North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Roscommon Roscommon South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Roscommon Roscommon–Leitrim (DÉ) Roscommon–South Leitrim (DÉ) S St Canice (IHC) St Johnstown (IHC) St Johnstown (IHC) Sligo Sligo (IHC) County Sligo (IHC) Sligo–Leitrim (DÉ) Sligo–North Leitrim (DÉ) Sligo–Mayo East: Sligo–Mayo East (DÉ) Sligo–Mayo East (SIHC) Sligo North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Sligo Sligo, Roscommon and Leitrim (PP) County Sligo South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Sligo South (EP) South Antrim: South Antrim (NIA) South Antrim (NICC) South Antrim (NIF) South Antrim (NIHC) South Antrim (UKHC) South Armagh (UKHC) South Cork (UKHC) See also under "Cork South" South Donegal (UKHC) See also "Donegal South" South Dublin (UKHC) South Down (NIA) South Down (NIHC) See also under "Down South" South Down South Fermanagh (NIHC) See also under "Fermanagh South" South Galway (UKHC) South Kilkenny (UKHC) South Kildare (UKHC) See also under "Kildare South" South Kerry UKHC) See also "Kerry South" South Leitrim (UKHC) Mid Londonderry: See also under "Londonderry South" Mid Londonderry (NIHC) South Londonderry (UKHC) South Longford (UKHC) South Louth (UKHC) South Mayo (UKHC) See also under "Mayo North" South Meath (UKHC) South Monaghan (UKHC) South Roscommon (UKHC) South Sligo (UKHC) South Tipperary (UKHC) South Tyrone: South Tyrone (NIHC) South Tyrone (UKHC) South Westmeath (UKHC) South Wexford (UKHC) Sperrin (UKHC) Strabane (IHC) Strangford: Strangford (NIA) Strangford (NIF) Strangford (UKHC) Swords (IHC) T Taghmon (IHC) Tallow (IHC) Thomastown (IHC) Tipperary: County Tipperary (IHC) County Tipperary (DÉ) Tipperary (UKHC) Tipperary East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Tipperary Tipperary Mid (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: Mid Tipperary Tipperary Mid, North and South: Tipperary Mid, North and South (SIHC) Tipperary Mid, North and South (DÉ) Tipperary North: Tipperary North (DÉ) Tipperary North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Tipperary Tipperary South: Tipperary South (DÉ) Tipperary South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Tipperary Tralee (IHC) Trim (IHC) Tuam (IHC) Tulsk (IHC) County Tyrone (IHC) County Tyrone East: East Tyrone (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: East Tyrone Tyrone East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Tyrone Tyrone Mid: Tyrone Mid (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: Mid Tyrone (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) Tyrone Mid (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: Mid Tyrone Tyrone North: Tyrone North (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: North Tyrone Tyrone North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Tyrone (UKHC) Tyrone North-East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North East Tyrone Tyrone North-West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North West Tyrone Tyrone South: Tyrone South (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: South Tyrone Tyrone South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Tyrone Tyrone West: Tyrone West (Assembly constituency) (NIA) See: West Tyrone Tyrone West (NIF) Tyrone West (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency) (NIHC) See: West Tyrone Tyrone West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Tyrone U Ulster Mid: Ulster Mid (Assembly constituency) (NIA) See: Mid Ulster Ulster Mid (NICC) Ulster Mid (NIF) Ulster Mid (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: Mid Ulster Upper Bann: Upper Bann (NIA) Upper Bann (NIF) Upper Bann (UKHC) W Waterford (DÉ) County Waterford and Clonmel (PP) Cities Waterford and Tipperary (PP) County Waterford City (Parliament of Ireland constituency): Waterford City (IHC) Waterford City (UKHC) County Waterford (IHC) Waterford East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Waterford Waterford–Tipperary East: Waterford–Tipperary East (SIHC) Waterford–Tipperary East (DÉ) Waterford West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Waterford West Cavan (UKHC) West Clare (UKHC) West Cork (UKHC) See also under "Cork West" West Donegal (UKHC) See also "Donegal West" West Down: West Down (NIHC) West Down (UKHC) West Kerry (UKHC) West Limerick (UKHC) See also under "Limerick West" West Mayo (UKHC) See also under "Mayo North" West Tyrone: West Tyrone (NIA) West Tyrone (NIHC) West Tyrone (UKHC) West Waterford (UKHC) West Wicklow (UKHC) Westmeath (DÉ) County County Westmeath (IHC) County Westmeath, Longford and King's (PP) Westmeath North (UKHC) See: North Westmeath (UKHC) Westmeath South (UKHC) See: South Westmeath (UKHC) Wexford (DÉ) Wexford Borough (IHC) County Wexford: County Wexford (IHC) County Wexford (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: County Wexford Wexford North (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: North Wexford Wexford South (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: South Wexford Wicklow: Wicklow (DÉ) Wicklow (UKHC) Wicklow (IHC) County Wicklow (IHC) Wicklow East (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: East Wicklow Wicklow West (UK Parliament constituency) (UKHC) See: West Wicklow Y Youghal: Youghal (IHC) Youghal (UKHC) See also Irish House of Commons List of United Kingdom Parliament constituencies in Ireland and Northern Ireland Historic Dáil constituencies Political history of Ireland Politics of the Republic of Ireland

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