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4516085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TrawsCambria | TrawsCambria | TrawsCambria was a network of medium and long-distance express bus routes in Wales sponsored by the Welsh Government.
Since 2012 services have been provided by the updated TrawsCymru network.
History
Coach Network
TrawsCambria started in 1979 as the branded experimental coach service route 700 Cardiff to Bangor via Brecon, Builth Wells, Llandrindod Wells, Newtown, Machynlleth, Dolgellau, Porthmadog and Caernarfon. The initial trial summer service operated Fridays to Mondays only with one coach in each direction on the 230-mile route, with walk-on fares. By August duplicate and triplicate operations occurred which resulted in the Welsh Office approving the continuation of the service through the winter.
The following spring saw the 700 service run daily, joined by:
701: Cardiff to Rhyl via Swansea, Carmarthen, Lampeter, Aberystwyth, Machynlleth, Dolgellau, Betws y Coed, Blaenau Ffestiniog and Llandudno
702: Cardiff to Liverpool via Cwmbran, Builth Wells, Rhayader, Newtown, Wrexham and Chester
After three years the network continued to run without any subsidy although daily operation on the 700 and 702 routes was cut to Friday-Monday in winter. Later TrawsCambria 702 was withdrawn.
The TrawsCambria name and the original red and green logo was a registered service mark jointly owned by National Welsh Omnibus Services of Cardiff and Crosville Motor Services of Chester. Traws, pronounced to rhyme with 'house', is the Welsh equivalent for 'cross' as in cross-country. Therefore, TrawsCambria was roughly equivalent to 'cross-Cambria' or 'trans-Cambria' in English.
In the late 1980s TrawsCambria also crossed bridges and ran daily to the Isle of Anglesey in the north and Bristol in the south. Following privatisation of the National Bus Company subsidiaries, modifications and cut backs resulted. While profits could be made most of the year, November and February low patronage always resulted in knife edge annual performance.
In the 1990s Crosville continued to run the service jointly with Rhondda Transport, with the main route being the 701 uniquely linking all the Welsh universities: Glamorgan (in Pontypridd), Cardiff, Swansea, Lampeter, Aberystwyth and Bangor.
By 2000, Crosville had become part of Arriva North West & Wales and Rhondda Transport part of Stagecoach South Wales. As the network became one route TrawsCambria was then applied to the 701 coach route linking Holyhead and Bristol via Dolgellau, Aberystwyth, Carmarthen and Cardiff. This route was modified in the early 2000s, with the northern terminus changed to Llandudno and withdrawal of the Cardiff to Bristol extension.
Welsh Assembly Reshaping
Prior to and during 2005, the Welsh Assembly Government started to influence and recreate a renewed network, repositioning TrawsCambria in a new guise with shorter links with good frequencies, running with modern, high specification, low-floor buses. The first stage of this was the late 2004 withdrawal of the 701 north of Aberystwyth and creation of a new express X32 route in its place between Aberystwyth and Bangor.
While TrawsCambria was co-ordinated by the Welsh Assembly Government, the actual bus services are/were provided by a variety of private bus companies. The TrawsCambria livery was based on a common design, including TrawsCambria logos, but with the colours of the base livery selected by the operator running the service. A fleet of modern Optare Tempos were purchased for all but two of the routes, with different specifications for different routes. While not of express coach standard, some of these are significantly more comfortable than normal service buses.
With long-distance limited stop coaches being largely impractical for serving the dispersed population of Wales, the TrawsCambria network has evolved into a compromise solution between express coaches and regular service buses: it provides long-distance journey opportunities between Welsh towns while also catering for shorter-distance passenger flows along its route. Following on from the introduction of the X32 in October 2003, several additional routes were added and TrawsCambria evolved into a network of services.
The withdrawal of service 701 and introduction of the new low-floor bus fleet for the replacement Aberystwyth to Cardiff (X40) service sparked concerns and complaints about the suitability of a service bus for the four-hour journey. There was no on-board toilet, which did not make an ideal situation for such a distance. Toilet breaks (even though there are limited facilities along the rural route) would be frowned upon as they would interfere with the timetable. The X40 also did not accept concessionary travel passes for travel over the section south of Carmarthen. However some of the complaints, particularly those related to luggage space, may have been the result of Arriva Buses Wales using buses on Aberystwyth to Cardiff services other than the two specially equipped Optare Tempos ordered with Aberystwyth to Cardiff services in mind.
701 Revival
In 2007 a private company trading as Coach Travel Wales sought to compete for passengers with the X40, re-introducing service 701 as an Aberystwyth to Cardiff Bay via Aberaeron, Lampeter, Carmarthen, Swansea, Port Talbot and Cardiff service.
Initially this ran twice-weekly with one journey from Aberystwyth in the morning, returning from Cardiff in the afternoon. This service runs using coaches with toilets and concessionary passes are accepted along the whole route.
On 29 September 2013 was later taken over by Bryan's Coaches.
The service proved popular and that popularity has continued to increase. At its peak in 2013 it operated twice daily Monday-Saturday, except for Christmas Day, Boxing Day and New Year's Day.
In 2014 a new 750 service was established, running on Thursdays and Saturdays from Aberystwyth to Cardiff via New Quay, Llandysul, Carmarthen and Swansea. The service was less successful and was terminated in 2015.
In 2015, Bryan retired, and the 701 service transferred to Lewis's Coaches of Llanrhystud. The transfer of the service was the end of an era as George Bryan had been depot manager at Crosville's Aberystwyth depot when the service was introduced.
Lewis's Coaches started their operation of the service with former Green line coaches, equipped with wheelchair lifts thus introducing accessible vehicles to the service for the first time.
Lewis Coaches closed in 2016, and Ceredigion CC has issued an amendment to its online timetable confirming the cessation of service 701 from that date.
Attempted Relaunch As TrawsCymru
Following a Welsh Assembly Government consultation on improvements to the TrawsCambria network, in 2010, a programme of improvements for TrawsCambria services X40 and 704/T4 was announced. New buses were the main improvement identified. These would be equipped with coach style seating, greater luggage space, real time information and WiFi. The Welsh Assembly Government decided these upgraded routes, and eventually the network as a whole, were to be re-launched under the new TrawsCymru brand. As part of the re-branding, service X40 was to be re-numbered TC1 and T4 would have become TC4. The T4 upgrade and re-branding went ahead, but without the planned renumbering to TC4.
CymruExpress
However, before the contract for the TC1 service could be let, Arriva Buses Wales decided to cease operation of the TrawsCambria X40 and their section of the TrawsCambria 550 service from 26 February 2012. Instead they introduced their own services along the routes on a fully commercial basis, under the brand 'CymruExpress', meaning these routes no longer formed part of the TrawsCambria network. The CymruExpress services were:
Service 10: Aberystwyth to Swansea. This was additional to the hourly Carmarthen - Aberystwth service, unlike the former X40 service, but only operated on Fridays and Sundays during university term time. The service was withdrawn from 28 July 2013
Service 20: Aberystwyth to Cardiff. This was also additional to the hourly Carmarthen – Aberystwyth service and operated all week. When first introduced, unlike the former X40 services to Cardiff, it did not travel via Swansea. However, after service 10 was withdrawn the 20 was rerouted via Swansea.
Service 40: Aberystwyth to Carmarthen (replacement for X40). Compared to the X40, early morning northbound journeys were cut drastically on Saturdays, with the first bus from Carmarthen not reaching Aberystwyth until 11:15. An improvement however was the introduction of a (very scant) Sunday service of two trips each way. The initial timetable also promised that the journey time would be cut drastically. However, the service was not able to reliably keep to the timetable and the timings were later adjusted to be more realistic.
Service 50: Aberystwyth to Synod Inn via New Quay (replacement for 550).
As part of the CymruExpress launch, Arriva returned the TrawsCambria Optare Tempos and replaced them with Wright Pulsars (on services 40 and 50) and a pair of Van Hool Alizée coaches (for use on services 10 and 20). The Pulsars were initially planned to be an interim measure, until new Wright Eclipse Gemini double-deckers could be introduced in August 2012. However, these were never introduced. The decision to operate the CymruExpress routes commercially prevented the introduction of the TrawsCymru TC1 service.
Second Chance
Arriva later decided to close their Aberystwyth depot and related outstations. As such, all remaining CymruExpress services were withdrawn, with the last services running on 21 December 2013. With the commercial operation cancelled, the local councils and Welsh Government were once again able to subsidise bus services on the corridor, giving them a second chance to introduce a TrawsCymru service.
Initially, the local councils let interim contracts to maintain bus services in the area. One of these, a subsidised version of service 40, was jointly operated by First Cymru and Lewis Coaches. Service 50 was replaced by a new service titled X50 operated by Richards Brothers, also funded by the council. Both these interim services commenced operation on 23 December 2013. These interim contracts did not include any Sunday services, meaning that as of Sunday 15 December there were no Sunday bus services operating in Ceredigion (a single round trip between Aberystwyth and Cardiff is provided by the 701 service, but that is a coach not a bus). Neither of these contracts were for TrawsCymru services, but as interim services they were intended to run for approximately six months, until the Summer of 2014, whilst the Wales Government looked at options for the longer-term future of nationally strategic transport services.
It later emerged that a TrawsCymru service on the Aberystwyth - Carmarthen route would indeed finally be delivered. The original plan for the X40 to be renumbered as TC1 and receive six new Welsh Government owned Optare Tempo buses however was not to be. Instead, the new TrawsCymru service is known as the T1 and buses are provided by the operator, First Cymru, rather than the Welsh Government which has diverted the Tempos ordered for the TC1 to other routes. The T1 contract includes a limited Sunday service, and commenced on 3 August 2014.
Past Services
X32: Bangor to Aberystwyth
This service ran roughly every two hours on Mondays to Saturdays from Bangor to Aberystwyth Mondays to Saturdays. This service was introduced in October 2003 and was operated by Arriva Buses Wales. After being subsidised for several years, in 2012 Arriva agreed to run the service on a commercial basis, but later found this unviable and decided to cancel the service in September 2012.
X40: Aberystwyth to Carmarthen
This was a WAG-funded service using Optare Tempos. The core Aberystwyth to Carmarthen X40 service was generally hourly Mondays to Saturdays, with two services a day extended to/from Cardiff via Swansea and one to Swansea only. There was one return Aberystwyth to Cardiff service on Sundays.
The service was introduced in February 2005 and was operated jointly by Arriva Buses Wales and First Cymru until December 2009 when Arriva took over the whole service. This TrawsCambria service ceased on 26 February 2012 and was replaced by Arriva CymruExpress service 40 (which was subsequent terminated in December 2013).
X50: Cardigan to Aberaeron / Aberystwyth
This service operated roughly every two hours between Aberaeron and Cardigan Monday - Saturday, with 4 journeys extended to/from Aberystwyth. This service avoided the lengthy diversions to New Quay and Aberporth, which were served by the slower TrawsCambria 550 service. The service was operated by Richards Brothers using WAG-funded Optare Tempos.
The services between Cardigan and Aberaeron only were supposed have connections with the TrawsCambria X40 for travel to/from Aberystwyth. However, Arriva's X40 timetable change in late 2011 removed the northbound connections. This led to a call for all X50 services to be extended to Aberystwyth. However, since X40 and 550 were operated commercially between Aberystwyth and Aberaeron, the council were unable to provide subsidy for this. When the TrawsCambria X40 ceased, the connections at Aberaeron were maintained, with CymruExpress route 40 replacing the X40.
X50: Cardigan to Aberystwyth
This service was introduced on 23 December 2013 and operated on a roughly hourly timetable, Monday - Saturday. Some services (generally alternate trips) also ran via Aberporth. As such, this route had much more in common with the former TrawsCambria 550 service than the X50 prior to 23 December 2013, which avoided the lengthy diversions to New Quay and Aberporth (from 23 December 2013 onwards, only one service each way continued to avoid New Quay). The service was operated by Richards Brothers using a mixture of vehicles, including some of the TrawsCambria Optare Tempos, the last remaining TrawsCambria-branded vehicles. The TrawsCambria branding was however not re-applied to some of the Tempos (which were repainted having previously carried Arriva's version of the TrawsCambria livery), given the eventual intention to retire the TrawsCambria brand entirely.
The last service ran on 3 January 2015. It was replaced by TrawsCymru service T5. All but one of the remaining TrawsCambria-liveried buses where repainted into TrawsCymru livery by this point.
550: Cardigan to Aberystwyth
This service has been through many phases, before effectively being renumbered as service X50 on 23 December 2013. WAG-funded Optare Tempos were the main vehicles used.
The initial service ran the full length of the coast from Aberystwyth to Cardigan, including the diversions into New Quay and into Aberporth. The service was roughly 2-hourly between Cardigan and Synod Inn, with the frequency from Synod Inn to Aberystwyth being double that. Most services were operated by Arriva Buses Wales, with a few trips run by Richards Brothers.
In 2010, Arriva Buses Wales ceased operating services to Cardigan. However, they retained the hourly section of the service (between Synod Inn and Aberystwyth, via New Quay). The southern section of route, still roughly every two hours, was then solely operated by Richards Brothers, with a change of bus being required at Synod Inn except for a few services operated by Richards Brothers from Cardigan to Aberaeron, New Quay and Aberystwyth (the latter only on two evening journeys). This arrangement continued until the Arriva operation ceased to be a TrawsCambria service and was replaced by Arriva service 50
From 27 February 2012 the service was operated solely by Richards Brothers. Initially, it consisted primarily of a Cardigan to Synod Inn shuttle (via Aberporth) roughly every two hours. A few services extended further, including trips to New Quay or Aberaeron and two evening trips to Aberystwyth. The services that terminated at Synod Inn connected with Arriva Buses Wales CymruExpress 50 to Aberystwyth via New Quay.
Later in 2012, Richards Brothers extended the services that terminated at Synod Inn to Aberaeron via the direct route, avoiding New Quay. Passengers for Aberystwth were then expected to change at Aberaeron for Arriva's CymruExpress 40 service, much easier than changing bus at remote Synod Inn. The downside however was that connections to New Quay were lost. This made Cardigan – New Quay journeys almost impossible save for the handful of existing through services between Cardigan and New Quay (including the evening runs to/from Aberystywth) which were retained.
X94: Wrexham to Barmouth
This service followed a route which closely approximated that of the Ruabon to Barmouth railway line which was closed to passengers in 1965. It was operated by Arriva Buses Wales Monday-Saturday and GHA Coaches on Sundays until 23 December 2013. Following this, GHA Coaches took over 7 days a week, and at some point the Sunday/Public Holiday service was renumbered as T3. The frequency along most of the route was roughly 2-hourly (every 2 hours). On 1 November 2014 the X94 was finally withdrawn and replaced by TrawsCymru serviceT3.
704: Newtown to Brecon
This service started in January 2006, was operated by Stagecoach South Wales and ran until 31 May 2011, using Optare Tempos. It was unusual in not connecting with any other TrawsCambria services at any point, and because parts of the route had not seen a regular bus service since 1970. It was replaced by TrawsCymru service T4 and extended south from Brecon to Merthyr Tydfil. Although Merthyr Tydfil may not be an especially popular destination for Newtown residents, onward connections to Cardiff were available by train and bus (service X4). As of January 2013, the service has been fully rebranded as a TrawsCymru route and has been extended to Cardiff.
Current Service
As of November 2015 all Trawscymru services were launched. No Trawscambria routes remain.
Key Connecting/Complementary Routes
Stagecoach South Wales services 43 and X43, which are designated 'TrawsCymru Connect' run between Brecon, Crickhowell and Abergavenny on a two-hourly basis, connected with the 704 TrawsCambria service (the 704 is now the T4 TrawsCymru service).
Service 412 Cardigan – Newport - Fishguard - Haverfordwest, was advertised in some timetables as connecting at Cardigan with X50 services.
While Arriva were operating the Carmarthen-Aberystwyth service as CymruExpress, the X50/550 TrawsCambria services attempted to maintain connections with the service at Aberaeron
64 Brecon - Llandovery
X75 Shrewsbury - Llanidloes/Rhayader
X4 Hereford/Abergavenny/Brynmawr/Merthyr Tydfil - Cardiff.
Service 701 (Aberystwyth- Aberaeron- Lampeter- Carmarthen- Cross Hands- Swansea- Port Talbot- Cardiff- Cardiff Bay) Bryan's Coaches' replacement of original TrawsCambria route
Service 750 (Aberystwyth- Aberaeron- New Quay- Llandysul- Carmarthen- Cross Hands- Swansea- Port Talbot- Cardiff- Cardiff Bay) Operated by Bryan's Coaches
Vehicles
This section lists dedicated vehicles which were formerly used on TrawsCambria services
See also
Transport in Wales
TrawsCymru
References
External links
Map showing TrawsCambria routes
Bus transport brands
Bus transport in Cardiff
Bus transport in Wales
1979 establishments in Wales |
4516152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metzora%20%28parashah%29 | Metzora (parashah) | Metzora, Metzorah, M'tzora, Mezora, Metsora, M'tsora, Metsoro, Meṣora, or Maṣoro (—Hebrew for "one being diseased," the ninth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 28th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the fifth in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah deals with ritual impurity. It addresses cleansing from skin disease (, tzara'at), houses with an eruptive plague, male genital discharges, and menstruation. The parashah constitutes Leviticus 14:1–15:33. The parashah is made up of 4,697 Hebrew letters, 1,274 Hebrew words, 90 verses, and 159 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews generally read it in April or, rarely, in early May. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2024 and 2027), parashah Metzora is read separately. In common years (for example, 2025, 2026, and 2028), parashah Metzora is combined with the previous parashah, Tazria, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 14:1–12
In the first reading, God told Moses the ritual for cleansing one with a skin disease. If the priest saw that the person had healed, the priest would order two live clean birds, cedar wood, crimson stuff, and hyssop. The priest would order one of the birds slaughtered over fresh water and would then dip the live bird, the cedar wood, the crimson stuff, and the hyssop in the blood of the slaughtered bird. The priest would then sprinkle the blood seven times on the one who was to be cleansed and then set the live bird free. The one to be cleansed would then wash his clothes, shave off his hair, bathe in water, and then be clean. On the eighth day after that, the one being cleansed was to present two male lambs, one ewe lamb, choice flour, and oil for the priest to offer.
Second reading—Leviticus 14:13–20
In the second reading, the priest was to kill the lamb and put some of its blood and the oil on the ridge of the right ear, the right thumb, and the right big toe of the one being cleansed, and then put more of the oil on his head.
Third reading—Leviticus 14:21–32
In the third reading, if the one being cleansed was poor, he could bring two turtle doves or pigeons in place of two of the lambs.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 14:33–53
In the fourth reading, God then told Moses and Aaron the ritual for cleansing a house with an eruptive plague. The owner was to tell the priest, who was to order the house cleared and then examine it. If the plague in the walls was greenish or reddish streaks deep into the wall, the priest was to close the house for seven days. If, after seven days, the plague had spread, the priest was to order the stones with the plague to be pulled out and cast outside the city. The house was then to be scraped, the stones replaced, and the house replastered. If the plague again broke out, the house was to be torn down. If the plague did not break out again, the priest was to pronounce the house clean. To purge the house, the priest was to take two birds, cedar wood, crimson stuff, and hyssop, slaughter one bird over fresh water, sprinkle on the house seven times with the bird's blood, and then let the live bird go free.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 14:54–15:15
In the fifth reading, God then told Moses and Aaron the ritual for cleansing a person who had a genital discharge. When a man had a discharge from his genitals, he was unclean, and any bedding on which he lay and every object on which he sat was to be unclean. Anyone who touched his body, touched his bedding, touched an object on which he sat, was touched by his spit, or was touched by him before he rinsed his hands was to wash his clothes, bathe in water, and remain unclean until evening. An earthen vessel that he touched was to be broken, and any wooden implement was to be rinsed with water. Seven days after the discharge ended, he was to wash his clothes, bathe his body in fresh water, and be clean. On the eighth day, he was to give two turtle doves or two pigeons to the priest, who was to offer them to make expiation.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 15:16–28
In the sixth reading, when a man had an emission of semen, he was to bathe and remain unclean until evening. All material on which semen fell was to be washed in water and remain unclean until evening. And if a man had carnal relations with a woman, they were both to bathe and remain unclean until evening. When a woman had a menstrual discharge, she was to remain impure seven days, and whoever touched her was to be unclean until evening. Anything that she lay on or sat on was unclean. Anyone who touched her bedding or any object on which she has sat was to wash his clothes, bathe in water, and remain unclean until evening. And if a man lay with her, her impurity was communicated to him and he was to be unclean seven days, and any bedding on which he lay became unclean. When a woman had an irregular discharge of blood, she was to be unclean as long as her discharge lasted. Seven days after the discharge ended, she was to be clean.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 15:29–33
In the seventh reading, on the eighth day, the woman was to give two turtle doves or two pigeons to the priest, who was to offer them to make expiation. God told Moses and Aaron to put the Israelites on guard against uncleanness, lest they die by defiling God's Tabernacle.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading may read the parashah according to a different schedule.
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 14
Leviticus 13–14 associates skin disease with uncleanness, and Leviticus 15 associates various sexuality-related events with uncleanness. In the Hebrew Bible, uncleanness has a variety of associations. Leviticus 11:8, 11; 21:1–4, 11; and Numbers 6:6–7; and 19:11–16; associate it with death. And perhaps similarly, Leviticus 12 associates it with childbirth and Leviticus 13–14 associates it with skin disease. Leviticus 15 associates it with various sexuality-related events. And Jeremiah 2:7, 23; 3:2; and 7:30; and Hosea 6:10 associate it with contact with the worship of alien gods.
The Hebrew Bible reports skin disease (, tzara'at) and a person affected by skin disease (, metzora) at several places, often (and sometimes incorrectly) translated as "leprosy" and "a leper." In Exodus 4:6, to help Moses to convince others that God had sent him, God instructed Moses to put his hand into his bosom, and when he took it out, his hand was "leprous (, m'tzora'at), as white as snow." In Leviticus 13–14, the Torah sets out regulations for skin diseases (, tzara'at) and a person affected by skin disease (, metzora). In Numbers 12:10, after Miriam spoke against Moses, God's cloud removed from the Tent of Meeting and "Miriam was leprous (, m'tzora'at), as white as snow." In Deuteronomy 24:8–9, Moses warned the Israelites in the case of skin disease (, tzara'at) diligently to observe all that the priests would teach them, remembering what God did to Miriam. In 2 Kings 5:1–19, part of the haftarah for parashah Tazria, the prophet Elisha cures Naaman, the commander of the army of the king of Aram, who was a "leper" (, metzora). In 2 Kings 7:3–20, part of the haftarah for parashah Metzora, the story is told of four "leprous men" (, m'tzora'im) at the gate during the Arameans' siege of Samaria. And in 2 Chronicles 26:19, after King Uzziah tried to burn incense in the Temple in Jerusalem, "leprosy (, tzara'at) broke forth on his forehead."
The Torah mentions the combination of ear, thumb, and toe in three places. In Exodus 29:20, God instructed Moses how to initiate the priests, telling him to kill a ram, take some of its blood, and put it on the tip of the right ear of Aaron and his sons, on the thumb of their right hand, and on the great toe of their right foot, and dash the remaining blood against the altar round about. And then Leviticus 8:23–24 reports that Moses followed God's instructions to initiate Aaron and his sons. Then, Leviticus 14:14, 17, 25, and 28 set forth a similar procedure for the cleansing of a person with skin disease (, tzara'at). In Leviticus 14:14, God instructed the priest on the day of the person's cleansing to take some of the blood of a guilt-offering and put it upon the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed. And then in Leviticus 14:17, God instructed the priest to put oil on the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed, on top of the blood of the guilt-offering. And finally, in Leviticus 14:25 and 28, God instructed the priest to repeat the procedure on the eighth day to complete the person's cleansing.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 14
Philo taught that the skin disease in Leviticus 14 signified voluntary depravity.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 14
Tractate Negaim in the Mishnah and Tosefta interpreted the laws of skin disease in Leviticus 14.
Leviticus 18:4 calls on the Israelites to obey God's "statutes" (, chukim) and "ordinances" (, mishpatim). The Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the "ordinances" (, mishpatim) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" (, chukim) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to purification of the person with skin disease (, tzara'at, in Leviticus 14), wool-linen mixtures (, shaatnez, in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), release from levirate marriage (, chalitzah, in Deuteronomy 25:5–10), and the he goat for Azazel (in Leviticus 16). So that people do not think these "ordinances" (, mishpatim) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.
The Midrash noted that many things appear lowly, but God commanded many precepts to be performed with them. The hyssop, for instance, appears to be of no worth to people, yet its power is great in the eyes of God, who put it on a level with cedar in the purification of the leper in Leviticus 14:4–6 and the burning of the Red Cow in Numbers 19:6, 18, and employed it in the Exodus from Egypt in Exodus 12:22.
Rabbi Johanan said in the name of Rabbi Joseph ben Zimra that anyone who bears evil tales (, lashon hara) will be visited by the plague of skin disease (, tzara’at), as it is said in Psalm 101:5: "Whoever slanders his neighbor in secret, him will I destroy (azmit)." The Gemara read azmit to allude to , tzara’at, and cited how Leviticus 25:23 says "in perpetuity" (la-zemitut). And Resh Lakish interpreted the words of Leviticus 14:2, "This shall be the law of the person with skin disease (metzora)," to mean, "This shall be the law for him who brings up an evil name (motzi shem ra)." And the Gemara reported that in the Land of Israel they taught that slander kills three persons: the slanderer, the one who accepts it, and the one about whom the slander is told.
Similarly, Rabbi Haninah taught that skin disease came only from slander. The Rabbis found a proof for this from the case of Miriam, arguing that because she uttered slander against Moses, plagues attacked her. And the Rabbis read Deuteronomy 24:8–9 to support this when it says in connection with skin disease, "remember what the Lord your God did to Miriam."
Rabbi Samuel bar Nahmani said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that skin disease results from seven things: slander, the shedding of blood, vain oath, incest, arrogance, robbery, and envy. The Gemara cited scriptural bases for each of the associations: For slander, Psalm 101:5; for bloodshed, 2 Samuel 3:29; for a vain oath, 2 Kings 5:23–27; for incest, Genesis 12:17; for arrogance, 2 Chronicles 26:16–19; for robbery, Leviticus 14:36 (as a Tanna taught that those who collect money that does not belong to them will see a priest come and scatter their money around the street); and for envy, Leviticus 14:35.
Similarly, a Midrash taught that skin disease resulted from 10 sins: (1) idol-worship, (2) unchastity, (3) bloodshed, (4) the profanation of the Divine Name, (5) blasphemy of the Divine Name, (6) robbing the public, (7) usurping a dignity to which one has no right, (8) overweening pride, (9) evil speech, and (10) an evil eye. The Midrash cited as proofs: (1) for idol-worship, the experience of the Israelites who said of the Golden Calf, "This is your god, O Israel," in Exodus 32:4 and then were smitten with leprosy, as reported in Exodus 32:25, where "Moses saw that the people had broken out (parua, )," indicating that leprosy had "broken out" (parah) among them; (2) for unchastity, from the experience of the daughters of Zion of whom Isaiah 3:16 says, "the daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched-forth necks and ogling eyes," and then Isaiah 3:17 says, "Therefore will the Lord smite with a scab the crown of the head of the daughters of Zion"; (3) for bloodshed, from the experience of Joab, of whom 2 Samuel 3:29 says, "Let it fall upon the head of Joab, and upon all his father's house; and let there not fail from the house of Joab one that hath an issue, or that is a leper," (4) for the profanation of the Divine Name, from the experience of Gehazi, of whom 2 Kings 5:20 says, "But Gehazi, the servant of Elisha the man of God, said: ‘Behold, my master has spared this Naaman the Aramean, in not receiving at his hands that which he brought; as the Lord lives, I will surely run after him, and take of him somewhat (me'umah, )," and "somewhat" (me'umah, ) means "of the blemish" (mum, ) that Naaman had, and thus Gehazi was smitten with leprosy, as 2 Kings 5:20 reports Elisha said to Gehazi, "The leprosy therefore of Naaman shall cleave to you"; (5) for blaspheming the Divine Name, from the experience of Goliath, of whom 1 Samuel 17:43 says, "And the Philistine cursed David by his God," and the 1 Samuel 17:46 says, "This day will the Lord deliver (sagar, ) you," and the term "deliver" (, sagar) is used here in the same sense as Leviticus 13:5 uses it with regard to leprosy, when it is says, "And the priest shall shut him up (, sagar)"; (6) for robbing the public, from the experience of Shebna, who derived illicit personal benefit from property of the Sanctuary, and of whom Isaiah 22:17 says, "the Lord . . . will wrap you round and round," and "wrap" must refer to a leper, of whom Leviticus 13:45 says, "And he shall wrap himself over the upper lip"; (7) for usurping a dignity to which one has no right, from the experience of Uzziah, of whom 2 Chronicles 26:21 says, "And Uzziah the king was a leper to the day of his death"; (8) for overweening pride, from the same example of Uzziah, of whom 2 Chronicles 26:16 says, "But when he became strong, his heart was lifted up, so that he did corruptly and he trespassed against the Lord his God"; (9) for evil speech, from the experience of Miriam, of whom Numbers 12:1 says, "And Miriam . . . spoke against Moses," and then Numbers 12:10 says, "when the cloud was removed from over the Tent, behold Miriam was leprous"; and (10) for an evil eye, from the person described in Leviticus 14:35, which can be read, "And he that keeps his house to himself shall come to the priest, saying: There seems to me to be a plague in the house," and Leviticus 14:35 thus describes one who is not willing to permit any other to have any benefit from the house.
Similarly, Rabbi Judah the Levite, son of Rabbi Shalom, inferred that skin disease comes because of eleven sins: (1) for cursing the Divine Name, (2) for immorality, (3) for bloodshed, (4) for ascribing to another a fault that is not in him, (5) for haughtiness, (6) for encroaching upon other people's domains, (7) for a lying tongue, (8) for theft, (9) for swearing falsely, (10) for profanation of the name of Heaven, and (11) for idolatry. Rabbi Isaac added: for ill-will. And our Rabbis said: for despising the words of the Torah.
It was taught in a Baraita that four types of people are accounted as though they were dead: a poor person, a person affected by skin disease (, metzora), a blind person, and one who is childless. A poor person is accounted as dead, for Exodus 4:19 says, "for all the men are dead who sought your life" (and the Gemara interpreted this to mean that they had been stricken with poverty). A person affected by skin disease (, metzora) is accounted as dead, for Numbers 12:10–12 says, "And Aaron looked upon Miriam, and behold, she was leprous (, metzora'at). And Aaron said to Moses . . . let her not be as one dead." The blind are accounted as dead, for Lamentations 3:6 says, "He has set me in dark places, as they that be dead of old." And one who is childless is accounted as dead, for in Genesis 30:1, Rachel said, "Give me children, or else I am dead."
A Midrash taught that Divine Justice first attacks a person's substance and then the person's body. So when leprous plagues come upon a person, first they come upon the fabric of the person's house. If the person repents, then Leviticus 14:40 requires that only the affected stones need to be pulled out; if the person does not repent, then Leviticus 14:45 requires pulling down the house. Then the plagues come upon the person's clothes. If the person repents, then the clothes require washing; if not, they require burning. Then the plagues come upon the person's body. If the person repents, Leviticus 14:1–32 provides for purification; if not, then Leviticus 13:46 ordains that the person "shall dwell alone."
Similarly, the Tosefta reported that when a person would come to the priest, the priest would tell the person to engage in self-examination and turn from evil ways. The priest would continue that plagues come only from gossip, and skin disease from arrogance. But God would judge in mercy. The plague would come to the house, and if the homeowner repented, the house required only dismantling, but if the homeowner did not repent, the house required demolition. They would appear on clothing, and if the owner repented, the clothing required only tearing, but if the owner did not repent, the clothing required burning. They would appear on the person's body, and if the person repented, well and good, but if the person did not repent, Leviticus 13:46 required that the person "shall dwell alone."
In the priest's examination of skin disease mandated by Leviticus 13:2, 9, and 14:2, the Mishnah taught that a priest could examine anyone else's symptoms, but not his own. And Rabbi Meir taught that the priest could not examine his relatives. The Mishnah taught that anyone could inspect skin disease, but only a priest could declare it unclean or clean. The Mishnah taught that the priests delayed examining a bridegroom—as well as his house and his garment—until after his seven days of rejoicing, and delayed examining anyone until after a holy day.
Rabbi Joshua ben Levi taught that Leviticus 14:4 required "two living clean birds" to be brought to purify the person afflicted with skin disease because the afflicted person did the work of a babbler in spreading evil tales, and therefore Leviticus 14:4 required that the afflicted person offer babbling birds as a sacrifice.
The Gemara interpreted the expression "two living birds" in Leviticus 14:4. The Gemara interpreted the word "living" to mean those whose principal limbs are living (excluding birds that are missing a limb) and to exclude treifah birds (birds with an injury or defect that would prevent them from living out a year). The Gemara interpreted the word "birds" (, zipparim) to mean kosher birds. The Gemara deduced from the words of Deuteronomy 14:11, "Every bird (, zippor) that is clean you may eat," that some zipparim are forbidden as unclean—namely, birds slaughtered pursuant to Leviticus 14. The Gemara interpreted the words of Deuteronomy 14:12, "And these are they of which you shall not eat," to refer to birds slaughtered pursuant to Leviticus 14. And the Gemara taught that Deuteronomy 14:11–12 repeats the commandment so as to teach that one who consumes a bird slaughtered pursuant to Leviticus 14 infringes both a positive and a negative commandment.
Rabbi Isaac taught that God told Noah that just as a pair of birds (ken) cleansed a person with skin disease (as instructed in Leviticus 14:4–8), so Noah's Ark would cleanse Noah (so that he would be worthy to be saved from the Flood).
Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel interpreted the words "completely blue (, techelet)" in Exodus 28:31 to teach that blue dye used to test the dye is unfit for further use to dye the blue, techelet strand of a tzitzit, interpreting the word "completely" to mean "full strength." But Rabbi Johanan ben Dahabai taught that even the second dyeing using the same dye is valid, reading the words "and scarlet" (, ushni tolalat) in Leviticus 14:4 to mean "a second [dying] of red wool."
A Midrash noted that God commanded the Israelites to perform certain precepts with similar material from trees: God commanded that the Israelites throw cedar wood and hyssop into the Red Heifer mixture of Numbers 19:6 and use hyssop to sprinkle the resulting waters of lustration in Numbers 19:18; God commanded that the Israelites use cedar wood and hyssop to purify those stricken with skin disease in Leviticus 14:4–6; and in Egypt God commanded the Israelites to use the bunch of hyssop to strike the lintel and the two side-posts with blood in Exodus 12:22.
A Midrash interpreted the words, "And he spoke of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even to the hyssop that springs out of the wall," in 1 Kings 5:13 to teach that Solomon interpreted the requirement in Leviticus 14:4–6 to use cedar wood and hyssop to purify those stricken with skin disease. Solomon asked why the person stricken with skin disease was purified by means of the tallest and lowest of trees. And Solomon answered that the person's raising himself up like a cedar caused him to be smitten with skin disease, but making himself small and humbling himself like the hyssop caused him be healed.
When Rav Dimi came from the Land of Israel, he said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that there were three red threads: one in connection with the red cow in Numbers 19:6, the second in connection with the "scapegoat for Azazel" in the Yom Kippur service of Leviticus 16:7–10 (which Mishnah Yoma 4:2 indicates was marked with a red thread), and the third in connection with the person with skin disease (, metzora) in Leviticus 14:4. Rav Dimi reported that one weighed ten zuz, another weighed two selas, and the third weighed a shekel, but he could not say which was which. When Rabin came, he said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan that the thread in connection with the red cow weighed ten zuz, that of the goat for Azazel weighed two selas, and that of the person with skin disease weighed a shekel. Rabbi Johanan said that Rabbi Simeon ben Halafta and the Sages disagreed about the thread of the red cow, one saying that it weighed ten shekels, the other that it weighed one shekel. Rabbi Jeremiah of Difti said to Rabina that they disagreed not about the thread of the red cow, but about that of the goat for Azazel.
The Gemara taught that there were three who were required to cut their hair, and whose hair cutting was a religious duty: nazirites (as stated in Numbers 6:18), those afflicted with skin disease (, metzora, as stated in Leviticus 14:9), and the Levites. Citing the Mishnah, the Gemara taught that if any of them cut their hair without a razor, or left behind two hairs, their act was invalid.
A Master said in a Baraita that the use of the thumb for service in Leviticus 8:23–24 and 14:14, 17, 25, and 28 showed that every finger has its own unique purpose.
Leviticus 5:7; 5:11; 12:8; and 14:21–22 provided that people of lesser means could bring less-expensive offerings. The Mishnah taught that one who sacrificed much and one who sacrificed little attained equal merit, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. Rabbi Zera taught that Ecclesiastes 5:11 provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "Sweet is the sleep of a serving man, whether he eat little or much." Rav Adda bar Ahavah taught that Ecclesiastes 5:10 provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "When goods increase, they are increased who eat them; and what advantage is there to the owner thereof." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai taught that Scripture says of a large ox, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; of a small bird, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; and of a meal-offering, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai thus taught that Scripture uses the same expression each time to teach that it is the same whether people offered much or little, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. And Rabbi Isaac asked why the meal-offering was distinguished in that Leviticus 2:1 uses the word "soul" (, nefesh) to refer to the donor of a meal-offering, instead of the usual "man" (, adam, in Leviticus 1:2, or , ish, in Leviticus 7:8) used in connection with other sacrifices. Rabbi Isaac taught that Leviticus 2:1 uses the word "soul" (, nefesh) because God noted that the one who usually brought a meal-offering was a poor man, and God accounted it as if the poor man had offered his own soul.
The Sifra noted that Leviticus 14:21 says both, "if he be poor," and "his means do not suffice." The Sifra explained that reading "if he be poor," one might think that the verse allowed a less expensive offering for one who was relatively poorer that earlier, as in the case of one who earlier had 100 manehs and now had 50 manehs. Thus Leviticus 14:21 also says, "his means do not suffice" (as an absolute matter).
Tractate Kinnim in the Mishnah interpreted the laws of pairs of sacrificial pigeons and doves in Leviticus 1:14, 5:7, 12:6–8, 14:22, and 15:29; and Numbers 6:10.
The Mishnah taught that they buried the bird offerings of the metzora.
In a Baraita, Rabbi Jose related that a certain Elder from Jerusalem told him that 24 types of patients are afflicted with boils. The Gemara then related that Rabbi Joḥanan warned to be careful of the flies found on those afflicted with the disease ra’atan, as flies carried the disease. Rabbi Zeira would not sit in a spot where the wind blew from the direction of someone afflicted with ra’atan. Rabbi Elazar would not enter the tent of one afflicted with ra’atan, and Rabbi Ami and Rabbi Asi would not eat eggs from an alley in which someone afflicted with ra’atan lived. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, however, would attach himself to those afflicted with ra’atan and study Torah, saying this was justified by Proverbs 5:19, “The Torah is a loving hind and a graceful doe." Rabbi Joshua reasoned that if Torah bestows grace on those who learn it, it could protect them from illness. When Rabbi Joshua ben Levi was on the verge of dying, the Gemara told, the Angel of Death was instructed to perform Rabbi Joshua's bidding, as he was a righteous man and deserves to die in the manner he saw fit. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked the Angel of Death to show him his place in paradise, and the Angel agreed. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked the Angel to give him the knife that the Angel used to kill people, lest the Angel frighten him on the way, and the Angel gave it to him. When they arrived in paradise, the Angel lifted Rabbi Joshua so that he could see his place in paradise, and Rabbi Joshua jumped to the other side, escaping into paradise. Elijah the Prophet then told those in paradise to make way for Rabbi Joshua.
The Gemara told that Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked Elijah when the Messiah would come, and Elijah told Rabbi Joshua ben Levi that he could find the Messiah sitting at the entrance of the city of Rome among the poor who suffer from illnesses.
In Leviticus 14:33–34, God announced that God would "put the plague of leprosy in a house of the land of your possession." Rabbi Hiyya asked: Was it then a piece of good news that plagues were to come upon them? Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai answered that when the Canaanites heard that the Israelites were approaching, they hid their valuables in their houses. But God promised the Israelites' forebears that God would bring the Israelites into a land full of good things, including (in the words of Deuteronomy 6:11) "houses full of all good things." So God brought plagues upon a house of one of the Israelites so that when he would pull it down, he would find a treasure.
Reading Leviticus 14:33 and 15:1, a Midrash taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the Amidah.
The Sifra read the words "the land of Canaan" in Leviticus 14:34 to refer to the Land that God set aside distinctly for the Israelites. The Sifra thus read the words "which I give to you" in Leviticus 14:34 to exclude the lands of Ammon and Moab east of the Jordan River. Thus house plagues could occur only in the Land of Israel west of the Jordan. And Rabbi Ishmael read the words "of your possession" in Leviticus 14:34 to exclude the possession of Gentiles in the Land of Israel from house plagues.
Because Leviticus 14:34 addresses "a house of the land," the Mishnah taught that a house built on a ship, on a raft, or on four beams could not be afflicted by a house plague.
A Midrash noted the difference in wording between Genesis 47:27, which says of the Israelites in Goshen that "they got possessions therein," and Leviticus 14:34, which says of the Israelites in Canaan, "When you come into the land of Canaan, which I gave you for a possession." The Midrash read Genesis 47:27 to read, "and they were taken in possession by it." The Midrash thus taught that in the case of Goshen, the land seized the Israelites, so that their bond might be exacted and so as to bring about God's declaration to Abraham in Genesis 15:13 that the Egyptians would afflict the Israelites for 400 years. But the Midrash read Leviticus 14:34 to teach the Israelites that if they were worthy, the Land of Israel would be an eternal possession, but if not, they would be banished from it.
The Rabbis taught that a structure of less than four square cubits could not contract a house plague. The Gemara explained that in speaking of house plagues, Leviticus 14:35 uses the word "house," and a building of less than four square cubits did not constitute a "house."
A Baraita (which the Gemara later said may have reflected the view of Rabbi Meir, or may have reflected the view of the Rabbis) taught that a synagogue, a house owned by partners, and a house owned by a woman are all subject to uncleanness from house plagues. The Gemara explained that the Baraita needed to expound this because one might have argued that Leviticus 14:35 says, "then he who owns the house shall come and tell the priest," and "he who owns the house" could be read to imply "he" but not "she" and "he" but not "they." And therefore the Baraita teaches that one should not read Leviticus 14:35 that narrowly. And the Gemara explained that one should not read Leviticus 14:35 that narrowly because Leviticus 14:34 speaks broadly of "a house of the land of your possession," indicating that all houses in the Land of Israel are susceptible to plagues. The Gemara then asked why Leviticus 14:35 bothers to say, "he who owns the house." The Gemara explained that Leviticus 14:35 intends to teach that if a homeowner keeps his house to himself exclusively, refusing to lend his belongings, pretending that he did not own them, then God exposes the homeowner by subjecting his house to the plague and causing his belongings to be removed for all to see (as Leviticus 14:36 requires). Thus Leviticus 14:35 excludes from the infliction of house plagues homeowners who lend their belongings to others.
Similarly, Rabbi Isaac taught that when a person asked to borrow a friend's ax or sieve, and the friend out of selfishness replied that he did not have one, then immediately the plague would attack the friend's house. And as Leviticus 14:36 required that they remove everything that he had in his house, including his axes and his sieves, the people would see his possessions and exclaim how selfish he had been.
But the Gemara asked whether a synagogue could be subject to house plagues. For a Baraita (which the Gemara later identified with the view of the Rabbis) taught that one might assume that synagogues and houses of learning are subject to house plagues, and therefore Leviticus 14:35 says, "he who has the house will come," to exclude those houses—like synagogues—that do not belong to any one individual. The Gemara proposed a resolution to the conflict by explaining that the first Baraita reflected the opinion of Rabbi Meir, while the second Baraita reflected the opinion of the Rabbis. For a Baraita taught that a synagogue that contains a dwelling for the synagogue attendant is required to have a mezuzah, but a synagogue that contains no dwelling, Rabbi Meir declares it is required to have a mezuzah, but the Sages exempt it.
Alternatively, the Gemara suggested that both teachings were in accord with the Rabbis. In the first case, the synagogue referred to has a dwelling, and then even the Rabbis would say that it would be subject to house plagues. In the other case, the synagogue referred to has no dwelling, and so would not be subject to house plagues.
Alternatively, the Gemara tentatively suggested that in both cases, the synagogue has no dwelling, but the first teaching refers to urban synagogues, while the second refers to rural synagogues. But the Gemara asked whether urban synagogues really are not subject to uncleanness from house plagues. For a Baraita taught that the words, "in the house of the land of your possession" in Leviticus 14:34 teach that a house of the land of the Israelites' possession could become defiled through house plagues, but Jerusalem could not become defiled through house plagues, because Jerusalem did not fall within any single Tribe's inheritance. Rabbi Judah, however, said that he had heard that only the Temple in Jerusalem was unaffected by house plagues. Thus, Rabbi Judah's view would imply that synagogues and houses of learning are subject to house plagues even in large cities. The Gemara suggested, however, that one should read Rabbi Judah's view to say that sacred places are not subject to house plagues. The Gemara suggested that the principle that the first Tanna and Rabbi Judah were disputing was whether Jerusalem was divided among the Tribes; the first Tanna holds that Jerusalem was not divided, while Rabbi Judah holds that Jerusalem was divided among the Tribes.
But the Gemara asked whether even rural synagogues could be subject to house plagues. For a Baraita taught that the words, "in the house of the land of your possession" in Leviticus 14:34 teach that house plagues would not affect the Israelites until they conquered the Land of Israel. Furthermore, if the Israelites had conquered the Land but not yet divided it among the Tribes, or even divided it among the Tribes but not divided it among the families, or even divided it among the families but not given each person his holding, then house plagues would not yet affect the Israelites. It is to teach this result that Leviticus 14:35 says, "he who has the house," teaching that house plagues can occur only to those in the Land of Israel to whom alone the house belongs, excluding these houses that do not belong to an owner alone. Thus the Gemara rejected the explanation based on differences between urban and rural synagogues.
The Mishnah interpreted the words, "there seems to me to be as it were a plague in the house" in Leviticus 14:35 to teach that even a learned sage who knows that he has definitely seen a sign of plague in a house may not speak with certainty. Rather, even the sage must say, "there seems to me to be as it were a plague in the house."
The Mishnah interpreted the instruction to empty the house in Leviticus 14:36. Rabbi Judah taught that they removed even bundles of wood and even bundles of reeds. Rabbi Simeon remarked that this (removal of bundles that are not susceptible to uncleanness) was idle business. But Rabbi Meir responded by asking which of the homeowner's goods could become unclean. Articles of wood, cloth, or metal surely could be immersed in a ritual bath and become clean. The only thing that the Torah spared was the homeowner's earthenware, even his and his ewer (which, if the house proved unclean, Leviticus 15:12 indicates would have to be broken). If the Torah thus spared a person's humble possessions, how much more so would the Torah spare a person's cherished possessions. If the Torah shows so much consideration for material possessions, how much more so would the Torah show for the lives of a person's children. If the Torah shows so much consideration for the possessions of a wicked person (if we take the plague as a punishment for the sin of slander), how much more so would the Torah show for the possessions of a righteous person.
Reading Leviticus 14:37 to say, "And he shall look on the plague, and behold the plague," the Sifra interpreted the double allusion to teach that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared in at least the size of two split beans. And because Leviticus 14:37 addresses the house's "walls" in the plural, the Sifra taught that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared on at least four walls. Consequently, the Mishnah taught that a round house or a triangular house could not contract uncleanness from a house plague.
Because Leviticus 14:40 addresses the house's "stones" in the plural, Rabbi Akiva ruled that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared in at least the size of two split beans on two stones, and not on only one stone. And because Leviticus 14:37 addresses the house's "walls" in the plural, Rabbi Eliezer son of Rabbi Simeon said that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared in the size of two split beans, on two stones, on two walls in a corner, its length being that of two split beans and its breadth that of one split bean.
Because Leviticus 14:45 addresses the "stones," "timber," and "mortar" of the house afflicted by a house plague, the Mishnah taught that only a house made of stones, timber, and mortar could be afflicted by a house plague. And the Mishnah taught that the quantity of wood must be enough to build a threshold, and quantity of mortar must be enough to fill up the space between one row of stones and another.
A Baraita taught that there never was a leprous house within the meaning of Leviticus 14:33–53 and never will be. The Gemara asked why then the law was written and replied that it was so that one may study it and receive reward. But Rabbi Eliezer the son of Rabbi Zadok and Rabbi Simeon of Kefar Acco both cited cases where local tradition reported the ruins of such houses, in Gaza and Galilee, respectively.
A Midrash read the discussion of the house stricken with plague in Leviticus 14:33–53 as a prophecy. The Midrash read the words, "and I put the plague of leprosy in a house of the land of your possession," in Leviticus 14:34 to allude to the Temple, about which in Ezekiel 24:21 God says, "I will defile My sanctuary, the pride of your power, the desire of your eyes, and the longing of your soul." The Midrash read the words, "then He whose house it is shall come," in Leviticus 14:35 to allude to God, about Whom Haggai 1:4 says, "Because of My house that lies waste." The Midrash read the words, "and He shall tell the priest," in Leviticus 14:35 to allude to Jeremiah, who Jeremiah 1:1 identified as a priest. The Midrash read the words, "there seems to me to be, as it were, a plague in the house," in Leviticus 14:35 to allude to the idol that King Manasseh set up in 2 Kings 21:7. The Midrash read the words, "and the priest shall command that they empty the house," in Leviticus 14:36 to allude to King Shishak of Egypt, who 1 Kings 14:26 reports, "took away the treasures of the house of the Lord." The Midrash read the words, "and he shall break down the house," in Leviticus 14:45 to allude to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, who Ezra 5:12 reports destroyed the Temple. The Midrash read the words, "and they shall pour out the dust that they have scraped off outside the city," in Leviticus 14:41 to allude to the Israelites taken away to the Babylonian Captivity, whom Ezra 5:12 reports Nebuchadnezzar "carried ... away into Babylon." And the Midrash read the words, "and they shall take other stones, and put them in the place of those stones," in Leviticus 14:42 to allude to the Israelites who would come to restore Israel, and of whom Isaiah 28:16 reports God saying, "Behold, I lay in Zion for a foundation stone, a tried stone, a costly corner-stone of sure foundation; he that believes shall not make haste."
Leviticus chapter 15
Tractate Zavim in the Mishnah and Tosefta interpreted the laws of male genital discharges in Leviticus 15:1–18.
The Mishnah taught that they inquired along seven lines before they determined that a genital discharge rendered a man unclean. A discharge caused by one of these reasons did not render the man impure or subject him to bringing an offering. They asked: (1) about his food, (2) about his drink, (3) what he had carried, (4) whether he had jumped, (5) whether he had been ill, (6) what he had seen, and (7) whether he had obscene thoughts. It did not matter whether he had had thoughts before or after seeing a woman. Rabbi Judah taught that the discharge would not render him unclean if he had watched animals having intercourse or even if he merely saw a woman's dyed garments. Rabbi Akiva taught that the discharge would not render him unclean even if he had eaten any kind of food, good or bad, or had drunk any kind of liquid. The Sages exclaimed to Rabbi Akiva that according to his view, no more men would ever be rendered unclean by genital discharge. Rabbi Akiva replied that one does not have an obligation to ensure that there exist men unclean because of a genital discharges.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Hisma taught that even the apparently arcane laws of bird offerings in Leviticus 12:8 and menstrual cycles in Leviticus 12:1–8 and 15:19–33 are essential laws.
Tractate Niddah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of menstruation in Leviticus 15:19–33.
Rabbi Meir taught that the Torah ordained that menstruation should separate a wife from her husband for seven days, because if the husband were in constant contact with his wife, the husband might become disenchanted with her. The Torah, therefore, ordained that a wife might be unclean for seven days (and therefore forbidden to her husband for marital relations) so that she should become as desirable to her husband as when she first entered the bridal chamber.
The Mishnah taught that all women are presumed clean for their husbands (and for the purpose of marital relations, no examination is required). The Mishnah taught that it is also true for men who return from a journey that their wives are presumed clean.
Interpreting the beginning of menstrual cycles, as in Leviticus 15:19–33, the Mishnah ruled that if a woman loses track of her menstrual cycle, there is no return to the beginning of the niddah count in fewer than seven, nor more than seventeen days.
The Mishnah taught that a woman may attribute a bloodstain to any external cause to which she can possibly attribute it and thus regard herself as clean. If, for instance, she had killed an animal, she was handling bloodstains, she had sat beside those who handled bloodstains, or she had killed a louse, she may attribute the stain to those external causes.
The Mishnah related that a woman once came to Rabbi Akiva and told him that she had observed a bloodstain. He asked her whether she perhaps had a wound. She replied that she had a wound, but it had healed. He asked whether it was possible that it could open again and bleed. She answered in the affirmative, and Rabbi Akiva declared her clean. Observing that his disciples looked at each other in astonishment, he told them that the Sages did not lay down the rule for bloodstains to create a strict result but rather to produce a lenient result, for Leviticus 15:19 says, "If a woman has an issue, and her issue in her flesh is blood"—only blood, not a bloodstain.
Tractate Mikvaot in the Mishnah and Tosefta interpreted the laws of the ritual bath (, mikveh) prescribed for the cleansing of menstruants in Leviticus 15:19–33.
The Mishnah taught that there are six grades of ritual baths, each higher than the other. The first is rainwater in a water hole. Superior to that is the water of rain drippings that have not stopped. Superior to that is the water of a mikveh containing 40 se'ahs of water, for in such a mikveh persons may immerse themselves and immerse others. Superior to that is the water of a fountain whose own water is little but has been increased by a greater quantity of drawn water. Superior to that are salty or hot waters from a spring, which can render clean when flowing. And superior to that are living waters, which serve for the immersion of persons who have a running issue and for the sprinkling of persons with skin disease, and are valid for the preparation of the water of purification.
The Mishnah taught that any pool of water that mingles with the water of a mikveh is as valid as the mikveh itself. The Mishnah taught that one may immerse in holes and crevices of a cavern just as they are, but one may not immerse in the pit of a cavern except if it has an opening as big as the tube of a water skin. Rabbi Judah taught that this is the case when it stands by itself (and forms an independent pool separated by a wall from the pool in the cavern), but if it does not stand by itself, one may immerse in it just as it is (for it is part of the pool in the cavern).
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 14
Rashi reported an interpretation by Rabbi Moshe ha-Darshan (the preacher) that since the Levites were submitted in atonement for the firstborn who had practiced idolatry when they worshipped the Golden Calf (in Exodus 32), and Psalm 106:28 calls idol worship "sacrifices to the dead," and in Numbers 12:12 Moses called one afflicted with skin disease (, tzara'at) "as one dead," and Leviticus 14:8 required those afflicted with skin disease to shave, therefore God required the Levites too to shave.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 14
Ephraim Speiser wrote that the word “Torah” () is based on a verbal stem signifying “to teach, guide,” and the like, and the derived noun can carry a variety of meanings, including in Leviticus 13:59, 14:2, 54, and 57, specific rituals for what is sometimes called leprosy. Speiser argued that in context, the word cannot be mistaken for the title of the Pentateuch as a whole.
Jacob Milgrom noted that reddish substances, surrogates for blood, were among the ingredients of the purificatory rites for scale-diseased and corpse-contaminated persons, symbolizing the victory of the forces of life over death.
Leviticus chapter 15
Elaine Goodfriend argued that the regulations of menstruation in Leviticus 15:19–24 probably had a smaller practical impact on women in ancient Israel than one might imagine, as women at that time probably menstruated less frequently than modern women due to sparser diet, more-frequent pregnancies, and longer breast-feeding (typically three years), all of which would have reduced their number of menstrual cycles.
Shaye Cohen noted that the only element in common between the “ritual” or physical impurities of Leviticus 11–15 and the “dangerous” or sinful impurities of Leviticus 18 is intercourse with a menstruant.
Commandments
According to the Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 11 positive and no negative commandments in the parashah:
To carry out the prescribed rules for purifying the person affected by skin disease (, tzara'at)
The person affected by skin disease (, tzara'at) must shave off all his hair prior to purification.
Every impure person must immerse in a mikveh to become pure.
A person affected by skin disease (, tzara'at) must bring an offering after going to the mikveh.
To observe the laws of impurity caused by a house's , tzara'at
To observe the laws of impurity caused by a man's running issue
A man who had a running issue must bring an offering after he goes to the mikveh.
To observe the laws of impurity of a seminal emission
To observe the laws of menstrual impurity
To observe the laws of impurity caused by a woman's running issue
A woman who had a running issue must bring an offering after she goes to the mikveh.
In the liturgy
Some Jews refer to the guilt offerings for skin disease in Leviticus 14:10–12 as part of readings on the offerings after the Sabbath morning blessings.
Following the Shacharit morning prayer service, some Jews recite the Six Remembrances, among which is Deuteronomy 24:9, "Remember what the Lord your God did to Miriam by the way as you came forth out of Egypt," recalling that God punished Miriam with , tzara'at.
The laws of a house afflicted with plague in Leviticus 14:34–53 provide an application of the twelfth of the Thirteen Rules for interpreting the Torah in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael that many Jews read as part of the readings before the Pesukei d'Zimrah prayer service. The twelfth rule provides that one may elucidate a matter from its context or from a passage following it. Leviticus 14:34–53 describes the laws of the house afflicted with plague generally. But because Leviticus 14:45 instructs what to do with the "stones ... timber ... and all the mortar of the house," the Rabbis interpret the laws of the house afflicted with plague to apply only to houses made of stones, timber, and mortar.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is 2 Kings 7:3–20.
Summary
During the Arameans' siege of Samaria, four leprous men at the gate asked each other why they should die there of starvation, when they might go to the Arameans, who would either save them or leave them no worse than they were. When at twilight, they went to the Arameans' camp, there was no one there, for God had made the Arameans hear chariots, horses, and a great army, and fearing the Hittites and the Egyptians, they fled, leaving their tents, their horses, their donkeys, and their camp. The lepers went into a tent, ate and drank, and carried away silver, gold, and clothing from the tents and hid it.
Feeling qualms of guilt, they went to go tell the king of Samaria, and called to the porters of the city telling them what they had seen, and the porters told the king's household within. The king arose in the night, and told his servants that he suspected that the Arameans had hidden in the field, thinking that when the Samaritans came out, they would be able to get into the city. One of his servants suggested that some men take five of the horses that remained and go see, and they took two chariots with horses to go and see. They went after the Arameans as far as the Jordan River, and all the way was littered with garments and vessels that the Arameans had cast away in their haste, and the messengers returned and told the king. So the people went out and looted Arameans' camp, so that the market price of; a measure (seah) of fine flour (about six dry qt., six lb. or three kg.) and two seahs of barley meal; each dropped to one shekel in price, as God's prophet had said it would. And the king appointed the captain on whom he leaned to take charge of the gate, and the people trampled him and killed him before he could taste of the flour, just as the man of God Elisha had said.
Connection to the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah deal with people stricken with skin disease. Both the parashah and the haftarah employ the term for the person affected by skin disease (, metzora). Just before parashah Metzora, in the sister parashah Tazria, Leviticus 13:46|HE}} provides that the person with skin disease "shall dwell alone; without the camp shall his dwelling be," thus explaining why the four leprous men in the haftarah lived outside the gate.
Rabbi Johanan taught that the four leprous men at the gate in 2 Kings 7:3 were none other than Elisha's former servant Gehazi (whom the Midrash, above, cited as having been stricken with leprosy for profanation of the Divine Name) and his three sons.
In the parashah, when there "seems" to be a plague in the house, the priest must not jump to conclusions, but must examine the facts. Just before the opening of the haftarah, in 2 Kings 7:2, the captain on whom the king leaned jumps to the conclusion that Elisha's prophecy could not come true, and the captain meets his punishment in 2 Kings 7:17 and 19.
The haftarah in classical rabbinic interpretation
Reading 2 Kings 7:3–4, "Now there were four leprous men at the entrance of the gate; and they said one to another: 'Why do we sit here until we die? If we say: "We will enter into the city," then the famine is in the city, and we shall die there; and if we sit still here, we die also. Now therefore come, and let us go to the host of the Arameans; if they save us alive, we shall live; and if they kill us, we shall but die,’" and Genesis 12:10, "And there was a famine in the land; and Abram went down into Egypt to sojourn there," the Rabbis deduced that when there is a famine a place, one should migrate elsewhere. And the Gemara taught that the Rabbis cited 2 Kings 7:4 in addition to Genesis 12:10, because one might think from Genesis 12:10 that this advice applies only where there is no danger to life in the destination. So they also cited 2 Kings 7:4, "Now therefore come, and let us go to the host of the Arameans; if they save us alive, we shall live."
The haftarah in modern interpretation
Professor Choon-Leong Seow of Vanderbilt University noted that lepers, outcasts of society, discovered that the Arameans had deserted their camp, and it was through them that the news came to the Israelites, while those in power doubted divine deliverance. And while the faithless king did not accept the news, a nameless servant provided a solution that led to the fulfillment of prophecy. Thus, God brought about salvation for the Israelites through the outcasts and the lowly of society.
On Shabbat HaGadol
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaGadol (the "Great Shabbat," the special Sabbath immediately before Passover—as it does in 2019, 2022, 2024, and 2027), the haftarah is Malachi 3:4-24.
On Shabbat HaChodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaChodesh ("Sabbath [of] the month," the special Sabbath preceding the Hebrew month of Nissan—as it did in 2008), the haftarah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: Ezekiel 45:16–46:18
for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 45:18–46:15
Connection to the special Sabbath
On Shabbat HaChodesh, Jews read Exodus 12:1–20, in which God commands that "This month [Nissan] shall be the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year," and in which God issued the commandments of Passover. Similarly, the haftarah in Ezekiel 45:21–25 discusses Passover. In both the special reading and the haftarah, God instructs the Israelites to apply blood to doorposts.
On Shabbat Rosh Chodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Rosh Chodesh (as it did in 2009), the haftarah is Isaiah 66:1–24.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
Exodus 12:22 (hyssop).
Leviticus 8:23 (right ear, thumb of right hand, and great toe of right foot); 16:10, 20–22 (riddance ritual).
Numbers 19:6 (cedar wood, hyssop, and red stuff); 19:18 (hyssop).
Deuteronomy 17:8–9 (priests' duty to assess); 24:8–9 (priests' duties regarding skin diseases).
2 Kings 5:10–14 (purification from skin disease with living water); 7:3–20 (people with skin disease).
Zechariah 5:8–9 (transporting away wickedness by wing).
Psalms 51:9 ("Purge me with hyssop"); 78:5–6 (to teach); 91:10 (plague on dwelling); 119:97–99 (learning from the law).
Early nonrabbinic
Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 3:4:15; That the Worse Is Wont To Attack the Better 6:16; On the Unchangeableness of God 28:131–35. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 51, 113, 169. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:11:3–4. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 96–97. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Hebrews 9:19 Late 1st century. (scarlet wool and hyssop).
John 19:29 (hyssop).
Quran 2:222 (menstruation); 4:43 (bathing); 24:30 (modesty) Arabia, circa 609–632.
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Pesachim 8:5; Shekalim 5:3; Yoma 4:2; Moed Katan 3:1–2; Nazir 7:3; Avot 3:18; Horayot 1:3; Zevachim 4:3; Menachot 5:6–7, 9:3, 13:11; Bekhorot 7:2; Arakhin 2:1; Temurah 7:4; Kinnim 1:1–3:6; Negaim 1:1–14:13; Parah 1:4, 6:5; Mikvaot 1:1–10:8; Niddah 1:1–10:8; Zavim 1:1–5:12. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 245, 259, 270–71, 327, 443–44, 690, 681, 706, 743, 751, 765, 801, 811, 835, 883–89, 981–1012, 1014, 1021, 1058–95, 1108–17. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Demai 2:7; Challah 2:7; Sotah 1:8; Menachot 7:16, 10:1; Chullin 10:14; Negaim 1:1–9:9; Niddah 1:1–9:19; Mikvaot 1:1–7:11; Zavim 1:1–5:12. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 85, 339, 835; volume 2, pages 1404, 1438, 1450, 1709–44, 1779–835, 1887–99. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra 148:1–173:9. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 325–429. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Orlah 6a, 39a; Shabbat 10b, 73a; Pesachim 37a; Yoma 16b, 41b; Megillah 11b–12a; Yevamot 69a; Nazir 35a, 52a; Sotah 10a–b, 11b; Gittin 53b; Kiddushin 11a; Sanhedrin 22b; Niddah 1a–. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 12–14, 18, 21, 26, 30, 35–36, 39–40, 44. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2007–2017. And reprinted in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 13:1; 57:3; 59:3. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 43, 258, 268. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Leviticus Rabbah 16:1–19:6; 34:6. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 199–249, 431. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Shabbat 2b, 11b, 59a, 62b, 64a–b, 71b, 83a, 84a–b, 86b, 109a, 132a; Eruvin 4a–b, 14b, 51a, 82b; Pesachim 3a, 24a, 59a–b, 65b, 67b–68a, 85b, 90b, 92a, 109a; Yoma 5a, 6a, 11b–12a, 24a, 30b–31a, 41b, 61a–b, 62b, 63a; Sukkah 3a–b, 5b–6a; Beitzah 32a; Taanit 26b; Megillah 8a–b, 20a–21a, 26a; Moed Katan 5a, 7a–b, 13b, 14b, 15a–16a, 17b, 25b, 27b; Chagigah 9b, 11a, 23b; Yevamot 5a, 7a, 17b, 34b, 46b, 49b, 54a, 69b, 73a, 102b, 103b–04a, 105a; Ketubot 61b, 64b, 72a, 75a; Nedarim 35b–36a, 56a–b; Nazir 3b, 5a, 8b, 15b, 25b, 27a, 29a, 38a, 39b, 40b–41a, 43a, 44a–b, 46b, 47b, 54a–b, 56a–b, 57b–58a, 60a–b, 65b–66a; Sotah 5b, 8a, 15b–16b, 29b; Gittin 46a, 82a; Kiddushin 15a, 25a, 33b, 56b–57b, 68a, 70b; Bava Kamma 17b, 24a, 25a–b, 66b, 82a–b; Bava Metzia 31a; Bava Batra 9b, 24a, 164b, 166a; Sanhedrin 45b, 48b, 71a, 87b–88a, 92a; Makkot 13b, 21a; Shevuot 6a–b, 8a, 11a, 14b, 17b, 18a–b; Avodah Zarah 34a, 47b, 74a; Horayot 3b–4a, 8b, 10a; Zevachim 6b, 8a, 17b, 24b, 32b, 40a, 43a, 44a–b, 47b, 49a, 54b, 76b, 90b, 91b, 105a, 112b; Menachot 3a, 5a, 8a, 9a–10a, 15b, 18b, 24a, 27a–b, 35b, 42b, 48b, 61a, 64b, 73a, 76b, 86b, 88a, 89a, 91a, 101b, 106b; Chullin 10b, 24b, 27a, 35a, 49b, 51b, 62a, 71b, 72b, 82a, 85a, 106a, 123b, 128b, 133a, 140a, 141a, 142a; Bekhorot 32a, 38a, 45b; Arakhin 3a, 8a, 15b–17b; Keritot 8a–b, 9b, 10b, 25a, 28a; Meilah 11a, 18a, 19a–b; Niddah 2a–73a. Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Medieval
Exodus Rabbah 17:1. 10th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus. Translated by S. M. Lehrman, 3:211. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 14–15. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 159–90. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam’s Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 77–85. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:53. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 181. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 103–20. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 3, chapter 47. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 367–68, 370. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 729–44. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Nachmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 186–209. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar part 3, pages 52b–56a. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar: Pritzker Edition. Translation and commentary by Daniel C. Matt, volume 7, pages 331–55. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1653–74. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1139–61. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 868–76. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 588–91. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 120–35. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 550–61. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 668–78. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 222–26. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 249–97. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1091–127. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Yitzchak Magriso. Me'am Lo'ez. Constantinople, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan, volume 11, pages 301–28. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 341–45. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Emily Dickinson. Poem 1733 (No man saw awe, nor to his house). 19th century. In The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Edited by Thomas H. Johnson, page 703. New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1960.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 946–48. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 173–77. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 87–90. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
E.V. Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical ‘Leprosy’ and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible." Palestine Exploration Quarterly. Volume 107 (1975): pages 87–105.
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 203–25. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Helen Frenkley. "The Search for Roots—Israel's Biblical Landscape Reserve." In Biblical Archaeology Review. Volume 12 (number 5) (September/October 1986).
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David P. Wright. The Disposal of Impurity, pages 75–113, 163–228. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.
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Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 120–26. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
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Judith S. Antonelli. "Menstruation." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 276–87. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
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Laura Geller. "Reclaiming the Torah of Our Lives." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 211–17. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 156–58. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 200–06. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 174–78. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 599–610. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 133–61. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Rochelle Robins. "Haftarat Metzorah: II Kings 7:3–20" In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 130–33. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 238–43. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 180–83. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Cecilia Wassen. Women in the Damascus Document, pages 50–51. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005.
Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 750–67. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 657–78. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Blood." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 89. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, page 303. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
James W. Watts. Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 302–04. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 165–68. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Timothy Keller. "The Seduction of Success." In Counterfeit Gods: The Empty Promises of Money, Sex, and Power, and the Only Hope that Matters. Dutton Adult, 2009. (Naaman).
Jay Michaelson. “It’s the Purity, Stupid: Reading Leviticus in Context: Parashat Metzora (Leviticus 14:1–15:33).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 145–50. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Varda Polak-Sahm. The House of Secrets: The Hidden World of the Mikveh. Beacon Press, 2009.
"Holy Water: A New Book Reveals the Secrets of the Mikveh." In Tablet Magazine. (August 31, 2009).
Mark Leuchter. “The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65.
Zvi Sobolofsky. The Laws and Concepts of Niddah. Koren Publishers Jerusalem, 2010.
Jeffrey Stackert. "Leviticus." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 161–65. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Jonathan Haidt. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, page 148. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (evolutionarily justified disgust as motivation for casting out lepers).
Shmuel Herzfeld. "He Lived To Teach." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 160–63. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Tracy M. Lemos. “Where There Is Dirt, Is There System? Revisiting Biblical Purity Constructions.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 37 (number 3) (March 2013): pages 265–94.
Peretz Rivkin, Yehuda Weingarten, Zusha Greisman. Parshath Nega'im with W'Tihar HaKohen Commentary (Tzaraath), volume 1, Hebrew Edition. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014.
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 199–238. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 147–51. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 177–82. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 42–51. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 90–92. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Bhadra Sharma and Jeffrey Gettleman. “In Rural Nepal, Menstruation Taboo Claims Another Victim.” The New York Times. January 11, 2018, page A4.
External links
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Nisan
Weekly Torah readings in Iyar
Weekly Torah readings from Leviticus |
4516528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20NBA%20Finals | 2008 NBA Finals | The 2008 NBA Finals was the championship series of the National Basketball Association's (NBA) 2007–08 season and conclusion of the season's playoffs. A best-of-seven playoff series that was played from June 5 to June 17, 2008, the series was contested between the Eastern Conference champion Boston Celtics and the Western Conference champion Los Angeles Lakers. It was the 11th Finals meeting between the Lakers and the Celtics.
Led by the "Big 3" of Paul Pierce, Kevin Garnett, and Ray Allen, and holding home court advantage, the Celtics defeated the Lakers, led by Pau Gasol and MVP Kobe Bryant, in six games. It was their first title in twenty-two years and their 17th title overall, a record that still stands today even when the Lakers tied this record in 2020. Pierce was named Finals MVP.
Rodd Houston narrated the Boston Celtics' championship season documentary on NBA Entertainment. The made-for-TV version of this documentary is narrated by Kevin Harlan.
Background
The Celtics were making their first NBA Finals appearance since a six-game loss to the Lakers in 1987. Over the next 20 years the Celtics would suffer through several lean years, not making the playoffs in nine of those years. Following the dissolution of the team's original "Big Three" through the retirements of Larry Bird and Kevin McHale and the departure of Robert Parish, the Celtics suffered through several tragedies such as: the passing of Reggie Lewis in 1993; a franchise-worst 15-win 1996–97 season; the ill-fated hiring of head coach Rick Pitino; and the deaths of franchise patriarch Red Auerbach and former player Dennis Johnson, which culminated in a 24-win 2006–07 season, highlighted by a franchise-worst 18 straight losses.
The 2007 off-season saw Celtics GM Danny Ainge acquire Ray Allen and Kevin Garnett to join franchise star Paul Pierce. This new formation was widely regarded as the most talent the Boston Celtics team possessed since the duo of Antoine Walker and Paul Pierce graced the floor of the TD Garden in the early 2000s. The newly formed 'Big Three,' joined by second year point guard and future all star Rajon Rondo, led the Celtics to a dramatic 42-game turnaround, finishing with 66 wins. In the playoffs the Celtics were pushed to the brink by the Atlanta Hawks and Cleveland Cavaliers, and despite not winning on the road, they managed to prevail in a pair of Game 7s on their home court. The Celtics would finally break their road woes in a six-game win against the perennial Eastern Conference powerhouse Detroit Pistons, earning their first finals berth since 1987.
After losing to the Pistons in the 2004 NBA Finals despite a talent-laden roster, Phil Jackson abruptly retired. Soon after the Lakers decided to rebuild by trading away Shaquille O'Neal to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler and Brian Grant. The 2004–05 season saw the Lakers miss the playoffs for only the fifth time in team history. Even though he had written a book called The Last Season, going as far as calling Kobe Bryant "uncoachable", Jackson returned to the Lakers for the 2005–06 season. Jackson and Bryant would patch their differences, but after a pair of first-round exits, Bryant demanded, but later retracted, a trade in the off-season.
The Lakers' 2007–08 season saw the team win 57 games, along the way adding Spanish forward Pau Gasol in mid-season while Andrew Bynum was recovering from a mid-season knee injury. The Lakers eliminated the Denver Nuggets 4–0, then the Utah Jazz 4–2 and then dethroned the erstwhile defending champion San Antonio Spurs 4–1 in the conference finals, making their 29th NBA Finals appearance.
2008 NBA Playoffs
Regular season series
The Boston Celtics won both games in the regular season series:
Series summary
Note: team in Bold won the game
Game summaries
All times listed below are Eastern Daylight Time (UTC-4). If the venue is located in a different time zone, the local time is also given.
Game 1
Paul Pierce scored 15 points in the third quarter to give Boston the lead for good, and Kevin Garnett paced the Celtic attack with 24 points and 13 rebounds including a powerful two-handed putback dunk late in the game. Kobe Bryant had 24 points.
Pierce apparently injured his knee by falling awkwardly on Kendrick Perkins' leg, and was taken off the court in a wheelchair. Despite what Pierce's reaction suggested was a highly debilitating injury, he returned to action minutes later to raucous cheering from the crowd. Pierce admitted during coverage of the 2019 NBA Finals that he just had to use the bathroom. He soon hit two three-pointers on consecutive offensive possessions that gave Boston the lead for good and finished with 22 points. It was later dubbed by some as the "Wheelchair Game".
The Lakers, who had had home court advantage throughout the first three rounds and had not trailed a series in that same time, now had to do without both luxuries for the first time.
Game 2
The Lakers jumped out to an early 15–8 first quarter lead, but the Celtics answered with a 10–0 run at the start of the second quarter and ended the first half with a 54–42 lead.
The Celtics held a 24-point lead with less than eight minutes to go in the 4th quarter before the Lakers cut the lead to two points with 38.4 seconds to go with a 31–9 run. Paul Pierce and James Posey then closed out the game with two free throws each. The Lakers had a chance to cut into Boston's four-point lead with 14 seconds left, but the possession resulted in a shot by Saša Vujačić that was blocked by Pierce. Kobe Bryant finished the game with 30 points and 8 assists.
Leon Powe, a second year bench player, scored 21 points on 6–7 shooting from the field and 9–13 from the line in 15 minutes of play, including back-to-back dunks in the last minute of the 3rd quarter. Over the course of the game, Leon Powe shot 13 free throws while the Lakers shot 10.
Despite injuries suffered by Pierce (sprained knee) and Kendrick Perkins (high ankle sprain), both players started in Game 2 and appeared to be mostly unhampered by the injuries, especially Pierce who finished with 28 points.
Boston finished the game 27-for-38 from the line, while the Lakers were 10-for-10. Some analysts viewed this as favorable treatment toward the Celtics, while others noted that a difference in playing styles may have led to the discrepancy, and that the actual foul discrepancy was only 28–21 in favor of Boston.
Game 3
The Lakers won game 3 on a strong shooting night from regular season MVP Kobe Bryant, who scored a series-high 36 points, leading the Lakers to their first win of the series and adding to their undefeated streak at home in the 2008 postseason. Saša Vujačić scored 20 points in 28 minutes, Paul Pierce had a poor shooting game, making only two of his 14 field goal attempts. Kevin Garnett also had trouble shooting, finishing with only 12 points. Ray Allen was the only member of Boston's Big Three that scored over 13 points, with 25.
Game 4
The Lakers jumped out to a 35–14 lead after the first quarter, which was the largest first-quarter lead in NBA Finals history. The Lakers held their ground for most of the third quarter, leading by as many as 24 points. However, the Celtics went on a 21–3 run to end the third quarter, closing the deficit to only two points (73–71). With 4:07 remaining in the fourth quarter, the Celtics took their first lead in the game when Celtics' reserve Eddie House made an jumper. With House's shot, the Celtics were in the lead for good. The Celtics' victory in Game 4 was the largest comeback in the NBA Finals since .
The Celtics bench outscored the Lakers bench 35–15, 29 of those points coming from House and James Posey. Kevin Garnett finished with 16 points and 11 rebounds in support of Allen (19) and Pierce (20).
Game 5
As in Game 4, the Lakers jumped out to an early lead, leading 43–24 with 11 minutes to play in the second quarter. And as in Game 4, the Celtics came back, taking a 62–60 lead behind the strong play of Paul Pierce.
The Lakers finally regained their composure, outscoring Boston 24–18 in the 3rd quarter. In previous games, the Lakers were outscored by Boston in the 3rd quarter (22–31 in Game 1, 19–29 in Game 2, 17–25 in Game 3, and 15–31 in Game 4) by a total of 43 points (73–116).
The Lakers built a 14-point lead in the 4th quarter, but the Celtics again came back with a 16–2 run to tie the game at 90. With less than one minute left in the game, the Celtics had the ball with the Lakers leading 97–95. Pierce beat Bryant off the drive, but Bryant knocked the ball out of Pierce's hands from behind. Lamar Odom picked up the loose ball and passed downcourt to Bryant for a breakaway dunk, giving the Lakers a 99–95 lead. The Lakers went on to win 103–98, sending the series back to Boston.
Kobe Bryant had 25 points, to go with five steals. Pau Gasol contributed 19 points, 13 rebounds and 6 assists, Odom 20 points and 11 rebounds. For Boston, Pierce had a memorable 38 point effort, but outside of Allen (16 points) and Garnett (13 points and 14 rebounds) did not receive enough support from his teammates to clinch the championship at Staples.
As for the odds stacked against the Lakers to come back from a 3–1 deficit, Jackson said, "We're young enough and dumb enough to do this."
Game 6
Entering Game 6, the Celtics set a record of most playoff games played in one season, with 26, breaking the previous record of 25 set by both the 1994 New York Knicks, whom Celtics Coach Doc Rivers played for, and the 2005 Detroit Pistons, both of whom lost in their respective finals in seven games (Knicks in , Pistons in ). However, for the 1994 Knicks, the first round was a best-of-five. Since the NBA Finals used the 2-3-2 format from 1985 until 2013, no team has ever won the last two games on the road.
After a rocky first quarter, the Celtics dominated the rest of the game. Maintaining a lead of more than 25 points, the Celtics' Big Three performed phenomenally, while the whole team smothered the Lakers' offense with their tight defense. Boston dominated in numerous statistical categories, including rebounds (48–29, with a 14–2 disparity in offensive boards), turnovers (7–19), steals (18–4), assists (33–16) and blocks (4–0). Five Celtics finished in double figures. Ray Allen hit seven three-pointers to tie what was then the Finals record (which he subsequently broke during the 2010 NBA Finals against the Lakers during game two), Rajon Rondo had an all-around spectacular performance (21 points, 8 rebounds, 7 assists, 6 steals), the Celtics only turned the ball over seven times and set a Finals record with 18 steals, and every Boston player who saw action scored.
The 39-point margin of victory was the largest ever in an NBA championship-clinching game, breaking the old record of 33, also set by the Celtics over the Lakers in Game Five of the 1965 NBA Finals, 129–96. This lead was close to the Finals point-spread record set in Game 3 in where a Michael Jordan-led Chicago Bulls team beat the Utah Jazz by 42 points, 96–54. The Celtics also improved their overall record against the Lakers to 9–2 in Finals meetings, beating them in the Finals for the first time since 1984.
This was the Celtics' 17th championship, their first since , extending their record for most NBA championships won by a single team. All this capped off the Celtics' best regular season (66–16) since their previous championship season in which they went 67–15. It was also a sense of relief, as the Celtics set an NBA record for most playoff games ever needed to win a championship, with 26, surpassing the previous record of 24 by the Lakers in .
The Celtics' win was also seen as an addition to the recent success of Boston-area sports teams, following the wins by the New England Patriots in Super Bowls XXXVI, XXXVIII, and XXXIX (2001, 2003 and 2004 seasons) and the Red Sox's World Series wins in (death of the Curse of the Bambino) and . Later, the Bruins would win the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, the Red Sox would win two more World Series titles in 2013, and in 2018, and the Patriots would win three more Super Bowls XLIX, LI, and LIII (2014, 2016, and 2018 seasons).
The Celtics won this series by winning Games 1, 2, 4, and 6; coincidentally, the last time the two teams met in , the Lakers won that series in identical fashion. It was also the same identical fashion when the Celtics won the NBA Finals in before this championship.
Rosters
Boston Celtics
Los Angeles Lakers
Player statistics
Boston Celtics
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 41.0 || .507 || .524 || .867 || 5.0 || 2.5 || 1.3 || 0.7 || 20.3
|-
| align="left" | || 3 || 0 || 6.3 || .667 || .000 || .000 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 2.7
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 0 || 19.5 || .391 || .000 || .750 || 3.2 || 0.7 || 0.5 || 0.5 || 4.0
|-
| align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 10.1 || .375 || .000 || 1.000 || 0.2 || 1.2 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 3.8
|-
| align="left" | || 1 || 0 || 14.6 || .500 || .000 || .500 || 4.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 3.0
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 37.9 || .429 || .000 || .760 || 13.0 || 3.0 || 1.7 || 1.0 || 18.2
|-
| align="left" | || 4 || 0 || 18.5 || .357 || .412 || .833 || 2.5 || 2.5 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 8.0
|-
| align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 18.4 || .571 || .000 || .667 || 3.6 || 0.4 || 0.6 || 1.0 || 4.0
|-! style="background:#FDE910;"
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 38.8 || .432 || .393 || .830 || 4.5 || 6.3 || 1.2 || 0.3 || 21.8
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 0 || 25.2 || .500 || .500 || 1.000 || 3.8 || 0.5 || 1.3 || 0.2 || 8.7
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 1 || 8.9 || .550 || .000 || .714 || 3.2 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 6.2
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 27.0 || .377 || .000 || .593 || 3.8 || 6.7 || 1.5 || 0.5 || 9.3
Los Angeles Lakers
|-
| align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 7.0 || .556 || .333 || .500 || 1.8 || 0.2 || 0.2 || 0.2 || 2.6
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 43.0 || .405 || .321 || .796 || 4.7 || 5.0 || 2.7 || 0.2 || 25.7
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 0 || 19.2 || .484 || .529 || .750 || 1.8 || 1.3 || 0.3 || 0.5 || 7.0
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 31.2 || .405 || .188 || .824 || 1.5 || 3.2 || 1.5 || 0.0 || 10.8
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 39.0 || .532 || .000 || .647 || 10.2 || 3.3 || 0.5 || 0.5 || 14.7
|-
| align="left" | || 1 || 0 || 2.8 || .000 || .000 || .000 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 36.7 || .517 || .200 || .643 || 9.0 || 3.0 || 0.3 || 1.0 || 13.5
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 6 || 21.3 || .390 || .385 || 1.000 || 4.8 || 1.3 || 0.7 || 0.0 || 7.3
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 0 || 10.4 || .500 || .000 || .250 || 0.7 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.5 || 1.8
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 0 || 22.0 || .391 || .348 || .857 || 2.0 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 0.2 || 8.3
|-
| align="left" | || 6 || 0 || 11.0 || .313 || .333 || .750 || 1.0 || 1.2 || 0.2 || 0.2 || 2.5
Broadcasting
The Finals, produced by ESPN, were aired on ABC in the United States for the sixth consecutive year. This was also Michele Tafoya's last Finals appearance as a sideline reporter due to her resignation shortly before the 2008–09 season. She was later succeeded by Doris Burke (2009–19), Rachel Nichols (2020), Malika Andrews (2021), and Lisa Salters (2022–present).
Aftermath
In the 2008–09 season the Celtics raced to a 27–2 start, the best through 29 games in NBA history, until that fateful finals rematch against the Lakers on Christmas Day ended a franchise-high 19-game winning streak. Then days after the All-Star Game Kevin Garnett injured his right knee, and was lost for the season. The Celtics won 62 games, but the absence of Garnett affected the team as they were eliminated in seven games by the Orlando Magic in the Eastern Conference Semifinals.
The Lakers rebounded to win 65 games in the aforementioned season, then proceeded to win the NBA title in five games over the Magic. Even though another mid-season injury to Andrew Bynum threatened their title drive, he did come back late in the season. The Lakers became the first team since the 1988–89 Pistons to win the NBA Finals after losing it in the previous year.
Both teams would eventually meet again in 2010 where the Lakers defeated the Celtics in seven games.
The Celtics' 17th championship raised the total of major professional sports championships in Boston to 32, and it continued a string of championships for the city this decade. The NFL's New England Patriots won the Super Bowl in 2001, 2003 and 2004, and nearly won a fourth on Super Bowl XLII, only to have a perfect season denied by the New York Giants four months earlier. Major League Baseball's Boston Red Sox won their second World Series title of the decade eight months earlier, adding their total to seven. With the NHL's Boston Bruins winning the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, the city of Boston became the first city to win championships in all four major sports in a seven-year span. The city's total title tally now stands at 38.
See also
Celtics–Lakers rivalry
Curse of Len Bias – the alleged curse that had kept the Celtics from winning the NBA Finals since 1986, which was broken in this series.
References
External links
National Basketball Association Finals
Finals
NBA Finals
NBA Finals
Basketball competitions in Los Angeles
Basketball competitions in Boston
NBA Finals
NBA Finals
NBA Finals
NBA Finals
NBA Finals
it:NBA Playoffs 2008#NBA Finals: Boston Celtics - Los Angeles Lakers |
4516555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich%2C%20Ontario | Norwich, Ontario | The Township of Norwich is a municipality located in Oxford County in Southwestern Ontario, Canada. At the centre of the Township of Norwich is the Town of Norwich. The preferred pronunciation of the town name is , which differs from the pronunciation used for the city of Norwich, England. The origin of Norwich, Ontario, is more likely Norwich in upper New York State, the area from which the pioneering families emigrated in the early 19th century, where the community was known as Norwichville.
Oxford County Road 59 (formerly Highway 59) is the major north–south highway through much of the township, including the Town of Norwich.
The local economy is largely agricultural, based on corn, soybean, and wheat production with dairy farming in the north part of the township and tobacco, vegetable, and ginseng farming to the south. Slowly, ginseng and traditional cash crops are replacing the former cash crop - tobacco, as demand shrinks.
Communities
Formerly East Oxford, North and South Norwich Townships, modern Norwich includes the communities of Beaconsfield, Bond's Corners, Brown's Corners, Burgessville, Cornell, Creditville, Curries, Eastwood, Hawtrey, Hink's Corners, Holbrook, Milldale, Muir, Newark, New Durham, Norwich, Oriel, Otterville, Oxford Centre, Rock's Mills, Rosanna, Springford, Summerville, Blows, and Vandecar.
History
Upon his arrival in the province in 1792, the first proclamation issued by John Graves Simcoe, the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada while still at Kingston, announced the names and boundaries he had decided upon as political boundaries for Upper Canada. For areas lying to the west of Kingston, he decided that county names would be a "mirror of Britain". To accomplish this, the sequence of names for counties along Lake Ontario became Northumberland, Durham, York and Lincoln, and for counties along Lake Erie, the names became Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex and Kent. (This was the same sequence of county names in place along the eastern seacoast of England, running from the Scottish boundary down to the English Channel.) The proclamation defined the northern boundary of Norfolk County as being the Thames River. Norwich and Dereham townships were originally within the land area designated as belonging to Norfolk County in Upper Canada, and were named after the towns of Norwich and Dereham in Norfolk County in England.
Gov. Simcoe with several other government officers, guided by a party of Six Nations warriors, conducted a wilderness tour on foot down and back up the length of the Thames River in 1793 and decided to assign additional place names to mirror those they knew along the Thames River in England. Middlesex County was the name assigned to the area around a town site reserved at the "lower forks" in the river, to be called London; Dorchester was the name for a town site at the "middle forks", and the area around the "upper forks" was to be Oxford - the same sequence of names as found along the Thames in England. When legislation was passed in Upper Canada in 1798 to implement these new divisions, Norwich and Dereham were separated from Norfolk County and added to the new Oxford County, which included also Burford, Blenheim, Blandford and Oxford townships - names drawn from Oxfordshire in England.
Shortly after returning from this tour, Simcoe received in March 1793 a petition from Thomas Ingersoll and associates asking for grant of a township to which they promised to bring settlers from New England. Simcoe was impressed that the list of associates in the group was headed by the name of Gideon Bostwick, a well-known Church of England (Anglican) missionary in Massachusetts, and the group was granted the township of Oxford-on-the-Thames. The only way to bring settlers into such a wilderness area township was to first build a road from Brantford up to the Thames River, a distance of , and Thomas Ingersoll arranged that work over the course of the next two years, involving numerous journeys back and forth by those involved. In all of this, the first ones to become permanently settled in the township were likely Samuel Canfield Sr. and his wife and sons, who agreed to make their new home into a half-way stopping point for travellers along the road, at what became known as Oxford Centre. This is commemorated with plaques at the cemetery there and in front of the elementary school a short distance to the east along what is now known as "The Old Stage Road".
The Bostwicks, Ingersolls and Canfields were all New England families who had made their start in the New World in the 1600s, and frontier living had been second nature to them for generations. The Bostwicks and Canfields were kinfolk by marriage and as community leaders in several places. Samuel Canfield Sr. was particularly valuable to the Oxford settlement because he had already lived the life of starting a new settlement in the mountains of New Hampshire. In the early 1770s he and wife Lucy joined a group of Connecticut families who had been granted the wilderness township of Marlow there, and Samuel soon became a town leader, elected one of the selectmen for the community and appointed captain of the local militia company. When the War of Independence came, he rallied the company to support the Continental Army. For this he is still revered as a local hero in Marlow.
For he and his family, however, the Marlow years also brought sorrow, because three daughters died and are buried there, two of them lost together in a house fire in 1789. Samuel complained of hearing voices which eventually drove him to quit Marlow, and the family was living in southern Vermont by the time Gideon Bostwick was traveling his Anglican mission circuit which reached there, spreading word of the township grant which had been received in far-away Oxford.
Samuel and family agreed to join the new venture, but he brought with him his own faith as a Baptist. He had been a Baptist preacher in Marlow, a community which had been drawn to a missionary named Caleb Blood in the early 1770s, and Caleb Blood became the first Baptist missionary in western Upper Canada thirty years later.
Settlement in the former Norwich Township came more than fifteen years after Oxford Township. The Norwich settlement was founded by two men: Peter Lossing and Peter De Long. Both were from New York. Peter Lossing's house was the first one in Norwich. It now stands by the old Quaker Meeting House.
Both men where Quakers. The town of Norwich commenced as a completely Quaker settlement.
In 1799, the Township of Norwich was laid out by surveyor William Hambly into lines and concessions and lots. The post office dates from 1829 onward. The township was divided into North and South Norwich Townships in 1855.
The Norwich Quaker Settlement
In 1809 Peter Lossing, a member of the Society of Friends from Dutchess County, New York, visited Norwich Township, and in June, 1810, with his brother-in-law, Peter De Long, purchased of land in this area. That autumn Lossing brought his family to Upper Canada and early in 1811 settled in Norwich Township. The De Long family and nine others, principally from Dutchess County, joined Lossing the same year and by 1820 an additional group of about fifty had settled within the tract. Many were Quakers and a frame meeting house, planned in 1812, was erected in 1817. These resourceful pioneers founded one of the most successful Quaker communities in Upper Canada.
The Otterville grist mill and Otter Creek sawmills
The first mill on the site was built, in 1807, by partners John Earle and Paul Averill Jr. The Averill family was from the Great Barrington area in Massachusetts, where Thomas Ingersoll had lived before coming to Oxford. Paul Averill Sr. had developed mills in Townsend township in the 1790s. John Earle married Paul's daughter Mary and with Paul Averill Jr. managed the Townsend mills. In 1806, Earle purchased the land surrounding the mill site at Otterville and with his brother-in-law Paul (sometimes referred to as Paul Avery) built the first grist mill on the site. The mill standing today, built in 1845 by Edward Bullock and Herbert Hilliard Cameron Tufford, is run by water power supplied by a dam on the river. The South Norwich Historical Society, on a lease basis, maintains this historic site and offers tours on request. Located in the centre of the village, the mill and its surrounding meadow is the site of an annual barbecue.
The pioneers of Oxford Township were slow to develop mills because of lack of any easy mode of transportation to send products to market, but Norwich township had the natural benefit of Otter Creek running through the township on a course which flowed south to Lake Erie and what became the harbour at Port Burwell. By the 1820s there were several sawmills along the creek in Norwich Township, supplying not only local needs but also rafting sawn timber and lumber down the creek to Port Burwell, for export to New York state.
Dairy farming and cheese factories
Oxford Township's pioneer farms were already famous for butter and cheese-making before the War of 1812, and Norwich Township's Quaker pioneers were quick to follow. In response to a questionnaire from author and agitator Robert Gourlay in 1817, Norwich farmers submitted a detailed chart showing the progress in the Quaker settlement in its first five years, which Gourlay published in his book about conditions in Upper Canada (see chart on this page). It shows that the 11 pioneer Quaker families brought with them more cows (28) than horses or oxen, and after five years had nearly tripled the number of cows being kept.
By the 1840s, dairy farmers in Oxford, Norwich and Dereham townships were competing each year for top honours at agricultural fairs around the province for butter and cheese-making prizes. In the 1860s, Norwich farmers were the first in Canada to adopt the American factory system for cheese-making, with two different approaches competing for acceptance. Andes Smith took the approach of contracting with other farmers to buy their milk and haul it to a factory on his farm using a tanker wagon. Whatever profit or loss came from manufacturing cheese was his own. Harvey Farrington was a cheese factory specialist who had come to Norwich from New York state, and at his factory outside Norwichville he contracted with farmers to haul their milk to him and receive payment based on what came from cheese sales after Farrington deducted two cents per pound for his services in running the factory and making the cheese. Smith was first and was the more innovative one, gaining international recognition in 1865 for manufacturing a cheese, but he went bankrupt the following year. Farrington's co-op system became the good news story that ended up being immortalized in published histories and on historical plaques.
Amalgamation
In 1975, Oxford County underwent countywide municipal restructuring. The Village of Norwich and the Townships of East Oxford, North Norwich and South Norwich were amalgamated to create the Township of Norwich.
The Tornado of 1979
On August 7, 1979, at around 7:00 pm, Norwich was struck by the Woodstock Tornado, one of the largest tornadoes ever to occur in Southern Ontario. The storm cut a path of destruction across Norwich Township from Blows to New Durham, leaving the community of Oxford Centre in a state of total destruction. Several homes, the General Store, Anglican church and the Community Hall were levelled. The United Church at the top of the hill had its roof taken completely off and extensive interior damage, but all seven stained glass windows were left intact. One of the homes damaged was that of the last Ingersoll family member resident in the county, and narrowly missed destroying a cherished family keepsake album, which afterwards underwent conservation work at the Oxford County Archives and is now proudly displayed at the museum in Ingersoll. Two people lost their lives that day and one senior succumbed a few months later, never returning from hospital. All that remained of Oxford Centre's Anglican church was the foundation and one door hanging from its frame. Neighbours, even people from miles away were kind enough to return little bits of the original church, which was built in 1867. A silver paten and silver flagon, the communion rail, a credenza and parts of two of the stained glass windows along with a few other artifacts were recovered and are now displayed in the Narthex. The Church was soon rebuilt to the original plans. The F4 tornado, which had its beginning north west of Woodstock cut a swath all the way to Waterford of approximately 60 km and at its widest point near Oxford Centre was about 400m wide.
The Norwich Tornado of 1998
On the afternoon of June 2, 1998, a severe weather outbreak affected Southern Ontario. At around 3:50 pm, there was a report of a tornado touching down in Holbrook and heading straight for Norwich. The tornado hit Norwich around 4:05 pm, damaging trees, farm equipment, barns, houses, and the wooden Holy Trinity Anglican Church (1867). Three people were injured, and the next day, Environment Canada confirmed that an F2 or F3 tornado had hit the village. Following a decision by the parish, Holy Trinity Anglican Church was not rebuilt as the congregation opted to join with St. John's Anglican Church, Otterville. However, a stone monument commemorating the church continues to mark the site.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Norwich had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Population trend:
Population in 2016: 11,001
Population in 2011: 10,721
Population in 2006: 10,481
Population in 2001: 10,478
Population in 1996: 10,611 (or 10,560 when adjusted to 2001 boundaries)
Population in 1991: 10,146
Local government
The township government, Norwich Township Council, consists of four councillors based on wards and a mayor. Norwich has four wards: Ward 1 is South Norwich including Otterville. Ward 2 consists of the Village of Norwich. Ward 3 is North Norwich which is the middle portion of township including Burgessville but excluding Norwich village. Ward 4 is East Oxford, it consists of the northern portion of township, including Oxford Centre. As of 2018, the elected council consists of:
Mayor: Larry Martin
Councillors:
Ward 1: John Scholten
Ward 2: Lynne Deplancke
Ward 3: Jim Palmer
Ward 4: Alan Dale
The Township offices, opened in January 2015, are located on Airport Road in the community of Norwich.
For provincial and federal elections, Norwich is included in the riding of 'Oxford'. Currently, the Federal MP of Oxford is Arpan Khanna and the Provincial MPP is Ernie Hardeman.
Attractions
The Norwich and District Museum: The Norwich and District Museum is one of Ontario's longest operating rural community museums and contains a collection of artifacts relating to the agricultural and social history of the area. The museum is actually housed inside a former meeting house (built in 1889) which was donated by The Society of Friends to the Pioneer Society for this purpose.
Emily Stowe Public School : Opened in late 2012, the school now consists of kindergarten to grade 8.
Norwich District High School : Norwich District High School, home to the Norwich Knights, was opened in 1952 in the south end of the village of Norwich. On October 28, 2008, Thames Valley District School Board trustees made the decision to close Norwich District High School due to declining enrollment in the area and the school board at large. A reunion for past NDHS alumni was held on June 5–6, 2010. The school is now called Emily Stowe Public School.
Grand Trunk Railway Station Museum and Blacksmith Shop: The South Norwich Historical Society has restored this 1875 station to its condition as an 1881 Grand Trunk Railway station. The waiting room and office are restored authentically, the baggage room is an interpretation room for displays of the area's history. Permanent displays feature railway construction of the 1880s with many artifacts of all periods. The Underground Railroad and early Black settlement of the area is another highlight, as well as the story of early Quaker heritage in the area.
Early black settlement cemetery: In 1982 during the 175th celebrations of the community, a plaque was placed at the cemetery to commemorate the black settlement of freed families who made their homes in this area.
Otterville Park: Just north of the main corner, and through the stone gates, is of parklands graced with tall pines, with a swimming pool, ball diamond, horseshoe pitch, tennis and basketball courts, and children's playground.
Norwich Tigers: Playing out of Dillon Park as of 2014 are the Norwich Tigers (formerly the Mt. Elgin Mets and Tillsonburg Tigers). They are part of the Tri-Counties Men's Fastball league, with Thursday and Sunday nights designated as home games.
Historical schools
East Oxford P.S.: 505767 Old Stage Road. A plaque commemorates Old Stage Road. Governor Simcoe inherited this Indian trail known as the Detroit Path. Both American and British troops used it during the War of 1812 travelling between Detroit and Ancaster. Sections of the trail can still be travelled in East and West Oxford.
Norwich District High School : Stover St. S (Oxford Road 59), Norwich. Built in 1952. Norwich Cenotaph: "Weeping Lady." This monument typifies the Quaker response of pacifism and the futility of war. The High school has now been converted to a public school (Emily Stowe Public School).
Norwich P.S. : 12 Washington St, Norwich. Originally built in 1896 but replaced in 1973. The school is now closed and removed making the way for new townhomes.
Otterville P.S. : 318 Main St W, Otterville. The facade is all that remains of the original 1927 building. However, there is a plaque with the old school bell at the front of the school.
Plaques and monuments
Bell with historic plaque: At the Otterville firehall.
Emily Howard Jennings Stowe, M.D.: On the ground of the Norwich and District Historical Museum and Archives
Establishment of Free Rural Mail Delivery: At the Springfield Community Centre.
Harold Adams Innis, economic historian: At his birthplace, Innisfree Farm, on County Road 19, 3 km east of Otterville
The Norwich Quaker Settlement: At the Quaker Pioneer Cemetery, Quaker Street and Concession Road 3
Otterville African Methodist Episcopal Church and Cemetery: At the entrance to the cemetery, on the west side of Church Street, in Otterville
Cultural resources
Norwich and District Historical Society Museum & Archives: 89 Stover St N, RR#3, Norwich, ON N0J 1P0
Burgessville Public Library: 604 Main St S, Burgessville, ON N0J 1C0
Norwich Public Library: 10 Tidey St, Norwich, ON N0J 1P0
Otterville Public Library: 218 Main St W, Norwich, ON N0J 1R0
Ross Butler Studio and Agricultural Gallery
South Norwich Historical Society Museum (GTR)
Thames Valley Museum School
Woodlawn Community Centre
Notable residents
Ross Butler (1907-1995) Farmer, photographer, songwriter, livestock judge, cattle and poultry breeder, pioneer of cattle artificial insemination, painter and sculptor of farm animals, as well as an author (the autobiographical, My Father's Farm). Commissioned in 1939 to paint over 500 "Standard Type" paintings of Canadian livestock to be placed in schools across Canada. See link for other notable accomplishments.
Cassie L. Chadwick (1857-1907), born Elizabeth Bigley in the Norwich Township community of Eastwood, moved to Cleveland, Ohio, became Madam and infamous fraudster
Ronald C. Davidson (1941-2016), physicist and first director of the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center
Harold Innis, (1894-1952), political economist, born and raised in the Norwich Township community of Bookton
William Melville Martin (1876-1970) Second Premier of Saskatchewan
James Beech Moore (1842-1931), longest serving minister in the Canadian Baptist movement, at the time of his death the oldest Canadian veteran of the American Civil War
Eddie Oatman (1889-1973) Ten-time PCHA All-Star, and member of the Quebec Bulldogs of the NHA. Won the Stanley Cup with the Bulldogs in 1912, and played professional hockey for 32 full seasons.
Emily Stowe, (1831-1903), first woman doctor to practice medicine in Canada, and Augusta Stowe-Gullen, her daughter, first woman to earn a medical degree in Canada
Media
Norwich's local newspaper, the Norwich Gazette, was shuttered by publisher PostMedia in July, 2018.
See also
List of townships in Ontario
References
External links
Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario
Municipalities in Oxford County, Ontario
Township municipalities in Ontario
Populated places on the Underground Railroad
1799 establishments in Canada |
4516622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Scrapped%20Princess%20characters | List of Scrapped Princess characters | The following is a list of characters from the light novel series and anime Scrapped Princess, written by Ichiro Sakaki with illustrations by Yukinobu Azumi.
Humans
Pacifica Casull
, also referred to as the Scrapped Princess. According to a prophecy from the Church of Mauser, she is cursed to destroy the world of Providence on her sixteenth birthday. Her parents worried about her power, so she was abandoned by them when she was an infant. She was later adopted and raised by the Casull family. Her biological siblings, Shannon and Raquel Casull, act as her bodyguards throughout their adventure. Blonde-haired and blue-eyed, she is a sweet and cheerful girl with an unhealthy appetite, but she wonders how so much suffering can come from her existence and blames herself for it.
According to the prophecy, on the day of her sixteenth birthday, her power to destroy Providence would have reached its zenith and the spell within her would activate. To prevent this, Pacifica is stabbed and killed by her adopted twin brother, Forsyth, the crown prince. After her death, Pacifica meets Celia Mauser. Pacifica is a physical recreation of Celia. Celia is a seer who was a vital component in the fight against the aliens during the Genesis Wars. 10,000 years ago, as humans were losing the war with the aliens and were going to be sealed, Browning and the other remaining humans came up with a plan to break free of the sealed world by specifically calculating and scattering DNA to prepare the Providence Breaker – who would be able to resist the mind control of the Peacemakers and destroy the very foundations of the system sealing in the humans to free mankind. This Providence Breaker is revealed to be Pacifica and her family.
Despite dying before the power could reach its peak, Pacifica was strong enough so that the destruction of Providence was still possible. After learning why Providence was created, Celia gives Pacifica the choice to determine humanity's future. Even though Pacifica is sympathetic to having a protected, ideal world to live in, she chooses instead to let humans make their own choices, and as a result of this decision, Celia disappears and Providence is destroyed, freeing mankind once and for all. After everything is over and done with and the world is finally safe, technically, Pacifica's life is restored and she returns to her family farm with Shannon, Raquel, and Zefiris.
Pacifica has many love interests, but the two notable ones in the story are Full and Leopold.
Shannon Casull
is the son of Yuhma and Carol Casull, Raquel's younger brother and Pacifica's older foster brother. Shannon is a skilled swordsman who has sworn to defend Pacifica's life no matter what, but he is reserved and calm despite the many difficulties in the Casull siblings' lives. He is a very protective person. Although Pacifica is on his top priority list, he also looks out for Raquel, Winia Chester, the little girl Cin (Cz's compressed form) and eventually Zefiris. He is a practical man and can cook, clean and shop for groceries, but, when provoked, Shannon loses control of himself not listening to anyone. In episode 6 of the anime, Shannon becomes a temporary Dragon Knight ("D-Knight") and is capable of using the power of a Dragoon named Zefiris to fight the Peacemakers. At one point, Shannon loses his trust in Zefiris. During this time, whenever he merges with the Dragoon, it becomes nearly impossible for him defeat the Peacemakers. Later in the series, he gives Zefiris his trust and fully merges with her. The two fight alongside the Gigas (or Gigantes) against the two remaining Peacemakers. He looks almost exactly like Zefiris's old master, Lord Beckham Mauser, due to the genetic engineering used to create him, Pacifica and Raquel, as explained by Zefiris. In the end, Shannon manages to unlock the full power of the D-Knight and helps to retrieve Pacifica after her death, bringing her back to Earth. He later returns to his family farm with Pacifica, Raquel and Zefiris.
Raquel Casull
is the oldest of the Casull children, Shannon's sister and Pacifica's foster sister. She is a powerful magic-user and able to cast spells faster than many others. She has assumed a motherly role in the family and is always kind and calm. Like Shannon, she has a striking resemblance to Celia and Beckenham Mauser's sister due to the genetic engineering used in their birth. It is however noted that she is often left the odd one out because of Shannon and Pacifica's close relationship. She does not seem to mind, but she is considerably less close to either of her siblings as they are to each other. Her concern for Pacifica is clear in some episodes; for example, when they went to the cave of bugs to look plants for Pacifica's antidote, she says that she does not mind the danger because her sister's life is in danger. Raquel often encourages Shannon's close relationship with Pacifica by sending her brother out to look for and comfort Pacifica. She is the type to comfort Pacifica by doing something, rather than speaking it. Despite her kind, calm and goofy nature, she will not hesitate to strike down anyone in her way of protecting Pacifica or Shannon. Raquel's normal kindness often serves as a cover for a more aggressive and tactical mind that asserts itself whenever Pacifica or Shannon are in danger. Raquel prepared her father, Yuhma, for death and lit the pyre. Toward the end of the series, Raquel starts to become doubtful while separated from Pacifica and Shannon. When she does find Pacifica (with amnesia), she admits that she does not know what to do, still not knowing where her brother is. Her most vulnerable state is during the last episode, as she holds the stabbed Pacifica in her arms. She later returns to her family farm with Pacifica, Shannon and Zefiris.
Christopher Armalite
Raised as a soldier by the military of the Kingdom of Leinwan, is the leader of the elite army unit Obstinate Arrow. He is an expert fighter and wields a large battle axe that can be folded and concealed. He is the honorable antagonist of the series, but also a developing hero. Ordered to eliminate the Scrapped Princess, he kidnaps Winia Chester to lay a trap for Pacifica's guardians. Shannon beats him in a duel in Glass Canyon and asks him to stay away in exchange for sparing his life. Before Obstinate Arrow can leave the city of Taurus, however, they learn that a Peacemaker (Galil) has come to deal with the Scrapped Princess and the whole city is at risk. The soldiers briefly ally themselves with the Casulls to fend off the Peacemaker's onslaught. To gain access to the castle's resources, Christopher is officially adopted by Obstinate Arrow's superior, Baroness Bairach, becoming Christopher Bairach. He befriends the crown prince, Forsyth, and researches Grendel's prophecies to understand the Scrapped Princess's true destiny. After the Baroness is dismissed from commanding Obstinate Arrow, the team serves under the Major. Christopher arrests Pacifica then, but later helps her escape. Having "betrayed" the King, he joins the Casulls. When Zefiris asks him why he defends Pacifica, even though he does not carry the guardian gene, he simply answers that it is because he chooses to. After Providence is 'destroyed' and mankind is freed, he marries Winia and becomes good friends with the Casulls, while maintaining his friendship with Prince Forsyth.
Winia Chester
is an introverted and lonesome inn-maid, taken in and raised by her uncle out of pity after her parents died. She spends time with and becomes friends with Pacifica, and it is one of the few times she has smiled and laughed since her parents were killed. When Christopher kidnaps her and takes her to the Glass Canyon, Pacifica's identity as the Scrapped Princess is revealed to her. Although initially confused and unable to accept the fact that her new friend is "the poison that will destroy the world", Winia eventually comes around, and continues to have a close friendship with Pacifica. In the Glass Canyon, she discovers that her kidnapper, Christopher, is also an orphan. After the brief kidnapping episode, she develops a deep attraction to Christopher. After Providence is 'destroyed' and mankind is freed, she is seen with Christopher, knitting some pink clothes in a carriage. Winia also ends up being good friends with the Casulls.
Leopold Scorpus
, also known as Leo, is a clumsy but well-meaning traveling lordling who wishes to become a noble knight. He joins the Casull siblings after discovering them being "harassed" by a group of bandits. Utterly charmed by Pacifica, he vows to protect her and one day marry her. As the first son of Duke Scorpus and heir to his father's territory, he begins as an idealistic youth seeking to join the order of Amber Knights. After meeting the retired legendary knight Doyle Barrett, he begins to question the meaning of justice and chivalry, setting his quest to knighthood in second priority until he can finally discover for himself what chivalry truly is. He constantly carries a stuffed dragon costume with him, a gift from the baker he worked for in the city of Taurus. The headband he wears was a bandage that Pacifica made for him when he hurt himself trying to keep up with their wagon. Leopold talks often with Winia over their mutual friend Pacifica. After mankind is freed, he continues to follow after Pacifica and proposes to her. After an exaggerated pause, she responds by slapping him saying she has better things to do, but is seen blushing as she turns away.
Doyle Barrett
A doctor in a secluded forest area, used to be the head of the Amber Knights. He defied orders to throw the newborn princess down a cliff and kill her, as he began to doubt the true meaning of justice and chivalry that would have him kill an innocent child. When he found out that Pacifica was that same baby, he made an atonement by helping Raquel to save her life.
Kidaf Gillot the Silencer
is a bard who tries his luck as a bounty hunter using his ability to command a group of poisonous BUGs with his instrument. His original intention was to use his BUGs to poison and kill Pacifica, but Raquel subdued him in order to collect the antidote from his cave. In awe of Raquel's devotion, Kidaf stopped going after the Scrapped Princess' bounty, and even agreed to help Pacifica find her siblings by sending his bugs to search for them. Much later in the series, he helped Pacifica (then known as Pamela) to get a job in a theater as one of the costumed players. He also helps Leopold and Winia get jobs there – Leo as another player and Winia as the snacks-sales lady. Eventually, when Pacifica gets found out, Kidaf advises her group on escaping the city, and stays behind to inform Raquel about what is going on. Later still, he helps to resist the Peacemakers.
Prince Forsyth/Forsis
is the Crown Prince and biological twin brother of Pacifica. Unlike his father, the King, he has his people's welfare as top priority, and despises all unnecessary bloodshed meted to take out the Scrapped Princess. For this reason – the other being his physical resemblance to his mother and Pacifica – he is constantly at conflict with the King. When Baroness Bairach introduces Christopher Armalite to him as her adopted son, the two become close friends. Despite his polite nature and calm appearance, the Prince is highly observant, clever, and quickly figures out that Christopher is more than he appears. Prince Forsyth sees the choices he might have to make between Pacifica, the younger sister he never knew, and his people as a dilemma. This leads him to continually look for information on his sister to try to make an accurate decision. He refuses to allow Christopher to call him by any royal title. The Mauser Cardinal asks Forsyth to be an Envoy of God and think about the greater good of his people. Later, Forsyth arranges a meeting with Pacifica, to finally meet his twin. After a short and awkward conversation he embraces her and apologizes, then draws his sword and stabs her in the back. He then pulls the sword free and drives it into his own chest, to atone for killing his sister by dying with her. He is revived from death when Pacifica 'destroys' Providence. A comment by Christopher at the end of the last episode reveals that Forsyth will soon be crowned the new King.
Bergen
A priest of the Mauser Church known as "The Heretical Procurator". Even though he is a priest of Mauser, he is an easy-going person. He believes that both Mauser and Browning are unnecessary. But he also believes that people need to believe something, otherwise life would be tough. He thinks it is weird to crush something because it is not the thing you believe in and does not accept Church doings. Later we learn that he is also part of the Guardians like Raquel, Shannon, Leo and Winia. Later in the series he helps Raquel and the others.
Princess Seness Giat
"Beast" Princess of the Giat Empire, she is quite short-tempered, due to her harsh childhood, where people feared her, and she and Pacifica often argued after they met. She is a warrior princess skilled with her sword and magic, and manages to revive the giant floating fortress Skid used 5000 years ago in the Genesis Wars, with the help of the Dragoon, Natalie. Even though Seness is a skilled fighter and magic user, she is still just a little below Shannon's fighting ability and cannot beat him even if she uses her magic and swordsmanship together. This was proven in a fight between her and Shannon. She lasted longer against Shannon than Chris did and that Shannon was one of her few defeats. After the fight, Seness gained some respect for Shannon as a fighter and Raquel as a mage and tactician. Along with two followers, Ruce and Drake, she fights using Gigas, a dragon-like being that is somewhat similar to a Dragoon, but cannot take the form of a person. Another follower, Eirote, seems to be her second in command. She is in charge of most technical work, such as rebuilding the Gigas and maintaining the Skid. Eirote is much kinder and more soft-hearted then Seness and often soothes the Beast Princess's rough temper for others as well as occasionally keeping Seness in line.
Carol Casull
The mother of Shannon and Raquel and adoptive mother of Pacifica – as well as a formidable sorceress. A stately-looking woman with red eyes and silver hair, she was a friend of Pacifica's biological mother, but the relationship seems to have soured. It was she who decided that the infant Pacifica would receive a name that many people would like. Carol plays a greater role in the novel series than in the anime.
Yuhma Casull
The father of Shannon and Raquel and adoptive father of Pacifica. He has tawny skinned and has his biological children's dark hair. He is a jovial man whose composure is difficult to break. Like Carol, Yuhma has a greater role on the novels.
Fulle/Furet
Fulle, eighteen years old, first appears after the spell Ginnungagap creates a destructive tidal wave. Pacifica, who was on a boat, washes up on an island with no memory of who she is. While she is staring at the ocean, Fulle is assessing the damage done to the city. Pacifica follows him home in hopes that she might run into someone who knows who she is. For the next couple of days, Pacifica, now named Pamela by Fulle for the time being, lives with Fulle enjoying what would be an everyday normal life. After some time, both Fulle and Pamela find out that her real name is Pacifica and that she is the Scrapped Princess. Fulle, who used to be in the army, takes it upon himself to protect her and helps her, Winia, and Leo escape the city. Fulle does not survive, as he stays behind to keep the soldiers from getting any closer to her. He is shot with numerous arrows and dies in the streets of the city. It is Shannon who finds his lifeless body. Not knowing who he is, Shannon wonders that "he must have been trying to go somewhere very important", while shutting Fulle's eyes. By the end of the series, Pacifica still carries a small wooden block given to her by Fulle, strapped to her hip, claiming it makes her feel protected.
Dragoons/Dragons
Biological weapons allegedly made by the Dark God and the humans to fight the Peacemakers; actually made to fight aliens, as were the Peacemakers later. They were created by technology and bound with a master to fight but their program does not naturally allow them to harm humans. They are referred to as Demons by the common people. According to Zefiris, there were originally 200 "production versions" of the Dragoons, but many malfunctioned and could not be used to fight the enemy. Only 26 of the original 200 remained, and those 26 needed to be paired with a human "D-Knight" in order to use their vast power. Use of much of their power needed to be approved by the human D-Knight. One of the most interesting powers Dragoons possess, along with being able to turn into a full dragon, is their ability to escape into "Phase Space", which appears to be another dimension. From the perspective of the inhabitants of Dustbin, it appears that the Dragoons and Peacemakers just disappear when they transition to Phase Space.
Zefiris (Serial Number 26)
A Dragoon, or powerful spiritual being, who is actually an AI (artificial intelligence) weapon created during the Genesis Wars to battle an alien race that attacked humans 5000 years ago. She was used as a last resort plan to protect the Providence Breaker from the Peacemakers and is the last remaining Dragoon in the world of Providence that is fully functioning. Solemn, calm and quiet, Zefiris first appears as a mysterious character who shows up whenever the Casulls are in trouble and often gives them helpful advice. Zefiris appears to be something like a cosmos guardian (Peacemaker) due to her strange abilities and unfazed demeanour. She takes Shannon as master and merges with him so he can become a D-Knight (D for Dragon or Dragoon) and combat the Peacemakers. Shannon bears a significant resemblance to Becknum Mauser, her old master who died so Zefiris could live. Zefiris places her mission to protect the Providence Breaker above all other things, including the lives of thousands of other humans. Still, she is often in a dilemma about whether to follow the plan that the humans devised 5000 years ago as a last resort to free themselves from the sealed world. Her questioning of the plan contrasts with the views of her counterpart Natalie, who even tries to brainwash Shannon with her powers. In the last episode, Zefiris returns with the Casulls to their family farm to live out her days with her new master.
Natalie (Serial Number 14)
A fellow Dragoon who knows Zefiris, and took part in the Genesis Wars but, unlike Zefiris, lost most of her powers. To survive, she inhabits an ancient battle-vehicle, the Skid, as part of her body. Due to Natalie's integration with the Skid, she is able to both help or hinder the people on board. In order to continue to survive, Natalie has continued to upgrade her systems, but her abilities are limited and incomplete. Her personality is also cold and unfeeling, like the Peacemakers. Natalie does not consider herself a Dragoon anymore, even though, technically, she is still a Dragoon. Once, when Zefiris remarked that her methods were too forceful; the Dragoons were in the sealed world of Providence to be the Providence Breaker's Guardians against the Peacemakers, and to help humans. Natalie replied, in a rather unconcerned manner, "I am no longer a Dragoon, but we Dragoons need not go out of our way to help those foolish humans." Hinting that the humans were a class below them (the Peacemakers and the Dragoons). Later in the series, as Natalie is unable to fight as a Dragoon, she helps create Dragoon emulations, the Gigas, who are like the Dragoons and Peacemakers, but do not have independent AIs and seem operated entirely by their human pilots. Natalie no longer considers herself a Dragoon due to the damage she suffered in the Genesis Wars.
Gloria (Serial Number 7)
Another one of the few Dragoons who barely survived the Genesis Wars, due to the Peacemakers' betrayal. She is barely alive, and is unable to assume her true form of a Dragoon. She first appeared as a giant frog (using frog DNA to give herself physical form). She chased a terrified Pacifica around the lake until Zefiris dispersed her physical form, revealing a semi-transparent girl that was her humanoid form. After Pacifica followed Zefiris' request to tell Gloria to rest, Gloria thanked her and disappeared for good.
Peacemakers
Cin
A young girl whom Shannon finds outside a town. She claims to have no parents, and said she was waiting for somebody, though she did not know who it was. She follows Shannon home. After a few strange occurrences involving her, Zefiris informs Pacifica that Cin is a Peacemaker in a compressed state (the human girl form) and, on top of that, an artillery type that can cancel out the Dragoons' presence. As if to prove this, as soon as Zefiris says that, Pacifica sees Zefiris disappearing, just as Cin walks into the room. As artillery types were powerful and dangerous, Cz was compressed as Cin to keep them in a more stable condition. Galil, it turns out, was supposed to pick Cz up at the bridge and release her true form, but was eliminated by Zefiris before he could. Steyr went in his place to seek Cin out, finding her with Pacifica and finally "unzipping" her compressed form, causing her to revert to Cz, the Peacemaker. There was, in fact, some foreshadowing about Cz's true identity. In episode 8, when Shannon said that she might be killed if she stayed with them, she replied "I don't die." (which is in fact true as Peacemakers are immortal). Also, she mentioned that she had no parents when Raquel inquired about it, not that they died or she got lost, but that she simply did not have parents. In addition, when Pacifica tried to catch up with her in the woods, Pacifica was nearly out of breath while she was not even panting.
In her human form of Cin, she has difficulty using proper grammar and verb tenses, showing that she is still maturing. As Cz, she is cold and calculating, not caring if she is to die as long as she can take her enemies with her to death. In last episode she manages to say "I'm sorry" using her Cin form voice to Shannon.
Cz
A Peacemaker, or human-shaped weapon programmed to destroy the Scrapped Princess. She wore one of a pair of earring charms which Pacifica gave her when she was Cin, which she continues to wear even after reverting to her Peacemaker form. Later in the show, possibly because of her time as Cin, Cz's mentality is affected and she begins to sympathize with the humans, and later shows some reluctance to go on a mass killing spree. This seems to develop largely from her assignment to follow Shannon (in case he should find Pacifica), as she learns of his motivations and philosophy even while stating she does not care about them. (Note also in episode 18, the two share an umbrella in a scene that mirrors Shannon and Cin's first meeting). Cz is an artillery type cosmos guardian. She appears to look like an attractive woman with long dark hair, but wears an outfit that looks rather different from the humans and is similar to what Steyr wears. Destroyed in last episode when she purposely drops her defenses taking a shot in the head from D-Knight Shannon.
Steyr
A fellow Peacemaker like Cz, who comes to retrieve Cin who she claims is Cz in compressed form. She proves this by using her powers to revert Cin into what looks like an adult version of Cin. She does not care how the other Peacemakers feel because their feelings do not really matter. She was in charge of the first attack on the Skid but was injured by Shannon and saved by Cz or else she would have been killed. Of the Peacemakers, Steyr despises humans the most, angered at the 5000 years of "humans killing humans" she has seen. However, she is unaware that the Peacemakers, including her, are Valkyrie Types – an upgraded version of a Dragoon, and that she was created by humans, but got brainwashed into working for the enemy. Steyr's name is also mentioned as Stella. In her normal humanoid form, Steyr looks like a beautiful human woman with long pale blonde hair. Unlike Cz, Steyr is a civilian type cosmos guardian. Almost succeeds in killing Shannon in his full D-Knight form, but is destroyed when she is speared through the head by all three Gigas' light lances.
Galil
Another Peacemaker, and also a civilian type like Steyr. He was killed by Zefiris earlier in the series. Strangely, he does not seem to be very strong, as Zefiris did not have to transform into her true form to destroy him, and she killed him when she was getting decompressed. It may be because Galil was unaware of her ability, and got caught off guard (Zefiris had actually provoked him, which probably led to his blind attack.) Not much is said about his personality, but according to Zefiris he is arrogant and looks down to others people thinking that he is much superior above anyone else. Like all civilian types, he also has blonde hair. He was originally Cz's partner, as the Peacemakers operate in pairs, and was intended to retrieve Cz and decompress her – his death complicates Cz's decompression and forces Steyr to take over.
Socom
An artillery type Peacemaker, like Cz. He appears later in the series. His personality is like Steyr's, but not as sadistic. He is also not as overly determined to get chances to kill people ( In an episode, while waiting for Pacifica to reach Leinwan, Steyr suggested to start killing people, but Socom, coming in the middle of the conversation between Steyr and Cz on who seems more human, said that there was no need to play petty tricks.). Nevertheless, he hates humans, or at least feels no particular desire to protect them. He is Steyr's partner. Destroyed in the last episode by the three Gigas when they use their light lances to slice him into three sections.
Gods
Celia/Seria Mauser
Celia is actually the Lord Mauser. 5000 years ago, she was a seer in the Genesis Wars, and could read the enemies' movements with great accuracy. With the combined powers of the Peacemakers (also known as the Valkyrie Type) and the Dragoons, humans were a formidable foe. However, in an effort to stop the war and so prevent her brother (a D-knight like Shannon - Zefiris was his Dragoon) and sister from dying Celia betrayed the humans. The effort was in vain though, as both of them died before the war ended. Celia's betrayal led to the brainwashing of the Peacemakers and humanity being sealed in the world called Providence. Celia has maintained her appearance from 5000 years ago in an artificial body. The Peacemakers obey her, and they do not know that she was actually a human woman. It is quite ironic, as the Peacemakers (except for Cz) view humans with contempt as foolish beings who just cause trouble. Celia looks almost exactly like Pacifica, except for having lighter hair and a more matured look. Her siblings also look like Shannon and Raquel (except that Celia is their older sister, instead of younger). This is explained on board the Skiv, when Seness reveals that genetic engineering was used to ensure that the Providence Breaker gene (inherited by Pacifica) and Guardian genes (inherited by Raquel and Shannon, among others) would propagate throughout the captive humans. At the end, when Celia asks Pacifica whether it was right for the humans to be sealed, Pacifica said that people should be set free. Celia then smiles, and before disappearing in the end, says that she is glad that she is finally free to join her dead siblings.
One theory for the notable resemblance between Pacifica and Celia is that Browning had intentionally used Celia's DNA as the DNA for the Providence Breaker, which would explain why the Peacemakers cannot attack her, as Celia and Pacifica are practically the same person.
Lord George Browning
5000 years ago, he led 26 Dragoons, with their D-knights against the alien force – and later the Peacemakers – in an effort to defend humanity. In the 5000 years after the fall and sealing of humanity in Providence, he became a legend; just as Celia/Sillia became Lord Mauser, and the Peacemakers her Apostles, Lord Browning became known as the "Devil", while the faithful Dragoons were referred to as his "Demon servants", despite the fact that he is very much as human as Celia. It was said at first that he tried to wreak havoc on the world, but the Peacemakers and the Lord Mauser apparently defeated him. However, the truth was that the two of them were the most important people who helped defend the human race during the Genesis Wars, until Celia betrayed them and caused the Peacemakers to get brainwashed. Browning was the one who first proposed giving Celia her power.
Other
Mr. Soopy/Soopy-kun
A dragon mascot used to market bread, buns and cakes by a baker. Originally, Pacifica wears the costume as a part-time advertising job but then gives the job to Leopold. Leopold is allowed to keep the costume as a reward for helping to sell the bread and then often uses the costume as pajamas. At one point, Leopold uses his Mr. Soopy costume to play the part of a dragon, while Pacifica (then known as Pamela) plays the part of the valiant knight and his horse (the design strikingly similar to Leopold and his horse Parabellum). Raquel seems to have an almost obsessive liking for Mr. Soopy, and once conjured up many little Mr. Soopies to help Pacifica prepare dinner.
Dragunov
The one of Casull's two brown horses that receives more limelight, placed on the right when pulling the wagon. While Leopold was making conversation with Pacifica during their first meeting while traveling, Parabellum was staring at Dragunov as they walked, drawing a parallel to their masters. As she pulled the carriage ahead of Parabellum to get away from him, Parabellum continually sped up to match her pace, ending with all three horses running at full speed and Leopold getting a branch to the face. When Shannon left to rescue Winia, he took Dragunov with him. Later, after meeting Cin, the Casulls had no choice but to sell Dragunov and the wagon for money to make ends meet. Later, while fleeing soldiers, Leopold and Fulle picked up Dragunov and Parabellum (coincidentally kept in neighboring stalls) from the stable of "confiscated" horses in the city (we do not know it is Dragunov until Raquel, and then Pacifica, recognizes the horse). In the epilogue, Dragunov goes into labor.
Makarov
One of the Casull's two brown horses, placed on the left when pulling the wagon. After Shannon successfully sold the wagon and Dragunov, Makarov was left to help them carry their supplies. After bumping into Seness and her troops, Makarov was placed in their safekeeping. The horse was eventually reunited with the Casulls after their successful escape from the capital.
Parabellum
Leopold Scorpus' white stallion. While Leopold was taking an interest in Pacifica, Parabellum was taking an interest in Dragunov. However she did not reciprocate and tried to walk ahead of him. However Parabellum kept trying to match her pace and all three horses ending up running at full speed. Later, as Leopold and Winia were helping Fulle to hide Pacifica, Parabellum was confiscated by the Army. Before making their escape, Leopold and Fulle went back into town to pick out two horses to help them get away; Leopold immediately picked out Parabellum by whistling to him. Fulle then took the horse next to Parabellum (Dragunov, coincidentally enough). There is a likely chance that Parabellum sired Dragunov's offspring, seeing that Dragunov goes into labor in the epilogue.
See also
List of Scrapped Princess episodes
References
External links
Cast listing at Seiyuu.info
Scrapped Princess |
4516742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20Lengua | Media Lengua | Media Lengua, also known as Chaupi-lengua, Chaupi-Quichua, , or , (roughly translated to "half language" or "in-between language") is a mixed language with Spanish vocabulary and Kichwa grammar, most conspicuously in its morphology. In terms of vocabulary, almost all lexemes (89%), including core vocabulary, are of Spanish origin and appear to conform to Kichwa phonotactics. Media Lengua is one of the few widely acknowledged examples of a "bilingual mixed language" in both the conventional and narrow linguistic sense because of its split between roots and suffixes. Such extreme and systematic borrowing is only rarely attested, and Media Lengua is not typically described as a variety of either Kichwa or Spanish. Arends et al., list two languages subsumed under the name Media Lengua: Salcedo Media Lengua and Media Lengua of Saraguro. The northern variety of Media Lengua, found in the province of Imbabura, is commonly referred to as Imbabura Media Lengua and more specifically, the dialect varieties within the province are known as Pijal Media Lengua and Angla Media Lengua.
Geographical distribution
Media Lengua was first documented in Salcedo, Cotopaxi about 100 km south of Quito, Ecuador, by Dutch linguist Pieter Muysken during fieldwork on Ecuadorian Kichwa. During Muysken's surveys of the language, he also described other highly relexified varieties of Kichwa, including Amazonian Pidgin, Kichwa-Spanish interlanguage, Saraguro Media Lengua, and Catalangu. A 2011 investigation of Salcedo Media Lengua, however, suggests that the language is no longer spoken by the locals in and around Salcedo Canton. Little is known about the current status of the other relexified varieties of Kichwa described by Muysken. Several investigations from 2005, 2008, and 2011, however, show that a variety of Media Lengua is currently being spoken in the northern province of Imbabura. The investigations estimate that Imbabura Media Lengua is spoken by 2,600 people, 600 in the community of Pijal aged 35 and roughly 2,000 in and around the community of Angla, typically 25–45 years of age, making Media Lengua an endangered language and moribund in Pijal. The variety of Media Lengua that is spoken in Pijal appears to have emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and had its first generation of native speakers in the 1910s. Pijal Media Lengua then spread to the nearby community of Angla in the 1950s and the 1960s through intercommunity marriages and commerce. The current status of Media Lengua in Angla appears to be slightly healthier than in Pijal with the Angla variety having been passed on, to an extent, to the 2008 generation of schoolaged children.
Origin Theories
The development trajectory of Media Lengua is unclear. Several theories exist concerning the origins of Media Lengua. According to Muysken, Salcedo Media Lengua emerged through ethnic self-identification for indigenous populations, who no longer identified with either the rural Kichwa or the urban Spanish cultures. Lipski also claims that ethnic factors contributed to the origins of Salcedo Media Lengua but argues that the same can not be said for Imbabura Media Lengua. Instead, some speakers of Imbabura Media Lengua continue to self-identify as Kayambis, a pre-Inca ethnic group.
Gómez-Rendón claims Angla Media Lengua arose through prolonged contact between the Kichwa-speaking indigenous populations with the Mestizo Spanish speaking populations. Gómez-Rendón suggests that when Angla men returned form working outside of their community, there was a shift to Kichwa-Spanish bilingualism in households, leading to the development of Angla Media Lengua.
Dikker believes Media Lengua was created by men who left their native communities to work in urban Spanish-speaking areas. When the men returned to the communities, they had acquired a fluent level of Spanish and had been using Kichwa infrequently. Media Lengua then served as a link between the older monolingual Kichwa-speaking generation and younger monolingual Spanish-speaking generations.
Finally, Stewart claims that Media Lengua was either brought to Pijal from Salcedo or vice versa. He bases these claims on the "striking resemblance" between the Pijal and Salcedo varieties at both the phonological and the morphological level. The claim also includes testimonies of a large migration from Cotopaxi to Pijal at the beginning of the 20th century, which can be seen in the many Cotopaxi surnames in community.
Most researchers agree, however, that Media Lengua developed linguistically through various processes of lexification (relexification, adlexification and translexification) in a relatively short period of time.
Vitality
In 2018, Lipski visited the communities where Media Lengua was first documented. He reports that Media Lengua is no longer spoken by the community members. Since the language was first documented in the 1970's, there has been a shift to Spanish as the dominant language of the community. In the Province of Imbabura, reports reflect that Media Lengua is still spoken in the communities of Pijal, Angla, and Casco Valenzuela. However, the sociolinguistic aspects of Media Lengua differ between these communities. In Pijal, speakers of Media Lengua are typically aged 35 and above, those aged 20–35 typically have a passive knowledge of the language, and speakers aged 20 and younger are often monolingual in Spanish. In the more urban communities of Angla and Casco-Valenzuela, this is not the case. Media Lengua is preferred and spoken on a daily basis among a wider age range of individuals. There are also cases of children acquiring Media Lengua from their parents and grandparents, which is not the case in Pijal. Lipski reports that Media Lengua is even being used by school aged children who attend a Kichwa-Spanish bilingual school in Topo. Estimates of the number of speakers vary widely. In Pijal, there is an estimated of around 600 speakers while in the communities of Angla, Uscha, Casco-Valenzuela, and El Topo, there may be as many 2000+ speakers.
Phonology
Consonants
Words of Spanish origin often appear to conform to Kichwa phonotactics. However, voiced obstruents, which exist phonologically only as stops in a post-sonorant environment in Kichwa, appear phonemically as minimal pairs or near minimal pairs in Media Lengua through Spanish borrowings:
Kichwa [-sonorant] [+voice]/[+sonorant]___
Another phonological difference between Media Lengua and Kichwa is that Media Lengua often does not take into account the voicing rule.
However, in certain instances, especially regarding verbal inflections, the Kichwa voicing rule is preserved.
Other Spanish borrowings
Labial [+/-continuant] contrast ( vs. )
(1) fuerte "strong" vs. puerta "door"
Kichwa influences
Spanish intervocalic becomes in Media Lengua.
(2) Spanish casa "house" becomes Media Lengua casa "house"
Spanish becomes Media Lengua .
(3) Spanish carro "car" becomes .
Spanish becomes Media Lengua .
(4) Spanish pollo "chicken" becomes .
Archaic Spanish preservation of
A number of lexical items in both the Salcedo and Imbabura varieties maintain Spanish preservations from the Colonial period; most notably word-initial /x/.
(*)=reconstruction
IPA Chart (Imbabura Media Lengua)
Common allophones are marked in brackets([]) and affricates are presented under the place of final articulation.
Vowels
There are several competing views regarding the number and types of vowels in Media Lengua. One theory suggests Salcedo Media Lengua, like Kichwa, maintains three vowels [i], [u] and [a], with the occasional Spanish preservation of [e] and [o] in names, interjections and in stressed positions. Under that theory, all other Spanish borrowings assimilate to the Kichwa system. Another theory suggests that Imbabura Media Lengua passes through a three-step process of assimilation and words can maintain Spanish phonotactics [kabeza] cabeza 'head', undergo partial assimilation [kabisa] cabeza or (3) undergo complete assimilation [kabiza] cabeza. This theory also suggests that high-frequency words also tend to undergo complete assimilation, but low-frequency do not. Finally, acoustic evidence supports the claim that Media Lengua could be dealing with as many as eight vowels: Spanish-derived [i, a, u], which exist as extreme mergers with Kichwa-derived [i, a, u], and Spanish-derived [e] and [o], which exist as partial mergers with Kichwa [i] and [u], respectively.
Spanish diphthongs also exist with various degrees of assimilation in both Media Lengua dialects. The diphthong /ue/ is sometimes pronounced as /u/, /wi/ or /i/; Spanish /ui/ is pronounced /u/; Spanish /ie/ is pronounced as /i/; and Spanish /ai/, is maintained from Kichwa.
There is also evidence of sonorant devoicing between voiceless obstruents, which affects the realization of pitch accents that fall on devoiced syllables (see the following section).
[+sonorant][-voice]/[-sonorant] ___ [-sonorant]
[-voice][-voice]
(1) Vosteka tuyu casapika.
[bos.te.ka tu.ju ka.za.pika][bos.te̥.ka tu.ju ka.za.pi̥ka]
"[What do] you [have planted] at your house?"
Prosody
According to Muysken (1997), like Kichwa, stress is penultimate in Media Lengua. Stewart (2015), referring to stress as pitch accent (PA), provides a similar analysis pointing towards the realization of a low-high pitch accent (L+H*) taking place at the prosodic word level on, leading up to, or just after the penultimate syllable of a word. In the majority of a cases, an L+H* pitch accent on the penultimate syllable describes word level prosody (see example 1).
(1)L+H*L+H*L+H*L%
Papasuka wawakunawanmi colerahurka.
"Father was angry with the children."
In certain cases, however, a simple high (H*) may appear when the PA follows the penultimate syllable of a disyllabic word or when a voiceless onset appears in the penultimate syllable (see example 2). In both cases, Stewart (2015) suggests that is caused since there is no material to bear the preaccental rise, which would otherwise be realized as a typical L+H* PA.
(2)H*L+H*L%
Bela quemajun.
"The candle is burning."
Media Lengua also appears to mark emphasis at the prosodic word level with a substantial increase in pitch frequency on one or more words in an utterance (L+^H*) (see example 3). Pitch accents may also appear in a stair step-like pattern in utterances containing reduplication where the low (L) on the second instance of the reduplicated pair is often undershot. In the first instance of the reduplicated pair, a standard L+H* appears while in the second instances an emphatic L+^H% PA takes place where the L may be undershot (see example 4).
(3)L+H*L+^H*L+H*L+^H*L+H*L+H*L+^H*L%
Y alotro diaka vuelta otro bastanteta llevashpa, escondidito mio mamamanta llevashpa inkarkachi.
"And on the following day, we would go bringing another bunch [of beans] hidden from my mom."
(4)L+H*L+H*L+^H*L+H*L-H*H*H%
Diaymanta wachu wachu buscashka dezin uno cañata.
"So, they say she looked all over the plot of land, for a stick that is."
Stewart (2015) also describes instances of intermediate boundaries appearing as a single low tone (L-). These are often observed in standard content questions (wh-questions) following the utterance-initial question constituent or in some cases after words containing an emphatic PA (see example 5). There is also evidence of intermediate boundary tones in the form of pitch restart which take place in listing intonation just before the listing of items begins.
(5)L+H*L-L%
Quienpatak ese pelota?
"Whose ball is that?"
The intonational phrase in Media Lengua (the highest level unit within the autosegmental-metrical framework ) is marked by a low boundary tone (L%) at the end of nearly every utterance (see examples 1, 2, 3, and 5). An exception to the configuration can be found in what Stewart (2015) refers to as clarifying utterances, which are marked with a high boundary tone (H%) (see example 4). Clarifying utterances in Media Lengua are used in three typical scenarios: (1) to clarify that a topic within a conversation is shared by those speaking, (2) to provide information which was accidentally left out of the main clause, and (3) provide the listener with additional information.
Morphology
Media Lengua, like Kichwa, is a highly agglutinative language. Its normal sentence order is SOV (subject–object–verb). There are a large number of suffix changes both in the overall significance of words and their meanings. Of the 63 particles in Kichwa, Imbabura Media Lengua makes use of 49; an estimated 80% of the original Kichwa morphemes. The derivation and infectional particles appear to be in complete functioning order in the same way they are found in Ecuadorian Kichwa.
(1) y mientras trabaja-shpa-ndu primer año estudia-rka-ni
and while work-GER-GER first year study-PRET-1s
"And while I worked the first year, I studied."
Writing
Jilana in Media Lengua, Spanish, and English:
Notes
References
Bibliography
Backus Ad. 2003. Can a mixed language be conventionalised alternational codeswitching? in Matras & Bakker (eds) The Mixed Language Debate: theoretical and empirical advances Mouton de Gruyter Berlin: 237-/270.
Dikker, S. (2008). Spanish prepositions in Media Lengua: Redefining relexification. Hispanisation: the impact of Spanish on the lexicon and grammar of the indigenous languages of Austronesia and the Americas (pp. 121–146). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Gómez-Rendón, J. (2005). La Media Lengua de Imbabura. ncuentros conflictos biling ismo contacto de lenguas en el mundo andino (pp. 39–58). Madrid: Iberoamericana.
Gómez-Rendón, J. A. (2008). Mestizaje lingüístico en los Andes: génesis y estructura de una lengua mixta (1era. ed.). Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala.
Jarrín, G. (2014). Estereotipos Lingüísticos en Relación al Kichwa y a la Media Lengua en las Comunidades de Angla, Casco Valenzuela, El Topo y Ucsha de la Parroquia San Pablo del Lago. (Licenciatura), Pontificia Universidad Católica Del Ecuador, Quito.
Muysken, P. (1981). Halfway between Quechua and Spanish: The case for relexification. Historicity and variation in Creole studies (pp. 57–78). Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers.
Muysken, Pieter (1997). "Media Lengua", in Thomason, Sarah G. Contact languages: a wider perspective Amsterdam: John Benjamins (pp. 365–426)
Pallares, A. (2002). From peasant struggles to Indian resistance: the Ecuadorian Andes in the late twentieth century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
McConvell, P. and Meakins, F. (2005). Gurindji Kriol: A Mixed Language Emerges from Code-switching. Quatro Fonologias Quechuas, 25(1), 9-30.
Shappeck, Marco (2011). Quichua–Spanish language contact in Salcedo, Ecuador: Revisiting Media Lengua syncretic language practices (dissertation)
Stewart, J. (2011). A Brief Descriptive Grammar of Pijal Media Lengua and an Acoustic Vowel Space Analysis of Pijal Media Lengua and Imbabura Quichua (MA thesis). Winnipeg: University of Manitoba, MSpace.
Stewart, J. (2013). Stories and Traditions from Pijal: Told in Media Lengua. North Charleston: CreateSpace
Stewart, J. (2014). A comparative analysis of Media Lengua and Quichua vowel production. Phonetica 7(3):159-182
Stewart, J. (2015). Intonation patterns in Pijal Media Lengua. Journal of language contact 8(2):223-262.
Stewart, J. (2015). Production and Perception of Stop Consonants in Spanish, Quichua, and Media Lengua. PhD Dissertation, Winnipeg: University of Manitoba, DSpace.
Stewart, J. (2018). Voice Onset Time Production in Spanish, Quichua, and Media Lengua. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 48(2):173–97. doi: doi.org/10.1017/S002510031700024X.
Stewart, J. (2018). Vowel Perception by Native Media Lengua, Quichua, and Spanish Speakers. Journal of Phonetics 71:177–93. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2018.08.005.
Stewart, Jesse. (2020). A Preliminary, Descriptive Survey of Rhotic and Approximant Fricativization in Northern Ecuadorian Andean Spanish Varieties, Quichua, and Media Lengua’. in Spanish Phonetics and Phonology in Contact: Studies from Africa, the Americas, and Spain, Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics series, edited by R. Rao. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Stewart, J., G. Prado Ayala & L. Gonza Inlago. (2020). Media Lengua Dictionary. Dictionaria 12: 1-3216.
Thomason, S. G., & Kaufman, T. (1988). Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
External links
Media Lengua Dictionary
Georg Bossong on mixed languages, including Media Lengua (in German)
Article by Pieter Muysken on Root/Affix asymmetries in contact transfer including Media Lengua
Marco Shappeck's PhD dissertation on Quichua-Spanish contact in Salcedo
Jesse Stewart's MA thesis describing Imbabura Media Lengua and an acoustic analysis of vowel production in Quichua and Media Lengua
A comparative analysis of Media Lengua and Quichua vowel production by Jesse Stewart
Stories and Tradictions from Pijal: Told in Media Lengua by Jesse Stewart
LA MEZCLA DE QUECHUA Y CASTELLANO El caso de la "media lengua" en el Ecuador by Pieter Muysken (in Spanish)
Estereotipos Lingüísticos en Relación al Kichwa y a la Media Lengua en las Comunidades de Angla, Casco Valenzuela, El Topo y Ucsha de la Parroquia San Pablo del Lago by Gabriela Jarrín (in Spanish)
La Media Lengua de Imbabura by Jorge Gómez-Rendón (in Spanish)
Intonational patterns in Pijal Media Lengua by Jesse Stewart
Mixed languages
South America Native-based pidgins and creoles
Quechuan languages
Spanish language in South America
Spanish words and phrases
Languages of Ecuador |
4517597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto%20Ricans | Afro–Puerto Ricans | Afro–Puerto Ricans are Puerto Ricans who are of Black African descent. The history of Puerto Ricans of African descent begins with free African men, known as libertos, who accompanied the Spanish Conquistadors in the invasion of the island. The Spaniards enslaved the Taínos (the native inhabitants of the island), many of whom died as a result of new infectious diseases and the Spaniards' oppressive colonization efforts. Spain's royal government needed laborers and began to rely on African slavery to staff their mining and fort-building operations. The Crown authorized importing enslaved West Africans. As a result, the majority of the African peoples who entered Puerto Rico were the result of the Atlantic slave trade, and came from many different cultures and peoples of the African continent.
When the gold mines in Puerto Rico were declared depleted, the Spanish Crown no longer considered the island to be a high colonial priority. Its chief ports served primarily as a garrison to support naval vessels. The Spaniards encouraged free people of color from British and French possessions in the Caribbean to emigrate to Puerto Rico, to provide a population base to support the Puerto Rican garrison. The Spanish decree of 1789 allowed slaves to earn or buy their freedom; however, this did little to help their situation. The expansion of sugar cane plantations drove up demand for labor and the slave population increased dramatically as new slaves were imported. Throughout the years, there were many slave revolts in the island. Slaves who were promised their freedom joined the 1868 uprising against Spanish colonial rule in what is known as the Grito de Lares. On March 22, 1873, slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico.
The contributions of ethnic Africans to the music, art, language, and heritage have been instrumental in Puerto Rican culture.
First Africans in Puerto Rico
When Ponce de León and the Spaniards arrived on the island of Borinquen (Puerto Rico), they were greeted by the Cacique Agüeybaná, the supreme leader of the peaceful Taíno tribes on the island. Agüeybaná helped to maintain the peace between the Taíno and the Spaniards. According to historian Ricardo Alegria, in 1509 Juan Garrido was the first free African man to set foot on the island; he was a conquistador who was part of Juan Ponce de León's entourage. Garrido was born on the West African coast, the son of an African king. In 1508, he joined Juan Ponce de León to explore Puerto Rico and prospect for gold. In 1511, he fought under Ponce de León to repress the Carib and the Taíno, who had joined forces in Puerto Rico in a great revolt against the Spaniards. Garrido next joined Hernán Cortés in the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Another free African man who accompanied de León was Pedro Mejías. Mejías married a Taíno woman chief (a cacica), by the name of Yuisa. Yuisa was baptized as Catholic so that she could marry Mejías. She was given the Christian name of Luisa (the town Loíza, Puerto Rico was named for her).
The peace between the Spanish and the Taíno was short-lived. The Spanish took advantage of the Taínos' good faith and enslaved them, forcing them to work in the gold mines and in the construction of forts. Many Taíno died, particularly due to epidemics of smallpox, to which they had no immunity. Other Taínos committed suicide or left the island after the failed Taíno revolt of 1511.
Friar Bartolomé de las Casas, who had accompanied Ponce de León, was outraged at the Spanish treatment of the Taíno. In 1512 he protested at the council of Burgos at the Spanish Court. He fought for the freedom of the natives and was able to secure their rights. The Spanish colonists, fearing the loss of their labor force, also protested before the courts. They complained that they needed manpower to work in the mines, build forts, and supply labor for the thriving sugar cane plantations. As an alternative, Las Casas suggested the importation and use of African slaves. In 1517, the Spanish Crown permitted its subjects to import twelve slaves each, thereby beginning the African slave trade in their colonies.
According to historian Luis M. Diaz, the largest contingent of African slaves came from the areas of the present-day Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria; all these current countries are located in the Gulf of Guinea, area also known as the Slave Coast. The large majority were Yoruba and Igbo, ethnic groups from Nigeria, and Bantu from the Guinea. The number of slaves in Puerto Rico rose from 1,500 in 1530 to 15,000 by 1555. The slaves were stamped with a hot iron on the forehead, a branding which meant that they were brought to the country legally and prevented their kidnapping.
African slaves were sent to work in the gold mines to replace the Taíno, or to work in the fields in the island's ginger and sugar industries. They were allowed to live with their families in a bohio (hut) on the master's land, and were given a patch of land where they could plant and grow vegetables and fruits. Africans had little or no opportunity for advancement and faced discrimination from the Spaniards. Slaves were educated by their masters and soon learned to speak the master's language, educating their own children in the new language. They enriched the "Puerto Rican Spanish" language by adding words of their own. The Spaniards considered Africans more malleable than the Taíno, since the latter were unwilling to assimilate. The slaves, in contrast, had little choice but to adapt to their lives. Many converted (at least nominally) to Christianity; they were baptized by the Catholic Church and were given the surnames of their masters. Many slaves were subject to harsh treatment; and women were subject to sexual abuse. The majority of the Conquistadors and farmers who settled the island had arrived without women; many of them intermarried with the African or Taíno women. Their Multiracial descendants formed the first generations of the early Puerto Rican population.
In 1527, the first major slave rebellion occurred in Puerto Rico, as dozen of slaves fought against the colonists in a brief revolt. The few slaves who escaped retreated to the forests and mountains, where they resided as maroons with surviving Taínos. During the following centuries, by 1873 slaves had carried out more than twenty revolts. Some were of great political importance, such as the Ponce and Vega Baja conspiracies.
By 1570, the colonists found that the gold mines were depleted. After gold mining ended on the island, the Spanish Crown bypassed Puerto Rico by moving the western shipping routes to the north. The island became primarily a garrison for those ships that would pass on their way to or from richer colonies. The cultivation of crops such as tobacco, cotton, cocoa, and ginger became the cornerstone of the economy. With the scale of Puerto Rico's economy reduced, colonial families tended to farm these crops themselves, and the demand for slaves was reduced.
With rising demand for sugar on the international market, major planters increased their cultivation and processing of sugar cane, which was labor-intensive. Sugar plantations supplanted mining as Puerto Rico's main industry and kept demand high for African slavery. Spain promoted sugar cane development by granting loans and tax exemptions to the owners of the plantations. They were also given permits to participate in the African slave trade.
To attract more workers, in 1664 Spain offered freedom and land to African-descended people from non-Spanish colonies, such as Jamaica and Saint-Domingue (later Haiti). Most of the free people of color who were able to immigrate were of mixed-race, with African and European ancestry (typically either British or French paternal ancestry, depending on the colony.) The immigrants provided a population base to support the Puerto Rican garrison and its forts. Freedmen who settled the western and southern parts of the island soon adopted the ways and customs of the Spaniards. Some joined the local militia, which fought against the British in the many British attempts to invade the island. The escaped slaves and the freedmen who emigrated from the West Indies used their former master's surnames, which were typically either English or French. In the 21st century, some ethnic African Puerto Ricans still carry non-Spanish surnames, proof of their descent from these immigrants.
After 1784, Spain suspended the use of hot branding the slave's forehead for identification. In addition, it provided ways by which slaves could obtain freedom:
A slave could be freed by his master in a church or outside it, before a judge, by testament or letter.
A slave could be freed against his master's will by denouncing a forced rape, by denouncing a counterfeiter, by discovering disloyalty against the king, and by denouncing murder against his master.
Any slave who received part of his master's estate in his master's will was automatically freed (these bequests were sometimes made to the master's mixed-race slave children, as well as to other slaves for service.)
If a slave was made a guardian to his master's children, he was freed.
If slave parents in Hispanic America had ten children, the whole family was freed.
Royal Decree of Graces of 1789
In 1789, the Spanish Crown issued the "Royal Decree of Graces of 1789", which set new rules related to the slave trade and added restrictions to the granting of freedman status. The decree granted its subjects the right to purchase slaves and to participate in the flourishing slave trade in the Caribbean. Later that year a new slave code, also known as El Código Negro (The Black Code), was introduced.
Under "El Código Negro," a slave could buy his freedom, in the event that his master was willing to sell, by paying the price sought. Slaves were allowed to earn money during their spare time by working as shoemakers, cleaning clothes, or selling the produce they grew on their own plots of land. Slaves were able to pay for their freedom by installments. They pay in installments for the freedom of their newborn child, not yet baptized, at a cost of half the going price for a baptized child. Many of these freedmen started settlements in the areas which became known as Cangrejos (Santurce), Carolina, Canóvanas, Loíza, and Luquillo. Some became slave owners themselves.
The native-born Puerto Ricans (criollos) who wanted to serve in the regular Spanish army petitioned the Spanish Crown for that right. In 1741, the Spanish government established the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico. Many of the former slaves, now freedmen, joined either the Fijo or the local civil militia. Puerto Ricans of African ancestry played an instrumental role in the defeat of Sir Ralph Abercromby in the British invasion of Puerto Rico in 1797.
Despite these paths to freedom, from 1790 onwards, the number of slaves more than doubled in Puerto Rico as a result of the dramatic expansion of the sugar industry in the island. Every aspect of sugar cultivation, harvesting and processing was arduous and harsh. Many slaves died on the sugar plantations.
19th century
Royal Decree of Graces of 1815
The Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 was intended to encourage Spaniards and later other Europeans to settle and populate the colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico. The decree encouraged the use of slave labor to revive agriculture and attract new settlers. The new agricultural class immigrating from other countries of Europe used slave labor in large numbers, and harsh treatment was frequent. The slaves resisted -from the early 1820s until 1868, a series of slave uprisings occurred on the island; the last was known as the Grito de Lares.
In July 1821, for instance, the slave Marcos Xiorro planned and conspired to lead a slave revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish Colonial government. Although the conspiracy was suppressed, Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves, and is part of Puerto Rico's heroic folklore.
The 1834 Royal Census of Puerto Rico established that 11% of the population were slaves, 35% were colored freemen (also known as free people of color in French colonies, meaning free mixed-race/black people), and 54% were white. In the following decade, the number of the slave population increased more than tenfold to 258,000, the result mostly of increased importation to meet the demand for labor on sugar plantations.
In 1836, the names and descriptions of slaves who had escaped, and details of their ownership were reported in the Gaceta de Puerto Rico. If an African presumed to be a slave was captured and arrested, the information was published.
Planters became nervous because of the large number of slaves; they ordered restrictions, particularly on their movements outside a plantation. Rose Clemente, a 21st-century black Puerto Rican columnist, wrote, "Until 1846, Blacks on the island had to carry a notebook (Libreta system) to move around the island, like the passbook system in apartheid South Africa."
After the successful slave rebellion against the French in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1803, establishing a new republic, the Spanish Crown became fearful that the "Criollos" (native born) of Puerto Rico and Cuba, her last two remaining possessions, might follow suit. The Spanish government issued the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 to attract European immigrants from non-Spanish countries to populate the island, believing that these new immigrants would be more loyal to Spain than the mixed-race Criollos. However, they did not expect the new immigrants to racially intermarry, as they did, and to identify completely with their new homeland. By 1850, most of the former Spanish possessions in the Americans had achieved independence.
On May 31, 1848, the Governor of Puerto Rico Juan Prim, in fear of an independence or slavery revolt, imposed draconian laws, "El Bando contra La Raza Africana", to control the behavior of all Black Puerto Ricans, free or slave.
On September 23, 1868, slaves, who had been promised freedom, participated in the short failed revolt against Spain which became known as "El Grito de Lares" or "The Cry of Lares." Many of the participants were imprisoned or executed.
During this period, Puerto Rico provided a means for people to leave some of the racial restrictions behind: under such laws as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar, a person of African ancestry could be considered legally white if able to prove they also had ancestors with at least one person per generation in the last four generations who had been legally white. Therefore, people of black ancestry with known white lineage became classified as white. This was the opposite of the later "one-drop rule" of hypodescent in the United States, whereby persons of any known African ancestry were classified as black.
Abolitionists
During the mid-19th century, a committee of abolitionists was formed in Puerto Rico that included many prominent Puerto Ricans. Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances (1827–1898), whose mixed-race parents were wealthy landowners, believed in abolitionism, and together with fellow Puerto Rican abolitionist Segundo Ruiz Belvis (1829–1867), founded a clandestine organization called "The Secret Abolitionist Society." The objective of the society was to free slave children by paying for freedom when they were baptized. The event, which was also known as "aguas de libertad" (waters of liberty), was carried out at the Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria Cathedral in Mayagüez. When the child was baptized, Betances would give money to the parents, which they used to buy the child's freedom from the master.
José Julián Acosta (1827–1891) was a member of a Puerto Rican commission, which included Ramón Emeterio Betances, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, and Francisco Mariano Quiñones (1830–1908). The commission participated in the "Overseas Information Committee" which met in Madrid, Spain. There, Acosta presented the argument for the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico. On November 19, 1872, Román Baldorioty de Castro (1822–1889) together with Luis Padial (1832–1879), Julio Vizcarrondo (1830–1889) and the Spanish Minister of Overseas Affairs, Segismundo Moret (1833–1913), presented a proposal for the abolition of slavery.
On March 22, 1873, the Spanish government approved what became known as the Moret Law, which provided for gradual abolition. This edict granted freedom to slaves over 60 years of age, those belonging to the state, and children born to slaves after September 17, 1868.
The Moret Law established the Central Slave Registrar. In 1872 it began gathering the following data on the island's slave population: name, country of origin, present residence, names of parents, sex, marital status, trade, age, physical description, and master's name. This has been an invaluable resource for historians and genealogists.
Abolition of slavery
On March 22, 1873, slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico, but with one significant caveat. The slaves were not emancipated; they had to buy their own freedom, at whatever price was set by their last masters. The law required that the former slaves work for another three years for their former masters, other people interested in their services, or for the state in order to pay some compensation.
The former slaves earned money in a variety of ways: some by trades, for instance as shoemakers, or laundering clothes, or by selling the produce they were allowed to grow, in the small patches of land allotted to them by their former masters. In a sense, they resembled the black sharecroppers of the southern United States after the American Civil War, but the latter did not own their land. They simply farmed another's land, for a share of the crops raised. The government created the Protector's Office which was in charge of overseeing the transition. The Protector's Office was to pay any difference owed to the former master once the initial contract expired.
The majority of the freed slaves continued to work for their former masters, but as free people, receiving wages for their labor. If the former slave decided not to work for his former master, the Protectors Office would pay the former master 23% of the former slave's estimated value, as a form of compensation.
The freed slaves became integrated into Puerto Rico's society. Racism has existed in Puerto Rico, but it is not considered to be as severe as other places in the New World, possibly because of the following factors:
In the 8th century, nearly all of Spain was conquered (711–718), by the Arab-Berber/African Moors who had crossed over from North Africa. The first African slaves were brought to Spain during Arab domination by North African merchants. By the middle of the 13th century, Christians had reconquered the Iberian peninsula. A section of Seville, which once was a Moorish stronghold, was inhabited by thousands of Africans. Africans became freemen after converting to Christianity, and they lived integrated in Spanish society. African women were highly sought after by Spanish males. Spain's exposure to people of color over the centuries accounted for the positive racial attitudes that prevailed in the New World. Historian Robert Martínez thought it was unsurprising that the first conquistadors intermarried with the native Taíno and later with the African immigrants.
The Catholic Church played an instrumental role in preserving the human dignity and working for the social integration of the African man in Puerto Rico. The church insisted that every slave be baptized and converted to the Catholic faith. Church doctrine held that master and slave were equal before the eyes of God, and therefore brothers in Christ with a common moral and religious character. Cruel and unusual punishment of slaves was considered a violation of the fifth commandment.
When the gold mines were declared depleted in 1570 and mining came to an end in Puerto Rico, the majority of the white Spanish settlers left the island to seek their fortunes in the richer colonies such as Mexico; the island became a Spanish garrison. The majority of those who stayed behind were either African or mulattoes (of mixed race). By the time Spain reestablished commercial ties with Puerto Rico, the island had a large multiracial population. After the Spanish Crown issued the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, it attracted many European immigrants, in effect "whitening" the island into the 1850s. But, the new arrivals also intermarried with native islanders, and added to the multiracial population. They also identified with the island, rather than simply with the rulers.
Two Puerto Rican writers have written about racism; Abelardo Díaz Alfaro (1916–1999) and Luis Palés Matos (1898–1959), who was credited with creating the poetry genre known as Afro-Antillano.
Spanish–American War
The Treaty of Paris of 1898 settled the Spanish–American War, which ended the centuries-long Spanish control over Puerto Rico. Like with other former Spanish colonies, it now belonged to the United States. With the United States control over the island's institutions also came a reduction of the natives' political participation. In effect, the U.S. military government defeated the success of decades of negotiations for political autonomy between Puerto Rico's political class and Madrid's colonial administration. Puerto Ricans of African descent, aware of the opportunities and difficulties for blacks in the United States, responded in various ways. The racial bigotry of the Jim Crow Laws stood in contrast to the African American expansion of mobility that the Harlem Renaissance illustrated.
One Puerto Rican politician of African descent who distinguished himself during this period was the physician and politician José Celso Barbosa (1857–1921). On July 4, 1899, he founded the pro-statehood Puerto Rican Republican Party and became known as the "Father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico" movement. Another distinguished Puerto Rican of African descent, who advocated Puerto Rico's independence, was Arturo Alfonso Schomburg (1874–1938). After emigrating to New York City in the United States, he amassed an extensive collection in preserving manuscripts and other materials of black Americans and the African diaspora. He is considered by some to be the "Father of Black History" in the United States, and a major study center and collection of the New York Public Library is named for him, the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. He coined the term Afroborincano, meaning African-Puerto Rican.
Discrimination
After the United States Congress approved the Jones Act of 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted US citizenship. As citizens Puerto Ricans were eligible for the military draft, and many were drafted into the armed forces of the United States during World War I. The armed forces were segregated until after World War II. Puerto Ricans of African descent were subject to the discrimination which was rampant in the military and the U.S.
Black Puerto Ricans residing in the mainland United States were assigned to all-black units. Rafael Hernández (1892–1965) and his brother Jesus, along with 16 more Puerto Ricans, were recruited by Jazz bandleader James Reese Europe to join the United States Army's Orchestra Europe. They were assigned to the 369th Infantry Regiment, an African-American regiment; it gained fame during World War I and was nicknamed "The Harlem Hell Fighters" by the Germans.
The United States also segregated military units in Puerto Rico. Pedro Albizu Campos (1891–1965), who later became the leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, held the rank of lieutenant. He founded the "Home Guard" unit of Ponce and was later assigned to the 375th Infantry Regiment, an all-black Puerto Rican regiment, which was stationed in Puerto Rico and never saw combat. Albizu Campos later said that the discrimination which he witnessed in the Armed Forces, influenced the development of his political beliefs.
Puerto Ricans of African descent were discriminated against in sports. Puerto Ricans who were dark-skinned and wanted to play Major League Baseball in the United States, were not allowed to do so. In 1892 organized baseball had codified a color line, barring African-American players, and any player who was dark-skinned, from any country.
Ethnic African-Puerto Ricans continued to play baseball. In 1928, Emilio "Millito" Navarro traveled to New York City and became the first Puerto Rican to play baseball in the Negro leagues when he joined the Cuban Stars.
He was later followed by others such as Francisco Coimbre, who also played for the Cuban Stars.
The persistence of these men paved the way for the likes of Baseball Hall of Famers Roberto Clemente and Orlando Cepeda, who played in the Major Leagues after the colorline was broken by Jackie Robinson of the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947; they were inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame for their achievements. Cepeda's father Pedro Cepeda, was denied a shot at the major leagues because of his color. Pedro Cepeda was one of the greatest players of his generation, the dominant hitter in the Professional Baseball League of Puerto Rico after its founding in 1938. He refused to play in the Negro leagues due to his abhorrence of the racism endemic to the segregated United States.
Black Puerto Ricans also participated in other sports as international contestants. In 1917, Nero Chen became the first Puerto Rican boxer to gain international recognition when he fought against (Panama) Joe Gan at the "Palace Casino" in New York. In the 1948 Summer Olympics (the XIV Olympics), celebrated in London, boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas made sports history by becoming Puerto Rico's first Olympic medal winner when he beat Belgium's representative, Callenboat, on points for a unanimous decision. He won the bronze medal in boxing in the Bantamweight division. The event was also historic because it was the first time that Puerto Rico had participated as a nation in an international sporting event. It was common for impoverished Puerto Ricans to use boxing as a way to earn an income.
On March 30, 1965, José "Chegui" Torres defeated Willie Pastrano by technical knockout and won the World Boxing Council and World Boxing Association light heavyweight championships. He became the third Puerto Rican and the first one of African descent to win a professional world championship.
Among those who exposed the racism and discrimination in the US which Puerto Ricans, especially Black Puerto Ricans, were subject to, was Jesús Colón. Colón is considered by many as the "Father of the Nuyorican movement." He recounted his experiences in New York as a Black Puerto Rican in his book Lo que el pueblo me dice--: crónicas de la colonia puertorriqueña en Nueva York (What the people tell me---: Chronicles of the Puerto Rican colony in New York).
Critics of discrimination say that a majority of Puerto Ricans are racially mixed, but that they do not feel the need to identify as such. They argue that Puerto Ricans tend to assume that they are of Black African, American Indian, and European ancestry and only identify themselves as "mixed" only if they have parents who appear to be of distinctly different "races". Puerto Rico underwent a "whitening" process while under U.S. rule. There was a dramatic change in the numbers of people who were classified as "black" and "white" Puerto Ricans in the 1920 census, as compared to that in 1910. The numbers classified as "Black" declined sharply from one census to another (within 10 years' time). Historians suggest that more Puerto Ricans classified others as white because it was advantageous to do so at that time. In those years, census takers were generally the ones to enter the racial classification. Due to the power of Southern white Democrats, the US Census dropped the category of mulatto or mixed race in the 1930 census, enforcing the artificial binary classification of black and white. Census respondents were not allowed to choose their own classifications until the late 20th and early 21st centuries. It may have been that it was popularly thought it would be easier to advance economically and socially with the US if one were "white".
African influence in Puerto Rican culture
The descendants of the former slaves became instrumental in the development of Puerto Rico's political, economic and cultural structure. They overcame many obstacles and have contributed to the island's entertainment, sports, literature and scientific institutions. Their contributions and heritage can still be felt today in Puerto Rico's art, music, cuisine, and religious beliefs in everyday life. In Puerto Rico, March 22 is known as "Abolition Day" and it is a holiday celebrated by those who live in the island. The Spanish's limited focus on assimilating the black population, and maroon communities established from slave plantations, contributed to the majority African influence in black Puerto Rican culture. High amounts of interracial marriage and reproducing, since the 1500s, is the reason why the majority of Puerto Ricans are mixed-race European, African, Taino, but only a small number are of predominant or full African ancestry.
The first black people in the island came alongside European colonists as workers from Spain and Portugal known as Ladinos. During the 1500s, the slaves that Spain imported to Puerto Rico and most of its other colonies, were mainly from the Upper Guinea region. However, in the 1600s and 1700s, Spain imported large numbers of slaves from Lower Guinea and the Congo. According to various DNA studies, majority of the African ancestry among black and mixed-race Puerto Ricans comes from a few tribes such as the Wolof, Mandinka, Dahomey, Yoruba, Igbo, and Congolese, correlating to the modern-day countries of Senegal, Mali, Benin, Nigeria, and Angola. Slaves came from all parts of the western coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola. The Yoruba and Congolese made the most notable impacts to Puerto Rican culture. There's been evidence of intercolonial migration between Puerto Rico and its neighbors during the 1700s and 1800s, which consisted of migration of free blacks and purchases of slaves from neighboring islands.
Language
Many African slaves imported to Cuba and Puerto Rico spoke "Bozal" Spanish, a Creole language that was Spanish-based, with Congolese and Portuguese influence. Although Bozal Spanish became extinct in the nineteenth century, the African influence in the Spanish spoken in the island is still evident in the many Kongo words that have become a permanent part of Puerto Rican Spanish.
Music
Puerto Rican musical instruments such as barriles, drums with stretched animal skin, and Puerto Rican music-dance forms such as Bomba or Plena are likewise rooted in Africa. Bomba represents the strong African influence in Puerto Rico. Bomba is a music, rhythm and dance that was brought by West African slaves to the island.
Plena is another form of folkloric music of African origin. Plena was brought to Ponce by blacks who immigrated north from the English-speaking islands south of Puerto Rico. Plena is a rhythm that is clearly African and very similar to Calypso, Soca and Dance hall music from Trinidad and Jamaica.
Bomba and Plena were played during the festival of Santiago (St. James), since slaves were not allowed to worship their own gods. Bomba and Plena evolved into countless styles based on the kind of dance intended to be used. These included leró, yubá, cunyá, babú and belén. The slaves celebrated baptisms, weddings, and births with the "bailes de bomba". Slaveowners, for fear of a rebellion, allowed the dances on Sundays. The women dancers would mimic and poke fun at the slave owners. Masks were and still are worn to ward off evil spirits and pirates. One of the most popular masked characters is the Vejigante (vey-hee-GANT-eh). The Vejigante is a mischievous character and the main character in the Carnivals of Puerto Rico.
Until 1953, Bomba and Plena were virtually unknown outside Puerto Rico. Island musicians Rafael Cortijo (1928–1982), Ismael Rivera (1931–1987) and the El Conjunto Monterrey orchestra introduced Bomba and Plena to the rest of the world. What Rafael Cortijo did with his orchestra was to modernize the Puerto Rican folkloric rhythms with the use of piano, bass, saxophones, trumpets, and other percussion instruments such as timbales, bongos, and replace the typical barriles (skin covered barrels) with congas.
Cuisine
Nydia Rios de Colon, a contributor to the Smithsonian Folklife Cookbook, also offers culinary seminars through the Puerto Rican Cultural Institute. She writes of the cuisine:
Similarly, Johnny Irizarry and Maria Mills have written:
Religion
In 1478, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, established an ecclesiastical tribunal known as the Spanish Inquisition. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms.
The Inquisition maintained no rota or religious court in Puerto Rico. However, heretics were written up and if necessary remanded to regional Inquisitional tribunals in Spain or elsewhere in the western hemisphere. Africans were not allowed to practice non-Christian, native religious beliefs. No single organized ethnic African religion survived intact from the times of slavery to the present in Puerto Rico. But, many elements of African spiritual beliefs have been incorporated into syncretic ideas and practices. Santería, a Yoruba-Catholic syncretic mix, and Palo Mayombe, Kongolese traditions, are also practiced in Puerto Rico, the latter having arrived there at a much earlier time. A smaller number of people practice Vudú, which is derived from Dahomey mythology.
Palo Mayombe, or Congolese traditions, existed for several centuries before Santería developed during the 19th century. Guayama became nicknamed "the city of witches", because the religion was widely practiced in this town. Santeria is believed to have been organized in Cuba among its slaves. The Yoruba were brought to many places in the Caribbean and Latin America. They carried their traditions with them, and in some places, they held onto more of them. In Puerto Rico and Trinidad Christianity was dominant. Although converted to Christianity, the captured Africans did not abandon their traditional religious practices altogether. Santería is a syncretic religion created between the diverse images drawn from the Catholic Church and the representational deities of the African Yoruba ethnic group of Nigeria. Santería is widely practiced in the town of Loíza. Sister traditions emerged in their own particular ways on many of the smaller islands. Similarly, throughout Europe, early Christianity absorbed influences from differing practices among the peoples, which varied considerably according to region, language and ethnicity.
Santería has many deities said to be the "top" or "head" God. These deities, which are said to have descended from heaven to help and console their followers, are known as "Orishas." According to Santería, the Orishas are the ones who choose the person each will watch over.
Unlike other religions where a worshiper is closely identified with a sect (such as Christianity), the worshiper is not always a "Santero". Santeros are the priests and the only official practitioners. (These "Santeros" are not to be confused with the Puerto Rico's craftsmen who carve and create religious statues from wood, which are also called Santeros). A person becomes a Santero if he passes certain tests and has been chosen by the Orishas.
Current demographics
Considering the 2020 Census is the first to allow respondents to apply multiple races in their responses, there is considerable overlap that while appearing contradictory is in reality reflective of Puerto Rico's mixed history and population. As of the 2020 Census, 17.1% of Puerto Ricans identify as white, 17.5% identify as black or black in combination with another race, 2.3% as Amerindian, 0.3% as Asian, and 74% as "Some Other Race Alone or in Combination." Although estimates vary, most sources estimate that about 60% of Puerto Ricans have significant African ancestry. The vast majority of blacks in Puerto Rico are Afro–Puerto Rican, meaning they have been in Puerto Rico for generations, usually since the slave trade, forming an important part of Puerto Rican culture and society. Recent black immigrants have come to Puerto Rico, mainly from the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and other Latin American and Caribbean countries, and to a lesser extent directly from Africa as well. Many black migrants from the United States and the Virgin Islands have moved and settled in Puerto Rico. Also, many Afro–Puerto Ricans have migrated out of Puerto Rico, namely to the United States. There and in the US Virgin Islands, they make up the bulk of the U.S. Afro-Latino population.
Under Spanish and American rule, Puerto Rico underwent a whitening process. Puerto Rico went from around 50% of its population classified as black and mulatto in the first quarter of the 19th century, to nearly 80% classified white by the middle of the 20th century. Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar, which classified persons of mixed African-European ancestry as white, which was the opposite of "one-drop rule" in US society after the American Civil War. Additionally, the Spanish government's Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 encouraged immigration from other European countries. Heavy European immigration swelled Puerto Rico's population to about one million by the end of the 19th century, decreasing the proportion Africans made of Puerto Rico. In the early decades under US rule, census takers began to shift from classifying people as black to "white" and the society underwent what was called a "whitening" process from the 1910 to the 1920 census, in particular. During the mid 20th century, the US government forcefully sterilized Puerto Rican women, especially non-white Puerto Rican women.
Afro–Puerto Rican youth are learning more of their peoples' history from textbooks that encompass more Afro–Puerto Rican history. The 2010 US census recorded the first drop of the percentage whites made up of Puerto Rico, and the first rise in the black percentage, in over a century. Many of the factors that may possibly perpetuate this trend include: more Puerto Ricans may start to identify as black, due to increasing black pride and African cultural awareness throughout the island, as well as an increasing number of black immigrants, especially from the Dominican Republic and Haiti, many of whom are illegal immigrants, and increasing emigration of white Puerto Ricans to the mainland US.
The following lists only include only the number of people who identify as black and do not attempt to estimate everyone with African ancestry. As noted in the earlier discussion, several of these cities were places where freedmen gathered after gaining freedom, establishing communities.
The municipalities with the highest percentages of residents who identify as black, as of 2020, were:
Loiza: 64.7%
Canóvanas: 33.4%
Maunabo: 32.7%
Rio Grande: 32%
Culebra: 27.7%
Carolina: 27.3%
Vieques: 26%
Arroyo: 25.8%
Luquillo: 25.7%
Patillas: 24.1%
Ceiba: 23.8%
Juncos: 22.9%
San Juan: 22.2%
Toa Baja: 22.1%
Salinas: 22.1%
Cataño: 21.8%
Notable Afro–Puerto Ricans
Rafael Cordero (1790–1868), was born free in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Of African descent, he became known as "The Father of Public Education in Puerto Rico". Cordero was a self-educated Puerto Rican who provided free schooling to children regardless of their race. Among the distinguished alumni who attended Cordero's school were future abolitionists Román Baldorioty de Castro, Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, and José Julián Acosta. Cordero proved that racial and economic integration could be possible and accepted in Puerto Rico. In 2004, the Roman Catholic Church, upon the request of San Juan Archbishop Roberto González Nieves, began the process of Cordero's beatification. He was not the only one in his family to become an educator. In 1820, his older sister, Celestina Cordero, established the first school for girls in San Juan.
José Campeche (1751–1809), born a free man, contributed to the island's culture. Campeche's father, Tomás Campeche, was a freed slave born in Puerto Rico, and his mother María Jordán Marqués came from the Canary Islands. Since she was considered European (or white), her children were born free. Of mixed-race, Campeche was classified as a mulatto, a common term during his time meaning of African-European descent. Campeche is considered to be the foremost Puerto Rican painter of religious themes of the era.
Capt. Miguel Henriquez (c. 1680–17??), was a former pirate who became Puerto Rico's first black military hero by organizing an expeditionary force that defeated the British in the island of Vieques. Capt. Henriques was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques back to the Spanish Empire and Puerto Rico. He was awarded "La Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie"; and the Spanish Crown named him "Captain of the Seas," awarding him a letter of marque and reprisal which granted him the privileges of a privateer.
Rafael Cepeda (1910–1996), also known as "The Patriarch of Bomba and Plena", was the patriarch of the Cepeda family. The family is one of the most famous exponents of Puerto Rican folk music, with generations of musicians working to preserve the African heritage in Puerto Rican music. The family is well known for their performances of the bomba and plena folkloric music and are considered by many to be the keepers of those traditional genres.
Sylvia del Villard (1928–1990) was a member of the Afro-Boricua Ballet. She participated in the following Afro–Puerto Rican productions, Palesiana y Aquelarre and Palesianisima. In 1968, she founded the Afro-Boricua El Coqui Theater, which was recognized by the Panamerican Association of the New World Festival as the most important authority of Black Puerto Rican culture. The Theater group were given a contract which permitted them to present their act in other countries and in various universities in the United States. In 1981, del Villard became the first and only director of the Office of Afro–Puerto Rican Affairs of the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture. She was known as an outspoken activist who fought for the equal rights of the Black Puerto Rican artist.
In Fiction
The popular United States Marvel superhero Spider-Man is of African American and Puerto Rican descent in the alternate Ultimate Marvel timeline. Miles Morales, who is the current Spider-Man, was born to an African American father and a Puerto Rican mother.
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
Immigration to Puerto Rico series:
Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico
Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico
Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico
French immigration to Puerto Rico
German immigration to Puerto Rico
Irish immigration to Puerto Rico
Jewish immigration to Puerto Rico
Spanish immigration to Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican people
Afro-Caribbean
Afro-Latin Americans – North, Central and South America
Afro-Spaniard
Black Latino Americans – United States of America
Bozal Spanish (language)
List of topics related to Black and African people
Racism in Puerto Rico
References
Further reading
Figueroa, Luis A. Sugar, slavery and freedom in nineteenth century Puerto Rico
Scarano, Francisco A. Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico: The Plantation Economy of Ponce, 1800–1850
Balletto, Barbara. Insight Guide Puerto Rico
Ortiz, Yvonne. A Taste of Puerto Rico: Traditional and New Dishes from the Puerto Rican Community
de Wagenheim, Olga J. Puerto Rico: An Interpretive History from Precolumbia Times to 1900
Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher. Empire and Antislavery: Spain, Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1833–1874 (1990).
Soler, Luis M. D. Historia de la esclavitud negra en Puerto Rico
External links
Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico
African–Hispanic and Latino American relations
Ethnic groups in Puerto Rico
Immigration to Puerto Rico
Social history of Puerto Rico
African diaspora history |
4517771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20O.%20Larkin | Thomas O. Larkin | Thomas Oliver Larkin (September 16, 1802 – October 27, 1858), known later in life as Don Tomás Larkin, was an American diplomat and businessman.
After some success and several business failures on the east coast, his elder half-brother, Alta California pioneer businessman John B. R. Cooper, invited him to join him in on the west coast, propelling him to success and wealth.
Larkin served as the only U.S. consul to Alta California during the Mexican era and was covertly involved in U.S. plans to annex California from Mexico. Following the American Conquest of California and the end of the Mexican-American War, Larkin was a delegate to the Monterey Constitutional Convention in 1849 and a signatory of the Constitution of California.
Early years
Larkin was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, the son of Thomas Larkin and Ann Rogers, and a grandson of the Deacon John Larkin who provided the horse for Paul Revere's famous ride. He was a descendant of Richard Warren, a passenger on the Mayflower, and his grandfather, Ebenezer Larkin, took part in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Larkin's mother was married three times, to Thomas Cooper, Thomas Oliver Larkin, and Amariah Childs.
On April 8, 1808, at age 6, Larkin's father died, and in 1813 Larkin's mother moved the family to Lynn, Massachusetts. At the age of 15, Larkin went to Boston to apprentice as a bookbinder but disliked working for another man. His mother died in 1818 when he was 16. He had only one close family member remaining, his brother William.
In 1819, he changed employer, but this did not resolve his dissatisfaction. On October 21, 1821 he sailed to Wilmington, North Carolina. The town was deserted due to a Yellow Fever epidemic. Determined to succeed, he persevered and obtained work as a clerk. He was extremely observant and critical of Southern business practices and disappointed at the few books available to the general population.
He contracted for a voyage to Bermuda in February 1822 as supercargo of the ship Susan. He was to be paid $20 a month plus % of the cargo sale. The drunk captain cheated him and Larkin was never paid.
In June 1822 he opened a store in Wilmington in partnership with his friend, F.G. Thurston. He returned to Boston for a visit and felt like he didn't belong. His brother William and he bought $5,000 in goods in the North and had them shipped to North Carolina. When Thurston tried to discredit Larkin, Larkin successfully turned back the attack on his character, but when William died on September 4, 1825, Larkin lost interest in the business venture.
He moved to Rockfish and opened another store. He was appointed Justice of the Peace, his first taste of government service, but he gave first priority to his business. He made money from the store, but was left $1,500 in debt by a sawmill operation. In 1830 he returned to Massachusetts, destitute.
Larkin felt he had three options: marry a cousin in Massachusetts, get a job in the Washington DC post office, or join his brother in California. The first two did not materialize.
Move to Alta California
He received a letter from his older half-brother, John Cooper, who persuaded him that Alta California was full of opportunity, and asked for his assistance with his business. In September 1831 Thomas left Boston in September 1831 on the brig Newcastle, engaged in the hide and tallow trade. The journey via sailing ship around Cape Horn took seven months.
The only other passenger was 24 year old Mrs. Rachel Hobson Holmes, who was traveling to Alta California to join her husband, Captain A. C. Holmes, a Danish sea captain and international trader. During the months-long voyage the two had an intimate relationship. The Newcastle made a stopover in Hawai'i before arriving in San Francisco and then Monterey in April 1832.
There were no accommodations in the small town and they both were guests at the Cooper house. Upon learning she was carrying Thomas' child, Rachel moved to Santa Barbara where her husband's ship was expected. Faced with the dilemma of explaining the child to her husband, she learned in October that he had died the year before while at sea enroute from Acapulco to Lima, Peru. In January 1833, Rachel gave birth to a daughter she named Isabel Ann.
In Monterey, Larkin found the economics of land and commerce were controlled by the Spanish missions, presidios, pueblos, and a few ranchos.
Marries Rachel Hobson
Larkin remained in Monterey, working as a clerk for his brother John B. R. Cooper. In early 1833, he sailed to Santa Barbara and was reunited with Hobson. They were married on board the American bark Volunteer, on June 10, 1833. The U. S. Consul for Hawai'i, John Coffin Jones, performed the ceremony. The infant Isabel died in July 1833, a month after the wedding. Years later they discovered Jones did not have the authority to perform the service and they had to be remarried. With an investment of $500, aided by his wife's and Captain Holmes' former accounts, he opened his own store in Monterey, selling dry goods, grog, produce, and groceries.
They had eight more children, five of whom survived to adulthood. Their son Thomas Oliver, Jr., born in Monterey on April 13, 1834, was the first white child born of American parents in California. Holmes was the first American woman in California.
Business growth
In 1834 he built a "double geared" flour mill, the first of its kind on the West Coast. He pursued trading opportunities with Hawai'i and Mexico. In 1842 Larkin opened a second sawmill in Santa Cruz run by Josiah Belden. Larkin developed a reputation for his success in land speculation.
Larkin built the Sherman Quarters in 1834. In 1835 he built the first two-story house in California, a combination of New England and California building materials and methods that is today known as Monterey Colonial architecture. Larkin House is now part of Monterey State Historic Park. Larkin also built the first wharf at Monterey harbor and was commissioned to rebuild the Customhouse. He built the House of the Four Winds in 1834 (or 1840). The building was used as the first State of California Hall of Records.
At that time, all foreign ships had to stop at the port of Monterey to pay import/export tariffs and obtain permission to trade. Larkin was well-positioned to engage in trade with Mexico, the United States and other countries. British and American trade with China came to the Pacific Coast by way of Hawai'i.
Political roles
As a prominent figure in the occasional capital of a distant province of an occasionally unstable nation, Larkin stood in a position of influence that could easily have been his undoing if he chose the wrong side. The fact that he was able to survive through shifting administrations is testimony to his political skills.
Despite being a supporter of Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado, he did not involve himself with Alvarado's accusations against Isaac Graham and other foreign residents of the Monterey area, and was not one of those sent to prison in chains in 1840. Larkin loaned money to Alvarado's successor, Micheltorena, which he lost when the Governor was overthrown by Alvarado in 1844. He never applied for Mexican citizenship, which required conversion to Catholicism; instead he renewed his visa annually to maintain his legal status. As a non-citizen, he could not legally own land, but he managed to obtain land grants in the names of his children.
In 1842, Monterey was surprised by the actions of U.S. Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones, who landed Marines to take over Monterey in the mistaken belief that war had broken out between the United States and Mexico. Larkin and William Hartnell worked to smooth over the situation. Jones was induced to submit a written apology to the angry Mexican officials and withdraw his troops. The Commodore was subsequently removed from his command, but U.S.–Mexican relations remained tense.
The successful conclusion to the affair brought Larkin to the attention of officials in Washington, and in 1843 President Tyler appointed Larkin as the first (and last) American consul to Alta California. The following year, he thwarted a British attempt to acquire California while he was assisting the Mexican government in building a smallpox hospital in Monterey.
With the rise of James K. Polk to the Presidency in 1845, war with Mexico seemed unavoidable. Larkin hired William Leidesdorff as Vice Consul in San Francisco, thus relieving himself of some of the burden of the office.
Bear Flag Revolt
Early in 1846, Larkin received instructions from Secretary of State James Buchanan to begin working covertly to assure all concerned that the United States would support any attempt at secession from Mexico. Toward this end, he secretly employed Abel Stearns to work in southern California. He volunteered to go to Mexico City on behalf of the United States to work out a peaceful settlement, but Congress had already declared war by the time his letter arrived in Washington. Larkin had entered into a dialog with General Mariano Vallejo with the goal of arranging a peaceful annexation of California when the Bear Flag Revolt began on 14 June 1846 and the General was captured and imprisoned by a band of Americans who had heard a rumor that the Mexican authorities were thinking of arresting all Americans.
In 1846, Marine Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie was sent by President James Polk with secret messages to U.S. Consul Larkin in Monterey, California, Commodore John D. Sloat commanding the Pacific Squadron and John C. Frémont. Gillespie, after traveling in secret across Mexico and catching a ship to California, arrived early in June 1846 with the verbal messages from Polk. What was in the messages are unknown but the Bear Flag revolt came as a surprise to Larkin.
On 7 July 1846, Commodore John D. Sloat entered Monterey Bay with three ships. His marines and "blue-jackets" (enlisted sailors) raised the American flag over the Customs House. Commodore (Rear Admiral) Robert Field Stockton replaced Sloat a week later as commander of the Pacific Squadron.
Stockton appointed Fremont commander of the volunteer militia formed around his 60-man Corps of Topographical Engineers and the Bear Flag Republicans as the California Battalion. He dispatched 160 of the forces on the USS Cyane to occupy San Diego and Los Angeles.
Larkin joined the force sailing for southern California which by 13 August had peacefully occupied San Diego, California and Los Angeles. General José Castro and Governor Pío Pico fled south. Commodore Stockton, the senior military officer in California, appointed Larkin as Naval agent, and Larkin returned to Monterey.
The apparently peaceful conquest of California soon began to fray at the edges in southern California. Revolts broke out in Los Angeles, and the occupation forces under Archibald Gillespie and his 30-40 men were driven out. José Castro returned, and Larkin moved his family to Yerba Buena (San Francisco) as the Californios throughout the province were attempting to repel the thinly spread out California Battalion garrison troops and Navy forces. Larkin was captured outside of the city when, against advice, he tried to go to his deathly ill daughter, still in Monterey.
Larkin was forced to ride to Santa Barbara. En route, he witnessed the inconclusive Battle of Natividad (near Salinas) from General Castro's side. He was later imprisoned in Los Angeles and was not reunited with his family until after the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga which ended four months of skirmishes. His daughter Sophia Adeline died while he was a captive.
California statehood
Now free to own land in his own name, Larkin turned his attention to his new opportunities. In partnership with Robert Semple, he established the city at the Carquinez Straits that became Benicia, but Larkin's business interests were in San Francisco and he sold out his share after a few years. As he took control of his own affairs, his relationship with Leidesdorff fell apart.
By the time gold was discovered, Larkin had permanently settled in the San Francisco and was in the next few years able to reap a fortune from the economic boom that followed. It was as a representative from San Francisco that he served at the 1849 Constitutional Convention, held in Monterey.
Early in 1850, he built the first brick building in San Francisco at 1116 Stockton Street.
Move to New York
In 1850 they moved to New York. They rented a comfortable suite at the Irving House, a hotel that was popular with Californians. In November they bought and renovated at great expense an eighteen-room home in a good neighborhood.
Their new home soon acquired the reputation they had gained in California for lavish hospitality. But the cold and damp eastern weather did not agree with them. Rachel and the children endured repeated bouts of illness. Thomas acquired an acute skin disease and was so ill for two months that newspapers mistakenly announced his death. When he finally began to recover, Rachel, who had helped doctor him, collapsed from exhaustion.
Return to San Francisco
In May 1853, they returned to San Francisco where their health improved. They found good schools for the two youngest children and resumed their busy social and business lives. They built an opulent mansion and enjoyed the civic improvements that had taken place in San Francisco as a consequence of the California Gold Rush since they left for New York. During this time Larkin pressed the Federal government for compensation for money he claimed he had spent on Naval supplies and for work on the Monterey Customs House and the wharf there, without satisfaction.
Larkin acquired several land grants including Rancho Jimeno, Rancho Boga, Rancho Cienega del Gabilan, Rancho Pleyto, Rancho Cotate, and Rancho Larkin's Children. In his last years, Larkin engaged in land speculation and was thought by some to be the richest man in America.
Death
On October 27, 1858, while at Colusa, California, he contracted typhoid fever and died within a week. He was buried in what was the Laurel Hill Cemetery in San Francisco, but he is now interred at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, California. An obituary was published in the Sacramento Daily Union on October 29, 1858.
Family members
Thomas Oliver Larkin married Rachel M. Hobson (Ipswich, Massachusetts, April 30, 1807 – San Francisco, October 29, 1873), the daughter of Daniel and Eliza Hobson, on June 10, 1833. Children:
Isabel Ann (Santa Barbara, January, 1833 – July, 1833)
Thomas Oliver, Jr., (Monterey, April 13, 1834 – San Francisco, July, 1898), named as the first white child born of American parents in California, his elder half-sister being the result of his mother's first marriage.
William Rogers (August 25, 1835 – Monterey, January 6, 1836)
Frederick Hobson (December 23, 1836 – May 14, 1869)
Henry Rogers (May 26, 1838 – Monterey, November 18, 1838)
Francis Rogers (January 28, 1840 – San Francisco, July 7, 1874)
Carolina Ann (Monterey, March 24, 1842 – 1891) m. (1) November 3, 1860 to William Lindzey Hamilton b. 1832 at Philadelphia, d. February 2, 1862; (2) October 10, 1862 to William Sampson Tams, son of Sampson and Ann Hennessey (Deas) Tams
Sophia Adeline (June 20, 1843 – San Francisco, November 28, 1846)
Alfred Otis (Monterey, April 10, 1847)
Legacy
Larkin bought a large piece of property on Calle Principal between Jefferson and Madison Streets, in Monterey, California. In 1834 he opened a store on the property and began building a home on it, now known as the Larkin House. It was likely the first home in California to have an interior chimney and fireplace. The building marks a turning point in the development of California adobe buildings. The distinctive broad roof that overhangs the second floor windows and the seond story balcony are stylish as well as practical and became the standard for adobe buildings of the period. It is a National Historic Landmark and California Historical Landmark.
The Sherman Quarters shares a parcel of land with the Larkin House. Larkin built it in 1834 and made it available as a service to U.S. troops during the U.S. occupation of California. This small adobe building served as headquarters for Lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman and military secretary of state Henry W. Halleck from 1847 to 1849
Larkin also built the House of the Four Winds on the same property. It served as headquarters for Henry Halleck, Secretary of State. After the Mexican–American War, the building was first used as a residence and by the Spanish Governor of Alta California Juan Bautista Alvarado. In 1846, William S. Johnson designated it as the first State of California Hall of Records for the newly formed County of Monterey. Johnson had his office and home in the building.
Larkin Street in San Francisco is named for him. An elementary school in Monterey, now closed, was named for him.
Notes
Sources
Frank Soule, John H. Gihon, James Nisbet; The annals of San Francisco: containing a summary of the history of the first discovery, settlement, progress, and present condition of California and a complete history of all the important events connected with its great city; to which are added, biographical memoirs of some prominent citizens [New York, 1855] p. 758
Rayner Wickersham Kelsey, Ph.D., the United States Consulate in California [Berkeley, 1910]
Eldredge MS Padrone, Monterey, 1836
Grizzly Bear, May 1928, p. 58
Rafael Gorney, Diary of Rafael Gorney, in Historical Society of Southern California, Sept. 1963, p. 265
Rockwell Dennis Hunt, California and Californians [Chicago, 1926] Vol 3: 127–28
Pioneer, v. 13, p. 107, Aug. 1898
Los Angeles Blue Book, 1956, p. 441
Los Angeles Herald Express, 1948-07-31
William Ensign Lincoln, Some descendants of Stephen Lincoln of Wymondham, England... [Pittsburg, 1930]
Myrtle Garrison, Romance & History of California Ranchos [San Francisco, c. 1935]
Further reading
Hague, Harlan and David J. Langum, Thomas O. Larkin: A Life of Patriotism and Profit in Old California [University of Oklahoma Press, 1990]
Larkin, T. O., & In Hawgood, J. A. (1962). First and last consul: Thomas Oliver Larkin and the Americanization of California. San Marino, Calif: Huntington Library.
Underhill, R. L. (1939). From cowhides to golden fleece: A narrative of California, 1832–1858 : based upon unpublished correspondence of Thomas Oliver Larkin, trader, developer, promoter, and only American consul. Stanford University, Calif: Stanford University Press.
External links
Guide to the Thomas O. Larkin Papers at The Bancroft Library
California pioneers
Foreign residents of Mexican California
People of the Conquest of California
1802 births
1858 deaths
American emigrants to Mexico
American people of the Bear Flag Revolt
American expatriates in Mexico
Deaths from typhoid fever
Businesspeople from San Francisco
People from Monterey, California
Burials at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park
19th-century American businesspeople
Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (San Francisco) |
4517901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Paul%20Curtis | Christopher Paul Curtis | Christopher Paul Curtis (born May 10, 1953) is an American children's book author. His first novel, The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963, was published in 1995 and brought him immediate national recognition, receiving the Coretta Scott King Honor Book Award and the Newbery Honor Book Award in addition to numerous other awards. In 2000, he became the first person to win both the Newbery Medal and the Coretta Scott King Award—prizes received for his second novel Bud, Not Buddy—and the first African-American man to win the Newbery Medal. His novel The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963 was made into a television film in 2013.
Curtis has written a total of eight novels and has penned introductions to several prominent books in addition to contributing articles to several newspapers and magazines. Following the success of his first two novels, he founded the Nobody but Curtis Foundation in an effort to improve literacy levels amongst children and young adults in North America and Africa.
Born and raised in Flint, Michigan, Curtis worked as an autoworker for General Motors for thirteen years following his high school graduation. During this time, he attended the University of Michigan-Flint as a part-time student, ultimately receiving his degree in 2000. Curtis is praised for his storytelling ability and his use of humor to discuss more serious topics of racism, poverty, and child abuse. His ability to authentically portray the experiences of children and share history in a way that encourages readers to learn more has made him a widely-taught author in elementary and middle schools.
Early life
Christopher Paul Curtis was born in Flint, Michigan, on May 10, 1953, the second child of five children. His father, Dr. Herman (Henry) Elmer Curtis, was a chiropodist who became a factory worker when his patients could no longer pay. Curtis's father was a union activist and the first black production foreman at the Fisher Body Plant. His mother, Leslie Jane Curtis, was a homemaker until her children got older. Then she became an educator in the Flint Public School System. Curtis attributes his love of books and reading to his mother and considers his parents a significant influence on his life. They were involved in the Civil Rights Movement and brought Curtis and his siblings to several NAACP marches. Curtis recalls picketing places in Flint with his parents that would not serve or hire black people in the early 1960s.
Curtis attended Dewey Elementary, Clark Elementary, Pierce Elementary (in the Academically Gifted Program), Whittier Junior High School, and McKinley Junior High School of the Flint Public School System. In 1967, he was the first African-American student to be elected to the student council in the school's 32-year history. In middle school, Curtis’s favorite books were To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee and The Bridges at Toko-Ri by James A. Michener. Curtis also enjoyed reading Mad magazine, Sports Illustrated, Time magazine, and comic books while growing up. His parents valued reading and exposed Curtis and his siblings to a wide variety of books, taking them to the library every Saturday. However, in an interview with the New York Public Library, Curtis stated that, despite reading a lot, he found it difficult to connect to books and stories because they were not by or about black people like himself.
He graduated from Flint Southwestern High School in 1971. The summer after graduating from high school, Curtis became a member of a Lansing-based theatrical/musical group called Suitcase Theater which rehearsed on Tuesdays and Thursdays and performed musical numbers and the works of Langston Hughes. The group performed in the United States, Canada, and Europe.
After graduating high school, Curtis planned to pursue a political science degree at the University of Michigan-Flint. He attended classes full-time for a year but did not do well in his courses. Due to his poor performance in school and the competitive wage being offered at Flint's General Motors Fisher Body Plant No. 1, Curtis chose to work full-time at the factory on September 15, 1972. During this time, he continued taking classes at night as a part-time student. He graduated from the University of Michigan–Flint in 2000. While in college, Curtis took a black literature course that introduced him to authors like Alice Walker, Zora Neale Hurston, and Toni Morrison. Not only did this course foster his love for literature, but it also served as inspiration for details and descriptions in some of his novels.
Early career
Curtis spent 13 years after high school working on the assembly line of Flint's Fisher Body Plant No. 1. His job entailed hanging fifty- to eighty-pound car doors on Buicks for ten hours a day. It was physically demanding as well as monotonous labor. Christopher and his partner at the Plant worked out a deal where, instead of alternating hanging doors, one person would hang every door for thirty minutes while the other took a thirty-minute break. During his thirty-minute breaks, Curtis would block out the noise of the factory and find solace and refuge in reading and writing. Curtis recalls hating working in the factory, despite the steady wages and benefits, and even having nightmares about hanging car doors.
After quitting Fisher Body in 1985, he took a series of low-paying jobs. He worked as a groundskeeper at Stonegate Manor housing cooperative in Flint, served as the Flint campaign co-manager for United States Senator Donald Riegle in 1988, as a customer service representative for MichCon in Detroit, as a temporary worker for Manpower in Detroit, and as a warehouse clerk for Automated Data Processing in Allen Park, Michigan.
Writing career
In 1993, Curtis, convinced by Kaysandra (Kay) Sookram, his wife at the time, took a year off of work to focus on his writing. During this year, Curtis took a writing course at the University of Michigan-Flint and entered several works into a contest for the Hopwood Awards. He received first place for both the novel he submitted, The Watsons Go to Florida, and an essay about his career in the auto factory. Following this win, Curtis submitted his novel to contests sponsored by publishing houses, ultimately resulting in the novel being selected by Delacorte Press for publication. Originally, Curtis intended for the story to center around the Watsons' trip to Florida in 1963, but when his son brought home Dudley Randall's poem "The Ballad of Birmingham," Curtis realized that Birmingham would be a more meaningful destination for the Watsons and changed the ending accordingly. In writing the novel, Curtis was also influenced by other literature and his personal experiences growing up in Flint. In his conversation with interviewer and State University of West Georgia Professor Peter E. Morgan, Curtis notes that he was inspired by Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God to personify Death from Kenny's perspective in The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963. In this same interview, Curtis describes his decision to leave out Kenny's relation to white people in despite his editor wanting to create a book that also appealed to white audiences. Curtis grew up in a self-contained Black neighborhood and recalls his lack of day-to-day interactions with races outside his own so he felt that Kenny would have a similar experience within his novel.
The novel was eventually published in 1995 as The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963. It was named to the American Library Association’s list of Best Books for Young Adults and won both the Newbery Honor Book Award and the Coretta Scott King Honor Book Award alongside more than twenty-five other awards and honors. The Watsons sold over three hundred thousand copies and has been translated into eleven different languages. The movie rights to The Watsons were sold to Lancit Media shortly after publication and then bought by Whoopi Goldberg. The book was adapted for a television movie that aired on the Hallmark Channel in 2013.
Curtis's second book, Bud, Not Buddy, published in 1999, won the Newbery Medal and the Coretta Scott King Award in addition to numerous other awards. He based the story on that of his grandfather who, throughout the 1930s, traveled around Michigan with a band called Herman Curtis and the Dusky Devastators of The Depression.
In addition to writing novels, Curtis travels to various schools and communities to share his experience as an author. He has also written articles and reviews for newspapers and magazines across the country. He wrote an introduction for a reissue of Mark Twain's The Prince and the Pauper as well as an introduction for a reissue of Uncle Tom's Cabin.
Curtis also founded the Nobody but Curtis Foundation as a way to connect with young people and improve literacy levels across North America and Africa. He does this by sending educational materials, technology, and other supplies to schools in need as well as offering scholarships for students.
Writing process and style
His writing process involves waking up at 5 a.m. and editing his writing from the previous day in an effort to shape the words into a story. Following the editing, he goes to the library around 8 a.m. to write for the remainder of the morning. He spends his afternoons engaging in hobbies before spending the evenings writing again.
When he first moved to Windsor, Ontario he would write in the children's room of the Windsor Public Library. In an interview with Nancy Johnson and Cyndi Giorgis, he said that he chose to write here because he enjoyed the energy that kids provide and felt that the librarians were particularly wonderful. In fact, despite the library not officially opening until 10 a.m., the librarians allowed Curtis to come in early to write. Curtis eventually moved his writing to the University of Windsor library due to budget cuts at the Windsor Public Library.
Curtis writes all of his stories in longhand and tends to be an unstructured writer, choosing to follow the voices of his characters rather than outline a specific plot. He says that this method allows him to take time with each of his characters and slow down the writing process as a whole. He identifies Toni Morrison as one of his favorite authors because of the beauty of her language and her ability to write about difficult topics in an eloquent and expert manner. He also loves Mark Twain for his ability to create humor that has transcended generations. Curtis incorporates humor in all of his books, particularly as a way to balance the more serious and difficult topics he often writes about. He also seeks to foster intimacy and closeness with the reader by writing in the first person as opposed to the third person. Curtis did not intend to become a children’s author and still does not consider himself one—he just writes stories he believes others would enjoy reading.
Curtis enjoys writing historical fiction because it provides a sense of reality and allows him to explore important stories that have not been told or widely taught to young readers. Through this writing, he hopes to help his readers recognize the importance of history and how it affects all people as well as encourage them to learn more about the historical events he includes in his novels. Additionally, many of Curtis's books are set in Flint as he tends to draw from his personal experiences growing up there.
His four rules to becoming a writer are: (1) Write every day, (2) Have fun with your writing, (3) Be patient with your writing, and (4) Ignore all rules.
Personal life
Curtis met his first wife, Kay Sookram, while attending a basketball game in Hamilton, Ontario. Sookram was born and raised in Trinidad, but moved to Ontario to study nursing. While dating, Curtis and Sookram sent letters to each other. This was Sookram's first encounter with Curtis's writing. After getting married, Curtis moved to Windsor, Ontario to live with Kay because she was unable to get a U.S. work visa. They have two children together: Steven Darrell, born in 1978, and Cydney McKenzie, born in 1992.
Curtis and Sookram separated in the late 2000s. A few years later, Curtis married Habon Aden and they have two children together: Ayaan Leslie (2010) and Ebyaan Hothan (2012).
In his free time, he enjoys playing basketball and listening to music, primarily jazz and blues. He views both as a good way to release stress. He also enjoys reading, but only when he is not writing because otherwise, he finds his writing becomes significantly affected by the style of the author he is reading. According to an interview with The Washington Post, Curtis enjoys reading on the couch in the early morning.
Published books
The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963 (1995) – When Kenny Watson's older brother, Byron, gets to be too much trouble, the Watsons head from Flint, Michigan, to Birmingham, Alabama, to visit Grandma Sands, the one person who can shape Byron up. But the events that shake Birmingham in the summer of 1963 will change Kenny's life forever. The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963 was a runner-up for the Newbery Medal and was selected as a top book of the year by many publications and organizations. In 2013, it was named as one of the New York Public Library's 100 Great Children's Books of the Last 100 Years.
Bud, Not Buddy (1999) – It is 1936 in Flint, Michigan. Times may be hard, and ten-year-old Bud may be a motherless boy on the run, but he has a few things going for him. Bud goes to find who he believes is his father, a man named Herman E. Calloway. He meets a few friends on the way, and stays determined to achieve his goals. Curtis modeled characters in Bud, Not Buddy after his two grandfathers: Earl "Lefty" Lewis, a Negro league baseball pitcher, and Herman E. Curtis, leader of Herman Curtis and the Dusky Devastators during the Great Depression. Bud, Not Buddy won the 2000 Newbery Medal. It also won the Coretta Scott King Award, and was chosen as the best book of the year by the School Library Journal.
Bucking the Sarge (2004) – Luther T. Farrell has got to get out of Flint, Michigan. He just needs to escape the evil empire of the local slumlord, "The Sarge", aka his mother. Bucking the Sarge was selected as one of the best children's books of the year by various publications and organizations, including Publishers Weekly.
Mr. Chickee's Funny Money (2005) – Mr. Chickeesaw, the genial blind man in the neighborhood, gives 9-year-old Steven a mysterious bill with 15 zeros on it and the image of a familiar but startling face. Mr. Chickee's Funny Money was a Parents' Choice Award winner.
Mr. Chickee's Messy Mission (2007) – When Russell's dog, Rodney Rodent, jumps into a mural to chase a demonic-looking gnome and disappears, the Flint Future Detectives are on the case.
Elijah of Buxton (2007) – A story based on the historic settlement of North Buxton, Ontario, developed for and by former African-American slaves who escaped to Canada on the Underground Railroad. In Canada they were known as Negro refugees. Elijah of Buxton won the 2008 Coretta Scott King Award and the 2008 Scott O’Dell award for historical fiction for young adult. It was also named Booklist’s “Top of the List” winner for “Youth Fiction."
The Mighty Miss Malone (2012) – This book is set in Depression-era Gary, Indiana, and Flint, Michigan. The work is a spin-off from Bud, Not Buddy.
The Madman of Piney Woods (October 2014) – This book returns readers to Buxton, Ontario, this time in 1901. It is told in alternating chapters, by two twelve-year-old boys. Alvin "Red" Stockard is an Irish boy living in nearby Chatham, Ontario, and Benjamin "Benji" Alston, is a Black Canadian boy who lives in the settlement of Buxton; he is a descendant of African-American slaves who reached freedom in Canada via the Underground Railroad. Several characters from Elijah of Buxton make brief appearances in this work.
The Journey of Little Charlie (January 2018) — The third book in Curtis's Buxton Trilogy, this begins on a plantation in South Carolina in 1858, where a 12-year-old boy helps the overseer recapture an escaped slave. He goes to Canada with a party trying to recapture a slave boy, and they are prevented by a resisting group of African Americans in Buxton. It was a finalist for the 2018 National Book Award for Young People's Literature.
Curtis also edited Bites: Scary Stories to Sink Your Teeth Into, a collection of scary children's stories published in 2010 by Scholastic.
Awards and honors
The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963
Coretta Scott King Honor Book
Newbery Honor Book
Jane Addams Peace Award Honor Book
Bud, Not Buddy
Newbery Medal winner
Coretta Scott King Author Award
Young Reader's Choice Award
SCBWI Golden Kite Award winner
Mr. Chickee's Funny Money
Parent's Choice Gold Award winner
Bucking the Sarge
SCBWI Golden Kite Award for Fiction Honor Book
Elijah of Buxton
Newbery Honor Book
Coretta Scott King Award winner
Scott O'Dell Award
Canadian Library Association Book of the Year
References
External links
Christopher Paul Curtis at Random House
Interview on the Today Show
1953 births
African-American novelists
American children's writers
American historical novelists
Newbery Honor winners
Newbery Medal winners
Writers from Flint, Michigan
Living people
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
University of Michigan–Flint alumni
American male novelists
Novelists from Michigan
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
20th-century African-American writers
21st-century African-American writers
African-American male writers |
4518123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuldabad | Khuldabad | Khuldabad () is a city (municipal council) and a Taluka of Aurangabad district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is known as the Valley of Saints, or the Abode of Eternity, because in the 14th century, several Sufi saints chose to reside here. The Bhadra Maruti Temple and Dargah of Zar Zari Zar Baksh, Shaikh Burhan ud-din Gharib Chisti and Shaikh Zain-ud-din Shirazi, along with the tomb of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and his trusted General Asif Jah I, the first Nizam of Hyderabad, are located in this town. It is a holy and spiritual city of Islamic saints.
The place has famous Bhadra Maruti Temple. People come from Aurangabad and nearby places by walk for offering puja on Hanuman Jayanti and on Saturdays in Marathi calendar month "Shravan". Nearby is the Valley of the Saints, which is purported to contain the graves of 1500 Sufi saints.
Etymology
The name 'Khuldabad' translates to 'Abode of Eternity'. It is derived from the post-humous title of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, 'khuld-makan' (); the name came into currency following Aurangzeb's interment in the city. Priorly, the city was known as 'Rauza' (), a common term used to describe Sufi shrines in South Asia.
History
Khuldabad's historical and religious significance dates back to the 14th century, when Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate shifted the population of Delhi to Daulatabad in the Deccan. A significant portion of the Muslim elite that migrated consisted of Sufis, many of whom settled in the neighbouring town of Rauza (the older name of Khuldabad). Some of these initial migrants included Sufi saints Zar Zari Zar Baksh and Burhanuddin Gharib. As the place of burial for many of these saints, the town acquired a sacred character as a centre of Chishti Sufism.
Indo-Islamic rulers in the Deccan established connections with the town on account of its religious importance. Malik Ambar, prime minister of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, chose to be buried here. The Faruqi ruling dynasty of the Khandesh Sultanate had close ties with the town; the dynasty's founder named his capital Burhanpur after the Khuldabad-based Burhanuddin Gharib. The Faruqis financed the town's shrines by granting them the revenue of three villages.
Mughal patronage of the town began as early as the reign of emperor Akbar, who continued the Faruqi patronage of Khuldabad after capturing Khandesh. Later rulers Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb maintained financial support. Aurangzeb's rule in particular saw Khuldabad acquire an increased importance as a burial site for Mughal royals, since it neighboured Aurangabad, which served as the Mughal Empire's de facto capital during his rule. Aurangzeb himself chose to be buried here, following which the town acquired its modern name of Khuldabad from the ruler's post-humous title 'khuld-makan'.
Mughal patterns of patronage persisted with the Mughals' successors in the Deccan, the Asaf Jahis (also known as the Nizams). Several nobles of the dynasty were buried in the town, including the founder Asaf Jah I. Khuldabad's continued importance was due to nearby Aurangabad's continued function as capital of the Asaf Jahi territories. Both the Mughals and the Asaf Jahis made architectural contributions to the town.
Geography and climate
Khuldabad is located at . It enjoys a pleasant climate, moderated by its altitude (2,732 feet / 832.7 metres). The town rises about 500 feet (152.4 metres) above the surrounding plains. The world famous Ellora caves are about 4 miles from Khuldabad. Lodging such as State Guest-house and traveller's bungalows are provided to tourist and they are maintained by Zilla Parishad.
Demographics
India census, Khuldabad had a population of 12,794. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%. Khuldabad has an average literacy rate of 64%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 72%, and female literacy is 56%. In Khuldabad, 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Religion in Khuldabad City
Religion in Khuldabad Taluka
Places of interest
Khuldabad is surrounded by a high fortified wall built by Aurangzeb. It has seven gates viz., Nagarkhana, Pangra, Langda, Mangalpeth, Kumbi Ali, Hamdadi and a wicket called Azam Shahi. The gateway in the direction of Aurangabad is approached by a paved ascent which continue inside the town for about 200 to 300 feet. The wall has collapsed at many places and may collapse totally before long. The sepulchre of Aurangzeb lies almost midway between the north and the south gates. It is within the enclosure containing the dargah of Burhan ud din . A steep paved ascent some 30 yards in length leads from the road side to the entrance of the building. After passing through a domed-porch and gateway, erected in about 1760, a large quadrangle is entered, on three side of which am open-fronted buildings.
While one of these is used for conducting a school, others are set apart for the use of travellers. In the centre of the south side is a nagarkhana and a mosque in the west. A facsimile of the hall of the mosque is just below, a flight of steps descending to it from the verge of the platform. Right opposite the north end of the mosque is a small open gateway leading into an inner courtyard.
Aurangzeb's Tomb
Aurangzeb's tomb is in the south-east angle of this courtyard. Facing it is a long low building similar to the one in the outer quadrangle, and in the north end is a small room containing the pall and decorations of the tomb. The grave lies immediately to the right of the entrance and is remarkably simple, in keeping with Aurangzeb's own wishes. The grave lies in the middle of a stone platform, raised about half a foot from the floor.
Aurangzeb funded his resting place by knitting caps and copying the Qu’ran, during the last years of his life, works which he sold anonymously in the market place. Unlike the other great Mughal rulers, Aurangzeb's tomb is not marked with a large mausoleum instead he was interred in an open air grave in accordance with his Islamic principles. The gateway and domed porch were added in 1760. The floor is of marble, a neat railing of perforated marble is on three sides, and the wall of Burhan-ud-din's dargah forms the fourth side. It was erected by the Nizam at the request of Lord Curzon, then Viceroy of India (who was shocked by the simplicity of the tomb) in the year 1911. On ceremonial occasions, Aurangzeb's grave is draped with richly embroidered cloth but ordinarily it is covered by a white sheet. Close by on the right, are the tombs of Azam Shah, his wife and daughter.
Tombs of Azam Shah and his wife
A small marble enclosure, to the cast of Aurangzeb's tomb, contains the remains of Azam Shah and his wife. Azam was Aurangzeb's second son. Close by is another grave, said to be that of daughter of a Muhammedan saint. The marble screen contains 18 panels, each 6 feet in height. The sides and corners are surmounted by small minarets, also of marble. Marble is employed to pave the interior too and Azam Shah's grave has a small marble headstone ornamented with carved floral designs.
Zainuddin Shirazi Dargah
Midway between these tombs and that of Aurangzeb, is the mausoleum of Sayyed Zain ud din, a Muhammedan saint highly revered by the Muslims. On the east side it contains a number of verses inscribed from the Quran and the date of the saint's death, 771 H. (1370 A. D). Sheikh Zain-ud-din was born at Shiraz, in H. 701 and came to Delhi by way of Mecca. He studied under Maulana Kamal ud din of Samana and accompanied him to Daulatabad. He held the office of the Kazi at Daulatabad and in H. 737 was invested with the mantle of the Caliphate, but did not actually succeed until after Burhan-ud-din's death in H. 741. Zain-ud-din's sayings have bean recorded by Shaikh Husain in his Hidayatu-l-Kabul. The mausoleum was erected by his disciples much later. It is surrounded by a large quadrangular courtyard, and the enclosure has two gates chased with brass, silver and brass. The court has two mosques, one on a higher and the other on a lower level, a sloping pavement leading up to the former. There are open-fronted buildings on all sides, and a nagarkhana or a music chamber at the east end. The west end is used as a school where the Quran is taught. The doors of the shrine are inlaid with silver plates, and the step below is embellished with a number of curiously cut and polished stones. The grave inside is covered with a richly embroidered pall, and has the usual string of ostrich eggs suspended over it. A small room in an angle of the courtyard wall is said to contain the robe of the prophet, which is exhibited once a year on 12th Rabi-ul-awal. The relics of the parahan and the taj given to Burhan-ud-din on succeeding to the Caliphate we carefully preserved in a wooden box placed in one of the apartments of Zain-ud, din's dargah.
Burhanuddin's Mausoleum
Opposite the building which contains the tombs of Aurangzeb and Zain-ud-din, is another of almost equal interest. This has also a large quadrangular courtyard having open fronted building on all sides, and a nagarkhana at the east end. In the courtyard are two large drums. One of them is in fair order, while the parchment of the other has been destroyed and only the huge iron hemisphere remains. The west end of the quadrangle is used as a school and a door here gives access to an inner courtyard containing several graves. Facing the entrance is the tomb of Sayyad Burhan ud din, a Sufi Saint. Burhan-ud-din studied under Nizamuddin Auliya, the Sultan-ul-mashaikh of Delhi and was invested with the cap and the mantle, the symbols of the Kaliphat, in succession to the Sultan-ul-mashaikh. He migrated to Daulatabad in the wake of Muhammad Tughluq's transfer of capital from Delhi and later, made Khuldabad his abode, dying there in 744 H. (1344 A. D). Within the shrine are preserved some hair of the prophet's beard. The shrine doors are plated with plates of metal wrought into fanciful designs of trees and flowers. There is a mosque in front of the dargah. Within the town are dargahs to other Muslim saints like Muntajab ud din, Sayyad Yusuf etc.
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah's Tomb
To the right of Burhan-ud-din's tomb are the resting places of Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, the founder of the Hyderabad dynasty, his second son Nasir Jang. The Hyderabad dynasty continued to rule from Hyderabad until after India won her independence, and of one of his consorts. They are covered with white cloth. The graves an on a platform of inlaid with white marble. A ten feet high screen of red porphyry surrounds them. Nasir Jang's tomb is on the left. It is surrounded by small scolloped arches of red porphyry.
Bani Begum’s Makbara
To the west of this group of tombs is the Makbara of Bani Begum, the consort of one of Aurangzeb's son, with the Lall Bagh of Khan Jahan close by. The tomb of Bani Begam is in the centre of a large quadrangular garden. It is surrounded by a handsome wall with arched recesses on the inside. An elegant kiosk at each corner angle stands on eight pillars, and is surmountedby an Indo-Saracenic dome, fluted externally. The main entrance is in the centre of the north wall, and a mosque is in the south wall; while a corresponding open pavilion is in each of the remaining walls. The ground inside is laid out in the usual form of a garden, and contains cisterns and fountains, no longer in working order. The tomb of the Begum is within another walled enclosure in the middle of the garden, and has four small minarets around it. A pretty summer house in the centre of each wall in this wound enclosure, has sixteen slender but elegant pillars, supporting a domed roof in the curious form belonging to the Bengal style. There are, also specimens of perforated stone-work in the makbara.
Khan Jahan’s Lall Bagh
The Lall Bagh was built by Aurangzeb's foster-brother Khan Jahan, who was on two occasions Viceroy of the Dakhan, and died about the end of the 17th century. It resembles the garden containing Bani Begam's makbara, but is smaller, and has similar corner towers. The centre of each side wall has a building, one of which forms the gate, and contains a large dome in the centre, with a smaller dome on either side, add three minarets. A cistern in the centre of the enclosure, is connected by four long cisterns with the building in the middle of each wall; and the whole is adorned with fountains. "The water supply is obtained from the Roza tank, and first fills a cistern on the top of an adjoining house, from which it runs down a sloping pavement, into the garden." The makbara of Khan Jahan is just above the garden, and the tombs of his relations are on the western side. A red porphyritic trap, and a cement of the same colour, have been used in the buildings, and hence the name Lall Bagh which has been given to the garden.
Malik Ambar's Tomb
Malik Ambar's dargah is to the north-west of the town and according to Ferishta it was erected during his lifetime. Nearby stands the tomb of his wife Bibi Karima. They are both in the Parther style of architecture and stand on raised platforms. The larger of the two contains the mortal remains of Malik Ambar and resembles Nizam Shah's dargah. Though the smaller is also of the same general appearance, it does not have the facade decorated with recesses and cusped arches in stucoo plaster. At a short distance from Malik Ambar's tomb is the open tomb of Tana Shah, the last of the Golkonda kings. To the north of the town is the tomb of Nizam Shah Bhairi which was converted into a trvelles' bungalow by the officers of the contingent stationed at Aurangabad during British days. The mausoleum at the base of the hill close by was erected for himself by Khoja Firoz while engaged in building the tomb of Nizam Shah Bhairi. The dargah of Ahmad Nizam Shah (1489–1509) is built on a raised platform and has an open court all round. It is quadrangular in plan, the walls rising high and plump with the parapet. A projecting string course divides the facade into two portions, the lower of which has three compartments on each face. Each compartment again has a rectangular recess covered by a horse-shoe arch. A cornice above projects well, and is supported on brackets. The parapet is pierced with tracery work; and the corner support little kiosks which look like miniature dargahs. While the summit is crowned with a little drum, the lower portion of the dome is adorned with lotus leaves.
Zar Zari Zar Bakhsh and Ganj Rawan Ganj Baksh Dargah
The tomb of Zar Zari Baksh is between Malik Ambar's tomb and the northern gate of the town. It contains a number of ornaments and relics, the most remarkable of which is a circular looking-glass of steel mounted on a steel pedestal of four feet in height. It is said to have been presented by king Tana Shah.
To the west of the town is the mausoleum of Ganj Ravan Ganj Baksh, believed to be the earliest Islamic saint of the district. He arrived towards the end of the 13th century about the time of Ala-ud-din's invasion of Devagiri. His dargah has the horse-shoe shaped dome of the Pathans, with piers on the faces supporting pointed arches. It stands on the band of Pari-ka-talav, also known as Ganj Ravan Talav. On the same side of the town is that of Sayyad Khalksar with a fine tank attached to it.
The mausoleums of Abdal Halim and Kak Shahr, situated to the south of Khuldabad have some old pillars probably taken from the ruins of abandoned Hindu temples. A number of other decayed tombs are to the east and south of the town.
On the anniversary day of the death of Zar Zari Zar Baksh an urus lasting for eight days is held. The articles exposed for sale consist of saris, brass and copper vessels and toys, including cutlery articles. The fair is attended by a large number of persons.
Notable burials
Notable saints and rulers buried at Khuldabad:
Burhan-ud-din Gharib (1337)
Tombs of Ruknuddin and Majd ud din, and many disciples of Bhuranuddin.
Nizam ul Mulk Asaf Jha (1748) the first Nizam and his wife Sayyida-un-nisa Begum.
Nasir Jung (1750) the second Nizam and his wife.
Hidayat Muhi-ud-din Khan Muzaffar Jang (1751) the third Nizam.
A number of other dignitaries including Iwaz Khan (1730) Mutawasil Khan uncle of Muzaffar Jung, Jamal ud din Khan (1746) Shah Karim ud din, Shahzada Jangli, Saeed ud din Suam(III) the taluqdar of Aurangabad.
Bani Begum in a garden, Khan Jahan and Saad ullah Khan in Lal Bagh.
Zainuddin Shirazi (1369)
Maulana Khan Bibi, adoptive daughter of Zainuddin Shirazi
Tombs of his disciples such as Shama ud din Fazal ullah, Muhammad Lashkar, and Mir Hasan.
Aurangzeb (1707)
Muhammad Azam Shah, and his wife Aurangi Bibi.
Sayyid Mansur Mughal, governor of Baglana, and his wife.
Jalal ud din Ganj Rawan.
Muntajib ud din Zar Zari Zar Baksh (1309).
Inside the Dargah complex:
Bibi Hajra, mother of Burhan-ud-din and Muntajib ud din.
Sona Bai, Hindu princess.
Tombs of their relatives and Burhan-ud-din's disciples, such as Farid ud din Adib (1337), Pir Mubarak Karwan (1340).
West of Dargah complex:
Badr ud din Nawlakha.
Abdullah Habib ul Aydarus (1631).
Malik Ambar (1626).
Siddi Karima, wife of Malik Ambar.
Siddi Abdul Rehman, grandson of Malik Ambar.
East of the Dargah Complex :
Ankas Khan, a noble of Tughlaq period.
Mumtaz Khan.
Sayyid Yusuf al Husain Raju Qatal (1330), Dargah north of Huda Hill.
Inside the dargah complex :
Sayyid Chandan Sahib.
Abul Hasan Tana Shah (1699), the last of Qutub Shahi kings.
Nawab Marhamat Khan, Mughal Governor of Aurangabad.
Daud Khan (1715), Mughal Governor of Bhuranpur, his brothers and sisters.
North of the Dargah complex:
Mosque of 1400 Saints, contains graves of scholars such as Zahir ud din Bhakkari.
Ahmad Nizam Shah (1508), first king of Ahmednagar Sultanate.
Bhuran Nizam Shah (1553), second King of Ahmednagar Sultanate.
Amir Hasan Dihlawi Sijzi (1336).
Azad Bilgrami (1786)
Khwja Husain (1349) and Khwja Umar, uncle of Zainuddin Shirazi, south of Huda Hill.
Bibi Aisha, daughter of Farid ud din Ganj Shakkar, south of Hasan Dihlawi Tomb.
Shah Khaksar, southwest of Ganj Rawan's tomb.
Near Daulatabad:
Momin Arif.
Mardan ul din (1335).
Nizam ud din Pesh Imam (1370), at Kaghzipura.
Alauddun Ziya.
Baha ud din Ansari(1515).
See also
Sufi Saints of Aurangabad
Zar Zari Zar Baksh
Khwaja Zainuddin Shirazi
Sayyid Burhan-ud-din
Ganj Rawan Ganj Baksh
Aurangabad
Aurangabad Tourism Capital of Maharashtra
References
External links
Archaeological Survey of India link.
Google Books (Eternal Garden - Carl Ernst)
Sufi Dargah in Khuladabad
Cities and towns in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra
Talukas in Maharashtra
Ziyarat
Tourism in Maharashtra
Sufi shrines in India
Tourist attractions in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra |
4518177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam%20in%20Vietnam | Islam in Vietnam | Islam in Vietnam is primarily the religion of the Cham people, an Austronesian minority ethnic group; however, roughly one-third of Muslims in Vietnam are of other ethnic groups. There is also a community, which describes itself as of mixed ethnic origins (Cham, Khmer, Malay, Minang, Viet, Chinese, and Arab), that practices Islam and is also known as the Cham, or Cham Muslims, around the region of Châu Đốc in the Southwest.
History
Spread of Islam (750–1400)
Uthman ibn Affan, the third Caliph of Islam, sent the first official Muslim envoy to Vietnam and Tang Dynasty China in 650. Seafaring Muslim traders are known to have made stops at ports in the Champa Kingdom en route to China very early in the history of Islam. During the 9th and 12th century, various medieval Arabic geographical works had identified modern-day eastern Indochina as lands of the Qimar (Khmer, Cambodians), the Sanf (Cham) and the Luqin (Vietnamese). Arab Muslim merchants reached Luqin (Hanoi) while Vietnam was under Tang China's rule. Luqin (Hanoi in north Vietnam) was home to one of the biggest Muslim foreign quarters when Vietnam was ruled by Tang China.
However, the earliest material evidence of the transmission of Islam consists of Song Dynasty-era documents from China, which record that the Cham familiarized themselves with Islam in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. Following the usurpation of Lưu Kế Tông (r. 986–989), many Chams and Muslims sought refuge in China. The Song dynastic records state that in 986, hundreds of people from Champa, having been led by Pu Bo E (Abu Nurs), arrived at Hainan. In the next two years, nearly 500 refugees from Champa arrived at Canton headed by Li Ning Bian and Hu Xuan (Hussain), who "demanded the protection of China".
At the same time, during the Mongol invasions of Vietnam, several Mongol generals were Muslims, including Omar Nasr al-Din, and the major bulk of Mongol army invading Đại Việt and Champa came from the Turks and Persians. During their short conquest, the Mongols managed to spread Islam, although it was never large enough to challenge the Vietnamese. During a visit to Champa in 1340s, Ibn Battuta described a princess who met him, spoke in Turkish, was literate in Arabic, and wrote out the bismillah in the presence of the visitor. However, Ibn Battuta did not consider Champa an Islamic state. The number of followers began to increase as contacts with Sultanate of Malacca broadened in the wake of the 1471 collapse of the Champa Kingdom, but Islam would not become widespread among the Cham until the mid-17th century.
Origin of Islam in Champa
Origin of Shiite Bani
Islam first appears in early Cham texts as Asulam, as the Cham people are still referring it today. Bani Awal (Bini ralaoh, people of Allah) religion, a syncretic, localized version Shi'a Islam, gained dominance in 17th century Panduranga. The unspecified origin of Bani as well as the coming of Islam to Champa are still contested by researchers which need to interpret several sources and Cham folktales, and try to reconstruct the history of Islam in Champa for that matter. Scholars like Antoine Cabaton and Pierre-Yves Manguin proposed two preliminary theories for the apostle of Islam to Champa: The first theory states that Islam could have been introduced by Arab, Persian, Indian merchants, scholars, religious leaders, from the 10th to 14th century. This periodization makes some efficient sense because Champa has been well known by Middle East literature since the early medieval era, and the presence of Muslim communities in Champa is also attested by archaeology, medieval Perso-Arabic and Chinese geography texts.
For example, Al-Dimashqi claimed a story that the Alīds after being expelled, a small portion of them took refugee in Champa; these Muslim immigrants thereby spread Shi'a among the Cham, which perhaps eventually led to the synthesis of the Bani Awal religion. Two Kufic gravestones found in Phan Rang dating from 1038-39 of an Arab Muslim merchant named Abu Kamil who originated from Egypt indicate a certain sort of reiterated autonomy of a mercantile Muslim community in the city-state of Panduranga, which was granted by a Cham king who understood their importance in commerce and tertiary. The Cham Bani has been suggested to be religious adherents of Isma'ili sect of Shi'a traders in medieval Champa. The legendary king of Panduranga Po Ovlvah who reigned from 1000 to 1036 in the Cham annals, whoes his name is believed to be Cham rendition of Allah.
The popular accounts mainly outside of Champa, from the Cham diasporas, assure that the Cham had been converted by either ʿAlī and his son Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafīyya. A comparative oral tradition from the Cambodian Cham communities also states "Lord ʿAlī had sent Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafīyya to Champa to teach Islam." Several related Cham tales such as Po Rasulak, Po Ali, and Po (Fāṭima) Phwatima seemingly narrate the connection between early medieval Champa and the Islamic world. These are testified in Cham Bani wedding ceremonies, in which the bride and groom's ceremonial names are the Cham representations of ʿAlī and Fāṭima. For instance, a Cham man in Kampong Cham province born in 1885 told that his genealogy was begun with Sayyid Mustafa, claimed to be a descendant of ʿAlī. Sayyid Mustafa went to Phan Rang and taught Islam while learning Akhar Thar Cham script, then walked to Cambodia and taught Islam to the Cambodian Cham.
However according to most historians, plausibly, the Cham only began converting to Islam en masse after the fall of Vijaya in 1471.
Contradictory narrative and Malay origin of Cham Islam
The second theory argues that Islam arrived in Champa through a later, shorter, indirectly way from the Malays (jawa, melayu, chvea), is considered more convincing and valid. After the fall of Vijaya in 1471 to the 17th century during the Age of Exploration, global trade in early modern Southeast Asia experienced a booming upward trajectory. Anthony Reid explains that at the same time, the Portuguese and Spanish Christians had arrived in the region and carried out ambitious colonial conquests and trade dominance, provoking political associations among the Southeast Asian Muslims. Among them were the Cham diaspora of merchants, warriors, and refugees whom had adopted Islamic faiths from the Malays through peaceful correlation were operating commercial activities throughout Southeast Asia, and built a strong relationship with them. Those Cham Muslims then returned to their homeland and started preaching Islam to their fellow people by the 1500s.
Contacts between Islamic sultanates on the Indonesian Archipelago with Champa (Panduranga) increased during 15th and 16th century. Cham texts relate the introduction of Islam into Champa began with a princess of Makkah and two Malay princes from Kelantan who came to Champa to promote the messages of the Qur'an. When the princess returns to her homeland, her Cham lover feels unable to abandon his ancestors' religion and adopt Islam, so the second tale tells that the Cham king Po Rome (r. 1627–51) conceived hybridization according to Cham customary to ensure interreligious harmony in Cham society upon the advice of the Malay princes. The Malay Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) made a reverse claim: the Cham are credited for the introduction and promotion of Islam to Java. In conclusion, Manguin attributes the Islamization of the Cham people to their active participation the regional maritime networks, and the Malay states and Malay traders which also had contributed great impacts to the process.
Flourishing period (1400–1800)
A Spanish record in late 1580s reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with Hindu temples". Many Cham Qur'an manuscripts and Bani legends were written during this period in Panduranga, for examples several Bani legends, the first relating to Fāṭima, daughter of the Prophet, and this is followed by an explanation of the origin of mosques, created by the Prophet Muhammad, ʿAlī, and the archangel Gabriel.
To resolve growing hatreds between the Balamon and the Bani Awal, King Po Rome ordered the Cham Bani to have their religion more integrated with Cham customs and beliefs, while pressing the Ahier to accept Allah as the most supreme God but allowed them to retain their worships of traditional Cham divinities, excellently reforging peace and cohesion in his kingdom. Thus preserved the pre-Islamic Cham identity while entangling and incorporating Islam into basis of Cham culture. King Po Rome is an important deity that is being venerated by the Cham people today. Connections between Pandaranga and the extra Malay/Islamic world blossomed. Syncretism was widely practiced at all levels, best known for incorporating cosmopolitan Islamic doctrines into existing indigenous Cham beliefs and Hindu pantheons. The Cham Bani developed a distinct Islamic literature, with beckoned combination of more or less Arabic passages, including Islamic heroes and prophecies, cosmology, Islamization legends, Quranic verses, royal chronicles and genealogies, and Malay-Cham wordlists. The multipurpose lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely Po Rome's best combination of previous Cham Śaka era with the Islamic lunar calendar.
The Cham Bani blended Shi'a teachings and traditions with their own traditional Cham customs, such as keeping old Sanskrit titles among the clergy; the Ramadhan (Ramawan) month was reduced to three-day-fest instead of whole month; daily praying time was four hours and the last hour at night was skipped. Despite that, Bani Awal follows strict monotheism; Awal imam (acar) must perform praying (saemiang), rituals, and ordination only inside the mosque (magik, masjid). Cham Bani do not accept the worship altar of dead ancestors, nor deceased father and mother being placed inside the house. Names of deceased persons are forbidden to call directly. Instead, the Bani would remember them by calling slant names. The Bani would refurbish their ancestors cemetery steles and have a remembrance ceremony to pay respect and filial piety to ancestors every year on the Gabur Rak day, usually takes place at the end of the Šaʿbān (Shaban) month.
European missionaries described Champa in the 1670s as having the majority of its population being Muslims, a Muslim sultan, and a Muslim court. In 1680 Panduranga king Po Saut (r. 1659–1692) styled himself with Malay horrific Paduka Seri Sultan in his hand letter to the Dutch in Java.
The Nguyen invaded Panduranga in 1690s and locked the Cham polity in completed isolation, which resulted in the disconnection between the Cham and the Malay-Islamic world. By the early 1800s, the majority of Cham Muslims in Old Champa (Central Vietnam) were practicing Bani Shiism, still using the traditional Akhar Thrah Cham script. Meanwhile, the majority of Cambodian and Mekong Delta Chams became orthodox Sunni Muslims and adopted Arabic-derived Jawi script.
Persecution under Minh Mang
In 1832, the Vietnamese Emperor Minh Mạng annexed the last Champa Kingdom. Minh Mang outlawed Cham religions, both Bani and Balamon. Mosques were razed to the ground. The Ramawan was forbidden. This resulted in the Cham Muslim leader Katip Sumat, who was educated in Kelantan, declaring a Jihad against the Vietnamese. The Vietnamese coercively fed lizard and pig meat to Cham Muslims and cow meat to Cham Hindus against their will to punish them and assimilate them to Vietnamese culture.
In the mid-19th century, many Cham Muslims emigrated from Cambodia and settled in the Mekong Delta region, further bolstering the presence of Islam in Vietnam. Between 1885 and 1890, Hanoi's only mosque, the Al-Noor Mosque on Hang Luoc Street, was built using contributions from the local Indian community. Malayan Islam began to have increasing influence on the Chams in the early 20th century. Religious publications were imported from Malaya; Malay clerics gave khutba (sermons) in mosques in the Malay language; and some Cham people went to Malayan madrasah to further their studies of Islam. The Mekong Delta also saw the arrival of Malay Muslims.
Post-independence (since 1945)
As the Saigon (Republic of Vietnam, RVN) government seized minority lands for Northern Kinh refugees in the 1950s, nationalist sentiment among the Cham and indigenous peoples increased. Cham Muslims and Hindus formed the Cham Liberation Front (Front de Liberation du Champa, FLC) led by the Muslim Lieutenant-Colonel Les Kosem to fight against both North and South Vietnam during the Vietnam War in order to obtain Cham independence. The Cham Liberation Front joined with the Montagnards and Khmer Krom to form the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (Front Uni de Lutte des Races Opprimées, FULRO) to fight the Vietnamese.
During the 1960s and prior to 1975, a series of tensions and violent clashes between the Bani Awal and Cham Sunni broke out in Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan. The problems were due to efforts of Cham Sunni to promote the more orthodox variety of Islam among the Bani, who they regarded for not having upheld the true teachings of the Quran. The most notable and active organization for the efforts was the Hiệp hội Chàm Hồi giáo Việt Nam (Cham Muslim Association of Vietnam). One key component of the Association was expanding ties between Cham Muslim communities with other Islamic countries, especially Malaysia, causing the new Socialist Republic of Vietnam's government reacted with cautious. Even when Vietnam rejoined Malaysia and Indonesia in ASEAN in 1995, the fear is still obvious as state-sponsored historians downplay historical and cultural connections between Champa and the Malay/Islamic world.
After the 1976 establishment of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, some of the 55,000 Cham Muslims emigrated to Malaysia. 1,750 were also accepted as immigrants by Yemen; most settled in Ta'izz. Those who remained did not suffer violent persecution, although some writers claim that their mosques were closed by the government. In 1981, foreign visitors to Vietnam were still permitted to speak to indigenous Muslims and pray alongside them, and a 1985 account described Ho Chi Minh City's Muslim community as being especially ethnically diverse: aside from Cham people, there were also Indonesians, Malays, Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, Yemenis, Omanis, and North Africans; their total numbers were roughly 10,000 at the time.
Vietnam's second largest mosque was opened in January 2006 in Xuân Lộc, Đồng Nai Province; its construction was partially funded by donations from Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, the latter has a strong tie to Vietnam. A new mosque, the largest in Vietnam, in An Giang Province, the Kahramanlar Rahmet Mosque, was opened in 2017 with Turkish funds.
According to the Cham advocacy group International Office of Champa (IOC-Champa) and Cham Muslim activist Khaleelah Porome, both Cham Hindu and Muslims have experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confisticating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs. In 2010 and 2013 several incidents occurred in Thành Tín and Phươc Nhơn villages where Cham were murdered by Vietnamese. In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator. Cham Muslims in the Mekong Delta have also been economically marginalised, with ethnic Vietnamese settling on land previously owned by Cham people with state support. Cham activist Suleiman Idres Bin called for independence of Champa from Vietnam and went as far as comparing its situation to East Timor.
Demographics
Vietnam's April 1999 census reported 63,146 Muslims. Over 77% lived in the South Central Coast, with 34% in Ninh Thuận Province, 24% in Bình Thuận Province, and 9% in Ho Chi Minh City; another 22% lived in the Mekong Delta region, primarily in An Giang Province. Only 1% of Muslims lived in other regions of the country. The number of believers is gender-balanced to within 2% in every area of major concentration except An Giang, where the population of Muslim women is 7.5% larger than the population of Muslim men. This distribution is somewhat different from that observed in earlier reports. Prior to 1975, almost half of the Muslims in the country lived in the Mekong Delta, and as late as 1985, the Muslim community in Ho Chi Minh City was reported to consist of nearly 10,000 individuals. Of the 54,775 members of the Muslim population over age 5, 13,516, (or 25%) were currently attending school, 26,134 (or 48%) had attended school in the past, and the remaining 15,121(or 27%) had never attended school, compared to 10% of the general population. This gives Muslims the second-highest rate of school non-attendance out of all religious groups in Vietnam (the highest rate being that for Protestants, at 34%). The school non-attendance rate was 22% for males and 32% for females. Muslims also had one of the lowest rates of university attendance, with less than 1% having attended any institution of higher learning, compared to just under 3% of the general population.
There are two Muslim groups in Vietnam: Sunni Muslims and Bani Cham Muslims. The Bani branch is considered unorthodox because its practices are different from mainstream Islam and it is influenced by Cham folk beliefs. Cham Bani Muslims consisted entirely of ethnic Chams, particularly those living in the provinces of Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận. The Bani community, which numbered around 64,000 and had 407 clerics (2006), is organized by the Bani Religious Leaders Council. The Sunni community has a wider range of ethnicities (Cham, Viet, Malay, Khmer, Chinese, and Arab). Their population in 2006 was 25,000, mostly inhabiting the southwest of the Mekong Delta, along with urban areas such as Hanoi or Ho Chi Minh City.
However, there are esoteric, non-orthodox Islamic beliefs in the Mekong Delta that are regarded as mê tín (superstitions). Cham researcher Dohamide conjectures these non-Islamic beliefs among the Mekong Delta Cham as Sufism. He believes that some fragments of the Mekong Delta Cham communities maybe strongly influenced by Sufi orders.
Official representation
The Ho Chi Minh City Muslim Representative Committee was founded in 1991 with seven members; a similar body was formed in An Giang Province in 2004.
Cultural appreciation
.
The Cham Muslim Identity in the Mekong Delta
There are two main groups of Chams practicing the Islamic faith in Vietnam: one in Central Vietnam in the Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces corresponding to the territories of the ancient Champa kingdom, commonly referred to as the Cham Bani, and another in the southern Mekong Delta, with the latter population being around 64,000. The Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta reside around the area of Châu Đốc in An Giang Province close to the Cambodian border, and also in Ho Chi Minh City and the provinces of Đồng Nai and Tây Ninh, practicing the Sunni Muslim faith. The Cham Muslims in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta assert their identity as unconfined by national boundaries, but self-identified as an ethnic community with an emphasis on Islam which enables them to transcend geographical boundaries and establish ties with co-religionists across borders. They are seen to engage in a cosmopolitan livelihood largely dependent on trade with extensive extra-local networks that transcends national boundaries. A comprehensive study done on this Cham group in Southern Vietnam can be seen in Philip Taylor’s book, Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta: Place and Mobility in the Cosmopolitan Periphery (2007), which explores in detail the Islamic Cham community in southern Vietnam by presenting their socio-cultural and socio-economic history based on extensive field work done in the Mekong Delta from 1999 to 2005 with various interviews conducted with the local Chams in the Vietnamese language.
Origins and Religion
Islam has played a key role in the lives of the Muslim Chams of the Mekong Delta, not only as a religion, but also as a source of origin, a vital unifier in their self-identification as Chams. While some Chams agree with scholarly views of their ancient origins from the kingdom of Champa, many deny such ancestry and state instead a variety of origins in Islam itself, as well as Malaysia and Angkor, Cambodia. While this denial was viewed by scholars as a rejection of displacement and ancestral links to central Vietnam, fear of reprisal from host nations, and silence resulting from a traumatic past of guilt and persecution as in the case of the Cambodian Chams, these pluralistic views might indeed point to the Chams as having diverse origins, which may in turn lie in the cosmopolitan creed of Islam that they have fervently embraced.
The Chams of the ancient Champa kingdoms along the south-central coast of Vietnam originally practiced Hinduism. Today, the Central Chams of Vietnam consists of two groups: the Balamon Chams, who practice an indigenized form of Hinduism, and the Bani Chams, who practice and indigenized form of Islam. The Islamic faith was introduced to these early Chams with the arrival of two waves of foreign Muslims on their shores: the first being Arabs, Indians, Persians and later Chinese Muslims beginning in the 9th century, and the second being Malay Muslims in the 16th and 17th centuries when maritime trade flourished in Southeast Asia in which Muslim traders played a significant part. Most historians recognized the presence of a “significant Muslim community among the indigenous Cham population” only after the fall of the Vijaya kingdom of Champa in 1471. The Chams have adopted Islam because of their disinclination for “genealogical identification” of these two groups that led the Cham Muslims to move south.
For the Chams of the Delta, Islam’s appeal lies in its universality and its ability to overcome various barriers of daily life with a unifying relatability to overcome barriers of linguistic diversities and differing origins resulting from pluralistic migration as experienced by these Chams, which drew them to adopt this faith. Scholars had also emphasized Islam as a means of reconsolidating displaced peoples, a result of missionary work, and as a transcendence creed more suitable to these Chams’ mobile lifestyles engaging in extra-local trade. Traditional animism, in which local spirits are worshipped to seek their protection, would not work for the southern Chams’ situation, whose livelihoods involve constant movement and/or migration where they would find themselves outside the protective sphere of their initial guardian spirits, whereas the God of monotheistic religions such as Islam provides universal protection to all those in His faith. In addition, the Islamic faith provides the trader with a “set of ethics applied to business practice and a disciplining code of conduct” that renders it more acceptable and appealing as compared to traditional spirit worship.
Islam also provides a means of providing access to a wider world of co-religionists, evidenced by the Chams’ connections and affinity to Malaysia and the Middle Eastern world. As such, emphasis has been increasingly placed by the Southern Chams on their Malay origins and migration, which may possibly be a result of the growing prosperity of Malaysia, its influence, and its interest in the “Malay Chams” in recent years where the Chams have been considered as part of a wider Malay world. In this regard, the Chams are seen to use their ethnicity and “their linguistic, cultural, and historical affinities” with neighboring countries to further their socio-economic interests. The Chams also employ such affinities, “perceptions of oppression”, and their “Muslimness” in their interactions and negotiations with not only the Malays but with the Khmer as well. In this respect, the Chams of the Mekong Delta have also enjoyed close kinship ties to the Chams in Cambodia, sharing a common religion, language, and trade links that has spanned many generations. Furthermore, resistance to their ethnic minority status and the Vietnamese State’s attempts at assimilation, and their extensive history of interactions with transnational cultural forces have also rendered the Muslim Chams conducive to socio-cultural inclinations towards the larger Malay society. In this regard, Islam is also seen to have revitalized and preserved their ethnic cultural identity through access to better job opportunities and Islamic higher education in the larger Malay/Islamic world, and through assistance provided for the building of mosques in their communities that serve as vital landmarks of Cham localities and bulwarks of their religious culture. The Cham Muslim society can thus be considered as fluid and adaptive, where boundaries are constantly negotiated and transcended in attempts to reinforce and preserve their ethnic identity.
The Chams regard themselves as among the earlier settlers to the Mekong Delta region, as opposed to state narratives of Vietnamese majorities’ expansion to the South. Historical French, Vietnamese, and Cham sources studied by Weber (2011) gave a vivid account of Cham and Malay military colonies created in the 18th century in Vietnam’s southwestern provinces. The Chams and Malays from Cambodia were migrated or displaced to the Tay Ninh and Chau Doc areas by the Vietnamese in order to establish Viet-controlled settlements for frontier defense. Attempts were made by the French after the dismantlement of the settlements to isolate these non-Viet and Vietnamese communities, which resulted in tensions arising between them. This sheds considerable light on the migratory cycle of the Chams over the centuries into and out of Cambodia that Taylor (2007) alluded to, and the tensions that still exist today between the various ethnic groups of the Mekong Delta, providing an alternative view of the Chams as the “later arrivals”.
The Cham Economic Life
The Cham Muslim communities in the Mekong Delta have generally been viewed as “poor” and “backward”, residing in remote areas, isolated physically from the economic centers of the country amidst a web of waterways, and socially from their neighbors resulting from a strict observance of their religious practices, engaging in a “subsistence-oriented” localist economy. Their relatively low education levels and minimal participation in the modern market economy as compared to the other ethnic groups, have been thought to have contributed to their economic situation. Their religious traditions paradoxically have been regarded to have both hindered and assisted their engagement in trade. The economic reforms of the state and open-door market policies of the state were not able to achieve much in alleviating the Cham’s economic standing but instead have further marginalized them. They were unable to participate in rice export and in large-scale rice farming due to the falling prices of rice and to land being lost following the state’s land redistribution policies of the 1970s; unable to engage in the emerging aquaculture business of fish-rearing due to lack of capital; and unable to continue the traditional weaving industry due to its inability to compete with cheaper, mass produced fabric made available by the market. As such the mainstay of Cham economy became trade.
Given their settlements’ geolocation, the Chams have for generations engaged in trade across the Cambodia-Viet border and in trans-local trade across the Mekong Delta as far away as Central and North Vietnam, especially to places unreached by the modern market, utilising their multilinguistic abilities and territorial knowledge, with many being able to speak Vietnamese, the national lingua franca, Khmer, and Malay, in addition to the Cham language. This nature of the Chams points instead to their cosmopolitan nature, rather than to the commonly held idea of ethnic minorities as being isolated due to the remote situation of their communities. Despite this cosmopolitan nature, the economic difficulties faced by the Chams mentioned above ironically goes against state narratives of economic liberation enjoyed under to its open market policies. The Chams are seen to regard themselves as a disenfranchised group, whereas the majority Kinh were regarded to be endowed with better access to the state. The Chams’ continuous mobility and their outward migration to the cities and overseas for higher education and better job opportunities on the other hand have resulted in political agency for the Chams, resulting in remittances that benefit the local communities and reduced frictions with other ethnic groups.
The Cultural Dimension
The matrilineal traditions practiced by the Central Chams of Vietnam can no longer be seen among the Chams of the Mekong Delta. However, certain kinship practices are still found to be shared among the two groups, such as monogamy and the post-marital matrilocal practice in which the man moves in with his bride’s family following his marriage. The two groups also share a common Malayo-Polynesian Cham language that is mutually understandable, although differences in pronunciation and accent exist. However, the written Cham script derived from Sanskrit known as the akhar thrah, while still being maintained by the Central Chams in both its writing system and texts, has been lost among the Chams of the Mekong Delta. This causes the Central Chams to render their southern counterparts as having “lost their Cham culture”. However, the Chams of the Delta do not regard this as a lack on their part, where the Arabic alphabet is used instead for the written form of the Cham language. In addition, Malay and Arabic are also learnt by many especially for Koranic studies. In the realm of religion however, the Chams of the Delta regard themselves as practicing a “purer form” of Islam as compared to the Cham Banis in the north who also worship ancestors and whose religious practices are seen to have Bramanic influences.
The Chams have been depicted in state cultural narratives as part of the cultural mosaic of ethnic minorities that constitute the state of Vietnam, and have resisted such monolithic views of their culture. In the views of the Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta, the state is seen to regard the Central Cham culture as encompassing of all Chams and tend to highlight it as the minority ethnic Cham culture with little regard of diversity within the Cham groups such as theirs, thus raising tensions among the Cham Muslims. The state’s reach to this southern delta region has been limited and contested, and where the state’s portrayal of Cham culture as matrilineal and unchanging, does not conform with the fluid social and ideological exchanges that take place within the Cham Muslim communities of the Delta.
In this regard, a view that supports the notion of self-identification among the Chams and challenges the dominant narrative of the Chams as a minority bounded by nation-state frameworks is to be noted. Photographic portrayals of Chams residing in Vietnam, Malaysia, and Hainan, China, not only in traditional settings performing cultural rituals or as modern professionals performing daily duties in their everyday lives, have been depicted as being themselves in their home environments. This portrays an aspect of the Chams differing from the common “folkloric depictions” of them as a “colourful and timeless” ethnic minority of a nation state. As such, “an alternative approach to belonging” is seen among the Chams where modern representations of the Cham reject ethnic objectification associated with the notion of backwardness. It is seen as such that “self-identification” as the best unifier of Chams across Vietnam, resisting common categorizations and portrayals of Cham ethnicity, where besides the common Cham language, little unites the Chams, especially given that not all Chams relate to ancestral origin narratives associated with the ancient Champa kingdom.
Cham Potency
Beliefs among the non-Cham Vietnamese population prevail of Cham potency through spiritual and occult powers, drawing continuity from the ancient Champa animistic and local spirit worship. The belief in Cham spiritual potency has thus added another dimension to the perceived identity of this ethnic group by non-Chams in Vietnam. The Vietnamese regard of Cham potency to the latter’s perceived power and knowledge derived from their “privileged connection to the local area”, and as imagined “weapons to overcome the deficits” of displacement, impoverishment, and disadvantage that they had suffered. The belief and worship in potent Cham spiritual figures and their origins in the Mekong Delta reveal aspects of being Cham- where fame and repute are derived from being trans-local and mobile, achieved through trade, religious studies, and pilgrimage, with a sense of “simultaneous belonging to local, trans-local and universal communities of faith”, drawing a parallel to the sacred journeys undertaken to Mecca and the locale’s perceived magical potency.
The Cham female spirits are venerated as the protectors of their respective localities, following the establishment of such cults by the Viet emperors who claimed of having been “assisted” by the spirits in their victories over Cham territories, and thus by co-opting Cham cultural elements into their territorial expansion, created a legitimacy narrative over the conquered Cham lands. By establishing “historical potency” and continuity, the Vietnamese engage in “remembering” the Chams as the first occupiers of the land. Through such “remembering”, a form of cultural “compensation” is considered to be rendered towards the Chams. In this regard, ideological complexities are observed in the worship of the “Lady of the Realm” of the Mekong Delta in which the multi-ethnic historical layers that undergird this region is reflected. The “Lady” ‘’Ba Chau Xu’’ and her shrine in Chau Doc near the Cambodian border functions as a “boundary-marker”, whose legends in the official accounts relates to how she assisted the mandarin ‘’Thoai Ngoc Hau’’ in his efforts towards defending Vietnamese territories, co-opting the goddess into the Vietnamese pantheon and national defense narratives whereas the aspect of Vietnamese expansion into previous Khmer territories had been reversed, especially given archaeologic attributes of the statue to be a female likeness made over that of Shiva of Khmer origin. Some locals believe the “Lady” to actually be the Cham goddess ‘’Thien Y A Na’’ or even of Indian origins, although in current times, it is increasingly being venerated by the local ethnic Chinese for her efficacy in fertility and business prosperity.
In this vein, a revival of ethnic spirit rituals in the post-Doi Moi era is seen to have taken place in Vietnam, where Daoist-inspired practices in which ethnic minorities are regarded as “contemporary ancestors” of the Vietnamese people, whose tutelary spirits safeguard their respective lands, had overtaken earlier neo-Confucian views of minorities being regarded as the “junior siblings” of the majority Vietnamese with notions of ethnic minorities as “mired in the past”.
Conclusion
The Cham Muslims in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam have long established a community for themselves centred on the Islamic religion and a way of life defined by Islamic values. The scholarship on Cham ethnicity discussed above portrays how despite pluralistic accounts of origin and linguistic diversity, the Chams’ self-identification as Muslims unifies the Chams not only across the Delta but also across national boundaries. State narratives of isolation and remoteness in relation to geographical situations of ethnic minorities are in paradox for the Chams of the Delta where cross-border networks of engagement, extra-local trade and religious connections attest instead to their cosmopolitanism. Assistance from the Cham Muslim diaspora across the globe, urban emigrations, followed by state efforts at infrastructure development have also enabled them to exercise political agency as seen in higher education levels among the young, livelihoods bolstered by relatives’ remittances. The Chams have also been able to utilise their religion in seeking support and recognition across co-regionalists in their pursuit of education and better opportunities beyond their localities which have contributed to the preservation of their identity and culture. The works of Taylor and other contemporary scholars as studied above portray the various means of Cham resistance to state assimilation efforts and to an ethnic minority status bounded by nation-state ideologies and categorisations that re-affirm self-identification as a unifying element, where despite the existence of traditional ritualistic beliefs, Islamic faith and cultural values bind the Muslim Chams of the Mekong Delta.
See also
Religion in Vietnam
Islam by country
References
Notes
Sources
Census tables
Vietnam |
4518446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWC%20Universal%20Heavyweight%20Championship | WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship | The WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship and the top title contested for in the Puerto Rican professional wrestling promotion, the World Wrestling Council. The championship was established in July 1982, as the WWC World Heavyweight Championship, when the company was named Capitol Sports Promotions.
The championship received its current name following a match between Carlos Colón (WWC World Heavyweight Champion) and Ric Flair (NWA World Heavyweight Champion) where the "Champion of the Universe" was supposed to be determined. The first champion was Abdullah the Butcher, who was billed as champion upon the title's creation. Since being established, the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship has been held by forty-nine different wrestlers and has also been held up on nineteen occasions and vacated or stripped thirteen times.
History
Early history
The WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship was first introduced as the WWC World Heavyweight Championship, when it was awarded to Abdullah the Butcher, after he won a "tournament" that supposedly took place in Japan. The tournament was part of a storyline and was used to relate to Abdullah's previous run in All Japan Pro Wrestling. Three days later Carlos Colón became the first local wrestler to win the championship. During the championship's first years Colón would defend the championship successfully against several international wrestlers, only losing it when a "feud angle" was being promoted.
During December 1983, Capitol Sports Promotions gave a significant amount of promotion to an angle between Ric Flair and Carlos Colón. At the moment when the feud happened Colón was the WWC World Heavyweight Champion and Flair was the NWA World Heavyweight Champion. The angle included a spot where Flair would criticize Capitol's championship, claiming that he was the only "real world champion". This led to a match on December 18, 1983 where both wrestlers competed in an event organized at Bayamón, Puerto Rico. The match was billed as a fight to determine the "undisputed champion of the Universe", and it took place inside a steel cage. Flair lost the match and Colón was declared the "undisputed champion of the Universe", in the process the championship was renamed to WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship. February 17, 1985 marked the first time that the championship's holder changed outside of Puerto Rico, when Dory Funk, Jr. won it. After a rematch ended in a draw, the title was held up for the first time since its foundation. After Colón defeated Flair, he would go on several undefeated streaks; this lasted until Funk "injured" him in a match. This event led to the championship being vacated for the first time.
He subsequently competed in a tournament to determine the new champion where he won it for a fifth time. After this he was involved in an angle where Hercules Ayala turned on him and won the championship. This led to the organization of several matches, before he won it on a rematch. Sadistic Steve Strong was the next champion, upon his entrance to the company he was billed as a "satanic heel". Both wrestlers traded the title until it was held up and won by Colón (in what marked his tenth title reign) who held it until December 17, 1989, when he lost it to Leo Burke.
Following this Burke would go on to feud with Juan Rivera who at the time was referred to as "TNT". Both wrestlers had been involved in a mid-card feud prior to this. Rivera won the championship on February 9, 1990, eventually losing it to Abdullah the Butcher, who lost it to Colón. The title was held up numerous times in 1991, as part of feuds between Colón, Greg Valentine and Dino Bravo.
Ray González and Colón family (1994–2005)
On August 1, 1993, Colón announced that he was retiring, vacating the championship in the process. Following this a tournament was scheduled to determine a new champion. On August 8, 1993, the final took place when Greg Valentine defeated Invader #1 to become the new champion, which led to a feud between both men. During this time Invader was part of the booking team and was interested in giving Ray González a push as the company's top face. Then on April 24, 1994, Invader was supposed to challenge Valentine for the championship but was replaced by González following an "injury". González won the match and became the champion in an unexpected result. González wasn't well received as a face and subsequently lost the championship to Dutch Mantel on June 22, 1994. This led to an angle between Mantel and Colón, who won the championship a sixteenth time. He was subsequently involved in a feud with Mabel, in which both wrestlers had a reign, which Colón eventually ended with Abdullah the Butcher winning the championship and engaging in a feud with Bronco, who won the championship on March 23, 1996. This led to a feud with Colón, who defeated Bronco in a retirement vs. deportation match. After this Colón retained the championship, with it being held up once during this period. On June 25, 1996, Jesús Castillo, Jr. won the title while working a tour in Puerto Rico. Castillo dropped the title to Colón on the last date of this tour. Colón was then involved in angles with El Nene and Jim Steele with both of them winning the title once before dropping it back. Following this Colón announced a semi-retirement and vacated the championship. A tournament was held with González winning it again.
During this run Ray was pushed and his adversaries tried to put him over. This was followed by an angle where González and Colón would experience trouble and after González lost and regained the title against El Nene, both had a feud where Colón won the championship for a twenty-third time, but ended up losing it back to Ray the following day. González defended the title until November 26, 1998, when Glamour Boy Shane won it, losing it to González two days after. Over the course of three months Ray lost and regained the title against Colón again. This year the World Wrestling Council ran an invasion angle where personnel from Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) wrestled in the company; this led to a feud between Pierroth, Jr. and González. Both of them faced each other in a hair vs. mask match for the championship, where González won and Pierroth was forced to remove his mask. The following day Pierroth won the championship; this feud ended in a "loser leaves WWC" match that González won and thus became champion for a ninth time. Soon after this González was involved in an angle where Carly Colón made his debut in wrestling, eventually helping Colón win the championship for the last occasion in his career.
González would win the championship back on January 6, 2000. This was followed by an angle that saw Carly win the title. The feud continued with González bringing foreign wrestlers to challenge him for the title, among whom were Curt Hennig and Jerry Flynn, who won the title eventually losing it to Bronco, who lost to Ray shortly after. González was then involved in a feud where he retained against El Super Gladiador, during which the title was held up once. Carly won the championship back on the last show of 2001, which took place on December 1, 2001. This time he feuded with Vampiro who won the title once, with the title being subsequently held up and finally being won by Colón again. After this he was involved with Konnan who won and dropped the championship in a day. By this time González left WWC and Carly was matched against Chicky Starr who won the championship and had a short run until losing it back. Carly's final feud before signing with World Wrestling Entertainment was against Sabu with both men trading the championship once.
When Carly left to Ohio Valley Wrestling a tournament was scheduled, where Lightning won the championship. He feuded with Thunder for some time and would go on to lose the championship to El Diamante on September 13, 2003. Diamante lost the championship, losing it to Carly who was on a temporal stay with the company and then losing it to Abdullah the Butcher on the final days of his stay. The wrestler didn't defend the title many times, however, and it was vacated. Bronco won a tournament organized for the championship and lost it to Eddie Colón, leading to a feud between both. Eddie was pushed and defended against Jim Steele, Abyss and Abdullah the Butcher with the championship being held up only once. This led to a feud with El Diamante where both traded the championship before El Diamante left the company. During this time Bryan debuted with the company and won the championship shortly after, getting involved in a feud with Glamour Boy Shane, who won it on the company's Aniversario event on November 6, 2005.
The IWA's unification of the "Capitol World Heavyweight Championship"
On December 15, 2007, Scott Hall failed to attend a title defense which led to the fictional box and wrestling commission's decision to vacate the championship and award it to the number one contender, who at the moment was Miguel "Biggie Size" Maldonado. On December 29, 2007, the Universal championship was announced as "held-up" following the events where he was declared the champion following Hall's absence to Lockout. The commission's decision was announced during the company's holiday recess and Maldonado still retained physical possession of the championship belt. On January 6, 2008, Jack Meléndez, who had been managing La Rabia, the stable where he performed, abandoned the company citing differences with the company's personnel. Following Meléndez's exit from the company, La Rabia abandoned the company as well, no-showing the special event scheduled for January 6, 2008. That same night, Maldonado appeared at the International Wrestling Association's Histeria Boricua event, with the championship belt still in his possession and challenged Freddie "Blitz" Lozada, the current IWA World Heavyweight Champion to a unification match. The match took place later in the event with Lozada winning both belts. Following this match WWC's merchandise manager, José Roberto Rodríguez, who had been allowed entry into the building, demanded that the belt was returned to him. However, by this time, the IWA's personnel had replaced the belt with Revolution X-Treme Wrestling's championship belt (which was in Savio Vega's possession) and had transferred the Universal Championship to a secure location. This led to a discussion between personnel from both companies and Rodríguez's expulsion from the event. After the event's conclusion, police officers were contacted but the IWA retained physical possession of the championship. The belt was returned to WWC personnel following an ultimatum, which claimed that the company would take legal action if it wasn't returned within forty-eight hours. However, both the International Wrestling Association and the National Wrestling Alliance recognized the unification match, considering Lozada the first Undisputed World Heavyweight Champion in Puerto Rico.
Tournament and redesign
WWC organized a tournament to determine the next champion. Eliminatories for this event lasted for six months, using a points system to select the finalists.
The final was scheduled for July 19, 2008, as part of Aniversario 2008, with Daniel Torres (otherwise known as Noriega) and Orlando Colón advancing to it. A new belt (designed by Mike Nicolau) was introduced, while the former design was awarded to Carlos Colón, who held a retirement ceremony earlier in the event. Torres won the tournament, defeating Colón by pinfall.
Second IWA exile and reunification
After 36 days with the title, Torres left the company while still the champion and retaining physical possession of the belt, signing a contract with a promotion named Extreme Wrestling Organization, who was in association with a publicity company known as Wrestle Event, which facilitated the loan of large facilities. Shortly after, EWO's partnership with Wrestle Event dissolved and Torres joined the IWA, appearing in a backstage segment with the title, which was concealed in a black bag. During his next appearance, the distinctive strap of the belt was exposed outside the pouch, but the plaque remained hidden from view. Torres also addressed the crowd, stating that he was "collecting titles" and had arrived to the promotion because "the title in [his] possession was worthless because it was unified ten months [before]", prior to unsuccessfully challenging the IWA Undisputed Champion.
This forced WWC to return to the former design, with Ray González being the first to claim it in order to fill the vacancy. At Aniversario 2009, Torres returned to the company and removed the redesigned belt from the black bag that held it, being subsequently booked in an angle with the holder of the original belt, Ángel "BJ" Rosado. A first unification match was held at Summer Madness, with both titles being held up following a controversial finish. On September 26, 2009, Torres was booked to defeat Rosado, winning both belts and unifying the title, holding it for a day before dropping them to Shane Sewell. On November 1, 2009, Sewell and the incumbent IWA Undisputed World Heavyweight Champion, Joe Bravo, performed in a Dominican Wrestling Entertainment event, with Bravo's DWE Dominican National Championship being held up after the creative team booked a no contest. This marked the first instance that the two major champions worked together while holding full recognition by both promotions.
Talent exchange and other alliances
Throughout 2012 the title made appearances in Brooklyn-based Fighting Spirit Wrestling (FSW), represented by Gilbert Cruz (who also held the FSW World Heavyweight Championship during this timeframe and carried both belts) and by Germán Figueroa (as Apollo), also being featured in a champion vs. champion match between both. The title has also been acknowledged in another New York metropolitan area promotion, Amaro Productions, being referred to as the "WWC Campeon de Universal" while promoting a tour featuring former champion Figueroa in 2013. In 2014, during its brief alliance with the World Wrestling League (WWL), WWC allowed some of its talent to participate in cards held abroad by that promotion, while the Universal Championship would be promoted by the former in its media presentations of Shane Sewell and José Torres.
International exposition and defenses (2015–present)
On April 4, 2015, John Yurnet (otherwise known as Mr. 450 or Jesús de León) made an appearance in WWC and issued a challenge for the Universal Heavyweight Championship in the main event of Camino a la Gloria. However, the match ended without a clear winner and Carlos "Chicano" Cotto retained. The series between both peaked in a cage match, which Yurnet won to become the 50th Universal Heavyweight Champion. At Aniversario 2015, he defeated Carly Colón to retain. During his reign as champion, Yurnet would wear the belt in his appearances outside of Puerto Rico, carrying it with him in matches throughout the independent circuit of the United States and Canada. In an interview with WrestleZone, he explained that his intention was to give the title the foreign exposition that it had when Carlos Colón and Dory Funk feuded over it in the NWA territories and that he wanted people to feel "[that] this guy is going over to Japan with the belt and representing the island there. [...] This guy is going to Ecuador and he's representing there." On October 16, 2015, he debuted in Caution Wrestling Federation (CWF) by successfully defending the Universal Heavyweight Championship against masked luchador Zoom Driver, marking the first time that the title had been on the line in Mexican territory.
After this reign was concluded, his successor Carly Colón (now performing as Carlito Caribbean Cool) and the title were featured prominently in promotions for Wrestling Superstars' MysterioMania tour in Chile. Another aspect of this initiative included contracting foreign figures to challenge for the title in WWC, highlighted by a defense against Rey Mysterio.
Belt designs
The classic design of the belt referenced its origin as a NWA title by adopting the overall design of the NWA Mid-Atlantic United States Heavyweight Championship, albeit with several modifications. The central design that prominently features an eagle was left intact, however, the belt replaced all references to the latter's regional nature by removing all depictions relating to the United States in general. Among the most prominent changes was the replacement of the flag of the United States present on top of the eagle in the NWA Mid-Atlantic title with a representation of two wrestlers locked in a grappling hold, and the replacement of a political map of the United States that was found in an oval located under the eagle's feet with a globe. Another attempt to distance it from its regional inspiration was the removal of an "NWA" inscription on the top of the place, with the Universal Championship featuring a mantling design instead.
The NWA Mid-Atlantic title's prominent "United States" inscription was replaced with the word "Universal", written in a slightly different font from its inspiration. Besides these changes, the plaque's design remains consistent with its source, with the only remaining difference being the placement of a set of screws. The main side plates remained round and proportional to its inspiration but were entirely redesigned, with the United States shield being abandoned for a depiction of two wrestlers in mid-hold decorated with mantling. The smaller side plates featured depictions of a royal crown with similar mantling, instead of the scene of two wrestlers struggling before a United States shield and the NWA logo. The belt itself was black, similar to the NWA Mid-Atlantic United States Heavyweight Championship. The plaque and design was used constantly for nearly three decades, with the only notable changes being that the banners and other decorations were changed from its original black coloration to red and that the globe design that was originally golden was painted blue where the water bodies should be.
WWC commissioned a new belt design to Top Rope Belts in 2008, with the company creating a new template and design to create "something special". The new plaques were created to preserve a "classic feel to [them]" as noted by the manufacturer, which can be discerned with the re-design and relocation of several elements of the classic plaques, such as the eagle (now two smaller eagles flanking a much larger globe), the scene of wrestlers in a hold (now the central element and "stacked" over the globe), its coloration (the new scheme is black, red and blue, unifying both of the classic combinations) and the stars that were originally present in the main banner (which were now distributed throughout the main plaque). The side main side plaques present a modern depiction of the classic's wrestling match. WWC's current logo, adopted in the early 2000s, is now featured prominent on top of the main plaque and in the smaller side plaques. The belt was officially introduced in July 2008, with the first holder being determined in that year's Aniversario event.
Reigns
WWC currently recognizes 150 individual Universal Heavyweight Championship reigns.
Carlos Colón, Sr. holds the record with twenty-six championships and also holds the record for most cumulative days as champion, totaling 3,945 days. His second reign is the longest in the history of the title, as he held the title for 655 days. Three wrestlers are tied for the shortest reign in history, with all three lasting less than one day, these are Carly Colón's 11th reign and Vampiro and Lance Hoyt's lone reigns. Unofficially, BJ is recognized as the youngest wrestler to win the championship at 20 years and 357 days. However, for storyline purposes, Ray González's reign at 21 years and 355 days is credited with this feat.
See also
Professional wrestling in Puerto Rico
References
External links
Wrestling-Titles.com
Wrestling Information Archive
World heavyweight wrestling championships
World Wrestling Council championships |
4518640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catskill%20Mountain%20Railroad | Catskill Mountain Railroad | The Catskill Mountain Railroad is a heritage tourist railroad based in Kingston, New York, that began operations in 1982.
The railroad leases a 4.7-mile portion (MP 3.6 to MP 8.3) of the former New York Central Railroad Catskill Mountain branch from Kingston to Stony Hollow, New York. The tracks are owned by Ulster County, New York, which bought them in 1979 from the bankruptcy estate of the Penn Central Railroad. The railroad's current permit with Ulster County expires on December 31, 2023.
Current Operations
CMRR currently operates on approximately 4.5 miles of track of the former Ulster and Delaware Railroad from Kingston to Stony Hollow, New York. CMRR's Kingston station is at Westbrook Lane, near the Kingston Plaza Shopping Center, and ends just east of the Route 28A crossing in Stony Hollow, New York.
CMRR operates a variety of trains. The season begins with the Easter Bunny Express in the spring, with regular runs until Christmas of each year. Currently, in the summer, CMRR runs its Catskill Mountain Flyer, Twilight Limited and Ice Cream Sundays Train, and in the fall Fall Foliage and Pumpkin Express trains. From Thanksgiving to Christmas it runs Polar Express trains.
Trains are powered by Alco RS-1 401 (ex-GMRC 401), and consist of six flatcars converted to passenger use; a refurbished caboose 675 (ex-PRR 477672); five ex-LIRR P72 coaches and former Norfolk and Western PM coach 1727.
CMRR is currently asking its lessor, Ulster County, for permission to extend the line from Stony Hollow (MP 8.33) to the current end of track at Basin Road (MP 10.01) so that it can create a station and event center at this location and connect to the Ashokan Rail Trail, which continues along the former U&D right-of-way west of Basin Road. For more information on the CMRR's expansion plan, see this link below:
CMRR Proposed Extension to Basin Road
Stations and maintenance yards
Kingston Station
CMRR's current station at Westbrook Lane is temporary and the railroad seeks a permanent station in Kingston for its operations. CMRR has proposed a permanent station closer to Fair Street near MP 4 so customers can walk from the station to Uptown Kingston to eat or shop without using their cars.
Basin Road station
CMRR is also proposing a second permanent station at its proposed terminal at Basin Road at MP 9.95 that could also be used by the Ashokan Rail Trail (ART) which begins just west of MP 10.01. Proposed uses are:
• ART Information
• Ulster County Tourism information
• Public indoor bathrooms
• Commercial retail space (food and drink, bicycle repair and rental, or other convenience
uses)
• Covered area for events related to the ART and CMRR
• A ticket office for CMRR.
• A “North Pole” for the Polar Express.
Secure storage yard and engine house
CMRR needs a secure area to maintain its equipment, which it had at its Cornell Street yard until it was forced to vacate the yard by Ulster County on April 30, 2016. CMRR also needs an all-weather engine house to maintain its equipment year-round.
CMRR has proposed four locations for a permanent yard at alternate locations in Kingston. To date no location has been worked out with the County and the City of Kingston. This forces CMRR to store and maintain all its equipment out in the open on the main line which is particularly difficult in the winter.
Proposed track additions
CMRR currently operates 4.7 miles of track with a single siding in Kingston, making operations and switching quite difficult. CMRR has requested permission to install a run-around siding in Kingston and one at its eventual western terminus to eventually allow engine-first operation on the entire line.
Long-term goals
Kingston-Glenford Dike (MP 3.6 to 11.1)
Although CMRR is only currently allowed to operate to MP 8.33 in Stony Hollow, the railroad may eventually be allowed to operate to Basin Road at MP 10.01 at the border of the NYCDEP easement. The tracks from MP 8.33 to MP 10.01 remain in place and CMRR is currently requesting permission to renovate and operate on this segment with a proposed terminal at MP 9.95 near Basin Road.
CMRR believes that in order to run future dinner train service, tracks will need to be rebuilt from MP 10.01 to the Glenford Dike at MP 11.1. While there is ample room for railroad and pathway to coexist in this segment, rebuilding track will require permission from the NYCDEP.
CSX interchange at Kingston (MP 2.9 to 3.6)
CMRR has been isolated from the national network since Conrail removed its Kingston interchange switch in 1996. CMRR believes that reconnecting with the national rail network via CSX (successor to Conrail by absorbing former NYC trackage) at Kingston maximizes the value of the railroad to its owner Ulster County. Despite the fact rail was removed from MP 3.0 to MP 3.6 in 2018 to make way for the Kingston Midtown Linear Park Rail Trail, CMRR continues to advocate reserving a rail right-of-way in this section so that the line can eventually be reconnected to CSX for equipment moves, charters, and occasional freight movements.
Ridership
CMRR ridership dramatically increased with the addition of Polar Express and Thomas the Tank engine events in Kingston in 2014. Ridership is as follows:
2008 - Kingston 884, Phoenicia 7,155, total 8,039
2009 - Kingston 1,546, Phoenicia 6,767, total 8,313
2010 - Kingston 2,044, Phoenicia 10,211, total 12,255
2011 - Kingston 2,618, Phoenicia 6,684, total 9,302
2012 - Kingston 3,065, Phoenicia 8,463, total 11,528
2013 - Kingston 4,575, Phoenicia, 10,248, total 14,823
2014 - Kingston, 31,289, Phoenicia, 8,981, total 40,270
2015 - Kingston, 27,230, Phoenicia, 12,129, total 39,359
2016 - Kingston, 29,148, Phoenicia, 9,595, total 38,743
2017 - Kingston, 36,513 (Polar 24,223, other 12,290)
2018 - Kingston, 37,619 (Polar - 26,631, other 10,988)
2019 - Kingston, 41,115 (Polar - 29,632, other 11,483)
2020 - Kingston, 13,007 (Christmas - 1,791, other 11,216)
2021 - Kingston, 23,752 (Christmas - 4,761, other 18,991)
2022 - Kingston, 46,745 (Polar - 28,845, other 17,900)
In 2022, through credit card receipts, CMRR broke down its ridership as follows:
Kingston and Ulster County - 9.0%
Long Island and NYC - 21.3%
Rockland and Sullivan Counties - 3.8%
Orange County - 9.6%
Westchester and Putnam County - 10.2%
Dutchess County - 9.9%
Capital region - 11.0%
Other NYS - 1.8%
New Jersey - 7.0%
Other US - 7.6%
International - .1%
Walk-ons - 8.6%.
History
Catskill Mountain Railroad
In 1973, the Catskill Mountain Transportation Corp. "CMCT" was formed with the goal of purchasing the former Ulster and Delaware Railroad for freight and passenger service.
In 1979, Ulster County purchased the portion of the former Ulster and Delaware Railroad from MP 2.9 to MP 41.4, a total of , for $1.5 million, with the goal of resuming freight service and initiating a tourist train. The line had ceased passenger operations on March 31, 1954, and freight operations on October 2, 1976.
In 1980 and 1981, members of the Kingston Model Railroad club cleared brush on the line.
In 1982 members of the CMCT and the Kingston Model Railroad club formed the Catskill Mountain Railroad "CMRR", with the purpose of operating freight and passenger service on the former Ulster and Delaware Railroad from Kingston to Highmount, NY, a total of 38.6 miles of track.
In 1982, Ulster County leased its entire portion of the line to the CMRR. On August 9, 1982, CMRR initially began operations in Phoenicia, using track cars and trailers to haul tourists and tubers three miles along Esopus Creek to Mt. Pleasant station. The railroad was incorporated on March 7, 1983, as a for-profit railroad corporation in the state of New York. William Haysom was its first President.
In 1985, the CMRR began running full-sized equipment consisting of CMRR No.1, "The Duck", a flat car and caboose. Earl Pardini became president to help guide them through the transition. Pardini was with the D&U at its startup, helping to train its engineers and conductors. He agreed to come aboard, and the CMRR embarked on a period of serious expansion. Pardini had been a member of the former CMCT, and was brakeman on the last freight train on October 2, 1976.
In 1986, Ulster County reconnected the line with Conrail at Kingston. The railroad purchased a variety of second-hand locomotives, coaches and freight cars which were shipped by rail to Kingston. Some of the equipment was refurbished and used immediately, while the rest sat in storage until needed. Also in 1986, the CMRR signed its first multi-year lease with Ulster County, for five years, and began switching freight for the Kingston Recycling Center as well as operating tourist train service from Phoenicia to Mt. Tremper, New York.
In 1987, a devastating flood washed out Campground Curve, between Phoenicia and Mt. Tremper. In conjunction with NYSDOT and Ulster County, this damage was repaired and service restored in 1988. Operations focused on Phoenicia to Mt. Tremper, with limited operations in Kingston.
Expansion and Setbacks 1991-2005
The railroad entered into a 25-year lease with Ulster County in 1991. Railroad operations ended at busy Route 28 in Mt. Pleasant. The crossing had been out of service for many years, and the railroad needed to replace it if it was to continue east toward Kingston. The project received approval and after about ten years, public funding was provided to complete reconstruction of the crossing and installation of warning lights and gates. The new crossing was put into service in October 2004, offering the railroad its first significant expansion.
Then tragedy struck CMRR. On April 1, 2005, a devastating flood nearly wiped out the railroad, and caused much damage to the tracks and equipment in Phoenicia. After several weeks of volunteer effort, the line was reopened in summer 2005. Around this time, interest increased in using some segments of the rail corridor in Ulster County for a recreational trail.
Volunteer Resurgence
During the winter of 2006, the railroad reorganized its efforts as new volunteers came forward. A group from the nearby Ulster & Delaware Railroad Historical Society were among the first to offer assistance. Brush-cutting and clearing the right of way took first priority. A high-profile activity with immediate results, the cleanup effort motivated more volunteers to join. By the end of 2006, the volunteer force had increased to 45 full members and 30 provisional members. They cleared nearly 20 miles of brush from the mainline.
Kingston Operations Resume
In 2007 the railroad began track repairs in Kingston in line with the "ski lift" concept recommended in the ALTA Engineering study for railroad operation from Kingston to West Hurley. The railroad restored tracks in Kingston, with service opening to Washington Avenue in December 2008. In late 2009, the railroad opened more track west of Washington Avenue and offered additional seasonal service throughout that year. From 2007 to 2009, close to two miles of track had been rebuilt in Kingston, from Cornell Street to the foot of Bridge C9.
For three years, the CMRR worked to complete the rehabilitation of Bridge C9 over Esopus Creek in Kingston. The bridge was opened for service on December 7, 2012, enabling track rehabilitation westward with Route 209 being the first destination. Route 209, MP 5.42, was reached on September 21, 2013, and Hurley Mountain Road, MP 5.94, was reached on November 16, 2014. The track is now open to MP 6.45 west of Hurley Mountain Road. The first passenger train to Route 209 ran on October 19, 2013, and the first to Hurley Mountain Road on November 21, 2014.
West End Expansion
Through 2007 and 2008, work also continued on opening the .6 mile Cold Brook Extension. The first train arrived at Cold Brook Station on July 4, 2008: the first regularly scheduled passenger train to arrive at the station since March 31, 1954. Because Cold Brook station remains privately owned, the railroad maintained no agency there and there are no facilities to board or discharge passengers. In 2009, the CMRR repaired track another .8 miles to the Boiceville Bridge at MP 21.3, for work trains only.
By 2010, the physical limit of track restoration was reached on the "western" end of the operable railroad. To the west of Bridge Street in Phoenicia is a major washout preventing any serious restoration work without outside funding. To the east, the railroad rebuilt tracks up to the limit of Bridge C30 (Boiceville Trestle). This was a total of 6.4 miles of operable track at its greatest extent.
Hurricane Irene
On August 28, 2011, CMRR was devastated by flooding as a result of Hurricane Irene. Flood waters inundated the yard at Phoenicia, scouring the right of way and threatening the depot. A significant washout occurred at Campground Curve, similar to the one in 1987. All operating equipment had been moved to safe ground at Mt. Tremper, east of Campground Curve. Additional damage had been incurred where damage from a previous washout was already underway. In the non-operating segment east of Cold Brook station, the most significant damage was the loss of three of the four spans of Boiceville Trestle (Bridge C30) to rising flood waters. There was no significant damage to the restored tracks in the Kingston area.
The CMRR resumed operations on September 10, 2011, on a shortened length of track near Mount Tremper. The washout at Campground Curve was repaired in late 2011, except for reinstallation of track. Operations west of Mt. Tremper commenced on August 5, 2012. In November 2012, the County informed the CMRR that several repair projects had been approved by FEMA. Seven projects, including restoration of the Boiceville Trestle, were approved for $2.3 million. However, the County informed CMRR that it would not begin the projects unless CMRR agreed to terminate its lease from Kingston to the Ashokan Reservoir.
On August 3, 2013, the CMRR started reconstruction work of track on Campground Curve as part of returning to Phoenicia. This was done assuming that the county would not initiate a FEMA-funded project for this repair. The CMRR completed repairs to Phoenicia on August 7, 2015. Ironically, these repairs made possible the future new railbiking use for this segment of the railroad.
At the end of its 25-year lease with Ulster County on May 31, 2016, the CMRR ran from Phoenicia at MP 27.5 to the washout at MP 23.3, as the FEMA funds were never released for the trestle and washout repairs.
Litigation with Ulster County
In 2013, Ulster County attempted to terminate the CMRR's lease three years before its expiration. The CMRR successfully litigated the attempt to terminate its lease at a cost of $700,000. The litigation was settled in April 2016, and the CMRR was allowed to continue its former lease through its natural expiration on May 31, 2016.
New Permit
In August 2016, the CMRR signed a new permit with Ulster County for a five-mile segment from MP 3.6 at Chandler Drive in Kingston to MP 8.3 in Stony Hollow. The new permit expires on December 31, 2023. This segment did not include its yard in Kingston nor the former west end operation out of Phoenicia. Only one short siding was included in this permit area. Nevertheless, the CMRR continued renovating track operating on the full length of its permit area opening all its permitted track in 2019.
Operating History
Kingston-West Hurley
Since November 2006, the CMRR has re-opened track in Kingston. The passenger operable section stretches from Chandler Drive at MP 3.6 to Stony Hollow at MP 8.3.
On December 6, 2008, the railroad inaugurated seasonal tourist runs between Downs Street (MP 3.2) and Washington Avenue (MP 4.37). A small ticket office and loading platform was constructed off Westbrook Lane (MP 3.78) opposite Kingston Plaza to support tourist operations in 2008. The critical Washington Avenue crossing was reopened for limited use in 2008, and the track was opened to Bridge C-9 (MP 5) on November 15, 2009, for the 2009 Kingston Holiday Train. Repairs to Bridge C9 started in September 2011, and were completed on December 3, 2012. The bridge was certified on December 7, 2012, and the first passenger train ran across the bridge on December 8. On September 21, 2013, CMRR workers completed track rehabilitation up to NYS Route 209 (MP 5.42). The next day, work began on the next extension past 209 to Hurley Mountain Road (MP 5.94). In late 2014 track was expanded to MP 6.13, and in late 2015 to MP 6.45, over 1/2 mile west of Hurley Mountain Road. The operable section was extended to MP 6.67 in 2018 and to MP 8.3 in Stony Hollow in 2019.
CMRR also had a yard in Kingston, referred to as "Cornell Street Yard." In 2009, a new siding was constructed to expand the yard facilities to allow for the storage and restoration of passenger cars for expanded tourist train operations. The CMRR was forced to vacate the yard by the County on May 1, 2016.
Before its lease expired in 2016, the line was reopened for work trains to MP 11 on the Glenford Dike at the Ashokan Reservoir. The track from MP 10 to MP 11 was removed in 2018 for the Ashokan Rail Trail.
CMRR Inspection Train to Glenford Dike April 24, 2016
Prior Operations
Phoenicia-Cold Brook
The CMRR operated a tourist excursion train from Phoenicia Railroad Station, Phoenicia, MP 27.5 to Cold Brook Railroad Station, MP 22.1 until October 31, 2016. Its trains originated from the former U&D station in Phoenicia, which is also home to the Empire State Railway Museum. Passengers boarded trains at Phoenicia or Mount Tremper Railroad Station, MP 25.2.
Initially, service was provided by track cars hauling trailers between Phoenicia and Mount Tremper. Realizing that the future lies in conventional railroad equipment hauled by locomotives, two flatcars were rebuilt as open air bench cars to accommodate passengers. A Porter 50-ton switcher was enlisted to haul the expanded consist. A 1922-vintage wooden caboose often (ex-D&H 35952) brought up the rear, and offered additional capacity.
In early 2004 the caboose was taken out of service and replaced with a restored coach of Lackawanna heritage. This coach greatly increased the capacity of each train, and also helped offer "all-weather" service. In late 2004, service was extended to MP 22.7. It was extended further to Cold Brook Station, MP 22.1, on July 4, 2008.
On May 6, 2010, Phoenicia operations acquired a new locomotive, former LIRR/SIRY Alco S1 407, which was placed in service on May 7, 2010. It was the workhorse engine for Phoenicia operations since the start of the 2010 season. A second coach was put into service on October 2, 2010, just in time for the Fall Foliage trains.
In 2011, construction of a new switch and siding began at MP 24.75, to park maintenance equipment and give the work train a place to alight. It was completed on May 25, 2012.
For the 2012 season, the train ran initially from Mt. Tremper west to MP 23.3 where subgrade repairs are necessary due to Hurricane Irene. On August 5, 2012, after repairs were made at MP 25.5, the passenger train began running west to the next damaged section at MP 25.8, one half mile west of Mt. Tremper. On August 6, 2015, service was restored to Phoenicia Station after extensive track repairs were completed by the CMRR.
Work trains generally consisted of transfer caboose 697 (ex-CR 18015) and "The Duck," a small Davenport switcher. Equipment restoration and maintenance takes place at the railroad's open-air facilities. The original Phoenicia section house is used by the railroad to store tools and supplies for the track crew.
On August 4, 2016, CMRR was granted a permit to resume operations on this segment of the U&D Corridor through October 31, 2016. However, the county has elected to use a rail bike (www.railexplorers.net) company as the operator for this segment starting in 2017. The CMRR moved all its equipment to its adjacent property in Phoenicia in January, 2017, where it remains today.
In May, 2017 Rail Explorers announced it would not be operating on the western section of the line in 2017; however, it opened for operations in 2018.
Shokan
Under its prior lease, the CMRR's third base of operations was at MP 16.4 at Shokan, New York, at the site of the former Ashokan Railroad Station. The operating equipment there consisted of a self-powered crane, flat car, and an ex-Susquehanna caboose (privately owned). Shokan also served as a base for the CMRR's track car crews, who were charged with maintenance of the section of the line inaccessible to full sized equipment, from MP 11 to bridge C30 at MP 21.3. The CMRR removed all its equipment in Shokan by rail on July 21, 2016. All tracks at Shokan were removed in 2018 to make way for the Ashokan Rail Trail.
Other Segments
Phoenicia Station to Bridge Street (MP 27.5 to 27.85)
These tracks are currently leased to the Empire State Railway Museum. The CMRR hopes to eventually share this trackage with the ESRM in Phoenicia.
Boiceville-Phoenicia Station (MP 21.59 to 27.5)
The tracks from Boiceville to Phoenicia have been left in place and are now leased to Rail Explorers. The CMRR continues to store rail equipment on its land opposite the Phoenicia Station. This segment is divided by a severe washout at MP 23.3 from Hurricane Irene in 2011, that prohibits rail service (rail bikes or trains) from MP 21.59 to MP 23.3.
Kingston-Phoenicia (MP 2.9 to 27.85)
The CMRR's former long-term goal was to run tourist trains on the entire 25-mile run from Kingston to Phoenicia. The goal was negated on November 14, 2017, when the Ulster County legislature voted to remove 11.6 miles of tracks from alongside Ashokan Reservoir for a rail trail. The tracks from MP 10.01 to MP 21.59 were removed in 2018.
West of Phoenicia (MP 27.85 to 41.4)
The CMRR has never had plans to reopen this section of the line to service. However, the neighboring DURR in Delaware County has expressed interest in resuming service possibly all the way to Big Indian (MP 36.4). It currently leases a run-around from Ulster County from MP 41.2 to 41.4.
Ulster County currently plans to convert the tracks from MP 36.4 at Big Indian to MP 41.4 to trail use, leaving a runaround in place from MP 41.2 to 41.4 for use by the Delaware and Ulster Railroad.
Roster of equipment
Locomotives
CMRR owns two American Locomotive Company (ALCO) RS-1 locomotives, No. 401 (Ex-Green Mountain Railroad (GMRC) No. 401, Ex Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad (GM&O) No. 1052, Ex Illinois Terminal Railroad No. 1056, née 756); and No. 2361 (former Alter Scrap No. 2361, Ex-Soo Line Railroad (SOO) 2361). Only 401 is operational at this time. In 2010, 2361 was repainted and evaluated for reactivation; it was given a new number, 400.
In May 2010, the CMRR acquired its latest locomotive, former Long Island Railroad/Staten Island Railway Alco S-1 407. This engine was the workhorse for operations out of Mt. Tremper and Phoenicia, but now remains in storage.
CMRR No. 29, "The Goat" is an Ex-Navy 50 ton H. K. Porter, Inc locomotive, which was a backup engine and main engine for work train service. It has a double-reduction gearing system in the trucks. The traction motors are mounted at 90 degrees to the axles and have bevel pinions on the armature shafts. These bevel pinions drive a larger bevel ring gear in a gear case. On one truck, the locking nut on the traction motor armature shaft came loose, and the bevel pinion jammed in the ring gear, locking up the truck. The bevel pinion jammed against the ring gear and bent it. #29 is currently for sale and remains in storage in Phoenicia.
CMRR No. 1, the "Duck", another work train locomotive, is an Ex-Army 38 ton Davenport Locomotive Works locomotive. The "Duck" is operational and is located currently in Phoenicia and is being used by the Empire State Railway Museum for switching.
In 2014, the CMRR acquired a 1942 GE 45-tonner, numbered 42, from the Railroad Museum of New England. The locomotive is currently located in Kingston.It is used for work train service.
The CMRR is also partially helping the ESRM restore a steam locomotive for future use on their line: Ex-Lake Superior and Ishpeming (LS&I) 2-8-0 No. 23, which has been owned by the ESRM since it was sold at an auction by the defunct Marquette and Huron Mountain Railroad in Michigan in 1985. The restoration project has been going on since it was first announced in 2003.
Passenger equipment
Kingston passenger equipment consists of five flat cars, including two Ex-Navy 50-foot flatcars, No. 271 and 272 (ex-Navy 21028 and 21035), two Ex-Army 50-foot flatcars, No. 273 and 274 (ex-Army No. 35111 and 35112), and one 40-foot flat, CMRR No. 278 (ex-Lowville & Beaver River No. 26). All have been converted to open-air passenger service with the addition of side walls, benches, and a steel canopy frame suitable for tarp installation.
In 2021, 40 foot flat 291 (Ex-Army 35305) was converted from a crane tender to passenger use with benches and a canopy roof. With this conversion, the CMRR has six passenger flats available for service in Kingston.
The CMRR has five operable coaches in Kingston: four former Long Island Railroad commuter coaches, CMRR 2940, 2949, 2962, and 2911, The CMRR also owns Ontario Northern 832 (former Norfolk & Western PM coach No. 1727) and is renovating the car for first class service. A sixth coach, ex-LIRR No. 2918, is undergoing restoration.
The CMRR also uses an N5B Caboose, CMRR No. 675 (Ex-PRR 477672, PC 22800, CR 20003) on Kingston passenger trains for crew use.
Phoenicia passenger equipment consists of two former Erie Lackawanna Railway (EL) Multiple unit (MU) trailers that have been completely renovated: No. 4321 entered service as CMRR No. 701 in 2004, and No. 4332 entered service on October 2, 2010, as CMRR No. 702. Another third MU trailer, No. 4322, is undergoing restoration back to active service. It will most likely be numbered as CMRR No. 703 upon completion.
Other equipment
CMRR also rosters several pieces of freight equipment used in storage and work train service.
In Kingston, storage equipment includes two 50-foot boxcars, former D&H 26076 and former NYC 72462. Work train equipment includes: an ex-Army Difco dump car, a 40-foot flat car (CMRR 201 (Ex LBR No. 27)), a ballast hopper (former NYC No. 51467), a gondola (former PRR No. 518399) and a privately owned caboose CMRR 674 (ex-Susquehanna 117).
Additionally in Kingston the CMRR owns a self-powered ex-Navy crane, CMRR 991, and a 40-foot tender flat CMRR 291 (ex-Army 35305).
In Phoenicia, storage equipment consists of a 40-foot box car (Ex-LV 65100). Work Train equipment includes: a former Army Difco dump car, a 40-foot flatcar, CMRR 202 (Ex-CV 7704) and an N6A transfer caboose, CMRR 697 (Ex NYC/PC/CR 18015).
Phoenicia equipment also includes a privately owned N5G steel caboose, CMRR 673 (former Lehigh Valley 95041). This caboose was used as a gift shop at Mt. Tremper for many years before it was returned to the rails in 2010.
The frame and trucks of former LS&I caboose No. 6, which were bought by a CMRR volunteer in the 1980s, are in storage in Phoenicia.
Ashokan Rail Trail Conversion History
The removal of rail and conversion to trail for the CMRR's portion of the U&D Corridor from MP 10.01 to MP 21.59 for the Ashokan Rail Trail was a long and bitter fight between rail and trail advocates. A partial history follows below.
On January 24, 2006, when the Kingston Daily Freeman announced "Trail Plan Could Mark End of Line for Railroad", trail advocates began promoting a plan to convert segments of the county-owned railroad corridor into a recreational path, which would limit the length and location of the tourist train excursions. ALTA Engineering was hired to devise a rail-with-trail plan for the line in Ulster County. The final report stated the following:
On October 4, 2012, Ulster County Executive Michael P. Hein announced in his 2013 budget a plan to remove 32 miles of rails in Ulster County to be replaced by a trail, leaving the Phoenicia-Cold Brook segment, and ending Kingston operations. He planned to start removing rails in 2013, using $642,000 in scrapping revenues to provide revenue for his budget. The budget was adopted by the Ulster County Legislature on December 4, 2012. The CMRR's lease, however, remained in effect until May 31, 2016. There is no reference to scrapping the railroad in the proposed 2014 Ulster County Budget.
Three days after the 2013 budget was approved, the CMRR opened Bridge C9 in Kingston for passenger train service, and began bringing passengers across the bridge for the first time in over 58 years.
On February 19, 2013, CMRR published a rail-with-trail study for MP 3 to 11 in response to a request from the county made on October 15, 2012. The rail-with-trail plan was rejected without review by the county on March 7, 2013.
On June 5, 2013, Ulster County hired Andrea C. Ferster, Esq, who was also general counsel to the Rails to Trails Conservancy, to file an application to the Surface Transportation Board to "rail bank" the railroad for future trail use.
On June 12, 2013, CMRR was served with a Notice to Cure. In a meeting with the Ulster County Executive, held on June 24, 2013, the CMRR was asked to vacate the line from Kingston to the Ashokan reservoir, and told that unless it complied, its lease would be terminated on July 12. CMRR filed a Yellowstone Injunction on July 9 and was granted a TRO prohibiting the county from terminating the lease pending the outcome of a court decision on August 6. The Yellowstone Injunction was granted on November 6, 2013. Ulster County issued a notice of appeal on December 17, 2013.
On December 11, 2013, the outgoing New York City DEP commissioner announced a plan to support a trail along the U&D right of way from MP 10 to MP 21.6.
On December 8, 2014, the Ulster County Executive announced that, assuming certain requirements were met, a little more than two miles of tourist passenger train service could remain in Kingston, from the eastern end of Kingston Plaza, MP 3.6, to Hurley Mountain Road, MP 5.94.
On April 19, 2015, the Ulster County Legislature passed a resolution to create a nine-member legislator only committee to study the entire U&D corridor in Ulster County and make recommendations on long term use, including rail, trail or rail with trail with recommendations due by November 30, 2015.
On May 15, 2015, the Ulster County Legislature passed a resolution to sign a Memorandum of Agreement with the New York City Department of Environmental Protection to begin spending planning dollars on a future conversion of the 11.5 mile railroad easement owned by the county in the Ashokan Reservoir to trail use.
On December 15, 2015, Stone Consulting completed a report on the Highest and Best uses of the U&D Corridor.
On December 15, 2015, the Ulster County Legislature passed a resolution making rail with trail the official policy from Chandler Drive (MP 3.58) in Kingston to just past 28a in Stony Hollow (MP 8.33), allowing the railroad to continue operations in Kingston and for 4.75 miles west. The segment from 28a to MP 10 will be studied further "provided that trail connectivity co-located on the corridor shall be preserved". This gives the CMRR a potential long-term home in Kingston and could allow the railroad to expand west as far as MP 10. It also confirmed that rail will remain from the Route 28a bridge in Boiceville (MP 21.6) to Phoenicia (MP 27.9). Any further rail expansion along the north side of the Ashokan Reservoir would be dependent on consent from the NYCDEP and the Ulster County Legislature. The Stone Consulting report found there were no physical restrictions to rail alongside trail from MP 10 to 11, with the only restriction to rail use being imposed by the agreement between Ulster County and NYCDEP. This resolution effectively ends the fight on rail vs. trail on the former U&D corridor, with rail and trail proponents pledging to work together from now on.
On April 19, 2016, the County and the CMRR settled their lawsuit contingent on the CMRR vacating its yard at Cornell Street in Kingston on May 1, 2016, ceasing operations on May 31, 2016 (the end of its lease term), and removing its equipment from the railroad by July 30, 2016. The litigation cost the CMRR $700,000, but allowed the railroad to operate to the end of its lease with Ulster County on May 31, 2016.
On July 18, 2016, the Ulster County Executive announced that permits had been signed for the CMRR to continue operating in Kingston from MP 3.6 to 8.33 until December 31, 2020, and from MP 23.3 to 27.8 until October 31, 2016. The permits were issued on August 4, 2016, and service resumed on August 6, 2016.
On December 14, 2017, the Ulster County Legislature voted to remove all railroad tracks from MP 10.01 to MP 21.59, permanently severing the U&D Corridor and eliminating the CMRR's plans to return to the Glenford Dike and Phoenicia with full-service passenger operations.
In July 2018, a state Supreme Court justice dismissed yet another claim against Ulster County over its plan to create a recreational trail along portions of the former Ulster & Delaware Railroad corridor. Ulster County removed 11.6 miles of track along Ashokan Reservoir in 2018, and is building a new rail-trail there. This development should permanently foreclose any affordable restoration of through passenger train service from Kingston to a connection with the DURR at Highmount, and on to Roxbury.
In late 2018, rail removal began between milepost 10.01 and 21.59, permanently severing the railroad line from Kingston to Phoenicia. This section was opened as the Ashokan Rail Trail in October 2019.
Photo gallery
See also
Kingston, New York railroad stations
References
External links
Catskill Mountain Railroad Company
CMRR Expansion Plan to Basin Road
CMRR 2022 Operating Results
Ulster County Resolution 488 Dated December 15, 2015
Stone Consulting Report Dated December 15, 2015
CMRR Kingston to Glenford Dike 2020-2024 Business Plan
Comprehensive CMRR Equipment Roster
Delaware and Ulster Railroad
Empire State Railway Museum
Trolley Museum of New York (Kingston)
Ulster & Delaware Railroad Historical Society
Catskills
Heritage railroads in New York (state)
Kingston, New York
Railway companies established in 1982
Transportation in Ulster County, New York
Tourist attractions in Ulster County, New York
1982 establishments in New York (state) |
4518821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan%20passport | Taiwan passport | The Republic of China (Taiwan) passport () is the passport issued to nationals of the Republic of China (ROC, commonly known as Taiwan). The ROC passport is also generally referred to as a Taiwanese passport. As of September 2020, approximately 60.87 percent of Taiwanese citizens possess a valid passport.
The Republic of China Passport were Chinese official passports prior to 1949. The earliest edition of the ROC passport which can be verified is the one issued by the Beiyang government in 1919. The current version of passport could be traced back to the prototype that published in 1929 by the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government (1927–1948) based in Nanjing. After the defeat of Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War, the jurisdiction of the ROC government was effectively limited to the Taiwan Area, thus making it a valid travel document only issued in Taiwan. All passports published in Taiwan since 2008 have been biometric.
The eligibility and international recognition of Taiwan passport is complicated due to the current political status of Taiwan as well as the history of the Republic of China since the country had once controlled the territories of today's People's Republic of China (PRC) and Mongolia. In the past, all ethnic Chinese, Mongols, and Taiwanese were considered to be eligible for the passport. However, legal reforms in the 1990s and 2000s greatly reduced the ease by which further grants of nationality were made to overseas Chinese and Mongolian, and restricted citizenship rights only to those with household registration in Taiwan. Currently, certain overseas Chinese, Mongolian, and Taiwanese may be eligible for a ROC passport under certain conditions, but do not have household registration in Taiwan (i.e. they are "nationals without household registration", or "NWOHR"), and thus do not enjoy the right of abode in Taiwan. Countries granting visa-free privileges to Taiwan passport holders often require a Taiwanese National ID number imprinted on the passport's biodata page, which signifies the holder's right of abode in Taiwan.
The Republic of China (Taiwan) passport is one of five passports with the most improved rating globally since 2006 in terms of the number of countries that its holders may visit without a visa. As of September 2020, holders of ordinary Republic of China passports (for ROC nationals with Taiwan area household registration who therefore possess right of abode in Taiwan and also the right to obtain a National Identity Card) had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 149 countries and territories, with additional 20 countries eligible for granting eVisas, ranking the Republic of China (Taiwan) passport 32nd in the world in terms of travel freedom (tied with the Mauritius and St. Vincent and the Grenadines passports), according to the Henley Passport Index 2020.
Passport appearance
First generation biometric passport
The first generation biometric passports were introduced on 29 December 2008. The Republic of China (Taiwan) became the 60th country in whole world to issue biometric passports when they were introduced.
Cover
The cover of the ordinary Republic of China (Taiwan) passport is dark green, with the ROC national emblem – Blue Sky with a White Sun – in the middle. On the top is the official name of the country, "REPUBLIC OF CHINA", in Traditional Chinese characters. It is also written in English in fine print circling the national emblem. Below the national emblem, the word "TAIWAN" is printed in English only and "PASSPORT" is printed in both Traditional Chinese and English. At the bottom is the biometric passport symbol ().
The cover of the official passport is brown and has the words "OFFICIAL PASSPORT" on the cover, and the diplomatic passport is dark blue with "DIPLOMATIC PASSPORT" on the cover.
Request page
The first page of the passport is the passport note page and printed with the following request, anti-counterfeiting printing shows the shape of the island of Taiwan at the top and word TAIWAN at the bottom.
In Traditional Chinese
中華民國外交部部長茲請各國有關機關對持用本護照之中華民國國民允予自由通行，並請必要時儘量予以協助及保護。
In English
Data page
Personal biodata page information for the passport holder and the machine readable zone are listed below.
The biodata page is protected by a plastic anti-counterfeiting layer with laser holograms of the country code TWN and broad-tailed swallowtail butterfly, an endemic species of Taiwan.
Following the passage of an amendment to Article 14 of the Enforcement Rules of the Passport Act on 9 August 2019, romanization can take place from any of Taiwan's national languages, which include Hakka, Hoklo, and Formosan languages spoken by indigenous peoples.
Inner pages
The inner pages of a Republic of China (Taiwan) passport are in light purple. Its contents are:
Personal data page in page 2
Signature in page 3
Amendments and endorsements from page 4 to page 7
Visa pages from page 8 to page 47
Remark pages from page 48 to page 50
Selected nature hotspots and famous sights of Taiwan are printed in the inner pages, each page also contains a transparent watermark of Jade Mountain, the highest peak of the country.
Back cover
A contactless biometric chip is embedded in the back cover page, with the warning as follows.
In Traditional Chinese:
本護照內植高感度電子晶片，使用上請視同攜帶式電子產品，並妥善保管。為維持護照最佳效能，請勿折壓、扭曲或在內頁穿孔、裝訂；並勿將護照曝曬於陽光下，或置於高溫、潮濕及電磁環境，或沾染化學藥品。
In English:
Second generation biometric passport
The second generation biometric passport has been issued since 5 February 2018. It was originally scheduled to be rolled out on 25 December 2017, however the rollout was suspended a day later and did not resume until 5 February 2018 due to the Dulles Airport image controversy.
Passport regulations for nationals with household registration
Nationals with household registration in the Taiwan Area may apply for passports from the Bureau of Consular Affairs (BOCA) in Taipei or its branch offices in Kaohsiung, Hualien, Chiayi and Taichung with the following documents:
Application form
National Identification Card
Two photos (3.5 × 4.5 cm)
First time applicants are required to submit their documents in person to the BOCA headquarters or a BOCA branch.
Processing time: Four working days.
Validity period: Starting from 21 May 2000, the validity period for an ordinary passport is generally 10 years and 1 day but for applicants aged under 15, it is 5 years and for male citizens who have not completed their conscription duty it is only 3 years.
Application fee: Effective since 1 January 2013, the application fee for a 10-year passport is NT$1,300; for a passport with restricted validity period is NT$900. In comparison, the cost of manufacturing a passport is NT$1,361, regardless of the validity period.
Due to mandatory military service for men, travel restrictions are placed on male citizens from the age of 15 until they have completed their military service. When a passport is issued to a such citizen, a stamp with the following words will be shown on the remarks page, and a sticker which describes the regulation will be attached to the back cover of the passport.
In Traditional Chinese:
持照人出國應經核准，尙未履行兵役義務。
Translation: The bearer needs a permission to travel abroad and has not yet completed his military service.
Before traveling, the holder needs to apply for permission to travel overseas with the National Immigration Agency or the conscription administration near his residence. Permission is granted in the form of a stamp on the remarks page, including the expiration date and the issuing authority.
Passport regulations for nationals without household registration
Around 60,000 Taiwan passport holders are NWOHRs, accounting for approximately 0.5% of total valid passports. NWOHRs are overseas nationals without household registration in Taiwan, and hence do not have the right of abode in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other outlying islands.
Application
Overseas nationals can only apply for a passport from an embassy, consulate or Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office near their residing country with the following document.
Application form
A certificate of nationality of the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Two photos (3.5 × 4.5 cm)
The Republic of China nationality law adopts the jus sanguinis principle. The applicant's nationality may be established through ancestral ties. Various documents may be used as proof, see the eligibility paragraph for more information thereto.
Application fee: For a 10-year passport is US$45, for a passport with restricted validity period is US$31.
Travel requirements and limitations
Unlike residents of Taiwan, NWOHRs do not automatically have right of abode in Taiwan. They are required to apply for an entry permit to enter Taiwan prior to their travel if they are not exempted. The application must be submitted to the embassy, consulate or Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office of their country of residence. Once the application is approved, a visa-like permit will be affixed on the visa page.
This legal situation is rather similar to that of British Overseas Citizens, who have no automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom or any other British dependency or territory.
In the United States, passports without a National ID number (without unrestricted right to enter and/or reside in Taiwan) do not satisfy the definition of a passport under INA 101(a)(30). Therefore, the bearers of such passports are considered stateless for visa issuing purposes.
Because of the lack of right of abode, page 50 of NWOHR passports show the following words in ink.
In Traditional Chinese:
本護照不適用部分國家之免簽證計劃.
Translation: "This passport is not eligible for visa waiver programs of some countries according to their regulations."
Unlike passports of Taiwanese residents, passports for NWOHRs contain a special stamp that indicates non-resident status and exempts holders from conscription.
Eligibility for Taiwan passports
The ROC was founded in 1912 governing Mainland China while Taiwan was part of Japan. The earliest verifiable ROC passports were issued by the Beiyang Government in Beijing in September 1919, and an ROC passport booklet was first issued by Beiyang Foreign Minister Wellington Koo Wei-chun in April 1922. After the surrender of the Japanese Empire in 1945, the Republic of China was given administrative jurisdiction over Taiwan and maintained control of it ever since. At the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the ROC lost its control of Mainland China to the Chinese Communist Party, which established the People's Republic of China (PRC). Henceforth, the ROC has been able to administer only Taiwan and some islands off the Mainland's coast. Maintaining the view that it is still the legitimate government of the whole of China, the ROC does not formally recognize the legitimacy of PRC. It has also constitutionally defined all the territory under its control as the "Free Area" (or the "Taiwan Area") and the territory outside Taiwan Area as the "Mainland Area". The ROC constitution allows the ROC government to make laws for one Area of the country without affecting the other Area..
However, permanent residents in the Mainland Area, Hong Kong or Macau are not generally eligible to obtain a ROC passport [Passport Act, Article 6]. Furthermore, Overseas Chinese applicants normally must submit one of the following forms of proof of ROC nationality [Passport Act Enforcement Rules, Article 4]:
A ROC passport;
A Certificate of Overseas Chinese status, issued on the basis of proof of ROC nationality;
Proof of ROC nationality for a parent or ancestor, together with proof of descent.
As the first ROC nationality law, in effect from 5 February 1929 to 9 February 2000, only permitted ROC national fathers to pass nationality down to the descendants, any person who was born on or before 9 February 1980 to an ROC national mother and a foreign father is not a ROC national, regardless of place of birth.
There are certain exceptions to this in certain cases for first and second generation emigrants, but in general an applicant will be unable to obtain a ROC passport unless he already holds ROC-issued nationality documentation for himself or an ancestor.
Therefore, for a person to obtain a ROC passport, one of the following must normally apply:
The person first obtained proof of ROC nationality before 1949, when the ROC controlled the Mainland Area; or
The person first obtained a ROC passport or a Certificate of Overseas Chinese status before 1 July 1997 as a resident of Hong Kong, or before 20 December 1999 as resident of Macau; or
The person first obtained a ROC passport before 2002, as an Overseas-born Chinese, on the basis of Chinese ethnicity, before the Passport Act Enforcement Rules were revised to prevent this; or
The person obtained an ROC passport after emigrating overseas from the Mainland Area [Passport Act Enforcement Rules, Article 18]; or
The person obtained an ROC passport after emigrating overseas from Hong Kong or Macau, whilst not holding a foreign passport other than a BN(O) passport [Passport Act Enforcement Rules, Article 19], or after being born overseas to a parent who so emigrated; or
The person has an ancestor in one of the previous categories (i.e. the ancestor actually obtained the ROC document, as opposed to merely having the right to do so), and the chain of descent is through the male line until 9 February 1980 (afterwards the chain of descent can be through the mother or father).
The interior is in traditional Chinese characters and English. Until the mid-1990s, the passport also contained an entry for provincial ancestry (籍貫), stating the Chinese province and county of one's ancestral home, but this field has been eliminated. However, the Chinese province or county of birth is still listed in the birthplace entry if the passport holder was born in either Mainland China or Taiwan.
Visa requirements
Visa requirements for Taiwan passport holders are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on nationals of Taiwan. As of 7 January 2020, holders of ordinary Taiwan passports (for ROC nationals with Taiwan area household registration who therefore possess right of abode in Taiwan and also the right to obtain a National Identity Card) had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 146 countries and territories, ranking the Taiwan passport 32nd in the world in terms of travel freedom (tied with the Mauritius and St. Vincent and the Grenadines passports), according to the Henley Passport Index 2020. Additionally, Arton Capital's Passport Index ranked the ordinary Taiwan passport 30th in the world in terms of travel freedom, with a visa-free score of 135 (tied with Panamanian passports), as of 12 January 2020.
Visa requirements for ROC nationals without household registration (NWOHR), i.e., nationals of Taiwan who do not possess right of abode in Taiwan and hence ineligible for a National Identity Card, are different. Unlike ROC nationals with household registration in Taiwan, NWOHRs cannot apply for the Australian Electronic Travel Authority (ETA) and must instead apply for a subclass 600 visa in order to visit Australia. NWOHRs also require visas to visit Canada, Japan, New Zealand, the Schengen Area (including future member states Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia and Cyprus), the United Kingdom and the United States (where NWOHRs are considered stateless and their visas issued on a separate form).
Limitations in usage
Even though the Republic of China maintains official relations with only 15 countries, the ROC passport is still accepted as a valid travel document in most countries of the world. Although Taiwanese enjoy visa-free status in 148 countries, some countries, pursuant to their policies on Taiwan's political status, refuse to visé or stamp ROC passports, and instead issue visas on a separate travel document or a separate piece of paper to Taiwanese travelers to avoid conveying any kind of diplomatic recognition to the ROC. The chart below only lists countries or territories which explicitly state that ROC passports are not accepted, while also requiring a visa or entry permit for ROC nationals prior to arrival.
Controversies
"Republic of Taiwan" sticker
In 2015, a pro-independence activist, Denis Chen, designed the Taiwan Passport Sticker (Republic of Taiwan sticker) to be placed on the front cover of ROC passports. The stickers re-brand the country's name as 「臺灣國」 (literally, State of Taiwan) and "Republic of Taiwan" , as well as replacing the existing national emblem of a Blue Sky with a White Sun with cartoons either of Jade Mountain, Formosan black bear, or pro-democracy activist Cheng Nan-jung.
Although applauded by pro-independence supporters, this move caused controversies in Taiwan's neighboring countries and regions, as well as the United States, since the alteration of passport covers might be a violation of immigration laws in other countries or regions and eventually cause the refusal of entry to holders of such passports.
Singapore was the first country in Asia to deny entry to holders of altered passports on 29 November 2015, and deported three ROC nationals for "altering their travel documents". Among the three, two immediately removed the Republic of Taiwan stickers upon the further inquiries by the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA) officers, but were eventually deported by Singapore to Taiwan. Another person had refused to remove such stickers and instead requested diplomatic representatives of Taiwan for consular protection, but was also deported in the end by ICA. The two Special Administrative Regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau, soon followed suit and refused to accept holders of such passports for entry. A spokesperson of Hong Kong Immigration Department said that any person who "altered the travel document without lawful authority, or, who possess or use altered travel document", is a violation of Immigration Ordinance and can be sentenced for up to 14 years in prison.
The American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) had, through diplomatic channels, notified the MOFA and confirmed that holders of such altered passports may be extensively questioned by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers and be removed from the United States, and in March 2016, two travelers from Taiwan voluntarily removed Republic of Taiwan stickers because of the extensive questioning by CBP officers. The two travelers were eventually admitted into the U.S., while a CBP spokesperson warned that alterations of travel documents made by any person who is not authorized by the government of a country can render it invalid and will result the holder's refusal of admission to the U.S., and placing Republic of Taiwan stickers on passports is deemed to have altered the travel documents. Similar incident also occurred in Japan when a holder of altered passport was taken to secondary inspection. After being told that he would be deported, the man finally removed the Republic of Taiwan stickers and placed them on his T-shirt and was allowed into Japan.
Supporters of the stickers claimed that passports with Republic of Taiwan stickers were accepted in the United Arab Emirates and in Japan. In the latter case, the person who placed Republic of Taiwan sticker claimed that he was simply trying to block the word "China" from his passport. Holders of such passports were also allowed entry in the Philippines, although a Bureau of Immigration (BI) spokesperson claimed that the passenger would normally be thoroughly inspected and called the incident "a serious matter", while also said that the government would launch an investigation.
According to the BOCA, a total of 21 people had been denied entry by Singapore, Macau and Hong Kong since the end of 2015. Also, incidents were reported in Japan and the U.S. of the use of Republic of Taiwan stickers. The MOFA called upon travelers to not alter the cover of their travel documents so that they would not be denied entry.
From 2020, such problems have largely ceased to exist after the Taiwanese government issued new versions of passports that have reduced "Republic of China" to small texts surrounding the national emblem, and highlighted "Taiwan" instead.
Dulles Airport image incident
Page 5 of the redesigned second generation biometric passport, originally scheduled to roll out on 25 December 2017, was to feature an image of the iconic terminal 1 of Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport, a project of Chinese-American architect Tung-Yen Lin completed in 1979. On the same day, however, netizens on Facebook noticed that a picture of the terminal building of Washington Dulles International Airport was used on page 5 instead. Dulles's terminal, which was completed in 1962 and designed by renowned architect Eero Saarinen, had greatly inspired Lin's design of terminal 1, hence the two buildings bear a high degree of similarity.
The MOFA initially dismissed the reports in the morning of 26 December when a spokesperson of the ministry claimed that the photo was taken at Taoyuan Airport. Nearly 12 hours would pass before the MOFA acknowledged the error and stated that over 220,000 new passports were printed and delivered by the Central Engraving and Printing Plant (CEPP) and 285 of them, which were already recalled, had been delivered to applicants by the time the mistake was discovered. BOCA chief Agnes Chen took responsibility and resigned on 27 December as the rollout of the new passport was halted, and applicants were issued first generation biometric passports instead. It was later reported that an extra 330,000 undelivered blank booklets were already printed by the CEPP, bringing the number of total affected booklets to more than 550,000, and destroying those would cost the government NT$220 million. To reduce costs, the MOFA decided to print new stickers with the correct building which would cover page 5 and turn it into a travel warnings page from a blank amendment/endorsement page, a move that will cost a much smaller NT$16 million. In January 2018, the CEPP had also agreed to cover the NT$9.9 million manufacturing cost of the undelivered 330,000 booklets.
The second generation biometric passport with stickers on page 5 was officially rolled out on 5 February 2018, more than a month behind the original schedule, to ameliorate the controversy. MOFA confirmed that it had notified immigration authorities of foreign countries so that holders of passports with the sticker would not encounter difficulties when travelling. Two months later in April 2018, the Control Yuan had released a report on the incident, in which it placed the majority of the blame on the BOCA passport design group and group members' carelessness when researching images for the terminal. The report also highlighted the lack of communication between the BOCA and the CEPP, which failed to exercise due diligence on copyright issues and did not independently verify the correctness of the image due to the BOCA's status as a long-time customer. The report also strongly condemned the MOFA's initial dismissal of the incident.
On 4 May 2018, the BOCA announced that it had estimated that the initial stock of the 550,000 booklets with the sticker would be depleted by mid-May, and the new version without the sticker on page 5 would then be issued. The sticker-less version would continue to feature page 5, which now bears the correct terminal building, as a travel warnings page rather than an amendment/endorsement page.
References to "Taiwan"
The common English word "Taiwan" has been printed on the front of passports since 2003. This was added after an original proposal to add "Issued in Taiwan" was shelved after strong criticism from the mainland Chinese government the previous year.
On 22 July 2020, the Legislative Yuan passed two resolutions put forth by the ruling Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) that ask the executive branch of government to highlight "Taiwan" on passports and China Airlines' (CAL) aircraft. The resolutions require the Executive Yuan to work out measures to emphasize the word for "Taiwan" written in Chinese (台灣) and in English on the passport cover. The New Power Party has submitted proposals for new passport designs for public vote. The Kuomintang (KMT; Nationalist Party of China) has accused the DPP of revisionism and criticized President Tsai Ing-wen's administration for missing an opportunity to advertise the nation to the world due to its focus on its own ideological and political considerations. The new passport design was officially announced in September 2020.
Passport gallery
See also
Visa requirements for Taiwanese citizens
Foreign relations of Taiwan
Notes
References
External links
Bureau of Consular Affairs
Foreign relations of Taiwan
Taiwan |
4519052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Karinska | Barbara Karinska | Varvara Jmoudsky, better known as Barbara Karinska or simply Karinska (October 3, 1886 – October 18, 1983), was the Oscar-winning costumier of cinema, ballet, musical and dramatic theatre, lyric opera and ice spectacles. Over her 50 year career, that began at age 41, Karinska earned legendary status time and again through her continuing collaborations with stage designers including Christian Bérard, André Derain, Irene Sharaff, Raoul Pêne du Bois and Cecil Beaton; performer-producers Louis Jouvet and Sonja Henie; ballet producers René Blum, Colonel de Basil and Serge Denham. Her longest and most renown collaboration was with choreographer George Balanchine for more than seventy ballets — the first known to be “The Celebrated Popoff Porcelain,” a one act ballet for Nikita Balieff's 1929 La Chauve-Souris with music by Tchaikovsky for which Karinska executed the costumes design by Sergey Tchekhonin. She began to design costumes for Balanchine ballets in 1949 with Emmanuel Chabrier's “Bourrèe Fantasque,” for the newly founded New York City Ballet. Their final collaboration was the 1977 "Vienna Waltzes.” Balanchine and Karinska together developed the American (or powder puff) tutu ballet costume[9] which became an international costume standard.
With Dorothy Jeakins, she won the 1948 Oscar for color costume design (the first year costume design was divided into color and black & white categories) for Joan of Arc, and was nominated in 1952 for the Samuel Goldwyn musical Hans Christian Andersen, starring Danny Kaye. She was the first costume designer to win the Capezio Dance Award, in 1962, for costumes "of visual beauty for the spectator and complete delight for the dancer".
Karinska divided her time between homes in Manhattan, Sandisfield, Massachusetts, and Domrémy-la-Pucelle, France, the birthplace of Joan of Arc.
Early life (From the memoirs of Lawrence Vlady)
Barbara Karinska was born Varvara Andriivna Jmudska (Ukrainian Варвара Андріївна Жмудськa) in 1886, in the city of Kharkov, Russian Empire (now Kharkiv, Ukraine) and baptized in the Russian Orthodox religion in Kharkov's Church of the Annunciation. Her father was a wealthy wholesaler of cotton goods, philanthropist and city father. She was the third and eldest female of the ten Jmoudsky siblings. Karinska learned Victorian embroidery as a child from her German and Swiss governesses. She studied law at Kharkov Imperial University. and, in 1907, married Alexander Moiseenko, the son of another wealthy Kharkov merchant. Moiseenko died in 1909 several months before the birth of their daughter Irina. In 1910, Varvara's older brother Anatoly, owner of the moderately Socialist Kharkiv newspaper UTRO (Morning), went through divorce proceedings that resulted in Varvara winning custody of his two-year-old son, her nephew, Vladimir Anatolevich Jmoudsky. Vladimir and Irina were raised as brother and sister.
Varvara remarried a prominent lawyer, N. S. Karinsky (1873–1948), from Moscow, who was residing in Kharkiv. With his law practice burgeoning, the Karinsky family of four moved to Moscow in 1916, to a spacious apartment that Varvara had purchased. Karinsky continued to practice criminal and political law and gained fame and prestige throughout the Russian Empire. Varvara, meanwhile, became totally engrossed in the arts and hosted her famous salon every night after the theater or ballet. She developed her own form of painting applying pieces of colored silk gauze to photographs and drawings. Her first subjects were ballet scenes. After much tearing apart and redoing, she exhibited about 12 of her works in a prominent Moscow gallery and was quite successful both financially and critically.
Czar Nicholas II abdicated in March 1917. In May, 1917, under the Provisional Government, N.S. Karinsky was appointed Prosecutor of the St. Petersburg court of Justice. He and Varvara resided in the capital several months, leaving the children in the care of their governess in Moscow.
Following the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917, Varvara, Irina and Vladimir spent the years of the Civil War moving between Kharkov and Crimea. Karinsky who held posts off and on as prosecutor under the White government of the South joined them sporadically.
As 1920 began, Varvara and the children were living in Yalta. In February Karinsky was appointed Deputy Minister of the Interior of the South Russian Government with headquarters in Novorossiysk. With the fall of Crimea to the Red forces in October of that year, Karinsky was a marked man. Unable to find his family, several of Varvara's sisters and brothers forced him to leave Crimea with them by ship, assuring him that Varvara would soon follow. But Varvara had decided to remain in Crimea.
Even as Karinsky made his way from Constantinople to New York, Varvara made her way back to Moscow leaving the children in Yalta for close to a year under the care of the faithful governess. In 1921, Varvara met and married Vladimir Mamontov, son of one of Moscow's wealthiest pre-revolutionary industrialists. Having lost everything, Mamontov remained with nothing except his charm, beautiful piano playing and the delusion that someday his late father's fortune would be returned to him.
Lenin's New Economic Policy (1921–1928) provided for limited capitalism to help finance his new regime exhausted and debilitated by three years of civil war. Karinska opened a Tea Salon that became the meeting place of Moscow artists, intellectuals and government officials every afternoon at five o’clock. In the same complex she founded an haute-couture and a millinery atelier to dress the wives of the Soviet elite. She opened an antique store and an embroidery school where she taught the needle arts to the proletariat.
Karinska's reasons for leaving RSFSR are multiple: (1) the death of Lenin in 1924 and the uncertainty of what was to come; (2) within weeks after Lenin's death the new regime nationalized her embroidery school and turned it into a factory to manufacture Soviet flags (in exchange, she was awarded the title of “Inspector of Fine Arts”); (3), importantly Mamontov, a chronic alcoholic was incapable of performing any kind of work and thus seen as a symbol of bourgeois decadence; his arrest was imminent.
Karinska devised a plan to save Mamontov. Supported by Anatoly Lunacharsky, Minister of Education and long time friend of her father, she proposed to take a large number of embroideries made by her students to exhibit in Western European cities as a “good will” gesture to demonstrate the great cultural advances that the young Soviet regime was making. The proposition was enthusiastically accepted across the high ranks, although Lunacharsky and others knew quite well what she was up to.
With corruption widely practiced throughout the Soviet government, an exit visa was obtained for Mamontov who left immediately for Germany where he had cousins in exile. A few weeks later Karinska, Irina and Vladimir left together from Moscow station on a Berlin-bound train. Irina boarded the train whimpering under the weight of a huge chapeau. “Stop whining!” her mother would scold. Later the girl of 14 learned that the hat was filled with diamonds. Vladimir boarded the train with a suitcase filled with his Soviet school books, American hundred dollar bills, bought on the black market, hidden between the pages. Karinska boarded the train waving and blowing kisses to the crowd that came to bid her bon voyage. But the crates with her student's embroideries framed under glass had, hidden underneath each, antique embroideries sewn by the ladies-in-waiting to the Russian Empresses of the past centuries. Reuniting with Vladimir Mamontov in Berlin, the family of four headed for Brussels where Karinska's father and several brothers and sisters were living. But Brussels was too quiet for Karinska and after a few months they moved to Paris.
Life in Paris
After two years of luxurious living in Paris, all the treasures brought from home were gone. The family was forced to move to a popular quarter of the city of lights and Karinska looked desperately for any and every kind of work using her skills of sewing and embroidery. With her beauty and aplomb she had no difficulty meeting whoever she wanted to meet. It wasn't long before she made her first costume; an elaborately embroidered robe designed by Boris Bilinsky for the 1927 motion picture The Loves of Casanova. More single orders followed and then larger and larger ones. All the time Irina and Vladimir worked with her. A newly formed ballet company, the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, directed by Colonel de Basil and René Blum requested she make costumes for their first season. The costumes were designed by Christian Bérard, André Derain, and Joan Miró, and the choreography was by George Balanchine and Leonide Massine, both choreographers with whom she had worked previously. Bérard, Derain, and Miró would provide a general sketch, an idea, but it would be Karinska who expounded upon the concept, modified it, chose the fabric, quality and quantity, and decided how the concept would be implemented. During Karinska's brief career in Paris she also collaborated with Balthus, Cassandre, Soudeikine, and Vertès, and other painters and designers. She costumed the plays of Jean Cocteau and Louis Jouvet. In 1933, Karinska costumed Les Ballets 1933 (designed by Bèrard, Derain, and Tchelitchev amongst others), Balanchine's six ballets in Paris before he left for New York.
Life in London
In 1936, and free of Mamontov for several years, a series of circumstances led Karinska to make the decision to leave Paris. Her daughter remained and the business was reopened under the name “Irène Karinska”. Barbara Karinska and Vladimir, sponsored by Mme. Hayward Court Dressmaker, settled in London. The partnership was short lived and, after a second short-lived partnership with another prestigious London dress firm, Karinska and Vladimir rented the Sir Joshua Reynolds House where they each took an upper floor for their respective flats while the spacious lower floors housed the costume making facilities.
The London years were far more prosperous than Paris. They costumed ballet, musical revue, Shakespeare, and cinema while still attending to Louis Jouvet back in Paris. Together with Bérard, Karinska and Vladimir experimented very successfully with new materials never before used in theater. Here Karinska began her long collaborative relationship with Cecil Beaton.
But war was in the making and early in 1939, Karinska abandoned her London empire, on short notice, and moved permanently to the United States, leaving her nephew to close the business with honor; evacuate Reynolds's House and liquidate his aunt's accumulation of costume sketches and antiques. Irène came to London immediately to sign all release documents in her mother's place.
Karinska appeared in New York early in 1939 of her own volition and quickly resumed work that began in London with the New York manifestation of the Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo directed by Serge Denham who helped her to immigrate and provided working space where she launched her American career with BRMC's “Ghost Town,” with costumes designed by Raoul Pêne de Bois and Salvador Dalí’s “Venusberg” from “Tannheuser” — both presented in New York in the fall of 1939.
England and France declared war on Germany in September 1939, and Vladimir, feeling greater allegiance to France than to England, returned to Paris and enlisted in the French army. Wounded, captured and escaping from a German POW camp in August 1940, made his way to the South of France where he received the Croix de Guerre for Bravery. Karinska's sister, Angelina, was living near the military base where Vladimir was billeted. She had just received Karinska's address in New York from Irène in Paris and put aunt and nephew in touch.
United States
Nephew Vlady's and daughter Irène's involvement
Through a Spanish dancer, Karinska made friends with the Spanish Consul and confided to him her nephew's case. Vladimir received instructions to make his way to the Spanish border where he would be provided safe transit to a ship leaving Lisbon for New York, via Havana. Emaciated and sickly, he arrived to New York in January 1941 where he was smothered by his aunts hugs and kisses. His new apartment awaited him at the mansion that Karinska was renting on E. 56th Street.
Karinska at that time was ridding herself of her partners, “The Princess and the Baron”, from a fly by night venture in haute-couture. She kept the mansion; the name Karinska Inc. and the parquet floor that the Baron had had brought to New York from a family castle in France.
Shortly after Vlady's arrival they began executing the designs of Karinska's arch rival Irene Sharaff for Gypsy Rose Lee. Miss Lee believed that Karinska understood the impact of her performance and enhanced her ability to deliver her unique style of burlesque to the audience. Vladimir hit it off well with Sharaff and made it possible for the two rivals to work together.
But rivalry soon ensued between Vladimir and Kermit Love who designed Agnes de Mille's Rodeo for the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo. Vladimir and Love were both makers of masks and hard costumes. But the rivalry was short lived as Vladimir was drafted into the United States Army.
Since the German occupation of Paris, Karinska had lost contact with her daughter, Irène, who was living in Sarthe at the family residence of her husband, Xavier François. It was Vladimir the soldier who found Irène days before the liberation of Paris and from his nearby barracks wrote to Karinska special delivery informing her that she was a grandmother twice over. Vladimir entered the American Army in 1943 as Private Vladimir Jmoudsky and returned to civilian life in 1945 as Lieutenant Lawrence Vlady.
Back to work with Karinska, Vlady brought to the great costumer something she had never known: American military order, discipline and administration. The 56th Street mansion was soon abandoned; Karinska Inc. was liquidated and the Karinska-Vlady enterprise, KARINSKA Stage and Art Inc., made its debut in a rather unsightly loft on W. 44th Street where Karinska's costumes, always delivered at the last moment, could be walked over to the theaters if needs be. The affordable rent of the dusty atelier permitted Karinska to purchase a townhouse on E. 63rd St. (where the Baron's parquet floor was installed); a house in Joan of Arc's home town, Domrémy-la-Pucelle, in the Lorraine region of Eastern France, and a George Washington period house that she named "Saint Joan Hill" in Sandisfield, Massachusetts.
During the war years, while Karinska took extensive leaves to supervise costume production for motion pictures in Hollywood, she would rent her 56th St. mansion and her staff to ballet and theater companies, ventures that always ended in misunderstandings. With Vlady permanently settled in New York, he would run the business while Karinska worked in Hollywood. Under this arrangement she won her Oscar for Joan of Arc and her Oscar nomination for Hans Christian Andersen. These were the “Golden Years”. The label “KARINSKA Stage and Art Inc.” was sewn into costumes for ice shows, musicals, legitimate theater, motion pictures, lyric opera and the most important for the 'Lady from Kharkiv' – Ballet.
At the end of the German occupation of Paris, Irène Karinska reopened her costume atelier and worked successfully until retirement in the 1970s. Due to the fact that Irène's work was often credited as "Costumes par Karinska", researchers have credited much of her work to her mother. Costume design of the 1953 French film adaptation of La Dame aux Camélias was credited to Barbara Karinska when, in fact, the costumes were designed by Rosine Delamere and executed by Irène Karinska. Costumes designed by Raoul Dufy, Georges Braque, Leonor Fini, and Yves St Laurent (for Roland Petit) are the work of Irène Karinska. Costumes for the 1958 Oscar-winning musical Gigi, designed by Cecil Beaton were executed by Irène Karinska.
The last costumes executed by Stage & Art Inc. were for Franco Zeffirelli's production of Verdi's Falstaff, that debuted March 6, 1964— one of the last productions at the Old Metropolitan Opera House. Karinska had signed a contract with the Ford Foundation to operate the New York City Ballet's new costume shop. In April 1964 Karinska sold Stage and Art's physical plant to Vlady for one US Dollar. Half the staff chose to stay with Vlady in his new business Lawrence Vlady, Inc. and half went with Karinska to her new atelier first located at 10 W. 57th St. Vlady continued their commitment to the Metropolitan Opera executing a share of the 1964 Lucia di Lammermoor by Donizetti designed by Atilio Colonello. Next came two back short-lived period costume musicals designed by Motley—Ben Franklin in Paris 1964, and Baker Street 1965. He then executed all the masks and armor for Balanchine's 1965 Don Quixote. His career looked promising, however, advanced Macular Degeneration rendered him unable to read costume sketches and he retired following his share of costumes for the Met's 1966 Cleopatra by Samuel Barber and Franco Zeffirelli.
New York City Ballet
In 1964 Karinska was invited by Balanchine to join the New York City Ballet at the New York State Theater at Lincoln Center, newly injected with generous grants from the Ford Foundation. This period that lasted thirteen years produced a long list of ballet productions in different musical genres, including some abstract designs —such as “Jewels” 1967— is often praised by critics as Karinska's greatest and condemned by others for “garish” colors. For a full list of Balanchine-Karinska collaborations see: The George Balanchine Foundation Online Catalog.
Both aging during the 1970s Balanchine and Karinska returned to a fantasy ballet they had begun in the early 1950s —"Birds of America," based on the drawings of John J. Audubon. Elaborate beyond possibility, "Birds of America" was never meant to be materialized; it was a means to keep their attention on life and beauty. Balanchine would spend long sojourns at Karinska's Berkshire home. Karinska would make endless sketches by pasting pieces of fine fabric onto pencil-drawn figures on heavy watercolor paper. They would walk in the woods daily and Balanchine would choreograph by imitating the dances of different birds. (Eyewitnesses remarked on the immense effort and skills required to make the complex costumes with the 'extra bounce', in the 1970s, for example resulting in the Cincinnati Ballet gaining knowledge of her 'secret' methods.)[21]
In 1983, Balanchine died in April and Karinska died on 18 October; two weeks after her 97th birthday, but six years after a debilitating stroke left her unable to speak or move.
The "powder puff" tutu
With a large assembly of dancers on stage – as was often preferred by Balanchine—the traditional "pancake" tutu with its stiff wired layer would bob and dip when the dancers' skirts brushed up against one another and this bobbing and dipping would reverberate long after the steps were complete.
Karinska solved this problem by devising the "powder puff" tutu, with a shorter skirt made of six or seven layers of gathered net, each layer a half inch longer than the preceding layer. The layers were tacked together for a fluffier, looser appearance than the stiff "pancake" tutu. Because the shorter layers are self-supporting, no wire hoop is needed in the "powder puff" tutu, or the Balanchine-Karinska or American tutu. This tutu design has become standard in ballet companies all over the world since it first appeared in 1950, in the ballet Symphony in C. She also cut the bodice material in a way that was more comfortable for the dancer.
Balanchine said, "I attribute to [Karinska] fifty percent of the success of my ballets to those that she has dressed."
Karinska collaborated with Balanchine on seventy-five ballets in all. The first ballet she made for Balanchine from her own designs was Bourrée Fantasque in 1949. In 1956, for Balanchine's Allegro Brillante, Karinska created the knee-length chiffon ballet dress, which has also become a standard design for ballet costumes. And in 2014, her costumes were recreated for a production of George Balanchine's A Midsummer Night's Dream when the original source of gold trim was found by Marc Happel, the NYC Ballet costume director, in the original shop Tinsel Trading, whose owner's grandfather had supplied Karinska in 1933. The Smithsonian has one of her other costume gowns on display.
Honoring memory
In 1995, New York Public Library held an exhibition of the work on Ballanchine and Karinska's Nutcracker, now visible online.
In 1999, Karinska was inducted into the National Museum of Dance's Mr. & Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney Hall of Fame.
In 2015, Kharkiv (Ukraine), named Barbara Karinska street (see image) in the Kyivskyi District (previously named after Marcel Cachin).
Notes
External links
Costumes by Karinska by Toni Bentley, Lincoln Kirstein Publisher: Abrams, Harry N., Inc. 192 pages, 242 illus. (including 78 in color) September 1995
Memories of Madame Karinska by Allegra Kent Dance Magazine October 1, 2003
New York City Ballet website
NY Times obituary by Anna Kisselgoff, October 19, 1983
Barbara Karinska Collection at Ailina Dance Archives
Winter Wonderland: George Balanchine's The Nutcracker@ Section 7 - Barbara Karinska at the New York Public Library
Costume designers
Ballet designers
1886 births
1983 deaths
Best Costume Design Academy Award winners
New York City Ballet
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to France
Artists from Kharkiv
People from Kharkov Governorate
Artists from New York City
National University of Kharkiv alumni
People from Sandisfield, Massachusetts
Ukrainian women
Ukrainian embroiderers |
4519053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender%20binary | Gender binary | The gender binary (also known as gender binarism) is the classification of gender into two distinct forms of masculine and feminine, whether by social system, cultural belief, or both simultaneously. Most cultures use a gender binary, having two genders (boys/men and girls/women).
In this binary model, gender and sexuality may be assumed by default to align with one's sex assigned at birth. This may include certain expectations of how one dresses themselves, one's behavior, sexual orientation, names or pronouns, which restroom one uses, and other qualities. For example, when a male is born, gender binarism may assume that the male will be masculine in appearance, have masculine character traits and behaviors, as well as having a heterosexual attraction to females. These expectations may reinforce negative attitudes, biases, and discrimination towards people who display expressions of gender variance or nonconformity or those whose gender identity is incongruent with their birth sex. Discrimination against transgender or gender nonconforming people can take various forms, from physical or sexual assault, homicide, limited access to public spaces, in healthcare and more. The gender binary has been critiqued as a structure that maintains patriarchal and white supremacist norms.
General
The term gender binary describes the system in which a society allocates its members into one of two sets of gender roles and gender identities, which assign attributes based on their biological sex (chromosomal and genitalia). In the case of intersex people, the gender binary system is limited. Those who are Intersex have rare genetic differences which can give them the sex organs of both sexes or otherwise non-normative genitalia and may have difficulties fitting into the gender binary system.
Scholars who study the gender binary from an intersectional feminist and critical race theory perspective argue that during the process of European colonization in North and South America, a binary system of gender was enforced as a means of maintaining patriarchal norms and upholding European nationalism. The binary system has also been critiqued as scholars claim that biological sex and gender differ from one another; with sex relating to biological and chromosomal differences between males, females, and intersex people, while gender instead is a result of sociocultural socialization.
Traditional gender roles are influenced and preserved by the media, religion, mainstream education, political systems, cultural systems, and social systems.
Language
In English, some nouns (e.g., boy), honorific titles (e.g., Miss), occupational titles (e.g., actress), and personal pronouns (e.g., she, his) are gendered, and they fall into a male/female binary. Personal pronouns in the English language are typically associated with either men (he/him) or women (she/her), which excludes people who do not identify as a man or a woman. However, gender-neutral pronouns, such as singular they pronouns (they/them) are sometimes used by nonbinary and gender nonconforming individuals. A 2019 study found that "close to 1 in 5 Americans personally know someone who uses gender-neutral pronouns such as 'they' instead of 'he' or "'she'". In addition, people may use neopronouns in place of other personal pronouns. Examples of neopronouns include xe/xem, ze/zim, and sie/hir.
According to Hyde and colleagues, children raised within English-speaking (and other gendered-language) environments come to view gender as a binary category. They state that for children who learn English as their primary language in the United States, adults' use of the gender binary to explicitly sort individuals (i.e. "boys" and "girls" bathrooms and sports teams), and not just the presence of gender markers, causes gender biases. Those biases can appear in information processing, and can affect attitudes and behavior directed at those both inside and outside of the gender binary language system. An example of this would be the use of gendered language in job descriptions and advertisements: those who are excluded by the language used may not apply for the position, leading to a segregated field of work. For example, women could be systemically excluded from a workplace or career that exclusively uses the pronouns "he" to advertise new job openings. The exclusive use of "she" and "he" (binary pronouns) can also systemically exclude those who do not fit within the gender binary and may prefer gender neutral language.
Language is constantly in flux, particularly language concerning the gender binary. For example, in Sweden a proposal was published in a national newspaper to expand the personal pronouns of hon (she) and han (he) to also include hen. The article was met with a variety of reactions. Many argued in support that hen could operate as a pronoun for nonbinary individuals who preferred it, and would make language more gender fair and be able to avoid binary labels imposed on things like workplace advertisements. Others had the opinion that the use of hen would be inconsequential in the advance of gender equality in Sweden, and would be confusing for children. The inclusion of hen challenges preconceived notions of what gender and language can mean together, and proposes new possibilities of how gender is defined outside of a binary system.
Along with using the gender binary to categorize human bodies, cultures that obey the binary may also use it to label things, places, and ideas. For example, in American culture, people identify playing sports as a masculine activity and shopping as a feminine activity; blue is a color for boys while pink is for girls; care work is a feminine profession while management is associated with masculinity, etc.
Some languages gender their words into masculine and feminine forms, such as French or Spanish.
Education
The gender binary is introduced unconsciously at a young age, often within familial and school settings. For example, those considered to be girls are expected to be emotional, affectionate, talk excessively, complain more than average, and be picky about their surroundings and appearances, while boys are expected to be cruel, dominant, and act as a leader in group settings. These characteristic while stereotypes, can be encouraged and influenced through objects like toys (e.g. baby dolls introducing maternal and domestic labor) but also in schools. Girls are often expected to excel in English classes, while men are expected to succeed in P.E. and STEM courses. Early childhood stereotypes like boys being better at math than girls have been linked to the disproportionately small amount of women pursuing math related careers, and a general disengagement from math related courses in education. There has been an increase in publishing children books targeted at girls to encourage more participation in STEM fields and to dismantle gendered stereotypes taught to children by popular media.
Religion
Major religions, particularly Islam and Christianity, act as authorities for gender roles. Islam, for example, teaches that mothers are the primary caregivers to their children. The Catholic Church, the largest Christian denomination, only ordains cisgender men as priests. Christianity supports its adherence to a gender binary with the Book of Genesis in the Bible, where it is declared in verse 27 that, "God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them." Orthodox Judaism also forbids women to be ordained as rabbis and serve as clergy in their congregations.
In the LGBTQ+ community
Gender binarism may create institutionalized structures of power, and individuals who identify outside traditional gender binaries may experience discrimination and harassment. Many LGBTQ+ people, notably youth activist groups, advocate against gender binarism. Many individuals within the LGBTQ+ community report an internal hierarchy of power status. Some who do not identify within a binary system experience being at the bottom of the hierarchy. Different variables such as race, ethnicity, age, gender, and more can lower or raise one's perceived power.
There are many individuals and several subcultures that can be considered exceptions to the gender binary or specific transgender identities worldwide. In addition to individuals whose bodies are naturally intersex, there are also specific ceremonial and social roles that are seen as third gender. The hijra of South Asia and some Two-Spirit Indigenous Peoples of North America are often cited as examples. Feminist philosopher María Lugones argues that Western colonizers imposed their dualistic ideas of gender on indigenous peoples, replacing pre-existing indigenous concepts.
In the contemporary West, non-binary or genderqueer people do not adhere to the gender binary by refusing terms like "male" and "female", as they do not identify as either. Transgender people have a unique place in relation to the gender binary. In some cases, attempting to conform to societal expectations for their gender, transgender individuals may opt for surgery, hormones, or both.
Ball culture is an example of how the LGBT community interprets and rejects the gender binary. Paris is Burning, a film directed by Jennie Livingston, depicts New York's ballroom scene in the late 1980s. To compete in the balls, men, women, and everyone in between create costumes and walk in their respective categories: Butch Queen, Transmale Realness, and Femme Queen to name a few. During the balls, the gender binary is thrown out the window, and the people competing are allowed to express themselves however they interpret the category. Within the scenes of people competing in various categories there's a narrative that describes life outside the gender binary in New York. Since the film came out, there's been a decline in the ballroom scene due to the rise of media and the appropriation of the drag culture.
Criticism of the binary
Some scholars have contested the existence of a clear gender binary. Judith Lorber explains the problem of failing to question dividing people into these two groups "even though they often find more significant within-group differences than between-group differences." Lorber argues that this corroborates the fact that the gender binary is arbitrary and leads to false expectations of both men and women. Instead, there is growing support for the possibility of utilizing additional categories that compare people without "prior assumptions about who is like whom".
This idea of a gender as a binary is thought to be an oppressive means of reflecting differential power dynamics.
Stereotypes
Gendered and racial stereotypes (and the intersection between) maintain the gender binary and the systems of power within it. For example, White women may be stereotyped as sexually "pure," naive, and victims but Black women and men are stereotyped as promiscuous or hyper sexual. These stereotypes are extremely harmful, and over-sexualize the Black community in a way that allows for dangerous victim blaming in which the Black victim is blamed for the actions of the White assaulter.
People outside of the gender binary also experience harmful stereotypes, and are both affected by cisgender stereotypes and biases regarding being transgender or gender nonconforming. For example, the labels "mentally ill" and "confused" are stereotypes uniquely assigned to transgender individuals by cisgender people. Interesting enough, transgender children themselves appear to endorse less gender stereotypes at a young age and are tolerant of larger levels of gender nonconformity. Often, stereotypes applied by cisgender individuals to transgender and gender nonconforming people are a combination of stereotypes surrounding biological sex and broader stereotypes about transgender identities. These result in conflicting and false images that directly and violently harm trans people; a study in conducted in 2021 found that cis individuals would stereotype a trans-man as "aggressive like cis-men, weak like cis-women, and mentally ill like trans-women." Transphobic stereotypes like these contribute to violence against trans and gender nonconforming communities, where transgender individuals are physically assaulted or killed, misgendered, denied access to spaces that affirm their identity, and are legally blocked from changing their identifies on government and other official documents. Discrimination and assault rates are even higher for trans and gender nonconforming people of color than their white counterparts. In 2017, a study found that it was 2.7 times more likely for BIPOC trans and gender nonconforming individuals to be sexually or physically assaulted and intimidated than white transgender and gender nonconforming people.
Cisnormativity
Cisnormativity is a product of the gender binary that assumes people are cisgender, meaning that their gender identity matches their sex assigned at birth. Both binary and nonbinary transgender individuals are excluded from this ideology. This leads to individuals outside the gender binary experiencing disparities in health and violence at individual, interpersonal, and institutional levels due to their non-normative status.
Discrimination
The gender binary, and especially unwavering belief in the binary, creates a hierarchal system in which those who are gender nonconforming, transgender, non-binary and so forth may be apathologized, and be viewed as abnormal and disrupting the "status quo" and may be discriminated and harmed as a result. Currently, violence against Transgender individuals has reached one of the second highest spikes in recent history. Violence and discrimination against gender nonconforming, transgender and gender queer individuals includes institutional discrimination across healthcare and legal systems, as well as bullying, abuse, poverty, and anti-transgender homicides. The likelihood of being discriminated against increases when the individual is also BIPOC, and they are often further denied equal and equitable access to legal rights, healthcare, social privileges, and physical safety.
Healthcare
Gender binarism poses limitations on the adequacy of medical care provided to gender-nonconforming patients. There is a large gap in medical literature on non-binary populations who have unique healthcare needs. A lack of cultural competency about nonbinary gender identities among providers contributes to nonbinary transgender individuals facing greater health disparities than both binary transgender and cisgender individuals. However, cisnormativity affects transgender individuals that identify within the gender binary as well. An individual's discomfort due to incongruence with their gender identity and sex assigned at birth was once classified as a mental illness. "Gender identity disorder" entered the DSM-IV in 1980 and was used by doctors to pathologize transgender individuals. While it was updated to the term "gender dysphoria" when the DSM-V was published in 2013, transgender health is otherwise largely absent from medical curriculums. Health systems remain cisnormative and discriminative, which lead to adverse health outcomes for transgender populations.
Violence against transgender individuals
Transgender individuals are at a greater risk of physical and sexual intimate partner violence than cisgender individuals. The rates of intimate partner violence among transgender populations are referred to as "epidemic levels" and they are classified as a high risk population. Discrimination against transgender individuals is believed by researchers to contribute to greater risk of intimate partner violence. This is especially prominent in areas where gender identity is not legally protected against discrimination.
Transgender women of color cited both their race or ethnicity and their gender identity as factors that result in discrimination against them while white transgender women cited only their gender identity; transgender women of color experience both racism and transphobia.
Backlash
Self-expression that opposes the gender binary is stigmatized and, in some cases, has been criminalized. The United States has a history of laws and policies against cross-dressing, such as New York's "walking while trans" law and the informal three-article rule used during the 1940s–1960s by police to punish people that dressed in a way that defied the gender binary.
In media
There are many public figures that have opposed the gender binary by wearing clothing not typically associated with their perceived gender or their gender identity, such as Prince, David Bowie, Kurt Cobain, Jaden Smith, Ruby Rose, Rain Dove, Billy Porter, and Harry Styles. Public figures that identify as of non-binary gender include Sam Smith, Indya Moore, Brigette Lundy-Paine, King Princess, Jonathan Van Ness, Bex Taylor-Klaus, Amandla Stenberg, Demi Lovato, and more.
A popular figure in the music industry, Harry Styles' appearance on the cover of American Vogue in 2020 was popular for his rejection of gendered clothing norms. Styles rejected the implicit separation of feminine and masculine by wearing both a dress, a clothing item associated with women, as well as a blazer, which is associated with men for the Vogue cover. His embrace of both clothing associated with women and men is a rejection of the gender binary.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
binaohan, b. decolonizing trans/gender 101. biyuti publishing, 2014.
GenderQueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary (Alyson), (Joan Nestle, Clair Howell Co-Editors) 2002
Dichotomies
Gender identity
Feminist terminology
Feminist theory
Queer theory
Transgender |
4519156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banner%20%28Australian%20rules%20football%29 | Banner (Australian rules football) | In Australian rules football, a banner is a large crêpe paper and sticky-tape banner constructed by each team's cheer squad. It is hoisted before the start of a match, and typically shows an encouraging or celebratory message to the team; then, as the players take to the field, they run through the banner, breaking it. Traditionally, the captain, or a milestone-achieving player leads the team when breaking the banner.
Tracing its origins to the 1930s, the concept of the Australian rules football banner is unique in world sport, and has become standard at all AFL matches.
Construction
Banners are made from crêpe paper and sticky tape, and are attached to two long poles which are used to hold the banner up for the players to run through. Banners are generally at least 8–10 m long, and over 3.5 m or 4 m high – crêpe paper is not strong, and so a lot of sticky tape is used to keep the banner together, particularly at the poles. There are two general ways that the banners are taped together: taping parallel lines every six inches along the length of the banner for its entire height, or; taping in both directions to produce 1 ft square panels. With extra tape on the edges and at the pole, this makes the banner a fairly sturdy construction which the players have no trouble breaking through.
Thicker tape is used at the top of the banner, and thinner tape at the bottom. This enables players to run through the banner and not get caught in the tape. 4 inch thick tape is the thickest tape most cheersquads use, and 1 inch is the smallest.
Some cheer squads, such as that of Carlton, have a permanent upper half made from cloth, and tape crêpe paper only across the lower half through which players run. Each week, they will reuse the top half by taping new letters to it.
In 2014, some teams created full fabric curtains rather than use crepe paper. A small split in the lower centre area allowed the players to pass through it. The fabric could be reused each week, saving money and time. However, this limits the design options.
Most banners have one base colour, which in the past was almost always the team's main colour, and writing in the team's secondary colour or colours; for example, Essendon, who wear black with a red sash, would have a black banner with red writing. However, these days it is not uncommon for teams to invert the colours.
History
Older terminology for what is currently known as a banner is "the race", named after the caged wire tunnel separating players from patrons that the players traverse to enter the playing arena. This tunnel is known as "the race" or "the players race". Supporters would "decorate the race", hence the name. A "race" first appeared at the 1939 VFL Grand Final, with Collingwood running on to the ground through a loose tapestry of woven streamers attached to the players race. This system evolved with the loose tapestry changing to a tightly knitted tapestry.
Essendon's VFL Grand Final races of 1947 & 1949 show the difference: the former is a looser tapestry, the latter tightly woven. Decorating the race continued until 1962: some clubs mounted a sign with the club emblem above the race, adding to the size and beauty of the creation.
Similar to the race decoration, many supporters wove steamers through fence pickets near their seats to demonstrate their support for their team. These decorations evolved to small fabric signs hung on the fence, and later again, they evolved to larger fabric fence-mounted banners.
In 1960, one of the first banners affixed to the MCG Southern Stand simply read, "Collingwood Forever". In 1961 a "Magpies" banner was affixed to the fence directly between the goal posts at an MCG finals game when Carlton Football Club player John James was presented with his Brownlow Medal.
One of the first of the longer banners to traverse quite some length of the fence was at the 1962 VFL Grand Final. It read, "Come on Carlton - The Mighty Blues", behind which sat the Carlton Cheer Squad. Cheer Squads, typically, made these longer banners and during 1963 most clubs’ cheer squads had created lengthy banners for mounting to the fence for their club's games. Sometimes, during VFL finals, banners of a non-competing team may appear, often because the club may have had a reserves team competing in an earlier game on the day. An example of this is a prominently mounted Collingwood banner during the 1966 Essendon v St Kilda VFL Preliminary Final.
With the introduction of fence mounted advertising hoarding, there was no room available for cheer squads banners. One of the last VFL games to have banners was the 1982 Grand Final with a long Richmond banner mounted on the MCG Southern and Ponsford Stands.
By 1984 and 1985 Grand Finals, advertising filled the fence, and although space remained available at Grandstand level, only a few banners were erected. In the little space available on the Ponsford Stand, there were no banners erected at the 1986 Grand Final.
At the raising of Collingwood's 2010 premiership flag in 2011, a re-creation of the banner that read "Collingwood Domination Envy of the Nation" was mounted on the Great Southern Stand. Cheer squads also evolved the size of "floggers" - crepe streamers attached to sticks in club colors and waved in support of their team, which were banned in 1978.
In 1963, poles were added to the "race" to enable it to be portable, and the woven crepe paper construction was moved from the end of the players race onto the arena playing surface. The transition is best shown at the 1963 Grand Final where Hawthorn's race was the older style mounted to the end of the players race, whilst Geelong's race was the newer portable style. Typically, cheer squad members held the poles.
With poles being used, the creation of the race was no longer limited to the size of the players race, and they became incrementally larger throughout the late 1960s. Words and messages first appeared on the race sometime between 1966 and 1970.
Up until the early 1970s a race was not created for every game. Because they were cumbersome and tedious to construct, they were reserved only for special occasions, such as finals games and player milestones. As cheer squad's funded the costs themselves, not all cheer squads could afford a race each week.
A terminology change occurred in the mid 1970s. "The race" became a "run-through". There was no specific reason for the change of name, other than a generational change of cheer squad members. However, media reports from the 1960s and early 1970s had often used the name "banner", a precursor of what was to come.
During the 1970s run-throughs became wider and taller. Due to the increased size of run-throughs in the early 1980s, ropes began being used for additional support. Each week, the cheer squad would gather, and construct from crepe paper and adhesive tape, a run-through with an inspirational message, or a message derogatory of the other team, on each side. With fence mounted banners rarely in use, the terminology for a run-through became "banner". Banners were now several metres tall, and the few supporters holding the poles from the base were replaced with three supporters holding tethers from the top of the pole and five or six at the base, for each pole. It is generally raised 20 or 30 metres away from the fence.
Traditionally, the captain would lead the team through the run-through, with his teammates trailing behind. During the 1980s teams began to gather their players in front of the banner before breaking through it together in a display of togetherness and teamwork.
Advertising first appeared on run-throughs in the late 1970s. Costs increased commensurate with the size of the run-through, creating a need for additional funding. Early advertising was in club colors and often incorporated into the run-through's message. After 2000, approximately, advertising logos often appeared in their own color. If different from the club colors, this detracts from the visual effect of the banner. Inspirational, or anti-opposition, messages were replaced by advertising slogans, creating an insipid feel to the banner.
In 2014, Collingwood Football Club banned the cheer squad from creating or holding the team's banner. The club now arranges this themselves. They have replaced the traditional crepe banner with a fabric curtain. It remains to be seen if terminology will change again. The curtain method is also used by other clubs.
Uses
There are five main functions that a banner can take. As it is a double-sided construction, which the cheer squad usually hoists in all four directions to allow all fans to read each side, most of these are seen each week.
Inspirational messages: these are generally found in the form of a four-line rhyming message. They can be fairly predictable, and usually will the team on to beat the opposition and continue up the ladder.
Demotivational messages: when an opponent, particularly a hated one, is coming off a bad loss or is having a bad year, it is common for cheer squads to use the banner to annoy the opposition fans. This is particularly prevalent amongst more heated rivalries, such as Carlton and Collingwood, or Adelaide and Port Adelaide.
Celebration of milestones: when a player is playing a milestone game - his 50th, 100th, 150th etc. AFL game or club game, or a record-breaking game, it is standard practice to reward that effort by emblazoning his name and often a picture of him on the banner. In these circumstances, it is accepted that the milestone player will lead the team through the banner instead of the captain, unless the player is the captain.
Advertising club events: one side of a banner will often be used to advertise an upcoming family day, best and fairest night, or to spruik for memberships at the beginning of a season.
Advertising sponsors: while not historically a feature, it is now accepted that club sponsors will pay the cheer squad to have their logo on the banner. Usually, the sponsors name will feature on plastic sheathes into which the poles are slotted, and the banner is attached between the two.
Banners outside the AFL
It is common for junior clubs to prepare small banners when one of their players is playing a milestone game. This arises from the fact that banners are much loved by children when they go to the football, and clubs like to oblige their desires. Junior milestone banners are generally no bigger than 2×3 m, and the team usually lines up to form a guard of honour for the player before he bursts through his own banner.
In 1983, The Balranald Roos Football Club had a Grand Final banner measuring 7 metres high x 23 metres wide. On one side it read, "History in the Making". On the reverse side, "Bring It On Home". It was created by Richmond Cheer Squad, in recognition of retired VFL player Jim Jess, who was then playing for Balranald.
The Melbourne Storm come through a banner when they take to the field at their home ground, AAMI Park and at their old ground, Olympic Park. Banners have never been a part of the NRL, but cheer squads from Melbourne were keen to bring the AFL practice into their adopted sport, as Victoria, in particular Melbourne, is Australian Rules Football heartland.
Banner incidents, customs and superstitions
As crepe paper and sticky tape is not renowned for its strength, banners will often rip in places, or even be completely de-poled if the weather is very windy or wet. Seeing an opponent's banner de-poled is always a source of amusement for fans, leaving their opponent open to ridicule.
In 1971, St Kilda's Cheer Squad mocked their poorly performing opposition in a match against South Melbourne when the St Kilda run-through read "South Melbourne the Invincible Masters and Supreme Conquerors of..." and on the reverse side, "the wooden spoon". In response to this, the St Kilda captain, Ross Smith, and several St Kilda players ran around the run-through, not through it.
In 1972, an Essendon supporter ran through the Collingwood run-through at Victoria Park before being detained by security: Collingwood fans invaded the ground and demolished the Essendon run-through in retaliation for the incident.
In 1975, Collingwood supported Hawthorn captain Peter Crimmins in his fight against cancer, with the simple message, "Collingwood supports Crimmins". Later that year, Collingwood derided former player, and then Essendon captain-coach, Des Tuddenham with a banner that read, "Sgt Tuddy's Lonely Tarts Club Band", a play on a Beatles song title.
In 1980, Collingwood ridiculed Carlton's new coach, Peter "Percy" Jones, with a banner that read "Percy Jones - The Mind That Launched Larundel", a reference to an asylum in the nearby suburb of Bundoora.
In protest at their club's imminent relocation to Sydney, South Melbourne Cheer Squad made an all black 'mourning' banner in 1981. Their captain and several players ran around the banner, as it was not in South Melbourne's red and white team colors and did not realise it was theirs to run through. Another South Melbourne banner that year read "South Melbourne - you sold your soul."
Multiple premiership player and coach Ron Barassi returned to coach Melbourne in 1981. Coming into the last round, the Demons were 1-20, one game behind Footscray but with a superior percentage: if they won and the Bulldogs lost, they would avoid the wooden spoon at the Bulldogs' expense, otherwise Barassi, for his first time in his career, would be involved with a 'wooden spooner'. At the beginning of the last game of the season against Hawthorn, the Hawthorn cheer squad poked fun at this situation, with the Hawthorn run-through reading "Congratulations on your first spoon Ron", which was greeted with laughter by Barassi. Hawthorn won the match by 53 points, meaning that Melbourne won the wooden spoon.
For Kevin Bartlett's 400th game in 1983, the Richmond cheer squad created a banner 10 metres high by 20 metres wide.
Carlton's Cheer Squad were denied permission to use a social club room to make one of their banners in 1984. In protest, on game day they held up two poles with no banner.
During a dispute with their club in 1985, Collingwood Cheer Squad refused to make a banner for a game against St Kilda.
In 1986, the St Kilda cheer squad reacted to media rumours that their struggling club was going to be relocated to Brisbane with a banner that read: "St Kilda is here to stay and that's the final say." A year later, after the Brisbane Bears and West Coast had been admitted, the Saints ran through another banner that read "VFL not NFL".
As talks of a merger between Footscray and Fitzroy emerged in 1989, Ron Barassi suggested that Footscray was suffering because the suburb had changed due to drugs and a growing Asian population. In response to this, the cheer squad banner retorted: "Barassi we love our Western Oval + our ethnic + Asian community. Leave us alone."
In Round 16, 1996, the Fitzroy cheer squad protested the club's imminent takeover by Brisbane (after a similar offer by North Melbourne had collapsed) by revealing a banner that read "Seduced by North, Raped By Brisbane, F*****d by the AFL".
In Round 1, 2005, Melbourne and Essendon paid tribute to Melbourne's Troy Broadbridge, who was killed in the Boxing Day tsunami with a special banner precession. The two cheer squads set their banners up side-by-side in the centre of the wing, and the teams observed a minute silence before breaking through their banners at the same time.
The joint banner tribute was repeated in 2013, when Collingwood and Port Adelaide ran through a single banner to remember John McCarthy, a former player of both teams who had died the previous October.
In each of the games played in the round following the death of Adelaide Football Club coach Phillip Walsh in July 2015, no banners were used and the club songs weren't played. When Adelaide played Port Adelaide in Showdown XXXIX the following week, the two teams both ran through a single large black banner without any advertising logos, with one of Walsh's favourite sayings "Get the job done" written on one side and "Vale Phil Walsh" on the other. Walsh had been an assistant coach at Port Adelaide prior to becoming the head coach at Adelaide.
Some players have superstitions or routines regarding the banner. One such superstition is that some players like to be the first one through the banner. Even though it is customary for the captain (or milestone player) to lead the team through the banner, it is often the case that the superstitious player walks up to the banner alongside his leading captain, and then reaches out to touch the paper first.
Other players, notably Matthew Richardson and Brendan Fevola, avoid touching the banner altogether. While they will run through it, they will usually trail the pack, and try to avoid any hanging paper. Richardson's superstition led to a special banner being made for his 150th game – it had a very large opening in the centre base to allow Richardson to lead his team straight through it. Other routines include always kicking a football at the banner before running through it, or simply running around it or under it instead of through it.
References
External links
Australian rules football terminology
Australian rules football culture |
4519545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney%20Prescott | Sidney Prescott | Sidney Prescott is a fictional character and original protagonist of the Scream franchise. The character was created by Kevin Williamson and is portrayed by Canadian actress Neve Campbell. She first appeared in Scream (1996) followed by four sequels: Scream 2 (1997), Scream 3 (2000), Scream 4 (2011), and Scream (2022). Until 2023's Scream VI (where she is only mentioned and appears via drawings), her character had appeared in each successive film in the series, her role initially that of the victim but growing into heroine where she personally confronts each killer and defeats them.
The character appears in the Scream films as the target of a series of killers who adopt the Ghostface persona, a ghost mask and black cloak, to pursue her. In each film, the Ghostface killers often murder people close to Sidney and taunt her by phone with threats and intimate knowledge of her life or the murder of her mother, leading to a final confrontation where the true killer is revealed. The killers that target Sidney have varying motivations ranging from revenge in Scream, Scream 2, and Scream 3 to the fame that will come from killing her in Scream 4, due to the fame she herself has obtained as a survivor of the murder spree in the original 3 films. She first becomes the focus of her boyfriend Billy Loomis (Skeet Ulrich) and his friend Stu Macher (Matthew Lillard), Billy seeking revenge for his mother's abandonment following his father's affair with Sidney's mother, Maureen Prescott (Lynn McRee). Scream 3 later reveals that Billy learned of this affair through Roman Bridger (Scott Foley), Sidney's half-brother, himself seeking revenge for his abandonment and rejection by Maureen, sparking the chain of events that permeate each film.
Drew Barrymore was cast as Sidney Prescott but scheduling conflicts led to her taking a smaller role as Casey Becker, with the lead being offered instead to Campbell, who at the time was starring in the television series Party of Five. Campbell was hesitant to take another horror role after finishing work on The Craft (1996), but took the opportunity as it would be her first leading role in a feature film. Campbell reprised the role in Scream 2 and Scream 3 though her own scheduling conflicts meant she could only film for a short period of time while the third film was in production. This resulted in her character's role being reduced significantly from prior installments and focus was shifted onto the series' other lead characters, Gale Weathers (Courteney Cox) and Dewey Riley (David Arquette). Campbell initially refused requests to return for Scream 4, with scripts written with her character's absence in mind, but ultimately agreed to return.
The character is depicted as an intelligent, resourceful young woman who gradually becomes stronger over the course of the series as she attempts to overcome the threats and deaths around her. Neve Campbell's role as Sidney Prescott has received significant critical praise throughout the series, earning her the title of scream queen in the 1990s, and won her the Saturn Award for Best Actress in 1997 for Scream and the MTV Award for Best Female Performance in 1998 for her role in Scream 2.
Appearances
Sidney Prescott first appeared in the 1996 film Scream as a teenager attending the fictional Woodsboro High School. After a series of brutal murders occur on the anniversary of her mother's death, the killer begins targeting Sidney herself with attacks and taunting phone calls. She has appeared in the first five of the six Scream films to date and is mentioned in the sixth.
Films
Sidney Prescott's first cinematic appearance was in the film Scream (1996) as a 17-year-old high school senior in the fictional town of Woodsboro, California. During a spree of grisly murders, she begins to receive taunting and threatening phone calls from Ghostface, who claims to have knowledge of the brutal rape and murder of Maureen Prescott (Lynn McRee), Sidney's mother, which occurred one year prior to the events of the film, a murder that is blamed on Cotton Weary (Liev Schreiber). Suspicion falls on several characters before her boyfriend Billy Loomis (Skeet Ulrich) and his friend Stu Macher (Matthew Lillard) are revealed to both be the killers. Billy states his motivation as revenge following his mother abandoning him over his father's affair with Maureen. With help from Gale Weathers (Courteney Cox), Sidney is able to fight back against Stu and Billy, even using the killer's own tricks against them, and manages to kill them both and survive the events of the film.
Scream 2 (1997) picks up two years later. In her second appearance, Sidney is a student at the fictional Windsor College where a copycat series of Ghostface murders occur. The killers again taunt 19-year-old Sidney and murder her friends including fellow Woodsboro survivor, Randy Meeks before her friend Mickey (Timothy Olyphant) reveals himself as the killer and murders her new boyfriend, Derek (Jerry O'Connell), in front of her. Mickey states his motivation as the infamy that will come from his exploits including the murder of Sidney. He is the accomplice to Mrs. Loomis (Laurie Metcalf), seeking revenge against Sidney for the death of her son Billy. However, Mrs. Loomis betrays and kills Mickey, intending to disappear without trace after killing Sidney, but before she can enact her plan, Cotton intervenes and shoots her, saving Sidney, who then shoots Mrs. Loomis in the head, killing her.
The third appearance of Sidney occurs in Scream 3 (2000), set two years after the events of Scream 2. Another murder spree begins in Hollywood, with the killer leaving photos of a young Maureen Prescott at the crime scenes. Sidney, now a reclusive crisis counselor for women, has been in hiding following the events of Scream and Scream 2 but is drawn to the set of Stab 3, the film within a film based on Sidney and her experiences, after the new Ghostface discovers her location. Ghostface claims responsibility for the murder of Maureen Prescott and is unmasked as the thirty-year-old director of Stab 3, Roman Bridger, Sidney's previously unknown half-brother. Roman reveals that their mother was gang raped and impregnated with him during a two-year period where she moved to Hollywood to become an actress, before she met Sidney's father, Neil Prescott (Lawrence Hecht). After being given up for adoption, an adult Roman sought her out over four years ago, only for her to reject him. Roman began stalking Maureen, filming her adulterous liaisons with other men, including the father of Billy Loomis, and used this footage to convince Billy to murder Maureen, unknowingly setting in motion the events of Scream and Scream 2. Sidney denounces Roman for his actions and manages to outwit and defeat him after a vicious fight, while Dewey Riley (David Arquette) ultimately shoots and kills Roman, and finally moves on with her life.
Sidney's fourth appearance is in Scream 4 (2011), set eleven years after the events of Scream 3. After returning to the town of Woodsboro to publicize her new book, Out of Darkness—a self-help book about overcoming the events of her life—new Ghostface killings begin in the town and evidence is left in Sidney's car. Becoming a suspect in the murders, the 32-year-old survivor stays in town with her young teenage cousin Jill Roberts (Emma Roberts) and maternal aunt Kate (Mary McDonnell), but the family becomes embroiled in the Ghostface murder spree. Sidney tries to rescue Jill, who is staying at her best friend, Kirby Reed (Hayden Panettiere)'s house for an afterparty, but is attacked only to discover that Jill herself is the killer. Jill's accomplice is her secret boyfriend, Charlie Walker (Rory Culkin), having left Kirby to bleed out. Envious of her cousin's fame, Jill explains how she has remade and outdone the events of Billy and Stu's murder spree to make herself the Sidney of a "new generation" with all the associated fame, including the act of filming her own killings. Jill betrays and kills Charlie, and stabs Sidney, before brutalizing herself to appear as the "sole survivor", but after arriving at the hospital, she discovers Sidney has narrowly survived, having received treatment in the ICU. When Jill attempts to finally kill her cousin, Sidney manages to outsmart her deranged cousin and eventually shoot her in the heart, killing her, while declaring that Jill forgot the first rule of horror remakes, which was never to mess with the original.
The character's most recent incarnation is in the fifth film, simply titled Scream (2022). Set twenty-five years after the conclusion of the original film, Sidney—in her fifth appearance—is a 42-year-old married mother of three. She is revealed to have returned to her life away from Woodsboro, and in the ten years since the events of Scream 4, she reconnected with and started a family with her now-husband, Mark Kincaid (Patrick Dempsey), who she first met during the events of Scream 3, when he was a police detective investigating the murders in Hollywood. She is phoned by her now-estranged ally, Dewey and warned to stay away from Woodsboro following the return of Ghostface yet again—now targeting relatives of Billy Loomis and Stu Macher. Despite this, she returns to her hometown after hearing about Dewey’s murder, and consoles Gale in the hospital. Billy's daughter Sam Carpenter (Melissa Barrera) rejects their offer for help to bring down the killer once and for all, but a skeptical Sidney nonetheless places a tracking device on the car of Sam's boyfriend Richie Kirsch (Jack Quaid), leading her and Gale to the former home of Stu, now housed by Amber Freeman (Mikey Madison). They are met by a distressed Amber who reveals herself as one of the killers after an unsuccessful attempt to disguise herself as a stab victim. Sidney enters the house alone to find Amber and is taunted by the other killer, though she isn't fazed at all by the taunting phone call and hangs up on him; the other killer is later revealed to be Richie. Following a confrontation with the killers, Sidney is stabbed by Amber. However, with the help of an injured Gale, the pair subdue and light Amber on fire, before she is shot in the head by Tara (Jenna Ortega), Sam's teenage half-sister. After Sam kills Richie, Sidney provides mental reassurance for her, as Sidney and Gale wait for the ambulance transportation to the hospital for her injuries.
Sidney does not appear in Scream VI, which features new Ghostface killings in New York; Gale explicitly states that Sidney and her family, who live somewhere else, have gone into hiding in response to the killings. Later, Ghostface stabs Gale several times before running away after being interrupted by Sam and Tara. Before Gale passes out, she asks Sam and Tara to tell Sidney that Ghostface never got her.
Character overview
Personality
In a 2022 interview promoting the fifth Scream film, Campbell described Sidney as a symbol of strength and a person who refuses to be a victim. When asked about Sidney's cultural impact, she inferred that the character offered significant meaning to fans. She identified the fans who related to Sidney as being people who felt "misunderstood" and "shut down some way in their life [and] had to push a glass ceiling", or been subjected to bullying. She expressed appreciation for the character's role as a symbol of resilience and hope for anyone who struggles with bullying, especially in their youth and that her actions in the films give fans and audience goers the "confidence that they can overcome".
Like with Dawson's Creek, Sidney's character was partly rooted in writer Kevin Williamson's own experiences. Referring to her trust issues, Williamson in a 2021 interview stated, “One of the things I’ve wrestled with is trust, and Sidney trusted no one,” he explains. “Did she really know her mother? Is her boyfriend who he says he is? In the end she wasn’t even trusting herself.” He further commented on an LGBT allegory for the character, stating the final girl trope spoke to Williamson's own sexuality. He stated, “As a gay kid, I related to the final girl and to her struggle because it’s what one has to do to survive as a young gay kid, too. You’re watching this girl survive the night and survive the trauma she’s enduring. Subconsciously, I think the Scream movies are coded in gay survival.”
Writing
Born in 1979, Sidney grows up an only child, though Scream 3 depicts a revelation that she is actually the secondborn child of Maureen Prescott (née Roberts) following Roman Bridger (Scott Foley) nine years prior. Sidney's residence in the fictional town of Woodsboro is known as 34 Elm Street, a nod to Scream director Wes Craven's previously directed horror film A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984).
The name of Sidney's childhood home—34 Elm—was given dialogue and visual confirmation in the fifth film, Scream (2022); co-director Matt Bettinelli-Olpin stated that the first reference to this is Tara Carpenter (Jenna Ortega)'s namecalling the address when referring to the Stab movie-within-a-movie version of the character (portrayed by Tori Spelling) in Scream 2), and later an additional scene in the fifth film depicts two characters driving down by the block as they enter Woodsboro. Originally, a scene scripted by Williamson and filmed by Craven in the original 1996 film cut this reference due to time constraints. In the cut scene, Sidney is shown typing out the address in writing during her distress call to the online 911 system.
The third film, penned by Ehren Kruger introduces a future, long-term romance character for Sidney, a homicide detective named Mark Kincaid (portrayed by Patrick Dempsey). He narrowly survives the third act saving Sidney from being stabbed after serving as a red herring in the film. While initially intended to be brought back for Scream 4, scheduling conflicts prevented this, and thus the Sidney character was single in the film. In a 2012 interview, Campbell referred to the relationship as "sort of pseudo-love interests" after working with Dempsey again. In the fifth film, Sidney's husband also has the name Mark, and it was assumed to be the character portrayed by Dempsey two films prior. This was confirmed by Bettinelli-Olpin in a January 2022 interview. Campbell admitted to being unaware that the husband named Mark was actually Dempsey's character.
The fifth film reveals Sidney became a mother of three children between the events of the fourth and fifth films, set ten years apart. Her children with Dempsey's character include a newborn or toddler in a baby stroller, as well as two school-aged daughters that Sidney plans to take to school after she goes for an exercise run. In 2022, the directors released the first draft written on March 2, 2020, six months before filming began, which describes the two daughters being aged six- and eight-years old. In the first draft, Mark and the children make an appearance. Her third child, however, is absent from this first draft.
Casting
The role of Sidney Prescott was initially given to actress Drew Barrymore after Barrymore herself approached the production, having read the script, to request the role and was signed to the film before a director had even been found. Wes Craven, after being hired as director, commented that he was able to have bigger actors in the film than his budget allowed because of Barrymore's desire to be involved, which he believed helped attract other big names to the production. While early development on the film took place, however, Barrymore's schedule commitments meant she was no longer able to remain in the demanding leading role, but still wishing to take part she volunteered to play the smaller role of Casey Becker, who dies early in the film, with her scene being filmed in five days. Following Barrymore's abdication of the role, actresses Melissa Joan Hart, Alicia Witt and Brittany Murphy auditioned for the part. The production also offered the role to Reese Witherspoon although she ultimately never auditioned. Molly Ringwald and Tori Spelling were also considered for the role. It was Canadian actress Neve Campbell who was given the lead of Sidney Prescott after Craven saw her in the television series Party of Five, believing she could best embody a character who was "innocent" but also able to handle herself while dealing with the demanding physicality and emotions of the role. Campbell herself was reluctant to undertake a role in another horror film so soon after taking part in The Craft (1996), but agreed to Scream as it would be her first leading role and she "adored" the character saying "She's a fantastic character for any kind of movie." Campbell and her on-screen boyfriend Skeet Ulrich had previously starred together in The Craft which they believed helped make their performance of the relationship between Sidney and Ulrich's character, Billy Loomis, more natural.
On how she approached the leading role in the series, Campbell stated:
Kevin Williamson had submitted treatments for two possible sequels to Scream before the film was even released and so Campbell had been contracted for Scream 2 when she signed on to the original film as she played the only character guaranteed to survive the film. However, scheduling became an issue for Campbell and the production as, at the time, she was still starring in Party of Five.
For Scream 3, Craven insisted that convincing Campbell and the other principal cast to return was not a problem, but scheduling Campbell's availability with the film's production again became an issue, with Campbell starring not only in Party of Five but three other feature films. Her availability was limited enough that she was only available for 20 days of filming which resulted in a significantly reduced role for her character and a shift in focus to Cox and Arquette's characters of Gale Weathers and Dewey Riley respectively.
When production of Scream 4 was announced, nearly ten years after the last installment of the series, Campbell initially refused offers to reprise her role as Sidney, forcing early script drafts to be written in consideration of her absence while again shifting focus on to Cox and Arquette's roles. However, by September 2009, Campbell was confirmed as reprising her role in the film. Early versions of Williamson's Scream 4 script involved Campbell's character being attacked in the opening, a key point of contention for Bob Weinstein, head of Scream developer Dimension Films, who had it removed.
In September 2020, it was confirmed that Campbell would be reprising her role as Sidney Prescott for the fifth Scream film, directed by Matt Bettinelli-Olpin and Tyler Gillett. She was initially "apprehensive" and hesitant to take the role given the death of Wes Craven; however, she was convinced to join once "the new directors came to me with this beautiful letter saying that they've become directors and love film because of these films, and because of Wes, and they really want to be true to his story and his journey with these films, so I was really happy to hear that." The film was released on January 14, 2022, and earned widespread acclaim. Campbell was lauded for her performance once more, and she was particularly praised for her "fresh" take on the role of Prescott. The Hollywood Reporter wrote that "... it's a pleasure to see Campbell again in fine form as Sidney, striding back into Woodsboro to take care of unfinished business." Elle magazine named her the "Reigning Queen of Scream" and stated that "Sidney might not have that impact on people were it not for Campbell's portrayal, rife with vulnerability, intelligence, and a palatable dose of humor."
On June 6, 2022, Campbell stated she would not be returning for Scream VI after contract and salary negotiations had stalled with Paramount Pictures; she stated, "As a woman I have had to work extremely hard in my career to establish my value, especially when it comes to Scream. I felt the offer that was presented to me did not equate to the value I have brought to the franchise." Campbell expanded on her statement a few weeks later, saying she could not bear "walking on set and feeling undervalued" and that the offer would have been different had she been a man.
Reception
On her character of Sidney Prescott, Neve Campbell spoke positively, saying she "adored" the character and "She's a fantastic character for any kind of movie." In 1997, the Scream role won Campbell the Saturn Award for Best Actress and an MTV Movie Award for Best Female Performance nomination. The following year, she went on to win the 1998 Best Female Performance for Scream 2 and received a second Best Actress nomination from the Saturn Awards, losing to Jodie Foster for Contact (1997). She received a third and final Best Female Performance nomination from MTV in 2000 for the character in Scream 3 but lost to fellow Scream alum Sarah Michelle Gellar for Cruel Intentions (1999).
John Muir, author of Wes Craven: The Art of Horror, praised the development of Sidney Prescott in Scream 2 labeling her character, amongst others, "beloved".
Roger Ebert, heavily critical of the cast and film of Scream 3, singled out Campbell's role for praise saying "The camera loves her. She could become a really big star and then giggle at clips from this film at her AFI tribute". Harry Knowles of Ain't It Cool News was considerably less complimentary of Campbell, saying "She adds ZERO coolness. Zero talent. And Zero charisma to [Scream 3]."
Bryan Enk and Adam Swiderski of UGO ranked Neve Campbell as the 8th greatest Scream Queen for her role as Sidney Prescott, saying "in the 1990s, Neve was pretty much the number-one scream queen around."
In its review of the fifth film, Elle magazine said that "Sidney might not have that impact on people were it not for Campbell's portrayal, rife with vulnerability, intelligence, and a palatable dose of humor."
See also
Laurie Strode
Nancy Thompson (A Nightmare on Elm Street)
Final girl
Notes
References
Characters created by Wes Craven
Female characters in film
Female horror film characters
Fictional characters from California
Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder
Fictional college students
Fictional fratricides
Fictional hermits
Fictional writers
Film characters introduced in 1996
Final girls
Scream (film series)
Scream (franchise) characters
Teenage characters in film |
4519583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Iraqi%20Freedom%20documents | Operation Iraqi Freedom documents | Operation Iraqi Freedom 2003 documents are some 48,000 boxes of documents, audiotapes and videotapes that were discovered by the U.S. military during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The documents date from the 1980s through the post-Saddam period. In March 2006, the U.S. government, at the urging of members of Congress, made them available online at its Foreign Military Studies Office website, requesting Arabic translators around the world to help in the translation.
In early November 2006, the entire set of documents was removed. Media reports stated that the website was taken offline because of security concerns regarding the posting of sophisticated diagrams and other information regarding nuclear weapon design prior to the 1991 Persian Gulf war.
Origins
The Ba'athists were said to be "meticulous record-keepers." The documents were found in government offices in Iraq and Afghanistan. A debate ensued inside the government regarding whether these documents should be released to the public. Because the documents were not being made public through the normal channels, certain documents began to leak out through unconventional channels.
The first set of documents was released to an online media outlet called Cybercast News Service. A second set of documents was released to The Intelligence Summit, an international intelligence conference that resulted in an ABC story on some of the audiotapes of Saddam Hussein talking to his top officials. A spokeswoman for John Negroponte, the Director of National Intelligence, noted that "Intelligence community analysts from the CIA and the DIA reviewed the translations and found that while fascinating from a historical perspective, the tapes do not reveal anything that changes their postwar analysis of Iraq's weapons programs, nor do they change the findings contained in the comprehensive Iraq Survey Group report."
Congressman Pete Hoekstra, the chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, described the rationale for the public disclosure of the documents as follows:
"We're hoping to unleash the power of the Internet, unleash the power of the blogosphere, to get through these documents and give us a better understanding of what was going on in Iraq before the war".
Negroponte at first tried to delay the release of the documents, but softened his opposition to releasing after conversations with Hoekstra. President Bush directed Negroponte to release the documents and they were slowly being made available until they were taken offline in November 2006 due to security concerns (see below).
The website issued a warning that:
the US Government has made no determination regarding the authenticity of the documents, validity or factual accuracy of the information contained therein, or the quality of any translations, when available.
While the government has made an effort to keep known forgeries out of the set of documents posted to the web, a senior intelligence official observed that "the database included 'a fair amount of forgeries,' sold by Iraqi hustlers or concocted by Iraqis opposed to Mr. Hussein." A congressional inquiry covered many of the accuracy concerns on April 6, 2006 and while the multiple reviews aimed at keeping forgeries out do not rise to the level of a guarantee of authenticity, a good faith effort has apparently been made to clean out forgeries.
According to Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists, the release of the documents "looks like an effort to discover a retrospective justification for the war in Iraq." The Pentagon cautioned that the government "has made no determination regarding the authenticity of the documents, validity or factual accuracy of the information contained therein, or the quality of any translations, when available." The Los Angeles Times notes that "the documents do not appear to offer any new evidence of illicit activity by Hussein, or hint at preparations for the insurgency that followed the invasion."
The Republican-controlled Senate Select Committee on Intelligence concluded in a report released in September 2006 that "The Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), which is leading the exploitation effort of documents (DocEx) uncovered in Iraq, told Committee staff that 120 million plus pages of documents that were recovered in Iraq have received an initial review for intelligence information. [...] DIA officials explicitly stated that they did not believe that the initial review process missed any documents of major significance regarding Iraq's links to terrorism. During an interview with Committee staff, the lead DIA analyst who follows the issue of possible connections between the Iraqi government and al-Qa'ida noted that the DIA 'continues to maintain that there was no partnership between the two organizations'".
Analysis of the approach
Releasing the documents over the Internet to gain the help of translators around the world was an idea pushed by Congressman Pete Hoekstra. After the documents were taken offline, however, Representative Hoekstra blamed the administration for following this advice: "Well, you know, we have a process in place. It looks like they screwed up."
Former CIA and State Department counterterrorism expert Larry C. Johnson said, "It's like putting firearms in the hands of children. The problem is that the documents without context aren't going to tell you a lot." Johnson also noted that "it's also an indictment of the intelligence community. They don't have the resources ... they haven't got the time to go through this stuff."
Other experts have suggested that the problem is that bloggers will cherry-pick information from the documents to solidify their own perspectives without putting the tidbits they find in an overall historical context. Former CIA terrorism specialist Michael Scheuer pointed this out in an interview with the New York Times: "There's no quality control. You'll have guys out there with a smattering of Arabic drawing all kinds of crazy conclusions. Rush Limbaugh will cherry-pick from the right, and Al Franken will cherry-pick from the left."
According to history professor Fritz Umbach, the document archive has been seeded "with suggestive jihadist materials" unrelated to the war in Iraq, and cites specific examples. In a Salon.com article, Umbach claims to have identified "approximately 40 files that are either completely unrelated to Iraq, or that are related only through jihadist elements of the insurgency that began after Saddam's fall." He also notes that the archive website was linked "to an entirely unrelated database of al-Qaida materials", the Harmony database, creating confusion over documents suggestive of a link between Iraq and al-Qaeda. Umbach writes, "Whether intentional or not, the conflation and confusion of materials has been more than sufficient to convince bloggers on the political right that there were, as Bush officials insisted, operational links between Saddam's Iraq and al-Qaida."
Iraqi Perspectives Project
After the fall of Baghdad, the United States Joint Forces Command commissioned a study of the inner workings and behavior of Saddam's regime, referred to as the Iraqi Perspectives Project. The study authors drew on many of the Iraqi Freedom documents, together with interviews with dozens of captured senior Iraqi military and political leaders, and summarized the study's key findings in a Foreign Affairs article, and have also made their full report available.
The study's findings represent the analysis of many of the Iraqi Freedom documents and related interviews. In particular, the project concluded that:
Saddam's secretive and authoritarian government, together with his paranoia, rendered the Iraqi army grossly unprepared for conflict with coalition forces;
Saddam grossly miscalculated the ability of his contacts with the Russian, French, Chinese and other governments to prevent military action against Iraq, and
although Iraq almost certainly did not possess weapons of mass destruction, Saddam's desire to preserve ambiguity on the issue, together with his government's secrecy and previous attempts to deceive UN inspectors made it difficult for Iraq to convince the world that it had disarmed. For more information, see Iraqi Perspectives Project.
The study also cites documents demonstrating that key evidence presented by Colin Powell to the United Nations in February 2003 had been severely misinterpreted by the U.S. government. Audiotapes played by Powell during his presentation, cited by Powell as evidence of Iraqi attempts to circumvent U.N. regulations on WMD, were reexamined in light of the new documents. According to the authors of the study:
Ironically, it now appears that some of the actions resulting from Saddam's new policy of cooperation actually helped solidify the coalition's case for war. Over the years, Western intelligence services had obtained many internal Iraqi communications, among them a 1996 memorandum from the director of the Iraqi Intelligence Service directing all subordinates to "insure that there is no equipment, materials, research, studies, or books related to manufacturing of the prohibited weapons (chemical, biological, nuclear, and missiles) in your site." And when UN inspectors went to these research and storage locations, they inevitably discovered lingering evidence of WMD-related programs. In 2002, therefore, when the United States intercepted a message between two Iraqi Republican Guard Corps commanders discussing the removal of the words "nerve agents" from "the wireless instructions," or learned of instructions to "search the area surrounding the headquarters camp and [the unit] for any chemical agents, make sure the area is free of chemical containers, and write a report on it," U.S. analysts viewed this information through the prism of a decade of prior deceit. They had no way of knowing that this time the information reflected the regime's attempt to ensure it was in compliance with UN resolutions. What was meant to prevent suspicion thus ended up heightening it.
Website closure
In November 2006, the documents were removed from the Internet by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. The U.S. government had already received warnings about the site's content from the International Atomic Energy Agency, who was specifically concerned about sensitive documents about the pre-1991 Iraqi nuclear program, but the documents were not removed until the New York Times informed the government that it would be publishing an article about the sensitive material. The New York Times called the material a "nuclear primer" because it included about a dozen documents in Arabic that contained "charts, diagrams, equations and lengthy narratives about bomb building that nuclear experts who have viewed them say go beyond what is available elsewhere on the Internet and in other public forums. For instance, the papers give detailed information on how to build nuclear firing circuits and triggering explosives, as well as the radioactive cores of atom bombs." The fear was that these documents would give Iraq's nuclear secrets to Iran and thus aid the Iranian WMD program.
Some criticized the Times for publishing the article. But Joseph Cirincione, director for nonproliferation at the Center for American Progress, pointed out that the Times had not put the documents online: "The journalists are the heroes. They got the stuff pulled down. This is what we want our journalists to be doing, to exposing these kind of abuses of power. Its Chairman Hoekstra and Chairman Roberts who insisted, against all the evidence, against everything we know, against what David Kay has told us, what the Iraq survey group has told us, there was no nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons in Iraq. They were desperate to try and prove that case, somehow justify this extremely costly and catastrophic war. It's their zealotry that's caused the harm, not investigative journalism."
About select documents
Several news stories about some of the documents were published after their release.
Document BIAP 2003-000654 was translated by Joseph Shahda and generated an article in the Weekly Standard. The document is a memo from the commander of an Iraqi Air Force base requesting a list of "the names of those who desire to volunteer for Suicide Mission to liberate Palestine and to strike American Interests."
Document IZSP-2003-00001122, signed by a Ba'ath Party official, indicates that the Iraqis were worried about the Americans smuggling in and planting weapons of mass destruction (specifically, mobile weapons labs) in order to justify the invasion.
Document ISGZ 2004-019920 is a letter from Iraqi Intelligence in 2002 warning agents to be on the lookout for Jordanian terrorist Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. The letter warns that Zarqawi and another individual are in Iraq and states that apprehending them is a "top priority". According to the Associated Press (16 March 2006), "Attached were three responses in which agents said there was no evidence al-Zarqawi or the other man were in Iraq." ABC notes that "The document does not support allegations that Iraq was colluding with al Qaeda."
A series of "Sheen 27" documents show Saddam's regime was very involved in training fighters in the use of "improvised explosive devices" or IEDs. In a news report by Laurie Mylroie, several documents are discussed that speak of "Arab Fedayeen" (i.e. non-Iraqis) and the use of "of the people" bombs. Mylroie asserts that one of the documents that was posted was then taken down. The authors of the Iraqi Perspectives Project discussed these documents both in the report and in a hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives (6 April 2006), indicating that Saddam was training a secular pan-Arab army. They wrote in the Foreign Affairs article about the documents, "In the years preceding the coalition invasion, Iraq's leaders had become enamored of the belief that the spirit of the Fedayeen's 'Arab warriors' would allow them to overcome the Americans' advantages. In the end, however, the Fedayeen fighters proved totally unprepared for the kind of war they were asked to fight, and they died by the thousands." In the House hearing on this matter, defense analyst Lieutenant Colonel Kevin M. Woods noted that Saddam began recruiting foreign fighters into this army in the mid-1990s, and he described them as part of an "Arab liberation movement" that had been "part of Baath political philosophy going back to the beginnings of Saddam's regime."
Other documents concern election laws in France, including correspondence from Iraqi intelligence "ordering the translation of important parts of a 1997 report about campaign financing laws in France." ABC claims that these documents suggest Saddam's "strong interest in the mechanics and legalities of financial contributions to French politicians."
One Iraqi document purportedly details a meeting on February 19, 1995, in which a representative of Iraq met in Sudan with Osama Bin Laden, who suggested "carrying out joint operations against foreign forces" in Saudi Arabia. Eight months later, al-Qaeda operatives killed five U.S. military advisors in Saudi Arabia. There has been no evidence or suggestion of Iraqi complicity in that attack or linkage to the February meeting. ABC News, who reported on this document, further notes that "The document does not establish that the two parties did in fact enter into an operational relationship." ABC also cautions that "this document is handwritten and has no official seal."
Another document claims that Russia had a mole inside the U.S. military who gave the Russians information regarding U.S. troop movements, information that was then forwarded to the Iraqi military. The Russians deny the story and some of the information the Russians reportedly passed to the Iraqis was incorrect. According to ABC, "A Pentagon study released today concludes, however, that the information didn't do Saddam Hussein any good because he never acted it on though it proved to be accurate."
Another document suggests that the Iraqi government planned to respond to the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq with "camels of mass destruction"—camels fitted with suicide bombs that would meet the invading army. In another document, Saddam's son Qusay orders captured Kuwaitis to be used as "human shields" against the invaders.
Document 2RAD-2004-601189-ELC, is given the synopsis: "Abu-Zubaydah Statement on the Capability of al-Qaidah to Manufacture and Deliver Nuclear Weapons to the U.S." Abu Zubaydah was captured in Pakistan in March 2002 and is believed to be the highest-ranking member of al-Qaeda to be held. There is no indication that this document links Abu Zubaydah to Iraq in any way. Professor Fritz Umbach notes, "the 'statement' itself is nothing more than an Arabic summary of a 2002 CBS News story on Zubaydah's claims. It has no identifiable link to Iraq, other than the odd fact that it appears on a U.S. government site billed as Operation Iraqi Freedom Documents."
Many of the documents seem to make clear that Saddam's regime had given up on seeking a WMD capability by the mid-1990s. As AP reported, "Repeatedly in the transcripts, Saddam and his lieutenants remind each other that Iraq destroyed its chemical and biological weapons in the early 1990s, and shut down those programs and the nuclear-bomb program, which had never produced a weapon." At one 1996 presidential meeting, top weapons program official Amer Mohammed Rashid, describes his conversation with UN weapons inspector Rolf Ekeus: "We don't have anything to hide, so we're giving you all the details." At another meeting Saddam told his deputies, "We cooperated with the resolutions 100 percent and you all know that, and the 5 percent they claim we have not executed could take them 10 years to (verify). Don't think for a minute that we still have WMD. We have nothing."
References
External links
Foreign Military Studies Office Joint Reserve Intelligence Center
U.S. House of Representatives. Committee on International Relations. Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. Hearing on "The Iraqi Documents: A Glimpse Into the Regime of Saddam Hussein." (April 6, 2006).
Peter L. Bergen, "Enemy of Our Enemy," New York Times (March 28, 2006).
Did Russian Ambassador Give Saddam the U.S. War Plan? ABC News, March 23, 2006
Foreign relations of Iraq |
4519636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaw%20v.%20Reno | Shaw v. Reno | Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in the area of redistricting and racial gerrymandering. After the 1990 census, North Carolina qualified to have a 12th district and drew it in a distinct snake-like manner in order to create a "majority-minority" Black district. From there, Ruth O. Shaw sued this proposed plan with the argument that this 12th district was unconstitutional and violated the Fourteenth Amendment under the clause of equal protection. In contrast, Reno, the Attorney General, argued that the district would allow for minority groups to have a voice in elections. In the decision, the court ruled in a 5–4 majority that redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of strict scrutiny under the equal protection clause and on the basis that it violated the fourteenth Amendment because it was drawn solely based on race.
Shaw v. Reno was an influential case and received backlash. Some southern states filed against majority-Black districts. This decision played a role in deciding many future cases, including Bush v. Vera and Miller v. Johnson. However, the phrasing of irregularly drawn districts has left room for much interpretation, letting judges use their opinions rather than relying on Shaw.
Background
Gerrymandering
Gerrymandering is the redrawing of electoral districts to help give a political advantage. Through this process, political parties can draw the boundaries of districts to favor their party's candidate as they allow for extra seats to be won. The census marks when states can redraw their congressional district lines and in accordance with the Voting Rights Act of 1965, districts must be redrawn equally populated. With new technology and tactics of packing and cracking, gerrymandering has become easier through the years but within gerrymandering, limitations exist. Gerrymandering has come before the Supreme Court in multiple cases but in Shaw, racial gerrymandering refers to Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. Section 2 of this act opposes using discriminatory voting practices in the election process and that in itself prohibits gerrymandering based on race.
Voting rights
In 1870, following the Civil war and the abolishment of slavery, the 15th amendment was passed, giving all United States citizens the right to vote regardless of race, color, or previous conditions of servitude. This amendment ensured the voting rights of African Americans. However, after its enactment, many southern states began implementing new ways to bar African Americans from voting. Some of these methods included poll taxes, which many could not afford, literacy tests, that many could not pass, and grandfather clauses, which stated that one can only vote if their grandfather voted. This changed with the passing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which outlawed these racially discriminatory practices and required government supervision for states that had less than 50 percent of non-White citizens registered to vote. If any state wanted to change any voting rules, they had to receive pre-clearance to ensure no new rule was racist. The Voting Rights Act prohibited many of the tactics that hindered Black voters from getting their voices heard. This was due to the establishment of the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship and equal rights to all African-Americans. The law of redistricting had to comply with this act in order for the minority group to have impact in the U.S. government. In addition, any affected American citizen that felt that they are being affected by the Voting Rights Act can file a lawsuit stating that it violates Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act which led rise to the case. However, racial gerrymandering continued past 1965 because it is extremely difficult to prove if districts were drawn on the basis of racial discrimination. This was apparent in Thornburg v. Gingles (1986), in which Black citizens of North Carolina argued that all white-majority districts were drawn up so a Black representative wouldn't get elected. In this unanimous decision, it was decided that districts did indeed dilute Black votes and therefore did violate the Voting Rights Act.
Case
Janet Reno (appellant) was the 78th Attorney General, appointed by President Clinton.
Ruth O. Shaw (appellee) was a white Democratic resident of the 12th district in North Carolina.
After the 1990 census, the North Carolina General Assembly was entitled to a 12th seat in the U.S. House of Representatives and redrew its congressional districts to account for the changes in population. This district would be North Carolina's second "majority-minority" district of majority Black voters. The North Carolina General Assembly submitted the plan to the U.S. Attorney General for preclearance under the Voting Rights Act, but it was rejected by the US Department of Justice which was led by Attorney General Janet Reno. Attorney General Janet Reno instructed the North Carolina state assembly to add another majority-minority district in order to comply with the recent amendments to the Voting Rights Act. In 1982, the Voting Rights Act was amended to target the decrease in a specific minority's ability to ever gain a voting majority. The state revised its map and submitted a new plan, this one with three majority-minority districts. The proposed 12th district was 160 miles (260 km) long, winding through the state to connect various areas having in common only a large Black population and cut through five counties which split into three voting districts. The new district was described in Supreme Court's opinion as "snake-like."
After the General Assembly passed legislation creating the second district, a group of White voters in North Carolina, led by Ruth O. Shaw, sued on the grounds that the district was an unconstitutional gerrymander. Shaw's group claimed that drawing districts based on race violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 led to the rise of the Shaw v. Reno court case which allowed for more representation of the Black (minority) representation in the state of North Carolina. However, five White residents of North Carolina, opposed against the redrawing because of the oddly shaped district in which they also stated it violated their Equal Protection Rights. This case was unlike others since the Voting Right Act, because it now didn't hinder the redistricting and impediment of the minority groups. Now the claim was whether making a district based on race was racially adequate and fair for everyone.
An essential case, repeatedly referred to throughout Shaw v. Reno was the Supreme Court case United Jewish Organizations of Williamsburg v. Carey. A federal District Court dismissed a lawsuit by North Carolina voters on the grounds that they had no claim for relief under a standard set by Carey. With a 7-1 decision the court ruled in favor of Carey, the respondent. The United Jewish Organizations of Williamsburg claimed that the plan violated their constitutional rights because the districts had been assigned solely on a racial basis. The court found that the reapportionment plan was valid under the Constitution as the Fourteenth and the Fifteenth Amendment do not prohibit the use of racial factors in districting and apportionment.
Arguments
Shaw
Shaw and five other North Carolina residents filed an action against the state, declaring that the state had created an unconstitutional racial gerrymandering violating the Fourteenth Amendment. It was also argued that the racial gerrymandering hindered the voters from having a blind process of voting. This was a previous problem that discriminated against the minority voters however, the White residents thought it was hindering their voices racially. Then, the residents argued that the state had gone far this time by redrawing the district lines and creating a second district that was dominated by the minorities. Another argument that was made was the "snake-like" structure of the district and how it does not follow the reapportionment guidelines, which led to filling a lawsuit against both the state and federal government for political gerrymandering.
Reno
Reno, the Attorney General, argued that the creation of the second district was necessary in order to follow the request of the General Assembly that required them to abide by the Voting Right Act of 1965, which would increase the representation of the minority groups and allow them to have more of a voice when voting. This was to designed to prevent any discrimination by race and North Carolina thought this plan was completely aligned with the request of the General Assembly guidelines. It included that the Supreme Court of the United States and the federal government that allowed states to find any possible way to comply to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, even if it meant having a strangely structured district like this one which Reno argued against.
Decision
Majority opinion
In a 5-4 decision the courts ruled in favor of Shaw (the petitioner), finding that it was, in fact, unlawful to gerrymander on the basis of race. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote the majority opinion in which she explains the court's ruling. In it, she writes that the court found that the shape of North Carolina's 12th district was so "bizarre" that the only reasonable explanation was that it had been drawn on the basis of race. The courts also noted that based on the Voting Rights Act, race can be taken into account when redistricting plans are made, but it cannot be the sole factor when drawing a new district because that would violate the fourteenth amendment. Therefore, such redistricting was held unconstitutional since it found intention to segregate voters by race and this segregation cannot be justified under a standard of strict scrutiny."Racial gerrymandering even for remedial purposes, may balkanize us into competing racial factions; it threatens to carry us further from the goal of a political system in which race no longer matters-a goal that the Fourteen and Fifteenth Amendments embody, and to which the Nation continues to aspire." -Shaw, 509 U.S. at 657Additionally, it was noted that allowing the 12th district to be drawn in that manner would be setting a dangerous precedent in the American democratic system in which Americans are attempting to reach equality. "Racial classifications of any sort pose the risk of lasting harm to our society. They reinforce the belief, held by too many for too much of our history, that individuals should be judged by the color of their skin" -Shaw, 509 U.S. at 657
Dissents
The dissenting opinion by Justice White held that Shaw failed to present cognizable harm or that for Shaw to bring the case there must have been harm done to them one way or another and that this failed to be presented in court. Additionally, he noted the voting interests of those who brought the case had not been violated. He also stated that drawing districts on the basis of race could prove to be beneficial for minority communities.
The dissenting opinions from Justice Blackmun and Stevens also brought many of the same points as White and they also added that the purpose of the equal protection clause was only to protect those who have been historically discriminated against. Therefore, it should not apply to the White voters who brought this case.
Justice Souter noted the arbitrary nature of the strict scrutiny applied in this case. He detailed that the 12th district was ultimately drawn to benefit a minority group hence making the strict scrutiny applied to feel unreasonable."The difference between constitutional and unconstitutional gerrymanders has nothing to do with whether they are based on assumptions about the groups they affect, but whether their purpose is to enhance the power of the group in control of the districting process at the expense of any minority group, and thereby to strengthen the unequal distribution of electoral power." - Shaw, 509 U.S. at 678
Aftermath
Impact
While Shaw intended to construct limitations on using race to gerrymander districts, it fell short of those expectations. The court's decision left questions unanswered and produced a mixed reaction. Soon after, lawsuits were filed against majority-Black districts in southern states such as Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana. Shaw also does not add or address the criteria needed for creating districts. "Highly irregular" districts were called into question, but Shaw does not unpack what that means. Later cases that built on Shaw focused on majority-minority districts, trying to answer if race can be used to redistrict districts. Grofman adds that he does not believe Shaw to be a game-changer, but he does emphasize that while their consequences might not be as far-reaching, its succeeding cases are. While Shaw failed to set clear criteria for gerrymandering, Shaw impacted the future of voting rights.The significance of the Shaw v. Reno decision is heavily debated but it is known that it had a lasting impact on how the Voting Rights Act was going to be enforced and the structure of the U.S. political system.
Related cases
In the aftermath of the Shaw v. Reno decision, the Supreme Court reexamined the topic of racial gerrymandering in the other court cases. In Bush v. Vera, the state of Texas planned to add additional congressional districts after the 1990 census. These redistricting measures were found to be unconstitutional and in the decision of this case, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor referred back to her opinion from Shaw v. Reno. She noted that under the standard of "strict scrutiny", the districts were irregularly shaped and used race as a deciding factor. The redistricting plans of this case were overturned and the overall decision aligned with that of the Shaw case. Likewise, Miller v. Johnson is another case that was influenced by Shaw. In Miller v. Johnson, Georgia's racial gerrymandering was questioned to violate the Equal Protection Clause, as it aimed to create a majority-Black district. Justices looked to Shaw for guidance as they ruled on the legality of racial gerrymandering. Using the Shaw v. Reno decision, the justices decided that using racial reasons for redistricting is unconstitutional. Since Georgia's General Assembly used "race for its own sake and not other districting principles," their actions were rendered unconstitutional.
Controversies
There have been controversies and misinterpretations associated with Shaw v. Reno. Shaw fails to give criteria for an irregular drawing. It is, therefore, unclear how to prove when a shape is bizarre enough to constitute a clear racial motive, making it hard for courts to decide on rulings. As a result, it is possible for courts to interpret Shaw differently. For example, a Georgia court ruled that a district of "average appearance" was invalidated, but North Carolina's snake-like shaped district which could be described as irregular was upheld. There are many discrepancies that each judge must take into account when using Shaw v. Reno as a precedent. In addition to being unclear, Shaw has the ability to disenfranchise minorities. In Reynold v. Sims, the phrase "people, not trees of pastures, vote" can be applied to Shaw, as people, not highways, vote. Despite this, voter rights are being controlled by district shapes in the redistricting process. Shaw v. Reno places a lot of importance on the actual lines drawn, rather than who they contain. This outlook has the potential to disenfranchise minorities, as courts may place more importance on the shape of the district, rather than the underrepresented people.
See also
Wesberry v. Sanders, : Earlier Georgia congressional redistricting case
Wright v. Rockefeller,
Miller v. Johnson,
Bush v. Vera,
Hunt v. Cromartie,
Easley v. Cromartie,
Georgia v. Ashcroft, : Georgia State Senate redistricting case
League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry,
Alabama Legislative Black Caucus v. Alabama,
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 509
Further reading
Whitaker, L. Paige (April 13, 2015). "Congressional Redistricting and the Voting Rights Act: A Legal Overview". Congressional Research Service.
References
External links
Google Scholar
United States equal protection case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
United States electoral redistricting case law
1993 in United States case law
Gerrymandering in the United States
Congressional districts of North Carolina
African-American history of North Carolina
Legal history of North Carolina |
4520084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From%20Elvis%20in%20Memphis | From Elvis in Memphis | From Elvis in Memphis is the 10th studio album by American rock and roll singer Elvis Presley. It was released by RCA Records on June 2, 1969. It was recorded at American Sound Studio in Memphis in January and February 1969 under the direction of producer Chips Moman and backed by its house band, informally known as the Memphis Boys. Following the success of Presley's TV special Elvis and its soundtrack, the album marked Presley's return to non-soundtrack albums after the completion of his film contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
Presley's entourage convinced him to leave the RCA studios and record this album at American Sound, a Memphis studio at the peak of a hit-producing streak. The reason was for the southern soul sound of the house band, the Memphis Boys. The predominance of country songs among those recorded in these sessions gave them the feel of the "country soul" style. This impression was emphasized by the frequent use of the dobro in the arrangements.
From Elvis in Memphis was released in June 1969 to favorable reviews. It reached number 13 on the Billboard 200, number two on the country charts and number one in the United Kingdom, and its single "In the Ghetto" reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1970. In later years, it garnered further favorable reviews, while it was ranked number 190 on Rolling Stone's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.
Background
After Presley's 1960 return from military service, his manager, Colonel Tom Parker, shifted the focus of his career from live music and albums to films and soundtracks. In March 1961, Presley performed his last live concert for eight years: a benefit for the construction of the USS Arizona Memorial at Boch Arena in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. During the first half of the 1960s, three of Presley's soundtrack albums reached number one on the pop charts and a number of his most popular songs were from his films, including 1961's "Can't Help Falling in Love" and 1962's "Return to Sender".
After 1964, Parker decided that Presley should only record soundtrack albums. He viewed the films and soundtracks as complementary, with each helping to promote the other. However, the commercial success of Presley's films and soundtracks steadily diminished (Paradise, Hawaiian Style; Easy Come, Easy Go; Speedway), while he was increasingly disappointed with the quality of his work. From 1964 to 1968, Presley had just one top-ten hit: "Crying in the Chapel" (1965), a gospel song recorded in 1960. Only one LP of new material by Presley was issued: the gospel album How Great Thou Art (1967), which won him his first Grammy Award for Best Sacred Performance.
In 1968, Parker arranged a deal with NBC for a Christmas television special starring Presley in front of a live audience. Parker originally planned to have Presley sing Christmas carols only, but the producer, Steve Binder, convinced Presley to perform songs from his original repertoire. The high ratings received by the special and the success of its attendant LP re-established Presley's popularity. During the making of the special, Presley said to Binder: "I'll never sing another song that I don't believe in, I'm never going to make another movie that I don't believe in." As part of his decision to refocus on music rather than film, Presley decided to record a new album.
Recording
Presley left his usual musicians and studios (Radio Recorders in Hollywood, California and RCA Studio B in Nashville, Tennessee), recording new material in Memphis. After the special he approached Scotty Moore and D. J. Fontana, who had played with Presley during his early hit-making career, and who rejoined him on the television show. Presley asked Moore about using Music City Recorders in Nashville, but that suggestion never came to fruition.
During a January 1969 meeting at Graceland, Presley told his usual producer, Felton Jarvis, that he did not want to record his next album at RCA Studios. Two of Presley's friends, DJ George Klein and Marty Lacker, suggested that he use American Sound Studio, an up-and-coming studio with which Lacker was involved. RCA contacted the studio's producer Chips Moman. Willing to work with Presley, Moman postponed a session with Neil Diamond after being asked to produce the sessions with Felton Jarvis as second producer. It was agreed that Presley's recordings would take ten days and cost $25,000. He would be backed by the studio's house band, the 827 Thomas Street Band (informally known as the Memphis Boys), which consisted of Reggie Young on guitar, Tommy Cogbill and Mike Leech on bass, Gene Chrisman on drums, Bobby Wood on piano, and Bobby Emmons on organ.
Although RCA Records oversaw their company policy to record only in their own studios, the label sent their personnel out to American Sound. Recording began on January 13, 1969, when Presley arrived at the studio nursing a cold. In addition to his personal entourage, he was accompanied by Hill & Range publisher Freddy Bienstock, Colonel Parker's assistant Tom Diskin, producer Felton Jarvis, executive Harry Jenkins and engineer Al Pachucki, representing RCA Records. With Pachucki on the board, American Sound engineer Ed Kollis joined the musicians on harmonica. The session, which produced recordings of "Long Black Limousine", "Wearin' That Loved On Look" and several non-album songs, continued until 5:00 am. After the first day's recording, Moman and his colleagues expressed discomfort with the size of Presley's entourage, and Presley was accompanied by fewer people for the remaining sessions.
The next day Presley recorded "I'm Moving On" and "Gentle on My Mind", leaving the studio while working on the latter to rest his throat. The following night, he did not appear, as his cold worsened, and on January 15 and 16 the house band recorded backing tracks for subsequent sessions. Presley returned on January 20, recording "In the Ghetto" in 23 takes and finishing the vocal track for "Gentle on My Mind". On January 22, he recorded Eddy Arnold's "I'll Hold You in My Heart (Till I Can Hold You in My Arms)" and the non-album single "Suspicious Minds". Presley then took a break from recording for a vacation trip to Aspen, Colorado to celebrate his daughter Lisa Marie's first birthday.
During Presley's absence, Moman was approached by Bienstock, who was concerned about possible future disputes concerning the songs' publication. Moman and Presley decided not to record Hill & Range compositions, instead using songs by American Sound writers. Bienstock, particularly interested in the non-album "Suspicious Minds" and "Mama Liked the Roses", warned that Moman would have to surrender the publishing rights to release the songs. In response, Moman told Bienstock to take all the recordings and leave the studio. RCA vice-president Harry Jenkins interceded, siding with Moman and ordering Bienstock to stay away from the studio and let Presley work with the staff. Meanwhile, Diskin informed Presley about the publishing issues. Presley supported Moman, assuring Diskin that he and the producer would handle the session work. Diskin contacted Parker, who told him to return to California. Moman retained the publishing rights, and the sessions were scheduled to resume several weeks later.
Presley returned on February 17, recording "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road" and "Power of My Love", and Eddy Arnold's "After Loving You" and "Do You Know Who I Am?" the following day. On February 19, he devoted most of the session to the non-album single "Kentucky Rain", one of the few Hill & Range songs used on the American Sound recordings. Presley followed with a recording of "Only the Strong Survive", a hit for Jerry Butler the previous year, which took twenty-nine takes. On February 20, he recorded Johnny Tillotson's "It Keeps Right on a Hurtin'" in three takes and "Any Day Now" in six. Presley's final session was on February 22, when he recorded vocal overdubs for "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road" and "Power of My Love" and vocals for several non-album cuts. The following month, Mike Leech and Glenn Spreen began work on the string and horn overdubs to finish the album; several brass overdubs were recorded by the Memphis Horns.
Music
Moman moved away from the usual Presley pop recordings aimed at an established audience. A developer of the Stax Records sound, he incorporated a Memphis sound integrating soul, country, gospel and rural and electric blues. Many arrangements lean heavily on the rhythm section, with lesser contributions from strings, brass and woodwinds. Arrangers Glenn Spreen and Mike Leech changed Presley's image on the tracks with the addition of violas, cellos and French horns. The arrangers intended to blend the tracks for a distinctive sound; the strings are used in counterpoint, rising when the track fades and vice versa. The violas play the same lines as the French horns, with cello used for darker tones. Syncopation was incorporated by bowing.
The twelve tracks on the album were selected from thirty-four which were recorded in the American Sound sessions. The first song, "Wearin' That Loved On Look" features an electric-bass lead for the first time in a Presley recording. The second is "Only the Strong Survive", with Presley backed by bass and drums. He plays piano on the third track, the country song "I Hold You in My Heart ('Till I Can Hold You in My Arms)". Presley's voice is roughened by a cold on the fourth song, the country-rhythm-and-blues "Long Black Limousine" featuring a trumpet solo. The fifth song, Johnny Tillotson's traditional country-western "It Keeps Right on A-Hurtin'", was arranged to sound more like Memphis soul. Side one ends with a version of Hank Snow's country-western "I'm Moving On" with a strong bass line and driving rhythm.
Side two begins with Florence Kaye and Bernie Baum's "Power of My Love". The song has a blues-based sound, with Presley backed by a brass section, drums and electric guitar and organ. The lyrics include double entendres ("Crush it, kick it / You can never win / I know baby you can't lick it/ I'll make you give in)", with groans by backing female singers emphasizing sexuality. The second track, a cover of John Hartford's "Gentle on My Mind" follows. The string-laden arrangement was inspired by Glen Campbell's 1967 Grammy-winning version of the song. The next song, Eddy Arnold's 1962 hit "After Loving You", is arranged in a 12/8 tempo. Elvis plays guitar throughout the song including the intro. This is followed by Dallas Frazier's "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road" and Chuck Jackson's 1962 hit, "Any Day Now".
The twelfth and final song of the album, selected as a single, is Mac Davis' "In The Ghetto". The song was chosen by Billy Strange, who had previously picked material for other Presley sessions. The protest song denounces the consequences of poverty, with compassion for inner-city youth. Because of "In the Ghetto"'s lyrics, controversial for its time, Presley originally did not plan to record the song because he thought it might alienate fans. After Moman said he might give the song to Rosey Grier, Presley's friends convinced him to record it.
The album cover is a still from the "Trouble"-"Guitar Man" production number of NBC's Elvis special. Presley is featured with a red electric guitar, wearing a black leather suit with a red scarf around his neck, with silhouettes of guitar players at the back of the set. From Elvis in Memphis became one of American Sound Studio's best-known productions, with Dusty Springfield's Dusty in Memphis; both albums reflected similar times and musical trends on the Memphis scene.
Release and reception
The single "In the Ghetto" was released on April 14, 1969, with 300,000 copies shipped by RCA. In its second week after release, it entered the charts, where it remained for thirteen weeks (reaching number three on June 14). The single sold a million copies in the United States. Meanwhile, it reached number two on the British Singles chart. However, its success triggered a confrontation between RCA and American Sound. During the sessions, Presley's usual producer, Jarvis, grew increasingly worried about losing control of Presley and his recordings. During its first two weeks on the chart, "In the Ghetto"'s production was credited to Jarvis. Lacker then called Billboard and had them correct the producer credit to Moman. During the fourth week, Parker asked Billboard to remove the production credit from the song's entry entirely (arguing that Presley's records did not traditionally list a producer credit).
From Elvis in Memphis was released on June 2, 1969. The album topped the UK Albums Chart, disposing for one week Jethro Tull's Stand Up. In the United States, it reached number thirteen on Billboards Top LPs, and was ranked number seventeen on the magazine's Top Country albums of 1969. By January 28, 1970, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America after selling over 500,000 copies.
On July 12, 1969, Presley was featured on the cover of Rolling Stone, with the album receiving the lead review. Peter Guralnick, the magazine's reviewer, described it as "great ... Flatly and unequivocally the equal of anything (Presley) has ever done" and praised the "evident passion which (Presley) has invested in this music", adding: "(he) is trying, and trying very hard, to please us. He needs to have our attention ... It is his involvement after all which comes as the surprise." Billboard also published a positive review, saying that Presley had "never sounded better, and the choice of material is perfect". High Fidelity wrote, "Elvis has been through a number of stages, and his latest is the best".
The Los Angeles Times delivered a mixed review: Critic Pete Johnson praised Presley's voice, which he considered had gone back "down to grittiness". Meanwhile, Johnson criticized the music arrangements that he considered inconsistent with the original Sun Records style of Presley, or the contemporary Memphis Sound produced by Stax Records. He pointed that the rhythm section "rarely gets off the ground", called the use of the horns "scarse and generally insipid", the arrangements "Hollywoodish", and he attributed to "laziness" the production of the more scarcely backed tracks to Moman and arrangers Spreen and Leech. Johnson concluded that Presley's voice had "arrived in Memphis" but "no one else concerned with the LP did". For the Associated Press, the album presented "quality country" and Presley's voice featured "depth" and "feeling". The Pittsburgh Press felt that it was a "typical" Presley album that featured a "rock 'n' roll style" that later morphed into "love portions". Detroit Free Press considered that Presley's style appeared "brand new" in From Elvis in Memphis that featured lyrics that were "country hip" and a beat that was "1969 all the way".
From Elvis in Memphis has continued to receive praise in retrospective reviews. In 2009 Rolling Stone described it as "extraordinary" and attributed the sessions' success to Presley's "newfound maturity and soulfulness" and Moman's "warm, distinctly Southern musical backing". AllMusic gives it five stars out of five, and highlights it as an "AllMusic album pick". Critic Bruce Eder said that together with 1956's Elvis Presley, From Elvis in Memphis was Presley's "greatest album". Eder called it "one of the greatest white soul albums (and one of the greatest soul albums) ever cut", with Presley "rejuvenated artistically (while) he's supported by the best playing and backup singing of his entire recording history". Richie Unterberger of the same website cited the album as a return to rock music for Elvis and called it "reasonably gutsy late-'60s pop/rock".
PopMatters has described From Elvis in Memphis as "some of the best music Elvis Presley ever made". Sputnik Music's reviewer considered that the album "rivaled" Presley's early recordings in "terms of historical importance and innovation", and was "downright essential, for any Elvis fan and for any music fan".
Legacy
Following the American Sound sessions, Presley returned to Hollywood. Between March–April 1969, he recorded the soundtrack and starred in his thirty-first and last motion picture as an actor, Change of Habit.
When the album was due for release, Parker arranged Presley's return to performing live. He made a deal with Kirk Kerkorian, owner of the Las Vegas International Hotel, to play the newly built 2,000-seat showroom for four weeks (two shows per night, with Mondays off) for $400,000. For his appearance, he assembled a band later known as the TCB Band: James Burton (guitar), John Wilkinson (rhythm guitar), Jerry Scheff (bass-guitar), Ronnie Tutt (drums), Larry Muhoberac (piano) and Charlie Hodge (rhythm guitar, background vocals). The band was complemented by the backing vocals of The Sweet inspirations and the Imperials. His initial Las Vegas show attracted an audience of 101,500, setting a new Vegas performance record. In 1970, Presley began to tour the United States for the first time in thirteen years.
"Don't Cry Daddy" reached No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. "Kentucky Rain" was a moderate hit in 1970, reaching No. 16, but "Suspicious Minds" became one of Presley's signature songs and was the final chart-topper of his career.
In 2003, From Elvis in Memphis was number 190 on Rolling Stones list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, then dropping to number 322 in a 2020 revised list.
Reissues
In 2000 RCA released a remastered compact disc of From Elvis in Memphis, including six bonus tracks (released as A- or B-sides) recorded during the album sessions. The reissue received five stars out of five from Rolling Stone. In 2009, Sony Music Entertainment issued a Legacy RCA Edition of the album for its 40th anniversary: two discs (From Elvis In Memphis and the studio disk of From Memphis To Vegas/From Vegas To Memphis), four outtakes and ten tracks originally released as monaural singles (including "Suspicious Minds" and "Kentucky Rain"). In 2013 From Elvis in Memphis was reissued on the Follow That Dream label in a special two-disc edition that contained the original album tracks along with numerous alternate takes. The 1970 Quadraphonic eight-track release of the album has never been reissued.
Track listing
Original release
2009 CD reissue
Personnel
Elvis Presley – vocals, guitar, piano on "I'll Hold You In My Heart (Till I Can Hold You In My Arms)"
Glen Spreen – string and horn arrangements
Ed Kollis – harmonica on "Power of My Love" and "True Love Travels on a Gravel Road"
John Hughey – pedal steel guitar (on "In the Ghetto")
Reggie Young – lead guitar
Bobby Wood – piano
Bobby Emmons – Hammond organ
Tommy Cogbill – bass guitar
Mike Leech – bass guitar, string and horn arrangements
Gene Chrisman – drums
Overdubbed
Wayne Jackson – trumpet
Dick Steff – trumpet
R.F. Taylor – trumpet
Ed Logan – trombone
Jack Hale – trombone
Gerald Richardson – trombone
Tony Cason – French horn
Joe D'Gerolamo – French horn
Andrew Love – saxophone
Jackie Thomas – saxophone
Glen Spreen – saxophone
J.P. Luper – saxophone
Joe Babcock – backing vocals
Dolores Edgin – backing vocals
Mary Greene – backing vocals
Charlie Hodge – backing vocals
Ginger Holladay – backing vocals
Mary Holladay – backing vocals
Millie Kirkham – backing vocals
Ronnie Milsap – backing vocals
Sonja Montgomery – backing vocals
June Page – backing vocals
Susan Pilkington – backing vocals
Sandy Posey – backing vocals
Donna Thatcher – backing vocals
Hurschel Wiginton – backing vocals
Charts
Certifications
Release history
Footnotes
References
External links
1969 albums
Elvis Presley albums
Albums produced by Chips Moman
Albums produced by Felton Jarvis
RCA Records albums
RCA Victor albums
Legacy Recordings albums |
4520198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian%20nationalism | Venetian nationalism | Venetian nationalism (also Venetism, from the Venetian/Italian name, venetismo) is a nationalist, but primarily regionalist, political movement active mostly in Veneto, Italy, as well as in other parts of the former Republic of Venice.
Generally speaking, Venetists promote the distinct Venetian identity and the rediscovery of the Republic of Venice's heritage, traditions, culture, and language and/or demand more autonomy or even independence for Veneto from Italy. According to journalist Paolo Possamai, Venetism is "the strain of Veneto and Venetians toward the recognition of their identity and autonomy". Venetism is a broad movement, which definitely includes Venetist parties, notably Liga Veneta, but also encompasses people from several political parties. In 1982 Goffredo Parise, a writer and journalist, wrote: "Veneto is my fatherland. [...] Even if a Republic of Italy exists, this abstract idea is not my Fatherland [...]. We Venetians have travelled throughout the world, but our Fatherland, that for which we would fight if it were necessary to fight, is Veneto. [...] When I see "River sacred to the Fatherland" written on the bridges spanning the Piave, I am moved, not because I think of Italy, but rather because I think of Veneto."
Most Venetists consider Veneto a nation distinct from Italy and some refuse the validity of the result of the referendum through which Veneto (or, better, Venetia) was united with Italy in 1866. Some of them have long proposed a re-edition of that referendum and campaign for the independence of Venetia, a country that would be composed of the territories of the historical Venetian Republic, covering Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and large chunks of Lombardy (the province of Brescia, the province of Bergamo, the area around Crema and a portion of the province of Mantua). The proposal, regarding to Veneto alone, has more recently gained the support of Liga Veneta, the Government of Veneto, and the majority of the Regional Council of Veneto, which endorsed a bill aimed at organising the referendum in 2014. The Constitutional Court ruled that referendum out as contrary to the Constitution, but authorised an autonomy referendum, which took place on 22 October 2017: 57.2% of Venetians participated in the referendum and 98.1% voted "yes". Consequently, President of Veneto Luca Zaia started a negotiation with the Italian government.
Although it usually refers to the whole Venetian autonomist movement, the term "Venetism" is sometimes used to identify specifically culture-oriented Venetists, hardline Venetists or those Venetists who refuse the concept of Padania, a proposed country by Lega Nord / Lega, of which Liga Veneta (the most successful Venetist party so far) has been the "national/regional" section in Veneto. Alberto Gardin, a pro-independence publisher and later self proclaimed 121st Doge who supports the boycott of Italian elections, offers another interpretation by considering "Venetism" a "partisan concept, that is part of the Italian political system (Venetists, as Socialists, Communists, PD, PdL, etc.)".
Background and history
Annexation of Veneto by Italy
The Venetian Republic existed for 1100 years from 697 to 1797 (submitted to Byzantium until the 9th century), and was one of the first modern republics of the world. After defeating the Republic of Genoa in a series of wars, it became the most powerful Mediterranean maritime power, and at its height, extended its rule from large parts of the Po Valley to the coastal regions and islands of present-day Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece. Venice was a leading power of the Western world in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1797, after a long decline, through the Treaty of Campo Formio, Napoleon traded what remained of the Republic with Austria in exchange for other territories. In 1848, Venetians, led by Daniele Manin, rebelled against Austrian rule and established the Republic of San Marco. Manin, who opposed the proposed unification by some Venetians with the Kingdom of Sardinia, resigned, but returned to lead again the opposition against Vienna in 1849.
Venetian territories with the former Duchy of Mantua and Friuli were annexed to Italy in 1866, five years after the Italian unification and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy in 1861. The unification of Veneto with Italy was the result of the Austro-Prussian War, won by the Prussians, Italy's allies. In the Italian unification process, the conflict is known as Third War of Independence. Austria lost Venetia, ceded to Napoleon III of France, who in turn ceded it to Italy. Austria refused to give Venetian territories directly to Italy because the Austrians had crushed the Italians during the war, defeating the Italians on land during the Battle of Custoza (24 June) and on sea during the Battle of Lissa (20 July). Giuseppe Garibaldi's Hunters of the Alps had some success against the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca (21 July), but the Italian government ordered Garibaldi to withdraw when Prussia and Austria concluded an armistice. With the Peace of Prague (23 August), Austria agreed to the incorporation of Venetia in the Kingdom of Italy. The same point was repeated in the Treaty of Vienna (12 October), achieved through the mediation of France.
The Venetian territory was first ceded by Austria to France (under a treaty signed by General Karl Moering, on behalf of Franz Joseph I of Austria, and General Edmond Le Bœuf, on behalf of Napoleon III) as a compensation for French neutrality during the war. According to the treaty, France ceded Venetia to Italy "under the reservation of the consent of the people duly consulted". Whether an option other than becoming Italian was available was unclear, nor was the treaty any more precise on how to consult the people. Venetia was already under Italian control after the French government renounced to it on 19 October.
This increases doubts on the real importance of the plebiscite and leading historians suggest that the referendum in Venetia was held under military pressure, as a mere 0.01% of voters (69 out of more than 642,000 ballots) voted against the annexation and a mere 0.1% (567 ballots) was null, and that it was ultimately rigged. Some historians, who investigated into the historical archive of the Austrian foreign ministry, also suggest that the referendum was a mere administrative affair to Italy, just to formalise the sovereignty on a territory already under its possession, and that no real choice nor free vote was granted to the local population. The plebiscite could have been a mere demonstration to gain legitimacy after the bad conduct of Italy during the so-called Third War of Independence.
The Kingdom of Italy adopted Italian as the official language. Venetians, similarly to several other regional communities, largely rejected that and continued to use their own Venetian language, often dubbed as dialect. Linguistic nationalism soon started to be part of Venetian culture, and during the last decades of the 19th century, also some revolts against southern Italian bureaucrats occurred. After its incorporation to Italy, Venetia was so poor that millions of Venetians had to emigrate toward the Americas, especially Brazil and Argentina (three millions left their homeland from 1870 and 1910), without losing their heritage, so even today, many Venetian descendants in Latin America, most notably in two Brazilian southern states, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, speak Venetian as their mother tongue.
World Wars and the Italian Republic
Right after World War I, the economic and political situation in Veneto was critical, so that a former Prime Minister and native of Venice, Luigi Luzzatti, wrote to Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and told him there could be a "Venetian Ireland", in parallel to the simultaneous Irish War of Independence, while the prefect of Treviso signalled the risk that a separatist movement aimed at separating Veneto from Italy might flourish in the province of Treviso.
Precursors of the present-day Venetist movement date back to before World War II and were both left- and right-wing. In 1920 La Riscossa, a Venetian newspaper close to the Socialists and the Republicans, espoused the need for a "united elective governorate with autonomous and competent technical and administrative organs" as an alternative to the "central political rule" Guido Bergamo, a Republican member of the Chamber of Deputies elected in Veneto, wrote that "the Venetian problem is so acute that from today on we will preach the rebellion of Venetians. Citizens, let's not pay taxes, not recognise the central government in Rome, chase away prefects, retain the money from direct taxes in Veneto". Shortly after Italico Corradino Cappellotto, a member of the Chamber of Deputies for the Italian People's Party, launched the first Venetist party forth of the 1921 general election: the Lion of Saint Mark won 6.1% of the votes in the province of Treviso.
After the takeover of Benito Mussolini, who among other things proposed to eradicate the local languages in favour of Italian language widespread, the rise of Fascism, World War II, and the birth of the Italian Republic, Venetist ideas lost ground, in an era in which the "myth of the indivisibility and the unity" of the country was strong even in Veneto. However, the campaign of Mussolini to eradicate regional languages was largely unsuccessful in the region, which soon became a stronghold of the Christian Democracy (DC) party due to the leading role of the Catholic Church in the region. In the 1948 general election Christian Democrats won 60.5% of the vote in Veneto.
Since 1919, Venetia plus the newly annexed territories from Austria, which included Trentino and South Tyrol, were called the Three Venices (Tre Venezie, whereof Triveneto), meaning Venezia Euganea (Veneto plus large chunks of Friuli), Venezia Giulia (the eastern part of current Friuli-Venezia Giulia) and Venezia Tridentina (Trentino and South Tyrol). However, under the Constitution of Italy adopted in 1948, only Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Friuli-Venezia Giulia were granted of the status of special-statute autonomous region and the connected special privileges, mainly including fiscal autonomy. Hence, the proposals by some groups of unifying Veneto with the two regions cited above (or with Trentino alone) or giving also Veneto an autonomous statute.
Comeback of Venetist ideas
Venetist ideas made a comeback in the 1960s, when the Venetian Regionalist Autonomous Movement (MARV) campaigned for the institution of the ordinary regions (including Veneto), prefigured by the Italian Constitution. The ordinary regions were finally instituted in 1970.
Since the 1970s, Veneto experienced a dramatic economic boom due to a new production model based on small enterprises. The high burden of taxes and bureaucracy, associated with the increasing frustration with the inefficient and overstaffed Italian government in Rome, that continued to channel northern taxes as massive development aid to the corrupt and backward southern regions, was the key element, along with linguistic and historical claims, that led to the formation of Liga Veneta (LV) in January 1980. The opening speech of the first congress of the party in December 1979 recited: "Today for Venetians the moment has come, after 113 years of Italian unitary colonisation, to take their natural and human resources back, to fight against the wild exploitation that has brought emigration, pollution, and rooting out from their culture". European integration through the European Union (EU) was seen as an opportunity to give back to Veneto its autonomy.
One of the regional leaders of Christian Democracy (DC), Antonio Bisaglia, early understood Veneto's demand of more autonomy and that his party, the dominant force in Venetian politics since 1946, would have been the main victim of the rise of LV as both parties competed for the support of the middle class. He thus proposed the evolution of the DC into a regional party on the model of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria. In 1982, Bisaglia tellingly declared, "Veneto would be mature for a federalist state, but this state, centralist and bureaucratic [as it is], will never concede autonomy to my region". Opposition from Rome and Bisaglia's sudden death in 1984 stopped the plan of a regional DC on the "Bavarian model". Giancarlo Galan, regional leader of Forza Italia and President of Veneto from 1995 to 2010, made a similar proposal in 2008, taking example mainly from the South Tyrolean People's Party, but his "Forza Veneto" remained just an idea.
The LV, whose leader in the 1980s and early 1990s was Franco Rocchetta, made its main electoral debut in the 1983 general election, when it garnered 4.3% in Veneto, resulting in two elects to the Italian Parliament. The party suffered many splits in its first decade of life and became a large political force only after its federation with other regional leagues, notably including Umberto Bossi's Lega Lombarda, which resulted in Lega Nord (LN) in 1991: in the 1996 general election, the party was Veneto's largest with 29.3%. However, clashes between Bossi and hardcore Venetists led to several splits; in 1994, Rocchetta left in protest, but more damaging was the 1998 split led by Fabrizio Comencini and Alessio Morosin, who launched Liga Veneta Repubblica (LVR). As a result, in the 2001 general election, the LV garnered a mere 10.2% of the vote, its worst score since 1987, while the LVR gained 4.9%. As the latter faded, the LV returned to gain ground in the 2005 regional election, despite the meteoric success of North-East Project (PNE). More recently, a string of separatist parties, notably including Venetian Independence (IV), emerged.
Both in 1992 and 2000 the Italian Constitutional Court rejected proposals for an autonomy referendum, brought forward by the Regional Council of Veneto.
In the 2010 regional election the LV, in steady rise since 2001, was by far the largest party in the region with 35.2% of the vote, while its leader Luca Zaia was elected President of Veneto by a landslide 60.2%. The combined result of Venetist parties was 37.6%, the highest so far.
In the 2015 regional election, the LV set another record by winning 40.9% of the vote (combined result of party list, 17.8%, and Zaia's personal list, 23.1%) and Zaia was re-elected President of Veneto with 50.1% of the vote and a more coherently Venetist coalition. Separatist parties (Venetian Independence, Independence We Veneto and Veneto Confederal State) obtained 5.4% of the vote, while other regionalist and/or Venetist parties (Tosi List for Veneto, LTV's sponsored Il Veneto del Fare list, North-East Union, and Autonomous Veneto Project) another 8.0% of the vote. Consequently, a majority of regional councillors adhered, at least to some extent, to Venetism.
In the 2020 regional election, the LV set one more record by winning 61.5% of the vote (combined result of party list, 16.9%, and Zaia's personal list, 44.6%) and Zaia was re-elected President by a landslide 76.8% of the vote, more than any other candidate in any other region of Italy. Minor Venetist lists and parties (Venetian Autonomy List — sponsored by the LV and including Liga Veneta Repubblica —, the Party of Venetians, Venetian Left and Veneto for the Autonomies) obtained a further 4.1% of the vote. As a result, 34 out of 51 seats in the Regional Council were controlled by Venetists, 33 by LV members.
Recent developments
2012–2015 opinion polls on independence
While support for a federal system, as opposed to a centrally administered state, receives widespread consensus in Veneto, support for independence is less favoured. Recent polls show a rise of independentism. According to an opinion poll made in December 2011, 50% of Venetians support the independence of Veneto. More strikingly, an opinion poll published on Il Gazzettino in January 2012 put those favoring independence at 53.3% (with the support from foreign-born Venetians at 55.0%). According to the same pollster, the support for independence rose to 56.7% in January 2013.
According to a February 2014 poll by Ixè, in a hypothetical referendum on independence, 47% of Venetians would vote yes and 26% no. According to a March 2014 poll by Ilvo Diamanti's Demos&Pi, 55% of Venetians favoured independence, 39% opposed it and the remaining 6% did not answer. According to a similar poll conducted by Istituto Piepoli, 64% of Venetians would vote in favour of more autonomy with 19% against, and 51% would vote for independence with 32% against. According to a Demos&Pi poll taken in October 2014, 53% of Venetians favoured independence, thus making Veneto the most separatist region in Italy, followed by Sardinia (45%) and Sicily (44%). In March 2015 Demos&Pi found that 57% of Venetians (including 83% of Liga Veneta–Lega Nord's voters) favoured independence.
Resolution 44/2012 on self-determination
In 2012 Venetian Independence (IV), notably including Lodovico Pizzati, Gianluca Busato and Alessio Morosin, collected more than 20,000 signatures in support for a referendum on independence and presented them to President Luca Zaia. Zaia informed the Regional Council and its President Clodovaldo Ruffato asked an opinion to the legal office, which explained that such a referendum was not legal under the Constitution of Italy. On 6 October IV organised a march in Venice, during which it proposed a resolution (44/2012) for a consultative referendum on independence to be approved by the Regional Council: the text of the resolution was given to Giovanni Furlanetto, LV regional councillor, who supported the proposition. Another Council member, Mariangelo Foggiato of North-East Union (UNE), officially presented the resolution in the Council. On 17 October a total of 42 regional councillors out of 60 officially asked a discussion on the issue.
On 28 November the Council approved the resolution, in which "independence" was replaced by "self-determination", with 29 votes in favour, 2 against and 5 abstentions. Those in favour included Foggiato, LV's entire group, most councillors of The People of Freedom, Pietrangelo Pettenò of the Communist Refoundation Party–Federation of the Left, Diego Bottacin of Toward North and independent councillor Sandro Sandri, who had expounded the resolution at the start of the session, while the entire group of the Democratic Party left the floor in protest, but proclaimed their support for a special statute for Veneto. The document required Zaia and Ruffato to urgently open talks with the European Union (EU) and the United Nations in order to come up with a referendum proposal that will establish the will of the Venetian people on its self-determination. To achieve this goal, the two Presidents would have benefited from the help of a special commission of jurists.
Petition to the EU and international support
On 10 January 2013 a delegation of IV submitted to the European Commission in Brussels a petition, signed by 50,000 European citizens, mainly Venetians, to endorse the referendum on self-determination. The collection of signatures for the petition was also supported by Domà Nunch in Lombardy. According to IV leaders, the EU should support the referendum and guarantee its result, a notion which was contradicted by the attitudes of EU institutions toward the 2014 Scottish referendum.
In March an appeal by international academics in support of resolution 44 was issued. The declaration, promoted by Marco Bassani, was signed by Frank Van Dun, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Donald Livingston, Ralph Raico, Xavier Sala-i-Martin, and Pascal Salin, along with Paolo Bernardini, Carlo Lottieri and Alessandro Vitale. According to the appeal, "the self-determination process" of Veneto "will be an important step toward a better Europe and men of goodwill have to do everything possible to ensure that the electoral process leading to the independence referendum takes place without tension and with respect for all the people involved". In Lombardy Bassani, Lottieri and several intellectuals around L'Indipendenza newspaper formed the Lombard Committee for Resolution 44.
Further steps toward a referendum
After a hunger strike by two members of IV, in March 2013 Zaia and Ruffato implemented the first step mandated by resolution 44 by appointing the special commission of jurists who would examine the referendum issue. The commission was composed of six experts, including IV's Luca Azzano Cantarutti.
On 2 April Stefano Valdegamberi, floor leader of the Union of the Centre, who had abstained on Resolution 44 in November 2012, introduced a bill (342/2013) in order to call a referendum on independence by the end of the year. By 7 June the bill was endorsed by more than 15 regional councillors, sufficient to convene a special session of the Council on the issue. The Council discussed it on 30 July and 17 September, but in both cases no decision was taken.
On 5 April Castellavazzo, Belluno (mayor: Franco Roccon, The People of Freedom) was the first municipality to pass a motion in support of bill 342. Since then, more than 180 comuni (out of 581), led by mayors of different parties and representing about 1,800,000 Venetians (out of approximately 4,860,000), expressed their support for it; they notably include Verona, Rovigo, Bassano del Grappa, Castelfranco Veneto, Vittorio Veneto, Arzignano, Legnago, Montebelluna, Jesolo, Montecchio Maggiore, Oderzo and Cittadella. Among provinces, Padua, Verona, Treviso and Venice, for a total of about 3,510,000 inhabitants, endorsed the bill.
In February 2014 Liga Veneta–Lega Nord launched its own campaign for a referendum on independence.
On 1 April 2014 a committee of the Regional Council put forward bills calling for a referendum on independence and on more autonomy for the region. The move was supported by the representatives of Liga Veneta, Forza Italia (the minority faction), New Centre-Right, Popular Future, Union of the Centre and North-East Union, with the opposition of the Democratic Party, Italy of Values and the Federation of the Left. The day after, all the floor leaders of the parties (but the federation of the left) represented in the council officially asked the Italian government to give Veneto the status of a special-statute autonomous region and fiscal autonomy. The final document was approved by Liga Veneta, Forza Italia (both fations), New Centre Right, Union of the Centre, Italy of Values and North-East Union.
On 10 June the Regional Council discussed and passed a law concerning five referendum questions concerning special autonomy. On 12 June the same legislative assembly passed Valdegamberi's bill 342/2013 in order to hold a referendum on the independence (question: "Do you want Veneto to become a sovereign and independent republic?") with 30 yeas, 12 nays and 3 abstentions. A year later the Constitutional Court ruled the independence referendum out as contrary to the Constitution, but authorised one of the five autonomy referendums ("Do you want the Region of Veneto to be granted of further forms and special conditions of autonomy?"). The event was unique as the Court had previously rejected proposals for similar referendums brought forward by the Regional Council of Veneto.
Online referendum on independence
Plebiscite 2013 (P2013), a non-partisan committee organised Plebiscito.eu, an online independence referendum, with no official recognition, for 16–21 March. P2013 had been launched by a group of splinters from IV, led by Lodovico Pizzati and Gianluca Busato, in July 2013.
According to Plebiscito.eus staff, 2.36 million Venetians (63.2% of all eligible voters) participated in the online referendum and 89.1% of them (that is to say 56.6% of all eligible voters) voted yes. This was enough for P2013 to proclaim Veneto's independence from Italy in Treviso on the night of 21 March. Voters approved also the adoption of the Euro (51.4% yes), EU membership (55.7% yes) and NATO membership (64.5% yes).
The event was covered by several international media. During an interview with foreign journalists on 19 March, President Zaia announced that he too had voted (yes) in the poll, promised that he would bring bill 342 again to the discussion of the Regional Council and explained that he would seek "total independence" for Veneto.
On 28 April, during a visit in Veneto, Minister of Interior Angelino Alfano acknowledged that "there is a Venetian question, which will be central in the government's relation with regions". In reference to what he called "Agenda Veneto", he said: "We think that Veneto could be the laboratory for a form of strong and advanced federalism. [...] We cannot close our eyes in front of independentist risings. [...] The answer is dual: enhancing autonomy and improving the government's services". For his part, Zaia explained to Alfano the "legitimate request of Venetians" for autonomy and independence, and that "the issue of autonomy and the desire of independence of Venetians cannot be resolved with an aspirin", concluding that "if Rome continues to sleep, it is inevitable that Veneto will organise by itself".
Autonomy referendum and negotiation
In March 2016 President Zaia announced that he had written to Prime Minister Matteo Renzi in order to start the negotiation both on the organisation of the referendum on autonomy and the devolution of further powers to Veneto according to article 116 of the Constitution. Zaia proposed the referendum to be held on the very same day of the 2016 constitutional referendum (which would reduce the regions' powers—article 117, while expanding the powers that can be devolved to regions according to article 116 and creating a regionalised Senate), a notion deemed legally impossible by undersecretary Gianclaudio Bressa, and the negotiation started in May.
According to an opinion poll taken in June, 78.5% of Venetians would take part to the autonomy referendum, 78.4% would vote yes, 3.5% no and 18.1% did not know. According to the same poll, 70.7% of voters would participate also in the constitutional referendum, 41.3% would vote yes, 22.2% no and 36.5% did not know.
Contextually, two bills calling for an independence referendum were introduced in the Regional Council, one by Liga Veneta's Marino Finozzi, Gabriele Michieletto, Alessandro Montagnoli and Luciano Sandonà, with the support of Roberto Ciambetti (President of the Council), and the other by Antonio Guadagnini.
In April 2017 Zaia announced that the autonomy referendum would take place on 22 October, along with a similar referendum in Lombardy. 57.2% of Venetians participated in the referendum and 98.1% voted "yes". Consequently, President of Veneto Luca Zaia started a negotiation with the Italian government.
People and movements
Prominent Venetists have included Goffredo Parise, Franco Rocchetta (founder of Liga Veneta), Ettore Beggiato (who wrote a book titled 1866: la grande truffa, meaning "1866: the great swindle"), Sabino Acquaviva (who prefaced the book by Beggiato), Gian Paolo Gobbo, Fabrizio Comencini, Alessio Morosin, Fabio Padovan, Giorgio Lago, Flaminio De Poli, Giampaolo Borsetto, Ivone Cacciavillani, Manuela Dal Lago, Luca Zaia, Flavio Tosi, Giorgio Vido, Giorgio Panto, Lodovico Pizzati, Antonio Guadagnini, Patrik Riondato, Loris Palmerini, and, to some extent, Giancarlo Galan, Massimo Cacciari and Mario Rigoni Stern.
In November 2009 the Corriere del Veneto, the regional edition of the Corriere della Sera in Veneto, published a broad overview of what it described as "Venetist galaxy". The newspaper counted around 20 notable Venetist organisations: along the four major Venetist parties of the time (Liga Veneta–Lega Nord, Liga Veneta Repubblica, North-East Project and Venetian National Party), a large variety of minor political parties, movements, cultural associations and trade unions were listed.
A prominent Venetist cultural association is Raixe Venete (Venetian Roots), which organises every year the well-known Festa dei Veneti in Cittadella.Francesco Jori, Dalla Łiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti, Marsilio, Venice 2009, p. 143 The association has strong links with separatists from all over Europe and especially from the Basque Country. At the Festa dei Veneti, Venetists of every political colour, politicians of different political parties (including non-Venetist, both right and left), Venetist associations, actors, comedians, flag-wavers, musicians (notably including Herman Medrano), rock bands, and many people meet at the beginning of September every year. In November 2009 Raixe Venete organised a demonstration in Venice in support of the teaching of Venetian in schools: a wide range of people took part, from Roberto Ciambetti, leader of Liga Veneta–Lega Nord in the Regional Council of Veneto, to Luca Casarini, a former far-left anti-globalisation activist and leader of the Tute Bianche in Veneto.
The European Federalist Free Entrepreneurs (LIFE) was formed in 1994 by a group of Venetist entrepreneurs (Fabio Padovan, Diego Cancian, etc.) who opposed the "fiscal and bureaucratic oppression" of the "Venetian people" by Italy and demanded fiscal federalism and autonomy for the region. In particular, they decided to organise themselves as a trade union, saying that they were the most oppressed workers in Italy.
Another notable association is Venetians Movement and was founded in 2006 by Patrik Riondato. Initially it presented itself as a cross-party political movement which aimed to promote independence in a democratic and nonviolent way. However, in 2010 it took part to the founding of the Party of the Venetians, a coalition of Venetist parties ranging from the centre-right to the far-left, which was later merged into Veneto State.
Among the youth, the strongest organisation is Independentist Youth, whose most representative figures are Giacomo Mirto and Stefano Danieli.
Other six leading although small groups are the self-proclaimed Venetian Most Serene Government (VSG), whose main leaders include Luigi Faccia and late Bepin Segato, Self-Government of the Venetian People led by Loris Palmerini, Venetian State of Vittorio Selmo, the Venetian National Liberation Movement (MLNV) led by Sergio Bortotto, the Venetian National Government of Gabriele De Pieri, and Self-Government of Venetia of Daniele Quaglia.
On the cultural side, it is worth of mention the Milizia Veneta (Venetian Militia), in practice a corp of people who perform historic representations of the Venetian army (including flag-raising at the Festa dei Veneti), Europa Veneta, Par San Marco and Veneti Eventi.
The Venetist movement has also several publications, notably including Quaderni Veneti and Rivista Veneti.
In the midst of the above-mentioned campaign for a referendum on independence, two non-party committees were launched: Plebiscite 2013 and Let Veneto Decide (later supplanted by United for Independent Veneto/We Independent Veneto/Independence We Veneto, which in turn became an electoral coalition of parties). A string of new parties was founded before and after the 2015 regional election and in the run-up of the 2017 autonomy referendum.
Political parties
The first Venetist party in Veneto was Lion of Saint Mark''' (Leone di San Marco), active from 1921 to 1924 and commonly described as the forerunner of Venetian nationalist parties. It was founded by Italico Corradino Cappellotto, a member of the Chamber of Deputies for the Italian People's Party. The party participated in the 1921 general election in the constituencies of the provinces of Treviso and Venice, winning 6.1% of the vote in the province of Treviso and scoring around 20% in the very rural areas that would become the heartland of Liga Veneta sixty years later. The party was suppressed by Italian Fascism, along all the other parties.
Another Venetist party was the Venetian Regionalist Autonomous Movement (MARV), a cultural-political association, which was active in the 1960s. The first organised Venetist parties were started only after the institution of Veneto as Region and the direct election of the Regional Council in 1970.
Some Venetian parties campaign for federal reform, others for autonomy or a special statute for Veneto, others for an autonomous North-East region including Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, some others for outright independence. Since the late 1970s many regional parties were founded in Veneto, covering all the ideological spectrum:
Liga Veneta (LV – started in 1979, part of Lega Nord since 1991)
Liga Federativa Veneta (LFV – started in 1983, merged into MVRA in 1987)
Liga Veneta Serenissima (LVS – started in 1984, merged into UPV in 1987)
Venetian Most Serene Government (VSG – started in 1987, still active)
Veneto Autonomous Region Movement (MVRA – started in 1987, merged into LVR/VdE in 2000)
Union of the Venetian People (UPV – started in 1987, merged into LV in 1995)
Lega Autonomia Veneta (LAV – started in 1991, merged into MNE in 1997)
Liga Nathion Veneta (LNV – started in 1994, disbanded)
North-East Union (UNE – started in 1996, briefly merged into LVR/VdE in 1999, disbanded)
North-East Movement (MNE – started in 1997, merged into The Democrats in 1999)
Liga Veneta Repubblica / Venetians of Europe (LVR/VdE – started in 1998, merged into LFV in 2002)
Veneto Padanian Federal Republic (VRFP – started in 1999, disbanded)
Liga dei Veneti (LdV – started in 1999, merged into PNE in 2004)
Future Veneto (VF – started in 1999 as part of ApE, merged into LVR/VdE in 2000)
Fronte Marco Polo (FMP – started in 1999, merged into LFV in 2002)
Liga Fronte Veneto / Liga Veneta Repubblica (LFV/LVR – started in 2002, merger of LVR/VdE and FMP, joined NVI in 2014)
Bellunese Autonomist Party (PAB – started in 2003, joined PdV in 2009)
Free Veneto (VL – started in 2004, joined PdV in 2010)
North-East Project (PNE – started in 2004, merged into UNE in 2010)
Venetian Land (TV – started in 2006, disbanded)
Venetians Movement (MV, started in 2006, joined PdV in 2009)
Venetian State (SV, started in 2007, joined PdV in 2009)
Party for Independent Veneto (started in 2007, disbanded)
Venetian Agreement (IV – started in 2007, merged into UNE in 2010)
Venetian National Party (PNV – started in 2007, joined VS in 2010)
Independentist Youth (started in 2008, still active)
Venetian People's Movement (MPV – started in 2008, disbanded)
Venetian People's Unity (UPV – started in 2008, briefly joined PdV in 2009)
Forum of Venetians (FdV – started in 2008, disbanded)
Lega Lombardo Veneta (LLV – started in 2008, disbanded)
Venetian National Liberation Movement (MLNV – started in 2009, still active)
Venetie for Self-Government (VpA – started in 2009, disbanded)
Veneto Freedom / Party of the Venetians (VF/PdV – coalition, started in 2009, merged into VS in 2010)
Party of Venetians (PdV - started in 2010, merged into VS in 2010)
Liga Veneto Autonomo (LVA – started in 2010, disbanded)
Veneto State (VS – started in 2010, joined NVI in 2014, disbanded)
Community Democratic League / Venetian Project (LDC/PV – started in 2011, merged into VS in 2012)
Venetian Independence (IV – started in 2012, joined the PdV of 2019 in 2019)
Plebiscito.eu / Veneto Yes (both started in 2012)
Veneto First (PiV – started in 2013, joined the Greath North)
Venetian Left (Sanca Veneta – started in 2013)
Independent Venetians (VI – started in 2014, joined NVI/INV in 2014, disbanded)
We Independent Veneto / Independence We Veneto (NVI/INV – coalition, started in 2014, disbanded)
Venetian Left (Sinistra Veneta – started in 2015, merged into Italian Left in 2017)
Tosi List for Veneto (LTV – started in 2015, disbanded)
We Are Veneto (SV - started in 2016, joined the PdV of 2019 in 2019)
Venetian Centre-Right (CDV – started in 2017 disbanded in 2020)
Veneto for Autonomy (VpA – started in 2017, joined Forza Italia)
Party of Venetians (PdV – coalition, started in 2019)
Achievements
Venetian language and culture
Venetian is a non-standardised Romance language, that comes from Latin, not Italian. It has undergone Italian influences over the years, which have raised doubts on its identity, and includes several local varieties. The Venetian language is protected by some private institutions, such as the Academia deła bona creansa and the Venetian Language Institute. The United Nations includes in its website a Venetian translation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
UNESCO gives to Venetian the status of not endangered language, as it is usually spoken in Veneto, Trentino, Friuli-Venezia Giulia (mainly in the provinces of Pordenone and Trieste), Croatia (mainly in Istria), Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina in Brazil, and Chipilo in Mexico. Venetian is a recognised language by UNESCO, Brazil and the Veneto region with the ISO 639-3 "vec" identifier, the same used by the Venetian-language Wikipedia, but not by Italy.
In 2007 Veneto recognised Venetian as official language of the region, alongside Italian, instituted an official website for standard Venetian and proclaimed a yearly "Day of the Venetian People" (Festa del Popolo Veneto) on 25 March, anniversary of the foundation of Venice. In 2011 the Regional Council officially requested to the Italian Parliament to protect Venetian as a minority language under Italian law. Soon after the 2010 regional election, Daniele Stival (LV), new regional minister for Venetian Identity, appointed a commission of experts which will fix the rules of standard Venetian language and the official Venetian names of all 581 municipalities of Veneto. The commissioners included: Davide Guiotto, president of Raixe Venete; Gianfranco Cavallin, writer and linguist close to Raixe Venete; Sabino Acquaviva, sociologist and avowed Venetist; Rodolfo Delmonte, linguist; Michele Brunelli, linguist; Lodovico Pizzati, economist and secretary of Veneto State (later of Venetian Independence).
Statute of Veneto (1971 and 2011)
Most notably, the Statute of Veneto, first approved in 1971 and rewritten in 2011, cites the "Venetian people". In article 1 it proclaims Veneto as "an autonomous region" and in article 2 that "the self-government of the people of Veneto is implemented in forms corresponding to the features and the traditions of its history. The Region contributes to the enhancement of the linguistic and cultural heritage of its individual communities".
Resolution 42/1998 on self-determination
In April 1998 the Regional Council of Veneto approved resolution 42 concerning the "self-determination" of the "Venetian people". The resolution read: "The Venetian people [...] invokes its right to a democratic and direct referendum for the free expression of its right to self-determination". In 2006 the Regional Council officially asked to reform the Constitution of Italy in order to allow Veneto to be an autonomous region like its neighbours Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol.
Acts 10/1998 and 28/2017: display of the Venetian flag
Also in April 1998 the Regional Council approved a bill, signed into law as act 10/1998, which mandated the display of the Venetian flag outside regional institutions and offices, provincial institutions and offices, municipal institutions and offices, schools, universities and polling stations, besides Italian and European Union flags.
In September 2017 the Regional Council approved a bill, signed into law as act 28/2017, reinforcing the provisions of act 10/1998. Among other things, the law extended compulsory display of the Venetian flag to Italian governmental offices in Veneto and "every time Italian and European Union flags are displayed". This part of the law was declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court in October 2018, after that the challenge posed by the Italian government.
Act 28/2016: Venetians as "national minority"
In December 2016 the Regional Council approved a bill, signed into law as act 28/2016, aimed at recognising Venetians as a "national minority" (under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities), protecting Venetian language and opening the way to its teaching in public schools. This law was challenged by the Italian government and finally overturned by the Constitutional Court in April 2018.
Controversies
St Mark's Campanile assault
During the night between 8 and 9 May 1997 a group of armed Venetist separatists, the so-called Serenissimi, occupied Piazza San Marco and the St Mark's Campanile in Venice in order to proclaim the "independence of Veneto". After eight hours barred in the Campanile, the Carabinieri entered and arrested the group.
The members of the group, including the two leaders of the Venetian Most Serene Government (Veneto Serenissimo Governo), Luigi Faccia and Bepin Segato, who did not take part to the action itself, were all jailed, tried and sentenced to prison.Francesco Jori, Dalla Łiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti, Marsilio, Venice 2009, pp. 54, 105–111 The effort, which was more symbolic than anything else, was criticised by Umberto Bossi and Roberto Maroni, leaders of Lega Nord, at that time proponents of the independence of Padania, while it was praised by Gianfranco Miglio, a former senator of the League who was then elected as an independent for the centre-right Pole of Freedoms. The Serenissimi soon became a sort of "heroes" for many Venetists and the "tank", the improvised armoured vehicle with which they reached Piazza San Marco on that night is usually an exhibit at the yearly Festa dei Veneti and at other rallies of that kind, also outside Veneto. Segato was a candidate of Liga Veneta Repubblica in the 2001 general election and came short of election to the Italian Senate, having received 9.8% of the vote in the constituency of Schio.
Representatives of most political parties in Veneto, including centre-left figures, defended the Serenissimi: Claudio Rizzato of the Democrats of the Left praised the "noble ideals" of the group, while Massimo Cacciari, the Democratic mayor of Venice, and Gianfranco Bettin, a Green former deputy mayor of Venice, campaigned for the pardon to those in jail, along with Liga Veneta and the regional section of Forza Italia. Some of them were not embarrassed in taking part to a rally, the Festa dei Veneti, where the tanko was on exhibit. More recently also Lega Nord founder Umberto Bossi and Roberto Calderoli, praised them and another leghista, Roberto Castelli, as minister of Justice in 2003, proposed a pardon for Faccia, who refused it.
The MLNV and the "Venetian Police"
In November 2009 some members of the Venetian National Liberation Movement, who had proclaimed themselves "National Liberation Movement of the Venetian People", were prosecuted on the charge of having built a paramilitary organisation. The Italian police seized arms and uniforms of the so-called Polisia Veneta (Venetian Police) led by Sergio Bortotto at the headquarters of the movement in Treviso. According to the police, the group had planned an assault on Luca Zaia, a leading member of Liga Veneta–Lega Nord, during the Festa dei Veneti of 2009, because he agreed to become the minister of Agriculture in Berlusconi IV Cabinet, which they perceived as betrayal of the Venetist ideals. However the attack did not take place, since Zaia failed to show up in Cittadella on that occasion.Corriere del Veneto, 7 November 2009, p. 3 The next day Zaia declared: "Maybe those people confuse Venetism with something different. Being a Venetist, for me, means defending our heritage, promoting the language and the literature of this region".
In September 2017 all members of the MLNV were fully acquitted.
Cancellation of the annexation of Veneto
On 8 February 2011, the Corriere del Veneto reported that the act by which the Kingdom of Italy annexed the remaining portion of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (including Veneto, Friuli, and the province of Mantua) in 1866 was cancelled by a decree that came into force on 13 December 2010, most likely by government mistake. It is unclear whether this will have any real and direct consequence, or will only be used by independentist groups to pursue a lawsuit in favour of an independent Venetian state (perhaps in front of the European Court of Justice) as previously done.
The debate began a day later, with independentist and autonomist groups declaring that Veneto is no longer part of Italy. Political and juridical opinion are conflicted on whether Veneto still belongs to Italy or not, and a regional inquiry is due. On the following day, ministerial staff explained that the annexation act was cancelled because it had already been superseded by the Constitution of Italy, which ensures national unity. However, independentist groups were quick to point out not all legal opinions agree with this interpretation. In particular, the Treaty of Osimo, signed in 1975 by Italy and Yugoslavia, formally transferred the sovereignty of Italian "Zone-B" to Yugoslavia without any changes to the Constitution. This precedent show that the borders of the Italian Republic (hence the territory subject to the Italian Constitution) are established by means of international treaties, not the Constitution itself. Independentists have also argued that Italy can't determine its territorial extent in its own Constitution, as this would suggest it's legal for a state to unilaterally annex the territory of another state.
Garibaldi's effigy burning controversy
During the night between 28 February and 1 March 2011, at a Venetian New Year's Day's bruxamarso (a party which traditionally includes the stake of the passing year), a group of Venetists put at stake a shape of Giuseppe Garibaldi with a banner around the neck reading "l'eroe degli immondi" ("the hero of the unclean"), instead of "l'eroe dei due mondi" ("the hero of the two worlds"). The party was organised by Raixe Venete, Independentist Youth, Bortolino Sartore (leader of Liga Veneto Autonomo) and Patrick Riondato (leader of the Venetians Movement and leading member of Veneto State) and was attended by assorted Venetists, including several members of Liga Veneta.
Luca Zaia, President of Veneto and leading member of Liga Veneta, while criticizing Garibaldi, dissociated from the act: "I love Veneto. I consider myself a Venetist, but burning a shape is a signal to be wary of" when "behind a shape there is a person". Also Luca Schenato, then leading member of Veneto State and contributor of Press News Veneto, a news website close to the party, criticised the act by saying that it "reminded me other latitudes where it is common to burn puppets of political enemies of the flags of Israel and the United States": "I do not see any need for that because my message is not of hate or war. My message and my thought are joyful, proactive and forward-looking. Raixe Venete, for its part, precised that it organised the party but not the burning itself.
Alleged terrorist plot
On 2 April 2014 a group of separatists, notably including Luigi Faccia and Flavio Contin of the Venetian Most Serene Government, LIFE's president Lucio Chiavegato and Franco Rocchetta, were arrested for suspected crimes including criminal association for terrorism and subversion of the democratic order. According to prosecutors, the group, which benefited from the collaboration by Venetists from the province of Brescia and separatists from other regions (including a group of Sardinians and Roberto Bernardelli, leader of Padanian Union), were preparing a remake of 1997's assault to St Mark's Campanile in Venice and a violent pro-independence demonstration in the run-up of the European Parliament election. A scraper turned tank, which was allegedly to be deployed in Piazza San Marco, was confiscated by Carabinieri.
In jail Faccia proclaimed himself "war prisoner" and answer to questions (as Contin, in house arrest, and Lovato), Chiavegato started a 17-day hunger strike, while Rocchetta declared his innocence and pacifism.
Many politicians, notably including President of Veneto Luca Zaia, and intellectuals called for an immediate release of the detained Venetists. Lega Nord organised a demonstration in Verona, Plebiscite 2013 compared Rocchetta to Nelson Mandela and other Venetists offered similar views. Also Clodovaldo Ruffato, President of the Regional Council, and Maurizio Sacconi, both of the New Centre-Right, expressed doubts on the investigation. On the left, Massimo Cacciari, Gianfranco Bettin and Beppe Caccia wrote a plea and remarked Rocchetta's pacifism: "In all the occasions in which we confronted ourselves with him, his idea of independence was a whole with the European perspective and the recognition of the rights of citizenship founded on jus soli and residence. [...] He is a world away from 'secessionisms' and the politics of exclusion and racist closedness. With him we shared initiatives in the Balkans aimed at intercultural and interreligious dialogue, in terms of total opposition to the savagery of war and ethnic cleansing. [...] For how we knew him, we feel we can exclude his involvement in 'terroristic or subversive' activities [...]". Also the network of the far-left social centres expressed their sympathy for Rocchetta, with whom they shared some initiatives in the late 1990s, and the other Venetists; Tommaso Cacciari, one of the leaders of the movement, said that "we are without hesitation on the side of those who seek autonomy and independence against a state which is able to respond to these demands only with the inquiries of the judiciary and Carabinieri" and talked about the "signals of a national sovereignty in crisis".
On 18 April Rocchetta and Chiavegato were released from prison as the tribunal of Brescia did not uphold the accusations of criminal association for terrorism and subversion of the democratic order. Most of the detained Venetists had been released earlier or were released right after, with the notable exceptions of Faccia and Contin, who refused to ask to be released. On 25 April, Feast of Saint Mark and Liberation Day, the released prisoners were celebrated in Venice. The rally was not approved by police authorities and criticised by the leader of the Venetian section of the National Association of Italian Partisans. Rocchetta, who wrote a letter to Corriere del Veneto to explain how the two anniversaries were not conflicting and that he was going to celebrate both, was hugged by Tommaso Cacciari.
All the defendants were determined not guilty of any wrongdoing and completely acquitted in July 2018. However, seven of them, notably including former Serenissimi'' Faccia and Contin, were later sentenced to various years of prison in July 2020.
See also
Politics of Veneto
List of political parties in Veneto
Republic of Venice
Triveneto
List of active separatist movements in Europe
References
External links
it.Wiki article on the Serenissimi
it.Wiki article on the Festa dei Veneti |
4520380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela%3B%20or%2C%20Virtue%20Rewarded | Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded | Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded is an epistolary novel first published in 1740 by the English writer Samuel Richardson. Considered one of the first true English novels, it serves as Richardson's version of conduct literature about marriage.
Pamela tells the story of a fifteen-year-old maidservant named Pamela Andrews, whose employer, Mr. B, a wealthy landowner, makes unwanted and inappropriate advances towards her after the death of his mother. Pamela strives to reconcile her strong religious training with her desire for the approval of her employer in a series of letters and, later in the novel, journal entries all addressed to her impoverished parents. After various unsuccessful attempts at seduction, a series of sexual assaults and an extended period of kidnapping, the rakish Mr. B eventually reforms and makes Pamela a sincere proposal of marriage. In the novel's second part, Pamela marries Mr. B and tries to acclimatise to her new position in upper-class society.
The full title, Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded, makes plain Richardson's moral purpose. A best-seller of its time, Pamela was widely read but was also criticised for its perceived licentiousness and disregard for class barriers. Furthermore, Pamela was an early commentary on domestic violence and brought into question the dynamic line between male aggression and a contemporary view of love. Moreover, Pamela, despite the controversies, shed light on social issues that transcended the novel for the time such as gender roles, early false-imprisonment, and class barriers present in the eighteenth century. The action of the novel is told through letters and journal entries from Pamela to her parents.
Richardson highlights a theme of naivety, illustrated through the eyes of Pamela. Richardson paints Pamela herself as innocent and meek and further contributes to the theme of her being short-sighted to emphasize the ideas of childhood innocence and naivety.
Two years after the publication of Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded, Richardson published a sequel, Pamela in her Exalted Condition (1742). He revisited the theme of the rake in his Clarissa (1748), and sought to create a "male Pamela" in Sir Charles Grandison (1753).
Since Ian Watt discussed it in The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding in 1957, literary critics and historians have generally agreed that Pamela played a critical role in the development of the novel in English.
Plot summary
Volume 1
Pamela Andrews is a pious, virtuous fifteen-year-old, the daughter of impoverished labourers, who works for Lady B as a maid in her Bedfordshire estate. After Lady B's death, her son, Mr. B, inherits the estate, and begins to pay Pamela romantic attention: first gifting her his mother's fine clothes, and then attempting to seduce her. Pamela rejects Mr. B's advances multiple times by fleeing and locking herself in her bedroom. In one instance, she faints, and finds the laces of her stays have been cut.
When Mr. B attempts to pay her to keep his failed seduction secret, she confides in her best friend and housekeeper of the estate, Mrs. Jervis. Later, Mr. B hides in Pamela's closet and tries to kiss her when she undresses for bed, which causes Pamela to consider leaving her position and returning to her parents to preserve her innocence. She is insistent on remaining at the estate to finish embroidering a waistcoat for Mr. B, hoping that by doing so he will let her leave on good terms.
Angry at Pamela for telling Mrs. Jervis of his attempted seductions, Mr. B informs Pamela that he intends to marry her off to Mr. Williams, his chaplain in Lincolnshire, and gives money to her parents to persuade them to give consent. Pamela refuses the engagement and decides to leave the estate, but Mr. B intercepts her letters to her parents and tells them she is having an affair with a poor clergyman and that he will send her to a safe place to preserve her chastity. Pamela is forcibly taken to Mr. B's Lincolnshire Estate by Mr. B's servant Monsieur Colbrand, where she begins a journal with the intention of sending it to her parents.
The Lincolnshire housekeeper, Mrs. Jewkes, is "odious" and "unwomanly", devoted to Mr. B, and keeps Pamela as her bedfellow. Mr. B promises that he will not approach Pamela without her leave and stays away from the estate for some time.
As Pamela is mistreated by Mrs. Jewkes, she begins communicating with Mr. Williams by letters, which they leave for one another in the gardens. After Mrs. Jewkes beats Pamela after she calls her a "Jezebel", Mr. Williams entreats the village gentry for help. They pity Pamela, but they too are loyal to Mr. B, and are convinced a seduction would either not occur or be inconsequential because of Pamela's low social standing. Mr. Williams proposes marriage to her to help her escape the estate and Mr. B's advances but shortly afterward is attacked and beaten by robbers. Pamela attempts to flee home to her parents, but is terrified by two cows, which she mistakes for bulls. Mr. Williams accidentally reveals his correspondence with Pamela to Mrs. Jewkes and so Mr. B has him arrested and announces that he will marry Pamela to one of his servants. Desperate, Pamela attempts to escape by climbing a wall, and, injured, gives up.
Mr. B returns and offers Pamela a list of conditions that he would meet, should she accept his hand in marriage, but she refuses, citing her reluctance to think above her social station to become his mistress. In league with Mrs. Jewkes, Mr. B molests Pamela while she is in bed and is dressed as the housemaid Nan. Pamela is sent into hysteria and seems likely to die. Mr. B repents and is kinder in his seductions, but Pamela implores him to stop altogether. Mr. B implies that he loves Pamela but will not marry her because of her social status.
Pamela has hidden a parcel of letters to her parents in the garden, but they are seized by Mrs. Jewkes, who gives them to Mr. B. He sympathises with Pamela on reading her account of their relationship, and once again proposes. Pamela, still doubtful of his intentions, begs him to let her return. Though vexed, he does so to her surprise.
Volume 2
On leaving for home, Pamela is strangely sad and on her way home he sends her an apologetic letter that prompts her to realise that she is, in fact, in love. When she hears that he is ill, she returns to him. The two reunite and become engaged, and Pamela explains that she rejected Mr. B's advances because she feared that he would attempt to take advantage of her without marrying her.
Mr. Williams is released from prison, and the neighbouring gentry come to the estate and admire Pamela. Her father arrives at the estate and fears that she accepted Mr. B's proposal by force but is reassured when he sees her happy. Pamela and Mr. B wed. When Mr. B leaves to attend to a sick man, his sister, Lady Davers, arrives at the estate and threatens Pamela and calls her marriage a sham. Pamela escapes by the window and is taken by Colbrand to Mr. B. The following day, Lady Davers enters their bedroom without permission and reveals that Mr. B previously seduced a girl, Sally Godfrey, and had a child with her.
Pamela reconciles the furious siblings, who return to Bedfordshire. Pamela rewards her friends and servants with money and forgives her father for attempting to end her engagement. They visit a farmhouse where they meet Mr. B's daughter and learn that her mother now lives married in Jamaica. Pamela proposes taking the girl home with them. The neighbourhood gentry, which once despised Pamela, now praise her.
Characters
Pamela Andrews: The novel's fifteen-year-old pious protagonist, who narrates the novel. She is passed on by her deceased employer to her son, Mr. B, who puts her through numerous sexual advances and even assault before she eventually concedes and marries him. Pamela originally came to the estate as a young servant looking to make money to send to her parents back home. Pamela is also noted to value her virtue before anything else. Her virtue and her moral beliefs become her controlling purpose which creates tension between her and her employer who was making multiple advances towards her.
John and Elizabeth Andrews: Pamela's father and mother to whom Pamela's letters are addressed. Pamela hears only from her father, who alone of her parents appears in the novel.
Mr. Williams: A young clergyman who attempts to help Pamela escape Mr. B's estate, and delivers letters to her family. He offers to marry Pamela to secure her from Mr. B's unwanted advances, but she denies him. Mr. B has Williams taken away to debtors' prison.
Mr. B: Pamela's lascivious and abusive employer, who falls in love with and eventually marries her.
Lady B: Deceased; Mr. B's and Lady Daver's mother, Pamela's late employer.
Lady Davers: Mr. B's sister. She initially disapproves of Pamela's union with Mr. B for her lower class but eventually warms to the modest girl.
Mrs. Jervis: The elderly housekeeper of Mr. B's Bedfordshire estate. She becomes one of Pamela's best friends, as stated in a letter to her parents. Despite her good intentions, she is nearly ineffectual in preventing Mr. B's unwanted advances on Pamela.
Mrs. Jewkes: The housekeeper of Mr. B's Lincolnshire estate. She holds Pamela at the estate according to Mr. B's wishes and is completely dutiful to him. She warms to Pamela once she marries Mr. B.
Sally Godfrey: Mr. B's mistress from his college days. She has a daughter by Mr. B but removed to Jamaica and married another.
Monsieur Colbrand: Helps in keeping Pamela at the Lincolnshire estate but proves to be protecting her and helps her escape from Lady Davers.
Miss Goodwin: The daughter of Mr. B and Sally Godfrey.
Genre
Conduct books and the novel
Richardson began writing Pamela after he was approached by two book-sellers, who requested that he make them a book of letter templates. Richardson accepted the request, but only if the letters had a moral purpose. As Richardson was writing the series of letters turned into a story. Writing in a new form, the novel, Richardson attempted both to instruct and to entertain. Richardson wrote Pamela as a conduct book, a sort of manual that codified social and domestic behavior of men, women, and servants, as well as a narrative to provide a more morally-concerned literature option for young audiences. Ironically, some readers focused more upon the bawdy details of Richardson's novel, resulting in some negative reactions and even a slew of literature satirizing Pamela and so he published a clarification in the form of A Collection of the Moral and Instructive Sentiments, Maxims, Cautions, and Reflexions, Contained in the Histories of Pamela, Clarissa, and Sir Charles Grandison in 1755. Many novels, from the mid-18th century and well into the 19th, followed Richardson's lead and claimed legitimacy through the ability to teach as well as amuse.
Epistolary
Epistolary novels, novels written as series of letters, were popular in the eighteenth century but sustained popularity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as well. Fictional epistolary narratives originated in their early form in 16th-century England; however, they acquired wider renown with the publication of Richardson's Pamela.
In the novel, Pamela writes two kinds of letters. At the beginning, while she decides how long to stay on at Mr. B's after his mother's death, she tells her parents about her various moral dilemmas and asks for their advice. After Mr. B. abducts her and imprisons her in his country house, she continues to write to her parents, but since she does not know if they will ever receive her letters, the writings are also considered a diary. Eventually, Mr. B finds out about Pamela's letters to her parents and encroached upon her privacy by refusing to let her send them.
The plot of Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded is bound up in the back-and-forth between Pamela and Mr. B as the former eludes Mr. B's attempt and the latter, growing frustrated, continues in his attempts. According to Barbara Belyea, Pamela's "duty to resist him without compromise has become a duty to obey him without question" (411). In other words, readers of Pamela experience the trajectory of the plot, and the romance between the hero and heroine, as a back-and-forth, pendulum-like swing. Belyea claims this oscillation persists through readers' interpretations as Pamela sustains the formative action of the plot through the letters she writes to her parents detailing her ordeal: "Within the fictional situation, the parents' attitude to their child's letters is the closest to that of Richardson's reader. The parents' sympathy for the heroine and anxiety for a happy end anticipate the reader's attitude to the narrative" (413). Pamela's parents are the audience for her letters and their responses (as recipients of the letters) mimic what Belyea argues are readers' responses to Richardson's novel. Arguably, Richardson's Pamela invokes an audience within an audience and "[c]areful attention to comments and letters by other characters enables the reader to perceive that Pamela's passionate defence of her chastity is considered initially as exaggerated, fantastic--in a word, romantic" (412). Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded demonstrates morality and realism as bound up in individuals’ identities and social class because of its form as an epistolary novel.
Literary significance and criticism
Reception
Considered by many literary experts as the first English novel, Pamela was the best-seller of its time. It was read by countless buyers of the novel and was also read in groups. An anecdote, which has been repeated in varying forms since 1777, described the novel's reception in an English village: "The blacksmith of the village had got hold of Richardson's novel of Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, and used to read it aloud in the long summer evenings, seated on his anvil, and never failed to have a large and attentive audience.... At length, when the happy turn of fortune arrived, which brings the hero and heroine together, and sets them living long and happily... the congregation were so delighted as to raise a great shout, and procuring the church keys, actually set the parish bells ringing."
The novel was also integrated into sermons as an exemplar. It was even an early "multimedia" event, producing Pamela-themed cultural artefacts such as prints, paintings, waxworks, a fan, and a set of playing cards decorated with lines from Richardson's works.
In 1742, "Pamela" became the first novel to be printed in America when Benjamin Franklin published it in Philadelphia. However, the novel did not sell well there.
Given the lax copyright laws at the time, many unofficial sequels were written and published without Richardson's consent, for example, Pamela's conduct in high life, published 1741 and sometimes attributed to John Kelly (1680?–1751). There were also several satires, the most famous being An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews by Henry Fielding, published under the pseudonym "Mr. Conny Keyber". Shamela portrays the protagonist as an amoral social climber who attempts to seduce "Squire Booby" while feigning innocence to manipulate him into marrying her. In that version, the author works to invalidate Pamela by pointing out the incongruities between characters and the overall plot of the story and suggests that she was not really as virtuous as she may have seemed to be. Another important satire was The Anti-Pamela; or Feign’d Innocence Detected (1741) by Eliza Haywood. Although not technically a satire, the Marquis de Sade's Justine is generally perceived as a critical response to Pamela, due in part to its subtitle, "The Misfortunes of Virtue".
At least one modern critic has stated that the rash of satires can be viewed as a conservative reaction to a novel that called class, social and gender roles into question by asserting that domestic order can be determined by not only socio-economic status but also moral qualities of mind.
Richardson's revisions
The popularity of Richardson's novel led to much public debate over its message and style. Richardson was of the artisanal class, and among England's middle and upper classes, where the novel was popular, there was some displeasure over its at times plebeian style. Apparently, certain ladies of distinction took exception to the ways in which their fictional counterparts were represented. Richardson responded to some of these criticisms by revising the novel for each new edition. He also created a "reading group" of such women to advise him. Some of the most significant changes he made were alterations to Pamela's vocabulary. In the first edition, her diction is that of a labouring-class woman, but in later editions, Richardson made her more linguistically middle-class by removing the working-class idioms from her speech. In that way, he made her marriage to Mr. B less scandalous as she appeared to be more his equal in education.
The greatest change was to have her his equal too in birth by revising the story to reveal her parents as reduced gentlefolks. In the end, Richardson revised and released fourteen editions of Pamela, the last of which was published in 1801 after his death. In consideration of authorial intent, some believe that Pamela was a latent fetishization of Richardson's own fantasies and beliefs regarding women in society. Even though Richardson did openly revise Pamela multiple times, the justification of male aggression in a "loving" domestic relationship, as evidenced between Pamela and Mr. B, remains controversial to this day.
Original sources
A publication, Memoirs of Lady H, the Celebrated Pamela (1741), claims that the inspiration for Richardson's Pamela was the marriage of a coachman's daughter, Hannah Sturges, to the baronet, Sir Arthur Hesilrige, in 1725. Samuel Richardson claimed that the story was based on a true incident related to him by a friend about 25 years before, but did not identify the principals.
Prof Hubert McDermott has posited Vertue Rewarded, a 1693 Irish novel by an unknown author, as a possible influence. The two books have similar plots: "a beautiful and virtuous young woman of little or no social status falls in love with a prince or libertine who is equally besotted but whose wealth, rank and ambition make him desire only to seduce and debauch the chaste heroine, without having to marry her." Also, the title "virtue rewarded" is not found in any other work of the period.
Shirin and Pamela
Pamela has significant similarities to the famous Persian tragic romance of Khosrow and Shirin by the Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi. In both tales a rich, famous and hedonistic man is trying to seduce the main female character of the story. Even though the female character is truly in love with the male counterpart, she resists his seductions and requests marriage. In the end, the male character gives in to marrying the woman he loves, and that love causes a gradual and positive change in the male character. The moral of both stories is the triumph of patience, virtue and modesty over despotism and hedonism.
Feminism in Pamela
Some believe that Richardson was one of the first male writers to take a feminist view while he wrote a novel. Pamela has been described as being a feminist piece of literature because it rejects traditional views of women and supports the new and changing role of women in society. One of the ways in which feminism is shown in the text is through allowing readers to see the depths of women (i.e. their emotions, feelings, thoughts) rather than seeing women at surface level. However, the poor treatment of Pamela herself and her intense consideration to her virtue, a societal construct founded in moral religion, might also suggest the opposite. Richardson himself was not a feminist, and Pamela consisted of the traditional lily-white heroine trope embellished with a sense of naivety (with Pamela being only fifteen years old.) With respect to authorial intent, Pamela was driven only by her intense fear of having her virtue compromised, and her motivation to keep her virtue intact provided a very narrow scope of womanhood and the sex as a whole. The controversy over the novel is present and ongoing.
The epistolary form in which Pamela is written enables readers of the novel to see inside Pamela's mind, and, in doing so readers are able to better understand her identity and the ways her identity as a woman of lower socioeconomic status intersect and are bound up in that identity. Kacy Tillman compares the written "letter" to the body of the scribe (or "paper body" of which writers and readers of letters struggle to control. Tillman's writes, "...in early American novels, the letter served as a kind of paper body, a contested space where women writers and their readers vied for control over the female body, symbolizing the broader cultural struggle in which women were enmeshed during and shortly after the Revolution" (124), and in Tillman's article she posits that a relationship exists between “epistolarity and gender construction in early American novels: that women were expected to follow an epistolary code of ethics, which men could violate or manipulate as they saw fit: the control of a paper body was connected to the control of a physical one; and that women who failed (even despite trying to abide by the rules of epistolarity) risked ruin" (125). Within the first few chapters of Pamela, Virtue Rewarded, Pamela is concerned because one of her letters has been lost. Also, in an instance when Mr. B notices Pamela writing a letter, he asks to read it and, because he is her master, she allows him to do so. Of course, Mr. B does not find anything written in the letter that he does not like, but Mr. B's encroachment on Pamela's privacy mirrors his encroachment on the privacy of her body as he attempts to seduce her over and over again. Tillman argues that in early modern times, when letter-writing was an important and popular method of communication, “male letter readers could intercept and interpret those representations in a way that could void female agency" (125) and, because “letters... [are] an extension of the self" (Tillman 126), Pamela's privacy is at risk in myriad ways. At the end of Tillman's article, she addresses the relationship between the experience of letter-writing and the experience of sharing the letters once written are bound up in the writers' identities and social expectations: "Just as women must dress according to their station, so letters should adopt a tone and style that fits their situation. Just as women must protect their bodies from seduction, so missives must carefully regulate what they say to a suitor" (127). The letter is performative in that it forms “a paper body that had to be carefully crafted and regulated since every part of it--from the handwriting, to the paper, to the content--could be subject examination and judgment" (Tillman 126). In this way, the letter works to enact and sustain writers’ identities and the relationships cultivated between writers and readers of the letters.
Pamela is strewn with contemporary themes that handle gender roles, male aggression, false imprisonment, classism, and the hierarchy of power evident through her forced stay at Mr. B’s estate and seen through her kidnapping. Pamela had little to no choice in the arrangement and was a victim of Mr. B’s sexual advances. Mr. B saw Pamela as an object of affection, and a pawn to his game.
Adaptations
Paintings
Around 1742 Francis Hayman also produced two paintings drawing on scenes and themes from the novel for supper boxes 12 and 16 at Vauxhall Gardens. The painting for Box 12 is now lost but showed the departure scene from Letter XXIX, whilst the one for Box 16 shows Pamela fleeing to Mr B.'s coach after revealing her marriage to Lady Davers and Mr B.'s servant Colbrand forcibly defending her from two of Lady Davers' servants. The latter was bought from the Gardens in 1841 by William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, whose heirs sold it in 1947 to Henry Hornyold-Strickland, who in turn donated it to the National Trust as part of the house, collections and gardens of Sizergh Castle in 1950.
Soon afterwards, in 1743, Joseph Highmore produced a series of twelve paintings as the basis for a set of engravings. They are a free adaptation of the novel and focus mainly on the first book. They are now equally divided between Tate Britain, the National Gallery of Victoria and the Fitzwilliam Museum, each of which has four of the series.
Stage
Its success also led to several stage adaptations in France and Italy. In Italy, it was adapted by Chiari and Goldoni. In France, Boissy put on a Paméla ou la Vertu mieux éprouvée, a verse comedy in three acts (Comédiens italiens ordinaires du Roi, 4 March 1743), followed Neufchâteau's five-act verse comedy Paméla ou la Vertu récompensée (Comédiens Français, 1 August 1793). Appearing during the French Revolution, Neufchâteau's adaptation was felt to be too royalist in its sympathies by the Committee of Public Safety, which imprisoned its author and cast (including Anne Françoise Elisabeth Lange and Dazincourt) in the Madelonnettes and Sainte-Pélagie prisons. Mademoiselle Lange's straw hat from the play launched a trend for Pamela hats and bonnets which were worn well into the second half of the nineteenth century.
Pamela was also the basis for the libretto of Niccolò Piccinni's comic opera La buona figliuola.
The playwright Martin Crimp uses the text as a "provocation" for his stage play When We Have Sufficiently Tortured Each Other: 12 Variations on Samuel Richardson’s Pamela, opening at the Royal National Theatre in 2019 starring Cate Blanchett and Stephen Dillane directed by Katie Mitchell.
Novels
The success of Pamela soon led to its translation into other languages, most notably into French by Abbé Prévost. It was also imitated by Robert-Martin Lesuire in his own novel la Paméla française, ou Lettres d’une jeune paysanne et d’un jeune ci-devant, contenant leurs aventures. More recently, Bay Area author Pamela Lu's first book Pamela: A Novel evokes Richardson's title and also borrows from Richardson the conceit of single-letter names to create a very different type of "quasi-bildungsroman," according to Publishers Weekly.
Film and TV
1974 – UK fim by Jim O'Connolly: Mistress Pamela with Ann Michelle as Pamela Andrews and Julian Barnes as Lord Robert Devenish (Mr. B).
2003 – Italian TV series by Cinzia TH Torrini: Elisa di Rivombrosa is loosely based on Pamela. The story takes place in the second half of the 18th century in Turin (Italy). The role of Pamela is that of Elisa Scalzi (played by Vittoria Puccini) in the series. The role of Mr. B is that of Count Fabrizio Ristori (played by Alessandro Preziosi).
Allusions and references from other works
: Jane mentions Bessie's nursery stories and how some of them came from Pamela.
: Amanda, attempting to pass herself off as a lady's maid, uses Pamela as inspiration to invent a story that she was fired from her previous position because her employer had made improper advances towards her.
: The character of Doctor Montague mentions several times that he is reading Pamela.
: Some have viewed this novel to be a modern retelling of Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded as it shares many key elements with the novel, such as a young, beautiful woman being taken by an arrogant man. However, Amis claimed afterwards that he had little interest in classic fiction, which makes this proposition less likely.
: The character Captain York recommends the novel Pamela to his dinner guests.
, the third novel in the Outlander series: In the chapter "The Torremolinos Gambit", the characters Jamie Fraser and Lord John Grey discuss Samuel Richardson's immense novel Pamela. Another mention is made in The Fiery Cross, Gabaldon's fifth novel in the series, wherein Roger Wakefield is perusing the Fraser library and comes across the "monstrous" "gigantic" novel with several bookmarks delineating where various readers gave up on the novel, either temporarily or permanently. This is likely a confusion of Pamela with Richardson's later novel Clarissa.
. On 9 January 2007, BBC Radio 4 broadcast The Long View which contrasted Pamelas effect on 18th-century society with that of video games on 20th-century society.
: Both volumes of Pamela have been read by Elizabeth Bennet and she passes the books to one of the maids. The maid contemplates the behavior of the characters and wonders what her own conduct would be if put in the same position.
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Editions
Richardson, Samuel Pamela (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2003) . Edited by Margaret Ann Doody and Peter Sabor. This edition takes as its copy-text the revised, posthumously published edition of 1801.
— (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) . Edited by Thomas Keymer and Alice Wakely. This edition takes as its copy-text the first edition of November 1740 (dated 1741).
Richardson, Samuel Pamela Or Virtue Rewarded (Lector House, 2019) .
Criticism
Armstrong, Nancy. Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Doody, Margaret Anne. A Natural Passion: A Study of the Novels of Samuel Richardson. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974.
McKeon, Michael. The Origins of the English Novel: 1600–1740. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Townsend, Alex, Autonomous Voices: An Exploration of Polyphony in the Novels of Samuel Richardson, 2003, Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt/M., New York, Wien, 2003,
Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957.
External links
Complete text at Project Gutenberg
Illustration History of Samuel Richardson's Pamela
1740 novels
18th-century British novels
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into plays
Novels by Samuel Richardson
Epistolary novels
Sentimental novels
English novels
Novels set in Lincolnshire
British novels adapted into television shows
Conduct literature
tr:Pamela (roman) |
4520530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Full%20Metal%20Panic%21%20characters | List of Full Metal Panic! characters | Full Metal Panic! is a series of light novels written by Shoji Gatoh and illustrated by Shiki Douji running from 1998 to 2011. The series follows Sousuke Sagara, a member of the covert anti-terrorist private military organization known as Mithril, who is tasked with protecting Kaname Chidori a hot-headed Japanese high school girl.
Sousuke Sagara
is the main protagonist of the series. Sousuke Sagara is of Afghan-Japanese heritage. While his Japanese heritage can be deduced by his surname, Sagara grew up in Helmand, a region in Afghanistan caught up in political strife. At the age of 8, he joined a guerrilla movement to survive and was eventually recruited by Mithril. Sousuke only knows military life and as a result, does not handle the everyday occurrences of civilian life very well. He has difficulty integrating into high school due to his lack of social skills. His military bearing and encyclopedic knowledge of weapons earn him the nickname "Military Maniac". He often responds to situations as though he were on the battlefield; for example, he blows up the shoe lockers if there is any hint that someone has tampered with them. Sousuke can be quite insensitive at times: In Volume 7 he buys a pregnancy test while out with Kaname and does not understand what was wrong, though his intentions are always in the right place. He gradually develops strong feelings for Chidori Kaname. He is a Muslim.
Kaname Chidori
is the heroine of the series. She is described in the universe as "the kind of girl everyone looks up to, but not even a boy wants as their girlfriend". She is direct and brash with her opinions, a trait she picked up when she studied abroad in the United States. She feels the need to protect Sousuke from the harsh, cruel world of high school: a place where he doesn't quite fit. She is one of the "Whispered," a group of people who have technologically advanced knowledge in their subconscious that numerous governments and other groups want to use for their means.
She often berates Sousuke for his violent overreactions, stating that they are not proper for a high school student. While she criticizes Sousuke for being too militaristic and overprotective, she appreciates his experience in life-or-death situations. Chidori develops serious feelings for Sousuke and feels dejected when he is so obtuse in such matters.
Teresa "Tessa" Testarossa
is the captain of Mithril's submarine Tuatha de Danaan. She's very young for her position, only 16 years old, and has a crush on Sousuke. Tessa maintains an optimistic outlook that she can make a difference in the world. She is stubborn and will try her hardest to prove wrong to those who tell her she can't do something. Still, most of her crew sees her as someone who never got her hands dirty on the battlefield and therefore can't defend herself.
Kurz Weber
appears to be a typical ladies' man and often offers Sousuke advice about life and love. He is laid-back, but will not avoid responsibilities. He is regarded as one of the finest snipers in Mithril.
Melissa Mao
is the superior officer of both Sousuke and Kurz. She is a spunky woman who loves beer, smokes a lot, and wishes she could be free-spirited and optimistic like Tessa. She was originally a member of the Marines, signing her recruitment contract on the day she was supposed to marry a businessman that her father had pushed onto her. Eventually, she left the Marines and joined Mithril, where she met Kurz and Sousuke as new recruits. The two were downplaying their skills intentionally, but she saw through their ruse and picked them out to be her teammates.
Gauron
is Full Metal Panic's main antagonist, a twisted and violent mercenary deeply involved in the black market and global terrorism. Despite possessing an extremely vile personality, his ruthless cunning and mastery of the Lambda Drive system make him a force to be reckoned with on the battlefield. In combat, his vehicle of choice is the super AS called Venom.
Mithril
Andrei Sergeivich Kalinin
Andrei Sergeivich Kalinin () is Sagara's commanding officer and one of Tessa's military strategists with the rank of lieutenant commander, fulfilling the role of Operations Director. He is also the foster father of Sagara. He and Sousuke were once enemies, as mentioned in a two-part episode by Sagara himself. The foster father status may be on the school's official papers only, but Kalinin is certainly a very fatherly figure to Sagara. Kalinin was formerly of the Soviet special forces – Spetsnaz – and was the leader of the team that found a crashed Japanese airliner. There was only one survivor: a three-year-old child by the name of Sagara Sousuke. His wife is deceased and the whereabouts and status of the rest of his family are unknown. There is speculation that Kalinin has betrayed Mithril to Amalgam, due to his meeting with Leonard Testarossa at the end of the book 'Dancing Very Merry Christmas' and also due to his mysterious disappearance and attitude during the raid by Amalgam on Mérida Island. Kalinin later appears in 'Tsudou Make My Day' at Leonard's villa, apparently as one of Leonard's subordinates. He later shoots Leonard in the chest before Leonard could detonate the TARTAROS system along with Mérida Island. In a final knife battle with Sousuke, he is mortally wounded by Sousuke just before the nuclear missile hits the island.
Kalinin mentioned that he had difficulty maintaining family ties, mostly with his wife, due to his time spent with the Spetsnaz. He seems to be of a family man sort and loves his wife so much that he made the Borscht (that Sousuke avoids at all costs) that his wife made him as he returns from missions. He operates under the codename Perth 1.
Richard Mardukas
Richard Mardukas is an overly protective aide of Tessa, who insists on guarding her with his life. He holds the rank of commander and is in charge of Mithril's TDD-1 when the captain, Testarossa, is not on board; appropriate, given that Mardukas' position is that of executive officer. Mardukas is often seen wearing a hat bearing the name of HMS Turbulent, a real British submarine.
Before joining Mithril, Mardukas was the commanding officer of HMS Turbulent, and a graduate & instructor of the Royal Navy's "Perisher" course: the submarine equivalent to the US Navy's famed "Top Gun" Fighter Weapons School. According to the FMP novel A Dancing Very Merry Christmas, Mardukas was known to the submarine community as a genius of submarine warfare, leading to his nickname "Duke"; he also served on HMS Conqueror when it sank the General Belgrano, and while commanding the Turbulent saved Tessa's father and his submarine on a secret mission. Many of his peers in the submarine community, such as Commander Killy B. Sailor, CO of the USS Pasadena, believe Mardukas to be working in a shipping firm after his retirement. A running gag throughout the series is that he usually ends up giving sermons to lower officers on deck.
Belfangan Clouseau (Ben)
SRT team's current team leader, callsign Urzu-1, first appearance in the novel 'End of Day by Days' and the 2nd anime series Full Metal Panic: The Second Raid, replacing Captain Gail McAllen after his death near the end of the novel 'Rocking into The Blue' (and subsequently, the 1st anime series). The pilot of the M9D Falke was a part of MITHRIL's Mediterranean Sea Fleet. His first introduction to the team was kind of unorthodox, ticking off Kurz Weber and Sousuke Sagara by saying McAllen was a coward after sitting on the chair he used to sit on while in reality, McAllen was one of his most trusted teammates and a good friend. He proved himself to be an expert martial artist by incapacitating Kurz with just one move and defeated Sousuke and the Arbalest during the 'test' which he conducted. He also proved to be a capable leader when he made Sousuke understand why he lost and told him that it wasn't his skill as they were evenly matched in that aspect but rather his hatred for the Arbalest and tells him that an Arm Slave is like a part of their own body. Since then Kurz and he does not regularly see eye-to-eye, though they have developed a grudging respect for each other's abilities. It is also known that he & Melissa Mao have known each other since way back. His nickname from Mao was 'Ben'. He was also one of the few remaining survivors of the attack on Melida island, along with Melissa Mao, Kurz Weber, Richard Mardukas, Teletha Testarossa, and most of the crew of the Tuatha de Danaan at the end of the novel 'Continuing on My Own'.
In the TSR OVA, it is revealed that he is an anime otaku in his spare time.
His surname is also Grouseaux. In the Ending of Day by Days novel, Belfangan states to the bartender in Mérida Island that he was a Muslim.
Vincent Bruno
An American MITHRIL officer in Intelligence with the rank of captain, he was supposedly responsible for communications maintenance in the Nanjing hostage rescue operation. He, however, leaked it to Gates and several Amalgam commandos, using the information to ambush SRT/PRT members, killing some of them. In return, Admiral Borda allowed a snatch operation to take place, which resulted in his capture and some strains in the relationship between the Tactical and Intelligence divisions. During his interrogation in Sydney, Vincent confesses that Amalgam had hired him to botch the Nanjing operation. He previously operated under the codename Ogma-1.
His surname can also be spelt as Blueno. Vincent speaks Italian aside from English.
Gavin Hunter
A supposed native of Hong Kong and an officer in MITHRIL Intelligence's Hong Kong division, he was responsible for providing tactical support for Melissa, Sousuke, and other SRT/PRT personnel deployed in Hong Kong to locate a rogue Amalgam Codarl Arm Slave that went berserk in Hong Kong and Kowloon. Gavin is also married and has a family.
He's known to the Hong Kong public as a businessman with multiple businesses in operation, such as the Hunter Cleaning Company Ltd. that Gavin used when he provided Melissa's squad with Hunter Cleaning Company Ltd. Toyota Hiace vans and uniforms to infiltrate Hong Kong and Kowloon without being caught by the North and South Chinese army and police.
He can be considered to be MITHRIL's humor character as Gates is to Amalgam's since he always smiles and rarely gets angry, except when he was instructed by General Amit to cease Intelligence operations in Hong Kong territory.
Nora Lemming
An engineer based in Mérida Island with the rank of second lieutenant, Nora has worked on the Lambda Driver, particularly on its potential continuous application after MITHRIL realizes that Amalgam's Arm Slaves can continuously use their own Lambda Driver.
Previously, Nora had conducted some studies on the Chodarl Arm Slave when it was captured from Gauron. She is a graduate of MIT and was responsible for the Arbalest after Bunny Morauta died.
It is hinted at in the novels that she is in an intimate relationship with Lieutenant Commander Kalinin.
Jerome Borda
The leader of Mithril's Operations department with the rank of admiral. He was the one to order Sousuke to give up his position as a high school student at Jindai High in The Second Raid and the book 'The End by Day by Day'. He is presumed dead after an explosion rocked through Operations Headquarters in Sydney following the beginning of Amalgam's attack on Mithril, however, it was eventually revealed he survived and is intending to rebuild Mithril. Borda is intended to be an homage to the late Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda, the 25th Chief of Naval Operations of the US Navy. His surname can also be spelt as Boda or Voda.
Tessa calls him "Uncle Jerry" in the Second Raid, hinting at Borda's familiarity with Tessa and her family as Borda was superior to Tessa's late father.
Roy Seals
A retired NAVSPECWAR officer, Seals was one of the founding members of Mithril. His role in the organization is unknown, but he was one of the few members of Mithril's inner circle to survive the assassination. He acquires an M6A3 Dark Bushnell, a USSOCOM M6, for Sousuke to use in his assault on Leonard's lair. Sousuke describes Seals as "...like Kurz, fifty years old, and more perverted."
Mayer Amit
The leader of Mithril's Intelligence department with the rank of general and of Israeli descent. He was the one to order Wraith to discreetly observe and passively protect Kaname Chidori.
Before joining MITHRIL, Mayer was supposedly a top agent for Mossad.
Kim Yunhi/Wraith
Voiced by: Sayaka Ohara (Japanese, real voice); Christopher Ayres (voice changer), Elizabeth Maxwell (real voice) (English)
A North Korean ex-spy, who is also a master of disguise. As a member of the Intelligence Department, she was ordered to watch Kaname and protect her from serious threats. Although appearing cold at first, following her 'rescue' by Kaname from Leonard Testarossa, she opens up slightly and secretly meets with Kaname. She also saved Sousuke and Kyoko's lives from Amalgam members on the Jindai High School rooftop and aided in the defusing of the bomb planted on Kyoko. She even went as far as to perform emergency surgery on Kyoko after a piece of shrapnel embedded itself inside her diaphragm and then took her to the hospital. Showing further compassion, she also allowed Kaname Chidori to give herself up to Leonard so Sousuke's life would be spared, despite violating her orders. After the events in "Continue On My Own", she is still helping Mithril, helping Gavin Hunter to complete the construction of ARX-8 Laevatein at the end of the novel 'Burning One Man Force', and has helped to transport the completed Laevatein to Sousuke in the progress of "Get Together and Make My Day". Though serious about her duties, she seems to enjoy making Sousuke react by putting him on edge, like pointing a laser sight at Kagurazaka-sensei as "revenge" for having to watch over Kaname during the winter while Sousuke gets to stay indoors.
Lord Mallory
The current head of MITHRIL's General Council. He is also responsible for overseeing MITHRIL's day-to-day operations. During the Second Raid series, he was the one who gave the order to MITHRIL officers to devise anti-infiltration countermeasures when he learned of Vincent Bruno's defection after the Nanking disaster.
Based on his mannerisms, his clothing (monocle on right eye), and his title, it is safe to assume that Lord Mallory is of British descent.
Amalgam
Leonard Testarossa
A child prodigy and Whispered like his younger twin sister, Teletha, he is known as "Mr Silver" in the executive circle of the Amalgam organization. He also claims to be in love with Kaname Chidori and has earned her contempt by stealing her first kiss. In The Second Raid he is chaperoned by two miniature ASs. It is speculated that his special Whispered knowledge has allowed the creation of the Codarl and Codarl-m (Mithril codename "Venom") type AS types (as Bunny Murata was to the Arbalest), the miniature Alastor types, and the Leviathan-type underwater fighter/AS hybrids. In the novel, Continuing On My Own, he is seen piloting the near-invincible Belial type AS and shows the strength of the machine and himself as a pilot by completely obliterating the Arbalest (Sousuke managed to survive with minor injuries), and taking away Kaname. In Always, Stand By Me part II, Kalinin kills him before he can detonate the TARTAROS system along with Mérida Island.
Admiral Borda is familiar with him, aside from Tessa and their parents. However, Admiral Borda doesn't know about Leonard's ties to Amalgam.
Xia Yu Lan
A Chinese-born assassin, raised by Gauron alongside her twin sister Xia Yu Fan. She and her elder sister, Xia Yu Fan, were ordered by Gauron to finish off Kaname Chidori to mentally break down Sousuke since Gauron knew that he was attached to her ever since Sousuke was assigned to be Kaname's bodyguard. Later in Japan, she was killed by Leonard's man-size Arm Slave bodyguard named Alastor by strangling her to death, her corpse being used by Gates to mock Xia Yu Fan. She wears a vest with red linings on it.
Early on, Yu Lan raises her disgust with Gates, the earliest in Balic when Gates shoves the barrel of his CZ-75 pistol into her mouth when Yu Lan mocked his sympathy for a dead Amalgam commando when he shot him in the head without a second thought.
In combat, she used dual machetes. Aside from this, she is an expert in using throwing knives and is fairly proficient in the use of small arms. She is sixteen years old.
Xia Yu Fan
Another Chinese-born assassin was raised by Gauron and the "eldest" of the Xia siblings. She and Xia Yu Lan were given the last orders by Gauron to finish off Kaname after being crippled by Sousuke's Arbalest. Yu Fan is a proficient Arm Slave pilot, using a Zy-98 Shadow Arm Slave before using a stolen Chodarl in central Hong Kong. However, she is also good at using small arms and is an expert in unarmed combat. She wears a trench coat with green linings on it.
In the last episode, Yu Fan reveals that the Xia siblings were at odds with Amalgam, mostly for wiping out their town in China during the Second Chinese Civil War. She is sixteen years old.
Gates
An original character for the television animation 'Full Metal Panic! The Second Raid'. He takes over the character Mr K from the light novels.
An Amalgam agent and the head of Amalgam's Execution Squads, Gates seems to have two personalities. He is known to kill his subordinates whenever he messes up an operation, hears that an Amalgam-sponsored mission is a failure, and (for the most part) when he is angry. Gates kills through a variety of methods including shooting an Amalgam commando in the head when he backtalked and crushing Xia Yu Fan's Shadow Arms Slave with extreme ferocity. He is also shown to be highly abusive of his subordinates with him kicking his second-in-command off a helicopter and nearly drowning him in a pool.
Despite such brutality, Gates showed his intelligence by being able to deduce accurately the tactics that MITHRIL's Special Response Team utilized in their intervention in the Balic civil war. At one point, Gates began to sing Ave Maria while Xia Yu Lan and a group of Amalgam commandos began to kill every armed Balic soldier. One light side about Gates is that he is protective of himself, especially about being bald since the front of his head shows no hair present. Gates is killed by Sousuke when he uses the Arbalest's Lambda Driver in full power to defeat his Codarl Arm Slave. Gates is shown to be accepting of his fate by playing with a strand of his hair saying, "Maybe I cut it too long?" while his machine was facing mass destruction.
It can be assumed that Gates was known as "Mr Kalium" throughout Amalgam, as in the light novel, A Dancing Very Merry Christmas. It is said that Gauron (otherwise known as Mr Iron) was responsible for the death of Mr Kalium (Gauron does put into motion a series of events that end with Gates's death, though Gauron's only intention seems to have been to lure Sousuke to himself).
It is shown that he is also a sexual deviant. He proves this by saying how even though Xia Yu Lan and Xia Yu Fan were underage he did not hold back from "satisfying" them as well as himself leading him to being an ephebophile. He also calls them Lolita-Kun (lolita is an unofficial term for a child in pornography) when taunting them for escaping. When he manages to acquire the body of one of the girls it makes references to the idea that he will dabble in a spot of necrophilia with either or both of the girl's bodies. In the same scene where he finds out that the girls have escaped, it depicts him being interrupted in the process of masturbating over the image of kittens on his wide-screen TV. A truly twisted individual, when concluding his communication with Xia Yu Lan and Xia Yu via his television he returns to his previous channel which is now depicting squirrels. It would seem that on top of pedophilia he has a penchant for bestiality, at least so far with small "cute" mammals. Gates can speak some Mandarin aside from English.
Steven Harris
A Caucasian man with a beard and captain of the ship, Pacific Chrysalis. However, he and some of the ship's personnel are secret agents of Amalgam.
Mr. Gold
Very little is known about this mysterious character yet, but it is assumed he is the leader of Amalgam. He activated Captain Steven Harris as an agent of Amalgam aboard the ship the Pacific Chrysalis. He also gave Harris the order to deploy the Alastors aboard the ship.
Civilians (Jindai High)
Kyoko Tokiwa
is Kaname's best friend, a humble and polite girl who wears glasses and has her hair tied in two pigtails. She tries to bring Kaname and Sousuke together, however impossible it may seem given Sagara's tendency to blow things up at whim. In the novel Continuing On My Own, she is held hostage by Amalgam's agents as bait to lure Sousuke so they could kill him and find Kaname. During the rescue attempt, Kyoko is seriously injured, but is saved by Wraith, and is later seen recovering in the hospital.
Shinji Kazama
is Sousuke's Arm Slave-loving classmate. He shares the same amount of passion for AS as Sousuke and could be considered Sousuke's best school friend besides Kaname. His father is Shintaro Kazama and a secretary of Narashino's Assault Machine Troop. Shinji's love for AS began when his dad failed to become an AS pilot. As a result of his father's failure, Shinji strives to discover the result of the failure and to fulfil his father's dream of becoming a pilot. There is no indication as to what happened to his mother, but it's assumed that Shintaro is a widower before the series started.
Mizuki Inaba
is a classmate of Chidori who initially blames her for having stolen her boyfriend. She becomes one of her closer friends later on in the series. Mizuki is easily infatuated with various men, who usually take an interest in Kaname instead.
Eri Kagurazaka
is an English teacher at Jindai High and is the class advisor to Sousuke, Kaname, Kyoko, Shinji, and Mizuki in Class II-4. She is a kind and understanding teacher, who is willing to put the interest of her students over her own, as shown when she confronted Gauron and some North Korean secret agents over taking Kaname from her seat in the hijacked Boeing 747 at Sunan Air Base. However, she's known to get a mean temper whenever she finds Sousuke to be responsible for disastrous things in the school (which she always is a victim of).
Atsunobu Hayashimizu
is the president of Jindai High's Student Council and a third-year student. He is highly intelligent and seems to be able to deal with any situation – no matter how difficult. His behaviour is always calm, and he is never seen as angry. He often considers Sousuke's behaviour a reasonable response to the kind of situations he finds himself in, much to his frustration of Kaname. He assigns Sousuke to be the head of security in the Student Council, and Sousuke and Atsunobu share a mutual respect. On many occasions involving the school, Sousuke tends to treat Atsunobu just as he would a senior officer in the military, even to the point of calling him "Excellency" in the English dub. Atsunobu is also known for holding a white fan, on which various Japanese characters are written. In addition, he is seen reading famous books – Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince among them. As with the Japanese characters on his white fan, the books often change even within the same scene – a reference to his high intelligence and calm attitude that provides a comic aspect to the character. Atsunobu is voiced by Toshiyuki Morikawa in the original Japanese anime, and by Christopher Ayres in the English dub.
Ren Mikihara
is the Secretary of Jindai High's Student Council, a friend of Kaname's, and the daughter of a Yakuza boss. She is an example of Yamato Nadeshiko – the Japanese ideal of femininity – and as such, she is beautiful, dependable, and caring. She seems to have feelings for Atsunobu Hayashimizu, the Student Council's president. However, much about her is still unknown. Because women in the time of the Tokugawa shogunate were given names with two syllables only (usually adding the prefix "O-" to refer to someone of higher social standing and considered an honorific), Kaname prefers to address her as Oren-san. She is voiced by Rie Tanaka in the original Japanese anime, by Nancy Novotny in the English version by ADV Films, and by Julie Shields in the English dub of Invisible Victory by Funimation.
Issei Tsubaki
is the black belt leader of Jindai High's Karate Club. However, he is extremely nearsighted and can see only when wearing his glasses, which leads to several comic incidents. His sense of pride cannot accept the fact that he was defeated by Sousuke and is constantly challenging him to rematch, which Sousuke usually avoids. He has a huge crush on Kaname and in the short story, Irrelevant Emotion accidentally indicates Sousuke when confessing his love for her. In the Full Metal Panic? Fumoffu anime, Mizuki falls in love with him in the last episode. In Irrelevant Emotion, however, she falls for him after he saves her from falling out of a window. He is voiced by Jun Fukuyama in the original Japanese anime, and by Nomed Kaerf in the English version by ADV Films.
Minor characters
Mira Kudan
is a whispered girl that Sousuke rescues right in the very beginning. When Mithril is destroyed, she goes into hiding along with Wraith and Hunter in Alaska. With the help of AL, the original AI system in the Arbalest, she builds the ARX-8 Laevatein. In the novel translation, she is called Sarah Miller. She is voiced by Shiho Kikuchi in Japanese, and Kira Vincent-Davis in English.
Seina
Seina joined the terrorist organization A21 a long time ago when it was a refuge for delinquents. Now that the world has turned against her, she uses anyone close to her to aid her in revenge – mass destruction. She is voiced by Mayumi Asano in Japanese, and Kelli Cousins in English.
Takuma Kugayama
Takuma is the unstable experiment of the terrorist organization, A21. All he wants out of life is to please who he thinks is his big sister, Seina, (since he killed his actual one) but she's been scarred and vowed revenge against society long ago. Now, the only thing that seems to please her is Takuma piloting the mech, Behemoth, and wreaking as much havoc as possible. He is voiced by Susumu Chiba in Japanese, and Spike Spencer in English.
Zaied
When Sousuke joined a guerrilla movement at age 8, he was befriended by Zaied, who was only 3 years older. Zaied became his mentor and taught him the art of combat and survival. He was later believed by Sousuke to have been killed by a raid made by Gauron on the guerilla village. Eight years later, it is revealed that he had instead teamed up with Gauron to deliver a nuclear warhead, and Sousuke meets him again during his mission to assassinate Gauron. He is voiced by Takehito Koyasu in Japanese, and Illich Guardiola in English.
Commander Killy B. Sailor
The commanding officer of the US Navy attack submarine USS Pasadena, Sailor crosses paths with Mithril twice: first, during Gauron's hijack of Tuatha de Danaan, he launches torpedoes at TDD-1 in retaliation for Gauron's missile strike on the USS Bunker Hill. Secondly, during the events of the novel Dancing Very Merry Christmas, Sailor is a passenger aboard the Pacific Chrysalis when Amalgam activates Harris and a force of Alastors. What little is known about him is that he was an enlisted chief petty officer who served with Tessa's father, who encouraged him to enter OCS. He holds Mardukas in high regard, having met him in the incident where Turbulent saved them. His Codename is "McClane".
References
Full Metal Panic!
Full Metal Panic! |
4521038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilevel%20model | Multilevel model | Multilevel models (also known as hierarchical linear models, linear mixed-effect model, mixed models, nested data models, random coefficient, random-effects models, random parameter models, or split-plot designs) are statistical models of parameters that vary at more than one level. An example could be a model of student performance that contains measures for individual students as well as measures for classrooms within which the students are grouped. These models can be seen as generalizations of linear models (in particular, linear regression), although they can also extend to non-linear models. These models became much more popular after sufficient computing power and software became available.
Multilevel models are particularly appropriate for research designs where data for participants are organized at more than one level (i.e., nested data). The units of analysis are usually individuals (at a lower level) who are nested within contextual/aggregate units (at a higher level). While the lowest level of data in multilevel models is usually an individual, repeated measurements of individuals may also be examined. As such, multilevel models provide an alternative type of analysis for univariate or multivariate analysis of repeated measures. Individual differences in growth curves may be examined. Furthermore, multilevel models can be used as an alternative to ANCOVA, where scores on the dependent variable are adjusted for covariates (e.g. individual differences) before testing treatment differences. Multilevel models are able to analyze these experiments without the assumptions of homogeneity-of-regression slopes that is required by ANCOVA.
Multilevel models can be used on data with many levels, although 2-level models are the most common and the rest of this article deals only with these. The dependent variable must be examined at the lowest level of analysis.
Level 1 regression equation
When there is a single level 1 independent variable, the level 1 model is:
refers to the score on the dependent variable for an individual observation at Level 1 (subscript i refers to individual case, subscript j refers to the group).
refers to the Level 1 predictor.
refers to the intercept of the dependent variable for individual case i.
refers to the slope for individual case i for the relationship in group j (Level 2) between the Level 1 predictor and the dependent variable.
refers to the random errors of prediction for the Level 1 equation (it is also sometimes referred to as ).
At Level 1, both the intercepts and slopes in the groups can be either fixed (meaning that all groups have the same values, although in the real world this would be a rare occurrence), non-randomly varying (meaning that the intercepts and/or slopes are predictable from an independent variable at Level 2), or randomly varying (meaning that the intercepts and/or slopes are different in the different groups, and that each have their own overall mean and variance).
When there are multiple level 1 independent variables, the model can be expanded by substituting vectors and matrices in the equation.
When the relationship between the response and predictor can not be described by the linear relationship, then one can find some non linear functional relationship between the response and predictor, and extend the model to nonlinear mixed-effects model. For example, when the response is the cumulative infection trajectory of the -th country, and represents the -th time points, then the ordered pair for each country may show a shape similar to logistic function.
Level 2 regression equation
The dependent variables are the intercepts and the slopes for the independent variables at Level 1 in the groups of Level 2.
refers to the overall intercept. This is the grand mean of the scores on the dependent variable across all the groups when all the predictors are equal to 0.
refers to the overall regression coefficient, or the slope, between the dependent variable and the Level 2 predictor.
refers to the deviation of case i from the overall intercept.
refers to the overall regression coefficient, or the slope, between the dependent variable and the Level 1 predictor.
Types of models
Before conducting a multilevel model analysis, a researcher must decide on several aspects, including which predictors are to be included in the analysis, if any. Second, the researcher must decide whether parameter values (i.e., the elements that will be estimated) will be fixed or random. Fixed parameters are composed of a constant over all the groups, whereas a random parameter has a different value for each of the groups. Additionally, the researcher must decide whether to employ a maximum likelihood estimation or a restricted maximum likelihood estimation type.
Random intercepts model
A random intercepts model is a model in which intercepts are allowed to vary, and therefore, the scores on the dependent variable for each individual observation are predicted by the intercept that varies across groups. This model assumes that slopes are fixed (the same across different contexts). In addition, this model provides information about intraclass correlations, which are helpful in determining whether multilevel models are required in the first place.
Random slopes model
A random slopes model is a model in which slopes are allowed to vary according to a correlation matrix, and therefore, the slopes are different across grouping variable such as time or individuals. This model assumes that intercepts are fixed (the same across different contexts).
Random intercepts and slopes model
A model that includes both random intercepts and random slopes is likely the most realistic type of model, although it is also the most complex. In this model, both intercepts and slopes are allowed to vary across groups, meaning that they are different in different contexts.
Developing a multilevel model
In order to conduct a multilevel model analysis, one would start with fixed coefficients (slopes and intercepts). One aspect would be allowed to vary at a time (that is, would be changed), and compared with the previous model in order to assess better model fit. There are three different questions that a researcher would ask in assessing a model. First, is it a good model? Second, is a more complex model better? Third, what contribution do individual predictors make to the model?
In order to assess models, different model fit statistics would be examined. One such statistic is the chi-square likelihood-ratio test, which assesses the difference between models. The likelihood-ratio test can be employed for model building in general, for examining what happens when effects in a model are allowed to vary, and when testing a dummy-coded categorical variable as a single effect. However, the test can only be used when models are nested (meaning that a more complex model includes all of the effects of a simpler model). When testing non-nested models, comparisons between models can be made using the Akaike information criterion (AIC) or the Bayesian information criterion (BIC), among others. See further Model selection.
Assumptions
Multilevel models have the same assumptions as other major general linear models (e.g., ANOVA, regression), but some of the assumptions are modified for the hierarchical nature of the design (i.e., nested data).
Linearity
The assumption of linearity states that there is a rectilinear (straight-line, as opposed to non-linear or U-shaped) relationship between variables. However, the model can be extended to nonlinear relationships. Particularly, when the mean part of the level 1 regression equation is replaced with a non-linear parametric function, then such a model framework is widely called the nonlinear mixed-effects model.
Normality
The assumption of normality states that the error terms at every level of the model are normally distributed.. However, most statistical software allows one to specify different distributions for the variance terms, such as a Poisson, binomial, logistic. The multilevel modelling approach can be used for all forms of Generalized Linear models.
Homoscedasticity
The assumption of homoscedasticity, also known as homogeneity of variance, assumes equality of population variances. However, different variance-correlation matrix can be specified to account for this, and the heterogeneity of variance can itself be modeled.
Independence of observations (No Autocorrelation of Model's Residuals)
Independence is an assumption of general linear models, which states that cases are random samples from the population and that scores on the dependent variable are independent of each other. One of the main purposes of multilevel models is to deal with cases where the assumption of independence is violated; multilevel models do, however, assume that 1) the level 1 and level 2 residuals are uncorrelated and 2) The errors (as measured by the residuals) at the highest level are uncorrelated.
Orthogonality of regressors to random effects
The regressors must not correlate with the random effects, . This assumption is testable but often ignored, rendering the estimator inconsistent. If this assumption is violated, the random-effect must be modeled explicitly in the fixed part of the model, either by using dummy variables or including cluster means of all regressors. This assumption is probably the most important assumption the estimator makes, but one that is misunderstood by most applied researchers using these types of models.
Statistical tests
The type of statistical tests that are employed in multilevel models depend on whether one is examining fixed effects or variance components. When examining fixed effects, the tests are compared with the standard error of the fixed effect, which results in a Z-test. A t-test can also be computed. When computing a t-test, it is important to keep in mind the degrees of freedom, which will depend on the level of the predictor (e.g., level 1 predictor or level 2 predictor). For a level 1 predictor, the degrees of freedom are based on the number of level 1 predictors, the number of groups and the number of individual observations. For a level 2 predictor, the degrees of freedom are based on the number of level 2 predictors and the number of groups.
Statistical power
Statistical power for multilevel models differs depending on whether it is level 1 or level 2 effects that are being examined. Power for level 1 effects is dependent upon the number of individual observations, whereas the power for level 2 effects is dependent upon the number of groups. To conduct research with sufficient power, large sample sizes are required in multilevel models. However, the number of individual observations in groups is not as important as the number of groups in a study. In order to detect cross-level interactions, given that the group sizes are not too small, recommendations have been made that at least 20 groups are needed, although many fewer can be used if one is only interested in inference on the fixed effects and the random effects are control, or "nuisance", variables. The issue of statistical power in multilevel models is complicated by the fact that power varies as a function of effect size and intraclass correlations, it differs for fixed effects versus random effects, and it changes depending on the number of groups and the number of individual observations per group.
Applications
Level
The concept of level is the keystone of this approach. In an educational research example, the levels for a 2-level model might be:
pupil
class
However, if one were studying multiple schools and multiple school districts, a 4-level model could be:
pupil
class
school
district
The researcher must establish for each variable the level at which it was measured. In this example "test score" might be measured at pupil level, "teacher experience" at class level, "school funding" at school level, and "urban" at district level.
Example
As a simple example, consider a basic linear regression model that predicts income as a function of age, class, gender and race. It might then be observed that income levels also vary depending on the city and state of residence. A simple way to incorporate this into the regression model would be to add an additional independent categorical variable to account for the location (i.e. a set of additional binary predictors and associated regression coefficients, one per location). This would have the effect of shifting the mean income up or down—but it would still assume, for example, that the effect of race and gender on income is the same everywhere. In reality, this is unlikely to be the case—different local laws, different retirement policies, differences in level of racial prejudice, etc. are likely to cause all of the predictors to have different sorts of effects in different locales.
In other words, a simple linear regression model might, for example, predict that a given randomly sampled person in Seattle would have an average yearly income $10,000 higher than a similar person in Mobile, Alabama. However, it would also predict, for example, that a white person might have an average income $7,000 above a black person, and a 65-year-old might have an income $3,000 below a 45-year-old, in both cases regardless of location. A multilevel model, however, would allow for different regression coefficients for each predictor in each location. Essentially, it would assume that people in a given location have correlated incomes generated by a single set of regression coefficients, whereas people in another location have incomes generated by a different set of coefficients. Meanwhile, the coefficients themselves are assumed to be correlated and generated from a single set of hyperparameters. Additional levels are possible: For example, people might be grouped by cities, and the city-level regression coefficients grouped by state, and the state-level coefficients generated from a single hyper-hyperparameter.
Multilevel models are a subclass of hierarchical Bayesian models, which are general models with multiple levels of random variables and arbitrary relationships among the different variables. Multilevel analysis has been extended to include multilevel structural equation modeling, multilevel latent class modeling, and other more general models.
Uses
Multilevel models have been used in education research or geographical research, to estimate separately the variance between pupils within the same school, and the variance between schools. In psychological applications, the multiple levels are items in an instrument, individuals, and families. In sociological applications, multilevel models are used to examine individuals embedded within regions or countries. In organizational psychology research, data from individuals must often be nested within teams or other functional units. They are often used in ecological research as well under the more general term mixed models.
Different covariables may be relevant on different levels. They can be used for longitudinal studies, as with growth studies, to separate changes within one individual and differences between individuals.
Cross-level interactions may also be of substantive interest; for example, when a slope is allowed to vary randomly, a level-2 predictor may be included in the slope formula for the level-1 covariate. For example, one may estimate the interaction of race and neighborhood to obtain an estimate of the interaction between an individual's characteristics and the social context.
Applications to longitudinal (repeated measures) data
Alternative ways of analyzing hierarchical data
There are several alternative ways of analyzing hierarchical data, although most of them have some problems. First, traditional statistical techniques can be used. One could disaggregate higher-order variables to the individual level, and thus conduct an analysis on this individual level (for example, assign class variables to the individual level). The problem with this approach is that it would violate the assumption of independence, and thus could bias our results. This is known as atomistic fallacy. Another way to analyze the data using traditional statistical approaches is to aggregate individual level variables to higher-order variables and then to conduct an analysis on this higher level. The problem with this approach is that it discards all within-group information (because it takes the average of the individual level variables). As much as 80–90% of the variance could be wasted, and the relationship between aggregated variables is inflated, and thus distorted. This is known as ecological fallacy, and statistically, this type of analysis results in decreased power in addition to the loss of information.
Another way to analyze hierarchical data would be through a random-coefficients model. This model assumes that each group has a different regression model—with its own intercept and slope. Because groups are sampled, the model assumes that the intercepts and slopes are also randomly sampled from a population of group intercepts and slopes. This allows for an analysis in which one can assume that slopes are fixed but intercepts are allowed to vary. However this presents a problem, as individual components are independent but group components are independent between groups, but dependent within groups. This also allows for an analysis in which the slopes are random; however, the correlations of the error terms (disturbances) are dependent on the values of the individual-level variables. Thus, the problem with using a random-coefficients model in order to analyze hierarchical data is that it is still not possible to incorporate higher order variables.
Error terms
Multilevel models have two error terms, which are also known as disturbances. The individual components are all independent, but there are also group components, which are independent between groups but correlated within groups. However, variance components can differ, as some groups are more homogeneous than others.
Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects model
Multilevel modeling is frequently used in diverse applications and it can be formulated by the Bayesian framework. Particularly, Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects models have recently received significant attention. A basic version of the Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects models is represented as the following three-stage:
Stage 1: Individual-Level Model
Stage 2: Population Model
Stage 3: Prior
Here, denotes the continuous response of the -th subject at the time point , and is the -th covariate of the -th subject. Parameters involved in the model are written in Greek letters. is a known function parameterized by the -dimensional vector . Typically, is a `nonlinear' function and describes the temporal trajectory of individuals. In the model, and describe within-individual variability and between-individual variability, respectively. If Stage 3: Prior is not considered, then the model reduces to a frequentist nonlinear mixed-effect model.
A central task in the application of the Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effect models is to evaluate the posterior density:
The panel on the right displays Bayesian research cycle using Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects model. A research cycle using the Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects model comprises two steps: (a) standard research cycle and (b) Bayesian-specific workflow. Standard research cycle involves literature review, defining a problem and specifying the research question and hypothesis. Bayesian-specific workflow comprises three sub-steps: (b)–(i) formalizing prior distributions based on background knowledge and prior elicitation; (b)–(ii) determining the likelihood function based on a nonlinear function ; and (b)–(iii) making a posterior inference. The resulting posterior inference can be used to start a new research cycle.
See also
Hyperparameter
Mixed-design analysis of variance
Random effects model
Nonlinear mixed-effects model
Restricted randomization
References
Further reading
This concentrates on education.
Includes SAS code
External links
Centre for Multilevel Modelling
Analysis of variance
Regression models |
4521155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy%20of%20evidence | Hierarchy of evidence | A hierarchy of evidence, comprising levels of evidence (LOEs), that is, evidence levels (ELs), is a heuristic used to rank the relative strength of results obtained from experimental research, especially medical research. There is broad agreement on the relative strength of large-scale, epidemiological studies. More than 80 different hierarchies have been proposed for assessing medical evidence. The design of the study (such as a case report for an individual patient or a blinded randomized controlled trial) and the endpoints measured (such as survival or quality of life) affect the strength of the evidence. In clinical research, the best evidence for treatment efficacy is mainly from meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Systematic reviews of completed, high-quality randomized controlled trials – such as those published by the Cochrane Collaboration – rank the same as systematic review of completed high-quality observational studies in regard to the study of side effects. Evidence hierarchies are often applied in evidence-based practices and are integral to evidence-based medicine (EBM).
Definition
In 2014, Jacob Stegenga defined a hierarchy of evidence as "rank-ordering of kinds of methods according to the potential for that method to suffer from systematic bias". At the top of the hierarchy is a method with the most freedom from systemic bias or best internal validity relative to the tested medical intervention's hypothesized efficacy.
In 1997, Greenhalgh suggested it was "the relative weight carried by the different types of primary study when making decisions about clinical interventions".
The National Cancer Institute defines levels of evidence as "a ranking system used to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study. The design of the study [...] and the endpoints measured [...] affect the strength of the evidence."
Examples
A large number of hierarchies of evidence have been proposed. Similar protocols for evaluation of research quality are still in development. So far, the available protocols pay relatively little attention to whether outcome research is relevant to efficacy (the outcome of a treatment performed under ideal conditions) or to effectiveness (the outcome of the treatment performed under ordinary, expectable conditions).
GRADE
The GRADE approach (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) is a method of assessing the certainty in evidence (also known as quality of evidence or confidence in effect estimates) and the strength of recommendations. The GRADE began in the year 2000 as a collaboration of methodologists, guideline developers, biostatisticians, clinicians, public health scientists and other interested members.
Over 100 organizations (including the World Health Organization, the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the Canadian Task Force for Preventive Health Care, the Colombian Ministry of Health, among others) have endorsed and/or are using GRADE to evaluate the quality of evidence and strength of health care recommendations. (See examples of clinical practice guidelines using GRADE online).
GRADE rates quality of evidence as follows:
Guyatt and Sackett
In 1995, Guyatt and Sackett published the first such hierarchy.
Greenhalgh put the different types of primary study in the following order:
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of "RCTs with definitive results".
RCTs with definitive results (confidence intervals that do not overlap the threshold clinically significant effect)
RCTs with non-definitive results (a point estimate that suggests a clinically significant effect but with confidence intervals overlapping the threshold for this effect)
Cohort studies
Case-control studies
Cross sectional surveys
Case reports
Saunders et al.
A protocol suggested by Saunders et al. assigns research reports to six categories, on the basis of research design, theoretical background, evidence of possible harm, and general acceptance. To be classified under this protocol, there must be descriptive publications, including a manual or similar description of the intervention. This protocol does not consider the nature of any comparison group, the effect of confounding variables, the nature of the statistical analysis, or a number of other criteria. Interventions are assessed as belonging to Category 1, well-supported, efficacious treatments, if there are two or more randomized controlled outcome studies comparing the target treatment to an appropriate alternative treatment and showing a significant advantage to the target treatment. Interventions are assigned to Category 2, supported and probably efficacious treatment, based on positive outcomes of nonrandomized designs with some form of control, which may involve a non-treatment group. Category 3, supported and acceptable treatment, includes interventions supported by one controlled or uncontrolled study, or by a series of single-subject studies, or by work with a different population than the one of interest. Category 4, promising and acceptable treatment, includes interventions that have no support except general acceptance and clinical anecdotal literature; however, any evidence of possible harm excludes treatments from this category. Category 5, innovative and novel treatment, includes interventions that are not thought to be harmful, but are not widely used or discussed in the literature. Category 6, concerning treatment, is the classification for treatments that have the possibility of doing harm, as well as having unknown or inappropriate theoretical foundations.
Khan et al.
A protocol for evaluation of research quality was suggested by a report from the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, prepared by Khan et al. and intended as a general method for assessing both medical and psychosocial interventions. While strongly encouraging the use of randomized designs, this protocol noted that such designs were useful only if they met demanding criteria, such as true randomization and concealment of the assigned treatment group from the client and from others, including the individuals assessing the outcome. The Khan et al. protocol emphasized the need to make comparisons on the basis of "intention to treat" in order to avoid problems related to greater attrition in one group. The Khan et al. protocol also presented demanding criteria for nonrandomized studies, including matching of groups on potential confounding variables and adequate descriptions of groups and treatments at every stage, and concealment of treatment choice from persons assessing the outcomes. This protocol did not provide a classification of levels of evidence, but included or excluded treatments from classification as evidence-based depending on whether the research met the stated standards.
U.S. National Registry of Evidence-Based Practices and Programs
An assessment protocol has been developed by the U.S. National Registry of Evidence-Based Practices and Programs (NREPP). Evaluation under this protocol occurs only if an intervention has already had one or more positive outcomes, with a probability of less than .05, reported, if these have been published in a peer-reviewed journal or an evaluation report, and if documentation such as training materials has been made available. The NREPP evaluation, which assigns quality ratings from 0 to 4 to certain criteria, examines reliability and validity of outcome measures used in the research, evidence for intervention fidelity (predictable use of the treatment in the same way every time), levels of missing data and attrition, potential confounding variables, and the appropriateness of statistical handling, including sample size.
History
Canada
The term was first used in a 1979 report by the "Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination" (CTF) to "grade the effectiveness of an intervention according to the quality of evidence obtained".
The task force used three levels, subdividing level II:
Level I: Evidence from at least one randomized controlled trial,
Level II1: Evidence from at least one well designed cohort study or case control study, preferably from more than one center or research group.
Level II2: Comparisons between times and places with or without the intervention
Level III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies or reports of expert committees.
The CTF graded their recommendations into a 5-point A–E scale: A: Good level of evidence for the recommendation to consider a condition, B: Fair level of evidence for the recommendation to consider a condition, C: Poor level of evidence for the recommendation to consider a condition, D: Fair level evidence for the recommendation to exclude the condition, and E: Good level of evidence for the recommendation to exclude condition from consideration.
The CTF updated their report in 1984, in 1986 and 1987.
United States
In 1988, the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) came out with its guidelines based on the CTF using the same 3 levels, further subdividing level II.
Level I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed randomized controlled trial.
Level II-1: Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without randomization.
Level II-2: Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control analytic studies, preferably from more than one center or research group.
Level II-3: Evidence obtained from multiple time series designs with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled trials might also be regarded as this type of evidence.
Level III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees.
Over the years many more grading systems have been described.
United Kingdom
In September 2000, the Oxford (UK) Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) Levels of Evidence published its guidelines for 'Levels' of evidence regarding claims about prognosis, diagnosis, treatment benefits, treatment harms, and screening. It not only addressed therapy and prevention, but also diagnostic tests, prognostic markers, or harm. The original CEBM Levels was first released for Evidence-Based On Call to make the process of finding evidence feasible and its results explicit. As published in 2009 they are:
1a: Systematic reviews (with homogeneity) of randomized controlled trials
1b: Individual randomized controlled trials (with narrow confidence interval)
1c: All or none (when all patients died before the treatment became available, but some now survive on it; or when some patients died before the treatment became available, but none now die on it.)
2a: Systematic reviews (with homogeneity) of cohort studies
2b: Individual cohort study or low quality randomized controlled trials (e.g. <80% follow-up)
2c: "Outcomes" Research; ecological studies
3a: Systematic review (with homogeneity) of case-control studies
3b: Individual case-control study
4: Case series (and poor quality cohort and case-control studies)
5: Expert opinion without explicit critical appraisal, or based on physiology, bench research or "first principles"
In 2011, an international team redesigned the Oxford CEBM Levels to make it more understandable and to take into account recent developments in evidence ranking schemes. The Levels have been used by patients, clinicians and also to develop clinical guidelines including recommendations for the optimal use of phototherapy and topical therapy in psoriasis and guidelines for the use of the BCLC staging system for diagnosing and monitoring hepatocellular carcinoma in Canada.
Global
In 2007, the World Cancer Research Fund grading system described 4 levels: Convincing, probable, possible and insufficient evidence. All Global Burden of Disease Studies have used it to evaluate epidemiologic evidence supporting causal relationships.
Proponents
In 1995 Wilson et al., in 1996 Hadorn et al. and in 1996 Atkins et al. have described and defended various types of grading systems.
Criticism
More than a decade after it was established, use of evidence hierarchies was increasingly criticized in the 21st century. In 2011, a systematic review of the critical literature found 3 kinds of criticism: procedural aspects of EBM (especially from Cartwright, Worrall and Howick), greater than expected fallibility of EBM (Ioaanidis and others), and EBM being incomplete as a philosophy of science (Ashcroft and others).
Many critics have published in journals of philosophy, ignored by the clinician proponents of EBM. Rawlins and Bluhm note, that EBM limits the ability of research results to inform the care of individual patients, and that to understand the causes of diseases both population-level and laboratory research are necessary. EBM hierarchy of evidence does not take into account research on the safety and efficacy of medical interventions. RCTs should be designed "to elucidate within-group variability, which can only be done if the hierarchy of evidence is replaced by a network that takes into account the relationship between epidemiological and laboratory research"
The hierarchy of evidence produced by a study design has been questioned, because guidelines have "failed to properly define key terms, weight the merits of certain non-randomized controlled trials, and employ a comprehensive list of study design limitations".
Stegenga has criticized specifically that meta-analyses are placed at the top of such hierarchies. The assumption that RCTs ought to be necessarily near the top of such hierarchies has been criticized by Worrall and Cartwright.
In 2005, Ross Upshur noted that EBM claims to be a normative guide to being a better physician, but is not a philosophical doctrine. He pointed out that EBM supporters displayed "near-evangelical fervor" convinced of its superiority, ignoring critics who seek to expand the borders of EBM from a philosophical point of view.
Borgerson in 2009 wrote that the justifications for the hierarchy levels are not absolute and do not epistemically justify them, but that "medical researchers should pay closer attention to social mechanisms for managing pervasive biases". La Caze noted that basic science resides on the lower tiers of EBM though it "plays a role in specifying experiments, but also analysing and interpreting the data."
Concato argued in 2004, that it allowed RCTs too much authority and that not all research questions could be answered through RCTs, either because of practical or because of ethical issues. Even when evidence is available from high-quality RCTs, evidence from other study types may still be relevant. Stegenga opined that evidence assessment schemes are unreasonably constraining and less informative than other schemes now available.
In his 2015 PhD Thesis dedicated to the study of the various hierarchies of evidence in medicine, Christopher J Blunt concludes that although modest interpretations such as those offered by La Caze's model, conditional hierarchies like GRADE, and heuristic approaches as defended by Howick et al all survive previous philosophical criticism, he argues that modest interpretations are so weak they are unhelpful for clinical practice. For example, "GRADE and similar conditional models omit clinically relevant information, such as information about variation in treatments’ effects and the causes of different responses to therapy; and that heuristic approaches lack the necessary empirical support". Blunt further concludes that "hierarchies are a poor basis for the application of evidence in clinical practice", since the core assumptions behind hierarchies of evidence, that "information about average treatment effects backed by high-quality evidence can justify strong recommendations", is untenable, and hence the evidence from individuals studies should be appraised in isolation.
See also
Evidence-based practice
Evidence-based medicine
Jadad scale
References
Works cited
External links
Evidence levels with explanations – entry in the Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine
Evidence-based medicine resources page – with a diagram showing different levels of evidence forming a pyramid
Systematic database of 195 hierarchies of evidence in medicine up to 08/10/2020 by Christopher J Blunt for his PhD Thesis.
Evidence
Evidence-based practices
Research
Clinical research |
4521341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason%20Belmonte | Jason Belmonte | Jason Belmonte (born 29 July 1983) is an Australian professional ten-pin bowler. He plays on the PBA Tour in the United States and in world events. He is known for being one of the first bowlers to gain media attention for using the two-handed approach style to deliver his shot. He has won 31 PBA titles (seventh most all-time), including a record 15 major championships; he is only one of eight bowlers in PBA tour history to achieve 30 wins, making him the only 30-time winner in PBA Tour history who is not currently a member of the PBA Hall of Fame (he has yet to meet the 20 years on Tour requirement). He is one of two bowlers in PBA history to have won the Super Slam, winning all five PBA major titles (the other being Mike Aulby). He is the all-time leader in both USBC Masters and PBA Tournament of Champions titles, winning each event four times. He is also the only three-time winner of the PBA Players Championship.
Belmonte has been named PBA Player of the Year seven times, tying the record previously set by Walter Ray Williams Jr. Belmonte accumulated $1 million (USD) in career PBA earnings faster than any player in history (131 tournaments), surpassed the $1.5 million mark PBA earnings during the 2019 season, and eclipsed $2 million in PBA earnings during the 2022 season. Belmonte has at least 27 career 300 games in PBA Tour events through 2023, including the PBA's 21st nationally televised 300 in 2012, as well as the 34th nationally televised 300 over ten years later in 2022. He rolled another televised 300 game in the 2023 PBA Tour Finals to become the only player in PBA history with three televised perfect games. His accolades have him ranked on several lists as one of the greatest bowlers of all time, if not the greatest.
Belmonte is perhaps the most well-marketed bowler of all time, owing in part to his popularization of two-handed bowling. He is a member of the Storm, 3G Shoes and Vise Grips pro staffs. Storm has collaborated with Belmonte to develop the "Trend" line of bowling balls, which bear the Belmo nickname and silhouette logo.
He was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) in the 2022 Queen's Birthday Honours for significant service to tenpin bowling at the elite level.
Early life
Jason Belmonte was born on 29 July 1983 in Orange, New South Wales, Australia. His father Aldo opened the Orange Ten Pin Bowl when Jason was a toddler. As a result, Jason started rolling a ball at 18 months old. Interviewed in 2009, he commented: "The only problem for me though was as an 18-month-old baby boy lifting a nine- to 10-pound (4–4.5 kg) bowling ball ... it was a little hard, so like all babies I pushed the ball with two hands." In doing so he developed a two-handed style which he uses today, placing only two fingers and no thumb in the ball to produce more revolutions. He reports having tried one-handed bowling when he was 7, but concluded that it "sucked".
Professional growth
When Belmonte first joined the PBA, he focused on power (thinking "let’s break some pins"). After studying other professionals who "had the ability to make the ball dance", he simplified his delivery: decreasing his rev rate, ball speed, and approach speed; eliminating a "kangaroo hop"; and releasing from a more stable position. As a result, his accuracy in hitting the pocket improved while he continued to strike with 20% lower rev rate.
In 2022, his parents' bowling center installed a ball tracking system that records ball path, speed, and rev rate, Belmonte saying "it's scarily accurate". As of 2023, Belmonte travels with about 15 bowling balls of various construction.
Noting Belmonte's recognition within the bowling industry and controversy over his two-handed style which some have called cheating, GQ magazine said in 2023 that Belmonte had become both an elder statesman at 39 and a polarizing figure. He remarked on his sometime loneliness—also spending six months of the year away from family—but said "there’s an abundance of love there" as well.
Titles
Belmonte has won one European Bowling Tour title, the Brunswick Euro Challenge, held in Greece. He also won the World Tenpin Masters championship in 2007. In September 2010, he defeated American Sean Rash in the finals to earn the 2010 Korea Cup title.
On the PBA Tour, Belmonte owns 31 titles (7th on the PBA's all-time list), including his first title at the Bowling Foundation Long Island Classic (2009), and three titles in the 2011–12 season (GEICO Shark Open, World Series of Bowling Chameleon Open, and the Pepsi PBA Elite Players Championship). After making the televised finals in five of six PBA majors without winning, he defeated Wes Malott to capture his first PBA major title: the 2012–13 USBC Masters. (Belmonte would be retroactively awarded a major title for the 2011 Elite Players Championship, making the USBC Masters his second major.) He captured his third major at the 2014 Barbasol Tournament of Champions, again defeating Malott in the title match. On 8 February 2015, Belmonte became the first bowler to win three consecutive USBC Masters tournaments after defeating No. 1 seeded AJ Johnson. On 15 February 2015, he defeated No. 1 seed Rhino Page to capture his second consecutive Barbasol Tournament of Champions title, and his second major title in two weeks. After winning three major titles in 2017, including an unprecedented fourth USBC Masters, Belmonte stood in second place on the all-time PBA majors list with nine, behind only Earl Anthony and Pete Weber, who both have ten. He won the first major of 2019, the PBA Tournament of Champions, to tie the record with ten majors. One month later, Belmonte won the 2019 PBA World Championship, making him the all-time major titles leader. In February 2020, Belmonte won the U.S. Open to claim the "super slam" (a title in all five PBA majors), the second in PBA history after Mike Aulby.
Bowling career
Amateur and international accomplishments
Aged seventeen, Belmonte became the first Junior Australian to bowl a 300 game overseas. He also took five gold medals at the 2000 Junior National Championships, was selected for the Youth Australia team, and also held a place in this team in 2002 and 2004. Belmonte was awarded the 2001 Orange Junior Sportsperson of the Year and won the 2002 Senior Award. He also was awarded the Orange Sportsperson of the Year award in both 2002 and 2003. Belmonte won one gold, one silver and two bronze medals at the 2002 Commonwealth Championships in Scotland. Belmonte competed in Fédération Internationale des Quilleurs (FIQ) tournaments (the governing body of the sport and now known as International Bowling Federation (IBF)) such as the World Tenpin Bowling Association (WTBA) and Asian FIQ championships. He won a silver medal at the WTBA World Youth Championships in Thailand. Later in the year, he was selected in the Australian Open men's team, where he remains to the present time.
In 2004, Belmonte took three gold, one silver and one bronze the Asian Youth FIQ in Hong Kong and followed this up in the World Youth FIQ titles in Guam with a gold in the singles and a gold in all events. He won the prestigious 2004 Bowler of the Year award, voted by the Board of Directors of the World Bowlers Writers' Association.
Belmonte was invited to participate in the 2005 World Tenpin Masters in England where he was defeated in the semi-finals. In this event, he made history by bowling the first-ever 300 game in the event. The game was filmed by Matchroom Sport. In 2007, Belmonte was once again invited to take part in the World Tenpin Masters, held at the Barnsley Metrodome. After defeating the defending champion Chris Barnes of the United States in the semi-finals, Belmonte went on to defeat England's Paul Moor in the finals where he rolled the event's second-ever 300 game. Belmonte rolled 23 out of a possible 24 strikes to win the event with a 566 score for two games, against Moor's 524.
Belmonte represented Australia in the 2006 World Youth Championships in Berlin. He was part of the team to take the gold medal in the Team Event and went on to make the Masters after finishing in sixth place in the All Events. He was defeated in the second step of the Masters by the eventual winner, Mads Sandbaekken from Norway. He also competed in the adult version on the same year at Men's World Championship at the Asiad Bowling Center in Busan, Korea and went on to make the Masters match-play after finishing 4th. He lost to eventual winner Biboy Rivera from Philippines to take the bronze medal.
Belmonte participated in the 2007 World Ranking Masters and after qualifying in second position, was defeated in the quarter finals by eventual runner-up Peter Ljung from Sweden, 2–0 (190–258, 158–279), finishing in sixth place.
In 2011, in the World Bowling Tour, Belmonte defeated good friend and PBA Player Mike Fagan, a two-game match scoring 511–505, to win the PTT World Bowling Tour Thailand 2011.
In 2022, Belmonte defeated Kyle Troup, 259-236, to win the 2022 Devil's Lair Tasmania.
AMF World Cup
Jason Belmonte competed in the 2004 AMF World Cup in Singapore and led all five days of qualifying events. He finished in fifth place after being knocked out in the quarter final.
Belmonte competed again in the 2007 AMF World Cup in St. Petersburg, Russia where he was also lead qualifier. He finished runner-up after he was defeated in the final by Bill Hoffman (USA). As a result, Belmonte won the country rankings for Australia with Ann-Maree Putney, who won the trophy in the women's world cup.
In his third appearance in the 2011 AMF World Cup in Johannesburg, South Africa he was crowned as AMF Bowling World Cup champion.
His first match was against Mykhaylo Kalika (Ukraine). Belmonte won the first game 237–203 and Kalika won the second game 248–266. Belmonte would win the deciding game 266–185.
Jason Belmonte then came up against first seed Tommy Jones (USA). Jones would win the first game 259–279 with Belmonte winning the second, 247–216. After Jones opened in the eighth frame, Belmonte defeated him in the third game 259–236 and became the first Australian man to take the title.
His three-game total of 765 was a new finals record, beating the previous mark of 764 by Petter Hansen (Norway), set in Singapore in 2004.
Belmonte stated "I was a long way in the lead in 2004 in Singapore, and got knocked in the quarters," he said, "and again I led the field in St Petersburg in 2007 and then I lost in the final. So I was happy to go in as number two seed this time".
PBA Tour
2008–09: Rookie of the Year
In 2008, then-deputy PBA Commissioner Tom Clark granted Belmonte a one-time "commissioner's exemption", guaranteeing his entry into a PBA tournament. Though Belmonte was not the first two-hand-delivery bowlers—Chuck Lande and Osku Palermaa preceded him—Clark later reflected that because of his bowling style, Belmonte "had the best story, the best media potential". While questioning whether he could maintain the physical demands of two-hand deliveries—once calling himself a crash test dummy—Belmonte achieved his first win in his eighth PBA tournament.
In 2009, Belmonte won the Bowling Foundation Long Island Classic PBA Tour event in his PBA TV finals debut. As the second seed, he defeated Bill O'Neill, and went on to defeat number one seed Mike Fagan 215–201 for his first PBA title. The title earned Belmonte "exempt" status for the 2009–10 PBA Tour, and he was also named the 2008–09 PBA Rookie of the Year.
2009–10
2009–10 marked his first season as an exempt PBA bowler. Belmonte qualified for the TV finals in three events, but did not win a tournament. He came close at the GEICO Mark Roth Plastic Ball Championship on 28 March 2010. Finishing as the top qualifier, he faced Brian Ziesig in the finals. Ziesig was a non-exempt amateur who had to qualify via the TQR round. The two were tied at the end of the regulation game, 247–247, which sent the championship to a sudden-death, one-ball rolloff. Belmonte's shot on his first attempt left a solid 7-pin standing. Ziesig then threw a strike to take the title.
2010–11
In the 2010–11 season, Belmonte appeared in 10 of 12 PBA events, making match-play nine times and appearing on TV four times. Without a victory, he had earnings of 62,950, while averaging 218.82 pins per game. In his first three years on tour, Belmonte cashed in 33 of 37 tournaments, making match-play a total of 25 times, with eight television appearance; and earnings of US$187,420.
2011–12: Return to victory
Belmonte won his second, third and fourth PBA titles in November 2011. The first two were earned at the PBA World Series of Bowling, as he took the trophies in the Chameleon Open and GEICO Shark Open, and the third was earned at the Pepsi PBA Elite Players Championship. Belmonte also rolled a nationally televised 300 game in the quarterfinals of the PBA World Championship, broadcast on 8 January 2012 in North America; however, he did not go on to win the tournament. Despite his three titles in the 2011–12 season, Belmonte did not win the PBA Player of the Year honors. The award was won by Sean Rash in an extremely close vote (Rash received 29% of the vote to Belmonte's 26.6%).
With his home crowd watching, Belmonte defeated Sean Rash in a best-of-three final (174–172, 223–255, 256–243) for his fifth PBA title at the 2012 Australian Masters in Sydney, Australia.
2012–13: Player of the Year
On 24 February 2013, Belmonte won his sixth PBA Tour title and first PBA major at the USBC Masters in North Brunswick, NJ. Belmonte finished with six consecutive strikes in the dramatic final match to top Wes Malott, 258–245. Belmonte won a second title on the 2012–13 season, his seventh overall, at the PBA Lucas Oil Bear Open in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin. He was runner-up to Wes Malott in the 2013 U.S. Open. It marked his seventh appearance in the TV finals of a major over the last eight major tournaments.
On 17 January 2014, Belmonte was named the Chris Schenkel PBA Player of the Year for the 2012–13 season. Along with two titles for the season, including a major title and runner-up finishes at three other major championships, Belmonte won the George Young High Average Award ( a PBA record 228.81) and the Harry Smith Points Leader Award (238,903). He became only the third PBA player born outside the USA (after Amleto Monacelli and Mika Koivuniemi) to win PBA Player of the Year.
2014: Major success, Player of the Year Repeat
Belmonte won the first tournament of the 2014 PBA season, the Barbasol Tournament of Champions in Allen Park, Michigan, which marked his second major tournament win and eighth title overall. As he did in his first major championship win, Belmonte defeated Wes Malott, this time in a 219–218 single game match. On 23 February 2014, he became the first player to repeat as USBC Masters champion in nearly 50 years, and also the first player in history to win a major as the 5th seed, defeating every rival in the championship stepladder final. (Billy Welu won back-to-back Masters in 1964–65.) This was Belmonte's ninth PBA title and third major. He captured his tenth title winning the Oklahoma Open during the PBA's Summer Swing.
His three titles (two majors) in the 2014 season made him an easy choice to win his second consecutive Chris Schenkel PBA Player of the Year award. In doing so, he became the first bowler to repeat as Player of the Year since Walter Ray Williams, Jr. won three consecutive awards from 1996 to 1998. Belmonte led all bowlers in season earnings ($163,788), average (226.71) and competition points (136,454).
2015: Player of the Year Three-Peat
Belmonte again won the USBC Masters on 8 February 2015, defeating amateur A.J. Johnson, a surprise #1 seed, in the final match, 202–157. In doing so, he joined Mike Aulby as the only three-time winners of this tournament, while becoming the only player to win the Masters in three consecutive seasons. On 15 February 2015, in Indianapolis, he captured his 12th PBA title by winning the Barbasol Tournament of Champions for the second consecutive season. As in the USBC Masters, Belmonte won from the #2 seed position, knocking off #4 seed Sean Rash in the semifinals, 235–203, before defeating top seed Rhino Page in the final match, 232–214. It was Belmonte's tenth appearance in the TV finals over the last 12 PBA major tournaments, and his fifth win in a major.
On 20 January 2016, Belmonte was named the Chris Schenkel PBA Player of the Year for 2015, the third consecutive season he won the award. In addition to his two major tournament wins, he had nine other Top Five finishes, led the PBA Tour in earnings ($178,542) and was fourth in average (225.4). He became the first non-American player to win three consecutive POY honors, and the fourth PBA player overall to do so (joining Earl Anthony, Mark Roth and Walter Ray Williams, Jr.).
2016
Belmonte made the five-player stepladder finals as the #3 seed for the 2016 PBA Fire Lake Tournament of Champions, seeking to join Jason Couch as the only players to win in this tournament in three consecutive seasons, but he was knocked off in the second match of the finals by Tom Daugherty. His bid for an unprecedented fourth USBC Masters title the following week also fell short, as he made the Round of 8 but was defeated by Wes Malott in the winner's bracket and Martin Larsen in the loser's bracket, keeping him out of the TV finals.
On 15 February 2016, Belmonte was retroactively awarded a major title for his 2011 PBA Elite Players Championship victory. After the tournament returned to major status in the 2016 season, the PBA voted to award additional major titles to the winners of the three previous Players Championship events (2011, 2013, 2015), stating the tournament "is a members-only event, and includes all of the elements of a major." This gave Belmonte six majors among his PBA Tour titles.
2017: Three Majors in One Year
On 12 February 2017, Belmonte won his 13th PBA title and seventh major in the PBA Players Championship held in Columbus, Ohio. Having qualified as the #1 seed, he defeated #2 seed Anthony Simonsen in his lone TV finals match. On 26 February, as the #1 seed again, he defeated Michael Tang to win his 14th PBA title, fourth USBC Masters title, and his eighth major title, becoming the only bowler to ever win four USBC Masters titles. As one of the top eight money leaders from the start of the 2015 season through the 2017 USBC Masters, Belmonte was invited to participate in the inaugural Main Event PBA Tour Finals in May 2017. Starting as the #1 seed, Jason finished runner-up to E. J. Tackett. Belmonte won his 15th PBA Tour title on 27 August 2017 at the PBA International-WBT Storm Lucky Larsen Masters, held in Malmö, Sweden. On 19 November, Belmonte won the PBA World Championship in Reno, NV for his 16th title and ninth career major. With the win, Belmonte became the first PBA player to ever win three major titles in a season.
Belmonte swept the three major PBA statistical categories for the 2017 season, including a PBA-record 229.39 average for 380 games. He also finished first in earnings ($238,912) and tied for first in wins (4). On 17 January, in a landslide vote, Belmonte won with his fourth PBA Player of the Year Award.
Also in 2017, Belmonte won the Dick Weber Bowling Ambassador Award, an honor given annually by the Bowling Proprietors Association of America (BPAA) to the "bowling athlete who has consistently shown grace on and off the lanes by promoting the sport of bowling in a positive manner."
2018
Belmonte collected his 17th PBA title on 25 February 2018, winning the Mark Roth/Marshall Holman PBA Doubles Championship with partner Bill O'Neill. He qualified as the #1 seed in the 2018 PBA Tour Finals, held 4–6 May in Allen Park, Michigan, and earned a rematch against last season's Finals champion, E. J. Tackett. Belmonte avenged his 2017 loss to Tackett for his 18th PBA Tour title.
2019: Making History, Player of the Decade
On 10 February 2019, Belmonte won his 19th PBA title and tenth major at the PBA Tournament of Champions held in Fairlawn, Ohio. As the #1 seed, he defeated E. J. Tackett 225–196 in the final match to claim the title. Belmonte's victory made him the third player to win three Tournament of Champions after Mike Durbin and Jason Couch, and tied him with Earl Anthony and Pete Weber as the all-time major titles leader (10 majors). Belmonte was also the top qualifier in the 2019 season's next two events – the PBA Players Championship and PBA Indianapolis Open – but he failed to win either event. At the Players Championship, a pair of 7-10 splits – once in the fourth frame and again in the tenth – cost him the match against Anthony Simonsen. At the Indianapolis Open, a few off-hits that refused to carry – once in the eighth frame and again in the tenth – handed the title to Norm Duke. He joined Johnny Petraglia, Earl Anthony, Walter Ray Williams Jr. and Jakob Butturff as the only players in history to qualify as the #1 seed in three consecutive PBA Tour events.
On 19 March 2019, Belmonte captured his 20th PBA title at the PBA Chameleon Championship, part of the 2019 World Series of Bowling in Allen Park, Michigan. He qualified as the #2 seed in the stepladder finals, defeating A.J. Chapman in the semifinal match, then Andres Gomez in the title match.
Two days later on 21 March, Belmonte won his 21st PBA title and record-breaking 11th major at the 2019 PBA World Championship, also part of the World Series of Bowling. Having earned the #1 seed for the stepladder finals, a record third consecutive major in which he was the top qualifier, he defeated Jakob Butturff 236–227 in the championship match to win the title. With his victory, Belmonte now stands alone as the all-time PBA and professional bowling leader in major titles, surpassing Earl Anthony and Pete Weber (who have 10 majors each).
Belmonte's streak of three consecutive majors in which he qualified as the top seed ended at the 2019 USBC Masters. He suffered a finger injury in a pre-tournament charity event, forcing him to alter his grip on the bowling ball, and finished well out of the top 64 that made match play.
Belmonte qualified as the #1 seed for the inaugural PBA Tour Playoffs held in Portland, Maine. He defeated Kyle Troup in the Round of 16 two games to one, but was then eliminated in the Round of 8 by Kris Prather, losing both matches.
On 28 April, Belmonte won the 2019 PBA DHC Japan Invitational held in Tokyo. Qualifying as the #3 seed for the stepladder finals, he defeated Chris Barnes, Takuya Miyazawa, and Jakob Butturff en route to his 22nd PBA Tour title, which tied him with Marshall Holman for 11th most career PBA Tour titles.
Belmonte surpassed $1.5 million (USD) in career PBA Tour earnings during the 2019 season, and led the Tour in titles (4), championship round appearances (12), average (225.62) and earnings (a career-high $288,290). By an overwhelming majority vote, Belmonte won his fifth Chris Schenkel PBA Player of the Year award in 2019.
On 3 January 2020, Bowlers Journal magazine named Belmonte the male Player of the Decade (2010–2019).
2020: Completing the Super Slam
On 23 February 2020, Belmonte won his 23rd PBA Tour title and 12th major at the U.S. Open in Lincoln, Nebraska. As the #2 seed for the stepladder finals, he defeated Dick Allen in the semifinal match and Anthony Simonsen in the championship match. With his victory, Belmonte became the second bowler in PBA history (after Mike Aulby) to complete the Super Slam (winning all five PBA majors), as well as becoming the seventh Triple Crown and third Grand Slam winner.
On 15 March, Belmonte won his 24th PBA Tour title and 13th major at the 2020 PBA World Championship, part of the PBA World Series of Bowling held in Las Vegas, Nevada. As the #1 seed for the finals, he defeated Anthony Simonsen in the championship match 213–190 to claim the win and the $150,000 top prize. This was Belmonte's third PBA World Championship title, winning all three consecutively and becoming the second bowler to do so (the other being Earl Anthony).
On 4 October, Belmonte won the PBA World Series of Bowling XI Chameleon Championship held in Centreville, Virginia (qualifying rounds were held in Las Vegas in March). As the #1 seed, he defeated Brad Miller in the championship match 232–202 to claim his third career (second consecutive) Chameleon Championship title and 25th career PBA Tour title, tying Brian Voss for 10th on the all-time titles list.
On 18 December 2020, Belmonte won the Chris Schenkel PBA Player of the Year Award for the sixth time. In addition to his three titles (two majors) on the season, Belmonte led the Tour in competition points, average (225.31) and earnings (a career-high $293,050).
2021
Despite not winning a title through the first nine events of the 2021 season, Belmonte accumulated enough points to earn a spot in the starting field for the PBA Tour Playoffs, qualifying 14th. However, Belmonte chose to skip the event and instead return home to Australia for the birth of his fourth child. He had also chosen to skip the PBA Tour Finals on 26–27 June, having qualified for that event as well.
2022: Five Titles in One Season
On 29 January, Belmonte captured his 26th PBA Tour title and 14th major at the 2022 PBA Players Championship, held in Euless, Texas. He qualified as the #4 seed for the West Region finals and climbed the stepladder to defeat Jakob Butturff in the region championship match and advance to the championship finals. He qualified as the #2 seed for the finals in a three-game seeding round, then defeated Arturo Quintero in the semifinal match and Sean Rash in the championship match to claim his third PBA Players Championship title.
On 16 February, after winning the Kokomo Championship and his 27th career PBA title, Belmonte surpassed Don Johnson on the all-time titles list, having previously tied with him in ninth place.
On 15 March, Belmonte won the PBA World Series of Bowling XIII Scorpion Championship. As the #4 seed, he climbed the stepladder to claim his 28th career title. On the difficult Scorpion oil pattern, Belmonte rolled games of 247, 211, 242, and 244, while none of his opponents reached 200.
On 20 March, Belmonte won the Lubbock Sports Open for his fourth title of the 2022 season. Qualifying as the #3 seed for the stepladder finals, he defeated Jesper Svensson, Sean Lavery-Spahr, and E. J. Tackett en route to his 29th career PBA Tour title, tying Mike Aulby for 8th most in PBA history. Winning two out of four events in the Storm Cup series, Belmonte won a $10,000 (USD) bonus and the Storm Cup for finishing first in series points.
On 5 June, during the 2022 PBA Tour Finals, Belmonte threw the 34th televised 300 game in PBA Tour history. With Kyle Troup rolling a 300 game earlier in the telecast, it marked the first time in the Tour's 60-plus year history where a televised event featured more than one perfect game. Also, Belmonte joined Sean Rash, François Lavoie, and Chris Via as the fourth player to throw multiple televised 300 games in PBA Tour events. He would go on to sweep Dom Barrett 2-0 in the championship for his 30th career PBA Tour title, tying Dick Weber for 7th on the all-time titles list.
Belmonte led the 2022 PBA Tour in titles (a career-high five) and earnings ($302,525), while winning the Harry Smith PBA Points Leader award (34,230). Jason made nine championship round appearances and posted a 20–4 record in championship round matches. On November 4, the PBA announced that Belmonte had won his seventh Chris Schenkel PBA Player of the Year award, tying Walter Ray Williams Jr. for the most such awards in PBA history.
2023: 15th major championship
On 19 March 2023, after failing to make the championship round in the first five tournaments, Belmonte climbed the stepladder as the #6 seed to win his 31st PBA title and fifteenth major at the PBA Tournament of Champions, defeating top seed E. J. Tackett 246–179 in the championship match. With this victory, he became the first person in PBA history to win this event four times.
In the 2023 PBA World Championship, Belmonte sat in the 12th and final match play position and over 300 pins out of the final TV spot before posting an incredible 11–1 match play record on 20 April to climb to the #4 seed. In the final round on 23 April, he defeated Santtu Tahvanainen, Jakob Butturff and Anthony Simonsen en route to the final match, but he then lost to E. J. Tackett, 254–247, to finish runner-up for the second time in this event.
On May 21, Belmonte won the season "rubber match" against Tackett, albeit in a non-title event. In the PBA Super Slam Cup, a special made-for-television event featuring the 2023 major champions, Belmonte qualified as the top seed. Right after Tackett rolled a 300 game in the semifinal match, Belmonte posted the first ten strikes of the final game before leaving a 7-10 split on his eleventh shot. He defeated Tackett 286–246 to take home the Super Slam Cup, a custom WWE belt, and the first prize of $100,000.
In the PBA Tour Finals on June 25, 2023 Belmonte rolled the 35th televised 300 game in PBA Tour history, becoming the Tour's only player ever with three televised perfect games. The feat occurred in the second match of the race-to-two Group 2 finals against Kris Prather, knotting the match at one game each. Belmonte would lose the ninth-tenth frame roll-off against Prather, ending his quest for another title.
Despite only one title in 2023, Belmonte finished third in Tour earnings with $338,825.
Professional wins
PBA Tour wins (31)
RO = After splitting the two-game final, Belmonte won in a 9th/10th frame roll-off.
+ = Belmonte won a $10,000 perfect game bonus.
Major championships
Wins (15)
Results timeline
Results not in chronological order.
1 – there were two PBA World Championships held in the 2012–2013 season.
"T" = Tied for a place"W" = West Region Finals
World Series of Bowling
Wins (5)
Results timeline
Results not in chronological order.
"T" = Tied for a place
PBA Tour career summary
* As of 17 October 2023
Personal life
Belmonte is married to Kimberly Shapter, who is a registered nurse, and together they have four children: daughter Aria (b. December 2009), son Hugo (b. April 2012), daughter Sylvie (b. January 2016) and son Bowie (b. June 2021). The family resides in Orange, New South Wales.
References
External links
Official Jason Belmonte Bowling Jerseys & Apparel
Industry profile of Jason Belmonte
Jason Belmonte: The InterviewUnited States Bowling Congress, 10 November 2009.
Jason Belmonte: player profileProfessional Bowlers Association
1983 births
Living people
People from Orange, New South Wales
Australian ten-pin bowling players
Members of the Order of Australia
Sportsmen from New South Wales |
4521503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuckist%20demonstrations | Stuckist demonstrations | Stuckist demonstrations since 2000 have been a key part of the Stuckist art group's activities and have succeeded in giving them a high-profile both in Britain and abroad. Their primary agenda is the promotion of painting and opposition to conceptual art.
Their demonstrations are particularly associated with the Turner Prize at Tate Britain (sometimes dressed as clowns to mock the museum), but have also been carried out at other venues, including Trafalgar Square and the Saatchi Gallery. There have also been other protests in the United States by US Stuckists, and there have been Stuckist events against the Iraq War in 2003.
They have received extensive media coverage for these events both in the UK and internationally, and become possible suspects for any London art protests, as in Matthew Collings' description of the opening of Tate Modern in 2000: "Guilt-free art lovers crossed picket lines put up by envious artist-outsiders. They didn't know who was protesting out there. Maybe it was the Stuckists."
There is, however, no mention of any such demonstration on the Stuckism website. Sir Nicholas Serota, director of the Tate gallery, has recognised the demonstrations as a contribution to artistic debate, and the Tate archive contains material from the demonstrations, which are now a staple feature of the Turner Prize process.
The Stuckists
The Stuckists were founded in 1999 by Charles Thomson and Billy Childish to promote figurative painting and oppose conceptual art. Thomson derived the name of the group from an insult by Tracey Emin to her ex-boyfriend Childish that he was "stuck". The original group of 13 artists has now grown to an international movement of 183 groups in 44 countries, as of November 2008. (Childish left the group in 2001.)
Clowns at the Tate
The Stuckists have demonstrated annually at Tate Britain on the occasion of the Turner Prize since 2000, and have been featured extensively in the media for their appearances. The demonstrations have adopted a variety of themes to make their point, which is simply that the prize is named after a famous painter, but painting is neglected by it in favour of other media. Their Turner Prize manifesto comments: "The only person who wouldn't be in danger of winning the Turner Prize is Turner." This is a leaflet they have handed out to the public and prize ceremony guests. Although they have always been outside the building during the actual prize ceremony, they have, on two occasions, been mentioned by the guest of honour on live TV, just before the announcement of the winner—by Sir Peter Blake in 2003 and by Culture Minister, David Lammy in 2005.
2000
The first Stuckist demonstration took place outside Tate Britain on Turner Prize day, 28 November 2000. The group took care to work within the regulations in order to subvert them and ridicule the institution. They were dressed as clowns, and had obtained advance permission to enter the museum in this costume. They announced on their web site (and in the London Evening Standard):
Damien Hirst's godmother, the late Margaret Walsh, announced the "Art Clown of the Year" for "outstanding idiocy in the visual arts" was Charles Saatchi, the prize being a custard pie, which the winner was expected to purchase and administer on themselves. This award continued to be made in subsequent years.
They then paraded outside Tate Britain in clown costumes, walked into the museum and around the exhibition itself. To coincide with the Tate's show, they also staged their own concurrent show The Real Turner Prize Show with simultaneous shows of the same name in Germany and Australia. The Guardian announced the winner of the real Turner Prize with the headline "Turner Winner Riles the Stuckists".
2001
There was a demonstration in ordinary clothes at the Prize press launch on 6 November. The Independent on Sunday said, "In certain respects the Turner Prize never changes: art fleetingly makes the front pages; the dreary Stuckists protest outside the Tate and the winner gets a cheque for 20 grand."
Another demonstration took place on the Prize ceremony day, 9 December: this reached a worldwide TV audience, when it was syndicated by Reuters. The work of one nominee, Martin Creed, was an empty room, where the lights went on and off every five seconds. The demonstrators dressed in clown costume and shone torches in protest. Ekow Eshun wrote, "if scandal equated directly to success then this year's winners should probably be the Stuckists, the ragged band of artist malcontents who've turned their annual placard-waving anti-Turner protest outside the Tate into a kind of art event of their own that now generates press attention from around the world."
The Stuckists gave their "Art Clown of the Year Award" to Sir Nicholas Serota. Other nominees were Charles Saatchi (the winner in 2000), Norman Rosenthal and Sarah Kent.
2002
There was a demonstration at the Turner Prize press launch on 29 October, and one in clown costume on the prize day, 8 December. The "Art Clown of the Year Award" was given to Serota again, with the commendation, "The judges were extremely impressed by Sir Nicholas's ability to create a Turner Prize show which was even worse than last year's", and announced in The Daily Telegraph with the headline: "A custard pie for Serota as Turner Prize winner named." Meanwhile, the Stuckism International Gallery staged The Real Turner Prize Show 2002.
2003
In 2003, the Stuckists displayed two blow-up sex dolls to parody Jake and Dinos Chapman's bronze (painted) sculpture modelled on one. As guests, including Jay Jopling, Tracey Emin, Victoria Miro and Jake Chapman, arrived, they were greeted with the announcement, "Turner Prize preview—see the original here and the copy inside." Sarah Kent, art editor of Time Out, commented, "Fucking Stuckists... yes, you can quote me." Inside Tate Britain, on live television, Serota introduced Sir Peter Blake, who before he announced the winner, started his speech: "Thank you very much Nick. I'm quite surprised to be here tonight, because two days ago I had a phone call asking if I would be a judge for the Not the Turner Prize. And two years ago I was asked by the Stuckists to dress as a clown and come and be on the steps outside, so I am thrilled and slightly surprised to be here." There were cheers from the guests.
2004
There were two Stuckist demonstrations, one at the press launch on 19 October and one at the prize-giving day on 6 December. On 10 October, Charles Saatchi had been quoted in the press as saying there were not enough painters in the Prize—"For the last 10 years, only five of the 40 Turner Prize artists have been pure painters."
The Stuckists turned this to their advantage with placards such as: "Charles Saatchi & Stuckists v the Tate" and "No painters in the Turner Prize for the last 4 years!"
The Turner show itself was characterised by video and computer imagery, including a virtual tour of one of Osama bin Laden's former residences. Thomson was quoted by the BBC website: "A lot of the stuff this year would be suitable for a Channel 4 documentary. There is no need for this to be in the Tate gallery when television does exactly the same thing."
To bring their point home, the Stuckists handed out a leaflet which read, with the mock tone of officialdom: "We apologise for the lack of art in this year's Turner Prize. As an alternative, you will find a display of enthusiasts' television programmes and computer games."
They also announced:
2005
The Stuckists demonstrated outside the Turner Prize on 6 December 2005 against the Tate's purchase of its trustee, Chris Ofili's work, The Upper Room. They displayed placards with slogans such as "£25,000 Turner Prize, £705,000 Trustee Prize", and wore monkey and elephant masks, referring to the monkeys Ofili had painted in his work, as well as the trademark balls of elephant dung it was propped on.
The demonstrators were approached by Sir Nicholas Serota, and the atmosphere was tense, according to Thomson: "I thought he was going to explode ... I looked at his face and I thought, this guy's going to lose it and hit me, or he's going to burst into tears."
Andrew Marr, a guest at the evening Prize reception, commented, "When they picketed us, the Stuckists seemed to me affable and intelligent people", although he strongly disagreed with them over Ofili's work.
That evening in front of guests at the award ceremony in what Marr described as a "moment of rare passion" and an "unusual, possibly unprecedented" move, Serota spoke out with "an angry defence" of the purchase, saying, "I defy anybody who has actually taken the time and trouble to see the work not to agree with the trustees' decision to acquire this most extraordinary and important piece of work."
Following this, David Lammy, the Culture Minister, made a brief speech before presenting the award, commenting, "Every year, the Turner Prize makes contemporary art the talk of the airwaves ... Stuckists threaten never to paint again", (although there is no evidence they had ever made such a statement).
The Stuckists were included in reports on the Prize by the four UK broadsheets and in a Reuters syndication internationally, where Thomson commented, "The Tate is run by a self-serving clique who hide behind secretiveness" and "The real prize at the Tate is becoming a trustee. It's worth far more money." The winner, Simon Starling had converted a shed into a boat and back again; The Times quoted Thomson that "The Turner should be renamed the B&Q diy prize."
2006
The Stuckists handed Sir Nicholas Serota a demonstration leaflet with a Turner Prize "health warning" on one side (claiming that "the exhibits may cause drowsiness or headaches") and Thomson's painting of him on the other. He held it up and said, "Can't you make another image?" Tate chairman Paul Myners informed demonstrating artist, John Bourne, "We are grateful for the extra publicity the Stuckists have given the Tate".
The Stuckists picketed the 2006 ceremony with placards bearing the slogan 'Is It All A Fix?', a quote from Turner judge Lynn Barber, who had broken with convention by writing about the judging process in The Observer.<ref name="Barber">Barber, Lynn (2006)"My Turner's over. Phew! The Observer, 10 December 2006. Accessed 16 January 2007</ref> She encountered the demonstrators, whilst going outside from the judging to have a cigarette, afterwards saying she was horrified to see her words displayed: "The words were taken completely out of context (I dread to think how often celebs have said that to me in interviews, and how often I have disbelieved them) but now I am stuck with being a hero of the Stuckist tendency. I scuttled back into the Tate and survived three hours without nicotine rather than risk encountering them again. Thomson's quote that winner Tomma Abts' work resembled "doodles done by a lobotomised computer" appeared in The Times and in media abroad.
2007
The Stuckists announced that they were not demonstrating for the first time since 2000, because of "the lameness of this year’s show, which does not merit the accolade of the traditional demo". They criticised the "recycling" of nominees as being laziness by the jury (two of the four had been nominated in previous years) and stated that Tate Chairman, Paul Myners had previously thanked them for giving the Tate extra publicity. They also claimed that Mark Wallinger had copied their idea of walking round a museum dressed in a costume, that he was indistinguishable from a Stuckist demonstrator, and that his work was "utter bilge", which had "all the excitement of watching a pensioner do the shopping at Asda".
2008
There was a demonstration by the artists, wearing black top hats, on 29 September, the day before the show opened, when they gave out a leaflet with a "Not wanted" poster for Serota and button badges with the text "The Turner Prize is crap", although they had not yet seen the exhibition. Condemning the Tate's promotion of conceptual art and the lack of figurative painting in the show (citing Stella Vine as one painter who has been passed over), Thomson said, "The work is not of sufficient quality in terms of accomplishment, innovation or originality of thought to warrant exhibition in a national museum." Demonstration material is stored in the Tate archive and Tate officials have thanked the demonstrators for generating publicity; Tate Britain director, Stephen Deuchar, said, "In a sense, that is the whole point of the prize: to encourage public debate." Richard Brooks, writing in The Sunday Times said of the Turner Prize show, "the mediocre standard has almost turned me into a supporter of the Stuckists."
Turner Prize manifesto
Childish and Thomson issued a Turner Prize manifesto, dated 1 September 2000. The text is:
Tate response
Sir Nicholas Serota wrote to the Stuckists in 2005, rejecting a donation of Stuckist paintings, but saying he wanted to ensure "the Tate archive, as the national record of art in Britain, properly represents the contribution of the Stuckist movement to debates about contemporary art in recent years." In 2006, Tate chairman, Paul Myners, thanked the Stuckists for providing the Tate with extra publicity.
New Blood feud with Saatchi
The Stuckists had declared their opposition to Charles Saatchi from the outset, criticising what they saw as the vacuity of Britart: "You can't help feeling that Saatchi's insipid sensationalism would make Duchamp wish that he'd never ever exhibited his piss-pot in the first place and had become a water-colourist instead."
A dead shark isn't art 2003
In 2003, the Saatchi Gallery re-opened at County Hall with a Damien Hirst retrospective, which included the exhibition of his refurbished piece, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, a shark in a tank of formaldehyde. On the same day as the Saatchi opening, the Stuckism International Gallery in Shoreditch—under the title A Dead Shark Isn't Art— exhibited another dead shark, which had first been put on public display in 1989 (two years before Hirst's was first shown) by Eddie Saunders in his Shoreditch shop, JD Electrical Supplies. The Stuckists suggested Hirst may have seen this at the time and copied it, and pointed out that whether Hirst plagiarised Saunders work or not, Saunders was the real pioneering artist.
Stella Vine and OFT 2004
In February 2004, Saatchi bought Hi Paul Can You Come Over, a painting of Diana, Princess of Wales, with blood coming from the mouth, by ex-stripper Stella Vine (it was then exhibited in Saatchi's next show, New Blood). There was international media reporting of this. Vine was talked of as "the new star of the Brit art scene", commenting, "I didn't think anyone really liked what I was doing", and that she had only been painting for four years "after accompanying her son Jamie, 18, to Hampstead School of Art" (a private college).
This caused a strong reaction from the Stuckists. Vine had for a short time been a member of their group, and they had first exhibited her in 2001, when she was also (briefly) married to Charles Thomson. She had even been a nominee for their Real Turner Prize Show. The Independent newspaper validated these claims and reported Thomson's complaint that Saatchi had been "stealing their identity as he tires of the Britart scene".
Thomson and eleven other people (including non-Stuckists, such as David Lee and Christopher Fiddes of the Movement for Classical Renewal) then reported Saatchi to the Office of Fair Trading. The grievance was:
However, the complaint was not upheld and the OFT pronounced, "We do not have reasonable grounds to suspect that Charles Saatchi is in a dominant position in any relevant market", which Thomson turned to advantage by spotting the unintended slight and remarking that it was "just another cruel smack in the face" for Saatchi.
The Triumph of Painting 2005
The Stuckists' concerns were not alleviated, when, at the end of 2004, Saatchi announced that he was putting his Britart holding into storage and devoting the next year to exhibitions featuring only painting. A few months prior to this announcement, Saatchi had stood outside the Stuckism International gallery, reading not only a placard that declared "STUCKIST ART IN 2001 IS SAATCHI ART IN 2004" (referring to Stella Vine), but also the anti-conceptual art, pro-painting Stuckist manifesto, which was on display.
Thomson responded immediately in the press to the announcement of Saatchi's change of direction, with the accusation: "almost verbatim, he's stolen the introduction to our manifesto."
When the show, The Triumph of Painting, opened at the Saatchi Gallery on 25 October 2005, the Stuckists mounted a picket outside, handing leaflets to the incoming guests (including Saatchi's wife Nigella Lawson), and displaying placards stating, "Stuckism leads, Saatchi follows" and "Stuckism in 1999 is Saatchi in 2005".
They also wore tall hats with Saatchi's face on, and Thomson was photographed inside the gallery opening, wearing a T-shirt with the words "Saatchi the Stuckist".
Other UK demonstrations
Trafalgar Square
The Stuckists demonstrated in 2001 in Trafalgar Square, when Rachel Whiteread's statue, Monument, was unveiled. This was a resin cast of the fourth (vacant) plinth in the square, and was inverted on the existing plinth. It represents the type of conceptual art that the Stuckists strongly oppose. The statue was unveiled by the then-Culture Secretary, Chris Smith, against whom Thomson was standing in the 2001 United Kingdom general election as a Stuckist candidate. At this point Stuckist protesters (one of whom was Stella Vine) in the watching crowd held up protest placards. Thomson jumped over the metal crowd barrier onto the now-vacant podium and used the PA system to make an address about the complete absence of paintings in that year's Turner Prize (referring to a comment by Smith the previous year that there should be more paintings in the Prize). At the same time he held up a placard, which read, "Mr Smith, do you really think this stupid plinth is a work of art?"
When the PA system was switched off by an official, Thomson made his way back through the crowd and was surprised to find that an angry Serota had followed him.
Serota: "That was a cheap shot, using another artist's work to promote your ideas."
Thomson: "It's Dada."
Serota: "So that gives you the right to do whatever you want to do whenever you want to do it?"
Thomson: "You and a few people like you control the art world and what goes on in it, and as artists this is the only way we can put our point of view across."
(At this point Serota walked off.)
Thomson: "That was Sir Nicholas Serota, the director of the Tate Gallery. Three cheers for Sir Nicholas."
The Stuckism website headed its report on the incident with a quote from Serota's book Experience or Interpretation: "a willingness ... to risk offence by unexpected confrontation can yield rewards"
The Death of Conceptual Art
In 1999, the Stuckists art group had declared themselves "opposed to the sterility of the white wall gallery system", and, three years later, they opened their own Stuckism International gallery (with coloured walls) in Shoreditch in a street adjoining the White Cube gallery, which represents Tracey Emin and Damien Hirst. To celebrate the opening on 25 July 2002, they dressed as clowns, processed the short distance from Charlotte Road over Old Street and deposited a coffin, marked "The Death of Conceptual Art", outside the White Cube's door with the comment, "This is the official date for the demise of conceptual art.""The Death of Conceptual Art", A Stuckist on Stuckism, stuckism.com Retrieved 28 March 2006
General election
In 2001, Stuckist Co-founder, Charles Thomson stood as a Stuckist candidate for the 2001 British General Election, on an anti-Britart ticket, in the constituency of Islington South and Finsbury, against Chris Smith, the Culture Secretary. Thomson picked up 108 votes (0.4%).
Cutting the string
In spring 2003, artist Cornelia Parker was allowed by the authorities to wrap Auguste Rodin’s sculpture The Kiss (1886) in Tate Britain in a mile of string. Many people felt it offensive to the original artwork and an act of vandalism rather than art. As a reaction, Stuckist artist Piers Butler cut the string, while couples stood around engaging in live kissing. However, this was described as an individual action outside the main Stuckist group by Thomson, who nevertheless took the opportunity to remark: "I was puzzled that Parker had been allowed to do her string-wrapping—thereby using another artist's work to promote her ideas—as this was precisely the allegation that an enraged Serota had thrown at me in Trafalgar Square and dubbed a 'cheap shot'."
US Stuckist demonstrations
Seattle Pigs on Parade
In May 2001, the Seattle Stuckist group (J. Puma, Z.F. Lively, Amanda Perrin and Brett Hamil) protested with placards, such as "Art-vertising is bad for the soul" and "Tacky and lame", against "Pigs on Parade", large fibreglass pigs which had been installed in the city and decorated by artists to make money for charity. Their objection was to the commercial devaluation of art through "an insidious trend in corporate art-vertising. It appeals to the lowest public tastes by providing a kitschy, totally predigested and inoffensive McArt for the masses." (Social or ethical comment was banned from the designs.) King 5 News mentioned the group (with a "glib chuckle"), but otherwise the event went unreported. There was a certain amount of public support, and Hamil concluded: "For some reason, Stuckists are saddled with the task of vocalizing what everyone already knows, and yet that doesn't make it any less valid. It just makes it that much more regrettable that no one's said it yet."
Clown Trial of President Bush
In order to "highlight the fact that the Iraq War does not have the support of the United Nations, thus violating a binding contract with the UN", The Clown Trial of President Bush took place at 7 p.m. on 21 March 2003 on the steps of the New Haven Federal Courthouse, staged by local Stuckist artists dressed in clown costume, led by Jesse Richards, Nicholas Watson and Tony Juliano. One of the participants was "a public defender for the state of CT. He thought it would be cool to dress up with us as clowns and do the thing. He ended up playing the clown judge. The courthouse that he works at is a block away from the federal courthouse where we did this."
Simultaneously the New Haven Stuckism International gallery run by them opened a War on Bush show, including work from Brazil, Germany and the UK, while the London Stuckism International Gallery staged a "War on Blair" show. The Yale Herald reported with the headline, "Stuckists scoff at 'crap,' war". Richards took the opportunity to comment, "Duchamp would go over to the Yale University Art Gallery and he would say, 'This is crap,' and he would go paint a picture."
Protest shows and art
The Stuckists have made use of their art shows in order also to promote a message. The name of the group itself is an ironic pre-emptive riposte to their anticipated enemies—as represented in the first instance by former colleague-turned-YBA, Tracey Emin, who had called the group's co-founder, Billy Childish, "stuck". The group's first show in 1999 was titled, Stuck! Stuck! Stuck! In 2000, they made an overt challenge with a show titled, The Resignation of Sir Nicholas Serota. A painting in the show, Sir Nicholas Serota Makes an Acquisitions Decision by Charles Thomson, has since been reproduced in the media many times and become an iconic image for the Stuckists.
In 2005, another show was called: "Painting Is the Medium of Yesterday"—Paul Myners CBE, Chairman of Tate Gallery, Chairman of Marks and Spencer, Chairman of Aspen Insurance, Chairman of Guardian Media, Director of Bank of England, Director of Bank of New York. A Show of Paintings by the Stuckists, as Refused by the Tate Gallery. Guaranteed 100% Free of Elephant Dung.The Stuckists Punk Victorian exhibition at the Walker Art Gallery during the 2004 Liverpool Biennial including a free-standing screen with paintings attacking the Turner Prize and the Tate gallery.
Michael Dickinson has exhibited political and satirical collages, addressing the Iraq War and world leaders, particularly US President George W. Bush. In 2006 he was told he faced prosecution in Turkey, where he lives, for his collage Best in Show, showing the Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdoğan as a dog. He was subsequently prosecuted for a similar collage, Good Boy, and acquitted in a case that had implications for Turkey's application for membership of the European Union.
Anti-Stuckist demonstration
There has only been one known anti-Stuckist demonstration, which was in 1999, when two Chinese performance artists jumped on Tracey Emin's installation My Bed, in the Turner Prize at Tate Britain. The pair had various words written on their bodies, including "Anti-Stuckism". Their explanation is that they were opposed to the Stuckists, who are anti-performance art. According to Fiachra Gibbons of The Guardian'', the event "will go down in art history as the defining moment of the new and previously unheard of Anti-Stuckist Movement."
See also
Art manifesto
Demonstration
Notes and references
The online essay "A Stuckist on Stuckism" on stuckism.com is taken from the book:
Ed. Frank Milner (2004), The Stuckists Punk Victorian National Museums Liverpool,
External links
Demos on Stuckism official web site
The Stuckists Turner Prize Manifesto
Excerpts from the secret diary of Ella Guru on the 2000 Tate demonstration
"Why I Demonstrated Against the Turner Prize for Seven Years" by Charles Thomson
2005 demonstration flyer in the Tate Gallery archive
Stuckism
Tate galleries |
4521537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BC%20Dai | Lü Dai | Lü Dai (161 – 21 October 256), courtesy name Dinggong, was a military general of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, Lü Dai started his career as a minor official in his home commandery in present-day Taizhou, Jiangsu before migrating south to the Jiangdong (or Wu) region, where he became an assistant magistrate and later a county chief under the warlord Sun Quan. He rose to prominence after his successes in suppressing some rebellions in Sun Quan's territories. Around the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period, Sun Quan, who later became the founding emperor of Eastern Wu, appointed Lü Dai as the governor of the restive Jiao Province in the south. During his ten-year-long tenure in Jiao Province, Lü Dai quelled a number of revolts, maintained peace in the area, and contacted some foreign kingdoms in Mainland Southeast Asia and made them pay tribute to Eastern Wu. In 231, he was recalled to Wuchang to oversee civil and military affairs in Jing Province (present-day Hubei and Hunan) alongside his colleague Lu Xun. Throughout the 230s, he suppressed a few rebellions in Wu territories. By 240, as he neared the age of 80, he was still in good physical health and competent enough to perform his duties. He rose to the position of Senior General-in-Chief in 246 and later Grand Marshal in 252 during the reign of Sun Quan's successor Sun Liang. He died aged 95 and was one of the longest-living notable persons of the Three Kingdoms period.
Early career
Lü Dai was from Hailing County (), Guangling Commandery (), which is in present-day Taizhou, Jiangsu. He started his career in the late Eastern Han dynasty as a low-level bureaucrat in the county and commandery offices. When chaos broke out throughout China in the 180s and 190s, he fled south to the Jiangdong (or Wu) region for shelter.
In the year 200, after Sun Quan became the warlord ruling over the Jiangdong territories, Lü Dai sought a career under him and was appointed as an assistant official in Wu Commandery. During an inspection tour of Wu Commandery, Sun Quan summoned all the county chiefs and assistant officials for a review of every county's stores and legal administration. Lü Dai impressed Sun Quan when he responded well to his questions and showed that everything under his watch was in perfect order. Sun Quan then reassigned him to be a clerk in his personal administrative office, and later appointed him as the Chief of Yuyao County. During his tenure, Lü Dai recruited over 1,000 able-bodied men to serve in Sun Quan's army.
Pacifying a rebellion in Kuaiji
When Lü He () and Qin Lang () led an uprising in the five counties in the east of Kuaiji Commandery (around present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang), Sun Quan commissioned Lü Dai as a Colonel and ordered him to assist Jiang Qin in dealing with the rebels. Lü Dai and Jiang Qin succeeded in their mission and managed to pacify the five counties and capture the two rebel leaders. Lü Dai was then promoted to General of the Household of Illustrious Trust () as a reward for his achievement.
Aborted mission to Hanzhong
In 211, Lü Dai, with Yin Yi () as his deputy, led 2,000 troops west to lure Zhang Lu, a warlord based in Hanzhong Commandery, into a trap at Hanxing Commandery (漢興郡; around present-day Baoji, Shaanxi). However, Zhang Lu suspected something fishy so he did not respond. Sun Quan then ordered Lü Dai and his men to return to Jiangdong.
On the journey back, Lü Dai passed by Baidicheng (in present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing) and met Sun Quan's ally Liu Bei, who was leading an army to seize control of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) from its governor Liu Zhang. He saw that Liu Bei's army was in disarray and about half of his troops either deserted or were dead, and felt convinced that Liu Bei would not succeed in conquering Yi Province. After returning to Jiangdong, he told Sun Quan, who in turn asked his adviser Wu Fan (), who had previously predicted that Liu Bei would conquer Yi Province. Wu Fan replied: "My prediction is based on Heaven's will. What Lü Dai saw were the actions of people." Wu Fan's prediction came true as Liu Bei did eventually conquer Yi Province by 214.
Role in the Sun–Liu territorial dispute
In 215, when Sun Quan had a territorial dispute with his ally Liu Bei in Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), he ordered Lü Dai, with Sun Mao () and nine other officers as his deputies, to lead troops to seize control of the three commanderies of Changsha, Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan) and Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan). The officials in four counties – Ancheng, You, Yongxin and Chaling – moved to Yinshan County (陰山縣; southeast of present-day Hengdong County, Hunan), where they declared hostility towards Lü Dai. In response, Lü Dai led his troops to besiege and attack Yinshan County, and succeeded in forcing the rebellious officials to surrender. The three commanderies in southern Jing Province thus came firmly under Sun Quan's control.
Sun Quan left Lü Dai in charge of Changsha. Around the time, Wu Dang (), the Chief of Ancheng County, conspired with a military officer Yuan Long () to rebel against Sun Quan and defect to Guan Yu, the general guarding Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province. Wu Dang managed to occupy You County while Yuan Long stationed himself at Liling County. Sun Quan sent his general Lu Su to attack Wu Dang; Lu Su succeeded in defeating Wu Dang and recapturing the counties while Wu Dang fled after his defeat. In the meantime, Lü Dai attacked Liling County and succeeded in capturing and executing Yuan Long. He was then assigned to serve as the Administrator of Luling Commandery (廬陵郡; around present-day Ji'an, Jiangxi).
As the governor of Jiao Province
In 220, Lü Dai was appointed as the Inspector () of the southern Jiao Province (covering present-day Guangdong, Guangxi and parts of northern Vietnam) to replace Bu Zhi. After Lü Dai assumed office, Qian Bo (), a bandit chief from Gaoliang Commandery (高涼郡; around present-day Yangjiang, Guangdong) led his followers to surrender to him. Lü Dai accepted Qian Bo's surrender and appointed him as the Commandant of the West Section of Gaoliang Commandery. Later, he also quelled an uprising by indigenous tribes in Yulin Commandery (鬱林郡; around present-day Guigang, Guangxi).
Around the time, there was a bandit chief Wang Jin () from Zhenyang County (湞陽縣; east of present-day Yingde, Guangdong) who frequently led his followers to raid the borders of Nanhai Commandery (南海郡; around present-day Guangzhou, Guangdong). Under orders from Sun Quan, Lü Dai led his troops to attack the bandits and succeeded in capturing Wang Jin alive. He then sent Wang Jin as a captive to the Wu imperial capital, Jianye (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). Throughout the campaign, he had killed, captured and released about 10,000 bandits in total. In recognition of Lü Dai's efforts, Sun Quan promoted him to General Who Stabilises the South (), granted him acting imperial authority, and enfeoffed him as a Marquis of a Chief District ().
Suppressing Shi Hui's rebellion
When Shi Xie, the Administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery, died in 226, Sun Quan commissioned Shi Xie's third son, Shi Hui (), as a general and appointed him as the Administrator of Jiuzhen Commandery (九真郡; around present-day Thanh Hóa, Vietnam). He also appointed Chen Shi () as the new Administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery to succeed Shi Xie. Around the time, Sun Quan wanted to split Jiao Province and create another province, Guang Province (): Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen () and Rinan () commanderies would remain part of Jiao Province; Cangwu (), Nanhai (), Yulin () and Hepu () commanderies would form the new Guang Province. He then appointed Dai Liang () and Lü Dai as the Inspectors of Jiao and Guang provinces respectively.
When Dai Liang and Chen Shi came to assume their new appointments, Shi Hui refused to accept the new arrangement and he started a rebellion by sending his forces to block Dai Liang and Chen Shi. After obtaining approval from Sun Quan, Lü Dai led 3,000 troops to attack Shi Hui and quell the rebellion. When someone warned Lü Dai to be careful because the Shi clan had lived in Jiao Province for generations and had strong support from the locals, Lü Dai replied: "Although Shi Hui has decided to rebel, he doesn't expect me to show up with an army. If I launch a swift attack now, I can catch him off guard and defeat him easily. If I don't act fast, the others will start thinking of rebelling too, while Shi Hui will have more time to strengthen his defences. If the barbarians in all the seven commanderies combine forces and join him in his rebellion, I don't think even the most brilliant military commanders can deal with them."
Lü Dai then led his troops to the rendezvous point at Hepu County, where he combined forces with Dai Liang and prepared to attack Shi Hui. When Shi Hui learnt that Lü Dai had showed up at Jiaozhi Commandery with an army, he was so shocked and terrified that he did not know what to do as he did not expect Lü Dai to arrive so quickly. He had no choice but to lead his brothers out of the city and surrender to Lü Dai. Lü Dai later executed all the Shi brothers and sent their heads to Sun Quan. Gan Li () and Huan Zhi (), two military officers who used to serve under Shi Hui, rallied their forces to attack Lü Dai to avenge their master. Lü Dai managed to defeat them and eliminate all remaining opposing forces. As a reward for his achievement, Lü Dai was promoted from a district marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Panyu" ().
After Shi Hui's rebellion, Sun Quan abolished the newly created Guang Province and restored the original Jiao Province. After pacifying Jiaozhi Commandery, Lü Dai led his troops further south into Jiuzhen Commandery to attack opposing forces, and killed or captured tens of thousands of enemies. He also tasked the officials under him with spreading Han Chinese culture in the southern lands with the aim of sinicising the non-Han Chinese peoples living there. At the same time, he sent emissaries to contact the rulers of foreign kingdoms such as Funan, Lâm Ấp and Tangming () in Mainland Southeast Asia, and make them pay tribute to Wu. Sun Quan lauded Lü Dai for his efforts and promoted him to General Who Guards the South ().
Pacifying rebellions in Wuling, Luling, Kuaiji and Nanhai
In early 231, after seeing that Jiao Province was peaceful, Sun Quan reassigned Lü Dai to a new post at Oukou (漚口; in present-day Changsha, Hunan).
Around March or April 231, when the indigenous tribes living in Wuxi (五谿; literally "five streams"; referring to an area around present-day Huaihua, Hunan) rebelled against Wu rule, Sun Quan ordered Lü Dai to lead 50,000 troops to suppress the rebellion. He also ordered Pan Jun to supervise and assist Lü Dai as the latter conducted the military operation against the rebels. Pan Jun ensured that promises were kept, and rewards and punishments were given out fairly. By December 234, the rebellion ended with over 10,000 rebels killed or taken captive. The indigenous tribes also became so drastically weakened that they could not rebel again in a long time.
In 233, Sun Quan ordered Lü Dai and Pan Zhang to lead their troops to station at Lukou (陸口; at Lushui Lake near present-day Chibi, Hubei). Later, he instructed them to relocate their garrison to the nearby Puqi (蒲圻; present-day Chibi, Hubei).
In 235, rebellions broke out almost simultaneously in three commanderies: Luling (廬陵; around present-day Ji'an, Jiangxi), eastern Kuaiji (around present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang) and Nanhai (南海; around present-day Guangzhou, Guangdong). Li Huan () and Lu He () led the rebels in Luling; Sui Chun () led the rebels in eastern Kuaiji; and Luo Li () led the rebels in Nanhai. In response, Sun Quan ordered Lü Dai, with Liu Zuan () and Tang Zi as his deputies, to lead troops to separately quell each rebellion. After Sui Chun surrendered, Lü Dai appointed him as a Lieutenant-General and recruited him as a subordinate. He also defeated the other rebel forces, executed the rebel leaders Li Huan, Lu He and Luo Li, and sent their heads to Sun Quan. Sun Quan issued an imperial decree to praise Lü Dai for his achievements in quelling the rebellions and restoring peace in the three commanderies.
Following Pan Jun's death in 239, Lü Dai succeeded him by overseeing all civil and documentation-related affairs in Jing Province. He also moved to Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei) to work alongside Lu Xun, but continued to remain in charge of the garrison at Puqi (蒲圻; present-day Chibi, Hubei).
Quelling Liao Shi's rebellion
In December 239 or January 240, a Wu officer Liao Shi () started a rebellion in Linhe Commandery (臨賀郡; around present-day Hezhou, Guangxi) and led his followers to attack the neighbouring commanderies of Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan) and Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan). Liao Shi's revolt also inspired the locals in Jiao Province's Cangwu (蒼梧; around present-day Wuzhou, Guangxi) and Yulin (鬱林; around present-day Guigang, Guangxi) commanderies to rebel against Eastern Wu as well.
When Lü Dai received news of the rebellions, he immediately assembled his troops and led them to attack the rebels. They even travelled at night in order to reach their destination in the shortest possible time. Sun Quan sent an emissary to catch up with Lü Dai and officially appoint him as the Governor of Jiao Province (). At the same time, he ordered other officers such as Tang Zi to lead their units to Jiao Province to support Lü Dai. After about a year, Lü Dai succeeded in defeating the rebels and restoring peace in the various commanderies. He also executed the rebel leaders Liao Shi, Fei Yang () and their followers. After completing his mission, he returned to his previous post at Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei).
Overseeing affairs in Wuchang
By 240, Lü Dai was already nearing the age of 80, but he was still in good physical health, competent enough to perform his duties as a general, and still personally saw to all the day-to-day affairs in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei).
Around this time, a Wu general Zhang Cheng wrote a letter to Lü Dai as follows: "In the past, when Dan and Shi served as regents of Zhou, people wrote the Odes of the South to praise them. Today, you and Master Lu are just like the two of them. Both of you demonstrate loyalty, diligence, hard work, and humility, make great achievements and contributions, and promote a strong civil culture. Junzis sing praises of your virtues while the people admire you for your values. I heard that every day you have piles of documents to look through and an endless queue of people to meet, yet you neither put aside your work nor complain that you are tired. I even heard that you can get onto horseback without stepping on the stirrups. It looks like you have surpassed Lian Po. How wonderful it is for you to have all these achievements! The Yijing says: 'He wishes his virtue to be more and more complete, and in his intercourse with others to be more and more respectful.' How did you attain such perfection?"
In 243, Lü Dai sent Zhu Ying () and Kang Tai () to survey the lands south of Jiao Province in present-day Mainland Southeast Asia and spread Chinese culture there. Kang Tai wrote the Wu Shi Waiguo Zhuan (), which recorded what he saw during his travels in Mainland Southeast Asia.
Following Lu Xun's death in 245, Zhuge Ke replaced him as the military commander guarding Wuchang and overseeing affairs in Jing Province. Sun Quan then divided Wuchang into two sections and put Lü Dai in charge of the right section, which oversaw the area from Puqi (蒲圻; present-day Chibi, Hubei) to Wuchang. In September or October 246, he promoted Lü Dai to Senior General-in-Chief (), and commissioned Lü Dai's son Lü Kai () as a Colonel to oversee the military garrison at Puqi.
Later career and death
After Sun Quan died in May 252, his youngest son Sun Liang became the next emperor of Wu. Later in May or June that year, Sun Liang appointed Lü Dai as Grand Marshal ().
Lü Dai died on 21 October 256 at the age of 96 (by East Asian age reckoning). His son, Lü Kai (), inherited his peerage as the Marquis of Panyu ().
Before his death, Lü Dai gave instructions that he wanted to be buried in an undecorated coffin, to be dressed in plain clothes, and have a simple funeral. Lü Kai followed all his instructions faithfully.
Anecdotes
Leaving his family in poverty
Lü Dai was known for living an honest, frugal and simple life. When he held office in Jiao Province, he did not send any income home for years and caused his family to live in poverty and hunger.
Sun Quan sighed when he heard about it, and he told his subjects: "Lü Dai is thousands of li away from home faithfully performing his duties to the State while his family suffers from poverty and I don't know about it until now. What have you, my close aides and information gatherers, been doing all this while?" He then arranged for a certain amount of money, grain, cloth and silk to be sent to Lü Dai's family every year.
Friendship with Xu Yuan
Lü Dai was close friends with one Xu Yuan () from Wu Commandery who was known for being generous and ambitious. Lü Dai saw great potential in Xu Yuan so he often sent him clothing, often discussed current affairs with him, and recommended him for higher positions. Xu Yuan eventually rose through the ranks in the Wu government to the position of an imperial censor.
Xu Yuan was known for being loyal, bold and outspoken. Whenever he saw Lü Dai make a mistake, he would point it out to Lü Dai in private and, at the same time, bring up the issue and discuss it in public. When someone told Lü Dai about it, the latter remarked: "This is why I regard Deyuan (Xu Yuan's courtesy name) so highly."
When Xu Yuan died, Lü Dai cried inconsolably and said: "Deyuan was my best friend. Now that he has passed away, where am I going to find someone who will point out my mistakes to me?" Their contemporaries saw their friendship in a very positive light.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Notes
References
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
161 births
256 deaths
Eastern Wu generals
Eastern Wu government officials
Generals under Sun Quan
Politicians from Taizhou, Jiangsu
Political office-holders in Jiangxi
Political office-holders in Guangdong |
4521667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapu%20%28caste%29 | Kapu (caste) | Kapu is a Hindu caste mainly found in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. They are classified as a Forward caste. They are a community of land-owning agriculturists. Historically, they have also been warriors and military generals (Nayakas) in Hindu armies. They are a dominant caste of Andhra Pradesh. Kapus commonly carry the title Naidu. They are primarily present in Coastal Andhra with major concentration in the Godavari-Krishna delta region.
Telaga and Ontari are the Kapu subcastes. Traditionally, both were warrior communities known for their honour and bravery. The terms Kapu and Telaga are often used synonymously. The origins of Telagas have been linked to Telugu Choda dynasties like Durjayas of Velanadu (1076–1216 CE) who ruled Coastal Andhra and later came to be called Telagas over a period of time.
Kapu, Telaga and Ontari are all referred to as Kapu across Coastal Andhra except for the erstwhile Srikakulam and Vizianagaram districts where they are known as Telaga. Balija community of Rayalaseema is closely related to Kapu caste and both are often enumerated together in government, sociological and psephological contexts.
Kapus of Coastal Andhra are distinct from communities like the Munnuru Kapus of Telangana, the Turpu Kapus of Uttarandhra and Reddys of Rayalaseema and Telangana.
Etymology
Kāpu literally means cultivator or protector in Telugu. More specifically, Kāpu refers to landowning cultivators in the context of the Jajmani system. In several places, the landowning cultivators are addressed by the agricultural labourers as Kāpu.
History
Origins
Various subgroups of Kapus (cultivators) branched off into separate communities in the post-Kakatiya period (Velamas, Panta Kapus and Pakanati Kapus—both of whom got labelled Reddys, and Kapus of Kammanadu—eventually labelled Kammas). The remaining Kapus continue to use the original label. B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao while explaining the term Kapu noted, "people who are into cultivation, or farming, but who do not belong to Kammas, Reddys and Velamas are known as Kapus." All the cultivator caste clusters have a common ancestry in the legends. According to Cynthia Talbot, the transformation of occupational identities as caste labels occurred in the late Vijayanagara period or later.
Medieval era
An inscription dating to 1205 CE (1127 Saka year) mentions Teliki Kapulu, which K. Iswara Dutt interprets as referring to Telagas.
The earliest occupation of Kapu community was farming along with military service. In the medieval period, Kapus served as protectors of villages from bandits and as village headmen. They were recruited into army during periods of war and served as governors (nayaks), commanders and soldiers in various Andhra kingdoms. They returned to agriculture during times of peace. Kapus were one of the five major land-owning castes during the Qutub Shahi (1518–1687) rule. Hanumantha Rao notes that Kapus have embraced military as well as farming till the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Kapu sub-castes like Telagas and Ontaris were recorded as warrior communities in the medieval era. Ontaris were elite warriors who engaged in hand-to-hand combat and wielded heavy weapons like maces. They were great wrestlers and received rent-free lands for their military service. Inscriptions from the 15th century register gifts of lands to temples by Ontarlu.
During the medieval era, many Nayakas were Telagas along with Velamas and Balijas. There existed Nayak (Telaga) regiments in the Vijayanagara Empire and they later joined the British army after the fall of Vijayanagara. Telagas in British army held ranks such as Major, Naik, Subedar, Jemadar, Havildar etc. Telagas of Bobbili served as commanders and generals in armies. They formed a major part of the Bobbili army along with Velamas in the famous Battle of Bobbili in 1757.
In the late medieval era, Telagas led the right-hand caste faction, which included Komatis and various other castes, in Machilipatnam and other places of Andhra. At the end of the eighteenth century, Telagas, along with Niyogi Brahmins, were the leaders of the Maha-nadu, a multi-caste assembly to enforce norms in the society.
Colonial era
During the colonial regime, Kapu-Telaga along with other warrior castes dominated military occupations. When the British reduced military recruitment from agrarian castes and opted for lower castes in order to have more control over the army, Kapus concentrated on agriculture. Kapus held the village headman and munasabu (munsif) position in many villages. In the Godavari districts, some Kapus also held the Karanam (village accountant) post, usually the preserve of Niyogi Brahmins.
The latter half of the 19th century saw the emergence of important social reformers, educationists and literary figures, who left an impact on the social consciousness of the people of Andhra. Prominent Kapus like Raghupati Venkataratnam Naidu and Kurma Venkatareddi Naidu were at the forefront of the social reform movement. Raghupathi Venkataratnam Naidu (1862–1939) worked for the eradication of untouchability, promoted widow remarriages, encouraged women's education, and strived for a reformation of the Devadasi system. Kurma Venkatareddi Naidu (1875–1942), a prominent leader of the Justice Party, formulated policies that promoted social equality, abolition of untouchability, social reform and established the first women's college in Andhra region in Eluru.
Kanneganti Hanumanthu (1870–1922), a Kapu from Palnadu region, rebelled against the British rule and spearheaded the Palnadu Rebellion. When the British imposed 'Pullari' tax on farmers for using the forest produce, Hanumanthu mobilised people to not pay the tax and organised a social boycott of Revenue and Forest department officials. British executed Hanumanthu by a firing squad in 1922. Many Kapus participated in the Swadesi movement, civil disobedience movement and the Quit India movement.
Since Kapu was a generic term for people involved in kapudanam (farming), the British India censuses from 1871 till 1921 clubbed Kapus together with Reddys for enumeration purposes. But, Reddys are distinct from the Kapu community of Coastal Andhra.
Present-day
Apart from zamindars and large landlords, many Kapus are small-and-medium landholding farmers. Historically, Kapus owned most of the land in the Godavari districts. They also own most of the coconut fields and affiliated agri-businesses in Konaseema region.
Some Kapus also diversified their surplus economy into several entrepreneurial domains like movie theatres and hotels in cities like Visakhapatnam, Kakinada, Rajahmundry. There are also multigenerational Kapu military families in places like Madhavaram in West Godavari. As of 2011, the percentage of graduates among Kapus is one of the highest among Telugu castes.
Film industry
Kapus have historically played a prominent role in Telugu cinema. Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu, a Kapu from Machilipatnam, was the first Telugu film producer and exhibitor and is regarded as the "father of Telugu cinema". Kapus figure as A-list actors, directors, producers, screenwriters, music composers and technicians in the Telugu film industry. Well-known Telugu cinema icons like S. V. Ranga Rao, Savitri, Chiranjeevi, Pawan Kalyan, Allu Arjun, Ram Charan, Dasari Narayana Rao hail from the Kapu community.
Geographical distribution
Native
Kapus are primarily present in the Coastal Andhra region with major concentration in the erstwhile districts of East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, and Visakhapatnam. They are present in smaller numbers in the former districts of Srikakulam and Vizianagaram (where they are primarily referred to as Telagas), and in Prakasam. Kapus are also native to Yanam district of Puducherry and are the second largest caste there.
Diaspora
A significant number of Kapu settlers are present in the Hyderabad Metropolitan Region of Telangana. Small communities of Telaga-Kapu also exist in Orissa and Kharagpur, West Bengal.
In the 19th and early 20th century, Kapu-Telaga were among the Telugu migrants to Burma, Malaysia, Mauritius and Fiji. Telagas were said to form the largest caste among the Telugu people of Mauritius. In recent decades, Kapus have migrated to the Anglophone countries like United States.
Distinct castes with similar names
There also exist other Kapu communities like the Munnuru Kapus in Telangana, and the Turpu Kapus in Uttarandhra who are enumerated separately from Coastal Andhra Kapus.
Due to Kāpu being a generic Telugu term for landowning cultivator, Reddy caste is sometimes referred to as Kapu in parts of Rayalaseema and Telangana. But, Reddys are distinct from the Kapus of Coastal Andhra. Kapu caste is also unrelated to Konda Kapu, Pattapu Kapu, Vanne Kapu, Palli Kapu, Are Kapu, Morasu Kapu, Kapu Savara castes.
Telaga, a sub-caste of Kapu, has no relation to the Mudiraj and Teli castes who are sometimes referred to as Telaga.
Subcastes
Kapu, Telaga and Ontari are the subcastes of Kapu community. All three frequently inter-marry and are usually classed as a single unit. Most Telagas and Ontaris have also referred to themselves as Kapus for a long time. The terms Kapu and Telaga are often used as synonyms to collectively refer to all three sections.
Kapu
Manati Kapu (మానాటి కాపు) or Mahanati Kapu (మహనాటి కాపు) is a section of Kapu community along with Telaga and Ontari. They are popularly known as Kapus and are classified as a Forward caste. They are distinct from Turpu Kapus. Traditionally, Manati Kapus did not recognise divorce and their women would not leave their houses. They were agriculturists and were of a good social standing. Manati Kapu and Telaga are together referred to as Pedda Kapu in comparison with Turpu Kapu.
Charles Philip Brown's Telugu-English Dictionary (1852) mentions Mahanati Kapu as equivalent to Telaga caste. Brown also notes that Mahanati Kapus were leaguesmen and members of the Mahanadu community. Mahanadu was a multi-caste assembly which enforced norms in the society. Andhra Vignanamu, Volume 3 (1939) mentions that Manati Kapus were present in large numbers in erstwhile East and West Godavari districts and in smaller numbers in Krishna, Guntur, Visakhapatnam and Ganjam districts of Madras Presidency.
Telaga
Telaga is a subcaste of Kapu and both terms are often used synonymously. Historians like Etukuru Balaramamurthy and Chintamani Lakshmanna note that Telagas are the descendants of Telugu Choda dynasties like Durjayas of Velanadu (1076–1216 CE) who ruled Coastal Andhra. Telagas are classified as a Forward caste. They are a land-owning agrarian community. Historically, they were a warrior caste before taking up cultivation. During the colonial era, Telagas were noted to be of a high social position.
Ontari
Ontari (also Vontari, Vantari) are a section of Kapu caste. Ontaris are classified as a Forward caste. They are a small community and are primarily found in Kakinada and Anakapalli districts and in smaller numbers in erstwhile West Godavari and Guntur districts. 1901 Census of India describers vantarlu as a sub-caste of Telagas and notes that their name literally means 'a strong man'.
In the present day, Ontaris are landholding agriculturists. Historically, Ontaris were exclusively into military service. Ontari literally means 'the lone one' which referred to their bravery in the context of historical warfare. M. L. Kantha Rao calls Ontaris 'a great warrior class'. They were a clan of warriors in medieval Andhra who engaged in hand-to-hand combat and wielded heavy weapons like maces.
Srinatha mentions Ontarlu in his Palnati Veera Charitra and Bhimeswara Puranam, written in early 15th century. Inscriptions from Vellaturu (dated to 1418 CE) and Tangeda in former Guntur district register gifts of lands to temples by Ontarlu. Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma notes that Ontari was the vernacular equivalent of the Sanskrit word Ekangavira a hero who fights the combat alone. Major towns and villages of medieval Andhra had gymnasiums for Ontarlu. Analysing literary sources, Sarma notes that Ontaris, also known as Ekkatis, took part in hand-to-hand fight called Ekkati Kayyamu, the combat of singles. He adds:Ontari forces served as the reserve army, and each fighter in this division was probably a great wrestler and also wielded heavy weapons like maces and the like. The ekkatis of the Reddi period gradually formed into a separate military caste or community, and are now popularly called Vantarlu. These now form one of the three sections of the Telaga community, the other two being the Telaga (proper), and the Kapu.As per K. S. Singh, "The title Ontari was awarded to them during the time of Sri Krishnadevaraya in the sixteenth century as a reward for their bravery in warfare. Prior to this, they were only known as Telaga." They received rent-free lands for their services as warriors. During the colonial era, Ontaris were recorded as people who valued honour over their lives. They were known to carry daggers on their waists at all times. Ontari women previously observed gosha. Ontaris in Parlakimidi (Orissa), Bobbili, Pitapuram were referred to as Dora (lord or master).
Relation to Balija
Balijas are closely related to Kapus and both are often enumerated together in government, sociological and psephological contexts. Andhra Vignanamu, Volume 3 (1939) mentions four sections in Telaga community Telagas (or Naidus), Ontaris (or Doras), Balijas, and Kapus. Anthropological Survey of India notes that Balijas of Rayalaseema are ethnically similar to Kapus of Coastal Andhra.
Various sources note the similarities between the communities of Kapu, Telaga, Balija, and Ontari. These terms are often used as synonyms and are mentioned as sections of each other. Kapu, Telaga, and Balija are considered as variant names of the same community in different regions. Andhra Pradesh government's Kapu Welfare and Development Corporation refers to Kapu, Telaga, Balija, and Ontari communities collectively as Kapu.
Status
Kapus are classified as a Forward caste both by the Central Government of India as well as the Andhra Pradesh Government. As of 2023, they do not avail any caste-based quotas or reservations. They are a community of land-owning cultivators and are one of the dominant castes of Andhra Pradesh.
The four-tier varna system of ranking never really took hold in South Indian society. The two intermediate dvija varnas—the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas—did not exist. In South India, on the other hand, there existed only three distinguishable classesthe Brahmins, the non-Brahmins and the Dalits. Kapus are referred to as a non-Brahmin upper-caste. They are considered to be a "Sat Shudra" (also known as "upper/high-caste/clean Shudra") community in the traditional Hindu ritual ranking system.
In a study on the history of Guntur district, Robert Eric Frykenberg categorized Kapus and Telagas among "elite agricultural (warrior) castes". In 1982, Barbara D. Miller of Syracuse University remarked, "Generally the Telaga-Kapu rank fairly high in status". K. C. Suri notes that non-Brahman caste groups like Kapus, whose main occupation has been cultivation, are the most important social groups in Andhra Pradesh in terms of numerical strength, land control, and access to political power. K. Srinisavulu notes that Kapus are fairly prosperous and are dominant in the erstwhile districts of East Godavari and West Godavari.
Politics
During the 1920s and 1930s, Kapus, along with other feudal landed castes, were major supporters of the Justice Party. Prominent Kapu leader Kurma Venkatareddi Naidu was a member of the Justice Party and formulated policies that promoted social equality, abolition of untouchability, and social reform. In 1920, the first legislative council elections to Madras Presidency were held after the passing of the Government of India Act 1919. Naidu was one of the three ministers in the Cabinet holding the portfolios of Development and Industries. In 1936, he was appointed as the Governor of Madras Presidency, one of the only two Indians in history to have held the post. In 1937, he was elected as the Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency. He was the only person to have held both the posts of Chief Minister and Governor of the Madras Presidency (which included all of present-day Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu along with parts of Kerala and Karnataka).
After Indian independence, Andhra State was formed in 1953. Pasala Suryachandra Rao, a Kapu from West Godavari district was the first deputy speaker of Andhra State Assembly from 1953 to 1954. Rokkam Lakshmi Narasimham Dora, a Telaga Kapu from Srikakulam district served as the second speaker of Andhra State Assembly from 1955 to 1956. In the 1955 Andhra State legislature, there were 16 Kapu legislators, the third-highest among all castes. In Pondicherry, Kamisetty Parasuram Naidu, a Kapu leader from Yanam served as the first deputy speaker of Pondicherry Assembly from 19631964. He also served as the speaker of Pondicherry Assembly from 19851989.
In 2009 Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections, Kapu community had 19 MLAs the third-highest among unreserved communities. In the 2019 Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections, 24 Kapus were elected as MLAs, next only to Reddys and higher than Kammas. Together, these three upper castes accounted for nearly two-thirds of unreserved seats in the Assembly. In the past decade, there have been three Kapu Deputy Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh Nimmakayala Chinarajappa (20142019), Alla Nani (20192022), and Kottu Satyanarayana (2022present).
Kapunadu movement
Kapunadu movement was formed in the early 1980s and under the leadership of Vangaveeti Mohana Ranga they demanded quotas for Kapu, Telaga, Balija, and Ontari communities. However, the N. K. Muralidhar Rao commission in 1982 did not recommend quotas for Kapus and noted as follows:"Kapus are land owners and enjoy social status in the villages. They are already politically conscious and socially forward. On the educational side also they are not backward as the students belonging to the Kapu Community are in considerable number in the educational institutions in the state. The literacy in this community is higher than the state average. There is a good representation from Kapu Community in the employment under the state government, semi-government and local bodies. The Commission thinks that it is not necessary to disturb this."In early 2016, the Kapus of the residual Andhra Pradesh state launched an agitation demanding quotas, leading to violent protests. Due to the support provided by Kapus in the 2014 assembly elections which helped it come to power, the Telugu Desam Party-led state government allocated 5% quota for Kapus in educational institutions and government jobs in the state. However, this was opposed by the Central Government and was found to be legally untenable. In July 2019, the subsequent YSR Congress government reversed the decision. As of 2023, Kapus do not avail any quotas and are classified as a Forward caste.
Kapu zamindaris
Andhra Vignanamu, Volume 3 (1939) mentions Eluru, Ganapavaram and Akividu in former West Godavari district as places ruled by Telagas. They were called Telaga-prabhuvula-seemalu ().
In pre-independent India, many Kapu-Telaga zamindari families with extensive landholdings existed, especially in Godavari districts. Some of them were bestowed with Diwan Bahadur and Rao Bahadur titles. One of the wealthiest zamindaris in former Krishna district was the Vallur Estate of Bommadevara family. Further, Gopisetti Narayanaswami Naidu, a Telaga, was the receiver of Nidadavolu Estate.
Some of the Kapu zamindaris (samsthanams) include:
Vallur, Krishna district
Attili, West Godavari district
Dharmavaram, West Godavari district
Pūlla, West Godavari district
Sudhapalem, East Godavari district
Veeravaram, East Godavari district
Veeravallipalem, East Godavari district
Vella, East Godavari district
Koyyetipadu and Ogidi, West Godavari district
Danthahundam, Srikakulam district
Notable people
Note: The list only includes people from Kapu and sub-castes (Telaga, Ontari), not Balija, Turpu Kapu, and other castes.
Politics
Kurma Venkatareddi Naidu, served as both the Chief Minister and Governor of Madras Presidency only person to have held both the posts. Member of the Indian delegation to the League of Nations (1928). India's Agent to the Union of South Africa (19291932).
Pasala Suryachandra Rao, 1st Deputy Speaker of Andhra State Assembly (19531954)
Rokkam Lakshmi Narasimham Dora, 2nd Speaker of Andhra State Assembly (19551956)
Kamisetty Parasuram Naidu, 1st Deputy Speaker of Pondicherry Assembly (19631964). Speaker of Pondicherry Assembly (19851989)
Mandali Venkata Krishna Rao, former state minister. Chief organiser and convenor of the first World Telugu Conference in 1975
M. S. Sanjeevi Rao, former Union Minister and chairman of India's first electronics commission. Referred to as "India’s father of electronics"
P. V. Rangayya Naidu, former Union Minister of State for Communications, Power, and Water Resources; ex-Director General of Police
Ummareddy Venkateswarlu, former Union Minister for Urban Development
Chegondi Harirama Jogaiah, former Home Minister of Andhra Pradesh
Nimmakayala Chinarajappa, Deputy Chief Minister and Home Minister of Andhra Pradesh (20142019)
Kottu Satyanarayana, Deputy Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (2022present)
M. M. Pallam Raju, former Union Minister of Human Resources Development and Minister of State for Defence
Alla Nani, Deputy Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (20192022)
Pawan Kalyan, founder of Jana Sena Party
Sports
Kodi Rammurthy Naidu, strongman, bodybuilder, and wrestler
C. K. Nayudu, first captain of the Indian cricket team and one of India's greatest cricketers
C. S. Nayudu, represented India in Test cricket from 1934 to 1952
Chandra Nayudu, India's first female cricket commentator
Y. Venugopal Rao, represented India in international cricket from 2005 to 2006
Ambati Rayudu, represented India in international cricket from 2013 to 2019
Social Activists
Raghupathi Venkataratnam Naidu, social reformer and educationist
Kanneganti Hanumanthu, freedom fighter who spearheaded the Palnadu Rebellion
Thota Narasayya Naidu, freedom fighter
Sciences
Sunkara Balaparameswara Rao, father of neurosurgery in united Andhra Pradesh, recipient of Dr. B. C. Roy award
M. V. Rao, agricultural scientist considered as one of the key figures in India's Green Revolution. Recipient of Borlaug Award and Padma Shri
A. V. Rama Rao, inventor and chemist; recipient of Padma Bhushan
Sunkara Venkata Adinarayana Rao, orthopaedic surgeon and recipient of Padma Shri
Film
Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu, first Telugu film producer, exhibitor, and film studio owner; widely regarded as the "father of Telugu cinema"
Raghupathi Surya Prakash, first director and lead actor of Telugu cinema
Dasari Kotiratnam, first female producer of Telugu cinema
Kalyanam Raghuramaiah, film and theatre actor. Recipient of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award and the Padma Shri.
S. V. Ranga Rao, actor
Allu Ramalingaiah, actor and comedian, recipient of Padma Shri
Ramesh Naidu, music composer; recipient of National Film Award for Best Music Direction
Edida Nageswara Rao, producer; recipient of multiple National Film Awards
Kaikala Satyanarayana, actor and politician, recipient of Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award
Savitri, actress
Dasari Narayana Rao, director, actor, and former Union Minister
Allu Aravind, producer; founder of Geetha Arts and Aha OTT platform
Kodi Ramakrishna, director; recipient of Raghupathi Venkaiah Award
Thota Tharani, production designer; recipient of two National Film Awards and Padma Shri
M. S. Narayana, actor and comedian
Chiranjeevi, actor
Chota K. Naidu, cinematographer
Pawan Kalyan, actor
Sukumar, director, screenwriter and producer
Sekhar Kammula, director, screenwriter and producer
Rambha, actress
Devi Sri Prasad, music composer
Allu Arjun, actor
Ram Charan, actor
Maadhavi Latha, actress
Arts
Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu, Carnatic violinist, recipient of Padma Shri and Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Dwaram Durga Prasad Rao, Carnatic violinist, recipient of Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Sobha Naidu, Kuchipudi exponent, recipient of Padma Shri and Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Literature
Thapi Dharma Rao Naidu, writer, journalist, and social reformer; recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award. Pioneer of colloquial language in Telugu journalism.
Tripurana Venkata Surya Prasada Rao, poet, translator and zamindar
M. Chalapathi Rau, journalist and author regarded as one of India's greatest editors in English journalism; recipient of Padma Bhushan
Yarramsetti Sai, Telugu-language novelist and short story writer
Anantha Sriram, lyricist and poet
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Telugu society
Indian castes
Social groups of Andhra Pradesh
Agricultural castes
South Indian communities
Kapu clans |
4522132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die%20schweigsame%20Frau | Die schweigsame Frau | Die schweigsame Frau (The Silent Woman), Op. 80, is a 1935 comic opera in three acts by Richard Strauss to a libretto by Stefan Zweig after Ben Jonson's 1609 comedy Epicœne, or The Silent Woman.
Composition history
Since Elektra and Der Rosenkavalier, with only the exception of Intermezzo, all previous operas by Strauss were based on libretti by Hugo von Hofmannsthal, who died in 1929. Stefan Zweig, who was then a celebrated author, had never met Strauss, who was his senior by 17 years. In his autobiography The World of Yesterday, Zweig describes how Strauss got in touch with him after Hofmannsthal's death to ask him to write a libretto for a new opera. Zweig chose a theme from Ben Jonson.
Politics of the opera
Strauss was seen as an important icon of German music by the Nazis, who had seized power in Germany in April 1933. Strauss himself was co-operating with the Nazis and became the president of the in November 1933. Zweig knew Strauss well through their collaboration and later wrote:
to be co-operative with the national socialists was furthermore of vital interest to him, because in the national socialist sense he was very much in the red. His son had married a Jewess and thus he feared that his grandchildren, whom he loved above all else, would be excluded as scum from the schools; his earlier operas tainted through the half-Jew Hugo von Hofmannsthal; his publisher was a Jew. Therefore, to him it seemed more and more imperative to create support and security for himself, and he did it most perseveringly.
The fact that Zweig was a Jew was causing potential problems for the performance of the opera: in the summer of 1934 the Nazi press began to attack Strauss on this issue. Zweig recounts in his autobiography that Strauss refused to withdraw the opera and even insisted that Zweig's authorship of the libretto be credited; the first performance in Dresden was authorized by Hitler himself. Subsequent research has shown that Zweig's account is largely correct. We now know that there was an internal power struggle going on within the Nazi government. Joseph Goebbels wanted to use Strauss's international reputation and was willing to relax the rule against works with non-Aryan artists. However, Alfred Rosenberg was more critical of Strauss's unsoundness on the "Jewish question" and wanted to remove Strauss from his position and replace him with party member Peter Raabe. Goebbels took the matter to Hitler, who initially ruled in his favour. However, the Gestapo had been intercepting the correspondence between Strauss and Zweig, in which Strauss had been candid about his critical views of the Nazi regime and his role in it. This letter was shown to Hitler, who then changed his mind. The opera was allowed to run for three performances and then banned. On 6 July 1935, Strauss was visited at his home by a Nazi official sent by Goebbels and told to resign from his position as president of the on grounds of "ill health", less than two years after he had taken up the post. He was replaced by Peter Raabe, who remained in place until the fall of the Nazi regime. Although banned in Germany, the opera was performed a few times abroad, including in Milan, Graz, Prague and Zürich. This would not the first time one of his operas had been banned: Kaiser Wilhelm had banned Feuersnot in 1902. Indeed, the propensity of totalitarian regimes to ban operas was not limited to Germany: a few months later in early 1936 Dmitri Shostakovich's opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk was banned by the Soviet regime. Zweig and Strauss continued to work together secretly (with Joseph Gregor), mainly on the libretto for the opera Friedenstag which was premiered in 1938. The story was almost wholly Zweig's, but the ideal of pacifism which it embodied was dear to both.
Strauss outlived the Nazi regime by four years and was happy when the opera was revived shortly after the end of the war. He wrote to Joseph Keilberth, the director of the Dresden Opera House where the opera was first revived: "Now, after ten years, the honorable Sir Morosus has been liberated from the concentration camp of the Reichstheaterkammer and has returned to his native town, where twelve years ago I had a lot of trouble to get the name of the librettist on the program". Stefan Zweig never heard the opera performed. He had moved from his native Austria to England in 1934 after the Nazis came to power in Germany (although he did visit Austria until the Anschluss in 1938). In 1940, soon after the outbreak of war, he moved to the US and then to Brazil. Depressed by the growth of intolerance, authoritarianism, and Nazism, feeling hopeless for the future for humanity, he committed suicide on 23 February 1942.
Performance history
It was first performed at the Dresden Semperoper on 24 June 1935, conducted by Karl Böhm. After the fall of the Nazi regime, the opera was revived in Dresden (1946) followed by Berlin, Munich and Wiesbaden.
Outside Germany, the work was produced in February 1936 at Graz in Austria (attended by his son and daughter-in-law, Franz and Alice), in Prague on 8 June conducted by George Szell and in Zürich in October 1942 (with Strauss attending the performance on 18 October). The work had its United States premiere at the New York City Opera on 7 October 1958. It was performed at the Santa Fe Opera in 1987 and 1991, and also at Garsington Opera in 2003. In Britain, the Royal Opera House, London, presented the work in English with the UK premiere on 20 November 1961 and the opera formed part of the Glyndebourne festival in 1977 and 1979. More recently, there were productions at the Dresden Semperoper in 2010 and the Bavarian State Opera, Munich, in 2010, 2014, 2015, and 2017. On 22–24 July 2016 Pittsburgh Festival Opera put on two performances sung in English. In July 2022, the Richard B. Fisher Center for the Performing Arts at Bard College presented five performances in the original German, Leon Botstein conducting the American Symphony Orchestra.
Roles
Synopsis
Setting: a room in Sir Morosus' house in a London suburb, around 1760.
Act 1
Retired naval captain Sir John Morosus is very intolerant of noise after having survived an explosion on his ship. For some years he has been retired and living with his housekeeper who looks after him well, although he finds her chatter annoying. His barber arrives and after an argument with the housekeeper that disturbs Morosus, tries to calm down the Captain. He tells Captain Morosus that he should take a quiet young woman. At first Morosus is skeptical: is not a quiet woman like sea without salt? The barber assures him that he knows a dozen "quiet doves" who would want to marry an honorable man like him. Morosus starts to warm to the idea, when suddenly his long-lost nephew Henry appears. He is warmly welcomed: Morosus dismisses the idea of marriage and makes Henry his "son and heir". However, when Henry reveals that he, his wife Aminta and his friends are an opera troupe, Morosus reacts in horror particularly to the idea that Aminta is an opera singer. The captain throws the opera troupe out of his house and disinherits Henry. He instructs the barber to seek a silent woman for him to be his wife the very next day and then retires to bed. The barber reveals to the troupe how rich Morosus is ("sixty, seventy thousand pounds"). Aminta says that she will not come between Henry and his inheritance and offers to leave Henry. Henry tells Aminta that he cannot live without her even if it means losing his inheritance. The Barber has an idea. What if the opera troupe acts out a drama in which the ladies of the troupe have the roles of the prospective brides and they enact a sham marriage? The Bride will then become very noisy and they will act out the divorce. Henry likes the idea: his uncle has insulted the troupe, so they will show him their abilities "and who is the fool shall be fooled". The scene ends with a glorious celebration of the wonderful plan.
Act 2
The housekeeper helps Morosus put on his finest dress-jacket. The Barber arrives and reassures the captain that he has arranged all of the details for the marriage ceremony. He then introduces the three potential brides. Carlotta stands forward acting as "Katherine" a simple country girl. Morosus is not keen: she has spent too much time with calves and become one herself. The Barber next introduces Isotta, playing the role of noble lady educated in a wide range of subjects. Morosus is not impressed by this and is suspicious of her ability to play the lute. Lastly, the Barber introduces Aminta acting as the modest and shy "Timidia". Morosus is quite captivated by "Timidia" and tells the barber "she is the one" and orders him to get the priest and notary for the marriage ceremony. Vanuzzi and Morbio act out the roles of parson and notary and the sham marriage takes place. Farfallo arrives with the rest of the troupe playing sailors who have come to celebrate the marriage, making a lot of noise. Morosus is driven mad by the noise and ejects them from the house. Aminta has become quite touched by the genuine love of Morosus, who wants to know why she seems troubled. Eventually, she has to carry out the barber’s plan and starts shouting at Morosus in feigned anger. She wreaks havoc in the house pulling down the curtains and throws some of the captains most precious possessions onto the floor ("away with this junk"). Then Henry arrives to save the day. He forcefully deals with Timidia, and assures his uncle that he will deal with everything. A grateful Morosus thanks Henry: he has survived many sea battles and hurricanes, but would not stand a chance against someone like Timidia. Henry sends the captain off to bed, where he dozes off. Now alone, Aminta and Henry then sing of their love for each other. Morosus awakes and calls down: "is everything all right?" "Yes", says Henry. Morosus falls back asleep with a deep sigh which counterpoints with Amita’s sighs of love as the scene closes.
Act 3
The next day Aminta has hired "craftsmen" who make noises as they hammer nails and slam doors. There is a noisy parrot who squawks. In addition, she has appointed a pianist (Farfallo) and a singing teacher (Henry) who practice Monteverdi’s "L’incoronaziane di Poppea" with her. The captain appears and is completely devastated. The Barber walks in and introduces a "Lord Chief Justice" (Vanuzzi) and "Two lawyers" (Morbio and Farfallo) who discuss the prospective divorce. However, "Timidia" contests the divorce and they reject every case for divorce. The barber argues that she has had relations before the marriage to Sir John and the two "honorable ladies" (Isotta and Carlotta) attest to this. The Barber also introduces a "witness" (Henry) who attests that he has had carnal relations with Timidia. Morosus scents victory and is about to celebrate when the lawyers raise a further barrier to divorce: the marriage agreement did not stipulate the virginity of the bride, so "you will have to keep her now". Morosus is close to a nervous breakdown. Henry calls an end to the charade and all stop acting and all are revealed as their true characters. Aminta asks the captain's pardon. After the captain realizes he has been fooled his initial anger turns to laughter as he sees the funny side of a troupe of actors outwitting him. Overjoyed, he makes peace with the troupe of actors as they leave and gives his blessing to Henry and Aminta’s union and proclaims Henry again as his heir. He is pleased with himself and the world after his narrow escape and has at last found the peace he has longed for. The opera ends with a monologue of Morosus: " A rare delight it is to find a silent, beautiful girl, but it is more delightful when she belongs to another man".
Stefan Zweig's adaptation of Ben Jonson
The story line of an old man marrying a young woman who turns out rather differently to what he expected has its roots in classical antiquity: the play Casina by Plautus (251–184 B.C.) being an early example. Perhaps the closest progenitor is from the Declamatio Sexta, a Latin translation of mythological themes from the Greek sophist Libanius.
Jonson's comedy had been used before as the basis for an opera: in 1800 Antonio Salieri's Angiolina ossia Il Matrimonio, and in 1810 Stefano Pavesi wrote the opera Ser Marcantonio which in turn formed the basis for Donizetti's Don Pasquale with characters based upon the Commedia dell'arte (thus Morose becomes Don Pasquale who is based on Pantalone). Later still, in 1930 there was Mark Lothar's Lord Spleen (in German).
Zweig had discovered Ben Jonson sometime earlier, and had successfully adapted Jonson's Volpone for the German stage prior to being approached by Strauss for a libretto. Zweig used a German translation of Epicœne by Ludwig Tieck in 1800, with the subtitle Das stumme Mädchen or Das stille Frauenzimmer depending on the edition.
Zweig's libretto makes several major changes to Jonson's play. The most important is perhaps the character of Sir Morosus. In Jonson, "Morose" is not a sea captain, but merely a rich old man with a dislike of noise. Furthermore, Morose dislikes his nephew (Sir Dauphine) and plans to disinherit him through the marriage. Zweig on the other hand develops a much more sympathetic character. Sir Morosus is a retired naval captain with a distinguished career: the Barber explains to the others that an explosion on ship caused his aversion to noise (and his capture of Spanish galleons the source of his wealth). Sir Morosus also dismisses the barber's initial suggestion of marrying a younger woman: he is too old and besides, he doubts the existence of a "silent woman". However, the Barber's arguments do lead him to see the emptiness of living alone:
Every Day, every night with oneself at home,
No son, no heir, no nephew, no friend,
No-one in the world on whom to attend.
Yes that would be good.
To know there is someone for whom one is real, for whom one breathes, to whom one confesses,
Someone for whom one lives and for whom one dies,
And is there when one grows cold to close one's eyes and fold one's hands,
Yes that would be good.
Morosus also loves his nephew Henry (whom he had thought dead): he would be happy to live with Henry and treat him as his son. When Henry arrives, Sir Morosus says: "My house, my fortune are his. Everything. Now I do not need a bride...neither mute or silent."
He disinherits Henry in a fit of anger when he realizes Henry is married to an opera singer and decides to follow the Barber's earlier advice and marry a silent woman. However, even after he falls in love with "Timidia", he asks her if she really wants marriage: he is too old for her. Midway in act 2 before the "marriage" he advises Aminta to think carefully:
Child, listen to me!
An old man is only half a man. His best half is in the past.
His eye has long become sated with what he has seen, his heart is tired and beats softly.
There is a frost deep in his blood and it lames the joy of living,
And because he himself is stiff and cold, the entire world seems old.
There is only one thing he has over youth: An old man is better able to be thankful."
After the marriage, he displays such tenderness and concern that Aminta is very moved and wishes she did not have to go through the charade.
The second major change is that in Jonson, the silent woman "Epicœne" is in fact a boy. Zweig has the silent woman as Henry's wife Aminta. Aminta herself is a major character in the opera. She shows her love and devotion to Henry by offering to leave Henry so that he can inherit his uncle's wealth. She also wants to love Sir Morosus as a father-in-law and finds it difficult to treat him badly. At the heart of act 2, just before the sham marriage, "Timidia" speaks to Morosus:
Oh Lord, I swear by the holy sacrament: I feel I could be truly fond of you
As one piously loves and honours a father, as one who has given me the best in life.
Whatever I do, even if at first it seems strangely hostile
I swear to you: I am doing it solely for your own good,
And if I can free you from ill-humor,
I will be the happiest wife on earth.
Henry himself is also very different from Jonson's heartless nephew: he loves his uncle, seeking his approval and is the one who calls the charade to an end when he sees how much his uncle is suffering. The Barber is also very different: in Jonson he is an accomplice of the nephew. For Zweig, the Barber is a good person who thinks well of Sir Morosus and is a benign schemer who drives the plot along, much like Mozart's barber Figaro. After the disinheritance scene in act 1, he explains to Henry and the others "He (Morosus) is a thoroughly honest fellow with the best heart in the country." The planned deception of the marriage comes about as a way to "wean Sir John from his taste for marriage and return [Henry's] inheritance to [him] ... it's going to take a lot of effort to soap him up and ... cut this tuft of foolishness off".
Zweig also introduces a whole new dimension into the dialogue which is the play on truth, perception and illusion. For the whole of act two and three until the charade ends, Morosus is in a world of illusion. The words spoken by the "characters" such as "Timidia" have a double layer of meaning: the meaning within the charade and the truthful meaning in reality which is hidden from Morosus (the audience can appreciate both). Thus for example, in the divorce case in act 3, the issue is raised of "Timidia" having had relations with men other than Sir Morosus. Carlotta and Isotta are brought in as witnesses and swear that "Timidia" has had such relations. Aminta responds "Never have I disgraced the honor of my marriage." Likewise when the gentleman (Henry in disguise) is bought in as a witness, he says he has had "carnal relations" with Timidia, to which she again replies "I have belonged to no other man than my husband." These statements are all true when applied to Aminta, but appear to mean something else when spoken by Timidia.
The ending is rather different from Jonson's, where when Epicœne is revealed to be a boy, where a shamed Morose exits and his nephew Dauphine remarks dismissively "I'll not trouble you, till you trouble me with your funeral, which I care not how soon it come." In Zweig's libretto, the charade has served a benign purpose: Morosus realizes his folly and states "You did the right thing, rag a fool and thrash his stupidity." Morosus now has all he wants: a loving nephew as his heir, an admiring "daughter in law" and most of all the peace and quiet he has been seeking. Thus the comedy is more about the transformation of the old man rather as in Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol where the fantastical events transform Scrooge. Sir Morosus has the final word in an aria which has become the best known part of the opera "Wie schön ist doch die Musik".
Instrumentation
The opera uses an orchestra with the following instrumentation:
3 flutes (piccolo), 2 oboes, cor anglais, D-clarinet, 2 clarinets in B-flat and A, bass clarinet, 3 bassoons (contrabassoon)
4 French horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba
Timpani
Percussion (3–4 players) glockenspiel, xylophone, 4 large bells, small bells, side drum, bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam, triangle, tambourine, rattle, castanets
Harp, celesta, harpsichord
Strings 14, 12, 8, 8, 6
Stage band: trumpets, organ, bagpipes, drums
Recordings
All the recordings are of cut versions of the opera except for the 1977 one led by Marek Janowski. In staged performances cuts of 25 to 30% of the music are not uncommon. The full running time is about 3 hours.
The closing monologue "Wie schön ist doch die Musik" has been recorded by many basses and bass baritones, including Hans Hotter, Kurt Moll, Thomas Quasthoff, and Matti Salminen. The last three notes of this aria are three sustained B flats (B♭2). When this aria is performed in recital, basses who have the note sometimes sing the last of the three down an octave, which is B♭1 (e.g., Matti Salminen). However, this is not indicated as an option in the score .
References
Notes
Sources
External links
, Kurt Moll, Munich 1972
Operas by Richard Strauss
20th-century classical music
German-language operas
Operas
1935 operas
Stefan Zweig Collection
Operas based on plays
Operas set in London
Works by Stefan Zweig |
4522556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldseem%C3%BCller%20map | Waldseemüller map | The Waldseemüller map or Universalis Cosmographia ("Universal Cosmography") is a printed wall map of the world by German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller, originally published in April 1507. It is known as the first map to use the name "America". The name America is placed on South America on the main map. As explained in Cosmographiae Introductio, the name was bestowed in honor of the Italian Amerigo Vespucci.
The map is drafted on a modification of Ptolemy's second projection, expanded to accommodate the Americas and the high latitudes. A single copy of the map survives, presently housed at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
Waldseemüller also created globe gores, printed maps designed to be cut out and pasted onto spheres to form globes of the Earth. The wall map, and his globe gores of the same date, depict the American continents in two pieces. These depictions differ from the small inset map in the top border of the wall map, which shows the two American continents joined by an isthmus.
Wall map
Description
The map was meant to document and update new geographical knowledge from the discoveries of the late fifteenth and the first years of the sixteenth centuries. It consists of twelve sections printed from woodcuts measuring . Each section is one of four horizontally and three vertically, when assembled. The map uses a modified Ptolemaic map projection with curved meridians to depict the entire surface of the Earth. In the upper-mid part of the main map there is inset another, miniature world map representing to some extent an alternative view of the world.
Longitudes, which were difficult to determine at the time, are given in terms of degrees east from the Fortunate Islands (considered by Claudius Ptolemy as the westernmost known land) which Waldseemüller locates at the Canary Islands. The longitudes of eastern Asian places are too great. Latitudes, which were easy to determine, are also quite far off. For example, "Serraleona" (Sierra Leone, true latitude about 9°N) is placed south of the equator, and the Cape of Good Hope (true latitude 35°S) is placed at 50°S.
The full title of the map is Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii aliorumque lustrationes (The Universal Cosmography according to the Tradition of Ptolemy and the Discoveries of Amerigo Vespucci and others). One of the others was Christopher Columbus. The title signalled his intention to combine or harmonize in a unified cosmographic depiction the traditional Ptolemaic geography of Europe, Asia and Africa with the new geographical information provided by Amerigo Vespucci and his fellow discoverers of lands in the western hemisphere. He explained: "In designing the sheets of our world-map we have not followed Ptolemy in every respect, particularly as regards the new lands ... We have therefore followed, on the flat map, Ptolemy, except for the new lands and some other things, but on the solid globe, which accompanies the flat map, the description of Amerigo that is appended hereto."
Several earlier maps are believed to be sources, chiefly those based on the Geography (Ptolemy) and the Caveri planisphere and others similar to those of Henricus Martellus or Martin Behaim. The Caribbean and what appears to be Florida were depicted on two earlier charts, the Cantino map, smuggled from Portugal to Italy in 1502 showing details known in 1500, and the Caverio map, drawn –1506 and showing the Gulf of Mexico.
While some maps after 1500 show, with ambiguity, an eastern coastline for Asia distinct from the Americas, the Waldseemüller map apparently indicates the existence of a new ocean between the trans-Atlantic regions of the Spanish discoveries and the Asia of Ptolemy and Marco Polo as exhibited on the 1492 Behaim globe. The first historical records of Europeans to set eyes on this ocean, the Pacific, are recorded as Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513. That is five to six years after Waldseemüller made his map. In addition, the map apparently predicts the width of South America at certain latitudes to within 70 miles. However, as pointed out by E.G. Ravenstein, this is an illusory effect of the cordiform projection used by Waldseemüller, for when the map is laid out on a more familiar equirectangular projection and compared with others of the period also set out on that same projection there is little difference between them: this is particularly evident when the comparison is made with Johannes Schöner's 1515 globe.
Apparently among most map-makers until that time, it was still erroneously believed that the lands discovered by Christopher Columbus, Vespucci, and others formed part of the Indies of Asia. Amerigo Vespucci said: "After we sailed ca. 400 leagues along the coast without interruption, we concluded that this is mainland, by which I mean that it forms the easternmost point of Asia and the first tip of Asia reached when sailing westbound". On his 1506 world map, Giovanni Contarini called the land later called America by Waldseemüller the Antipodes.
Waldseemüller drew upon the 1506 world map of Nicolaus de Caverio, where an inscription off the coast of vera cruz (America/Brazil) says: "The land called Vera Cruz was found by Pedro Alvares Cabral, a gentleman of the household of the King of Portugal. He discovered it as commander of a fleet of 14 ships that that King sent to Calicut, and on the way to India, he came across this land here, which he took to be terra firma [mainland] in which there are many people, described as going about, men and women, as naked as their mothers bore them; they are lighter-skinned." This came from the account of the discovery by Pedro Alvares Cabral of the (new land of Parrots) during his voyage to India of 1500–1501, as reported by Giovanni Matteo da Camerino, "il Cretico", secretary of the Venetian Ambassador to Spain and Portugal, published in the Paesi Novamente Retrovati of Fracanzano da Montalboddo, where the relevant passage read: "They were borne by a west wind beyond the Cape of Good Hope, and discovered a new land, which they called that of Parrots, for there they found birds of this kind of incredible size... They judged that this was mainland because they ran along the coast more than two thousand miles but did not find the end of it". Caverio's inscription was copied by Waldseemüller and placed in the same location on his map, with the significant difference that, although Cabral and his companions believed that they had reached "the mainland", i.e. part of Asia, Waldseemüller, for unexplained reasons, asserted in the inscription on his map concerning America that it was "an enormous sea-girt island of yet unknown size" [i.e. not part of Asia].
Some believe that it is impossible that Waldseemüller could have known about the Pacific, which is depicted on his map. The historian Peter Whitfield has theorized that Waldseemüller incorporated the ocean into his map because Vespucci's accounts of the Americas, with their so-called "savage" peoples, could not be reconciled with contemporary knowledge of India, China, and the islands of Indies. Thus, in the view of Whitfield, Waldseemüller reasoned that the newly discovered lands could not be part of Asia, but must be separate from it, a leap of intuition that was later proved uncannily precise. An alternative explanation is that of George E. Nunn (see below). Chet Van Duzer has said that the explanation for the depiction of the Ocean to the west of America is that Marco Polo had stated that Zipangu (Japan) was an island, so that there had to be sea between it and America, which Waldseemüller had concluded was also an island.
Mundus Novus, a book attributed to Vespucci (who had himself explored the extensive eastern coast of South America), was widely published throughout Europe after 1504, including a version by Waldseemüller's group in 1507 under the title, Quatuor Americi Vespucii Navigationes. It expressed the belief of Vespucci and his companions that: "We knew that land to be not an island but continent, both from its long extending coasts which do not enclose it and from the infinite number of inhabitants which it contains". "Continent" meant, at that time, one of the three known continents, Europe, Africa and Asia, that adjoined each other (from Latin "continens"="touching") surrounded by the Ocean, which was divided by Africa into the Western, or Atlantic and Eastern, or Indian Oceans which contained the Earth's large and small islands. Vespucci's belief, therefore, was that the land was part of the continent of Asia.
It has been theorized that "continent" in the Mundus Novus meant the same as its modern meaning, that is, one of the Earth's main continuous land-masses, and that therefore it had first introduced to Europeans the idea that this was a new continent and not Asia, and that this led to Waldseemüller's separating the Americas from Asia, depicting the Pacific Ocean, and the use of the first name of Vespucci on his map.
An explanatory text, the Cosmographiae Introductio, widely believed to have been written by Waldseemüller's colleague Matthias Ringmann, accompanied the map. It was said in Chapter IX of that text that the Earth was now known to be divided into four parts, of which Europe, Asia and Africa, being contiguous with each other, were one continent, while the fourth part, America, was "an island, inasmuch as it is found to be surrounded on all sides by the seas". This differed from the belief expressed by Vespucci in Quatuor Americi Vespucii Navigationes, published in the same book as an appendix, that the land he found was part of the continent of Asia: "After nineteen days we reached new land, which we took to be the mainland". The two contradictory views were published in the same book without explanation or comment.
The inscription on the top left corner of the map proclaims that the discovery of America by Columbus and Vespucci fulfilled a prophecy of the Roman poet, Virgil, made in the Aeneid (VI. 795–797), of a land to be found in the southern hemisphere, to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn:
The "path" referred to is the ecliptic, which marks the sun's yearly movement along the constellations of the zodiac, so that to go beyond it meant crossing the southernmost extent of the ecliptic, the Tropic of Capricorn. 19° beyond Capricorn is latitude 42° South, the southernmost extent of America shown on Waldseemüller's map. The map legend shows how Waldseemüller strove to reconcile the new geographic information with the knowledge inherited from antiquity.
The most southerly feature named on the coast of America on the Waldseemüller map is Rio decananorum, the "River of the Cananoreans". This was taken from Vespucci, who in 1501 during his voyage along this coast reached the port which he called Cananor (now Cananéia). Cananor was the port of Kannur in southern India, the farthest port reached in India during the 1500–1501 voyage of the Portuguese Pedro Álvares Cabral, the discoverer of Brazil, two of whose ships were encountered returning from India by Vespucci. This may be an indication Waldseemüller thought that the "River of the Cananoreans" could have actually been in the territory of Cananor in India and that America was, therefore, part of India.
The name for the northern land mass, Parias, is derived from a passage in the Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, in which, after several stops, the expedition arrives at a region that was "situated in the torrid zone directly under the parallel which describes the Tropic of Cancer. And this province is called by them [the inhabitants] Parias." Parias was described by Waldseemüller's follower, Johannes Schöner as: "The island of Parias, which is not a part or portion of the foregoing [America] but a large, special part of the fourth part of the world", indicating uncertainty as to its situation.
PARIAS and AMERICA, corresponding to North and South America, are separated by a strait in the region of the present Panama on the main map but on the miniature map inset into the upper-mid part of the main map the isthmus joining the two is unbroken, apparently demonstrating Waldseemüller's willingness to represent alternative solutions to a question yet unanswered.
The map shows the cities of Catigara (near longitude 180° and latitude 10°S) and Mallaqua (Malacca, near longitude 170° and latitude 20°S) on the western coast of the great peninsula that projects from the southeastern part of Asia, or INDIA MERIDIONALIS (Southern India) as Waldseemüller called it. This peninsula forms the eastern side of the SINUS MAGNUS ("Great Gulf"), the Gulf of Thailand. Amerigo Vespucci, writing of his 1499 voyage, said he had hoped to sail westward from Spain across the Western Ocean (the Atlantic) around the Cape of Cattigara mentioned by Ptolemy into the Sinus Magnus. Ptolemy understood Cattigara, or Kattigara, to be the most eastern port reached by shipping trading from the Graeco-Roman world to the lands of the Far East. Vespucci failed to find the Cape of Cattigara on his 1499 voyage: he sailed along the coast of Venezuela but not far enough to resolve the question of whether there was a sea passage beyond leading to Ptolemy's Sinus Magnus. The object of his voyage of 1503–1504 was to reach the fabulous spice emporium of "Melaccha in India" (that is, Malacca, or Melaka, on the Malay Peninsula). He had learned of Malacca from one Guaspare (or Gaspard), a pilot with Pedro Álvares Cabral's fleet on its voyage to India in 1500–1501, whom Vespucci had encountered in the Atlantic on his return from India in May 1501. Christopher Columbus, in his fourth and last voyage of 1502–1503, planned to follow the coast of Champa southward around the Cape of Cattigara and sail through the strait separating Cattigara from the New World, into the Sinus Magnus to Malacca. This was the route he understood Marco Polo to have gone from China to India in 1292 (although Malacca had not yet been founded in Polo's time). Columbus anticipated that he would meet up with the expedition sent at the same time from Portugal to Malacca around the Cape of Good Hope under Vasco da Gama, and carried letters of credence from the Spanish monarchs to present to da Gama. The map therefore shows the two cities that were the initial destinations of Amerigo Vespucci and Christopher Columbus in their voyages that led to the unexpected discovery of a New World.
Just to the south of Mallaqua (Malacca) is the inscription: hic occisus est S. thomas (Here St. Thomas was killed), referring to the legend that Saint Thomas the Apostle went to India in 52 AD and was killed there in 72 AD. Waldseemüller had confused Malacca (Melaka) with Mylapore in India. The contemporary understanding of the nature of Columbus' discoveries is demonstrated in the letter written to him by the Aragonese cosmographer and Royal counsellor, Jaume Ferrer, dated 5 August 1495, saying: "Divine and infallible Providence sent the great Thomas from the Occident into the Orient in order to declare in India our Holy and Catholic Law; and you, Sir, it has sent to this opposite part of the Orient by way of the Ponient [West] so that by the Divine Will you might arrive in the Orient, and in the farthest parts of India Superior in order that the descendants might hear that which their ancestors neglected concerning the teaching of Thomas ... and very soon you will be by the Divine Grace in the Sinus Magnus, near which the glorious Thomas left his sacred body".
An inscription on the bottom right corner of the map explains that the map depicts the newly discovered parts of the world, added to those known from classical times:Although many of the ancients were most assiduous in describing the world, yet not a little remained unknown to them, such as, in the west, America, called by that name after its discoverer, which must be considered the Fourth part of the World. So, also, in the south, the African Part that begins at nearly seven degrees this side of Capricorn and extends very extensively southward beyond the Torrid Zone and Tropic of Capricorn. As also in the east, where the Region of Cathay and some portion of India Meridional are situated beyond longitude hundred and eighty degrees. We have added all these to what we formerly knew, so that lovers of these kinds of things may behold whatever of it at this day is opened to our eyes and approve our work. But one thing we ask, that those who are untaught in and ignorant of cosmography do not at once condemn before they have learned what will no doubt be dearer to them when later they understand it.
History
At the time this wall map was drawn, Waldseemüller was working as part of the group of scholars of the Vosgean Gymnasium at Saint-Dié-des-Vosges in Lorraine, which in that time belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. The maps were accompanied by the book Cosmographiae Introductio produced by the Vosgean Gymnasium.
Of the one thousand copies that were printed, only one complete copy of the original is known to exist today. It is, in fact, a reprint in the form of a printer's proof from after 1516 instead of 1507, date of the first edition, of which there is no extant example. It was owned by Johannes Schöner (1477–1547), a Nuremberg astronomer, geographer, and cartographer. Its existence was unknown for a long time until its rediscovery in 1901 in the library of Prince Johannes zu Waldburg-Wolfegg in Schloss Wolfegg in Württemberg, Germany by the Jesuit historian and cartographer Joseph Fischer. It remained there until 2001 when the United States Library of Congress purchased it from Waldburg-Wolfegg-Waldsee for ten million dollars.
Chancellor Angela Merkel of the Federal Republic of Germany symbolically turned over the Waldseemüller map on April 30, 2007, within the context of a formal ceremony at the Library of Congress, in Washington, DC. In her remarks, the chancellor stressed that the US contributions to the development of Germany in the postwar period tipped the scales in the decision to turn over the Waldseemüller map to the Library of Congress as a sign of transatlantic affinity and as an indication of the numerous German roots to the United States. Today another facsimile of the map is exhibited for the public by the House of Waldburg in their museum on Waldburg Castle in Upper Swabia.
Since 2007, to the celebration of the 500 year jubilee of the first edition, the original map has been permanently displayed in the Library of Congress, within a specially-designed microclimate case. An argon atmosphere fills the case to give an anoxic environment. Prior to display, the entire map was the subject of a scientific analysis project using hyperspectral imaging with an advanced LED camera and illumination system to address preservation storage and display issues.
In 2005 the Waldseemüller map was nominated by Librarian of Congress James H. Billington for inscription on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register and was inscribed on the register that same year.
Nunn's analysis
The geographers of Italy and Germany, like Martin Waldseemüller and his colleagues, were exponents of a theoretical geography, or cosmography. This means they appealed to theory where their knowledge of the American and Asiatic geography was lacking. That practice differed from the official Portuguese and Spanish cartographers, who omitted from their maps all unexplored coastlines.
The second century Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy had believed that the known world extended over 180 degrees of longitude from the prime meridian of the Fortunate Isles (possibly the Canary Islands) to the city of Cattigara in southeastern Asia. (In fact, the difference in longitude between the Canaries, at 16°W, and Cattigara, at 105°E, is just 121°.) He had also thought that the Indian Ocean was completely surrounded by land. Marco Polo demonstrated that an ocean lay east of Asia and was connected with the Indian Ocean. Hence, on the globe made by Martin Behaim in 1492, which combined the geography of Ptolemy with that of Marco Polo, the Indian Ocean was shown as merging with the Western Ocean to the east. Ptolemy's lands to the east of the Indian Ocean, however, were retained in the form of a great promontory projecting far south from the southeastern corner of Asia—the peninsula of Upper India (India Superior) upon which the city of Cattigara was situated.
Another result of Marco Polo's travels was also shown on Behaim's globe—the addition of 60 degrees to the longitude of Asia. Columbus had not actually seen Behaim's globe in 1492 (which apparently owed much to the ideas of Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli); but the globe, except for one important point, reflects the geographical theory on which he apparently based his plan for his first voyage. The exception is that Columbus shortened the length of the degree, thus reducing the distance from the Canaries to Zipangu (Japan), to about 62 degrees or only 775 leagues. Consequently, it seemed to Columbus a relatively simple matter to reach Asia by sailing west.
In the early 16th century, two theories prevailed with regard to America (the present South America). According to one theory, that continent was identified with the southeastern promontory of Asia that figures on Behaim's globe, India Superior or the Cape of Cattigara. The other view was that America (South America) was a huge island wholly unconnected with Asia.
Balboa called the Pacific the Mar del Sur and referred to it as "la otra mar", the other sea, by contrast with the Atlantic, evidently with Behaim's concept of only two oceans in mind. The Mar del Sur, the South Sea, was the part of the Indian Ocean to the south of Asia: the Indian Ocean was the Oceanus Orientalis, the Eastern Ocean, as opposed to the Atlantic or Western Ocean, the Oceanus Occidentalis in Behaim's two ocean world.
According to George E. Nunn, the key to Waldseemüller's apparent new ocean is found on the three sketch maps made by Bartolomé Colon (that is, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother) and Alessandro Zorzi in 1504 to demonstrate the geographical concepts of Christopher Columbus. One of the Columbus/Zorzi sketch maps bears an inscription saying that: "According to Marinus of Tyre and Columbus, from Cape St. Vincent to Cattigara is 225 degrees, which is 15 hours; according to Ptolemy as far as Cattigara 180 degrees, which is 12 hours". This shows that Christopher Columbus overestimated the distance eastward between Portugal and Cattigara as being 225 degrees instead of Ptolemy's estimate of 180 degrees, permitting him to believe the distance westward was only 135 degrees and therefore that the land he found was the East Indies. As noted by Nunn, in accordance with this calculation, the Colon/Zorzi maps employ the longitude estimate of Claudius Ptolemy from Cape St. Vincent eastward to Cattigara, but the longitude calculation of Marinus and Columbus is employed for the space between Cape St. Vincent westward to Cattigara.
Nunn pointed out that Martin Waldseemüller devised a scheme that showed both the Columbus and the Ptolemy-Behaim concept on the same map. As Waldseemüller himself said: "We have followed Ptolemy on the flat map, except for the new lands". On the right hand side of the Waldseemüller 1507 map is shown the Ptolemy-Behaim concept with the Ptolemy longitudes: this shows the huge peninsula of India Superior extending to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn. On the left side of the Waldseemüller map the discoveries of Columbus, Vespucci and others are represented as a long strip of land extending from about latitude 50 degree North to latitude 40 degrees South. The western coasts of these trans-Atlantic lands discovered under the Spanish crown are simply described by Waldseemüller as Terra Incognita (Unknown Land) or Terra Ulterior Incognita (Unknown Land Beyond), with a conjectural sea to the west, making these lands apparently a distinct continent. America's (that is, South America's) status as a separate island or a part of Asia, specifically, the peninsula of India Superior upon which Cattigara was situated, is left unresolved. As the question of which of the two alternative concepts was correct had not been resolved at the time, both were represented on the same map. Both extremities of the map represent the eastern extremity of Asia, according to the two alternative theories. As Nunn said, "This was a very plausible way of presenting a problem at the time insoluble."
As noted by Nunn, the distance between the meridians on the map is different going eastward and westward from the prime meridian which passes through the Fortunate Isles (Canary Islands). This has the effect of representing the eastern coast of Asia twice: once in accordance with Ptolemy's longitudes to show it as Martin Behaim had done on his 1492 globe; and again in accordance with Columbus' calculation of longitudes to show his and the other Spanish navigators' discoveries across the Western Ocean, which Columbus and his followers considered to be part of India Superior.
On his 1516 world map, the Carta Marina, Waldseemüller identified the land he had called Parias on his 1507 map as Terra de Cuba and said it was part of Asia (Asie partis); that is, he explicitly identified the land discovered by Columbus as the eastern part of Asia.
Globe gores
Besides Universalis Cosmographia, Waldseemüller published a set of gores for constructing globes. The gores, also containing the inscription America, are believed to have been printed in the same year as the wall map, since Waldseemüller mentions them in the introduction to his Cosmographiæ Introductio. On the globe gores, the sea to the west of the notional American west coast is named the Occeanus Occidentalis, that is, the Western or Atlantic Ocean, and where it merges with the Oceanus Orientalis (the Eastern, or Indian Ocean) is hidden by the latitude staff. This appears to indicate uncertainty as to America's location, whether it was an island continent in the Atlantic (Western Ocean) or in fact the great peninsula of India Superior shown on earlier maps, such as the 1489 map of the world by Martellus or the 1492 globe of Behaim.
Only few copies of the globe gores are extant. The first to be rediscovered was found in 1871 and is now in the James Ford Bell Library of the University of Minnesota. Another copy was found inside a Ptolemy atlas and had been in the Bavarian State Library in Munich since 1990. The Library recognized in February 2018, after reviewing its authenticity, that this map is not an original copy - it was printed in the 20th century.
A third copy was discovered in 1992 bound into an edition of Aristotle in the Stadtbücherei Offenburg, a public library in Germany. A fourth copy came to light in 2003 when its European owner read a newspaper article about the Waldseemüller map. It was sold at auction to Charles Frodsham & Co. for $1,002,267, a world record price for a single sheet map.
In July 2012, a statement was released from Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich that a fifth copy of the gore had been found in the LMU Library's collection which is somewhat different from the other copies, perhaps because of a later date of printing.
LMU Library has made an electronic version of their copy of the map available online.
See also
Ancient world maps
Caverio map, made in 1505.
History of cartography
Johannes Schöner globe, made in 1520.
List of most expensive books and manuscripts
Mappa mundi
Naming of the Americas
Piri Reis map
Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, considered to be the first true modern atlas.
World map
References
Further reading
Lester, Toby: "A world redrawn: When America showed up on a map, it was the universe that got transformed", Boston Globe, October 11, 2009
Lester, Toby, "Putting America on the Map", Smithsonian, Volume 40, Number 9, p. 78, December 2009
Lester, Toby: The Fourth Part of the World: An Astonishing Epic of Global Discovery, Imperial Ambition, and the Birth of America, Free Press, 2010, 496 p. .
Chet Van Duzer, "Waldseemüller's World Maps of 1507 and 1516: Sources and Development", The Portolan, No.1, Winter 2012, pp. 8–20.
Martin Lehmann, "The depiction of America on Martin Waldseemüller's world map from 1507 — Humanistic geography in the service of political propaganda", Cogent Arts & Humanities, 3 (1), 2016, DOI: 10.1080/23311983.2016.1152785
Martin Lehmann (ed.), Der Globus mundi Martin Waldseemüllers aus dem Jahre 1509: Text, Übersetzung, Kommentar, Berlin, Freiburg im Breisgau, Rombach Verlag, 2016.
External links
1507 Waldseemüller Map from the US Library of Congress
TOPS Lecture at Library of Congress, Drs. France and Easton
National Geographic News: US Buys Oldest Map Marked "America"
Martin Waldseemüller - Bell Library: Maps and Mapmakers
World Digital Library presentation of Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii aliorum que lustrationes or A Map of the Entire World According to the Traditional Method of Ptolemy and Corrected with Other Lands of Amerigo Vespucci. Library of Congress.
1507 works
Historic maps of the world
World Digital Library
Memory of the World Register
16th-century maps and globes |
4522770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20Year%20Later | One Year Later | "One Year Later" is a 2006 comic book storyline running through the books published by DC Comics. As the title suggests, it involves a narrative jump exactly one year into the future of the DC Universe following the events of the “Infinite Crisis” storyline, to explore major changes within the continuities of the many different comic books within the DC Comics range.
Synopsis
Following the events of the “Infinite Crisis” storyline, every DC comic series jumped ahead in-story by one year. The events of the missing year were depicted in real time in the weekly comic book series 52. The "One Year Later" storyline started in March 2006, starting the same week that Infinite Crisis #5 went to press, and before the first issue of 52. Most first issues bearing the "One Year Later" logo were the first parts of multi-issue storylines, and featured major changes to the status quo of each character, often intentionally left unexplained as these details would be filled in by the remaining issues of Infinite Crisis and the 52 series.
Numerous prominent heroes were missing or inactive for most of the year as the "One Year Later" issues commenced. Heroes known to have been gone for the missing year were Aquaman, Batman, Blue Beetle, Green Arrow, Hawkman, Martian Manhunter, Nightwing, Robin, Superman and Wonder Woman. The Flash went missing, but Jay Garrick had been protecting Keystone City in his absence.
The DC Trinity
The year-long absence of the three most prominent superheroes of the DC Comics universe—Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman—and their return to active duty was a significant part of both the "One Year Later" series and 52 series.
Superman
The Superman storyline "Up, Up and Away!", was co-written by Geoff Johns and Kurt Busiek, with art by Pete Woods (and two issues by Renato Guedes), and cover art by Terry and Rachel Dodson. The four-month, eight-part introductory story arc ran through both Action Comics #837–840 and Superman #650–653. The story primarily featured a depowered Clark Kent (having lost his powers in the climax of Infinite Crisis) using his skills as a journalist to defend Metropolis from both organized crime and Lex Luthor, newly bankrupt and disgraced due to his actions in the series 52. Gradually, however, Superman began to regain his powers, just in time to battle the embittered Luthor as he sought to inflict his revenge upon Metropolis with the help of stolen Kryptonian battle technology and redesigned versions of the Toyman and the Kryptonite Man.
Batman
The Batman storyline "Face the Face", was written by James Robinson, with art by Leonard Kirk and Don Kramer. It ran through Detective Comics #817–820 and Batman #651–654.
It concerned Batman and Robin's return to Gotham City after a year-long absence, and their investigation of a mysterious vigilante murdering low-rank supervillains (including the Ventriloquist and the KGBeast) who appeared to be connected to Harvey Dent, who had reformed and had taken up battling crime on Batman's behalf during his absence. While Dent was not responsible for the killings (the mastermind was actually Great White Shark, who over the previous year had established himself as Gotham's reigning crime boss and the majority of the victims worked for the Penguin, who was away) the resulting stress, paranoia, and resentment of being under suspicion saw the return of his "Two-Face" persona and his self-scarring, thus returning to his life of crime. The finale also saw Bruce Wayne offer to adopt Tim Drake, the third Robin (now Red Robin), as his son following the deaths of his parents and the events of the Crisis.
As well as Two-Face, "One Year Later" also saw the return of several other significant elements of the Batman mythos that had previously been written out or retired, including the return of James Gordon as Gotham's police commissioner and Detective Harvey Bullock.
Wonder Woman
Unlike the Batman and Superman series, Wonder Woman was reintroduced with a new volume at issue one in June 2006. The introductory storyline was titled "Who Is Wonder Woman?", and it was written by Allan Heinberg with art by Terry and Rachel Dodson.
In the story, Donna Troy is depicted as having taken over the Wonder Woman title in Diana's absence, while Diana is shown to have accepted a government position at the Department of Metahuman Affairs under the alias of Diana Prince at Batman's urging. She is directed by Sarge Steel and is ironically assigned to the rescue mission of the new Wonder Woman, who has been captured by several of Wonder Woman's superpowered foes who demand that the "real" Wonder Woman be submitted to them. She is partnered on the case with a reluctant Tom Tresser, also known as Nemesis. Within the story it has been revealed that prior to her admission into the department, Diana was also photographed in the company of an Eastern mystic code-named I Ching, and that the World Court has dropped the charges against her for the killing of Maxwell Lord. The story was completed in the series' first Annual in 2007.
Storylines
Green Lantern led an assault on the Guardians' Manhunters and their new self-proclaimed leader the Cyborg Superman, and in the process managed to free Ke'Haan, Laira, Chance, Honnu, Graf Toren, General Kreon and Boodikka, lost (or presumed dead) Green Lanterns from his time as a renegade. They then rejoined the Green Lantern Corps shortly thereafter.
A new Aquaman (named Arthur Joseph Curry) has appeared and allied himself with King Shark and the Dweller of the Depths. The original Aquaman (Orin) has mysteriously disappeared.
A revised Doom Patrol has debuted.
Bart Allen becomes the new Flash.
Captain Atom has been imprisoned within Blüdhaven by the military.
Initially, Dick Grayson and Jason Todd both operate in New York City as Nightwing, but Jason uses lethal force. Jason eventually returns to the Red Hood identity.
Hawkman has been missing for a year, and Hawkgirl has taken his place as St. Roch's protector.
Jason Rusch and Lorraine Reilly now compose Firestorm instead of Jason and Prof. Martin Stein, who has mysteriously disappeared.
Lady Shiva and Gypsy have both joined Oracle's team in Birds of Prey. Black Canary returns, and Lady Shiva takes Bethany Thorne, daughter of Matthew Thorne, the Crime Doctor as her student.
Oliver Queen is the mayor of Star City and has not appeared in public as Green Arrow for a year.
Cassandra Cain, under the influence of Deathstroke the Terminator, has become the new leader of the League of Assassins.
Robin leads the Teen Titans, which now includes Cyborg, Kid Devil, and Ravager (Rose Wilson). The mysterious new Titans East is based in New York. Robin is secretly trying to reclone Superboy, who was killed during Infinite Crisis. Beast Boy and Raven have broken up and left the team.
Selina Kyle's friend Holly Robinson replaces her as Catwoman. Selina, now using the alias Irena Dubrovna, gives birth to a daughter named Helena.
Supergirl and Power Girl work together as Nightwing (Power Girl) and Flamebird (Supergirl) in the bottled city of Kandor.
The Outsiders are believed dead, but continue their work underground. The members, again led by Nightwing (Dick Grayson), are Grace, Thunder, Katana, Metamorpho, and Captain Boomerang.
Vandal Savage crashlands back on Earth without his immortality and learns he has only 11 days to live. He seeks out Alan Scott for one last battle and fails. The clone that Savage used in his plot ends up being eaten by Savage himself, extending his life another year.
A new Justice League takes shape with 10 members, including Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman.
Jaime Reyes, the new Blue Beetle, wakes up in the Arizona desert and is surprised to learn that it has been one year since the attack on Brother Eye.
The Global Guardians have recruited new members including Jet and Gloss from the New Guardians, Freedom Beast, the third Crimson Fox, Syrian hero Sandstorm, and a new Manticore.
Bruno "Ugly" Mannheim launches many flying energy spheres on Metropolis to try to destroy Superman. He was then learned to have grown to a colossal size. Before teleporting away, he tells Superman that he now "has a new master, more powerful than Darkseid".
A new Justice Society of America debuts, led by Alan Scott, Jay Garrick, and Ted Grant.
Donna Troy is the new Wonder Woman and Hercules replaces Wonder Woman as an agent of Olympus.
"1,001 Years Later", Supergirl appears in the 31st century and is revered as a member of the Superman family. Upon her arrival, she concludes that she is dreaming and that she is not actually in the future. The Legion of Super-Heroes believes that she has merely deluded herself into thinking that she is the Supergirl of the 21st century, but nevertheless accepts her as a new member.
Cancellations
In line with of the events of Infinite Crisis and 52, DC Comics canceled some of its long-running series, including; Wonder Woman vol. 2, The Flash vol. 2 (which was restarted after the death of Bart Allen), Gotham Central, Batman: Gotham Knights, Plastic Man, JLA, Superman vol. 2, and Batgirl.
Renaming
Adventures of Superman has been renamed to simply Superman, restoring the original title of this series with issue #650.
Aquaman has become Aquaman: Sword of Atlantis with issue #40, starring a new lead character.
Firestorm has been retitled Firestorm: The Nuclear Man from issue #23 onwards.
Hawkman is renamed Hawkgirl from issue #50 onward.
Legion of Super-Heroes is renamed Supergirl and the Legion of Super-Heroes starting with issue #16. The title also used a "1,001 Years Later" logo for several issues.
New series
As they are new titles, many of the following do not have the "One Year Later" to indicate a time jump since the previous issue.
Spin-offs from the Countdown to Infinite Crisis mini-series:
Checkmate was an ongoing series spun off of The OMAC Project, with writer Greg Rucka and artist Jesus Saiz. The series ended with issue #31 in October 2008.
Secret Six is a six-issue limited series spun off from Villains United, with writer Gail Simone and artist Brad Walker. An ongoing series began in September 2008.
Shadowpact was launched as an ongoing series spun off from Day of Vengeance, with writer and artist Bill Willingham. It concluded in May 2008 with issue #25.
Follow-ups to Infinite Crisis:
Blue Beetle has a new character following in the footsteps of Ted Kord, written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with art by Cully Hamner. The series concluded in February 2009 with issue #36.
Crisis Aftermath: The Battle for Blüdhaven is a six-issue limited series written by Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Grey, with art by Dan Jurgens and Palmiotti.
Crisis Aftermath: The Spectre is a three-issue limited series written by Will Pfeifer with art by Cliff Chiang.
Ion is a 12-issue limited series spun off from Green Lantern and Rann-Thanagar War, with writer Ron Marz and artist Greg Tocchini.
Relaunches:
The Flash: Fastest Man Alive was started with the first seven issues written by Danny Bilson and Paul De Meo (producers of the 1990s Flash TV series) with art by Ken Lashley. With the death of the fourth Flash, Bart Allen at the hands of the Rogues in issue #13, and the subsequent return of Wally West to the DCU this title has reverted to being called The Flash, and picked up its numbering from prior to the name change. Thus The Flash #231 was released in August 2007 and ran through to December 2008 with issue #247. The title was put on hiatus prior to release of The Flash: Rebirth in April 2009. A subsequent reissuing of a new Flash title chronicling the new adventures of Barry Allen began in April 2010, but was brought to an end at issue #12 ahead of the Flashpoint DC Comics event. A new Flash title began in September 2011 as part of the DC Comics decision to relaunch 52 titles from issue #1.
Green Lantern Corps is an ongoing series spun off from Green Lantern Corps: Recharge, beginning in April 2006. It will come to an end with issue #63 in August 2011 ahead of the DC Comics decision to relaunch it as part of 52 titles from issue #1 in September 2011.
Justice League of America, an ongoing series spun off from JLA, began in July 2006, written by Brad Meltzer and drawn by Ed Benes. It concluded in August 2011 with issue #60 ahead of the DC Comics decision to relaunch 52 titles from issue #1 in September 2011, of which a new Justice League of America title would be a part.
Wonder Woman, volume 3, began in June 2006 with writer Allan Heinberg and artist Terry Dodson. It will be relaunched from #1 in September 2011 as part of the DC Comics decision to relaunch 52 titles from issue #1.
JSA was canceled with issue #87 to be replaced by a new Justice Society of America series written by Geoff Johns, with art by Dale Eaglesham and covers (and storyline co-planning) by Alex Ross.
Brave New World:
DCU: Brave New World is an 80-page special comic book showcasing six of the planned new titles: Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters, OMAC, Martian Manhunter, Trials of Shazam!, The All-New Atom, and The Creeper. The final two pages reveal the existence of the Monitors.
The All-New Atom was an ongoing series, beginning in July 2006, written by Gail Simone and drawn by John Byrne. It concluded in July 2008 with issue #25.
Creeper is a six-issue limited series starting August 2006, written by Steve Niles and drawn by Justiniano.
Martian Manhunter is an eight-issue limited series starting in August 2006, written by A.J. Lieberman and drawn by Al Barrionuevo.
OMAC is an eight-issue limited series starting in July 2006, written by Bruce Jones and drawn by Renato Guedes.
The Trials of Shazam! is a 12-issue limited series, featuring the entire "Marvel Family" (Captain Marvel, Mary Marvel & Captain Marvel Jr.); spun off from both Day of Vengeance and Infinite Crisis, starting in July 2006, written by Judd Winick and drawn by Howard Porter.
Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters is an eight-issue limited series spun off from Crisis Aftermath: Battle for Blüdhaven, starting in August 2006, written by Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Gray with art by Daniel Acuña. A second eight issue limited series was launched in September 2007, written by Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Gray with art by Renato Arlem, which had some ties to the previous series.
Replacements for canceled titles:
Batman Confidential was an ongoing series with revolving creative teams. It concluded in March 2011.
Superman Confidential was an ongoing series with revolving creative teams. It was canceled in April 2008.
In July 2006, most DC Comics titles wrapped up their 'One-Year Later' story lines and no longer display the 'One-Year Later' bullet on their covers.
Significant events of the lost year
Aquaman
Aquaman's mysterious disappearance was subsequently followed by the arrival of one Arthur Joseph Curry. This new Arthur's origin appears to be similar to the Golden Age 'Aquaman's. Arthur meets 'The Dweller', who has an enchanted hand similar to Orin's and has been confirmed to be the original Aquaman. 'The Dweller' also tells Arthur of his future, which seems to be describing past events involving the original Aquaman.
Freedom of Power Treaty
There is a new Freedom of Power Treaty. The specifics and structure have not been detailed, but it appears to place limits on the activities of heroes outside their nation of origin. Having broken the treaty numerous times, Hal Jordan is considered a criminal by most of the world. Only the Rocket Red Brigade, Green Lantern Hal Jordan, and the Outsiders have been confirmed to be affected by it (Green Lantern #10, 2006). The Outsiders operated illegally and underground with all current members at the time (excluding Nightwing) presumed dead by the general public. As well as this, the Chinese government has formed a superteam called the Great Ten in the intervening year, and is currently working on a supersoldier program.
Gotham City
James Gordon has returned to the role of Gotham City Police Commissioner. Although the exact details have not been revealed as yet, it is known that his return - and that of Harvey Bullock - to the GCPD follows the cracking of a major corruption case in the GCPD by Bullock. Harvey Dent, believed cured of the multiple-personality disorder/psychosis issues that created his Two-Face persona, has been in charge of keeping Gotham safe as a result of a deal with Batman.
Superboy memorials
Monuments to the fallen hero have been erected in at least two locations:
In Metropolis, the statue depicting Superman holding an eagle dating back to his first battle with Doomsday has been joined by one of Superboy (as seen in Action Comics #837), honoring his sacrifice and actions during Infinite Crisis. 52 #1 depicts the memorial, apparently erected within only a few days of Superboy's death.
A second statue has been erected in San Francisco, in front of Titans Tower.
Aftermath
The repercussions of One Year Later are still felt today in the DCU in a number of ways.
One of the more noticeable occurrences to come out of Infinite Crisis and One Year Later was the change in Batman's demeanor. He has become more accepting of others' opinions, is more polite, and apologizes to allies when he makes errors in judgment. This does not change his approach to crime, however. Some may argue that while he has "softened" his approach to his friends, he has hardened his approach to his enemies (i.e. forcefully throwing The Joker into a dumpster after he was shot in the head, then remarking that he "must have mistaken him for trash").
Many Silver Age components have been reintroduced to Superman and his supporting cast. The character of Mon-El, the interior design of the Fortress of Solitude, Superman starting his career by being known as a "super-boy" (sans uniform), and his teenage membership in the Legion of Super-Heroes are all recognizable Silver Age components that were not included in continuity before Infinite Crisis. The stories are also beginning to aesthetically resemble the Superman feature films by using the same exterior design for the Fortress of Solitude, as well as modeling Jor-El more after actor Marlon Brando. These changes also bring current Superman stories more in line with the television series Smallville, which incorporates many of the same elements of classic comics and the feature films.
Wonder Woman actively keeps her secret identity and has a flirtatious relationship with Nemesis, a co-worker at the Department of Metahuman Affairs. The finale of the "Who is Wonder Woman" arc established that her secret identity is now a physical as well as aesthetic transformation; as "Diana Prince", she is physically a normal human, regaining her powers only when she transforms into Wonder Woman (with a spinning effect similar to that used in the Wonder Woman television series of the 1970s).
Bart Allen's tenure as The Flash was one of the shorter lived occurrences, as the new series starring him lasted 13 issues, the last of which included the character's death. Predecessor Wally West has since retaken the mantle of the Scarlet Speedster. Many heroes, most notably members of the Teen Titans, mourn his loss. This has also led into a subplot in DC's weekly series Countdown to Final Crisis, where many heroes are shown to be actively searching for the Rogues that caused Allen's death.
The Green Lantern Corps members that were recovered from the Manhunter homeworld of Biot still despise Hal Jordan for actions Parallax committed while in control of him. Because of this, various personal cliques have formed among certain Lanterns that question Jordan being among them still. Often Jordan is defended by Green Lantern Honor Guard member Guy Gardner. The lost Lanterns proved to be valuable field Lanterns on the front lines in the Sinestro Corps War, with some of them joining the ranks of the Alpha Lanterns.
Notes
Grant Morrison has mentioned in interviews that they have, in their spare time, redesigned several unused DC characters. They presented them to Dan DiDio as part of their Seven Soldiers of Victory proposal with several of the designs, including the redesigned Freedom Fighters and the Atom, debuting in 2006.
References
External links
DC One Year Later Previews: Day 1, Newsarama, February 21, 2006
DC One Year Later Previews: Day 2, Newsarama, February 22, 2006
DC One Year Later Previews: Day 3, Newsarama, February 23, 2006
Champagne’s Battle Plan: The World War III co-writer promises answers to all your 'One Year Later' questions in April’s four-issue series |
4523204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Vancouver | History of Vancouver | The history of Vancouver, British Columbia, is one that extends back thousands of years, with its first inhabitants arriving in the area following the Last Glacial Period. With its location on the western coast of Canada near the mouth of the Fraser River and on the waterways of the Strait of Georgia, Howe Sound, Burrard Inlet, and their tributaries, Vancouver hasfor thousands of yearsbeen a place of meeting, trade, and settlement.
The presence of people in what is now called the Lower Mainland of British Columbia dates from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago when the glaciers of the last ice age began to disappear. The area, known to the First Nations as S'ólh Téméxw, shows archeological evidence of a seasonal encampment ("the Glenrose Cannery site") near the mouth of the Fraser River that dates from that time.
The first Europeans to explore the area were Spanish Captain José María Narváez in 1791, and British naval Captain George Vancouver in 1792. The area was not settled by Europeans until almost a century later, in 1862. The city grew rapidly following the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) transcontinental line from Eastern Canada, allowing for continuous rail service in the late 1880s. Many Chinese settlers moved into the region following the completion of the CPR. Subsequent waves of immigration were initially of Europeans moving west, and later, with the advent of global air travel, from Asia and many other parts of the world.
Early history
First Nations settlements
The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast are the original inhabitants of what is now known as Vancouver. The city falls within the traditional territory of three Coast Salish peoples known as, Squamish (Sḵwxwú7mesh), Tsleil-waututh and Xwméthkwyiem ("Musqueam"—from masqui "an edible grass that grows in the sea"). On the southern shores of Vancouver along the Fraser River, Xwméthkwyiem live with their main community. In the False Creek and Burrard Inlet area, Squamish currently live in numerous villages in North Vancouver, with their territory also a part of Howe Sound and upwards towards the town of Whistler. Further down the Burrard Inlet, Tsleil-Waututh have their main community. Xwméthkwyiem and Tsleil-Waututh historically spoke a language dialect of Halkomelem language, whereas Squamish language is separate but related. Their language is more closely connected to their Shishalh neighbours at Sechelt. Historically, the area where Vancouver is now was a resource-gathering place for food or materials.
The Musqueam have been living continuously at their main winter village, Xwméthkwyiem, at the mouth of the Fraser River, for 4,000 years. Vancouver's ecosystem, with its abundant plant and animal life, provides a wealth of food and materials that have supported the people for over 10,000 years. At the time of first European contact, the recently arrived Squamish people had villages in the areas around present-day Vancouver in places like Stanley Park, Kitsilano and False Creek area, as well as Burrard Inlet. Tsleil-Waututh were said to also be settled on Burrard Inlet at the time of George Vancouver's arrival in 1792. The largest villages were at Xwemelch'stn (sometimes rendered Homulchesan), near the mouth of the Capilano River and roughly beneath where the north foot of the present Lions Gate Bridge is today, and at Musqueam. X̱wáýx̱way was a large village in Stanley Park (in the Lumberman's Arch area). The foundation of a Catholic mission at the village, called Eslha7an, near Mosquito Creek engendered the creation of another large community of Squamish there. Along False Creek, at the south foot of Burrard Bridge, another village called Senakw, existed at one time as a large community, and during colonization was the residence of Squamish historian August Jack Khatsahlano.
The Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast had achieved a very high level of cultural complexity for a food gathering base. As Bruce Macdonald notes in Vancouver: a visual history: "Their economic system encouraged hard work, the accumulation of wealth and status and the redistribution of wealth..." Winter villages, in what is now known as Vancouver, were composed of large plank houses made of Western Red Cedar wood. Gatherings called potlatches were common in the summer and winter months when the spirit powers were active. These ceremonies continue to be an important part of the social and spiritual life of the people.
European exploration
Spanish Captain José María Narváez was the first European to explore the Strait of Georgia in 1791. In the following year, 1792, the British naval Captain George Vancouver (1757–1798) met the Spanish expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores off Point Grey, and together further explored the Strait of Georgia. Vancouver also explored Puget Sound in the present day Seattle area. Vancouver, surveying in small boats with his officer Peter Puget, arrived at the present city of Vancouver before the Spanish. They first landed at what Vancouver later named Point Grey. Puget informally called the place Noon Breakfast Point. Puget's name was officially given to the southwest tip of Point Grey in 1981. Simon Fraser was the first European to reach the area overland, descending the river which bears his name in 1808.
Despite the influx of the Fraser Gold Rush in 1858–59, the settlement on Burrard Inlet and English Bay was almost unknown prior to the early 1860s due in large part to the lack of interest in the area as the access to the BC interior was via the City of New Westminster and the Fraser River and also due to the power of the Squamish chiefs over the area. Robert Burnaby and Moberly camped and prospected for coal in what is now Coal Harbour in the summer of 1859. They had an amicable relationship with the First Nations of the area. Robert Burnaby wrote to his family, "our [spare] time has been occupied in exploring all the ins and outs of this Inlet, which I prophesy will become one of the greatest naval rendezvous and centres of commerce on this side of the world."
European settlement and growth
The first non-Indigenous settlement in the city limits of Vancouver was about 1862 at McCleery's Farm, in the vicinity of what is now the Southlands area.
Lumbering was the early industry along Burrard Inlet, now the site of Vancouver's seaport. The first sawmill began operating in 1863 at Moodyville, a planned settlement built by American lumber entrepreneur Sewell "Sue" Moody. In 1915, it expanded as a municipality and was renamed "North Vancouver"; the name Moodyville still applies to the Lower Lonsdale district, though more as a marketing term than in common usage (Moodyville proper was a few blocks to the east). The first export of lumber took place in 1865; this lumber was shipped to Australia. In 1867, the first sawmill on the south shore of Burrard Inlet, Stamp's Mill located in the Squamish village of K'emk'emeláy began producing lumber at what is now the foot of Dunlevy Avenue in Vancouver. A site for the mill was originally planned at Brockton Point in what is now Stanley Park, but the Brockton Point site proved infeasible due to nearby currents and shoals which made docking difficult. The largest trees in the world grew along the south shores of False Creek and English Bay and provided (amongst other things) masts for the world's windjammer fleets and the increasingly large vessels of the Royal Navy. Millworkers and lumberers were from a wide variety of backgrounds – mostly Scandinavians and Nootkas – who were also brought to the inlet to help with the local whaling industry. At first, Squamish typically did not work in the mills.
A former river pilot, John (Jack) Deighton, set up a small (24' x 12') saloon on the beach about a mile west of the sawmill in 1867 where mill property and its "dry" policies ended. His place was popular and a well-worn trail between the mill and saloon was soon established – this is today's Alexander Street. Deighton's nickname, Gassy Jack, came about because he was known as quite the talker, or "gassy". A number of men began living near the saloon and the "settlement" quickly became known as Gassy's Town, which was quickly shortened to "Gastown". In 1870, the colonial government of British Columbia took notice of the growing settlement and sent a surveyor to lay out an official townsite named Granville, in honour of the British Colonial Secretary, Lord Granville, though it was still popularly known as Gastown (which is the name still current for that part of the city).
The new townsite was situated on a natural harbour, and for this reason, it was selected by the Canadian Pacific Railway as their terminus. The transcontinental railway was commissioned by the government of Canada under the leadership of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald and was a condition of British Columbia joining the confederation in 1871. The CPR president, William Van Horne, decided that Granville was not such a great name for the new terminus because of the seedy associations with Gastown, and strongly suggested "Vancouver" would be a better name, in part because people in Toronto and Montreal knew where Vancouver Island was but had no idea of where Granville was.
Under its new name, the city was incorporated on April 6, 1886. Two months later, on June 13, a spectacular blaze destroyed most of the city along the swampy shores of Burrard Inlet in twenty-five minutes. The Great Vancouver Fire, which destroyed the city, was eventually considered to be beneficial, as the city was rebuilt with modern water, electricity and streetcar systems.
Things recovered quickly after the fire, although celebratory Dominion Day festivities to launch the opening of the CPR were postponed a year as a result. The first regular transcontinental train from Montreal, Quebec arrived at a temporary terminus at Port Moody, British Columbia, in July 1886, and service to Vancouver itself began in May 1887. That year Vancouver's population was 1,000; by 1891 it reached 14,000 and by 1901 it was 26,000. The population increased to 120,000 by 1911.
The Port of Vancouver became internationally significant as a result of its key position in the All-Red Route, which spanned the global trade network of the British Empire, with the combined steamship and railway of the CPR shortening shipping times from the Orient to London drastically, with the new city becoming a node for major speculative investment by British and German capital. The completion of the Panama Canal initially reduced Vancouver's shipping traffic by becoming the new preferred route from Asia to Europe, however reduced freight rates in the 1920s made it viable to ship even Europe-bound prairie grain west through Vancouver in addition to grains that already shipped to parts of Asia.
Early 20th century
Economy
With the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, Vancouver's seaport was able to compete with the major international ports for global trade because it was positioned as an alternative route to Europe. During the 1920s, the provincial government successfully fought to have freight rates that discriminated against goods transported by rail through the mountains eliminated, giving the young lawyer of the case, Gerry McGeer, a reputation as "the man who flattened the Rockies." Consequently, prairie wheat came west through Vancouver rather than being shipped out through eastern ports. The federal government established the Vancouver Harbour Commission development. With its completion in 1923, Ballantyne Pier was the most technologically advanced port in the British Empire.
The CPR, lumber exporters, terminal operators, and other companies based on the waterfront banded together after World War I to establish the Shipping Federation of British Columbia as an employers’ association to manage industrial relations on the increasingly busy waterfront. The Federation fought vociferously against unionization, defeating a series of strikes and breaking unions until the determined longshoremen established the current ILWU local after the Second World War. By the 1930s, commercial traffic through the port had become the largest sector in Vancouver's economy.
The rapid growth in automobiles and trucks after 1910 led to the construction of new bridges over False Creek including the Granville Street Bridge (built 1889, rebuilt 1954), the Burrard Street Bridge (built 1932), and the Cambie Street Bridge (built 1912, rebuilt 1984). Auto traffic to North Vancouver was facilitated with the construction of the first Second Narrows Bridge in 1925 and by the completion of the Lion's Gate Bridge, in 1938, across the First Narrows. In 1923 Warren Harding became the first US President to set foot in Canada. He met with the Premier of BC and the Mayor of Vancouver and spoke to a crowd of 50,000 in Stanley Park. A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.
Labour disputes
Although the provincial resource-based economy allowed Vancouver to flourish, it was nonetheless not immune to the vagaries of organized labour. Two general strikes were launched by labour groups during the years following the First World War, including Canada's first general strike following the death of a trade unionist, Ginger Goodwin. Major recessions and depressions hit the city hard in the late 1890s, 1919, 1923, and 1929.
Great Depression
BC was perhaps the hardest Canadian province hit by the depression. Although Vancouver managed to stave off bankruptcy, other cities in the Lower Mainland were not so lucky, such as North Vancouver and Burnaby. Vancouver also happened to be the target destination for thousands of transients – unemployed young men – who travelled across Canada looking for work, often by hopping on boxcars. This was the end of the line and had for years been a "Mecca of the Unemployed" because, as some cynically joked, it was the only city in Canada where you could starve to death before freezing to death. "Hobo jungles" sprouted up in the earliest days of the depression, where men built makeshift shanty towns out of whatever they could find (or steal). The largest of these was shut down allegedly for being unsanitary.
Vancouver was also the launching pad for the Communist-led unemployed protests that frequented the city throughout the decade, culminating in the relief camp strike and the On-to-Ottawa Trek in 1935. Communist agitators and their supporters also led strikes in other industries, most notably the 1935 waterfront strike, and organized a large proportion of the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion from Vancouver to fight fascism in the Spanish Civil War as Canada's (unofficial) contribution to the International Brigades.
Asian immigrants
Economic hard times fuelled social tensions. In particular, members of the new and growing Asian population were subjected to discrimination as well as periodic upsurges of more physical objections to their arrival.
The most overt expression of this came in the 1907 riots organized by the Asiatic Exclusion League, a group formed under organized labour and inspired by its counterpart in San Francisco.
Some politicians and publicists promoted and disseminated controversial ideologies through popular books such as H. Glynn-Ward's 1921 The Writing on the Wall and Tom MacInnes’s 1929 The Oriental Occupation of British Columbia. Newspapermen such as L. D. Taylor of the Vancouver World and General Victor Odlum of the Star generated a glut of editorials analyzing and warning about the "Oriental Menace," as did Danger: The Anti-Asiatic Weekly.
This determination of British Columbians to secure B.C.'s borders influenced federal politicians to pass immigration laws such as the head tax and the Chinese Exclusion Act. What may be called a "climate of fear and hysteria" in the 1920s, culminated in the 'Janet Smith case', in which a Chinese national was accused of killing his young, white, female co-worker. The evidence for his guilt was perhaps based more on stereotyping than facts.
A growing population of Indians, primarily from the province of Punjab and of the Sikh religion, were also required to abide by immigration laws starting in 1908, despite the fact that they were subjects of the British Empire. This culminated in the 1914 Komagata Maru incident, in which most of 376 immigrants on the Komagata Maru, most of them from the Punjab in India, were not permitted to disembark because they had not complied with immigration laws that required that they come by a continuous passage from their home country.
A group of residents of Indian origin rallied in support of the passengers. After losing a court challenge of the immigration laws, the ship remained in Burrard Inlet while negotiations continued concerning its departure. When negotiations dragged on, the head immigration officer in Vancouver arranged an attempt by the Vancouver police and other officials to board the ship, who were repelled by what the Vancouver Sun reported as "howling masses of Hindus". Subsequently, the federal government sent a naval ship and after concessions made by the federal Minister of Agriculture, an MP from Penticton, the ship departed. After returning to India, twenty of the passengers were shot by police in an incident after they refused to return to Punjab.
Vice and politics
Vancouver, was also the home port of the 246 ft. Malahat, a five-masted schooner known as the "Queen of Rum Row," maintained an active liquor trade throughout the Prohibition Era of the neighbouring United States, despite efforts to bring Prohibition to Canada.
Vancouver's longest serving and most often elected mayor, L. D. Taylor, followed an "open town" policy prior to his final defeat in 1934 to Gerry McGeer. Essentially, the policy was that vice crimes such as prostitution, gambling, and bootlegging would be managed, rather than eliminated, so that police resources could be directed towards major crime.
A consequence of this, in addition to assumptions that Taylor was colluding with the criminal underworld, was the maintenance of red light districts in racialized neighbourhoods, such as Chinatown, Japantown, and Hogan's Alley, which perpetuated the association of non-whites with immorality and vice crime. Taylor suffered the biggest electoral defeat the city had seen in 1934, largely on this issue. McGeer ran on a law and order platform, resulting in a crackdown on vice crimes, which, after years of Taylor's "open town," sought to clean up crime. Unfortunately, policing non-white communities was key to successfully executing the plan. Even the East End (today's Strathcona) had by WWI been largely vacated by English, Scottish, and Irish residents who moved to the wealthier (and whiter) new developments of the West End and Shaughnessy. The East End, the original residential district that grew up around Hasting's Mill, was left to successive waves of new immigrants, and became associated with poverty and vice, (as the Downtown Eastside remains today).
Neighbourhood and property development
The first act of the City Council at its first meeting in 1886 was to request that the military reserve be handed over for use as a park. Historians have pointed out that this may seem a strange priority for the nascent city as there was an abundance of green space at the time. The West End, however, was designated to be an upscale neighbourhood by speculators with connections to the CPR., They did not want the scattered settlements on this property to grow into another industrial, working-class neighbourhood. This act also signalled the beginning of the process that would see the remaining inhabitants of various origins evicted as squatters in the 1920s for the creation of a seemingly pristine park. It has been suggested that perhaps the new Stanley Park would over time be purged of any trace of native occupation. However over time the Parks Board has begun to refill it with Native artifacts.
In 1877, Superintendent of Education John Jessop submitted a proposal for the formation of a provincial university. An Act Respecting the University of British Columbia was passed by the provincial legislature in 1890, but disagreements arose over whether to build the university on Vancouver Island or the mainland. A provincial university was formally called into being by the British Columbia University Act of 1908, although its location was not yet specified. Originally titled McGill University College of British Columbia (associated with McGill University in Montreal), it was selected in 1910 to be constructed at a site at Point Grey, though the outbreak of the First World War delayed construction. The now-independent University of British Columbia began operations in 1915.
In 1911, Vancouver expanded with the amalgamation of Hastings Townsite (originally called New Brighton). The former municipality's name continues on in the Hastings-Sunrise neighbourhood, which covers the same territory. Residents of nearby Squamish village Sen̓áḵw were forcibly evicted as part of this expansion in 1913.
By the interwar years, other neighbourhoods had grown that was working class, but not especially impoverished or racially exclusive, such as Mount Pleasant, the suburb of South Vancouver, and Grandview-Woodland. Even the West End was becoming less exclusive. CPR developers once again established a new enclave for the city's white and wealthy elite that would pull them from the West End and be the destination for the "coming smart set." Point Grey was incorporated in 1908 for this purpose, and Shaughnessy Heights would be developed exclusively for the "richest and most prominent citizens," who were required to spend a minimum of $6,000 on the construction of new homes, which were to conform to specific style requirements. These patterns of economic segregation were apparently secured by 1929 when Point Grey and South Vancouver were amalgamated with Vancouver. Point Grey included the current neighbourhoods of Arbutus Ridge, Dunbar-Southlands, Kerrisdale and Marpole, Oakridge, Shaughnessy and South Cambie, and South Vancouver included the current neighbourhoods of Cedar Cottage, Collingwood, Killarney, Riley Park-Little Mountain, Sunset, and Victoria-Fraserview. William Harold Malkin was the first mayor of the new city, having defeated incumbent Louis Denison Taylor, the champion of amalgamation, in the 1928 civic election.
Civic celebrations
Vancouver was the site of major celebrations in 1936, in part to bolster civic spirit in the midst of the depression, as well as to celebrate Vancouver's Jubilee. Mayor McGeer provoked considerable controversy by organizing expensive celebrations at a time when the city was teetering on the brink of bankruptcy and civic employees were working at a significantly reduced pay rate. Nevertheless, he did find a great deal of support from those who agreed a celebration would ultimately be good for the city's prosperity. While some large expenditures were roundly criticized – for example, the "ugly" fountain erected in Stanley Park's Lost Lagoon – others drew significant financial and public support, such as the construction of a new (and the current) city hall on Cambie Street.
The next major civic celebration was the 1939 Royal visit of the King and Queen as part of their tour of Canada which marked the end of the depression and the likelihood of another world war.
World War II
The outbreak of the Second World War resulted in major changes for Vancouver. Local militia units quickly recruited extra members and Vancouver's Seaforth Highlanders of Canada, for example, had a battalion overseas in England within 4 months, and they remained in Europe fighting until the end of the war. The British Columbia Regiment, 15th Field Regiment RCA, 6th Field Engineers, HMCS Discovery and others all contributed to the war effort.
Massive new spending by the governments and employment in the military and factories provided a much-needed economic boost after the Great Depression of the 1930s. Among the many products and weapons for war service produced in the Vancouver area were minesweepers and corvettes for the Royal Canadian Navy; anti-aircraft guns in Burnaby and the Boeing aircraft factory in nearby Richmond produced parts for B-29 bomber aircraft. The old defences for Vancouver Harbour were upgraded with coast artillery positions at Point Grey (the Museum of Anthropology is built on top of this); Stanley Park; under the Lion's Gate Bridge and at Point Atkinson.
In 1942, a few months after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Japanese Canadians were interned from the West Coast. The Americans did the same with their citizens of Japanese ancestry. Canadians of Japanese descent were placed into holding areas such as the barns at Hastings Park and then interned in camps in the interior by the federal government which evoked the War Measures Act.
Due to the fear of bombing and of poison gas attacks, a blackout was imposed on the West Coast in 1942 and schoolchildren and others were issued gas masks. Japan did indeed attack the West Coast. A Japanese submarine shelled Estevan Point Lighthouse, Japanese soldiers invaded and held an island in Alaska and Japanese balloon bombs (Fire balloon) were floated across the Pacific Ocean on air currents to wreak their havoc on the forests and citizens of Canada and the USA. Locally these balloon bombs landed as close to Vancouver as Point Roberts, but their existence was kept a secret until very late in the war.
1945 to 2000
CBUT, the oldest television station in Western Canada, first went on the air in December 1953. The Oak Street Bridge, connecting Vancouver to Richmond across the Fraser River, opened in 1957. While the Second Narrows Bridge and the Lions' Gate Bridge had provided a connection to the North Shore since 1925 and 1938 respectively, the Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing followed in 1960. The last vestiges of British Columbia Electric Railway's streetcar and interurban rail system were dismantled in 1958; many of the urban lines were replaced by trolley bus routes of the Vancouver trolley bus system, which opened in 1948.
Another major bridge across the Fraser River, the Port Mann Bridge to Surrey, opened in 1964. Two new universities were established, the British Columbia Institute of Technology in 1964 and Simon Fraser University in 1965; both have satellite campuses in Vancouver. Residents of Strathcona – most of them Chinese – formed a protest movement led by civic activist Mary Lee Chan and prevented the construction of a freeway which would have resulted in the bulldozing of the neighbourhood. In 1967, the Greater Vancouver Regional District was incorporated. Greenpeace, one of the leading international environmental organizations, was founded in Vancouver in 1971.
In 1968 the Canada Council awarded a $3,500 grant to Joachim Foikis of Vancouver "to revive the ancient and time-honoured tradition of town fool." He made a habit of attending all city council meetings in full traditional jester's outfit, adding wit, nursery rhymes and interest to the normally pedestrian meetings and bringing international attention to Vancouver.
Disc sports debuted in Vancouver on Kitsilano Beach in 1974 with the Vancouver Open Frisbee Championships.
The continuing growth of the airport on Sea Island resulted in the construction of another bridge across the Fraser River, the Arthur Laing Bridge which opened to traffic in 1975.
As Pacific Central Station replaced Waterfront Station as the main railway station in 1979, the latter was transformed into the terminal of SeaBus and the future SkyTrain (which opened six years later). Canada's first domed stadium, BC Place Stadium opened in 1983. The SkyTrain and the BC Place Stadium, as well as Science World, Canada Place and the Plaza of Nations, were constructed for Expo 86. This significant international event was the last World's Fair held in North America and was considered a success, receiving 22,111,578 visits.
In 1951 the population stood at 562,000; by 1971 it reached 1,000,000. The Park Royal Shopping Centre, in West Vancouver, became the first in the city in 1950 and Empire Stadium, was built to host the 1954 British Empire Games. Vancouver became the western anchor of the new CBC national television network in 1958 and the western hub of the newly completed Trans-Canada Highway in 1962. The giant Tsawwassen Ferry Terminal, was built in 1959 for passenger and vehicle ferry service to southern Vancouver Island and the nearby Roberts Bank Superport coal terminal was finished in the late sixties. A second, Second Narrow's Bridge was built in 1960 and the W.A.C. Bennett Dam was completed in 1967.
The establishment of the Queen Elizabeth Theatre in 1959 and of Simon Fraser University in 1965, enriched the city's cultural life. Canada's first purpose-built auto racing track, the Westwood Motorsport Park was built in nearby Coquitlam, that same year. The first McDonald's restaurant outside the United States was opened in Richmond in 1967.
Chinese immigration
Political uncertainties rose as Hong Kong headed towards the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to China. Many wealthy Chinese residents of Hong Kong chose to immigrate to Canada, as it was relatively easier for them to enter the country due to their Commonwealth of Nations connections. It was also relatively easier for Hong Kongers to migrate to Canada than to the US, as the latter set fixed quotas for different nationalities, while Canada ran on a "points" system, allowing immigrants to arrive if they have desirable factors such as graduate degrees, training, funds to start new businesses and language abilities.
According to statistics compiled by the Canadian Consulate in Hong Kong, from 1991 to 1996, "about 30,000 Hong Kongers emigrated every year to Canada, comprising over half of all Hong Kong emigration and about 20% of the total number of immigrants to Canada." The great majority of these people settled in the Toronto and Vancouver areas, as there are well-established Chinese communities in those cities. After the Handover, there was a sharp decline in immigration numbers. Since 1997, there has been a steady influx of Chinese from China, Singapore and other locales of the Chinese diaspora.
See also
History of British Columbia
List of heritage buildings in Vancouver
Timeline of Vancouver history
Notes
Further reading
Berelowitz, Lance. Dream city: Vancouver and the global imagination (Douglas & McIntyre, 2010).
Bjorkman, Anne D., and Mark Vellend. "Defining historical baselines for conservation: ecological changes since European settlement on Vancouver Island, Canada." Conservation Biology 24.6 (2010): 1559-1568. online
Clayton, Daniel. Islands of truth: The imperial fashioning of Vancouver Island (UBC Press, 1999).
Francis, Daniel. Becoming Vancouver: A History (Harbour Publishing, 2021) online.
Kalman, Harold, and Ron Phillips. Exploring Vancouver: The Essential Architectural Guide (UBC Press, 2011) online.
Kenny, Nicolas. "Forgotten pasts and contested futures in Vancouver" British Journal of Canadian Studies 29.2 (2016): 175-197. excerpt
McCallum, T. Hobohemia and the Crucifixion Machine: Rival Images of a New World in 1930s Vancouver, (AU Press, 2014)
MacDonald, Norbert. "Seattle, Vancouver, and the Klondike." Canadian Historical Review 49.3 (1968): 234-246.
MacDonald, Norbert. "Population Growth and Change in Seattle and Vancouver, 1880-1960." Pacific Historical Review 39.3 (1970): 297-321. online
McDonald, Robert A.J., and Jean Barman, eds. Vancouver past: Essays in social history (UBC Press, 1986).
Macdonald, B. Vancouver: A Visual History, (Talonbooks, 1992)
Ross, Becki. Burlesque west: Showgirls, sex, and sin in postwar Vancouver (University of Toronto Press, 2009). online
Thirkell, Fred, and Bob Scullion. Postcards from the Past: Edwardian Images of Greater Vancouver and the Fraser Valley (Heritage House, 1996).
Vogel, Aynsley, and Dana Wyse. Vancouver: A History in Photographs (Heritage House, 2009) online.
Race, ethnicity and class
Anderson, Kay J. "Cultural hegemony and the race-definition process in Chinatown, Vancouver: 1880–1980." Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 6.2 (1988): 127-149. online
Baker, Don. "Koreans in Vancouver: a short history." Journal of the Canadian Historical Association 19.2 (2008): 155-180. online
Creese, Gillian. "Exclusion or Solidarity? Vancouver Workers Confront the 'Oriental problem'." BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly 80 (1988): 24-51. online
Kim, Jae Yeon. "Racism is not enough: Minority coalition building in San Francisco, Seattle, and Vancouver." Studies in American Political Development 34.2 (2020): 195-215. online
McDonald, Robert AJ. Making Vancouver: Class, Status, and Social Boundaries, 1863-1913 (UBC Press, 2011).
Madokoro, Laura. "Chinatown and monster homes: The splintered Chinese diaspora in Vancouver." Urban History Review 39.2 (2011): 17-24. online
Mitchell, Katharyne. Crossing the Neoliberal Line: Pacific Rim Migration and the Metropolis (2004), on Chinese migration to Vancouver from Hong Kong.
Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth. The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism (2004)
Ng, Wing Chung. The Chinese in Vancouver, 1945-80: The pursuit of identity and power (UBC Press, 2000) online.
Roy, Patricia E. A White Man's Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858–1914 (University of British Columbia Press, 1989).
Stanger-Ross, Jordan. "Municipal colonialism in Vancouver: City planning and the conflict over Indian reserves, 1928–1950s." Canadian Historical Review 89.4 (2008): 541-580.
Wood, Patricia K. Nationalism from the margins: Italians in Alberta and British Columbia (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2002) online.
Yee, Paul. Saltwater city: An illustrated history of the Chinese in Vancouver (Douglas & McIntyre, 2006).
Yu, Henry. "Is Vancouver the future or the past? Asian migrants and white supremacy." Pacific Historical Review 75.2 (2006): 307-312. online
External links
City of Vancouver archives – Point Grey
City of Vancouver archives – South Vancouver
History of Metropolitan Vancouver, Chuck Davis
Vancouver |
4523247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series | 1995 NASCAR Winston Cup Series | The 1995 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 47th season of professional stock car racing in the United States and the 24th modern-era Cup series season. The season began on February 12 in Daytona Beach and concluded on November 12 at the Atlanta Motor Speedway. Jeff Gordon of Hendrick Motorsports won his first career championship.
Overview
The major story heading into the 1995 season was Dale Earnhardt's attempt to make history. After winning his seventh Winston Cup Championship in 1994, Earnhardt tied Richard Petty's record for Cup Championships. Going into the 1995 season, Earnhardt had won four of the last five Winston Cup points titles, and was considered the favorite to win his eighth in 1995.
As the season progressed, the race for the series championship became a battle between Earnhardt, Sterling Marlin and Jeff Gordon. The majority of the spotlight soon shifted on the 24-year-old Gordon. Gordon, who had won two of 1994’s biggest races (Coca-Cola 600 and the Inaugural Brickyard 400), visited victory lane in three of the first six races of 1995.
Gordon would become the most consistent driver of the season. During one stretch of the season, he rattled off 14 straight top ten finishes, winning four times during that stretch. Despite a late season challenge by Earnhardt, Gordon would win the season’s championship by 34 points. In doing so, he became the youngest Winston Cup Champion of the modern era (post 1971). Gordon made light of this at the season ending banquet, toasting Earnhardt with a glass of milk instead of champagne.
However, there were several other major stories in 1995.
1995 saw the Lumina, which had been Chevrolet's official car in NASCAR since the 1989 Winston 500, being replaced by the new Chevrolet Monte Carlo. The Monte Carlo would prove to be the dominant car in 1995, winning 21 of the season's 31 races. After winning each of the season's first seven races, NASCAR gave advantages to the two other makes: Ford and Pontiac.
In contrast to its GM counterpart, Pontiac continued to struggle. The manufacturer won only twice in 1995, and did not have a single driver in the top ten in points (12th place Michael Waltrip was the highest).
Goodyear was the sole tire supplier in 1995, after winning the "tire war" against Hoosier. Despite three wins in 1994 with driver/owner Geoff Bodine, Hoosier decided to leave NASCAR after the 1994 season. Its reasoning, according to Hoosier president Bob Newton, was "to concentrate our efforts in short track racing, which remains our bread and butter."
1995 changes
Robert Yates Racing: After a practice crash at Michigan International Speedway in August 1994, Ernie Irvan spent the rest of the 1994 season recuperating from his injuries. While Irvan continued to make great progress in his recovery, it was becoming clear that he would have to sit out the 1995 season. Thus, RYR began to search for a new driver to take over the #28 Ford. After securing a buyout from his contract at Joe Gibbs Racing, it was announced that Dale Jarrett would be the driver for 1995.
Joe Gibbs Racing: After the departure of Dale Jarrett, Joe Gibbs Racing was forced to find a new driver for the #18 Chevy. With encouragement from General Motors, JGR signed Bobby Labonte, who left Bill Davis Racing,
Elliott-Hardy Racing: After struggling the last two years driving for Junior Johnson, Bill Elliott formed his own team for 1995, sharing ownership with Georgia businessman Charles Hardy. Elliott would reunite with brothers Ernie and Dan, with whom he had great success during his time at Melling Racing. Elliott selected 94 as the number for his Ford and McDonald's as his sponsor. The number had been used by Bill's nephew Casey Elliott, before Casey was diagnosed with cancer (Casey would ultimately lose his battle with the disease in 1996).
Junior Johnson: For 1995, Johnson was forced to look for new drivers and sponsors for both of his cars. Budweiser, the long time sponsor of the #11, left to sponsor the #25 at Hendrick Motorsports and Bill Elliott took the sponsor of the #27, McDonald's, to his new team. For the #11 team, Johnson replaced driver Elliott with Brett Bodine and got sponsorship from Lowe's. For the #27 car, sophomore Loy Allen Jr. took over for Jimmy Spencer with sponsorship from Hooters. Before the April Bristol race, Allen left the team. Various drivers drove the #27 for the rest of 1995; the majority of starts went to veteran Busch Series driver Elton Sawyer.
King Racing: Bodine would be replaced by sprint car legend Steve Kinser. Kinser, who had won 14 World of Outlaws championships, had limited exposure to stock car racing; his only experience had been in the IROC series. After failing to qualify for the spring races at Bristol and North Wilkesboro, Kinser and the team mutually split. Kinser returned to the WoO series, while Hut Stricklin was hired to replace him in the 26 car.
Larry Hedrick Motorsports: LHM was left without a driver and sponsor for 1995. Former Busch Grand National Series Champion Joe Nemechek left to start his own team, Rookie Ricky Craven would drive the #41 Chevy. Craven won the Rookie of the Year award in 1995.
Diamond Ridge Motorsports: Former Busch Grand National champ Steve Grissom would return for a second Cup season.
NEMCO Motorsports: As he had done en route to the 1992 Busch Grand National Series Championship, Joe Nemechek formed his own team in 1995.
Leo Jackson Motorsports: Harry Gant called it a career after the 1994 season. BGN series regular Robert Pressley would replace Gant in the Skoal Bandit Chevy, and would also compete for Rookie of the Year for 1995.
Bill Davis Racing: BDR found itself in a similar position to many teams, needing to replace both a driver (Bobby Labonte) and a sponsor. BDR hoped to find success with manufacturer Pontiac with driver Randy LaJoie. However, the combo experienced lackluster results, and LaJoie was fired in July. After going through several drivers, Davis settled on Ward Burton, who had been let go from the Alan Dillard Jr. owned team earlier in the year. Burton shocked the stock car world by winning his first career Cup Series race at the North Carolina Motor Speedway in October. LaJoie would also find success, winning the Busch Grand National Title in 1996 and 1997.
Melling Racing: After running part-time for the last three seasons, Melling returned to full-time competition in 1995. Mississippian Lake Speed was hired to be driver and general manager of the team.
Bud Moore: After Lake Speed left the team at the end of 1994, Bud Moore hired short track legend (and Sportscenter favorite) Dick Trickle to drive the #15 Ford.
Travis Carter Motorsports: After struggling during the 1994 season, the team parted ways with driver Hut Stricklin. He would be replaced by Jimmy Spencer, who had won two races driving for Junior Johnson in 1994.
Petty Enterprises: John Andretti, who had replaced Wally Dallenbach Jr. midway through 1994, did not return in 1995. Replacing Andretti would be Tennessee driver Bobby Hamilton.
SABCO Racing: After Hamilton left for Petty Enterprises, owner Felix Sabates hired Greg Sacks to drive the #40 Pontiac. After a dismal 14-race stint, Sacks was let go. Several drivers took the reins of the #40, with most of the duties going to Rich Bickle. Sabates' other car, the #42 driven by Kyle Petty, had new colors for 1995.
Jasper Motorsports: Owner D. K. Ulrich hired veteran open wheel and sports car driver Davy Jones to pilot the #77 Ford. Bobby Hillin Jr. replaced Jones beginning at the June Dover race.
Kranefuss-Haas Racing: After racing part-time in 1994, the team co-owned by Michael Kranefuss and Carl Haas went full-time in 1995. Former CART driver John Andretti was selected to drive the #37 Ford.
Teams and drivers
Complete schedule
Limited schedule
Schedule
Races
Busch Clash
The 1995 Busch Clash, kicked off the season on February 12, at Daytona International Speedway. Geoff Bodine drew the pole. As an exhibition race, no points are awarded. The race was between 1994 Winston Cup pole winners. Also, in a first for the event, the driver who collected the most poles in the 1994 Busch Season was also invited. This honor went to David Green.
Dale Earnhardt got the season off to a dominating start, leading 18 of 20 laps to collect his 6th Clash win. Aside from that, the most noteworthy event happened on the first lap, when Loy Allen Jr. made contact with Greg Sacks in turn 3, sending Sacks into the wall. Sacks also collected Mark Martin, ending Martin's day. Sterling Marlin finished second, Bill Elliott was third. Jeff Gordon and Todd Bodine rounded out the top five.
Gatorade 125s
The Gatorade 125s, the qualifying races for the Daytona 500, were held on Thursday, February 16, at Daytona International Speedway. The lineups for the 125s were determined by qualifying the previous Sunday. The first race would consist of drivers who qualified in odd-numbered positions (1st fastest, 3rd fastest, 5th fastest, etc.), while the second race would be formed from even-numbered qualifiers. As the fastest driver, Dale Jarrett would start from the pole in the first race, and second-fastest driver Dale Earnhardt would lead the field in the second race.
Sterling Marlin would dominate the first race, leading 44 of 50 laps. His victory would ensure the 1994 Daytona 500 winner the 3rd starting spot on Sunday. Good finishes for Dave Marcis (10th), Joe Nemechek (12th), and Joe Ruttman (14th) assured them spots in the 500.
In race 2, Earnhardt made it two-for-two for his Speedweeks, edging out Jeff Gordon for the victory. The race also contained two crashes. The first, on lap 15, collected Jimmy Spencer, Billy Standridge, and Loy Allen Jr. Allen was forced to fall back on his qualifying time, while Spencer and Standridge went home. The second crash occurred on lap 42, and involved Chad Little, Phil Barkdoll, Phil Parsons, and Jim Sauter. Fortunately for Parsons, his qualifying time was good enough to get him into the 500. Little, Barkdoll, and Sauter weren't so lucky, and all three were forced to watch the 500 on TV.
Daytona 500
The 1995 Daytona 500 was held February 19 at Daytona International Speedway. Dale Jarrett won his first career Winston Cup pole.
Top ten results
4-Sterling Marlin
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
16-Ted Musgrave
28-Dale Jarrett
30-Michael Waltrip
29-Steve Grissom
5-Terry Labonte
25-Ken Schrader
21-Morgan Shepherd
Failed to qualify: 20-Bobby Hillin Jr., 40-Greg Sacks, 14-Randy MacDonald, 95-Doug Heveron, 82-Terry Byers, 52-Gary Bradberry, 62-Ronnie Sanders, 81-Kenny Wallace, 73-Phil Barkdoll, 99-Shawna Robinson, 72-Jim Sauter, 51-Kerry Teague, 97-Chad Little, 68-Bob Strait, 23-Jimmy Spencer, 0-Delma Cowart, 47-Billy Standridge, 67-Ken Bouchard, 48-James Hylton, 53-Ritchie Petty, 32-Mike Chase, 65-Steve Seligman
As of 2022, Sterling Marlin is the only driver in NASCAR history to score his first 2 career wins in the Daytona 500.
Sterling Marlin becomes the last driver until 2020, a driver to win back-to-back Daytona 500 races (1994 & 1995), joining Richard Petty (1973 & 1974) and Cale Yarborough (1983 & 1984). Denny Hamlin would also accomplish the feat, winning the Daytona 500 in 2019 and 2020.
Goodwrench 500
The Goodwrench 500 was held February 26 at North Carolina Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Bobby Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
10-Ricky Rudd
28-Dale Jarrett, 1 lap down
29-Steve Grissom, 1 lap down
6-Mark Martin, 2 laps down
12-Derrike Cope, 3 laps down
31-Ward Burton, 3 laps down
42-Kyle Petty, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify (in order of speeds): 66-Ben Hess, 52-Gary Bradberry, 48-James Hylton, 47-Billy Standridge, 19-Phil Parsons
This was the last 500-mile race at Rockingham.
Ernie Irvan made his NASCAR return at this race but not in a driving role; he was in the TV booth as a color analyst for TNN's live flag to flag coverage.
Pontiac Excitement 400
The Pontiac Excitement 400 was held March 5 at Richmond International Raceway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
25-Ken Schrader
4-Sterling Marlin
12-Derrike Cope
17-Darrell Waltrip
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
43-Bobby Hamilton, 1 lap down
37-John Andretti, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 32-Jimmy Hensley, 81-Kenny Wallace, 47-Billy Standridge, 78-Jay Hedgecock, 29-Steve Grissom, 52-Gary Bradberry, 66-Ben Hess, 49-Eric Smith, 77-Davy Jones
Steve Grissom entered this race 5th in points after back-to-back top 10s, but failed to qualify based on points from 1994.
Purolator 500
The Purolator 500 was held March 12 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Dale Earnhardt won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Bobby Labonte
5-Terry Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Dale Jarrett, 1 lap down
21-Morgan Shepherd, 1 lap down
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
6-Mark Martin, 2 laps down
2-Rusty Wallace, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 31-Ward Burton, 52-Gary Bradberry, 27-Loy Allen Jr., 67-Ken Bouchard, 76-Johnny Chapman, 66-Ben Hess, 81-Kenny Wallace, 78-Pancho Carter
Before the field even took the green, Mike Wallace got turned into the inside wall on the frontstretch, damaging his car before he even got a chance to race on green. It led to him completing only 33 laps, finishing 40th due to engine failure from the crash.
Jeremy Mayfield, Michael Waltrip and Jeff Purvis were involved in a vicious crash on the backstretch on lap 144. Mayfield got turned head-on into the wall off of turn 2 so hard, the rear tires came off the ground. When he came off the wall, the car was running straight down the backstretch but he had no brakes or steering, and he veered up towards the wall again right in front of Waltrip and Purvis and got t-boned extremely hard.
TranSouth Financial 400
The TranSouth Financial 400 was held March 26 at Darlington Raceway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
4-Sterling Marlin
3-Dale Earnhardt
16-Ted Musgrave
75-Todd Bodine
12-Derrike Cope
29-Steve Grissom
30-Michael Waltrip
21-Morgan Shepherd
43-Bobby Hamilton
37-John Andretti, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 81-Kenny Wallace, 52-Brad Teague, 19-Phil Parsons
This was the first race at Darlington after the Lady in Black was freshly paved for the first time in decades. Speeds were high and the cars gripped extremely well in the corners, leading to many drivers driving over their heads. There were many accidents as a result.
Jeff Gordon, who led most laps by far, was involved in a crash on lap 201.
This was Sterling Marlin's first win on a non-restrictor plate track
Food City 500
The Food City 500 was held April 2 at Bristol International Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
2-Rusty Wallace
17-Darrell Waltrip
43-Bobby Hamilton
10-Ricky Rudd
28-Dale Jarrett
5-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
33-Robert Pressley, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 98-Jeremy Mayfield, 87-Joe Nemechek, 26-Steve Kinser,
47-Billy Standridge, 78-Hut Stricklin, 66-Butch Miller, 52-Brad Teague, 27-Loy Allen Jr., 90-Mike Wallace
This was the last ever Top 3 finish for Darrell Waltrip.
First Union 400
The First Union 400 was held April 9 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
24-Jeff Gordon
6-Mark Martin
2-Rusty Wallace
29-Steve Grissom
16-Ted Musgrave, 1 lap down
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
1-Rick Mast, 1 lap down
11-Brett Bodine, 1 lap down
17-Darrell Waltrip, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 98-Jeremy Mayfield,
81-Kenny Wallace, 32-Chuck Bown, 78-Jay Hedgecock, 77-Davy Jones, 47-Billy Standridge, 27-Jeff Purvis, 26-Steve Kinser, 52-Randy MacDonald
Steve Grissom re-entered the top 10 in points after his DNQ at Richmond.
Final NASCAR race for sprint car legend Steve Kinser.
Hanes 500
The Hanes 500 was held April 23 at Martinsville Speedway. Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
16-Ted Musgrave
24-Jeff Gordon
17-Darrell Waltrip
6-Mark Martin
25-Ken Schrader
28-Dale Jarrett
43-Bobby Hamilton
42-Kyle Petty, 1 lap down
18-Bobby Labonte, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 75-Todd Bodine, 23-Jimmy Spencer, 32-Chuck Bown,
78-Jay Hedgecock, 8-Jeff Burton, 22-Randy LaJoie, 77-Davy Jones
This race was shortened to 356 laps due to a combination of a long red flag for rain, and darkness. Starting in 2017 the track had a full lighting system installed to allow night racing insuring a race would never be called for darkness again.
Winston Select 500
The Winston Select 500 was held April 30 at Talladega Superspeedway. The #5 of Terry Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
21-Morgan Shepherd
17-Darrell Waltrip
18-Bobby Labonte
94-Bill Elliott
7-Geoff Bodine
75-Todd Bodine
23-Jimmy Spencer
19-Loy Allen Jr.
Failed to qualify: 53-Ritchie Petty, 47-Billy Standridge, 87-Joe Nemechek, 65-Steve Seligman, 0-Delma Cowart
This was Loy Allen Jr.'s only top 10 finish in NASCAR Winston Cup Series racing.
Dale Earnhardt was leading the race with two laps to go, but was passed by Mark Martin in the tri-oval coming to the white flag and spun around by Morgan Shepherd exiting turn 2 on the last lap. The car lifted over a foot but roof flaps prevented the car getting airborne. Earnhardt managed to save the car and drove it to a 21st-place finish.
Loy Allen Jr. finished 10th after leading several laps and driving what was arguably the best race of his Cup career.
Save Mart Supermarkets 300
The Save Mart Supermarkets 300 was held May 7 at Sears Point Raceway. Ricky Rudd won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
10-Ricky Rudd
5-Terry Labonte
16-Ted Musgrave
4-Sterling Marlin
75-Todd Bodine
25-Ken Schrader
30-Michael Waltrip
Failed to qualify: 40-Greg Sacks, 98-Jeremy Mayfield, 27-Elton Sawyer, 00w-Scott Gaylord, 64-Garrett Evans, 22w-St. James Davis, 19-Ernie Cope
This was Dale Earnhardt's only career road course victory in Winston Cup competition. Coming to the white flag, Mark Martin hit oil and Earnhardt drove by him, took the lead and held off Martin for the victory (Martin had dominated the race).
Dale Jarrett got up on his side in a crash on lap 62 trying to avoid a wreck between Rusty Wallace and Davy Jones. However, the marshals pushed him back on 4 wheels, and he finished the race in 23rd, on the lead lap.
Coca-Cola 600
The Coca-Cola 600 was held May 28 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. The #24 of Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
18-Bobby Labonte
5-Terry Labonte
30-Michael Waltrip
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
3-Dale Earnhardt, 1 lap down
26-Hut Stricklin, 1 lap down
9-Lake Speed, 2 laps down
43-Bobby Hamilton, 2 laps down
41-Ricky Craven, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 40-Greg Sacks, 20-Bobby Hillin Jr., 95-Jimmy Hensley, 77-Davy Jones, 44-Jeff Purvis, 67-Johnny Chapman
Jimmy Hensley relieved Darrell Waltrip during this race because of the injuries that Waltrip suffered the previous Saturday night during The Winston.
This was Bobby Labonte's first NASCAR Winston Cup win.
Miller Genuine Draft 500
The Miller Genuine Draft 500 was held June 4 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
42-Kyle Petty
18-Bobby Labonte
16-Ted Musgrave
26-Hut Stricklin
3-Dale Earnhardt
24-Jeff Gordon, 1 lap down
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
30-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down
2-Rusty Wallace, 1 lap down
87-Joe Nemechek, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 79-Doug French, 19-Loy Allen Jr.
This was the first race at Dover after the track's surface had been changed from asphalt to concrete.
This race was marred by "The Big One," a 20 car crash on lap 2 coming out of turn 4. Usually, these occur only during restrictor plate races, but they have been known to occur at Dover.
This was Kyle Petty's 8th and final NASCAR Winston Cup win. He started 37th and avoided the early carnage to lead 271 of the 500 laps (54.2%).
In addition to this race marking Kyle Petty's last victory; this would be the first win for Pontiac since the 1993 Hooters 500; when Rusty Wallace took the checkered flag in the last race before Team Penske switched from Pontiac to Ford starting in 1994.
UAW-GM Teamwork 500
The UAW-GM Teamwork 500 was held June 11 at Pocono Raceway. Ken Schrader won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
16-Ted Musgrave
25-Ken Schrader
4-Sterling Marlin
26-Hut Stricklin
94-Bill Elliott
21-Morgan Shepherd
3-Dale Earnhardt
30-Michael Waltrip
11-Brett Bodine
Failed to qualify: 79-Doug French
Terry Labonte made the pass for the win on the final restart with 7 laps to go, when teammate Jeff Gordon missed the upshift from 2nd to 3rd gear. When that happened, the entire line of lead-lap cars swept to the left and passed Gordon. At that time, restarts in the final 10 laps were single file, with all of the cars one or more laps down lining up directly behind the lead-lap cars. Gordon ended up finishing 16th, last car on the lead lap. Those were the only laps Labonte led in the race.
Jimmy Horton, driving the #27 Ford in place of Elton Sawyer (who competed in the Busch Series race at Myrtle Beach the previous night), climbed out of the car in the first half after being overcome by fumes. Jimmy Spencer (who ironically ran that same car the year before), who had parked his #23 Ford earlier because of engine problems, took over in relief. Spencer took the #27 to a 34th-place finish, 8 laps down.
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held June 18 at Michigan International Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
18-Bobby Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
2-Rusty Wallace
37-John Andretti
21-Morgan Shepherd
28-Dale Jarrett
4-Sterling Marlin
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
16-Ted Musgrave
Failed to qualify: 88-Gary Bradberry, 40-Greg Sacks
Late in the race, the #9 of Lake Speed (who finished 11th) accidentally pinched the #30 of Michael Waltrip (who finished 12th) into the wall. Waltrip took exception to this move and confronted Speed on pit road after the race. He ended up throwing a couple of punches through the driver's side window of Speed's Spam Ford. Waltrip would be fined $10,000 by NASCAR for the incident.
Pepsi 400
The Pepsi 400 was held July 1 at Daytona International Speedway. Dale Earnhardt won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
4-Sterling Marlin
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
16-Ted Musgrave
25-Ken Schrader
42-Kyle Petty
10-Ricky Rudd
23-Jimmy Spencer
94-Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: 81-Kenny Wallace, 0-Delma Cowart, 65-Steve Seligman
The race ended on an unusual 1 lap shootout.
Benny Parsons, ESPN's announcer, joked about Gordon, who was leading on the final restart saying that he "took shifting lessons" because of Gordon's mistake on the last race at Pocono.
Kyle Petty finished seventh and later on a radio call-in show addressed a rumor that had circulated during Speedweeks as to his health, a rumor revived due to fatigue he'd felt in the win at Dover the previous month.
Slick 50 300
The Slick 50 300 was held July 9 at New Hampshire International Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
21-Morgan Shepherd
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
10-Ricky Rudd
2-Rusty Wallace
12-Derrike Cope
16-Ted Musgrave
4-Sterling Marlin
25-Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: 49-Eric Smith
Miller Genuine Draft 500
The Miller Genuine Draft 500 was held July 16 at Pocono Raceway. Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top ten results
28-Dale Jarrett
24-Jeff Gordon
10-Ricky Rudd
16-Ted Musgrave
94-Bill Elliott
7-Geoff Bodine
6-Mark Martin
98-Jeremy Mayfield
87-Joe Nemechek
15-Dick Trickle
Failed to qualify: 14-Randy MacDonald, 82-Terry Byers
This was Dale Jarrett's 1st win with Robert Yates Racing and his only win with the number 28 car.
DieHard 500
The DieHard 500 was held July 23 at Talladega Superspeedway. Sterling Marlin won the pole. The race was most remembered for Ken Schrader's wild end-over-end tumble in "The Big One" on lap 139, which collected 13 other cars. He was not injured, though.
Top ten results
4-Sterling Marlin
28-Dale Jarrett
3-Dale Earnhardt
21-Morgan Shepherd
94-Bill Elliott
42-Kyle Petty
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
30-Michael Waltrip
23-Jimmy Spencer, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 22-Jimmy Hensley, 0-Delma Cowart, 65-Steve Seligman
Jeff Gordon was very distraught, even in tears, over Ken Schrader's crash because he tapped him to begin the series of events that led to him flipping through the infield grass. He was afraid he had killed his teammate, but Schrader actually got on Gordon's radio after he got out of the infield care center to tell him that he was ok and not to worry about him.
Brickyard 400
The second Brickyard 400 was held Saturday, August 5, at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. The popular event returned for a second year, after the tremendous success of the first running. The weekend was expanded by the addition of practice on Wednesday afternoon.
Pole qualifying
Defending champion Jeff Gordon won the pole position on Thursday, August 3, with a track record speed of 172.536 mph. A hot day saw most speeds down, and Gordon was the only driver to break the existing track record. Bobby Hamilton put the fans on their feet when he put the popular Petty #43 STP Pontiac on the outside of the front row with a run of 172.222 mph.
Second round qualifying
On Friday, August 4, the remnants of Hurricane Erin overtook the midwest, and rain settled in for two days. Friday morning practice was lost, and second round qualifying was also rained out. As a result, all cars reverted to their time trials speed from the first round, and the field was filled accordingly. Without a chance in second round qualifying, A. J. Foyt notably failed to qualify, the first time he failed to qualify in a race he attempted at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway since 1958. The field managed a brief "happy hour" practice late Friday evening, and rain began to fall again.
Race recap
On Saturday, August 5, steady rain fell all morning, and threatened to wash out the day. The forecast was marginal for Sunday as well, threatening to washout the whole weekend. Many fans left the grounds as local media speculated (and some erroneously reported) that the race would be postponed. In an unexpected turn of events, at approximately 3:30 p.m. EST (4:30 p.m. EDT), the skies suddenly cleared, and track drying efforts began in earnest. The teams scrambled to get their cars prepared, and the field hastily lined up in the garage area. The Chevrolet C/K pace truck led them on to the track and the race began with many fans still scurrying to their seats. Many of the pit crews were also scrambling to get their equipment set up in the pit area. Some fans driving home on the interstate reportedly turned around and drove back to the track when the radio reported the race was starting.
The green flag dropped at 4:25 p.m. EST (5:25 p.m. EDT) with live coverage only on the radio. ABC-TV had already signed off and by then had decided to air the race on ESPN on tape delay on Sunday afternoon. It stands as one of the last NASCAR races not aired live on television.
Dale Earnhardt beat Rusty Wallace to the finish line in a race slowed by only one caution for 4 laps. Jeff Burton spun off turn two right in front of eventual winner Earnhardt with 27 laps to go. The race was completed at 7:03 p.m. EST (8:03 p.m. EDT), shortly before sunset.
Top ten results
Failed to qualify
44-Jeff Purvis
95-Loy Allen Jr.
66-Billy Standridge
78-Pancho Carter
71-Dave Marcis
65-Steve Seligman
50-A. J. Foyt
80-Joe Ruttman
99-Danny Sullivan
Danny Sullivan's entry was withdrawn after his career-ending crash in the Marlboro 500 at Michigan.
The Bud at The Glen
The Bud at The Glen was held August 12 at Watkins Glen International. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
22-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
24-Jeff Gordon
10-Ricky Rudd
5-Terry Labonte
18-Bobby Labonte
37-John Andretti
17-Darrell Waltrip
7-Geoff Bodine
41-Ricky Craven
Failed to qualify: 61-David Murry, 90-Mike Wallace, 49-Eric Smith
During pre-race ceremonies, all drivers participated in unity for a parade lap to show support for series sponsor R. J. Reynolds. Each driver rode in the back of a pickup truck holding an American flag visible to all spectators. This was done in protest to President Bill Clinton's executive order earlier in the week targeting tobacco advertising at sporting events.
This was Mark Martin's third consecutive win from the pole at Watkins Glen.
Wally Dallenbach Jr., in a one-off "road course ringer" drive for Bill Davis Racing, was leading by almost 10 seconds late in the race. Suffering from headaches and fatigue, from inhaling smoke from an oil leak, Dallenbach Jr. twice got out to huge leads and appeared to be on his way to his first Winston Cup victory. Second place Mark Martin was gaining, but only by about one second per lap. A caution came out for fluid on the track from Joe Nemechek's broken transmission. The green came out with 8 laps to go, and Dallenbach Jr. again got out to a comfy lead. Martin closed the gap, however, and passed Dallenbach Jr. two laps after the restart to claim the win.
Canadian road racing specialist Ron Fellows made his first Cup start in this race in the one-time #68 team owned by Vic Sifton of Canaska Motorsports.
During a rain delay; Mark Martin and Dale Earnhardt were granted the opportunity to run NASCAR's first test of rain tires, running a total of 16 laps during the test period. NASCAR would not use rain tires for a race until the 2020 Bank of America Roval 400.
GM Goodwrench 400
The GM Goodwrench 400 was held August 19 at Michigan International Speedway. Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
18-Bobby Labonte
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
4-Sterling Marlin
2-Rusty Wallace
31-Ward Burton
41-Ricky Craven
43-Bobby Hamilton
94-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down
26-Hut Stricklin, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 40-Rich Bickle, 72-Tracy Leslie, 02-Tim Steele, 95-Loy Allen Jr.
This was Ward Burton's last race in the #31 Chevrolet for A. G. Dillard Motorsports.
Goody's 500
The Goody's 500 was held August 26 at Bristol International Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Dale Jarrett
17-Darrell Waltrip
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
4-Sterling Marlin
90-Mike Wallace
8-Jeff Burton
12-Derrike Cope, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 42-Kyle Petty, 95-Joe Ruttman, 81-Kenny Wallace, 32-Jimmy Hensley, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 75-Todd Bodine, 27-Elton Sawyer
This race started roughly an hour and a half to two hours behind schedule due to persistent rains from Tropical Storm Jerry, which had made landfall to the south earlier in the week.
This race is likely the most memorable race of the entire 1995 season due to the infamous finish of the event where Dale Earnhardt ran Terry Labonte down from 3 seconds behind in the late stages of the race and tapped him coming off turn 4 on the last lap. This tap got Labonte loose, and then Labonte overcorrected (slightly grazing the #31 Chevrolet of Greg Sacks in the process). This put Labonte head on into the outside wall just beyond the start-finish line, still ahead of Earnhardt to claim the victory.
Back-to-back seasons that Terry Labonte won 3 races in a season, the most wins in a season in his career. Final time in his career as well that Terry Labonte would win 3 races in a season.
This was Ward Burton's first race in the #22 Pontiac for Bill Davis Racing. However, it was a short debut as Burton crashed out of the race and finished 34th.
Dale Earnhardt was sent to the rear of the field after spinning Rusty Wallace coming out of turn 4 on lap 32. This resulted in an argument between Wallace and Earnhardt after the race where Wallace threw a water bottle at Earnhardt.
Later in the race, Earnhardt ran into the back of Derrike Cope's #12 Ford on a restart. This significantly damaged the front of Earnhardt's car and forced him to pit road for repairs once the caution flag waved again. This was the reason why Earnhardt had to charge through the field in order to catch Terry Labonte at the end of the race.
At one point, the #94 McDonald's Ford of Bill Elliott climbed the wall coming out of turn 2.
The #43 of Bobby Hamilton was given a 5 lap penalty for rough driving for wrecking the #11 Ford of Brett Bodine twice within 20 laps.
Lake Speed suffered from a slight case of smoke inhalation as a result of a crash on lap 390 that broke an oil line on his #9 Ford. The broken oil line (and the accompanying substantial oil leak, which was streaming down the left front fender of the car) caused a fire while Speed was trying to get the car back to his pit stall.
Mountain Dew Southern 500
The Mountain Dew Southern 500 was held September 3 at Darlington Raceway. The #37 of John Andretti won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
22-Ward Burton
30-Michael Waltrip
10-Ricky Rudd
26-Hut Stricklin
18-Bobby Labonte
9-Lake Speed
4-Sterling Marlin
Failed to qualify: 66-Billy Standridge, 52-Brad Teague, 88-Gary Bradberry
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held September 9 at Richmond International Raceway. Dale Earnhardt won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
5-Terry Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Dale Jarrett
43-Bobby Hamilton
24-Jeff Gordon
37-John Andretti, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down
16-Ted Musgrave, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 32-Ed Berrier, 78-Jay Hedgecock, 40-Shane Hall, 29-Steve Grissom, 90-Mike Wallace, 49-Eric Smith
Steve Grissom failed to qualify for both Richmond Winston Cup races in 1995.
MBNA 500
The MBNA 500 was held September 17 at Dover Downs International Speedway. The #1 of Rick Mast won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
43-Bobby Hamilton
2-Rusty Wallace
87-Joe Nemechek
3-Dale Earnhardt
4-Sterling Marlin
12-Derrike Cope, 1 lap down
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
18-Bobby Labonte, 2 laps down
10-Ricky Rudd, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: ??-Billy Standridge, 66-Terry Fisher, 31-Greg Sacks
Rusty Wallace ended up finishing 3rd after being moved to the rear of the field at the beginning of the race due to needing a backup car so that he could run this race.
7th and final win of 1995 for Jeff Gordon.
Goody's 500
The Goody's 500 was held September 24 at Martinsville Speedway. Qualifying was rained out, so point leader Jeff Gordon was awarded with the pole position.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
2-Rusty Wallace
43-Bobby Hamilton
7-Geoff Bodine
94-Bill Elliott
24-Jeff Gordon
17-Darrell Waltrip
12-Derrike Cope
28-Dale Jarrett
Failed to qualify: 31-Jimmy Hensley, 32-Greg Sacks, 40-Rich Bickle, 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 81-Kenny Wallace
In the middle part of the race, rookie Robert Pressley's brakes were wearing thin. On the backstretch he touched Ted Musgrave, who was running on seven cylinders, and sent him spinning into the pit wall. The back wheels of the Family Channel Ford climbed on top of the pit wall. This essentially ended Musgrave's title hopes, as he never really regained his earlier season form.
Tyson Holly Farms 400
The Tyson Holly Farms 400 was held October 1 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. The #16 of Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
2-Rusty Wallace
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
10-Ricky Rudd
88-Ernie Irvan
28-Dale Jarrett
25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down
3-Dale Earnhardt, 1 lap down
94-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 75-Todd Bodine, 32-Greg Sacks, 98-Jeremy Mayfield, 22-Ward Burton, 8-Jeff Burton, 90-Mike Wallace, 78-Jay Hedgecock
This was Ernie Irvan's first race back in the Winston Cup Series since his near-fatal crash in practice at Michigan in August 1994. This resulted in Robert Yates Racing unveiling the #88 in order to give Irvan a car to re-acclimate himself to racing before going full-time in 1996. The 88 car itself would starting in 1996 be run full time by Robert Yates Racing with driver Dale Jarrett.
All 36 cars starting the race finished the event within ten laps of the winner. (Jimmy Spencer was 36th, 10 laps down.) It was the first race since 1959 that an entire starting field finished the race, with no drivers scoring a DNF.
Junior Johnson's final race at his home track as a car owner would see Brett Bodine finish 22nd, 5 laps down; while Elton Sawyer finished 8 laps down in 34th.
UAW-GM Quality 500
The UAW-GM Quality 500 was held October 8 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Ricky Rudd won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
10-Ricky Rudd
28-Dale Jarrett
4-Sterling Marlin
22-Ward Burton
18-Bobby Labonte
2-Rusty Wallace
43-Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: 97-Chad Little, 81-Kenny Wallace, 44-Jeff Purvis, 0-Delma Cowart, 66-Billy Standridge
Dale Earnhardt took the Past Champion's Provisional to get into this race. Within 70 laps, he was 2nd.
AC Delco 400
The AC Delco 400 was held October 22 at North Carolina Speedway. The #26 of Hut Stricklin won the pole.
Top ten results
22-Ward Burton
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
8-Jeff Burton
4-Sterling Marlin
3-Dale Earnhardt
41-Ricky Craven
87-Joe Nemechek
94-Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 88-Ernie Irvan, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 78-Jay Hedgecock, 84-Norm Benning, 70-Alan Russell, 14-Richard Brickhouse
This was Ward Burton's first career Winston Cup win, coming in just his seventh race for Bill Davis Racing.
This race featured an unusual 10+ lap long caution due to an error by NASCAR officials pertaining to Dale Earnhardt's car. On a green flag pit stop, Earnhardt's crew changed 4 tires like any other stop. However, one of the lugnuts on the left front tire was not painted red like the rest. As a result, an official called Earnhardt's car back to the pits to fix the problem that didn't actually exist. NASCAR then threw the caution in order to essentially put Earnhardt back where he was before the officials' error occurred, which was more or less unprecedented.
Dura Lube 500
The Dura Lube 500 was held October 29 at Phoenix International Raceway. The #94 of Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top ten results
10-Ricky Rudd
12-Derrike Cope
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
24-Jeff Gordon
16-Ted Musgrave
21-Morgan Shepherd
6-Mark Martin
1-Rick Mast
25-Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: 50-A. J. Foyt, 97-Chad Little, 08-Mike Bliss, 40-Shane Hall, 00w-Scott Gaylord, 58w-Wayne Jacks, 7w-L. J. Pryor, 36w-Rich Woodland Jr.
This victory gave Ricky Rudd a victory in 13 consecutive seasons, dating back to 1983 (when he earned his 1st career victory at Riverside while driving the #3 Piedmont Airlines Chevrolet for Richard Childress).
NAPA 500
The NAPA 500 was held November 12 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. The #17 of Darrell Waltrip won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
4-Sterling Marlin
2-Rusty Wallace
94-Bill Elliott
22-Ward Burton
23-Jimmy Spencer
88-Ernie Irvan, 1 lap down
18-Bobby Labonte, 1 lap down
77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 66-Billy Standridge, 59-Jack Sprague, 90-Mike Wallace, 40-Shane Hall, 0-Delma Cowart, 49-Eric Smith
Jeff Gordon came into the race only having to finish 41st or better to win the championship. As a result, he took it easy during the race (at one point, the team did a pit stop with Ray Evernham (Gordon's crew chief) serving as a tire changer). Dale Earnhardt came into this race 147 points behind Gordon. Earnhardt, knowing that he had to be near perfect to win the championship, went all out with nothing to lose. However, he went on to win the race and lead the most laps. He led 268 of the 328 laps. Gordon led only one lap, and that was during a round of green flag pit stops. With Earnhardt's win and leading the most laps (10 bonus points for leading the most laps), and with Gordon finishing 14 laps down in 32nd place, along with the 5 bonus points for leading a lap, Earnhardt gained a total of 113 points on Gordon. However, it was not enough for him to win a series record 8th championship. Gordon officially won his 1st title by 34 points over Earnhardt.
Hendrick Motorsports entered a fourth car just for this race just in case the unforeseen were to hit Gordon's car. If problems were to befall Gordon's car, the car would immediately pull off the track and retire from the race. This was the #58 Pontiac with "Racing for a Reason" on the quarter panels. Racing for a Reason referred to finding a cure for leukemia, a disease that owner Rick Hendrick had been diagnosed with. The team had originally hired Jimmy Horton to drive the car in the race. Horton qualified the car in 34th, but was unable to race it due to serious injuries suffered in a terrible crash in the ARCA Bondo Mar-Hyde Series support race the day before the NAPA 500. Jeff Purvis was then hired to sub for Horton in the #58 and drove the car to a 26th-place finish, 8 laps down.
Final race for King Racing, owned by drag racing legend Kenny Bernstein.
Last career pole for Darrell Waltrip.
Final race for Junior Johnson & Associates; as Johnson would sell the #11 car to its driver, Brett Bodine, while the #27 would go to attorney David Blair.
Last Top 10 finish for Bobby Hillin Jr.
Final points standings
(key) Bold - Pole position awarded by time. Italics - Pole position set by owner's points standings. *- Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
29-year-old Ricky Craven from Newburgh, Maine received the 1995 Rookie of the Year award. Craven took the #41 Chevy owned by Sue and Larry Hedrick to four top-tens and finished 24th in the points. Runner-up was Craven's former Busch Series opponent Robert Pressley, posting one top-ten in the Leo Jackson Motorsports Chevy. The next runner-up, Randy LaJoie, began the year in the 22 car, but struggled and was released midway through the year. Steve Kinser and Davy Jones, a pair of open-wheel veterans who struggled in their transition to stock cars, were both released from their rides before the season reached the one-third point, while Mike Chase was released by his team after failing to qualify for the Daytona 500. Gary Bradberry and Terry Byers filed for Rookie of the Year contention but only ran limited schedules.
See also
1994–95 NASCAR SuperTruck Series exhibition races
1995 NASCAR Busch Series
1995 NASCAR SuperTruck Series
External links
Winston Cup Standings and Statistics 1995
NASCAR Cup Series seasons |
4523623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90ura%C4%91%20II%20Bal%C5%A1i%C4%87 | Đurađ II Balšić | Đurađ II Balšić (), or Gjergj Balsha II () 1385 – April 1403), was the Lord of Zeta from 1385 to 1403, as a member of the Balšić noble family. He was the son of Stracimir Balšić, and succeeded his paternal uncle Balša II in ruling Zeta. He reigned from 1386 up to 1389 in the still officially undissolved Serbian Empire in the form of a family alliance, then up to 1395 as an Ottoman vassal. He ruled until his death in 1403, when he was succeeded by his only son, Balša III. He is known in Serbian epic poetry as Strahinja Banović.
Background and early life
His father was Stracimir, one of the three Balšić brothers who came to rule Zeta in the 1360s. His mother was Milica Mrnjavčević (Jerina), the daughter of Serbian King Vukašin Mrnjavčević.
Accession
On 18 September 1385, Đurađ's uncle Balša II was killed at the Battle of Savra, while fighting the Ottomans. Following the temporary rule under Balša II's widow Komnena and daughter Ruđina, Đurađ II inherited parts of Zeta and northern Albania, including the cities of Scutari, Drivast and Lezhë, as per the Balšićs' traditional rule of seniority, as "self-holder to the Zeta and Coast land". Đurađ II had his seat at Ulcinj, which also became the family seat. The remainder of the Balšić possessions, in southern Albania, passed in 1391 from Ruđina to her spouse Mrkša Žarković, the son of Žarko, Emperor Dušan's nobleman. The protovestijar Philip Bareli, the Venetian trader that handled Balša's financing, who was succeeded by Đurađ, is also mentioned as holding estates.
According to Mavro Orbini, when Đurađ II started his rule, "the tribes of Upper Zeta and the Crnojević did not want to recognize him, answering that they were under the Bosnian King Tvrtko".
Đurađ had succeeded leadership in the heats of disarray. Pal Dukagjini broke off allegiance to Đurađ, taking Lezhë and the Drin area. Finally the Jonima family seceded with their own lands between Durrës and the Drin, causing Đurađ to lose his very last possessions in Albania. Before even consolidating rule, Karlo Thopia conquered Durrës and assigned it to his son George, Nikola Sakat, the castellan of Budva, and his brother Andrija seceded the city after 1386 and Vuk Branković took Peć and Prizren. Đurađ asked Dukagjini for an advice, and according to it, he had the Sakat brothers imprisoned and blinded. In the Zeta plains themselves under Lovćen, Đurađ had constant conflicts with the opposing ruler of Upper Zeta, Radič Crnojević, whose family had just come to prominence. The area of Onogošt (Nikšić) seceded to the Venetians. In a short time, Đurađ's demesne had diminished into a small strip of land between Lake Skadar and the Adriatic Sea. Upon proclaiming himself the sole head of the Balšić family, he issued an official edict on 28 January 1386 in Scutari, calling his reign's strength upon "..the prayers and martyrs of my holy forefathers Symeon, the Nemanya, the first Serbian Myhrr-flowing, and Sava the Saint" of his kin. In it he also stated that the laws of the Serbian lords, his predecessors Stracimir, Đurađ and Balša, and in specific of Emperor Dušan, shall remain and be valid for his reign. It was a standard remark of the ruler's calling upon divine right and inspired by the heritage of the Serbian Medieval state, now in feudal disarray. Mladen Ilić, logotet Butko and vojvoda Nikola were witnesses in the edict.
Serbian alliance
From the start of his reign, Đurađ faced the potential threat from the powerful expansionist Ottoman Empire. To strengthen political links, he married Jelena (b. 1368), daughter of the Serbian Moravian lord Lazar Hrebeljanović, after recognizing Lazar as his sovereign in 1386. The folklore has recorded that Đurađ was at war with Prince Lazar for three times before a peaceful union was achieved, although there is no historical confirmation. Prince Lazar aimed at maintaining the heritage of the dispersing Serbian Empire. Đurađ, Lazar, and Lord Vuk Branković of Kosovo formed a family alliance to govern the renewed Serbian realm, presided over by Lazar. The three also shared the annual tax paid to Serbian lords by the Republic of Ragusa. Each member retained some autonomy, however, as can be seen through Đurađ's styling of himself as "I, Balšić in Christ the Lord, Đurađ, pious and autocratic lord of the lands of Zeta and the coast." Edicts for the realm were issued commonly by all three lords, extending Serbia to some form of a level of a Triarchy, or even Diarchy, considering Vuk's considerably subordinate status to Lazar.
Đurađ also maintained diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire. Đurađ owes his position and everlasting presence on the scene to his political cunningness. He succeeded the traditional rivalry between his family and Bosnian-Serbian King Tvrtko I Kotromanić, whose Serbian crown the Balšićs did not recognize, most probably because of their own claims to the Serbian throne1. On his diplomatic initiative, the Ottomans invaded Bosnia in 1386. During a second attack, Đurađ even sent his own troops to support the Ottoman Beylerbey of Rumelia Lala Şâhin Paşa at the Battle of Bileća on 27 August 1388, where he suffered a defeat to the hands of Bosnian Duke Vlatko Vuković Kosača. This led to the suspicion that Đurađ was an Ottoman vassal. The Ragusan Republic was weary of this Ottoman expansion, so they wanted to negotiate with Đurađ some military protection. On 23 August 1388 Đurađ sent his envoy Žanin Bareli, Filip's son.
Legends record Đurađ running with his forces to join the Serbian allied forces at the 1389 Battle of Kosovo and returning after he heard the news about the fall; however this is very improbable if his links to the Ottomans in that period are accounted for. The Epic telling records "Baoš" coming late on the 3rd day to the Kosovo Field after the battle and how he was furious at the alleged traitor "Duke Vukan Branković". Also the wrong daughter of "Emperor Lazar", Olivera Despina, was remembered as married to Đurađ. Most historians and scholars identify him as the Serbian Epic hero Banović Strahinja, due to the close similarities in name and characteristics. In any case, after the Battle of Kosovo, the Serbian Alliance crumbled and the last remains of the Serbian Empire dispersed, leaving Đurađ completely on his own.
Zeta on its own
In 1390 Vuk Branković sent envoys to Zeta and offered 500 liters of silver to Philip Bareli to hand over last Đurađ's bastion, the City of Ulcinj. Fearing the occasion, Đurađ had him immediately imprisoned together with his children.
During his rule, Đurađ, like his predecessors, tried to find an effective modus vivendi for extending his rule over the City of Kotor. As the richest and most economically developed city on the southern Adriatic coast close to Zeta, it fueled the rivalry between King Tvrtko and Đurađ. For these reasons no friendship between the two was created, even after peaceful relations were concluded in early 1389 on mediation of the Republic of Ragusa. When Tvrtko died in the beginning of March 1391, the opportunity arose for Đurađ and he subsequently seized Kotor.
From the start of Đurađ's reign he had to face with the outlaw of his cousin Konstantin, administrator of the lands in the rivers of Bojana and Drin, who didn't accept his supremacy in the Balšićs' lands. It is believed that Filip Bareli had connections with Konstantin, so he was convicted for committing the highest felony, a "crime against Đurađ's authority" and all of his plentiful property was confiscated by Đurađ. Konstantin went into Ottoman service and since 1390 under protection of Sultan Bayezid I actively worked to seize power as the Head Balšić. As a result, Đurađ came into fierce opposition to the Ottomans in 1391, converted to Catholicism from Serbian Orthodoxy, and promised his lands in heritage to Pope Boniface IX in the case of no heir apparent. Clearly siding with the Christian coalition under the legal Papal States in conflict with the Avignonese Antipope Clement VII, Đurađ took the side of Louis II of Anjou in his war against Ladislaus of Naples. But the broader plans for organizing a crusade against Turks have remained but a dream.
Đurađ received a border with the Ottoman Empire as they took the lands of Vuk Branković in 1392. For opposition to Turkish influence in the region, the Sultan sent an army to invade his lands in May 1392. At the same time in the heat of fighting his competitors Radič Crnojević and Konstantin Balšić, Đurađ was forced to negotiate with the Ottomans for peace terms. In order to protect his wife Jelena from the Ottoman danger Đurađ decided to send her to Dubrovnik in June 1392. He negotiated with Pasha Yiğit Bey, sanjakbey of the Sanjak of Skopje, but the talks were fruitless as the Ottoman demanded half of all his territories around Zeta, including his seat of Ulcinj. In addition to that, in late 1392 the bey managed to capture Đurađ in a battle and released him only after the ransom was paid. When Đurađ was in captivity Radič Crnojević captured his lands around Kotor and proclaimed himself Lord of Zeta and Budva. His wife Jelena was making moves to free him, with the help of the Venetian Republic, but they all reached a moot end. One of the main reasons for that was that his opponent Radič Crnojević expanded his reign vastly and became a Venetian vassal in November 1392. The possibility of this was Đurađ's reluctance to release Philip Bareli, a Venetian citizen, despite many pleas from the Republic. In the heat of struggle amongst feudal lords in Zeta, Philip managed in 1392 to flee from his prison to Durrës, coming into John Thopia's service. On the other side King Stjepan Dabiša dispatched Bosnian Duke Sandalj Hranić from the Hum to take over Đurađ's lands and further agitate Radič Crnojević.
Having no other choice, Đurađ handed over to bey Şâhin the cities of Scutari and Drivast and the Forum of Sveti Srđ on the Bojana River to the Turks, as well as agreed to pay annual taxes in exchange for his release. Ottoman squadrons occupied the locations in early 1393. The same year he tried to claim his old Lezhë which was just handed over by the Dukagjinis to the Venetians, but Radič's support of Venetian control proved crucial. Seeing the necessity of Venetian support, he managed to get accepted into its citizenry in May 1395. Đurađ did not rest for long, and already in October 1395 he broke the deal while the Ottomans were at war against the Hungarians and Wallachians, restored Scutari and Sveti Srđ and even defeated his rival Konstantin by seizing his stronghold of Danj, with Venetian assistance. To keep his cities safe, Đurađ relied upon the rivalry between Turkey and Venice. He handed over the cities into Venetian administration. When Ottoman advances obviously came to a halt, the Venetians decided to negotiate the deal. In April 1396 a contract was signed. Đurađ handed over Scutari, the Skadar Lake with all its islands and Sveti Srđ to Venetian administration, as well as agreed to channel the income from tolls in Danj, in exchange for 1,000 ducats every year. He also promised to give the cities support in case of a Turkish attack and was accepted into Venetian nobility. The whole act was typical for weak lords facing the mighty Ottoman Empire in the coastline of the western Balkans. Đurađ remained to rule directly just a small territory west of the Bojana river with Bar and Ulcinj as the only cities.
In 1396 Koja Zakarija from the Sakat family came to power in northern Albania centered in Danj, independently from Đurađ.
Zeta's rebirth
At the end of April 1396, Radič and his brother Dobrivoje Crnojević had made a significant move against Đurađ. They took Grbalj and laid siege to Kotor. Đurađ became disliked by the Orthodox Serb commonfolk, so the excessively Orthodox religious Crnojevićs' takeover was looked upon nicely by the people, resulting in Paštrovićs' cross to Radič's side. In May 1396 they moved to battle Đurađ himself, however Đurađ completely defeated the Crnojevićs and killed Radič, managing to get a hold over a part of the Crnojević domain. Soon a new enemy arose at the west; Bosnian nobleman Sandalj Hranić Kosača seized large parts of land quickly and conquered Budva and Kotor, made a deal with the Paštrovićs, also managing to win Venetian protection, who proclaimed him the legitimate ruler of Budva and Zeta itself. In Upper Zeta the Đurašević subgroup of the Crnojevićs came to prominence, though they made an agreement and joined Đurađ, seeing a common enemy in Duke Sandalj. They aided him in the wars against Sandalj, taking the first fronts by retaking all the lands from Budva to Spič as well as the Churchland of Saint Miholj in the Bay of Kotor, the Serbian Orthodox religious center in Zeta. In December 1396, the Hungarian King Sigismund lost the Battle of Nicopolis. During his return across the sea, he stayed in Đurađ's lands. To honor Đurađ for his fights against the Ottomans, Sigismund made him Prince of his Dalmatian islands of Hvar and Korčula.
The Most Serene Republic of Venice led an economic policy that soon introduced Venetian monetary domination in the region, fully replacing that of the Balšićs', and ever since Spring 1396 clearly showed pretensions to take the remaining lands of Đurađ. The Venetian monopoly introduced by lowering customs and other taxes in Scutari and Drivast greatly diminished the Balšićs' income so the relations between the two deteriorated. It is so that in 1399 when in the Venetian-administered Balšić lands the oppressed peasants raised a rebellion, all the guilt was attributed to Đurađ. As a result, in early 1401 Venice ceased paying the annual thousand ducat tribute for the lands. Another reason claimed were the frequent robberies by suspects from Đurađ's domain of Venetian storehouses of salt in the region, a crucial resource in that time. This caused Đurađ to renew links with the Ottoman Turks again, but wars in Asia Minor have made them impossible to intervene, which finally forced Đurađ to succumb to Venetian demands. As per the new deal, he paid for all the damage done by the robbers and agreed to give free passage and special privileges to Venetian traders, while Venice continued to pay the tribute for the cities. These acts introduced Venetian presence in the region, which would henceforth remain as an important local political factor. In 1402 his long-term Balšić rival Konstantin was killed by Venetian agents in Dyrrhachium under unknown circumstances.
Returning from the Battle of Angora, Đurađ's brother-in-law, the newly crowned Despot Stefan Lazarević, stayed at his court in the late Summer of 1402. Đurađ prepared him and organized an army to battle his rival Đurađ Branković in Ottoman service at the Battle of Tripolje near Gračanica in November 1402, to help his cousin with all means possible, ending in full victory. In April 1403, Đurađ II Stracimirović died of the injuries suffered in the battle. He was buried in the Church of Saint Catherine in his hometown of Ulcinj, where he still remains. Seventeen-year-old Balša, Đurađ II's only child, inherited his lands. He ruled with his mother as Chief adviser until she remarried in 1411, to Bosnian Duke Sandalj Hranić from Herzegovina. She gave a significant impact to Zetan foreign policy, tying it strongly with the newly created Serbian Despotate as a former important part of the Empire.
Miscellaneous
Đurađ continued using the currency of his predecessors, coins forged with the wolf, chest, and shield symbols of the Balšićs, Dinars, used in the lands of the Serbian Empire, though he didn't mint many new coins, similar to his predecessor, due to continuous weakening of the Balšićs' economic power. One of the two versions featured heads of wolves and the Balšićs' coat of arms, each with a surrounding inscription: "M.D. GORGI STRACIMIR" on one side, and "S.STEFAN SCUTARI" on the other. The other version had the character "M" next to the coat of arms and the presentations of Balšićs' patron Saint Lawrence along with an inscription below him "S LAVRENCIUS M". According to some sources, he also issued several coins inscribed in Cyrillic; however, later sources attribute these to Đurađ I Balšić.
Đurađ founded for the Serbian Orthodox Church a Church of Saint George and the Beška Monastery on the island of Beška in Lake Skadar, near Starčevo. After his death, his wife Jelena expanded it in 1438/1439 with another church, the St Mary's Church, where she was buried in 1443. The monastery became a significant cultural and spiritual center of the Serbian Church, actively working in scribing and nourishing the Nemanjić heritage. Đurađ's wife Jelena became a deeply religious and talented poet, writing the opus of then's Old Serb-Slavic language.
Title
"Lord of All Zetan and Maritime Lands", 1386
"Lord of Zeta" (signor de Zenta), charter dated 28 February 1388.
"Albanian lord" (arbanaški gospodin), in Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević authored by Constantine of Kostenets 1431
Annotations
References
Sources
Further reading
Jovović, Vasilj. "Odnosi Đurađa II Stracimirovića Balšića sa osmanskim Turcima 80-ih godina XIV vijeka." Prilozi 44 (2015): 9-20.
14th-century lords in Europe
Durad
Princes of Zeta
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy
Former Serbian Orthodox Christians
1403 deaths
Year of birth unknown |
4524817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Fager | Dr. Fager | Dr. Fager (April 6, 1964 – August 5, 1976) was an American thoroughbred racehorse who had what many consider one of the greatest single racing seasons by any horse in the history of the sport. In 1968 at the age of four, he became the only horse to ever hold four American titles in one year when he was named the Horse of the Year, champion handicap horse, champion sprinter, and co-champion grass horse. In his most famous performance, Dr. Fager set a world record of 1: for a mile in the Washington Park Handicap while carrying 134 pounds.
Dr. Fager was also a major winner at ages two and three. At two, he won four of five starts including the Cowdin Stakes. Various health issues kept him out of the Triple Crown races at age three but he still won seven stakes races while setting track records in the New Hampshire Sweepstakes and Rockingham Special. He was named the champion sprinter of 1967 after defeating older horses in the Vosburgh Handicap. He also finished third behind Damascus and Buckpasser in the "race of the decade", the Woodward Stakes.
Upon retirement to stud in Florida, he became an important sire and broodmare sire, and led the North American sire list in 1977. He died young due to a colic attack at the age of twelve.
Dr. Fager was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1971. On the Blood-Horse magazine List of the Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century, he was ranked #6.
Background
Dr. Fager was a homebred for Tartan Stable, owned by William L. McKnight (chairman of the board of Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co.) and managed by Hall of Famer John Nerud. Nerud, who owned 25% of Dr. Fager and was his trainer, developed Tartan Stable from "literally nothing" into a prominent racing stable. Dr. Fager was from the first crop of Tartan Farm's Rough'n Tumble, a good racehorse with soundness problems and dubious breeding. Thanks in part to Dr. Fager, Rough'n Tumble developed into a leading regional sire in Florida, preserving the now-rare sire line of Plaudit, the Kentucky Derby winner of 1898. Dr. Fager's dam Aspidistra earned only two wins during her racing career and could have been claimed for only $6,500 in her last start. As a broodmare though, she produced 10 winners, including two Hall of Famers: Dr. Fager and his younger half-sister Ta Wee.
Dr. Fager was a bay horse who stood high. Known for his fluid stride, he had a troublesome right knee and clubbed forefeet that required constant care. He was named for the Boston neurosurgeon, Dr. Charles Anthony Fager, who saved Nerud's life with two operations after Nerud suffered a serious fall from a horse.
Racing career
Dr. Fager made 22 starts, winning 18 times with two second-place finishes and one show. The only time he was out of the money was as a result of a disqualification in the Jersey Derby, in which he finished first. Only three horses ever finished in front of Dr. Fager: Champion juvenile male Successor, Horse of the Year Damascus, and Horse of the Year Buckpasser. His headstrong nature was considered his only weakness as a racehorse. "He was very easy to train, a very willing and smart horse," said Nerud. "He also was very sensitive. He didn't want you to raise your voice to him, and he didn't want anyone whipping him. If something didn't suit Dr. Fager, he would let you know immediately."
1966: Two-year-old season
Dr. Fager raced five times at age two, winning four of them and finishing second in the other. He won his first start at Aqueduct on July 15, 1966 by seven lengths, then won an allowance race at Saratoga in August by eight lengths. He was then entered the World's Playground Stakes at Atlantic City on September 10. After breaking slowly, Dr. Fager rushed up through the pack and moved to the lead. He was kept under a snug hold down the backstretch, then responded to a challenge from Glengarry around the far turn and pulled away down the stretch, eventually winning by twelve lengths.
In his next start in the Cowdin Stakes on October 5, he faced much more challenging competition including stakes winners Diplomat Way, Forgotten Way, In Reality and eventual champion two-year-old Successor. He was made the 5-2 morning-line favorite but by post time, his odds has shortened to 4-5. Dr. Fager got left at the start and was then rushed to get back in touch with the field. On the turn, he had to be checked hard when he nearly clipped heels with the leaders. Down the stretch, he tried to bear out then "gawked at crowd" for the final sixteenth of a mile. Despite all this, he still won by three-quarters of a length over In Reality with Successor in third.
Dr. Fager suffered his first defeat in the Champagne Stakes on October 15. He led from the start but was passed in the stretch by Successor, who went on to win by a length in a time of 1:35, just one-fifth of a second off the stakes record held by Count Fleet. His jockey Bill Shoemaker said, "I thought Dr. Fager was the winner at the head of the stretch, but I guess the pace was too much, and he got tired at the end." A Hall of Fame jockey, Shoemaker would state that Dr. Fager was too headstrong for him to control.
1967: Three-year-old season
Dr. Fager's return to the racetrack at age three was delayed due to a virus. He made his first start of the year in the Gotham Stakes on April 15, where he faced off for the first time with Damascus, who had previously won the Bay Shore Stakes. Both horses went off at odds of 6-5, with slightly more bet on Damascus in the win pool. Damascus rated just behind the early pace-setter with Dr. Fager close behind in third. In the turn, Damascus moved to the lead but Dr. Fager closed ground steadily, hitting the lead at the top of the stretch. He ultimately won by half a length in a time of 1: for the mile.
Despite the win, Nerud surprised many by announcing the colt would not run in the Kentucky Derby on May 6, instead entering Dr. Fager in the Withers Stakes on May 13. Dr. Fager responded with a brilliant six length win, completing the mile in a stakes record 1:. At the time, it was the fastest mile ever run by a three-year-old in New York state.
With the Preakness Stakes being held only one week after the Withers, Nerud decided to bypass that race and entered the colt in the Jersey Derby on May 30 instead. Dr. Fager finished first by lengths but was subsequently disqualified to fourth place for crossing in front of the field going into the first turn. It was a controversial decision, prompted perhaps by the reputation of jockey, Manuel Ycaza, who was substituting for his regular jockey Braulio Baeza. Dr. Fager's time for miles was 1:48 flat, which would have been a stakes record.
Dr. Fager returned in the Arlington Classic on June 24. Despite racing over a sloppy track for the first time and breaking poorly, Dr. Fager won with ease by ten lengths. "He has an awful lot of early speed," said Baeza, "and he's willing to run at any time in a race. He's willing to run from start to finish."
On July 25, Dr. Fager won the Rockingham Special by four lengths, completing the distance of miles in a time of 1:, lowering the Rockingham Park track record by a full second. His next scheduled start was the Travers Stakes on August 19 but he suffered a recurrence of the virus that had sidelined him at the beginning of the year and missed the race.
Dr. Fager made his next start on September 2 at Rockingham Park in the New Hampshire Sweepstakes Classic, then the world's richest horse race for three-year-olds. In his first start at miles, Dr. Fager set the early pace but was passed by In Reality with a half mile to go. Dr. Fager fought back and went on to win by lengths. His time of 1: was a new track record.
Dr. Fager's win made him a potential horse of the year candidate, but first he would have to beat Buckpasser, the defending horse of the year, and Damascus, whose three-year-old campaign included wins in the Preakness, Belmont and Travers Stakes. The three horses finally met in the Woodward Stakes at Aqueduct on September 30, with Buckpasser going off as the favorite. The field also included two "rabbits", Hedevar and Great Power, who were entered to set a fast pace in the hopes of tiring out Dr. Fager in order to set up the race for their stablemates, Damascus and Buckpasser respectively. The race played out as expected, with Dr. Fager going to the early lead while pressed by Hedevar with Great Power in third. Dr. Fager set very fast opening fractions of : for the first quarter-mile and : for the half. After three-quarters of a mile, Dr. Fager started to draw away from the rabbits, who would finish fifth and sixth respectively. On the far turn however, Buckpasser and Damascus started to close ground. Damascus swept by Dr. Fager to win by ten lengths while setting a track record for miles. Buckpasser and Dr. Fager dueled down the stretch for second, with Buckpasser prevailing by half a length.
The race, which proved decisive in the Horse of the Year voting, was subsequently dubbed the "race of the decade" and was voted the #39 position in Horse Racing's Top 100 Moments, a review of North American racing in the 20th century compiled by The Blood-Horse.
On October 21, Dr. Fager won the Hawthorne Gold Cup by lengths. The rider of the second-place finisher claimed foul, saying that Dr. Fager had interfered with his horse in the far turn. The stewards reviewed the tape but could find no evidence of contact so the result stood. Baeza said, "I don't know what (the other jockey) is talking about. Dr. Fager was going just like I wanted him to. I thought he could do anything I called on him for at any time in the race. He never was in trouble at any time."
Dr. Fager finished the year as the heavy 1–5 favorite in the Vosburgh Stakes on November 7, run that year at Aqueduct, despite carrying the top weight of 128 pounds and conceding from 6 to 19 pounds to older horses. He raced in fifth during the early part of the race then moved to the lead in the stretch, eventually winning by four lengths. His time of 1: was just off the stakes record set by Bold Ruler at Belmont Park. Although this was his only start of the year at a distance of less than a mile, Dr. Fager was named the champion sprinter of 1967.
1968: Four-year-old season
In 2014, the Daily Racing Form called Dr. Fager's four-year-old campaign a "season for the ages", a sentiment echo by many sportswriters. Never carrying less than 130 pounds, Dr. Fager won seven of eight starts, set a world record for the mile and broke the American record for seven furlongs.
Dr. Fager had a long layoff and then returned to training in the spring. By late April, he was training so well that he set a track record for five furlongs of : during a between-the-races workout at Aqueduct. He made his first start of 1968 in the Roseben Handicap at Aqueduct on May 4, winning by three lengths while carrying 130 pounds. He came within a fifth of a second of the track record for seven furlongs despite running under a tight hold. "I tried to hold him a little bit at the start," said jockey John Rotz, substituting for Baeza. "I just couldn't take him back. I just sat there."
He was then entered in the Californian Stakes at Hollywood Park on May 18, where Nerud had anticipated receiving a break in the weight the horse would have to carry. After arriving in California however, it was determined that under the allowance conditions of the race, Dr. Fager would once again have to carry 130 pounds. Reunited with Braulio Baeza, he overtook the early leader on the final turn and drew off to win by three lengths over champion filly Gamely.
Dr. Fager's next scheduled start was the Metropolitan Handicap, in which he would have been the heavy favorite despite being assigned 134 pounds. On the day before the race though, he suffered a serious attack of colic shortly after his morning workout. "I noticed a violent reaction as soon as he came back," said Nerud, "and I can tell you I was scared to death. That horse had never given me a bit of real trouble, and now I saw that he was really sick."
Dr. Fager responded well to treatment and his veterinarian confirmed no permanent damage had been done. After a brief break, he returned in the Suburban Handicap on July 4 where he carried 132 pounds. The race was a highly anticipated face-off with old rival Damascus, assigned 133 pounds. Going off as the 4-5 favorite, Dr. Fager went to the early lead and set sensible fractions, in part because Damascus's "rabbit" Hedevar had been scratched from the race. Baeza carefully nursed Dr. Fager's speed, then allowed him to draw away in the stretch to win by two lengths with Damascus back in third. The time of 1: for 10 furlongs was a stakes record and equaled the track record.
Nerud next planned to run Dr. Fager in the Haskell Handicap at Monmouth Park on July 13, but withdrew when the horse was assigned 134 pounds. Instead he decided to wait for the Brooklyn Handicap on July 20, only to receive a career-high assignment of 135 pounds. The challenge was compounded by the presence of Damascus, whose assignment was dropped from 133 in the Suburban to 130 pounds. The "rabbit" Hedevar went to the early lead, followed closely by Dr. Fager who was unwilling to rate. The two set blistering early fractions, completing the half mile in :. The fast pace set up the race for Damascus, who closed ground quickly in the stretch and won by lengths. Dr. Fager held on for second while Hedevar finished last.
Dr. Fager made his next start in the Whitney Stakes on August 3, where he received "only" 132 pounds under the allowance conditions of the race. Facing only three rivals, each of whom carried 114 pounds, he went off at odds of 1–20 (the legal minimum). Dr. Fager went to the early lead and set sensible fractions, completing the half mile in : (two seconds slower than the pace in the Brooklyn.) Under a hand ride, his margin increased down the stretch to eight lengths at the finish. Despite the high weight and lack of competition, his time for miles was 1:, just three-fifths off of the track record.
World record
Dr. Fager made his next start on August 24 in the Washington Park Handicap at Arlington Park under 134 pounds. Damascus was also being considered for the race but was withdrawn because his trainer felt the distance of a mile favored Dr. Fager. Despite extremely high heat and humidity in the Chicago area, Dr. Fager was in excellent spirits before the race. When asked by a local television crew to describe the colt, Nerud responded, "I guess he'd be like a golfer who scored 62 every time he played."
Arlington Park has a long chute on the backstretch, meaning the runners would only have to go around one-turn to complete the mile. As a result, a fast time was anticipated despite Dr. Fager's high weight assignment. Nerud doubted though that Dr. Fager could match the existing world record of 1: set at Arlington Park in 1966 by Buckpasser while carrying 125 pounds. "Those things aren't important to me," he said when asked about setting the record. "I'm only interested in winning and you just try to handle a horse the best way you can to get him to win."
Dr. Fager went off at odds of 3–10 while spotting his rivals between 16 and 23 pounds. During a fast opening quarter mile of seconds, Baeza rated him in sixth place while keeping him out of traffic problems on the outside of the pack. He then started to make up ground, moving up to second as the half-mile was completed in a stunning 44 seconds flat. Considering the ground he made up moving from sixth to second, Dr. Fager is estimated to have completed the second quarter in a blistering seconds, believed to be the fastest quarter-mile ever run in a non-sprint race.
As they moved into the turn, Dr. Fager moved to the lead then started to open up ground on his rivals. He completed six furlongs in 1: with a lead of lengths. In the stretch, Baeza was motionless but Dr. Fager continued to draw away, winning by ten lengths. He completed the mile in 1:, breaking the world record by two-fifths of a second. After the finish, the track announcer, Phil Georgeff, paused for a few seconds and then said just one word after noticing the time: "Wow." He later explained, "He was just galloping through the stretch and was running so effortlessly that I had forgotten all about the record, especially since he was carrying 134 pounds. When I saw the time I was shocked."
Baeza was also surprised by the performance. "I never in any of his races knew how fast he was going," he said. "He moved so smoothly and his action was so fluid I felt like I was in a Lear Jet. All I knew was that he was going faster than the rest of them. I'd try to slow him down, but he'd still pull away from them."
Nerud called it a "Babe Ruth performance". Dr. Fager's time would stand as the world record on any surface for 29 years. It still stands as the American record for a mile on the dirt. The race was ranked #7 in The Blood-Horse list of the Horse Racing's Top 100 Moments of the 20th century.
Aftermath
For his next start, Nerud decided to try the colt on the turf for the first time in the United Nations Handicap on September 11. The field included 1967 champion turf horse (and future Horse of the Year) Fort Marcy, Australian champion Tobin Bronze and multiple stakes winner Flit-to. Dr. Fager was assigned 134 pounds, spotting his rivals from 12 to 23 pounds. Despite this, Nerud's only concern was the weather, fearing that soft going would blunt Dr. Fager's natural speed. Elliott Burch, the trainer of Fort Marcy, foresaw additional problems. "It's been my experience that speed horses on the dirt are usually not turf horses," he said. "They can't handle the turns. They tend to run out, and I think 'Fager' is going to have his problems keeping from racing wide."
On raceday, the turf was firm but somewhat slippery and Dr. Fager had trouble maintaining his stride. He went to the early lead and was challenged closely by longshot Advocator, who poked a nose in front down the backstretch. Dr. Fager moved back to the lead, only to be passed again by Advocator. At the top of the stretch, Fort Marcy made a move, only to run into traffic problems. In deep stretch, Advocator looked the likely winner but Dr. Fager fought back and prevailed by a neck in the final stride. "My horse is not a grass horse," said Nerud. "He won on class and heart alone."
On November 2, Dr. Fager made his final start in the Vosburgh Stakes, in which he was assigned 139 pounds, the highest weight ever assigned by track handicapper Tommy Trotter in a regular stakes event. Dr. Fager broke in fourth place but soon moved up to challenge for the lead. He completed the half-mile in seconds then started to draw away, eventually winning by six lengths. He completed the seven furlongs in 1:, a new track record by a full second and just one-fifth of a second off the world record.
At the end of 1968, Dr. Fager swept the Horse of the Year awards, topping the polls organised by the Thoroughbred Racing Association, the Daily Racing Form and the Turf and Sport Digest. He was also named outstanding sprinter, champion handicap horse and co-champion turf horse.
Race Record
Assessment, honors and awards
In The Blood-Horse magazine's list of the top 100 U.S. thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century, Dr. Fager ranks sixth. In 1971, three years after he left the track, he was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, New York.
Steve Haskin wrote a book on Dr. Fager for the Thoroughbred Legends series published by Eclipse Press in 2000. Dr. Fager's rivalry with Damascus was covered in Chapter 12 of Horse Racing's Greatest Rivalries, also published by Eclipse Press. Dr. Fager's career is recorded in "Champions: The Lives, Times, and Past Performances of the 20th Century's Greatest Thoroughbreds" by the editors and writers of the Daily Racing Form.
Stud career
In August 1968, Dr. Fager was syndicated for 32 shares costing $100,000 each for a total value of $3.2 million. Most of the shares were retained by McKnight and Nerud, plus a few outside breeders including Paul Mellon. Dr. Fager retired to stud at Tartan Farm in 1969 near Ocala, Florida, where he stood for eight years before his death at age 12 on August 5, 1976. Death was attributed to a colon obstruction brought on by a bout of colic. He was buried at Tartan Farm, now known as Winding Oaks Farm.
Posthumously, he was the leading sire in North America of 1977 and finished second in 1978. From 265 named foals, he sired 172 winners (64.9%), 35 of whom were stakes winners. His most famous offspring include American Champion Two-Year-Old Filly Dearly Precious, 1978 co-champion sprinter Dr. Patches, Tree of Knowledge, Canadian champion L'Alezane and important broodmare Killaloe, the dam of Fappiano.
Pedigree
Dr. Fager is inbred 3 x 4 to Bull Dog, meaning Bull Dog appears once in the third generation of his pedigree and once in the fourth generation.
See also
List of racehorses
References
1964 racehorse births
1976 racehorse deaths
American Thoroughbred Horse of the Year
Racehorses bred in Florida
Racehorses trained in the United States
United States Champion Thoroughbred Sires
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Eclipse Award winners
Thoroughbred family 1-r
Chefs-de-Race
Horse racing track record setters |
4524834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaoningosaurus | Liaoningosaurus | Liaoningosaurus (meaning "Liaoning lizard") is an unusual genus of basal ankylosaurid dinosaur from the Liaoning Province, China that lived during the Early Cretaceous (late Barremian to early Aptian stages, ~125.4 to 118.9 Ma) in what is now the Yixian and Jiufotang Formation. The type and only species, Liaoningosaurus paradoxus, is known from more than 20 specimens, with some representing juveniles. It was named in 2001 by Xu, Wang and You.
L. paradoxus was unusual among ornithischian dinosaurs in that it is speculated to have hunted or scavenged, with preserved gut contents showing that it may have eaten fish. Additionally, some features of its skeleton may suggest that it was partially aquatic. However, not all paleontologists agree with this interpretation. It is the oldest ankylosaurid to have had a tail club and had a wide paleogeographic and stratigraphic distribution in western Liaoning. Both Liaoningosaurus and Chuanqilong show various similarities with one another, with the latter being suggested to be a later growth stage.
Discovery and naming
The remains of a juvenile ankylosaur were collected by members of the Western Liaoning expedition team of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) from the Baicaigou locality in the Liaoning Province, China. It was recovered from the Dawangzhangzi Bed of the Yixian Formation, which dates to the late Barremian to early Aptian stages of the Early Cretaceous period. The specimen was named and described in 2001 by Xing Xu, Xiao-Lin Wang and Hai-Lu You. The generic name, Liaoningosaurus, is derived from the Liaoning Province and the Greek word "sauros" (lizard). The specific name is derived from the Latin word "paradoxus", in reference to a suite of highly unusual traits for an ankylosaur. The type specimen, IVPP V12560, consists of a nearly complete, articulated skeleton measuring approximately 34 centimetres (1 ft 1 in) in length that was preserved with the ventral surface exposed on a slab.
Additional specimens
In 2016, a nearly complete skeleton of Liaoningosaurus was described by Ji Qiang, Wu Xiaochun, Cheng Yennien, Ten Fangfang, Wang Xuri and Ji Yannan. The specimen, XHPM-1206, was collected from the Jianshangou Bed of the Yixian Formation, about 160 km west from the holotype locality. The authors noted that the specimen was slightly larger than the holotype and shows features that were either previously unknown or not accurately described in the holotype such as the humerus being almost as long as the femur or tibia and the presence of five digits rather than four on the manus (hand). It is currently housed at the Xinghai Museum of Paleontology. Arbour & Currie (2015) referred two specimens; CYGYB 208, a nearly complete skeleton that is preserved on a slab with the dorsal (upper side) surface exposed; and CYGYB 237, a nearly complete skeleton that is preserved on a slab with the ventral (underside) surface exposed.
In 2022, Chang-Fu Zhou, Qing Liu, Xinyue Wang and Honggang Zhang described a nearly complete, associated skeleton (PMOL-AD00105) of Liaoningosaurus from the Jiufotang Formation of the Liaoning Province, China. The authors considered that the presence of Liaoningosaurus in the Jiufotang Formation supports the possibility of a wide paleogeographic and stratigraphic distribution in western Liaoning. A Canadian Society of Vertebrate Palaeontology abstract book that was published in 2019 mentioned that about 20 specimens had been collected from four different localities of the Yixian Formation, and one locality from the nearby Jiufotang Formation.
Description
Size
The type specimen of Liaoningosaurus has an estimated length of about 34 centimetres (1 ft 1 in). It has a skull-sacral length of 17.2 centimetres (6.77 inches), while a second specimen, XHPM-1206, has a skull-sacral length of 19.3 centimetres (7.6 in). The largest specimen, GPMA-12-045, has a total body length of less than 45 centimetres (1 ft 5 in) and a skull-sacral length of 21 centimetres (8 in), and the smallest specimen, NGMC-98-003, has a preserved length of 22 centimetres (8.66 in) with a skull-sacral length of about 16 centimetres (6.299 in). A juvenile skeleton from the Jiufotang Formation has a total estimated body length of 30 centimetres (11.8 in).
Skull
The skull of Liaoningosaurus, like Chuanqilong, may have had an antorbital fossa or fenestra, as implied by a posteriorly excavated maxilla. An external mandibular fenestra is also present. The dentary bone has a straight ventral margin and has a stout appearance. On each premaxilla, slender teeth with few denticles are present. Premaxillary teeth are also seen in some basal nodosaurids and Gargoyleosaurus. There are only approximately 10 maxillary teeth, which has been suggested to be due to its juvenile status. However, the ontogenetic variation in the number of teeth is less than 10 among all known ankylosaurs. The tooth crowns are similar to those of Crichtonsaurus (or Crichtonpelta). The teeth have a shelf-like cingulum at their bases, and a palmate crown which bears vertical flutes that coincide with the notches between marginal cusps.
Skeleton
Both the scapula and humerus are slender in appearance. The scapula has a narrow scapular base and a scapular spine that may have been directed towards the glenoid. The humerus has a deltopectoral crest that extends less than half the length of the shaft. The radial condyle of the humerus is poorly developed, while the olecranon process of the ulna is moderately developed. The manus is short. Xu et al. (2001) originally recorded the manual phalangeal formula as 2-3-3-2. However, Ji et al. (2016) noted the presence of five digits (fingers) rather than four in one specimen of Liaoningosaurus. The femur has an indistinct femoral head and a crest-shaped trochanter present on the mid-length of the shaft. The tibia is as long as the femur. The pes (foot) is about 230% as long as the manus. Metatarsals II–IV are elongate, while metatarsals I and V are splint-like. The pedal phalangeal formula is 0-3-4-5-0. Both the pedal and manual unguals are triangular in dorsal view, a condition also seen in Dyoplosaurus.
Xu et al. (2001) noted that the sternum has a sub-trapezoidal body, a very slender posterolateral process and a straight medial margin. However, Arbour & Currie (2015) questioned whether or not the sternum was preserved. The bone, tentatively identified as the left sternum, was found adjacent to various other elements and its boundaries remain unclear. The sternum could have possibly been displaced post-mortem, resulting in the anteriorly pointing posterolateral process. The sternum is dissimilar to those of other ankylosaurs, as it is not paddle-like with ovoid medial ends that narrow posterolaterally like that of nodosaurids, or fused at the midline to form a diamond shape, with narrower posterolaterally directed processes like that of ankylosaurids. The preacetabular process of the ilium deflects laterally and is enlarged. A crest is present on the acetabulum, which connects the ischial and pubic peduncles. The ischium is straight with a convex acetabular margin, while the pubis is strongly reduced in size.
Liaoningosaurus represents the oldest ankylosaurid known to have had a tail club. Although it possessed a tail club handle, it does not appear that a tail club knob was present. The tail club in ankylosaurids refers to the entire distal structure of the ankylosaurid tail, rather than just the large terminal osteoderms. The handle consists of interlocking neural arches on the distal caudal vertebrae, and prezygapophyses that overlap with the adjacent vertebra by at least 50% of the centrum length.
Skin impressions and osteoderms
With the exception of a few sub-triangular plates found near the cervical and pectoral region, it completely lacks osteoderms on its body. Xu et al. (2001) identified a large bony plate present ventral to the right pelvic girdle and noted that it was covered in small tubercles. These tubercles are hexagonal and rhombic in shape, and have a diameter of about 0.5 mm. This ‘shell-like’ ventral bony plate was noted as being present in no other ankylosaur. Arbour et al. (2014b) re-examined and reinterpreted the ventral plate as skin impressions, with the tubercles instead representing flat polygonal scales. This reinterpretation is based mostly on the broken edges not revealing any bony histology.
Classification
Given the animal's unusual anatomy, Xu et al. (2001) had trouble identifying its relationship to other ankylosaurs. Their phylogenetic analysis loosely placed it into Nodosauridae. They conceded this binary division of Ankylosauria may not be entirely sound, meaning Liaoningosaurus could represent some third lineage. In 2004, paleontologist Matthew Vickaryous and colleagues left it under incertae sedis. A second cladistic analysis performed by Richard Thompson and colleagues in 2011 suggested that Liaoningosaurus is a basal ankylosaurid. This has become a consensus among phylogenetic analyses such as Arbour & Currie (2015) and Han et al. (2014), although a reduced strict consensus performed by Frauenfelder et al. (2022) recovered it within a polytomy, along with Cedarpelta and Chuanqilong, that is sister clade to both Ankylosauridae and Nodosauridae.
The following cladogram is based on a 2015 phylogenetic analysis conducted by Arbour and Currie:
Paleobiology
Semiaquatic habits and diet
Based on the second specimen that was described in 2016, Ji and colleagues proposed that Liaoningosaurus might have been adapted to a semiaquatic lifestyle. This is due to the presence of a 'shell-like' ventral bony plate that would have covered the entire ventral surface of the torso. The authors suggested that the structure would have functioned to protect the body from underwater attacks. However, a study by Arbour et al. (2014b) examined the shell-like structure and reinterpreted it as skin impressions with no bony internal texture. In contrast, Zheng (2018) suggested that the structure may have been formed by a ventral pelvic shield and an epidermal scale cover. Furthermore, Ji and colleagues argued that the lack of fusion between the spine and hip bones is an adaptation to a semiaquatic lifestyle rather than a juvenile feature and the presence of open neural arch-central sutures in vertebrae cannot be used to indicate the juvenile nature of the type specimen as it is a feature also documented in young adult eosauropterygians.
In addition to a semiaquatic lifestyle, the authors suggested that Liaoningosaurus was carnivorous based on the elongated and fork-like denticles of the crowns of the cheek teeth, sharp unguals on the hands and feet, and the presence of fish within the skeleton of the second specimen. They proposed three explanations as to how this association may have occurred, with the first explanation being that the fish, lying at the bottom of a lake or river, passively went into the ribcage due to underwater turbulence. The second explanation suggests that the fish died whilst within the ribcage when they were scavenging, while the third explanation is that the fish represent gut contents. The authors considered the third explanation to be the most reasonable, arguing that the obscure body outline and incompleteness of the fish being was caused by digestive acids. The fish skeletons are scattered on both sides of the body cavity instead of being tightly packed in the stomach region, which may have been caused by the expulsion of gases or the compression of the stomach region post-mortem. In addition to fish, the tail of a lizard is preserved on the posterolateral side of the ribcage.
Paleontologist Andrea Cau has expressed skepticism on the idea, considering it too radical in view of the actual evidence, which could be explained by more parsimonious interpretations: reduced ossification of the skeleton and small size are typical traits of juveniles, and abundance of juvenile individuals compared to the adults is coherent of what is known of Mesozoic dinosaurs population dynamics and of high conservation deposits. Also, the aquatic depositional setting in which the specimen was found doesn't necessarily mean the animal itself was aquatic (many other dinosaurs have been found in such contexts) and the chaotic distribution of fish inside the thoracic cavity, and the presence of one outside of it, are more coherent of fish scavenging on the animal's carcass (it would also be expected that, given the abundance of specimens, more showed evidence of a supposedly piscivorous diet, but such is not the case).
Ontogeny
Arbour and Currie (2015) considered the type specimen to represent a juvenile individual on basis of unfused neural arches, small size and the absence of post-cervical osteoderms. In addition, Han et al. (2014) also considered the unfused scapula and coracoid, low and wedge-shaped olecranon process of the ulna, and unfused calcaneum and astragalus of the holotype to be juvenile characteristics. However, Ji et al. (2016) argued that the holotype, and other specimens, instead represented adults due to the lack of fusion of the ribs to the vertebrae, absence of a synsacrum, and small stature of all known specimens. A microanatomical study by Chinese palaeontologist Wenjie Zheng instead concluded that the holotype was no older than 12 months and further suggested that Liaoningosaurus could be the juvenile form of the much larger Chuanqilong. In 2019, Li Xiaobo and Robert R. Reisz investigated three more specimens and also concluded they represented juveniles.
Paleoenvironment
Yixian Formation
Specimens attributable to Liaoningosaurus have been recovered from the Dawangzhangzi and Jianshangou Beds of the Yixian Formation, which is a part of the Jehol Biota. The Yixian Formation is mainly composed of volcanic rocks such as andesites, andesitebreccia, agglomerates and basalts. It represents a freshwater lacustrine environment, lacking rivers and deltas among other variable features of freshwater settings. Such environments lacking these features include shallow lakes. The yearly temperature averaged about 10 °C (50 °F) and was temperate, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The fluctuations in the climate are due to orbital forcing. Conifers related to species that are found in modern subtropical and temperate upland forests dominated the landscape, with ferns, cycads, horsetails, and a small number of flowering plants also being present. Previous dating using 40Ar-39Ar isotopes gave an age of approximately 125 to 120 Ma, although more recent estimates indicate an age of 125.755 ± 0.061 to 124.122 ± 0.048 ma by using U-Pb zircon. The deconstruction and reconstruction of biotic components occurred frequently due to periodic mortality events such as volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and noxious gases erupting from the lakes.
Fossils of gastropods, bivalves, ostracods, insects, amphibians, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, birds and mammals have been recovered from the Yixian Formation. Ornithischians from the formation are represented by the hadrosauroids Bolong and Jinzhousaurus; the ceratopsian Psittacosaurus; and the basal neornithischian Jeholosaurus. Saurischians include the sauropods Dongbeititan and Liaoningotitan; the dromaeosaurids Sinornithosaurus and Tianyuraptor; the troodontids Mei and Sinovenator; the therizinosaur Beipiaosaurus; the oviraptorosaurs Caudipteryx and Incisivosaurus; the ornithomimosaurs Hexing and Shenzhousaurus; the compsognathid Sinosauropteryx; and the tyrannosaurs Dilong and Yutyrannus.
Jiufotang Formation
One specimen of Liaoningosaurus was retrieved from the Jiufotang Formation of the Jehol Group. It overlies the Yixian Formation, and is composed of mudstones, siltstones, shales, sandstones and tuffs. Similar to the Yixian Formation, it represents a lacustrine environment lacking rivers and deltas. The Jiufotang Formation experienced less volcanism compared to its underlying formation, and fluctuated seasonally between semi-arid and mesic conditions. Based on analyses using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) zircon U-Pb, the formation dates to the late Barremian and Aptian stages of the Lower Cretaceous period, approximately 122.0–118.9 Ma. Zhou et al. (2022) suggested that the Jehol ecosystem (the Yixian and Jiufotang Formations) may have been more suitable for the survival of juvenile ankylosaurs based on the lack of adult specimens and abundance of juvenile specimens.
The Jiufotang Formation has yielded specimens of the basal ankylosaurid Chuanqilong, the ceratopsian Psittacosaurus, the dromaeosaurid Microraptor, the oviraptorosaur Similicaudipteryx, the jeholornithiforms Jeholornis and Kompsornis, and the tyrannosaur Sinotyrannus. Other vertebrate fossils found in the formation included fish, mammaliamorphs such as Fossiomanus and Liaoconodon, the choristoderans Philydrosaurus and Ikechosaurus, pterosaurs like Liaoningopterus, Sinopterus, and Guidraco, enantiornithines such as Longipteryx, Sinornis and Yuanchuavis, and a variety of early birds like Yanornis and Yixianornis.
See also
Halszkaraptor
Koreaceratops
Lurdusaurus
Spinosaurus
Timeline of ankylosaur research
References
Ankylosaurids
Aptian life
Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Cretaceous China
Fossils of China
Yixian fauna
Fossil taxa described in 2001
Taxa named by Xu Xing
Ornithischian genera |
4525386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20Triangle%20%28Southeast%20Asia%29 | Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia) | The Golden Triangle is the name given to one of Asia's two principal areas of illicit opium production (with the other being the Golden Crescent). Its geographical limits are the area in which the borders of Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos meet at the confluence of the Ruak and the Mekong Rivers. The name "Golden Triangle" was coined by the CIA and is commonly used more broadly to refer to an area of approximately that overlaps the mountains of the four adjacent countries.
Along with Afghanistan in the Golden Crescent, it has been one of the largest opium-producing areas of the world since the 1950s. Most of the world's heroin came from the Golden Triangle until the early 21st century when Afghanistan became the world's largest producer. The majority of the region's opium is now produced in Myanmar and, to a lesser extent, Laos.
Opium production in Myanmar is the world's second-largest source of opium after Afghanistan, producing some 25% of the world's opium, forming part of the Golden Triangle. While opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by 33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88% increase in yield potential to 790 metric tonnes in 2022 according to latest data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey 2022 With that said, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has also warned that opium production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country's 2021 military coup persists, with significant public health and security consequences for much of Asia.
Origin
In the late 1940s, as the Chinese Communist Party gained power, it ordered ten million addicts into compulsory treatment, had dealers executed, and opium-producing regions planted with new crops. Consequently, opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region.
Small-scale opium production in Myanmar dated back to the Konbaung dynasty in 1750, chiefly for the consumption of foreigners.
The Chinese troops of the Kuomintang (KMT) in Burma were in effect the forebears of the private narcotic armies operating in the Golden Triangle. In 1949, thousands of the defeated Kuomintang troops crossed over the border from Yunnan Province into Burma, a nation with a weak government, and the Kuomintang seized control of the border regions of Burma. Almost all of the KMT opium was sent south to Thailand.
The KMT-controlled territories made up Burma's major opium-producing region, and the shift in KMT policy allowed them to expand their control over the region's opium trade. Furthermore, Communist China's eradication of illicit opium cultivation in Yunnan by the early 1950s effectively handed the opium monopoly to the KMT army in the Shan State. The main consumers of the drug were the local ethnic Chinese and those across the border in Yunnan and the rest of Southeast Asia. They coerced the local villagers for recruits, food and money, and exacted a heavy tax on the opium farmers. That forced the farmers to increase their production to make ends meet. One American missionary to the Lahu tribesmen of Kengtung State testified that the KMT tortured the Lahu for failing to comply with their regulations.
Annual production increased 20 times, from 30 tons at the time of Burmese independence to 600 tons in the mid-1950s.
History of heroin production
Myanmar is the world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after Afghanistan and has been a significant cog in the transnational drug trade since World War II. According to the UNODC it is estimated that in 2005 there wеrе of opium cultivation in Myanmar.Opium and heroin base produced in northeastern Myanmar are transported by horse and donkey caravans to refineries along the Thailand–Burma border for conversion to heroin and heroin base. Most of the finished products are shipped across the border into various towns in North Thailand and down to Bangkok for further distribution to international markets.
The surrender of drug lord Khun Sa's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Yangon as a major counter-narcotics success. Lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall anti-drug effort. Most of the tribespeople growing the opium poppy in Myanmar and in the Thai highlands are living below the poverty line.
In 1996, the United States Embassy in Rangoon released a "Country Commercial Guide", which states "Exports of opiates alone appear to be worth about as much as all legal exports." It goes on to say that investments in infrastructure and hotels are coming from major opiate-growing and opiate-exporting organizations and from those with close ties to these organizations.
A four-year investigation concluded that Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) was "the main channel for laundering the revenues of heroin produced and exported under the control of the Myanmar Army." In a business deal signed with the French oil giant Total in 1992, and later joined by Unocal, MOGE received a payment of $15 million. "Despite the fact that MOGE has no assets besides the limited installments of its foreign partners and makes no profit, and that the Myanmar state never had the capacity to allocate any currency credit to MOGE, the Singapore bank accounts of this company have seen the transfer of hundreds of millions of US dollars," reports François Casanier. According to a confidential MOGE file reviewed by the investigators, funds exceeding $60 million and originating from Myanmar's most renowned drug lord, Khun Sa, were channeled through the company. "Drug money is irrigating every economic activity in Myanmar, and big foreign partners are also seen by the SLORC as big shields for money laundering." Banks in Rangoon offered money laundering for a 40% commission. A United Nations report also cites corruption, poverty and a lack of government control as typical causes for impoverished farmers to engage in drug production.
Heroin processing in Southeast Asia
In 1992, the U.S. Department of Justice released a report detailing the typical process in which raw opium extracted from poppy plants is converted to morphine and then to heroin:
an average Golden Triangle opium farmer will plant an area of half a hectare (which would produce an average of 50,000 poppy plants) towards the end of the traditional Rainy Season in September, which will allow harvesting to begin in February of the following year when the plant has matured. About two weeks after the flower petals fall from the now swollen pods, the farmer will use a tool with 3 or 4 blades to make one millimeter deep diagonal incisions in each pod. This is done usually in the afternoon so that the white latex-like raw opium can ooze out onto the surface of the pod overnight.
the farmer then scrapes the secretion off each pod with a curved tool and places it into a container. This is repeated up to six times until the pod is depleted and stops leaking fluid. Each pod will yield an average of 80 milligrams of raw opium, with the half a hectare field producing an average of between 4 and 8 kilograms in total.
the collected opium contains a high percentage of water, so the farmer will dry it in the hot sun for several days (as its value increases due to less water weight per kilogram) and then cut into standard sized 1.6 kilogram blocks and wrap in plastic ready for sale to opium traders.
to convert the opium to morphine, approximately 15 kilograms of raw opium is added to 30 gallons of water in a 55 gallon metal oil drum. A fire is lit under the drum and the solution is brought to the boil. After the opium has dissolved, non-soluble materials (such as plant twigs) float to the top and are scooped out. Calcium hydroxide is then added to convert the water insoluble morphine into water soluble calcium morphenate, with any other alkaloids turning to sludge. After it has cooled, the contents are poured through a filter (like a burlap sack) into a pot and the collected filtered liquid is reheated to a simmer. Ammonium chloride is then added to adjust the pH level to 9, and the liquid is then left to cool for a couple of hours.The morphine base will gradually precipitate out of the solution and settle to the bottom of the pot. The liquid is then poured off through a filter and any chunks collected are added back into the pot. The remaining solids are then scrapped out and left to dry in the sun until they turn into a coffee-colored powder, and what is left at the end of this process is a crude morphine base. This is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid, then boiled and filtered several times before being pressed into 1.3 kilogram bricks, which are then transported down from the highlands to heroin-processing laboratories.
the morphine hydrochloride bricks are broken up into powder and then placed in a pot with acetic anhydride. The pot is then heated to a simmer for approximately two hours, during which the morphine and the anhydride become chemically bonded, creating an impure form of diacetylmorphine (heroin). Water is then added, along with charcoal, and after stirring, the liquid is strained out through a filter into a new container. Sodium carbonate is dissolved in hot water and then added slowly, which causes the heroin base to precipitate to the bottom of the container. This is then filtered out and dried in a steam bath for an hour. For every 455 grams of morphine, approximately 311 grams of crude heroin base can be extracted. This is then sent to a heroin-refining laboratory.
Heroin Number 3, which is low quality (under 40% pure) and is typically consumed locally by smoking, is created by mixing crude heroin base with hydrochloric acid, resulting in heroin hydrochloride. Adulterants such as caffeine or quinine are added in a one to one ratio, and the wet paste is stirred to dryness over a steam bath. The resulting dry heroin number 3 will be in the form of dark brown coarse lumps, which are transferred into 1 kilogram plastic bags and then sold onto wholesale traffickers.
Heroin number 4, which is high quality (over 80% pure) and is typically exported for consumption by injecting, is created by mixing crude heroin base with water and acetic anhydride. After stirring, a small amount of chloroform is added. After 20 minutes or so, impurities will sink to the bottom of the pot and a red greasy layer will float to the top, and the light yellow water layer in the middle is carefully poured off into a clean container. Charcoal is stirred in, and the liquid is then poured out through a filter into a new, clean pot, and this process is repeated until the liquid becomes clear. Sodium carbonate is dissolved in hot water and then added slowly, which causes the heroin base to precipitate to the bottom of the container. This is filtered out and dried in a steam bath for an hour. The resulting, dry "heroin number 4" will be in the form of a very white, fine powder, which is then pressed into 350 gram blocks and wrapped in plastic. These are then sold onto wholesale traffickers.
In the same year, the U.S. Department of Justice published a separate report with estimated prices for Southeast Asian heroin at various stages from point of production to final street sale:
Historical drug trafficking
1970s
After hearing about African American soldiers serving in the Vietnam War becoming addicted to heroin while on R&R in Thailand, American drug lord Frank Lucas travelled to Bangkok in the early 1970s in an attempt to set up a new trafficking route with his associate Ike Atkinson. After Lucas visited the Golden Triangle region and made an initial purchase of 132 kilograms of uncut heroin (98–100% pure) from remnants of Chiang Kai-shek’s defeated Kuomintang army--for a price of $4,200 per kilogram compared to the $50,000 each that New York Mafia charged--Atkinson used his contacts within the US military to smuggle the narcotics via US Air Force planes back to the eastern United States. It was then collected, cut to 10% purity, repackaged and distributed on the streets of Harlem by dealers controlled by Lucas for a vast profit. This smuggling route operated up until the arrest of Frank Lucas by the Drug Enforcement Administration in January 1975.
In 1972, traditional European supply routes for American-consumed heroin were disrupted after Turkey banned the growing of opium poppies, which led to an increase in production in South East Asia. With an existing organised crime infrastructure to service a large local population of addicts, combined with its busy international seaport and airport, Hong Kong soon became an important transit point for Southeast Asian heroin, as well as convenient money laundering center to reinvest the profits of international sales.
In the mid 1970s, a group comprised mainly of Singaporean Chinese traffickers known as the Ah Kong took control of the European heroin trade by smuggling heroin using couriers via airplane from Thailand and Malaysia to their headquarters in Amsterdam, where it was then distributed to other major cities in western Europe.So successful were the gang that they muscled in on and ultimately took over the European territory of the 14K and Wo Shing Wo groups of triads.
Heroin from Southeast Asia was originally brought to the United States by couriers, typically Thai and U.S. nationals, travelling on commercial airlines. Despite its strict drug laws, Singapore was often used as a transit point, as traffickers believed foreign law enforcement agencies would be less stringent in checking passengers on arrival if their flight departed from Singapore.California and Hawaii were the primary U.S. entry points for Golden Triangle heroin, but small percentages of the drug were also trafficked into New York City and Washington, D.C. While Southeast Asian groups had success in trafficking heroin to the United States, they initially had difficulty arranging street level distribution. However, with the incarceration of Asian traffickers in American prisons during the 1970s, contacts between Asian and American prisoners developed. These contacts have allowed Southeast Asian traffickers access to gangs and organizations distributing heroin at the retail level.
1980s
In the 1980s, after traditional Italian American organized crime groups were substantially weakened by a series of major prosecutions, ethnic Chinese traffickers gradually took over the dominant role in the heroin supply on the American east coast. A Drug Enforcement Administration study identified the source of the heroin sold on the streets of New York: from 1982 to 1987, the percentage of Southeast Asian heroin rose from 3 percent to more than 40 percent of the market supply.As demand grew, Asian criminal organizations began trafficking large shipments of high purity heroin hidden amongst legitimate seaborne cargo to the United States:
the February 1988 seizure of 1,280 kilograms of 97% pure heroin hidden in bales of rubber sheets on a New York City bound freighter at Khlong Toei Port in Bangkok, with an estimated street price of $2 billion, was the world’s largest single heroin seizure at the time.
in February 1989, a U.S. record amount was seized when FBI agents in New York City raided a warehouse and discovered 380 kilograms of uncut heroin (with an estimated street price of $1 billion) hidden in lawn-mower tires, which authorities believed were shipped from Hong Kong to Los Angeles before being trucked to the New York area.
in early September 1989, the largest heroin seizure in the history of British Hong Kong occurred when narcotics agents raided an apartment in the Sai Kung district of the New Territories and discovered 420 kilograms of 99% pure heroin, worth an estimated $420 million, packed into 30 travel bags. The drugs were believed to have originated in Thailand before being smuggled by sea to Hong Kong, where they were then transferred to a local fishing junk and afterwards brought to shore via speedboat. Police believed the haul was ultimately destined for the United States or Australia
a new U.S. record was achieved in June 1991 when authorities seized 545 kilograms of high quality heroin (with an estimated street price of $3 billion) concealed in a shipment of plastic bags from a Californian warehouse. It was originally smuggled from Thailand to Taiwan, then placed aboard a ship and brought to the Port of Oakland.
Efforts by East Asian traffickers to smuggle heroin via couriers on commercial airlines also continued, using methods such as strapping narcotics to the body and disguising under baggy clothing (such as Tong Ching Man) or hiding the drugs within secret compartments of luggage (like in the cases of Poon Yuen Chung and Angel Mou Pui Peng).
1990s
By the early 1990's, West African (primarily Nigerian) criminal organizations emerged as major traffickers of Southeast Asian heroin, with 660 West Africans being arrested in the United States for heroin trafficking in the year 1991 alone. Instead of attempting to smuggle a single large shipment, Nigerian traffickers would typically recruit many low level non-Nigerian couriers (such as Johannes van Damme) to transport a couple of kilograms of heroin at a time via regular airline routes from transshipment points in Asia (such as Singapore) to western Europe or the eastern United States. Once the heroin arrived at its final destination, it was transported to cutting and packaging mills where it was diluted and packaged for retail or street-level sale, with the profits then transferred to Lagos or Hong Kong for the purposes of money laundering.In October 1996, U.S. law enforcement officials arrested members of a Chicago based Nigerian trafficking group that smuggled heroin from Thailand via couriers for distribution to cities across the American Midwest, that was believed to have supplied over 200 kilograms (with an estimated retail price of $100 million) a year to various street gangs in the region.
Present day drug trafficking
Poppy cultivation in the country decreased more than 80 percent from 1998 to 2006 following an eradication campaign in the Golden Triangle. Officials with the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime have confirmed that opium poppy farming has decreased since 2014, as synthetic drug production has expanded. The Golden Triangle is now one of the world's leading areas for the production of synthetic drugs and particularly methamphetamine as production has scaled up of Yaba tablets and crystalline methamphetamine, including for export to Australia, New Zealand, and across East and Southeast Asia. With respect to the accelerating synthetic drug production in the region, and specifically in Shan State, Myanmar, Sam Gor, also known as "The Company", is understood to be one of the main international crime syndicates responsible for this shift. Made up of members of five different triads and understood to be headed by Tse Chi Lop, a Canadian gangster born in Guangzhou, China, the Cantonese Chinese syndicate is primarily involved in drug trafficking, potentially earning up to $8 billion per year. Sam Gor is alleged to control 40% of the Asia-Pacific methamphetamine market, while also trafficking heroin and ketamine. The organization is active in a variety of countries in addition to Myanmar, including Thailand, Lao PDR, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, China and Taiwan.
The Chinese Muslim Panthay are the same ethnic group as the Muslims among the Chinese Chin Haw. Both are descendants of Chinese Hui Muslim immigrants from Yunnan province in China. They often work with each other in the Golden Triangle Drug Trade. Both Chinese Muslim and non-Muslim Jeen Haw and Panthay are known to be members of Triad secret societies, working with other Chinese groups in Thailand like the TeoChiew and Hakka and the 14K Triad. They engaged in the heroin trade. Ma Hseuh-fu, from Yunnan province, was one of the most prominent Jeen Haw heroin drug lords.
A Panthay from Burma, Ma Zhengwen, assisted the Han Chinese drug lord Khun Sa in selling his heroin in north Thailand. The Panthay monopolized opium trafficking in Burma. They also created secret drug routes to reach the international market with contacts to smuggle drugs from Burma via south China.
Methamphetamine production and trafficking
"The Golden Triangle, and specifically Shan State of Myanmar, is believed to be the largest methamphetamine producing area in the world (modest sized geographic area with highly concentrated production)." The growing signs of an intensification of methamphetamine manufacturing activity within and around the Golden Triangle, and a corresponding decrease in the number of production facilities dismantled in other parts of the region, suggests that methamphetamine manufacture in East and Southeast Asia is now consolidated into the lower Mekong region. Countries in East and Southeast Asia have collectively witnessed sustained increases in seizures of methamphetamine over the last decade, totalling over 171 tons and a record of over 1 billion methamphetamine tablets in 2021 according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, more than any other part of the world. In April and May 2020, Myanmar authorities reported Asia's largest ever drug operation in Shan State totalling what was believed to be 193 million methamphetamine tablets, hundreds of kilogrammes of crystal methamphetamine as well as some heroin, and over 162,000 litres and 35.5 tons of drug precursors as well as sophisticated production equipment and several staging and storage facilities.
See also
Allegations of CIA drug trafficking
Vang Pao
Khun Sa
References
External links
Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia. Geopium.org (since 1998) is the personal website of Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, CNRS Research Fellow in Paris.
Kramer, Tom, Martin Jelsma, and Tom Blickman. Withdrawal Symptoms in the Golden Triangle: A Drugs Market in Disarray. Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, January 2009. .
"The Golden Triangle Opium Trade: An Overview" by Bertil Lintner, Chiang Mai, March 2000
UNODC. "Transnational Organized Crime in Southeast Asia: Evolution, Growth and Impact". UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, June 2019.
Regions of Asia
Border tripoints
Crime in Thailand
Geography of Southeast Asia
Illegal drug trade in Southeast Asia
Opium
Heroin |
4525425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling%20in%20the%20Netherlands | Cycling in the Netherlands | Cycling is the second-most common mode of transport in the Netherlands, with 36% of Dutch people listing the bicycle as their most frequent way of getting around on a typical day, as opposed to the car (45%) and public transport (11%). Cycling has a modal share of 27% of all trips (urban and rural) nationwide. In cities this is even higher, such as Amsterdam which has 38%, and Zwolle 46%. This high frequency of bicycle travel is enabled by excellent cycling infrastructure such as cycle paths, cycle tracks, protected intersections, ample bicycle parking and by making cycling routes shorter and more direct (and therefore usually quicker) than car routes.
In the countryside, a growing number of routes connect the Netherlands' villages, towns and cities: some of these paths are part of the Dutch National Cycle Network, a network of routes for bicycle tourism which reaches all corners of the nation.
History
Cycling became popular in the Netherlands a little later than it did in the United States and Britain, which experienced their bike booms in the 1880s, but by the 1890s the Dutch were already building dedicated paths for cyclists. By 1911, the Dutch owned more bicycles per capita than any other country in Europe.
The ownership and use of bicycles continued to increase and in 1940 there were around four million bicycles in a population of eight million. Half of these bicycles disappeared during the German occupation, but after the war the use of bicycles quickly returned to normal and continued at a high level until 1960 (annual distance covered by bicycle for each inhabitant: 1500 km). Then, much like it had in other developed nations, the privately owned motor car became more affordable and therefore more commonly in use and bicycles as a result less popular. That is: ownership still remained high, but use fell to around 800 km annually. Even so, the number of Dutch people cycling was very high compared to other European nations.
The trend away from the bicycle and towards motorised transport only began to decrease in the 1970s when Dutch people took to the streets to protest against the high number of child deaths on the roads: in some years over 500 children were killed in collisions with motor vehicles. This protest movement, initiated by Maartje van Putten (later an MEP), was known as the Stop de Kindermoord ("Stop the Child Murder").
The success of this movement—along with other factors, such as the oil shortages of 1973–74 and the publication of the CROW Design Manual for Bicycle Traffic—turned government policy around. The country began to restrict urban motor vehicle use and direct its focus on growth towards other forms of transport, with the bicycle perceived as critical in making streets safer and towns and cities more people-friendly and livable.
Overview
Besides the history and social movements, there is no single reason as to why cycling remains so popular in the Netherlands: many bicycle friendly factors reinforce each other:
Geography, built environment and weather
The Netherlands is a relatively densely populated and very flat country, which means that journey distances tend to be short, even between towns. (It can be very windy though.)
The cool climate of the Netherlands means that one can cycle very short distances without breaking into a sweat. This means that people can cycle to work or school without having to shower or wash straight afterwards, as they more often might have to do in warm, hot or humid climates.
Bike-friendly infrastructure
There is a continuous network of cycle paths, clearly signposted, well maintained and well lit, with road/cycle path junctions that often give priority to cyclists. This makes cycling itself convenient, pleasant, and safe.
There is also a good network of bicycle shops throughout the country.
Bike-friendly public policy, planning and laws
The needs of cyclists are taken into account in all stages of urban planning. Urban areas are frequently organised as woonerven (living streets), which prioritise cyclists and pedestrians over motorised traffic.
The Netherlands employs a standards-based approach to road design, where conflicts between different modes of transport are eliminated wherever possible and reduced in severity as much as possible where elimination is not possible. The result of this is that cycling is made both objectively and subjectively safe. Towns have been designed with limited access by cars and limited (decreasing over time) car parking. The resulting heavy traffic and very limited car parking makes car use unattractive in towns.
A form of strict liability has been law in the Netherlands since the early 1990s for bicycle-motor vehicle accidents. In a nutshell this means that, in a collision between a car and a cyclist, the driver's insurer is deemed to be liable to pay damages (n.b. motor vehicle insurance is mandatory in the Netherlands, while cyclist insurance is not) to the cyclist's property and their medical bills as long as 1) the cyclist did not intentionally crash into the motor vehicle, and 2) the cyclist was not in error in some way. If the cyclist was in error, as long as the collision was still unintentional, the motorist's insurance must still pay half of the damages—though this doesn't apply if the cyclist is under 14 years of age, in which case the motorist must pay full damages. If it can be proved that a cyclist intended to collide with the car, then the cyclist must pay the damages (or his/her parents in the case of a minor.)
No compulsory bicycle helmet laws. In the Netherlands, bicycle helmets are not commonly worn; they are mostly used by young children and the extremely few road cyclists and mountain bikers there who ride road bikes or mountain bikes. In fact, the Dutch Fietsersbond (Cyclists' Union) summarized existing evidence and concluded that, for normal, slow, everyday cycling (i.e. not road cycling), a compulsory helmet law would have a negative impact on population health.
Cycling and environmental sustainability
Through higher use of bikes and lower usage of cars and public transportation, the Dutch lower their ecological footprint and help the environment.
Bike usage significantly lowers fossil fuel consumption and energy per capita use, leading to less pollution and other environmental damage.
Cycling culture
Cycling is a symbol of Dutch culture. It has been considered a national symbol since 1920 and a very patriotic means of transportation since 1938.
Bicycling is presented in Dutch qualities and civil virtues of independence, self-control, modesty and stability.
Cycling has had a positive effect on tourism—people visit the Netherlands to experience its specific cycling culture.
Health effects and the economics of cycling
Cycling prevents about 6500 deaths each year, and Dutch people have half-a-year-longer life expectancy because of cycling.
The health benefits correspond to more than 3% of the Dutch gross domestic product.
It is confirmed that investments made in bicycle-promoting policies (e.g., improved bicycle infrastructure and facilities) will likely yield a high cost–benefit ratio in the long term.
Very slow bicycles and equipment
The long-standing bike culture has meant that most bicycles are slow, heavy utility bicycles rather than road and mountain bikes (though all types of bikes are to be seen, from road bikes, to recumbents, right through to velomobiles, though there are extremely rare—ridden by less than 1% of the Dutch population). The Dutch mainly choose to ride roadster bicycles, like the ubiquitous Omafiets, which are practical (for the Netherlands, due to its almost complete lack of hills and urban sprawl), low-maintenance and suited to load carrying, with mudguards and skirt-guards, and where the rider is seated in an up-right position, making for a comfortable (for very short distances of no more than 3–4 miles), very slow (between 8 and 15 mph), leisurely ride on flat terrain.
Bicycle baskets, panniers and load-carrying trailers are common for carrying items to school or work or for carrying shopping items back home from the shops.
Training
The Dutch train their children to ride so they can confidently ride in the roads when they are around 12 years of age, just before they start secondary school. Only if they pass their traffic exam are they awarded their Verkeersdiploma (traffic certificate). This training is deemed necessary as 75% of secondary school students cycle to school, rising to 84% riding for those living within 5 km of school. Even for distances of or over, some 8% of secondary school children cycle in each direction to school, though this is mainly in rural areas where the closest secondary schools can be a fair distance away. (Some 49% of primary school children ride to school, but distances are shorter and adults often accompany the younger ones.)
Dutch motorists are also trained for interaction with cyclists as part of their driver training when going for their driving licence. For example, trainee motorists are trained to check and re-check their right-hand side for cyclists before making a turn to the right.
These factors together far outweigh the negative factors of wet and windy weather, strong winds due to the flat terrain, and frequent bicycle thefts. Over a quarter of all journeys made in the Netherlands are by bicycle. Even the over 65 age group make nearly a quarter of their journeys by bicycle—though, among this age group, electric bikes are very popular. In some cities over half of all journeys are made by bicycle.
By 2012 cycling had grown tremendously in popularity. In Amsterdam alone, 490,000 cyclists took to the road to cycle 2 million kilometres every day, according to its city council statistics. This has caused some problems as, despite 35,000 kilometers of bicycle paths, the country's 18 million bicycles (1.3 per citizen old enough to ride) sometimes clog Dutch cities' busiest streets. This is being addressed by building even more bike lanes to tackle a problem many other cities in the world would envy—that of bicycle traffic congestion. The Netherlands' busiest cycleway, Vredenburg in the city of Utrecht, sees some 32,000 cyclists on an average weekday, and up to 37,000 on peak days, rivalling the numbers claimed for the busiest cycleway in the world in Copenhagen, Denmark.
In 2011 cycling advocate David Hembrow argued that the Dutch make more cycle journeys between them than the American, British and Australian people added together, and with greater safety than cyclists in any of those countries.
In 2012, the Dutch Fietsersbond (Cyclists' Union) said that a quarter of all deadly crashes in the Netherlands involve cyclists. Research in 2013 showed that 60% of fatal cycling accidents took place at junctions and in two out of five of those accidents, cyclists were not given priority by the driver. From 2007 to 2012, the number of fatal accidents decreased in the Netherlands from 850 to 600, while the number of cycling fatalities remained roughly constant. In 2015, cycling deaths made up 30% of road deaths in the Netherlands, 185 out of 621.
Infrastructure
Many roads have one or two separate cycleways alongside them, or cycle lanes marked on the road. On roads where adjacent bike paths or cycle tracks exist, the use of these facilities is compulsory, and cycling on the main carriageway is not permitted. Some 35,000 km of cycle-track has been physically segregated from motor traffic, equal to a quarter of the country's entire 140,000 km road network. On other roads and streets, bicycle and motor vehicles share the same road-space, but these are usually roads with a low speed limit. The surface quality of these bike lanes are good and the routing tends to be direct with gentle turns making it possible to cycle at good speeds for considerable distances. Cycleways come with their own sets of rules and systems—including traffic signals/lights, tunnels and lanes.
Tunnels and bridges may or may not be accessible for cycling; if pedal cycles are prohibited, there is usually a separate facility. For example, the Western Scheldt Tunnel is not accessible for pedestrians, cyclists or moped riders. They have to use the ferry at another location, or take the bus through the tunnel. Unlike the vast majority of bus services in the Netherlands, three services that cross this tunnel carry bicycles and mopeds. There is a fee for this service and reservation is recommended.
Pedestrians use the pavement where one is available, otherwise they use the same position on the road as the cyclists: on the cycleway or lane if available, otherwise on the road (but in the latter case pedestrians preferably walk on the left, while cyclists go on the right). Roads and tunnels accessible for cyclists are also accessible for pedestrians. Most pedestrian paths are available to cyclists who dismount and walk the bike.
Separate bike paths, parallel to the roadway
When enough space is available, larger roads are fitted with a parallel fietspad (bike path) that is physically separated—for example by means of a verge, hedge, or parking lane—from the roadway. In most cases, these bike paths are also physically separated from an adjacent footpath.
Where protected bike paths exist, their use is in most cases obligatory for cyclists. Mopeds, mofas and the like are allowed and obliged to use them when their maximum speed is no more than 25 km/h (with a blue license plate) (though this has become controversial). When the maximum speed is 45 km/h (yellow license plate), mopeds are only allowed to use the cycle paths if that is indicated (mostly outside of the built-up area). Motorists are not allowed on bike paths, and to enforce this the entry of cars is often made physically impossible by using obstacles. In any case, a single-directional bike path is usually too narrow for cars to travel on.
Bi-directional bike paths on one side of the road are common in towns as well as in the countryside: they are divided into two lanes, similar to roads, by a dashed line. Occasionally bi-directional cycle ways exist on both sides of the road; this reduces the number of times cyclists have to cross the road.
The color of the pavement on a bike lane or path may vary, though red is the standard color to identify bike paths and on-road bike lanes in the Netherlands: either red asphalt or brickwork is used to visually distinguish cycle ways from car lanes and footpaths. Standard black asphalt is also commonly used and some older cycle paths are made of the square tiles commonly used for sidewalks.
On-road bike lanes
On-road bike lanes in the Netherlands are marked by either a dashed line or a solid line: lanes marked by a dashed line may be used by motorists provided that they do not impede cyclists, while those marked with a solid line may not be used by motorists. Solid lines are interrupted on crossings to allow motorists to enter or leave the road. Car parking is never allowed in either type of lane.
Bike lanes are usually surfaced with red or black asphalt. The red colour has no legal meaning, it is there for visibility; the on-road bike lane is delineated by the solid or dashed line by which it is separated from the roadway.
National guidelines advise a minimum width of 1.25 m for cycle lanes.
When a cycle lane is present on a road, cyclists are obliged to use it. Since 15 December 1999 mopeds are not allowed on cycle lanes.
(cycle street)
A (cycle street) is a road where bicycles are considered to be the primary and preferred form of transport and where cars and other motorised vehicles are allowed "as guests". Designs vary, but most examples incorporate red asphalt and have a speed limit of 30 km/h.
streets exist mostly in residential areas where low-traffic roads exist anyway. A was in most cases originally a road that had low-traffic volumes beforehand and was therefore easily converted. They are an important type of infrastructure which makes Dutch towns and cities safer for cyclists. They can also be used for route separation to enable cyclists to avoid busier roads and have direct routes into and through towns.
The unravelling of modes
In Dutch towns and cities, many bike-only routes are not alongside the roadway, nor do they run close by and parallel to major car routes: rather, cycle routes are often completely separate from motor vehicle routes. In many cases, dedicated bike routes are far more direct than the local car routes are to common destinations, such as town centres. This complete separation of bicycle routes from motor vehicle routes is called the unravelling of modes and is an important feature of modern Dutch urban design and traffic management.
For instance, many Dutch towns and cities have a "soft" green core that is only accessible to cyclists and pedestrians. Therefore, while drivers wishing to cross the town may have to take a lengthy detour via a ring road, cyclists can take a direct route through the town centre.
Other cycle routes work similarly. On a small scale, short sections of cycle path can provide a short cut between streets that cars cannot take, while on a larger scale entire streets are sometimes converted to cycle paths to provide more room for cyclists and discourage the use of motorized vehicles.
Free-running cycle paths also exist for recreational purposes, in parks and in the countryside. These are usually bidirectional.
Countryside
On busy and important routes, cycling facilities in the countryside are similar to those in the cities. Cycle paths are made where possible, and cycle lanes otherwise. If the available space is too limited even for a cycle lane, for example when a road passes through a village, speed-reducing measures are usually taken to ensure that the difference in speed between cyclists and motorists is tolerable.
Highways and "provincial roads" (main roads for which a province is responsible), are usually fitted with separate cycle paths. Motorways, on the other hand, rarely have cycling facilities associated with them. If a cycle path is bundled with a motorway it usually lies at a relatively large distance from the road, outside the traffic barriers and noise barriers.
Apart from these utility paths and lanes, many recreational paths are available in the countryside. Their pavement varies from gravel through asphalt. Crushed seashells are a popular variant.
(Fast bike routes)
A bicycle-only route intended for cycling longer distances for practical reasons such as commuting or for sport and exercise can either be called a (fast bike route) or a (cycle highway). Some characteristics of these cycling routes mentioned by governments (both national and local) and traffic experts are bi-directional paths with recommended uni-directional lane widths of 2 metres and minimum widths of 1.5 metres; very level and straight stretches (i.e. few ups and downs, curves or turns); the absence of traffic lights and level crossings with motorised traffic; and superior pavement quality.
Cycling interest groups and national and local governments advocate such routes as being a solution for the further reduction of vehicular traffic congestion: this is because, as cyclists can achieve higher average speeds on these routes than on the usual types of cycling infrastructure, so cyclists are better able to compete with the car for longer commutes on them.
, cycle highways currently being constructed include one between Rotterdam and Delft, and one between Nijmegen and Arnhem (the RijnWaalpad). Most fast-cycling routes/cycle highway projects are not entirely purpose-built, but consist of upgrading existing infrastructure and adding missing links between them.
Roundabouts
Some roundabouts have cyclist lanes around them, with signposts directing the cyclist to a destination. Traffic on roundabouts in the Netherlands usually has priority over entering traffic, and when a cycle lane is bundled with it this priority also applies to the cyclists. This means that cars have to give priority to bicycles both when entering and exiting the roundabout.
Other roundabouts have separate cycle paths around them. Signs indicate whether the cycle path or the crossing road has priority. Many authorities give priority to the crossing roads, as this is thought to be safer. For fairness, others retain the priority that the cyclists would have had if they had not been using a separate cycle path (which they are obliged to use).
A very busy roundabout in Eindhoven uses tunnels and an interior roundabout for cyclists to keep the two traffic streams completely apart.
The Hovenring
The Hovenring is an architectural first for bicycle infrastructure. Opening on 29 June 2012, it is an elevated circular suspension bridge and bicycle-only roundabout built in between the localities of Eindhoven, Veldhoven and Meerhoven (thus the name, being Dutch for "Ring of the 'Hovens'") in the province of North Brabant. Built over a large and busy road intersection, where before its construction cyclists had to cross busy roads, it is the first suspended bicycle roundabout in the world.
Crossing rivers and motorways
To protect cyclists from motorised traffic when they need to cross motorways and other busy roads, dedicated cycling bridges and tunnels for cyclists are built. Such facilities are often shared with pedestrians.
The small waterways such as canals, which abound especially throughout western Holland, will often have dedicated bridges for cyclists or ones that they share with pedestrians. However, to cross large waterways, cycle paths are often situated alongside roads (for instance the Hollandse Brug) or sometimes railroads (for example the Nijmegen railway bridge). Long road tunnels are rarely open to cyclists.
When roads and railroads are too far away, ferries often provide an alternative in the Netherlands. In many cases, ferries operate exclusively or primarily for cyclists and to a lesser extent for pedestrians.
Traffic signals
Because of their constant use, cycleways are complete with their own system of traffic signals. These are present at junctions, one set for motorised vehicles and a visually smaller set for cyclists. Sometimes this is similar to a pelican crossing, where the cyclists wait to cross the junction. These lights come in two forms—firstly the miniature version of the vehicle lights and secondly a regular sized signal with bicycle-shaped cutouts.
In many locations more direct cycle routes exist which bypass traffic signals, allowing cyclists to make more efficient journeys than motorists.
Occasionally, cyclists are explicitly allowed to pass a red traffic light if they make a right turn on an intersection. They are also allowed to ignore a red light if they go through the top of a T junction on a cycle path, as there is never interaction between motorists and cyclists, and cyclists can negotiate easily with other cyclists and pedestrians.
Signage
Signposts take on the form of road signs, with directions stating the distances to nearby cities and towns. Signposts come in two different forms: the common directional signpost which is a miniature version of the vehicle signs and padstool signs, mushroom-shaped direction posts. Padstools are used in the countryside where it is thought to blend in better with its surroundings. Sometimes it can be hard to notice in long grass.
In contrast to the signposts for traffic in general, which feature white lettering on a blue background, the signposts for cyclists have red or green lettering on a white background. Red is used for the usual route and green for more scenic routes where mopeds are not allowed. The mushroom-style signpost can also have black lettering on a white background (as it is obvious that it is not meant for motorists). A newer style of "mushroom" has red lettering.
When a general (white on blue) signpost is not applicable for cyclists because it relies on a motorway, this is indicated with a small car sign or a motorway sign behind the name of the destination. In such cases, a separate signpost for cyclists is usually nearby.
Most road signs for cyclists that are used in the Netherlands are universal. However, some are specific to the country and may even include some Dutch text, e.g. fietspad (cycle path), racer te gast (racers (road cyclists) are guests), (brom)fietsers oversteken (cyclists and moped riders must cross the road), uitgezonderd fietsers (except for cyclists) or rechtsaf fietsers vrij (turning right free for cyclists).
The numbered-node cycle network was first introduced in the Netherlands in 1999, and by 2014, the entire Netherlands was part to the network. The system is displacing more traditional national cycling route network signage (long, named routes, each individually signposted, called LF routes in the Netherlands). In 2017–2021, the Netherlands reduced its LF-routes, amalgamating some of them. The ways themselves remained part of the numbered-node network.
Parking
By policy in the Netherlands, bicycle parking is supposed to be provided next to every shop. Bicycle stands are common around the Netherlands, an alternative to chaining the bike to a post. In most, the front wheel of the bicycle rests on the stand. As bike theft is very common in the Netherlands, cyclists are advised to lock their bicycle with a built-in lock and attach a chain from the bike frame to the stand.
There are many bicycle parking stations, particularly in city centres and at train stations, some of which hold many thousands of bicycles. Every railway station has a cycle parking attached, and most also offer guarded cycle parking for a nominal fee. Since the start of the 21st century, parking spaces for 450,000 bicycles were built and modernized at over 400 train stations, and Dutch railways organizations ProRail and NS are calling for expansion by another 250,000 by 2027. Already half of all Dutch train travellers cycle to the station, amounting to half a million cyclists daily. These types of bicycle parking stations also exist in other places around most cities, for example, there are 20 watched bicycle parking stations situated in the city of Groningen (population ≈198,000).
Most city councils enforce the parking of bicycles in their jurisdictions by regularly removing any bicycles that are not placed in the bike stands. The locks are cut and for the owner to reclaim their bicycle they must pay a fine of around €25. Cyclist journeys are made more convenient by such actions as it prevents sidewalks being littered with bikes.
Bike rental
Bikes for all ages are readily available for rent across the country and most large towns have bike shops with all the necessary equipment and repair services. All cities possess multiple bike stands, mainly at the supermarkets and other commonly used shops. Bikes should also come with a lock so as to keep the bike from being stolen. A national scheme, Cycleswap, supports small businesses privately renting bicycles out for short-term use.
OV-fiets
OV-fiets (literally: "Public Transport bicycle") is the name of a very large, nationwide bicycle rental / sharing system run by Nederlandse Spoorwegen aka NS (Dutch Railways)—by far the Netherlands' largest rail service operator. Almost 15,000 OV-fietsen are offered for rent at over 300 locations across the Netherlands; at many train stations, at bus or tram stops, in several city centres and at P+R car parks. When you arrive at a town's station by train, you can quickly rent an OV-fiets to cycle to your destination.
The OV-fiets program, which started on a small scale in 2003, has steadily grown in popularity, first registering 1 million rides in 2011, but Dutch Rail expected 3 million rides in 2017, up 25% from 2.4 million in 2016. However, this was even exceeded—the number came out at 3.2 million.
In recent years Dutch Rail expanded their rental fleet by around 1000 bicycles a year to keep up with demand. However, a surge in demand forced NS to rush order an extra 6000 bicycles in 2017. The company aimed to have 14,500 bicycles available by the end of 2017.
Membership to the OV-fiets scheme is required, but as of 1 January 2017 only costs €0.01 per year, to verify identity and payment data. Bikes can be accessed using the normal NS public transport card—and 24-hour rental costs €3.85. Since the new policy is in place, the number of registered users has jumped from ≈200,000 to ≈500,000.
The nature of the OV-fiets bike sharing program differs somewhat from that of similar schemes in other countries, partly because of the already high bike ownership of the population. The Dutch system is highly integrated with the public transport network, so that people who cycle to the station in their place of origin can
continue traveling by bike from the station of their destination.
Swapfiets
Swapfiets is a bike rental service for residents of several European countries that, for a fixed monthly price, provides a bicycle and covers all repair costs.
The service started as a startup that rented refurbished bikes but has since developed an in-house design featuring a distinctive blue front tire.
Bicycle touring
For bicycle touring, all Dutch cities can be accessed on the dedicated cycling routes. There are two main signage systems, the older named-route Dutch National Cycle Network—the LF-routes—and the numbered-node cycle network or network. There are also additional regional cycle paths. Some of the LF routes have been amalgamated and removed in 2017–2021, and may not be shown accurately on older maps; the former LF routes are now part of the network, which is displacing named long-distance routes in Belgium and the Netherlands. An average cyclist can typically expect to cover between 15 and 18 kilometres, on average, in an hour by bike throughout most areas of the Netherlands.
Print cycling maps are widely available and come in two forms:
Route maps: a national map which shows route information rather than general topography. Only the routes are marked and related information are shown. They are often used for holidays and are sold at most tourist shops.
National maps: These cover the whole country, with markings and symbols about the cycleways of the Netherlands. Most national cycle maps will include the LF-routes and the other routes of the numbered-node cycle network. These are used for cycling in unfamiliar towns and cities, and also for cross-country use.
There are also comprehensive digital maps and route planning tools in a variety of languages, available online or in downloadable apps. OpenStreetMap, a Wikipedia-style map, has extensive information on the numbered-node network, available as downloadable maps and datasets under the Open Database License.
Though the LF-route network is the national cycling route network of the Netherlands, some of its routes extend into the neighbouring countries of Belgium and Germany; the LF1 even extends all the way down the North Sea coast to Boulogne-sur-Mer in France.
There is also a professional cycle-tour industry in the Netherlands, run by professional cycling-tour operators.
Transporting bicycles
It is possible to take bicycles on trains, aircraft and ferries. Buses, however, will only carry folded bicycles.
Trains
Bicycles may be carried on trains under certain conditions. Folding bicycles can be taken more easily than other types as regular bicycles must be placed in designated areas. Taking a folded bicycle inside a train is free, but for unfolded bicycles and regular ones a special ticket is required. , these tickets cost €7.50 per bicycle and are valid for a whole day. In all trains it is prohibited to carry normal size and (partly) unfolded bikes during peak hours, though this restriction does not apply in the summer in July and August when bikes can be carried for free at any time. All bicycles are allowed, even a recumbent or a tandem. However, it is prohibited to take a tricycle or a bicycle trailer on trains.
Travellers are expected to place their bicycles in the designated areas: blue stickers on or near the doors indicate where they are.
Ferries
Ferries are commonplace in the Netherlands for crossing both rivers and canals, including numerous foot ferries that operate especially for cyclists and foot passengers saving them from making long detours. There are ferries as well as to the islands in the North (Texel, Vlieland, Terschelling, Ameland and Schiermonnikoog). It is important to know where ferries are and when they run.
Some ferries (such as those to Texel,
Vlieland, Terschelling, Ameland
and Schiermonnikoog) impose an extra charge for bicycles, while others (such as those across the IJ in Amsterdam) carry bicycles for free.
By air
It is possible to take bicycles by air, but the airline's procedures must be followed to pack the bicycle and possibly dismantle it. There may also be extra fees as the bicycle will count as luggage. Again, travelling with a foldable bike is easier.
The Fietsstad (Bicycle city) awards
Every few years, a jury from the Dutch Fietsersbond (Cyclists' Union) conducts the Fietsstad awards where a city is bestowed the honour of being a recognised Fietsstad (Bicycle City). The main criteria for winning is not which of the competing cities has the best overall cycling environment but rather which city is already great for cycling and has improved their cycling environment even further. Furthermore, in some years there is a unique theme that the jury use to decide the winner.
the cities that have been elected Fietsstad are:
Gallery
See also
Transport in the Netherlands
Bicycle monarchy
Cycling in Amsterdam
Dutch National Cycle Routes
Fietsersbond (the Cyclists' Union)
David Hembrow
Outline of cycling
Notes
References
Further reading
Dekker, Henk-Jan (2021). Cycling Pathways: The Politics and Governance of Dutch Cycling Infrastructure, 1920-2020. Amsterdam University Press.
Bek, Patrick (2022). No Bicycle, No Bus, No Job: The Making of Workers' Mobility in the Netherlands, 1920-1990. Amsterdam University Press.
Fietsberaad agency (Dutch Cycling Council), Cycling in the Netherlands, published by Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, 2009. Extensive English language report by the Dutch government.
CROW – Dutch Cycling Embassy: Design Manual for Bicycle Traffic, 2017, . English language design manual, aimed at traffic management professionals and infrastructure designers.
Pete Jordan, In the City of Bikes: The Story of the Amsterdam Cyclist, HarperCollins publishers, 2013, . A memoir of this American's love affair with Amsterdam and its bike-centric culture.
Shirley Agudo, The Dutch & Their Bikes: Scenes from a Nation of Cyclists, XPat Scriptum Publishers, 2014, . A photobook by an American native and long-time resident of the Netherlands.
External links
General and practical
The Dutch Cycling Embassy – a portal to Dutch expertise on cycling.
Practicality is key to Dutch bicycle culture – the view of an American social documentary photographer and author.
No helmets, no problem+: how the Dutch created a casual biking culture, by David Roberts, Vox, 28 August 2018
Making Cycling Irresistible a review of cycling policy in the Netherlands.
Cycling safely in Amsterdam Brochure from the Dutch traffic department.
Culture of the Netherlands |
4525913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proinsias%20Cassidy | Proinsias Cassidy | Proinsias Cassidy, also known mononymously simply as Proinsias or Cassidy, is a fictional character and antihero in the Garth Ennis comic book series Preacher and The Boys, respectively co-created with Steve Dillon and Darick Robertson, and the former's spin-off prequel Cassidy: Blood and Whiskey. Introduced as a drug-and-alcohol-addicted Irish vampire en route to Dallas to open a bar called "The Grassy Knoll", Cassidy ultimately joins Jesse Custer and Tulip O'Hare on their search for God, becoming Jesse's best friend and falling in love with Tulip. After Jesse's apparent death, Cassidy and Tulip form a romance, which ends on Jesse's return, with their rivalry leading to a duel. Wishing to atone for all that he has done in life, Cassidy walks into the sunlight to die. However, having made a deal with God before his confrontation with Jesse, in order to allow Genesis (deemed a threat to God) to be destroyed, Cassidy ensures that both he and Jesse will be resurrected, before God himself is killed by the Saint of Killers. As Jesse leaves looking for Tulip, the redeemed Cassidy watches his first sunset in years as a human being, pledging to act like a man. In an epilogue in the fourth volume of The Boys, set years later, a more heavyset Cassidy (now going by his first name) has finally opened his "The Grassy Knoll" bar (albeit in New York City instead). Closing his bar on St. Patrick's Day so that he and fellow former alcoholic and friend Billy Butcher can speak in peace, the two discuss their struggles with addiction before Butcher's protégé Hughie Campbell arrives, and Cassidy closes up his bar, smiling.
Cassidy is portrayed by Joe Gilgun in AMC's 2016–2019 television series adaptation of Preacher, and voiced by Michael John Casey in GraphicAudio's 2020 audio play series adaptation of The Boys. The character has received a positive critical reception, with the comic series' version analysed as a stereotypical example of European people, and the television series' version and Gilgun's portrayal praised for their depiction of interpersonal relationships, bisexuality, and a different character ending.
Appearances
Comic book series
Preacher
As a young adult in 1916, Dublin, Cassidy joined the Irish Volunteers and took part in the Easter Rising, with his brother Billy also joining to keep watch over him. After Billy forces Cassidy to desert the army to prevent him from being killed, Cassidy is bitten by a "hag", who leaves him with seemingly fatal injuries. His body falls into the water, and he soon learns that he is not succumbing to the injuries and that the sun burns his skin: the hag was a vampire, and now so is he. Cassidy begins to wear sunglasses to hide his eyes, which are now blood-red, as part of his transformation into a vampire. Not wanting to explain himself to his family or comrades, Cassidy decides to travel to the United States, living there in squalor for almost a century, figuring out how to exist on alcohol and drugs instead of blood, but inadvertently making him parasitical and irresponsible with a remarkable lack of forethought, causing harm and death to those around him when he abandons them to circumstances he set in motion, leading many former partners of his to end up critically injured, hopelessly addicted to drugs, or dead. After he gets the girlfriend of a friend of his killed during the "Dixie Fried" story arc, Xavier, who is a Voodoo priest, says, "I honestly don't believe he's an evil man. Just careless. And thoughtless. And terribly, terribly weak."
In Preacher, while hitchhiking to Dallas, intending to found a bar there called "The Grassy Knoll" while on the run from Les Enfants du Sang, Cassidy is picked up by Tulip O'Hare, and meets the preacher Jesse Custer; after saving them from a confrontation, he elects to join them on their mission to find the actual (missing) biblical God. Over the course of their adventures, Cassidy forms a strong friendship with Jesse and eventually falls in love with Tulip, though she initially does not reciprocate the feelings. After Jesse forces Cassidy to drop him from a plane using the Word of God in order to save Cassidy and Tulip, he also orders Cassidy to confess his love to Tulip, and the two begin a relationship, taking up heavy drugs and alcohol together while mourning Jesse, before eventually breaking up. After Jesse returns and reunites with Tulip, he vows to kill Cassidy upon learning of her addiction, although Tulip asks him not to. Reuniting with Jesse, Cassidy is told that Jesse no longer wants anything to do with him, though the two agree to meet one more time for a final duel, engaging in a fistfight that Jesse's skills easily allow him to dominate while constantly berating Cassidy. When Cassidy finally accepts his failures in life and death and begins, as Jesse puts it, "acting like a man," Jesse takes Cassidy's hand in forgiveness: Cassidy then proves he is worth the gesture by walking into the sunrise to atone for all he has done, burning up in the process.
Once Jesse is gunned down by the Grail, it is revealed that Cassidy had made a deal with God hours before his confrontation with Jesse; he would beat Jesse to the point of surrender and allow Genesis to be destroyed. In return, God must allow both Jesse and Cassidy to live. Despite events not quite going to plan, God keeps His word. Jesse is revived and goes looking for Tulip, while the redeemed Cassidy watches his first sunset in years as a human being, then drives off with a pledge to act like a man.
Cassidy: Blood and Whiskey
In Cassidy: Blood and Whiskey, a prequel to the main events of Preacher, Cassidy encounters another vampire for the first time in his lifetime, named Eccarius, who behaves in-line with vampire stereotypes, and who is worshipped by a New Orleans-based gothic cult, Les Enfants du Sang (The Children of Blood). After failing to convince Eccarius that he can survive without needing to consume blood, and his inner bloodlust is just that, Cassidy ties Eccarius to a cross to die in the sun, setting up his followers (Les Enfants du Sang) mission of vengeance against him in Preacher.
The Boys
In the "We Gotta Go Now" arc of The Boys, set years after Cassidy's redemption, the now-human and heavyset Cassidy has grown a ponytail and opened his "The Grassy Knoll" bar in New York City, wearing a t-shirt with "careful now" inscribed on it (in reference to Father Ted). After ejecting a group of drunk Irish-Americans dressed as Irish stereotypes from his bar on St. Patrick's Day by throwing an axe at the wall behind them, Cassidy returns to his ongoing conversation with his British friend and former drinking buddy Billy Butcher about both being recovering alcoholics, and reminiscing about times in the past when they would have gone out drinking and acted like as "Stage Irishman", before both drink club sodas, toasting to the Alcoholics Anonymous mantra of taking it "one day at a time", serving as each other's sponsor; Cassidy is notably the only character in The Boys to address Butcher simply as Billy, while Butcher addresses Cassidy simply as Proinsias. After Butcher's Scottish protégé "Wee Hughie" Campbell arrives in the bar from his undercover assignment with the G-Men, and hears Cassidy can write "fuck off" in the head of a pint of Guinness, he orders such a drink before discussing his assignment with Butcher. As the two leave, Cassidy silently closes up his bar, smiling.
Television series
Preacher (2016–2019)
In the 2016–2019 AMC television series adaptation, Joe Gilgun portrays the character. Unlike the comic series, Cassidy usually appears without his trademark sunglasses and has normal eyes.
Season One (2016)
In the first season, working on a corporate jet as a flight attendant, Proinsias Cassidy drinks with a group of hedge funders while telling them about his last trip to Tijuana. After discovering a Bible in the bathroom, whose pages are covered in thick notes scrawled all over them, Cassidy notes via the angles of the outside of the plane that is not flying toward Tijuana. He then kills the hedge funders and pilots, who turn out to be assassins there to kill him. Cassidy reveals himself as a vampire by drinking the pilot's blood and jumping out of the soon-to-crash plane (the assassins had been vampire hunters) with a to-go bottle of blood and an umbrella in hand. Cassidy, whose guts lie around him in a crater in a nearby cornfield, protected from the sunlight by the shadow of a cow, lures said cow in and devours it, regenerating his flesh. That night, Cassidy goes to local bar to contact his sponsor on the phone as to what he should do next, in the process befriending local preacher Jesse Custer. Impressed by witnessing Jesse beat up who he believes to be the abusive husband of one of his churchgoers (due to the husband's son mistaking his parents' BDSM activities for abuse) and his friends before joining him in a jail cell overnight after being mistaken by local Sheriff Root for Jesse's accomplice, the two men shake hands after Jesse is released on bail before parting ways.
Three days after, Jesse is then possessed by Genesis (the offspring of an angel and demon whose powers rival that of God), he learns that Cassidy had found him passed out at the church and has since moved into the attic, carrying out basic maintenance on the church itself, caring for him during his recovery. Cassidy then attends Jesse's next sermon, and the latter's faith is renewed. That night, after Jesse passes out from taking a drink from Cassidy's flask, two angels, DeBlanc and Fiore, arrive seeking to retrieve Genesis. Mistaking them for more vampire hunters seeking to kill him, Cassidy fights and kills the angels, burying their bodies before they immediately regenerate elsewhere (as angels do, being unable to die naturally). After learning from Jesse of his newfound abilities of control over others, which he believes to be the "Word of God", Cassidy is tracked down by DeBlanc and Fiore, who explain to him the true nature of Genesis and how they must return it to Heaven. Acting as Jesse's representative without his knowledge, Cassidy agrees to sell Genesis back to the angels in exchange for copious amounts of money, drugs, and alcohol. After failing to convince a distracted Jesse about the angels and Genesis, Cassidy elects to do so the following day, proceeding to a local brothel to engage prostitutes. However, while having sex, Cassidy is mistakenly thrown out of a window by Jesse's estranged girlfriend Tulip O'Hare (who had mistaken him for someone else she was angered at), and drives him to a hospital, believing he will otherwise die. With Tulip holding him in her arms, Cassidy falls in love with her.
At the hospital, Cassidy replenishes himself by drinking bags of blood, revealing himself to Tulip as a vampire. The next day, Tulip and Cassidy bond after learning of Cassidy's secret and eventually have sex, while DeBlanc informs Jesse about Genesis; in anger, Jesse then accidentally banishes local teenager Eugene Root to Hell in proximity to Cassidy. Confronting Jesse and his attempts at justifying sending Eugene to Hell, Cassidy hands Jesse a fire extinguisher and informs him that he trusts him to do the right thing, exposing himself to sunlight, burning himself alive, and revealing himself as a vampire. Although extinguished by Jesse and left to regenerate, Cassidy is left in an amount of pain. and cared for by Tulip. After failing to regenerate Cassidy with the blood of several animals, Tulip asks local resident Emily to take care of Cassidy while she "takes care of" someone else who had betrayed her and Jesse; on seeing just what Cassidy really is, Emily decides to kill her lover (the mayor) by feeding him to Cassidy. Sheriff Root realizes Cassidy is a vampire and attempts to use his immortality as torture to find Eugene's whereabouts, believing Jesse killed him. The following Sunday, Jesse uses the angels' phone to summon an image of God to his church, which Cassidy, Tulip, and the congregation remain in awe of. However, on realizing this "God" is the imposter and the actual God fled Heaven on Genesis' release, Jesse, Cassidy, and Tulip leave, oblivious to the town then being destroyed due to residents of the congregation (their faith broken) then neglecting their jobs at the local methane power plant. After electing to join Tulip and Jesse as they search for God, Cassidy lounges in the back of their car.
Season Two (2017)
Jesse, Tulip, and Cassidy start their journey to find God, which is quickly put on hold after a police car flags them down, and they go on a car chase involving multiple police cars before escaping the Saint of Killers. Investigating Tammy, a strip club manager who has supposedly seen God frequent the club for its jazz music, who is then killed after Cassidy's altercation with one of her security guards leads to Tammy being accidentally shot. After escaping the Saint of Killers again, Cassidy recalls having seen Fiore on television, now working a novelty act where he kills himself and comes back to life at an Indian-style casino and hotel. On revealing, he hired the Saint of Killers, Cassidy convinces Fiore to call him off by consuming a large number of drugs and alcohol with him. However, Fiore instead orders the Saint of Killers to kill Fiore himself and continue his mission after Jesse uses Genesis to tell him to find peace". Having deduced God's love of jazz to mean he must be in New Orleans, Jesse, Tulip, and Cassidy search jazz bars looking for God, with the former appalled when a man in a dog costume is presented as being called God. While Jesse follows another lead, Tulip and Cassidy go to a house owned by Denis, seemingly a friend of Cassidy's, while Tulip leaves to divorce her estranged husband Viktor. Watching an infomercial at Denis' house, Cassidy recognizes the actor who played the imposter, God who spoke to Jesse's congregation, learning that the actor had been executed in order to be sent to Heaven to impersonate God. Cassidy reveals to Jesse that Tulip went to Viktor and may be in danger; feeling betrayed by Tulip's marriage, Jesse considers killing Viktor before Cassidy persuades him not to, claiming Tulip has never stopped loving Jesse (both Tulip and Cassidy keeping their previous sexual encounter a secret from Cassidy). However, after they leave, the Saint of Killers shows up and kills Viktor, and his daughter informs the Saint of Killers where to find the trio. At Denis' house, Jesse, Tulip, and Cassidy are just able to escape before the Saint of Killers shows up; while Jesse seeks a replacement soul for the Saint of Killers in an effort to stop his rampage, Tulip learns that Denis is Cassidy's son.
After Jesse uses a fragment of his own soul to control and imprison the Saint of Killers, he, Tulip, and Cassidy participate in a game where people get shot at while wearing a bulletproof vests, and they trick the other players in order to rob their money. Afterward, Denis tells his father that he is dying from congestive heart failure and wants to be turned into a vampire to survive, but Cassidy declines. On a phone call, Cassidy asks someone called Seamus for advice on how to handle Denis, and he is advised not to turn him into a vampire. However, Cassidy declines this advice and turns Denis into a vampire, allowing Denis to survive an attempt on the group's lives by assassins working for the Grail, a powerful organization working to preserve the lineage of Jesus Christ for the apocalypse and fights relentlessly any conflicting lore, which includes Jesse and Genesis. As Jesse forms a truce with Grail leader Herr Starr and realises the man in the dog costume whom he had rejected was, in fact the actual God in disguise, Cassidy bonds with his son, who appears to have no control over his vampire desires. However, after the Saint of Killers is freed and comes after the group again, he is sent back to Hell by a superintendent from Hell associated with Herr Starr. An ambulance that Jesse called to take his friends to the hospital subsequently then brings Tulip and Cassidy to Herr Starr instead, who reveals his plans for Jesse to serve as the new messiah to them. In the aftermath, as Cassidy and Tulip decide to leave Jesse, Cassidy realizes that Denis cannot control his vampire desires (and had been seeking to form a vampiric coven via followers of the dating service Les Enfants du Sang (The Children of Blood) and locks him out of his house into the sunlight to burn, killing him. After Tulip is shot fatally by spying Grail agents Lara Featherstone, and Jesse is unable to use Genesis to save her, having the ability to on losing his soul fragment prevents Cassidy from turning her into a vampire, leading to her death. In a cliffhanger ending, Jesse and Cassidy drive Tulip's body to Angelville, as Cassidy tells Jesse he hates him, a sentiment that Jesse agrees with.
Season Three (2018)
In the third season, Jesse and Cassidy arrive at Angelville with Tulip's body looking for Jesse's grandmother, a voodoo queen capable of resurrecting her from Purgatory. She sends Jesse and Cassidy on an errand to procure the things she needs for the ritual, during the course of which Cassidy reveals his affair with Tulip to Jesse. When Gran'ma L'Angelle is alone with Cassidy and Tulip's body, she offers him a favor for returning Jesse home before coaxing Tulip back to life once Jesse has returned. Alive again, Tulip tells Cassidy and Jesse that she was shot by the female Grail agent; while Cassidy wants revenge right away, Jesse presses his friends to focus on escaping his deal with Gran'ma first (which will prevent him from leaving the property), leading to further tension. Realizing his extended family is getting suspicious of Cassidy's healing capacities and will execute him on realizing he is a vampire, Jesse tries to make up with his friend and warn him about Angelville, but Cassidy will not listen. While Jesse is away with Jody trying to recruit new customers for his grandmother, Cassidy asks Gran'ma L'Angelle for a love spell before Jody and T.C. (experienced vampire killers) find out he is a vampire, and hang him upside-down from a tree, planning for him to be incinerated by the sunlight of the next day. Jesse intervenes by agreeing to re-open "The Tombs" — a drug-friendly fight club he would run as a teenager — and to arrange a fight between Cassidy and the customer locked there, acting as master of ceremonies.
After Cassidy winds his fight, Jesse chops him into pieces and tries to ship him away in a parcel before he is made to participate in another fight, knowing he will regenerate once his pieces are back together. When it turns out that Cassidy has seemingly "escaped", Jesse tells the spectators that God is missing and that the Tombs are closed again, only for Cassidy return to the ring to fight Jesse (angered at having been cut into pieces and believing Jesse's true reasons for sending him away having been to keep him away from Tulip), ending with Jesse stabbing Cassidy with a stake just as Tulip shows up. After making sure Cassidy is alive, Jesse and Tulip make up, and she sends Cassidy off on a bus to New Orleans, reluctantly telling him that she does not love him. After going binge-drinking in a depressive spiral, Cassidy tries to meet other vampires in New Orleans, using the "vampire dating service" he had seen Denis use, only the website to be for role-play after finding his date to have fake fangs. Despondent, Cassidy resumes his binge, drunknely allowing the Grail to kidnap him and stage a fake video message from Cassidy begging Jesse to rescue him from their grasp, only for cloaked figures to storm the room and rescue Cassidy. Awakening in a basement, Cassidy finds himself before a cult of vampire worshippers known as the Children of Blood (of which his date was a member), whose leader, Eccarius, reveals himself to be another real vampire, possessing more supernatural powers than Cassidy as a result of drinking the blood of his human disciples after turning them into vampires. While initially revolted by this scheme, leaving, Cassidy returns to Eccarius, intrigued by his powers and offer of companionship with Cassidy.
As Cassidy befriends Eccarius, he takes part in his scheme with the Children of Blood, even biting one of their disciples. When a gang of priest assassins and warrior nuns hired by the Grail attempt to kill Eccarius and arrest Cassidy, they are defeated by Cassidy, and the duo becomes lovers. Unbeknownst to Cassidy. However, Eccarius has been killing all the victims he turned into vampires in order to maintain his abilities (in fact derived from a vampire consuming the blood of another vampire). The following day, Cassidy and Eccarius capture Grail operative Hoover and turn him into a vampire. As Eccarius prepares to drain and kill Hoover, Cassidy finds out about Eccarius' previous killings and confronts him, unwittingly allowing Hoover to escape before being knocked out by Eccarius. On Cassidy's awakening, Eccarius unsuccessfully attempts to convince Cassidy to go along with his scheme before ordering his followers to imprison him. However, Cassidy manages to convince the Children of Blood about the truth about their master, and after secretly turning them all into vampires, they turn against Eccarius and devour him. After telling the Children of Blood that they are free to explore the world, Hoover shows up and hides with Cassidy under an umbrella as the Grail removes the roof of the building, killing all of the Children of Blood (but for two members hidden in coffins), before knocking out Cassidy with a tranquillizer, and bringing him to Masada, the Grail headquarters. At the headquarters, Starr kills Hoover and plans to torture Cassidy, lure Jesse to the base, and kill him, having turned against his previous plan for Jesse to serve as the Grail's new messiah. On awakening in his cell, Cassidy looks up to find an Archangel imprisoned in chains above him.
Season Four (2019)
In a flashforward opening to the fourth season, Cassidy and Tulip meet in a hotel room, where they talk about Jesse's death and kiss. Months earlier in the Middle East, Jesse and Tulip invade Masada to rescue Cassidy, who is being regularly tortured by American mobster Frank Toscani, who teaches "advanced torture" at the "University of the Grail" by repeatedly cutting off the regenerative vampire's foreskin, using it as a key ingredient in face creams (a conspiracy theory Cassidy had championed, ironically proven true). However, despite the torture, Cassidy refuses to leave Masada at Jesse's entrance, seemingly because of their quarrel over Tulip. Disillusioned, Jesse resumes his quest to find God while Tulip continues plotting to free Cassidy on her own. After ongoing repeated torture by having his foreskin cut again and again in front of a class of Grail students, Cassidy breaks out of his cell and prepares to leave the compound, but decides to stay again to find the Grail's collection of drugs, deciding the pain is worth the later pleasure derived from sneaking out to partake in the drugs.
On returning to his cell, the Archangel asks Cassidy why he doesn't struggle anymore, and Cassidy thinks back to when he was an Irish rebel during the Easter Rising: after his son was killed by British soldiers, he fled from Dublin, before being attacked and turned into a vampire on his way back home, leaving him resigned to not return to his family. In the present, when Cassidy's angel cellmate tells him that the angels were moved by his fate, his high spirits are restored, and he resolves actually to escape. As Tulip makes her way to Cassidy's cell after infiltrating the compound, only to find it empty. Elsewhere, Cassidy is rolled to the helipad, preparing to bring him to a cosmetics factory in Bensonhurst for repeated industrial torture before using one of the angel's feather to pick his locks, break free, killing his guards, and Frank. Just as he is about to reunite with Tulip, he is arrested by Featherstone. Being mistaken for a Grail agent, Tulip is assigned as a valet to visiting celestial emissary Jesus Christ, who, sensing that she is in trouble, agrees to help her free Cassidy from the dungeons. However, before they get to his cell, Cassidy escapes by killing the Archangel, allowing him to revive himself and free them both, flying out of the roof of the compound carrying Cassidy. At Kamal's motel and bar, outside the compound, Tulip and Jesus track down Cassidy and the Archangel, who have become drinking buddies. After they learn that Jesse is wanted for murder, Cassidy suggests they start looking for Jesse and help him, only for Tulip and Jesus to go on a joyride. The Archangel then tries to persuade Cassidy to take his chances with Tulip, something the vampire dismisses, only to be charmed by the complexity of the Archangel's relationship with his lover, a Demon, as they simultaneously dance, mate, kill one another, and revive: the couple being the parents of Genesis. On Tulip's and Jesus' return, the former agrees to go with Cassidy to find Jesse.
Posing as a duo of CIA agents known as "The Americans", Tulip and Cassidy arrive in Australia to look for Jesse, finding that he had been shot by Eugene before being taken by the Saint of Killers, who wants Jesse to hunt down and kill God with him. Tulip and Cassidy follow Jesse to the Outback, using clues left by God to follow him by plane to the Lost Apostle, where they snatch up from the ground. However, on their arrival, God has the Grail agents set off a nuclear bomb, knocking Jesse off the plane as Cassidy holds onto his arm; Jesse then uses "The Word" of Genesis to make Cassidy let him go. Mourning Jesse's death, Tulip and Cassidy return to Willamsburg, where they retrieve the real Humperdoo from Tulip's former associate Dany, hidden in a synagogue at Jesse's request. Planning to kill Humperdoo in order to take revenge on God, neither can bring themselves to do so, and they care for him over the following months. Over this time, Cassidy and Tulip become a couple again. Months later, God finally tells Herr Starr where Humperdoo is, and Grail agents snatch the Messiah from Tulip and Cassidy and return him to Masada. As Cassidy and Tulip proceed to the Middle East, back to the Masada, Jesse is resurrected by God, who bites out his eye before sending him back into the path of Tulip and Cassidy.
One hour before the Apocalypse is set to take place, Cassidy, Jesse, and Tulip sneak into Masada with the help of the Archangel and the Demon. As they try to locate the Messiah, they get separated. God tries to tempt both Cassidy and Tulip, ending with the vampire being dismembered and disemboweled, sorrowfully admitting to Tulip that he has agreed to serve God, and Tulip is left trapped in an office. Once Tulip is freed, a restored Cassidy attempts to prevent her from killing Humperdoo, but on realizing that he is unwilling to kill her to prevent this, he reluctantly kills Humperdoo himself, thus preventing Apocalypse. Two years later, Jesse and Tulip have a baby daughter when the Grail has finally located God at the Alamo, whom Jesse tricks into returning to Heaven so that the Saint of Killers can kill him while Cassidy has left them forever. Forty years later, Cassidy meets with Jesse's and Tulip's daughter Lucy (who looks identical to Tulip) at her parents' graves, who fondly reminisce about her parents' stories about Cassidy. After their talk, Lucy asks Cassidy whether she will see him again: looking up at the sky for a moment, he says "Jaysus, I hope so." before casually placing his umbrella aside on a grave and walking into the sunlight (hoping to reunite with his friends again in Heaven).
GraphicAudio's The Boys (2020)
In 2020, all 98 issues of The Boys comic book series and the epilogue series Dear Becky were adapted into seven full-cast audiobooks produced by GraphicAudio, beginning from May 2020, with all volumes numbering a combined 31 hours in length. In the second audiobook, Michael John Casey voices Proinsias Cassidy, adapting his epilogue cameo appearance from the G-Men arc "We Gotta Go Now".
Powers and abilities
Cassidy is a vampire with superhuman strength and speed that can easily rip regular humans apart, though he has no formal training, allowing Jesse to easily beat him without taking any injuries (except for a broken breastbone which occurred when Cassidy offered his hand in friendship and then sucker punched Jesse). Cassidy can survive any physical wound although he feels the full pain associated with the injury. He can heal superhumanly fast, and drinking blood allows him to accelerate the process. The only thing that can kill him is being directly in sunlight for a period of time, though he can stand indirect exposure with discomfort. Although Cassidy needs blood to sustain himself, he does not need human or even fresh blood, preferring instead the taste of beer or whiskey, leaving him lanky and thin. He generally drinks blood from live humans only if they threaten him. On being revived as a human, Cassidy becomes heavyset (with strong arms) over the years, growing his hair out into a ponytail, wearing a Father Ted t-shirt, and wielding a small axe to keep out rowdy Irish-Americans acting like "Stage Irishmen" on St. Patrick's Day.
In the third season of the 2016–2019 AMC television series adaptation, Cassidy learns from Eccarius that by drinking the blood of another vampire, he can additionally make use of the vampiric abilities of hypnosis, animal transformation, and flight.
Development
On March 24, 2015, Joe Gilgun was announced to have been cast as Proinsias Cassidy as one of the main characters in AMC's Preacher, with the first season serving as a loose prequel to the comic book storyline before serving as a direct adaptation of the Preacher comic book series from the second season onwards. Sam Catlin had found Gilgun, to which Evan Goldberg said, "The first audition Sam saw was Joe and he kept saying, 'You guys have got to see this guy. It's a weird tape that he filmed in his mother's basement", to which he added, "It was one of those weird things where we just didn't watch it for weeks. We met with 100 other people." However, after watching the audition tape, Rogen and Goldberg were impressed. Both men first met Gilgun during a Skype call with Rogen noting, "[...] it was like talking to Cassidy. He was the guy. There was no one who was even close to a second choice for that role. If we hadn't gotten him, I don't know what the f— we would've done."
Speaking of his portrayal of Cassidy, Gilgun remarked that "They let me by myself", while furthering that sentiment by stating, "They let me run riot and be a total a–hole and do my job [...] There's not the right words in the right order to describe it. 'Thanks' just feels a bit empty. And they pay me! They pay me to be a complete wanker every single day! And I’ve been doing that for years without making a f—ing penny." Speaking of the casting of Gilgun, Seth Rogen said: "It's one of those things that happens only a few times throughout your career, where you just go 'Oh, it's you. You're the character that is written on the page'... You could tell Joe's lived like 100 lifetimes, and he's probably done some shit you do not want to hear about, but at the same time, he's one of the most fun, loving people you'll ever be around. And it was exactly what the character needed to be." Gilgun was part of the main cast of all four seasons of Preacher, which premiered on 22 May 2016 and concluded on 29 September 2019. Additionally, Gilgun was also an executive producer of the show, producing half of its third season and all of its fourth.
Gilgun spoke with The Wall Street Journal in an interview about the filming of Cassidy's 30,000 feet plane-fall scene from above a small Texas town "It's his introduction, so it has to be big, it has to be fast, it has to be exciting." Gilgun spoke of preparation required to film scene, "I was so terrified [...] I knew the scene was coming up in the pilot, and that was my biggest scene of the whole stuff. As an actor, if you've got limited stuff, you can obsess over it." Gilgun went on to describe the process involved with a week's worth of rehearsal for that particular scene, "We learned the fight to a 'T,'" he said. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Rogen recalled the occasion to which he thought of the idea, during a "crazy fight scene", of Cassidy falling out of a plane "[...] But I thought we needed something to match the crazy, careless vibe of this character in the middle of it — so [Goldberg] and I said, we want to actually throw a guy out of the plane. Everyone thought we were joking [...]", clarifying that it was only after bringing up the matter, three days later, questioning how such a feat was going to be achieve that "[...] people realized that yes, we're dead fucking serious here", before describing his favorite scene in the show to be the one simply involving Jesse and Cassidy sitting in a jail cell and arguing over the nature of faith, along with the concepts good and evil, commenting, "One of my favorite things about the books were the bickering theological discussions the characters would have. We knew we could do the crazy stuff. But when I watched them film that scene, I thought, okay, this is special. This is how I felt when I first read the comics".
Merchandise
Following Preachers premiere, Funko unveiled a range of Pop! Television Vinyl figures based on the series, including Proinsias Cassidy, released on May 29, 2016. On June 14, 2016, Madmans Mike Allred created a retro-pop style custom Preacher comic cover as promotion for the AMC series, featuring the trio of Jesse, Cassidy and Tulip slyly celebrating having cut themselves free from the hands that have been pulling their strings, with covers by such artists as Preacher co-creator Steve Dillon and Preacher cover artist Glenn Fabry being available when singing up to the Preacher Insiders Club. On June 17, 2016, Monster Swamp artist Dustin Nguyen created a custom Preacher comic cover featuring Cassidy after having recently fed.
Reception
Joe Gilgun's depiction of Proinsias Cassidy in the AMC television adaptation has been positively received, and his interpersonal relationships with Eccarius (played by Adam Croasdell), Jesse Custer (played by Dominic Cooper) and Tulip O'Hare (played by Ruth Negga), and bisexuality have been lauded.
The characterisation of Cassidy in Garth Ennis' Preacher comic book series has been complimented, analyzed as a stereotypical depiction of a European in fiction, while the character's characterisation in Ennis' The Boys comic book series and relationship/sponsorship with Billy Butcher has been praised.
References
Preacher (comics)
The Boys characters
Characters created by Garth Ennis
Comics characters introduced in 1995
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
DC Comics characters with superhuman senses
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics fantasy characters
DC Comics male supervillains
DC Comics television characters
DC Comics vampires
Dynamite Entertainment characters
Vertigo Comics characters
WildStorm characters
British comics characters
Fictional bisexual men
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities
Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder
Fictional characters with X-ray vision
Fictional drug addicts
Fictional hypnotists and indoctrinators
Fictional immigrants to the United States
Fictional Irish people
Fictional LGBT characters in television
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional murderers
Fictional murderers of children
Fictional people with acquired American citizenship
Fictional tobacco addicts
Fictional torturers and interrogators
Fictional war veterans
Male characters in television
Television characters introduced in 2016 |
4526315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Nigeria | LGBT rights in Nigeria | Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Nigeria face severe challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. LGBT rights are generally infringed upon; homosexuality is illegal in Nigeria and punishable by up to 14 years of prison in the conventional court system. There is no legal protection for LGBT rights in Nigeria—a largely conservative country of more than 225 million people, split between a mainly Muslim north and a largely Christian south. Very few LGBT persons are open about their sexual orientation, as violence against them is frequent. Many LGBTQ Nigerians are fleeing to countries with progressive law to seek protection.
Same sex sexual relationships are illegal in Nigeria. The maximum punishment in the 12 northern states that have adopted Shari'a law is death by stoning. That law applies to all Muslims and to those who have voluntarily consented to application of the Shari'a courts. In southern Nigeria and under the secular criminal laws of northern Nigeria, the maximum punishment for same-sex sexual activity is 14 years' imprisonment. The Same-Sex Marriage Prohibition Act criminalises all forms of same-sex unions and same-sex marriage throughout the country.
According to the 2007 Pew Global Attitudes Project, 97% of Nigerian residents believe that homosexuality is a way of life that society should not accept, which was the second-highest rate of non-acceptance in the 45 countries surveyed. In 2015, a survey by an organisation founded by a Nigerian homosexual activist based in London claimed this percentage decreased to 94%. In this survey by Bisi Alimi, as of the same period the percentage of Nigerians who agree LGBT persons should receive education, healthcare, and housing is 30%. The level of disapproval declined slightly to 91% in another Pew Research Center poll in 2019.
Legality of same-sex sexual activity
Federal Republic of Nigeria
Criminal law
Federal Criminal Code in all southern states
Sex acts between men are illegal under the Criminal Code that applies to southern Nigeria and carry a maximum penalty of 14 years' imprisonment. Sex acts between women are not mentioned specifically in the code, although it is arguable that the gender-neutral term "person" in Section 214 of the code includes women. Chapter 21 of that code provides in pertinent part as follows:
Section 214.
Any person who –
(a) has carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature; or (c) permits a male person to have carnal knowledge of him or her against the order of nature; is guilty of a felony, and is liable to imprisonment for fourteen years.
Section 215.
Any person who attempts to commit any of the offences defined in the last preceding section is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for seven years. The offender cannot be arrested without a warrant.
Section 217.
Any male person who, whether in public or private, commits any act of gross indecency with another male person, or procures another male person to commit any act of gross indecency with him, or attempts to procure the commission of any such act by any male person with himself or with another male person, whether in public or private, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for three years. The offender cannot be arrested without a warrant.
Federal Penal Code in all northern states
Section 284 of the Penal Code (Northern States) Federal Provisions Act, which applies to all states in northern Nigeria, provides that:
Whoever has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to fourteen years and shall also be liable to fine.
Section 405 provides that a male person who dresses or is attired in the fashion of a woman in a public place or who practises sodomy as a means of livelihood or as a profession is a "vagabond". Under Section 407, the punishment is a maximum of one year's imprisonment or a fine, or both.
Section 405 also provides that an "incorrigible vagabond" is "any person who after being convicted as a vagabond commits any of the offences which will render him liable to be convicted as such again". The punishment under Section 408 is a maximum of two years' imprisonment or a fine, or both.
Shari'a law enacted by certain northern states
Twelve northern states have adopted some form of Shari'a into their criminal statutes: Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Niger, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zamfara. The Shari'a criminal laws apply to those who voluntarily consent to the jurisdiction of the Shari'a courts and to all Muslims.
Meaning of sodomy
In the states of Kaduna and Yobe, "sodomy" is committed by "[w]hoever has anal coitus with any man".
In the states of Kano and Katsina, "sodomy" is committed by "[w]hoever has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man or woman through her rectum".
In the states of Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Sokoto, and Zamfara, "sodomy" is committed by "[w]hoever has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man or woman".
Punishment for offence of sodomy
In the states of Gombe, Jigawa, Zamfara, and Kano, an unmarried person who commits the offence of sodomy shall be punished with "caning of one hundred lashes" and imprisonment for the length of one year. If married, the punishment for committing sodomy is execution by stoning (rajm). In Kano, death by stoning also applies if one has previously been married.
In the state of Bauchi, a person who commits the offence of sodomy shall be punished with stoning to death (rajm) or by any other means decided by the state.
In the states of Kaduna, Katsina, Kebbi, and Yobe, a person who commits the offence of sodomy shall be punished with stoning to death (rajm).
In the state of Sokoto, a person who commits the offence of sodomy shall be punished with stoning to death. If a minor commits the act on an adult, the minor faces correctional punishment and the adult faces punishment by way of ta'azir which may extend to 100 lashes. In Sokoto, ta'azir means a discretionary punishment for offence whose punishment is not specified.
Meaning of lesbianism
In the states of Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zamfara, lesbianism is committed by "[w]hoever, being a woman, engages another woman in carnal intercourse through her sexual organ or by means of stimulation or sexual excitement of one another." Bauchi, Jigawa, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe and Zamfara states include the following official explanation: "the offence is committed by the unnatural fusion of the female sexual organs and/or by the use of natural or artificial means to stimulate or attain sexual satisfaction or excitement."
Punishment for offence of lesbianism
In the states of Gombe, Jigawa, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, Zamfara, and Bauchi, a person who is found guilty of committing this offence will be subject to punishment by caning which could last up to fifty lashings. Additionally, any persons convicted of committing lesbianism face imprisonment lasting up to six months, except for in Bauchi, where imprisonment may last up to five years.
In the state of Kaduna, the punishment for committing the offence of lesbianism is ta'azir, which means "any punishment not provided for by way of hadd or qisas". "Hadd" means "punishment that is fixed by Islamic law". "Qisas" includes "punishments inflicted upon offenders by way of retaliation for causing death/injuries to a person".
In the states of Kano and Katsina, the punishment for committing the offence of lesbianism is stoning to death.
Meaning of gross indecency
In the state of Kaduna, a person commits an act of gross indecency if they expose themselves naked in public or perform other related acts of similar nature that are capable of corrupting public morals.
In the states of Kano and Katsina, the definition of gross indecency is the same as the state of Kaduna, however, the law includes kissing in public.
In the state of Gombe, a person commits an act of gross indecency by committing "any sexual offence against the normal or usual standards of behaviour".
The states of Bauchi, Jigawa, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zamfara do not define gross indecency. Their laws instead say: "Whoever commits an act of gross indecency upon the person of another without his consent or by the use of force or threat compels a person to join with him in the commission of such act shall be punished".
Punishment for offence of gross indecency
A person who commits the offence of gross indecency "shall be punished with caning which may extend to forty lashes and may be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year and may also be liable to fine". In the state of Bauchi, imprisonment may last for a term of up to seven years.
In the state of Kaduna, the punishment for committing the offence of gross indecency is ta'azir, which means "any punishment not provided for by way of hadd or qisas". "Hadd" means "punishment that is fixed by Islamic law". "Qisas" includes "punishments inflicted upon offenders by way of retaliation for causing death/injuries to a person".
In the state of Sokoto, a person who commits the offence of gross indecency "shall be punished with caning which may extend to forty lashes or may be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year, or both, and may also be liable to fine".
Meanings of vagabond and incorrigible vagabond
In the states of Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zamfara, a male is deemed a vagabond should they dress in the fashion of a woman in a public place or who practices sodomy as a means of work or profession.
In the states of Kano and Katsina, they describe a female as a vagabond as a female who wears male clothes or is attired like a man in a public place.
In the states of Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zamfara, an "incorrigible vagabond" is any person who behaves as a vagabond again after already being convicted as one.
Punishment for being a vagabond or incorrigible vagabond
In the states of Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zamfara, a person convicted as being a vagabond faces imprisonment lasting up to one year and caning extending up to thirty lashes. In the state of Kano, imprisonment may not exceed eight months and caning may extend to thirty-five lashes.
In the state of Kaduna, the punishment for being convicted as a vagabond or as an incorrigible vagabond is ta'azir, which means "any punishment not provided for by way of hadd or qisas". "Hadd" means "punishment that is fixed by Islamic law". "Qisas" includes "punishments inflicted upon offenders by way of retaliation for causing death/injuries to a person".
In the states of Gombe, Jigawa, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zamfara, a person convicted as being an incorrigible vagabond faces imprisonment lasting up to two years and caning extending up to fifty lashes. In the state of Bauchi, caning may not exceed forty lashes, and in the state of Kano, imprisonment may not exceed one year.
Secular criminal law enacted by certain northern states
Same-sex sexual activities
In the state of Bormo, a person who "engages in ... lesbianism, homosexual act ... in the State commits an offence". A person who "engages in sexual intercourse with another person of the same gender shall upon conviction be punished with death".
Males imitating the behavioural attitudes of women
In the state of Kano, a person who "being a male gender who acts, behaves or dresses in a manner which imitate the behavioural attitude of women shall be guilty of an offence and upon conviction, be sentenced to 1 year imprisonment or a fine of N10,000 or both".
Recognition of same-sex relationships
On 18 January 2007, the cabinet of Nigeria approved the Same Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Act 2006 and sent it to the National Assembly for urgent action. The bill, however, did not pass.
On 29 November 2011, the Senate of Nigeria passed the "Same Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Bill, 2011". The bill was passed on 30 May 2013 by the House of Representatives of Nigeria. If signed into law by President Goodluck Jonathan, the bill would:
make a marriage contract or civil union entered into between persons of the same sex "invalid and illegal and ... not recognized as entitled to the benefits of a valid marriage"
make void and unenforceable in Nigeria a marriage contract or civil union entered into between persons of the same sex by virtue of a certificate issued by a foreign country
prohibit the solemnization of any marriage or civil union entered into between persons of the same sex "in any place of worship either Church or Mosque or any other place or whatsoever called in Nigeria"
prohibit the registration of "gay clubs, societies and organisations, their sustenance, processions and meetings"
prohibit the "public show of same sex amorous relationship directly or indirectly"
make a person who enters into a same sex marriage contract or civil union liable for 14 years' imprisonment
make a person who "registers, operates or participates in gay clubs, societies and organisation, or directly or indirectly make public show of same sex amorous relationship in Nigeria" liable for 10 years' imprisonment
make a person or group of persons that "witness, abet and aids the solemnization of a same sex marriage or civil union, or supports the registration, operation and sustenance of gay clubs, societies, organisations, processions or meetings in Nigeria" liable for 10 years' imprisonment
define "civil union" for purposes of this law to mean "any arrangement between persons of the same sex to live together as sex partners, and ... include such descriptions as adult independent relationships, caring partnerships, civil partnerships, civil solidarity pacts, domestic partnerships, reciprocal beneficiary relationships, registered partnerships, significant relationships, stable unions, etc."
On 7 January 2014, the president of Nigeria, Goodluck Jonathan, signed into law the Same-Sex Marriage Prohibition Act, which parliament passed in May 2013. The law follows a similar one passed in Uganda in December 2013, which imposes life imprisonment for some types of homosexual acts.
Anti-discrimination protections
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria does not specifically protect LGBT rights, but it does contain various provisions guaranteeing all citizens equal rights (Section 17(2)(a)) as well as other rights, including adequate medical and health care (Section 17(3)(d)) and equal opportunity in the workplace (Section 17(3)(a)).
There is no enacted legislation protecting against discrimination or harassment based on sexual orientation or gender identity. None of the political parties in Nigeria has formally endorsed LGBT rights. Two of the most successful political parties in the National Assembly, the People's Democratic Party and the All Nigeria Peoples Party, are overtly hostile to LGBT rights. Smaller, more liberal political parties have also spoken against LGBT rights.
Living conditions
Nigeria is considered a conservative country. There is demonstrated public hostility towards same-sex relationships. In addition to legal punishment, openly homosexual citizens are subject to public aggression and violence. Estimates of the homosexual population in the country have ranged from fifteen to twenty million. Studies have found that the majority of LGBT Nigerians identify as Christian in denominations such as Anglicanism.
Some organizations in Nigeria try to assist LGBT persons, such as the Metropolitan Community Churches. Affiliation with these groups may place individuals at risk of violence or abuse.
The U.S. Department of State's 2011 Human Rights Report found,
Because of widespread societal taboos against homosexuality, very few persons openly revealed their orientation. The [non-governmental organizations] ... Global Rights and The Independent Project provided lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) groups with legal advice and training in advocacy, media responsibility, and HIV/AIDS awareness.
Arrests
In August 2007, eighteen men were arrested by Bauchi state police and charged with sodomy for dressing as women, which is illegal under Shari’a penal code. These charges were later dropped to vagrancy, and the men were held in jail for several years waiting for trial — which eventually dissolved by the end of 2011.
On 12 September 2008, four newspapers published the names and addresses of twelve members of the House of rainbow Metropolitan Church, an LGBT-friendly church in Lagos. Some of these members were threatened, beaten and stoned by members of the public. Following these incidents the church cancelled conferences for concerns about the safety of attendees.
On 15 April 2017, authorities in the state of Kaduna arrested 53 men for allegedly conspiring to attend a same-sex wedding. The accused were charged with conspiracy, unlawful assembly, and belonging to an unlawful society.
Lagos State arrested 42 men for homosexuality in August 2017. In June 2018, the Nigerian police arrested more than 100 party-goers at a hotel in Asaba, Delta State, on charges that they were gays and lesbians. By July 2018, they were facing homosexuality-related charges in court.
In January 2019, Dolapo Badmos, the spokesperson for the Lagos State Police Command, warned homosexuals to flee the country or face prosecution. She stated in an Instagram post: Any persons that are homosexually orientated should leave Nigeria or risk facing prosecution. Dolapo Badmos continues to state that there are laws in Nigeria that forbid homosexual clubs, associations and organisations where anyone found to be associated with these could be penalised up to 15 years in jail.
In August 2023, police raided a gay wedding in Warri in Delta state and arrested dozens of people.
In October 2023, 76 people (59 men and 17 women) were arrested at a gay party in Gombe state in northern Nigeria where police said a gay wedding was to be held.
Ambassador to the UN
In 2006, Philip Alston, the UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, delivered an oral statement to the Human Rights Council. To this, Joseph Ayalogu, the Nigerian ambassador to the UN, countered that "homosexuality and lesbianism " are "serious offences and odious conduct", that capital punishment is "appropriate and just punishment," and that those who believe executions are "excessive" are "judgemental rather than objective".
Summary table
See also
Bobrisky, a prominent transgender woman in Nigeria
All the Colours of the World Are Between Black and White, Nigerian film (2023)
Human rights in Nigeria
LGBT rights in Africa
LGBT rights in Northern Nigeria
Recognition of same-sex unions in Nigeria
Capital punishment for homosexuality
Capital punishment in Nigeria
Notes
References
External links
Human Rights Watch report on the impact of the Same Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Act on LGBT Nigerians
UK government travel advice for Nigeria: Local laws and customs
Human rights in Nigeria
Law of Nigeria
Politics of Nigeria |
4527314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steeplechase%20%28horse%20racing%29 | Steeplechase (horse racing) | A steeplechase is a distance horse race in which competitors are required to jump diverse fence and ditch obstacles. Steeplechasing is primarily conducted in Ireland (where it originated), the United Kingdom, Canada, United States, Australia, and France. The name is derived from early races in which orientation of the course was by reference to a church steeple, jumping fences and ditches and generally traversing the many intervening obstacles in the countryside.
Modern usage of the term "steeplechase" differs between countries. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, it refers only to races run over large, fixed obstacles, in contrast to "hurdle" races where the obstacles are much smaller. The collective term "jump racing" or "National Hunt racing" is used when referring to steeplechases and hurdle races collectively (although, properly speaking, National Hunt racing also includes some flat races). Elsewhere in the world, "steeplechase" is used to refer to any race that involves jumping obstacles.
The most famous steeplechase in the world is the Grand National run annually at Aintree Racecourse, in Liverpool, since its inception in 1836 (the official race was held three years later), which in 2014 offered a prize fund of £1 million.
History
The steeplechase originated in Ireland in the 18th century as an analogue to cross-country thoroughbred horse races which went from church steeple to church steeple, hence "steeplechase". The first steeplechase is said to have been the result of a wager in 1752 between Cornelius O'Callaghan and Edmund Blake, racing four miles (6.4 km) cross-country from St John's Church in Buttevant to St Mary's Church (Church of Ireland) in Doneraile, in Cork, Ireland. An account of the race was believed to have been in the library of the O'Briens of Dromoland Castle. Most of the earlier steeplechases were contested cross-country rather than on a track, and resembled English cross country as it exists today. The first recorded steeplechase over a prepared track with fences was run at Bedford in 1810, although a race had been run at Newmarket in 1794 over a mile (1600 m) with five-foot (1.5 m) bars every quarter mile (400 m). and the first recorded steeplechase of any kind in England took place in Leicestershire in 1792, when three horses raced the eight miles from Barkby Holt to Billesdon Coplow and back.
The first recorded hurdle race took place at Durdham Down near Bristol in 1821. There were 5 hurdles on the mile long course, and the race was run in three heats.
The first recognised English National Steeplechase took place on Monday 8 March 1830. The race, organised by Thomas Coleman of St Albans, was run from Bury Orchard, Harlington in Bedfordshire to the Obelisk in Wrest Park, Bedfordshire. The winner was Captain Macdowall on "The Wonder", owned by Lord Ranelagh, who won in a time of 16 minutes 25 seconds. Report of the event appeared in the May and July editions of Sporting Magazine in 1830.
Steeplechasing by country
Great Britain and Ireland
In Great Britain and Ireland, "steeplechase" only refers to one branch of jump racing.
Collectively, Great Britain and Ireland account for over 50% of all jump races worldwide, carding 4,800 races over fences in 2008. Jump racing in Great Britain and Ireland is officially known as National Hunt racing.
France
French jump racing is similar to British and Irish National Hunt races, with a few notable differences. Hurdles are not collapsible, being more akin to small brush fences. Chases often have large fences called bullfinches, a large hedge up to tall that horses have to jump through rather than over. There are also a larger number of cross-country chases where horses have to jump up and down banks, gallop through water, jump over stone walls as well as jump normal chasing fences.
Unlike in most countries where nearly all of the horses used for jump racing are thoroughbreds, many of the horses in French jump racing are AQPS (Autre Que Pur Sang), a breed of horse now known as "French Chasers" developed in France crossing thoroughbreds with saddle horses and other local breeds. These horses have competed and won the Grand National, the Cheltenham Gold Cup and the Pardubice.
Auteuil in Paris is the best known racecourse in France for French jump racing, with the biggest jumps, along with Pau. The Grand Steeple Grade I race is held at Auteuil in June.
Czech Republic
The Velká pardubická Steeplechase in Pardubice in the Czech Republic is the location of one of the longest steeplechase races in Europe. The first Velka Pardubice Steeplechase was held on 5 November 1874 and it has been hosted annually since.
United States
In the United States, there are two forms of steeplechasing (or jumps racing): hurdle and timber.
Hurdle races occur almost always over the National fences, standardized plastic and steel fences that are 52 inches tall, with traditional natural fences of packed pine (Springdale Race Course in Camden, South Carolina) and live hedges (Montpelier, Virginia) in use on a few courses. National fences stand 52 inches tall at the highest point, but are mostly made of synthetic "brush" that can be brushed through (much like the synthetic fences now used in other countries). The hurdle horse is trained to jump in as much of a regular stride as possible. This allows the horse to maintain its speed upon landing. Since it is not always possible to meet a fence in stride, the horses are also schooled in how to jump out of stride. An out-of-stride jump can decrease a horse's speed drastically. Hurdle races are commonly run at distances of 2–3 miles (3–5 km). Hurdle races occur at steeplechase meets mainly in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast and on the turf courses of several racetracks – Saratoga, Colonial Downs, Penn National, Monmouth Park and others.
Timber racing is conducted over solid and immovable wooden rail fences that, in the most extreme case, may reach five feet (1.5 m) high. The distances are longer, ranging from three to four miles (6 km), and the jumping effort required of the horse is much different. Because of the size of the fences and their solid and unyielding construction, a timber horse is trained to jump with an arc, unlike a hurdle racer. An important factor in success at timber racing is for the horse to land in stride, so that it can carry its speed forward on the flat part of the race course. This is harder than in hurdle races because the nature of the obstacle being jumped. If a horse hits a timber fence hard enough, it can bring it almost to a complete stop. Most notable US timber races include the Maryland Hunt Cup in Glyndon, Middleburg Spring Races in Middleburg and the Virginia Gold Cup in The Plains. Timber races currently are not held at any major US tracks (since the fences are not portable) but can be found at almost all steeplechase meets.
American jump racing happens in 11 states: Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey and New York. The National Steeplechase Association is the official sanctioning body of American jump racing. Steeplechase Times newspaper covers the sport.
Thomas Hitchcock (1860–1941) is known as the father of American steeplechasing. In the late 1800s, he built a steeplechase training center on his property in Aiken, South Carolina and trained horses imported from England. No less important are the contributions by fellow Aiken seasonal resident F. Ambrose Clark. Clark held many important chases on his Brookville (Long Island) estate, Broad Hollow, in the 1920s and 1930s. Ford Conger Field was built by F. Ambrose Clark and is the site of the annual Aiken Steeplechase, a part of the Triple Crown in March. The first Steeplechase Meet in Aiken was held March 14, 1930 in Hitchcock Woods. In addition to the Aiken Steeplechase, South Carolina is also home to the Colonial Cup and the Carolina Cup, which is the largest event on the circuit. Both of these races are held in Camden, South Carolina.
The Virginia Gold Cup is also among the oldest steeplechase races in the United States, with its first running in 1922. Up until recently, the Gold Cup was a four-mile (6 km) long hurdle race. The length of this race prompted many jokes - such as the jockeys putting marbles in their mouth and spitting one out each lap to keep track of what lap they had completed. Since the Gold Cup moved to the present course, it has been changed into a timber race with a very large purse. Every first Saturday in May, more than 50,000 spectators gather at Great Meadow near The Plains, Virginia (45 miles (72 km) west of Washington, DC). The grass course with high timber fences is often referred to as the "crown jewel of steeplechasing."
Tennessee State Historian Walter T. Durham's book Grasslands relates the history of the Southern Grasslands Hunt and Racing Foundation, a group that organized the first international steeplechase held on U.S. soil 80 years ago at Grassland Downs, a course located in Gallatin, TN between 1929 and 1932.
In addition to holding an inaugural race in 1930, two international steeplechases were held at Grasslands in 1930 and 1931. The winners were awarded a gold trophy designed by King Alfonso XIII of Spain.
The Iroquois Steeplechase event is held in Nashville, Tennessee. Beginning in 1941, with one year off during World War II, the race has been run continuously at Percy Warner Park on a course inspired by Marcellus Frost and designed by William duPont.
The Queens Cup Steeplechase is held annually on the last Saturday of April at Brooklandwood, a farm and estate in Mineral Springs, North Carolina, about from Charlotte.
The Breeders' Cup Grand National Steeplechase (formerly known as the American Grand National) is held each October at the Far Hills Races in Far Hills, New Jersey and draws about 50,000 spectators for a single day race-meet. It is the richest event in American steeplechasing with a purse of $500,000.
During the 1940s and 50s, the Broad Hollow Steeplechase Handicap, the Brook National Steeplechase Handicap and the American Grand National were regarded as American steeplechasing's Triple Crown.
Kentucky Downs near Franklin, Kentucky (originally Dueling Grounds Race Course) was built in 1990 as a steeplechase track, with a kidney-shaped turf circuit. At its inception, the track offered some of the richest purses in the history of American steeplechase including a $750,000 race. The track has undergone numerous ownership changes, with steeplechase races playing an on-and-off role (mainly off) in the track's limited live race meets.
The Stoneybrook Steeplechase was initiated in Southern Pines, North Carolina on a private farm owned by Michael G. Walsh in 1949 and was held annually in the spring until 1996, with attendance near 20,000. It resumed as an annual spring event at the new Carolina Horse Park in 2001, but was discontinued after 2016.
The New York Turf Writers Cup is held each year at Saratoga Race Course, attracting the best steeplechasing horses in the U.S.
Australia
Australia has a long history of jumps racing which was introduced by British settlers. In the late 20th century, the eastern states of Queensland and New South Wales shut down jumps racing, while Tasmania ceased jumps racing in April 2007 due to economic unfeasibility and a lack of entries.
The jumping season in Australia normally takes place from March until September. (some minor races are held either side of these months). Horses used for steeplechasing are primarily former flat racing horses, rather than horses specifically bred for jumping.
There is an emphasis on safety in Australia which has led to a reduction in the size of obstacles. As jumps races take place at flat racing meetings there is also a need for portable jumps. Most chasing occurs on steeple lanes but also includes parts of the main flat racing track. From Easter to May the major distance races occur: The Great Eastern Steeplechase is held on Easter Monday at Oakbank, South Australia drawing crowds of over 100,000, and the Grand Annual, which has the most fences of any steeplechase in the world, is held in May at Warrnambool, Victoria
From the late 1800s to the 1930s the McGowan Family of Brooklyn Park South Australia, were leaders in steeplechase and hurdle racing events. Jack McGowan winning the ARC Grand National, the Oakbank Hurdle, the VRC Cup Hurdle and the Harry D Young Hurdle while his son John McGowan won a record 22 hurdle / steeplechase events in one season.
Each state holds its own Grand National race: the most prestigious is the VRC Grand National at Flemington run in the winter. The jumping season culminates with the set-weights-and-penalties Hiskens Steeple run at Moonee Valley. The Hiskens is regarded as the Cox Plate of jumps racing.
The most famous Australian horse in the field was Crisp, who was narrowly beaten by the champion Red Rum in the 1973 English Grand National. Crisp subsequently beat Red Rum at set weights. Oju Chosan has won Japan's Nakayama Grand Jump five consecutive times.
Jumps racing was set to end in Victoria after the 2010 season. In September 2010, having satisfied a limit on the maximum number of deaths among starting horses, hurdle racing was granted a 3-year extension by Racing Victoria. A decision regarding steeplechase was postponed until October 2010 when a program for the 2011 season only was granted. Since 2012, both hurdle races and steeplechases have been approved by Racing Victoria.
Japan
The Nakayama Racecourse is Japan's premier steeplechase racetrack. The two most prestigious races are the Nakayama Daishogai (first held in 1934) and the Nakayama Grand Jump (held since 1999). Both races have prize money of about 140 million yen, similar to Aintree's Grand National.
The Hanshin Racecourse and the Kokura Racecourse also host graded steeplechase races.
Statistics
Number of jumping races by country in 2008.
Great Britain : 3,366
France : 2,194
Ireland : 1,434
United States of America : 200
Australia : 146
Japan : 132
New Zealand : 129
Germany : 58
Opposition to jumps racing
Australia
In 2021, jumps racing in Australia was only run in Victoria and South Australia, though, contrary to common belief, only New South Wales had banned it. All six states and Australian Capital Territory have some history of jumps racing and the states that stopped conducting jumps racings were based on economic decisions. The NSW government officially shut down jumps racing in 1997 after a bill was put through linked with bird tethering, but by that stage there had not been regular jumps race meetings in NSW since World War II, when it was ceased due to the war efforts, except for a handful of exhibition events on an annual basis in the 1980s.
On October 1, 2021 it was announced that jumps racing will no longer be conducted in South Australia mainly due to the small number of South Australian jumps horses. There were plans to run the Great Eastern and Von Doussa Steeplechase as a flat race. However on 3rd March 2022 it was announced that would not happen. However, many jumps racing supporters attempted to keep jumps racing at Oakbank and that fight went into the South Australian court system. That resulted in an election in which the anti-jumps faction won, but debate surrounding that vote spilled into more legal action. Soon after, the South Australian government outlawed jumps racing in the state.
Jumps racing is opposed in Australia by groups including the animal rights organisations the RSPCA Australia,
Animals Australia,
and Animal Liberation (South Australia),
and by political parties such as The Greens.
Eventing
The equestrian sport of eventing had a steeplechase phase, which was held in its CCI 3 Day event format. This phase is called cross country phase B when in the context of eventing. There was a roads and tracks phase, a steeplechase phase, a second, faster roads and track phase and finally the cross country jumps course. Now only the cross country jumps course remains (changes were due to space required for the additional courses and logistics). Unlike the racing form, which is far closer to the sport of hunting, the horses do not race each other over the course, but rather are required to come within a pre-set "optimum time period." Penalty points are added to the competitor's score if they exceed or come in well under the optimum time. While phase B obstacles are similar to those found on actual steeplechase courses, the cross country obstacles for phase D are usually extremely varied, some being topped with brush as in steeplechasing, others being solid, others are into and out of water and others are over ditches. There are often combinations of several fences to test the horse's agility. The variety in obstacles is used to make the horse demonstrate agility, power, intelligence, and bravery. The long format was phased out at the FEI level between 2003 and 2008, but several countries continue to run long format events at the national level, including the US, Great Britain, and Canada.
See also
American Grand National
Bayadère (French trotting race mare)
Breeders' Cup Grand National Steeplechase
Cheltenham Festival
Cheltenham Gold Cup
Grand National
Grand Pardubice Steeplechase (Velká pardubická)
Henry Alken, well-known painter of steeplechases
List of horse races
National Hunt Chase Challenge Cup
National Hunt racing
Point-to-point (steeplechase)
Thoroughbred racing in New Zealand
References
Bibliography
External links
Hunting, steeple-chasing and racing scenes; illustrated by Ben. Herring; edited by J. Nevill Fitt; London :J. Peddie (1869)
Brief History of Jumps racing in Australia
Jumping sports
Hunt racing
Sports originating in Ireland |
4527788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hare%20%28actor%29 | John Hare (actor) | Sir John Hare (16 May 1844 – 28 December 1921), born John Joseph Fairs, was an English actor and theatre manager of the later 19th– and early 20th centuries.
Born and brought up in London, with frequent visits to the West End, Hare had a passion for the theatre from his childhood. After acting as an amateur as a young man he joined a professional company in Liverpool, before making his London debut in 1865 at the age of 21 with Marie Wilton's company. Wilton was a pioneer of naturalistic theatre, with which Hare was greatly in sympathy, and he quickly gained a reputation in character roles, particularly in comedies.
Within a decade Hare was well enough established to go into management. He was in partnership with the actor W. H. Kendal at the Court Theatre from 1875 to 1879, and from 1879 to 1888 at the St James's Theatre with Kendal and the latter's wife, Madge. They presented, mostly successfully, a succession of new British plays, adaptations of French works, and revivals. At the Garrick Theatre from 1888 to 1895 Hare had a solo managerial career, after which he concentrated on acting – in the US, on tour in the British provinces, and in the West End. Among the playwrights with whom Hare was closely associated were T. W. Robertson, W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Wing Pinero.
Hare was admired for his carefully observed characterisations, his comedic flair and his handsomely-mounted productions. He was knighted in 1907, and died in London in 1921 at the age of 77, four years after his last stage appearance.
Life and career
Early years: 1844–1865
Hare was born and raised in London, the son of Jane Postumous née Armstrong (1801–1858) and Thomas Fairs (1796–1848), a London architect. As a teenager he used to play truant to go to West End theatres to see the stars of the day, such as Charles Kean, Frederick Robson, Charles Mathews and J. B. Buckstone. After his parents died Hare was sent by his uncle, his legal guardian, to Giggleswick School, and he was studying for the civil service examination when he was invited to take part in some amateur theatricals. Propelled at the last minute from a small role to the leading part he found his passion for the theatre rekindled. After playing in two further amateur productions – as Beauseant in a burlesque on The Lady of Lyons, and Box in Box and Cox – he determined to go on the stage. His tutor at Giggleswick recognised that Hare was not cut out for the civil service, and at his urging Hare's uncle agreed to let the young man pursue a stage career.
Returning to London, Hare studied under the prominent actor Leigh Murray. In September 1864 Murray arranged for Hare to join the company at the Prince of Wales Theatre, Liverpool. Hare's first professional appearance was as Smallpiece in John Oxenford's play, A Woman of Business. Among the company were J. L. Toole (a guest star), Squire Bancroft, Lionel Brough and William Blakeley, with all of whom Hare was quickly on friendly terms. After Toole the company had another visiting star, E. A. Sothern, who encouraged the young actor and insisted that he should be cast in a leading comic role in Watts Phillips's new comedy The Woman in Mauve, which Sothern premiered at the theatre in December 1864.
On 12 August 1865 Hare (still known by his original surname, Fairs) married his childhood sweetheart, Mary Adela Elizabeth Holmes (1845–1931), daughter of John Hare Holmes, whose middle name Hare borrowed for his stage name. The marriage lasted more than fifty years; the couple had one son, Gilbert, who became a successful actor and manager, and two daughters, one of whom, Effie, married Bancroft's son George. As a newly married man Hare seriously considered leaving the stage in favour of more secure employment in the civil service; nevertheless he wrote to the actress and manager Marie Wilton, seeking to join a new company that she was setting up at the old Prince of Wales's Theatre in London. He was accepted, and his theatrical career in the West End began.
The Prince of Wales's and The Court: 1865–1879
Hare made his London debut in September 1865, playing Short, the landlord, in Naval Engagements, an old comedy by Charles Dance, given as a curtain raiser to H. J. Byron's extravaganza Lucia di Lammermoor. Two months later Hare came to wide public and critical attention for his performance in T. W. Robertson's comedy Society. The Times later commented:
[Hare] bounded into fame more quickly, perhaps, than any actor of our time. On the eventful evening of November 1, 1865 – momentous to the English stage no less than to Hare – Tom Robertson's Society was produced, with Hare cast for the small part of Lord Ptarmigant. All the reforms in English acting which the Prince of Wales's Theatre was to achieve could be seen in little in Hare's Lord Ptarmigant: the close attention to detail, the propriety and verisimilitude, the minute finish which the small size of the theatre and stage permitted and which brought the best of English acting for a time on to the same level as the French – Lord Ptarmigant had little to do but to go to sleep, but he did it so well that the small part was one of the hits of the production. The theatre writer J. P. Wearing comments, "Even though Ptarmigant was a small role, Hare's thorough attention to detail reformed the way in which old male characters were recreated on stage".
For the next nine years Hare remained a member of the Prince of Wales's company, appearing in a succession of Robertson's comedies and in other plays produced at the theatre. Among his parts were Prince Perovsky (Ours, Robertson, 1866), Sam Gerridge (Caste, Robertson, 1867), Bruce Fanquehere (Play, Robertson, 1868), Beau Farintosh (School, Robertson, 1869), Dunscombe Dunscombe (M. P., Robertson, 1870), Sir John Vesey (Money, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1872), and Sir Patrick Lundie (adaptation of Man and Wife, Wilkie Collins, 1873). He also appeared in curtain raisers such as Box and Cox, in which, having played Box in his amateur days, he now played Cox. His last part at the Prince of Wales's was in 1874: Sir Peter Teazle in The School for Scandal to the Lady Teazle of Mrs Bancroft, with Bancroft and Charles Coghlan as the Surface brothers. He was praised for rescuing his role from the low comedy treatment it had long suffered, but some thought his portrayal erred in the opposite direction and was too serious.
During this time, in 1869, Hare founded The Lambs of London as a social club for actors; he was voted its first Shepherd (in London) and, "with much truth and humour, was labelled 'The Despot. He left the Prince of Wales's company in October 1874, when he was unable to master a leading role written for him in Sweethearts by W. S. Gilbert. The author was a close friend and wished to make use both of Hare's naturally boyish appearance and of his talent for impersonating elderly men, contrasting the character in youth in the first act and old age in the second. In rehearsal, Hare struggled with playing the young romantic lead, and eventually, despite Gilbert's advice, he negotiated terms for leaving the company, and Coghlan took over his role.
For some time Hare had planned to go into theatre management, and he secured the Court Theatre with W. H. Kendal as his silent partner. Kendal's wife, Madge, played the title role in Hare's first production, Coghlan's Lady Flora, on 18 March 1875, with her husband and Hare in the other leading roles. The production and acting were well received, but though the play was praised by The Era, other papers thought little of it. Hare hoped to continue the tradition of Robertson by fostering new English comedies, but he found that original works by Coghlan and Gilbert were less successful than Coghlan's English version of a French play, A Quiet Rubber, which opened on 8 January 1876, giving Hare one of his greatest successes. In the same year he also did good business with A Scrap of Paper, Palgrave Simpson's adaptation of a French comedy, and a revival of an older English comedy, New Men and Old Acres.
As a manager Hare was known for his insistence on having plays attractively staged, well cast and performed exactly as he wanted. Occasionally he could be, in Wearing's phrase, "strict and peppery, and even sarcastic" at rehearsals, and Madge Kendal recounted a comically ferocious battle of wills between Hare and the equally intransigent Gilbert at a rehearsal of the latter's Broken Hearts in 1875. Hare did not appear in all his own productions; he was not in the cast of Broken Hearts, although one part was evidently written with him in mind; in one of the greatest successes of his management, Olivia (1878), W. G. Wills's adaptation of The Vicar of Wakefield, he chose not to play the vicar but cast William Terris to co-star with Ellen Terry. His management of the Court ended when his lease expired in 1879. His last presentation there was on 19 July of that year with Robertson's The Ladies' Battle, an adaptation of a French play.
St James's Theatre: 1879–1888
Since its inception in 1835 the St James's, in an unfashionable part of the West End, had acquired a reputation as an unlucky theatre, and more money had been lost than made by successive managements. At the invitation of Lord Newry, the owner of the freehold of the theatre, Hare and the Kendals jointly took over the management of the house in 1879. For the first time, the theatre's reputation was steadily defied. The new lessees aimed both to amuse and to improve public taste, and in Wearing's view they achieved their aim. Under their management the St James's staged twenty-one plays: seven were new British pieces, eight adaptations of French plays, and the rest were revivals.
Their first production, on 4 October 1879, was a revival of The Queen's Shilling, one of their Court successes, an adaptation of an old French comedy by Jean-François Bayard. Madge Kendal had the star part, but her husband's dashing army officer was also well liked, and The Morning Post praised Hare's "masterly" performance as the old colonel, giving "extraordinary zest and brilliancy" and "bring[ing] down the house in shouts of laughter and applause". The partnership had another early success at the beginning of 1880 with a revival of Tom Taylor's popular play, Still Waters Run Deep. The Kendals took the main roles but the laurels went to Hare in the comparatively small part of Potter, a performance described by the writer T. Edgar Pemberton as "a masterpiece of character-acting, faultless in get-up and, indeed, in all respects. … [A] keen instance of unexaggerated eccentricity".
Wearing regards The Money Spinner (1881) as of particular importance to this period of the theatre's history, being the first of several of A. W. Pinero's plays staged there by Hare and the Kendals. It was regarded as daringly unconventional and a risky venture, but it caught on with the public, partly for Hare's character, the "disreputable but delightful old reprobate and card-shark" Baron Croodle. Other plays by Pinero given by the Hare-Kendal management at the St James's were The Squire (1881), The Ironmaster (1884), Mayfair (1885) and The Hobby Horse (1886). B. C. Stephenson's comedy Impulse (1883) was a substantial success and was revived by public demand two months after the end of its first run. There was a mixed reception of a rare excursion into Shakespeare, As You Like It (1885): Madge Kendal's Rosalind was much liked, Kendal's Orlando had a lukewarm reception, and Hare's Touchstone was considered by some to be the worst ever seen. Among the company in these years the actresses included Fanny Brough, Helen Maud Holt and the young May Whitty; among their male colleagues were George Alexander, Allan Aynesworth, Albert Chevalier, Henry Kemble, William Terris, Brandon Thomas and Lewis Waller. Hare and the Kendals concluded their management partnership in 1888 with a farewell season of revivals of their greatest successes.
1889–1899
In 1889 Hare resumed a managerial career, taking charge of the new Garrick Theatre, built for and owned by W. S. Gilbert. The cost of building the theatre had been unexpectedly high, with the result that Hare had to pay a substantial annual rent of about £4,000 for his tenancy. He opened on 24 April 1889 with Pinero's The Profligate, in which he played the part of Lord Dangars. The play received mixed reviews but ran for seven months. Two other Pinero plays followed during Hare's tenure: Lady Bountiful (1891), and The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith (1895), with Mrs Patrick Campbell in the latter. Two other notable productions at the Garrick were Grundy's A Pair of Spectacles (1890), which became Hare's greatest popular success, and a revival of Diplomacy, with a cast that included the Bancrofts, Johnston Forbes-Robertson, Arthur Cecil and Hare's son Gilbert, as well as Hare himself. Less successful productions included an English version of Sardou's melodrama La Tosca (1889) and Grundy's comedy An Old Jew (1894), both of which were taken off after short runs. Hare concluded his career as a manager on 15 June 1895 with a double bill of A Pair of Spectacles''' and A Quiet Rubber.
Hare made his American debut in January 1896, appearing at Abbey's Theatre, New York, with a company including Julia Neilson, Charles Groves and Fred Terry, in The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith, A Pair of Spectacles, A Quiet Rubber, and Gilbert's Comedy and Tragedy."Good Plays, Well Acted", The New York Times, 7 January 1896, p. 4 The Times reported his American visit as "immensely successful ... contrary to some expectations, his very quiet, delicate art found many admirers". He returned to the US in 1897 and 1900–1901 and became almost as well known there as in Britain.
In the West End in 1899 Hare had one of his greatest box-office and critical successes in the title role of Pinero's The Gay Lord Quex. The play divided opinion among the reviewers, although more were in favour than not, but the notices for Hare were uniformly enthusiastic. The Pall Mall Gazette said: "Mr John Hare has done few things better: dignified, courteous, urbane, he suggests with infinite tact the presence of a jeunesse orageuse." The Morning Post commented that Hare had "added one more to a long series of triumphs". The Era called his Lord Quex "a masterpiece of comic acting" and said that no other actor in England could have played the part as he did.
20th century
Hare's last role in a new play was Lord Carlton in J. M. Barrie's Little Mary (1903). Reviewing the production in The Saturday Review, Max Beerbohm wrote of Hare's performance, "One watches him with the same pleasure one has in sipping a glass of very good dry sherry". Not for the first time, Hare received better notices than the play, but he thought well enough of it to take it on tour in 1904, with Hilda Trevelyan replacing Nina Boucicault in the title role.
For the rest of his career Hare revived old successes, touring in America and in the provinces, and appearing in various West End theatres for occasional short seasons. In 1907 he began what was billed as a farewell British tour; he also appeared in that year in royal command performances for Edward VII, in A Quiet Rubber at Sandringham and A Pair of Spectacles at Windsor Castle. At the Sandringham presentation he was knighted. In 1908 he gave what were billed as farewell performances of The Gay Lord Quex and A Pair of Spectacles at the Garrick. He said at the time that he would return only if someone were to offer him a new play so good as to be irresistible.
Hare appeared in three films: Caste (1915), The Vicar of Wakefield and A Pair of Spectacles (both 1916). His last appearances on stage were in July 1917, when he revived A Pair of Spectacles, making a large sum for wartime charities, and in September of that year when he appeared in the same play at Wyndham's Theatre. The Observer commented on the enjoyment given by "a still beautiful, amusing, touching performance; a performance which offers the not too common experience of an actor enjoying his part, playing it beautifully because he believes in it, and making us, too, believe in it and enjoy it".
In December 1921 Hare fell ill with influenza and then pneumonia. He died on 28 December 1921 at his home in Queen's Gate, London, aged 77. After a funeral service at St Margaret's, Westminster, he was buried in Hampstead Cemetery on 31 December.
Reputation
A few years after Hare's death, a biographer wrote that his art "was in the modern English tradition, which he helped to a considerable extent to mould and to develop". His naturalistic style avoided the formality of the older English stage and suggested character by "tricks of deportment and facial expression that complete or illuminate the phrases of the author". The same writer commented that behind Hare's art was "a personality of rare modesty and charm, that instinctively avoided exaggeration and had a genuine dislike of publicity". In The Times's view, Hare was greatly loved for his personal charm both onstage and off ("in spite of a somewhat peppery temper") and for his precise observation:
[He] was a master of the art of impersonation. His every movement and look was eloquent, and not Coquelin aîné himself could tell you more about a character from the way he stood or coughed or held his hands than could Hare. Such perfection of finish has not been equalled on the stage of our times.
Wearing writes, "The roles he tackled were memorable because of his mastery of impersonation, and he was particularly adept at expressing gentle emotions with perfect simplicity. He strived for natural deportment and facial expression, and never degenerated into caricature." Wearing adds that as a manager Hare encouraged English dramatists and actors "and generally improved the stage". The Daily Telegraph'' said:
It may be doubted if the stage of any period has been able to boast a comedian so delicate in touch, so admirably finished in detail, or so consummate in artistic appreciation as John Hare.
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Photo and profile of Hare at Cyranos
Photo and profile of Hare at CollectorsPost
Photo of Hare from 1911
New York Times Review of Hare from 1897
New York Times Review of Hare and Irene Vanbrugh from 1900
1844 births
1921 deaths
Actors awarded knighthoods
English male silent film actors
English male stage actors
Actor-managers
Knights Bachelor
People educated at Giggleswick School
Male actors from London
20th-century English male actors
Members of The Lambs Club
The Lambs presidents |
4528530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%2096 | New York State Route 96 | New York State Route 96 (NY 96) is a northwest–southeast state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States. The southern terminus of the route is at an interchange with NY 17 (Future I-86) in the Southern Tier village of Owego, Tioga County. Its northern terminus is at a junction with East Main Street in the city of Rochester, Monroe County. Between the two endpoints, NY 96 passes through the city of Ithaca and the villages of Waterloo, Victor, and Pittsford. NY 96 is signed north–south for its entire length, although most of the route in Ontario County travels in an east–west direction.
All of NY 96, except from Candor to Ithaca and from northwest of Victor to Pittsford, was originally designated as part of New York State Route 15 in 1924. NY 15 was originally routed on modern NY 96B between Candor and Ithaca, and modern NY 64 and NY 251 between Victor and Pittsford. It was realigned onto the modern alignment of NY 96 between Victor and Pittsford in 1930. NY 15 was renumbered to New York State Route 2 to eliminate duplication with U.S. Route 15 (US 15). NY 2 was subsequently redesignated as NY 96 in 1942 as the alignments of NY 2 and NY 96, a route in Rensselaer County, were swapped. NY 96 was realigned again in the early 1950s, this time between Candor and Ithaca, to serve the village of Spencer west of Candor. Near Rochester, NY 96 followed what is now Interstate 490 (I-490) for a short time during the 1950s and early 1960s. The 2017 route log erroneously shows that NY 96's northern terminus ends at Union Street.
Route description
Most of NY 96's are maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT); however, three sections of the route in Tompkins County and Monroe County are maintained by local highway departments. In the Tompkins County city of Ithaca, NY 96 is city-maintained from the southern city line to the start of the Fulton/Meadow Street one-way couplet, at which point maintenance of the highway reverts to NYSDOT. The route is also maintained by Ithaca from Park Road to the western city limits. The last locally owned section is in the Monroe County city of Rochester, where the entirety of NY 96 within the city is city-maintained.
Tioga County
NY 96 begins at the eastbound ramps for NY 17 at exit 64 on Southside Drive, across the Susquehanna River from the Tioga County village of Owego. The route follows Southside Drive until its intersection with Court Street, at the western terminus of NY 434. NY 434 continues east along Southside Drive, while NY 96 turns north onto Court Street and crosses the Susquehanna River. On the opposite side of the river, NY 96 intersects Front Street. The configuration of NY 96 between Front Street and East Main Street is unorthodox in that NY 96 splits at Front Street to follow a one-way couplet around the Tioga County Courthouse to Main Street, where both streets terminate. NY 96 turns onto Main Street for half a block to North Avenue, where it resumes its northward path. The route shares the parallel one-way streets with NY 17C, which enters Owego from the west via Main Street and leaves via Front Street to the east.
From NY 17 (Future I-86) to the split with NY 38 in Owego, NY 96 is signed with reference markers as NY 38, even though full signage for NY 96 appears just before the Court Street Bridge.
Now on North Avenue, NY 96 passes through the heart of Owego before leaving the village and following Owego Creek into a long stretch of rural country. Just over north of Owego village in the town of Owego, NY 96 meets the southern terminus of NY 38. At this point, NY 38 becomes the creekside highway while NY 96 passes over Owego Creek and follows Catatonk Creek northwest into the town of Candor. Once in Candor, the route and the creek turn northward toward the village of Candor, where NY 96 meets NY 96B, an alternate route of NY 96 between Candor and the city of Ithaca. Past NY 96B, NY 96 turns to the west and crosses over Catatonk Creek as it exits the village. West of Candor, NY 96 follows an east–west alignment through a creek valley to the village of Spencer, where the route converges with NY 34 and heads north into another valley leading to Tompkins County.
Tompkins County
The two routes remain concurrent as they snake to the northwest through Tompkins County. Southwest of the city of Ithaca in the town of Ithaca, NY 34 and NY 96 meet NY 13. The three routes continue northeast through the town, intersecting NY 327 and NY 13A before crossing over the inlet of Cayuga Lake and entering the city of Ithaca on Meadow Street. Here, NY 96B reconnects to its parent at the junction of Clinton and Meadow Streets. North of this point, Meadow Street splits into a one-way couplet, with Fulton Street carrying southbound traffic and Meadow Street handling northbound traffic. NY 79, also routed on a one-way couplet here, crosses NY 96 at Green and Seneca Streets, with NY 79 eastbound using one block of Fulton Street to travel from State Street to Green Street.
One block north of NY 79, NY 96 splits from NY 13 and NY 34 and heads to the west at Buffalo Street. NY 89 begins here, and NY 96 overlaps with NY 89 toward the West End of Ithaca. After crossing southbound NY 13 and NY 34, NY 89 and NY 96 run parallel to and a few feet to the north of NY 79. NY 89 turns north onto Taughannock Boulevard at the next intersection while NY 96 continues west across the lake outlet as Cliff Street, paralleling NY 79. They do not intersect in this area—known locally as The Octopus—though they once did. At one time, NY 96, NY 79, NY 89, NY 13A and Elm Street met at an intersection that gave the area its name. Today, only NY 13A and NY 79 intersect there while the stub of former NY 89 is now a park access road that intersects with NY 96, which continues north out of the Cayuga Lake valley as Trumansburg Road.
Unlike NY 89, which runs along the base of the valley and parallels the west shore of Cayuga Lake, NY 96 heads away from the lake, increasing the distance between itself and the water body as it proceeds northwestward to the highlands overlooking the lake. The route heads across open fields and past isolated pockets of homes toward Trumansburg, where NY 96 crosses over Taughannock Creek and serves Taughannock Falls State Park southeast of the village. In Trumansburg itself, the highway becomes Main Street and meets the northern terminus of NY 227 in the center of the community. NY 96 continues on, exiting Trumansburg just before crossing the Seneca County line.
Seneca County
NY 96 proceeds northwest through a lightly populated section of Seneca County and the town of Covert to the village of Interlaken, home to the southern terminus of NY 96A, a more westerly alternate route of NY 96 between Interlaken and Geneva. Outside of the village, NY 96 continues on a northwesterly path for another to the Ovid–Romulus town line, where it turns due west for to access the village of Ovid. The route mostly bypasses the village, with NY 96A and NY 414 serving as its Main Street instead. The three routes meet at a junction on the northern fringe of the community, at which point NY 96A leaves NY 414 and turns west to follow the town line toward Seneca Lake while NY 96 joins NY 414 and heads north into the town of Romulus.
Midway between the village of Ovid and the hamlet of Romulus, the two routes split, allowing NY 414 to continue due north to Seneca Falls. NY 96, meanwhile, turns to the northwest, following the eastern edge of the Seneca Army Depot for most of the distance to Romulus hamlet. Just south of the community's center, NY 96 separates from the depot grounds and continues north through the hamlet and into the town of Varick. The route uneventfully crosses the town, passing by open fields on a predominantly northward alignment on its way to the Fayette town line and a junction with NY 336, an east–west connector between NY 96A and NY 414. NY 96 continues across rural terrain to the outskirts of the village of Waterloo, where the number of homes rises as the route enters the village on Fayette Street.
In the southern half of the village, the highway follows a zig-zag routing as it leaves Fayette Street at River Road before returning to the north at Washington Street one block to the east. While on Washington Street, the route passes over the Cayuga–Seneca Canal and enters the village's center, changing names to Virginia Street in the process. Not far to the north, NY 96 heads into Waterloo's central business district, built up around the junction of Virginia and Main (US 20 and NY 5) Streets. Past Routes 5 and 20, NY 96 continues north as a residential street to the village line, where the route turns to the west with a slight trend to the north. At this point, the scenery surrounding NY 96 shifts from house-lined streets to rural countryside once again, an appearance that follows the road to the northwest through the town of Waterloo and across the county line.
Ontario County
Although NY 96 travels mostly in an east–west direction throughout Ontario County, it is still signed as a north–south highway. Less than into the county, NY 96 connects to NY 14 by way of a cloverleaf interchange, an oddity considering the rural location of the interchange. West of NY 14, NY 96 begins to parallel the paths of both the New York State Thruway (I-90) and the Canandaigua Lake outlet to the north. The highway follows both entities across the town of Phelps to the village of the same name, where NY 96 meets the southern terminus of NY 88. Just west of the village, NY 96 intersects the northern terminus of NY 488, formerly part of NY 88. West of the intersection, a northward reverse S-curve draws NY 96 closer to the Thruway and the outlet as the route heads toward the village of Clifton Springs, which NY 96 bypasses to the north.
to the west in the village of Manchester, NY 96 crosses over the outlet (which roughly follows NY 21 south to Canandaigua Lake from this point out) and indirectly connects to the Thruway by way of a junction with NY 21 located north of the village center and just south of where NY 21 meets the Thruway at exit 43. West of NY 21, NY 96 curves gently to the south, crossing the Ontario Central Railroad before resuming its westward alignment near the grade crossing. At this point, NY 96 enters the town of Farmington and begins to parallel the Thruway once more. The route passes by Finger Lakes Gaming and Race Track, located between County Route 8 (CR 8) and NY 332, prior to intersecting NY 332 itself west of the race track.
From this point northwestward to Rochester, NY 96 passes through substantially more developed areas. The first of these is the nearby village of Victor, which NY 96 enters by way of an overpass carrying it over the Ontario Central Railroad. In the village itself, the route meets the northern terminus of NY 444, which travels north–south between Victor and Bloomfield. West of the village in the town of Victor, NY 96 runs along the base of a valley separating it from the Thruway, where it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 251. The route continues on a northwesterly track for another mile (1.6 km) before curving to the north and widening from two to four lanes as it passes under the Thruway near exit 45. I-490, which begins at Thruway exit 45, is accessible from NY 96 by way of exit 29, the easternmost exit on I-490.
The section of NY 96 between exit 29 and NY 250 in Perinton serves as a major commercial strip, anchored by the presence of Eastview Mall, one of the largest malls in the Rochester area and the largest east of the city. Also present along this stretch of NY 96 are a series of plazas, beginning with one just north of I-490 featuring a Walmart and a Kohl's. Continuing northward, NY 96 runs along the eastern edge of Eastview Mall and passes two more plazas, one of which is developed around a Kmart. The highway gradually turns northwest toward the county line as it passes the mall, and crosses into Monroe County at an intersection leading to Eastview Commons, a plaza separated from the mall by high-voltage power lines and a large ditch.
Monroe County
Roughly a quarter of a mile (0.4 km) from the county line, the commercial surroundings end as NY 96 intersects the southern terminus of NY 250 in the town of Perinton. to the northwest, NY 96 meets I-490 once again, this time at exit 28. West of the exit, NY 96 parallels I-490 for roughly , serving several office parks and Powder Mills Park before reconnecting to the freeway at exit 27, located on the southern edge of Bushnell's Basin, a small hamlet located directly on NY 96. North of the exit, NY 96 breaks from I-490 and parallels the Erie Canal through slightly less developed areas between Bushnell's Basin and Mitchell Road in the town of Pittsford, where it narrows to two lanes and becomes East Jefferson Road.
West of Mitchell Road, NY 96 takes a more southerly alignment than the canal as it enters the densely populated village of Pittsford and meets the northern and eastern termini of NY 64 and NY 252, respectively, at the intersection of Jefferson Road and South Main Street. NY 64 heads to the south along South Main Street and NY 252 continues along Jefferson Road to the west while NY 96 turns north, proceeding into the heart of the village along South Main Street. In the village center, NY 96 intersects Monroe Avenue and State Street, which carry NY 31 east–west through Pittsford. The route continues on, becoming North Main Street as it crosses the Erie Canal and passes under the CSX Transportation-owned West Shore Subdivision. Just north of the railroad overpass is a junction with the southern terminus of NY 153, the most direct route between Pittsford and nearby East Rochester.
Past NY 153, NY 96 exits the village of Pittsford and becomes East Avenue, a name the route retains to its terminus in downtown Rochester. It proceeds northward through the heavily residential town, passing by Nazareth College and meeting the western terminus of NY 31F (Fairport Road) at a junction adjacent to the campus of St. John Fisher University. East Avenue, and likewise NY 96, takes on the northwesterly, four-lane alignment set by Fairport Road and begins to parallel the routing of I-490 once more as both enter the town of Brighton. Not far to the northwest of the town line, NY 96 meets Elmwood and Linden Avenues, the latter carrying NY 441. About to the northwest, NY 96 intersects Penfield Road, the pre-expressway alignment of NY 441. One block from this point is Clover Street, which carries NY 65 south of East Avenue.
At the Brighton town–Rochester city line, NY 96 passes through the center of the Can of Worms, a complex interchange that links I-490 to I-590. Here, I-590 passes under NY 96 while I-490 flies over NY 96. On the other side of the interchange in Rochester, East Avenue becomes a commercial strip once again, but to a lesser extent than in Victor. At North Winton Road, NY 96 is signed for the last time by way of a "North 96" reassurance assembly directing traffic to stay on East Avenue. Despite this fact, the route officially continues northwestward toward downtown Rochester.
West of Winton, NY 96 passes through the East Avenue Historic District, a primarily residential area with historic upper-class houses, including the George Eastman House. This stretch of the route was narrowed in mid-2010 from four lanes to two, to improve the residential feel and reduce automobile speeds. At Alexander Street, the environment turns more commercial as the route enters the downtown area. After crossing Union Street, the route passes the Little Theatre before terminating at a Y-junction with East Main Street.
History
In 1908, the New York State Legislature created Route 36, an unsigned legislative route that extended from Owego to Seneca Falls via Candor, Ithaca, and Ovid. South of Romulus, Route 36 utilized what is now NY 96 and NY 96B. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, the Owego–Interlaken and Ovid–Romulus portions of legislative Route 36 became part of NY 15, which began in Owego and proceeded northwest from Romulus to Rochester by way of Waterloo, Phelps, Victor, Mendon, and Pittsford. From Mendon to Rochester, NY 15 followed the path of legislative Route 14, another highway dating back to 1908 that continued south from Mendon on what is now NY 64 and used Monroe Avenue between Pittsford and Rochester. Another section of NY 15—from the village of Phelps east to NY 14—utilized what had been designated as part of legislative Route 6-a from 1911 to 1921.
By 1926, NY 31 was assigned across western and central New York, utilizing Monroe Avenue from downtown Rochester to Pittsford. Although NY 96's modern routing via East Avenue was state-maintained and formerly part of legislative Route 20 from current NY 31F westward, NY 15 initially remained on Monroe Avenue, creating an overlap between NY 15 and NY 31. It was realigned at some point between 1927 and 1932 to follow East Avenue to Rochester instead. In southern Seneca County, NY 15 initially passed through Lodi on its way from Interlaken to Ovid. It was realigned in the late 1920s to bypass Lodi to the northeast on the former alignment of legislative Route 36.
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, NY 15 basically remained intact. The only change made at this time was the straightening out of the Victor–Pittsford segment, which now bypassed Mendon in favor of a more direct alignment between the two villages via Bushnell's Basin. The former alignment of NY 15 became part of NY 251 east of Mendon and part of NY 64 north of the hamlet. US 15 was extended into New York ; it replaced NY 2, which had extended from the Pennsylvania state line to Rochester. NY 15 was renumbered to NY 2 to eliminate numerical duplication with the U.S. Highway.
The NY 96 designation was originally assigned to present-day NY 2 from NY 7 in Troy to Route 2 at the Massachusetts state line. In 1942, the alignments of NY 2 and NY 96 were swapped, placing NY 96 on the Owego–Rochester routing. The only major change to NY 96 since that time came in the early 1950s, when the route was realigned between Candor and Ithaca to follow a new routing via Spencer. The Candor–Spencer portion of the alignment had been part of NY 53 during the 1920s and part of NY 223 since 1930. NY 223 was truncated to its current eastern terminus at NY 224 near Van Etten as part of NY 96's realignment. Between Spencer and Ithaca, NY 96 overlapped with NY 34, which had occupied that segment of highway since the 1930 renumbering.
In the 1950s, NY 96 was temporarily moved onto the Eastern Expressway as sections of the freeway opened to traffic. The first section extended from Bushnell's Basin to NY 31F and opened to traffic in November 1955, at which time NY 96 was routed onto the new highway and NY 252 and NY 64 were extended eastward and northward, respectively, to cover NY 96's old surface alignment. NY 31F, meanwhile, was truncated to begin at the expressway. A northwest extension to what is now the Can of Worms was completed as a realignment of NY 96, resulting in the re-extension of NY 31F to its original terminus and an extension of NY 64 along East Avenue to the eastern edge of Rochester. NY 64, NY 96, and NY 252 were restored to their pre-1950s alignments when the freeway was designated as I-490.
Suffixed routes
NY 96A () is an alternate route of NY 96 in Seneca County. The route splits from NY 96 in Interlaken and terminates at US 20 and NY 5 east of Geneva in Waterloo. It was assigned in the early 1940s.
NY 96B () is an alternate route of NY 96 between Candor, Tioga County, and Ithaca, Tompkins County. The route was assigned in November 1952.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
096
Transportation in Monroe County, New York
Transportation in Ontario County, New York
Transportation in Seneca County, New York
Transportation in Tioga County, New York
Transportation in Tompkins County, New York |
4528618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court%20of%20Cassation%20%28Belgium%29 | Court of Cassation (Belgium) | The Court of Cassation (, , ) of Belgium is the supreme court of the Belgian judiciary. The court is composed of thirty judges with life tenure who are nominated by the High Council of Justice of Belgium and appointed by the Belgian federal government. The court handles cases in the two main languages of Belgium, Dutch and French, and provides certain facilities for cases in German. The court is assisted in its work by a public prosecutor's office and a bar association, which both function separately from other structures. The duty of the public prosecutor's office is to provide advisory opinions to the court on how the law ought to be interpreted and applied. The attorneys of the court's bar association assist litigants in proceedings before the court; in certain cases, their assistance is mandatory.
The Belgian Court of Cassation was originally modelled after its French namesake, and its jurisdiction and powers are still very similar to those of its French counterpart. The court is a court of cassation; meaning that it only hears appeals in last resort against decisions of lower courts and tribunals, and only on points of law. This means the Court of Cassation will not review or reconsider the findings of fact established by the lower court or tribunal. The jurisdiction of the court is limited to either upholding a decision that is contested, or annulling (quashing) it because it violated or misinterpreted the law. The latter is referred to as "cassation". By these means, the court is in effect the supreme interpreter of Belgian law, and as such ensures the nationwide uniform interpretation and application of the law by all other courts and tribunals of the Belgian judiciary.
Generally speaking, the Court of Cassation only exercises supreme jurisdiction over judicial decisions, and thus does not hear appeals against administrative decisions (which is the realm of the Council of State of Belgium). The Court of Cassation also does not rule on the constitutionality of laws, which is the jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court of Belgium. However, some decisions of certain non-judicial bodies are within the purview of the Court of Cassation nonetheless. The court also settles jurisdictional conflicts which may or may not involve an administrative court. Furthermore, the court rules on certain prejudicial questions from other courts and on certain requests to review old criminal cases. Lastly, the court handles certain proceedings against judicial officers (magistrates; which encompasses judges and prosecutors in Belgian legal terminology), including recusal requests against a particular judge or prosecutor, requests to disqualify a judge or entire court, and requests to hold judges or prosecutors civilly liable for respectively judicial misconduct or prosecutorial misconduct. A ruling or judgment of the Court of Cassation is officially called an "arrest" (, , ).
An important aspect of the Court of Cassation is that it has no discretionary power to select the cases it hears, which means it must consider all cases correctly brought before it. The only filter that exists is the mandatory intervention of an attorney in certain cases. For this reason, the court handles a fairly large number of cases each year compared to some other supreme courts. For example, the court received about 2,500 petitions to initiate proceedings in 2019. A second aspect is that the court does not make public any individual opinions of its judges; it always issues one single ruling in each case. Lastly, the rulings of the court are only binding for the case at hand, and do not have the value of stare decisis. Lower courts are thus not officially required to adhere to the rulings of the Court of Cassation in earlier cases. However, the Court's rulings still have an important persuasive value for lower courts nonetheless; especially any so-called jurisprudence constante following from the court's case law.
Court structure
Judges
The Court of Cassation is composed of thirty judges with life tenure (notwithstanding their retirement), who are officially called "counsellors" (, , ). For the sake of clarity, the term 'judge' will be used in this article. The thirty judges are divided into three chambers with each ten judges. The three chambers are each further divided into two sections, a Dutch one and a French one, each composed of five judges. This means that in principle, half of the court's judges are Dutch-speaking and the other half French-speaking. However, some of the judges are required to master both Dutch and French, so as to facilitate joint hearings and sessions of the court. Each of the judges can serve in any of the chambers and sections given they speak the relevant language. Whilst the court counts thirty positions for judges, temporary vacancies can exist when for example one of the court's judges retires. The judges retire when they reach the statutory retirement age of 70.
To be appointed as judge to the court, candidates must hold the Belgian nationality, must hold a law degree, must have been active in the legal sphere for at least fifteen years, and must have been a judge or prosecutor for at least ten years. Candidates must also meet the language requirements and have a clean criminal record. An opinion on each candidate will be provided to the federal Minister of Justice by the general assembly of the Court of Cassation (see further below), by the head of the court or prosecutor's office where the candidate is currently active, and by the relevant bar association. The minister of Justice will then send all candidacies to the High Council of Justice of Belgium, who will nominate one candidate. The Belgian federal government (officially "the King" as the personification of the executive) will then finally appoint or reject the nominated candidate.
In each of the six sections, a judge is appointed as "section president" (, , ). Out of the thirty judges, one is also appointed as "first president" (, , ) and one as "president" (, , ) for the whole Court of Cassation. The overall leadership over the court lies with the first president (the "chief justice"); the president has a deputy position regarding the first president. If the first president belongs to the French-speaking half of the court, the president will be chosen from the Dutch-speaking half and vice versa, so as to preserve the linguistic balance on the court.
As of 2020, the first president of the Court of Cassation is Beatrijs Deconinck (Dutch-speaking) and the president is ridder Jean De Codt (French-speaking). In 2019, Mrs Deconinck became the first female first president in the Court of Cassation's history.
Prosecutor's office
There is a public prosecutor's office attached to the Court of Cassation, which is referred to as the prosecutor-general's office (, , ). The prosecutor-general's office is led by the prosecutor-general at the Court of Cassation (, , ). The prosecutor-general's office furthermore consists of one first advocate-general (, , ), who has a deputy position regarding the prosecutor-general, and eleven advocates-general (, , ). The thirteen members of the prosecutor-general's office exercise the duties of the office in all cases brought before the court (see further below). Just like with the first president and president of the court, if the prosecutor-general belongs to the French-speaking members of the office, the first advocate-general will be chosen from the Dutch-speaking members and vice versa, so as to preserve the linguistic balance on the office.
As of 2020, the prosecutor-general at the Court of Cassation is André Henkes (French-speaking) and the first advocate-general is Ria Mortier (Dutch-speaking).
Bar
The Court of Cassation has its own bar association, consisting of a number of "attorneys at the Court of Cassation" (, , ). The number of attorneys at the Court of Cassation is set by the Belgian federal government (currently twenty attorneys). These attorneys, whilst not employed by or part of the court, play an important role in the proceedings before the court nonetheless (see further below). Attorneys wishing to be admitted to the bar at the Court of Cassation, must have been part of another bar association for at least ten years and must pass a specific bar examination. When one of the twenty positions at the bar becomes vacant, the Belgian federal government will appoint a new attorney meeting these criteria to the bar.
The bar association is headed by the president of the bar (, , ). As of 2020, Jacqueline Oosterbosch is president of the bar.
Auxiliary services
Administrative matters related to the judicial duties of the Court of Cassation are handled by the court clerks (, , ) of the clerk's office (, , ) of the court. In this capacity, the clerk's office receives petitions and pleadings related to proceedings before the court, keeps the records and notes of the court, and provides the court's rulings to the parties involved.
The Court of Cassation and its prosecutor-general's office also dispose over a number of law clerks called "referendaries" (, , ). The referendaries assist the judges and the members of the prosecutor's office in preparing their rulings and advisory opinions, maintain documentation related to the court's duties, and work on the translation and publication of the court's rulings.
Lastly, the court also employs a number of attachés, as well as magistrates from other courts or tribunals with a temporary assignment. They work on the translation of the court's rulings, on maintaining documentation, and on certain studies and legal research in the interest of the court.
Jurisdiction
Appeals in cassation
Annulment of court decisions
An appeal in cassation (, , ) to the Court of Cassation is only possible against decisions (judgments, rulings and court orders) from other (lower) courts in the judiciary, against which all ordinary appeal procedures have been exhausted. This usually concerns the judgments and rulings rendered by the courts of appeal and the courts of labour, as well as some judgments and rulings rendered by lower courts in specific or petty cases. The Court of Cassation does not re-examine any findings of fact; it will only rule on questions of law concerning the contested decision. Neither can the court change the content of any contested decision. Its jurisdiction is limited to either upholding a contested decision, rendering it final and irrevocable; or either annulling it ("cassation", from the French verb casser, "to break" or "to quash") if the court finds the decision to violate the law. This is the case if the court finds that the decision misjudged or misinterpreted the law, breached essential procedural requirements or ignored formalities prescribed under penalty of nullity. The court can annul the entire decision or only part of it, which is known as "partial cassation" (, , ).
If the court annuls (part of) a decision, it will generally remit the case to a different court of the same rank as the one whose decision was annulled. In specific cases, the case will be remitted to the same court though, which will then rehear the case in a different composition however (meaning by different judges as the first time). After annulment by the Court of Cassation, the (annulled part of the) case is always tried de novo, both on questions of fact and on questions of law, by the court to which it has been referred. Any such court is thus not bound by any findings of fact preceding the cassation proceedings. In some specific instances though, the court will not remit the case to any court for a retrial after cassation, namely when there is nothing left to judge on by virtue of the court's ruling. This is known as "cassation without referral" (, , ). A cassation without referral can for example occur when the court annuls an arrest warrant because it was issued outside of the statutory time limit.
The principle that the Court of Cassation does not rule on questions of fact, is laid down in Article 147 of the Belgian Constitution.
Only judicial decisions
Like many other European countries, Belgium has a system of administrative courts which oversee the lawfulness of acts of administrative authorities. The system of administrative courts is distinct from the judiciary, and as such, the jurisdiction of the Court of Cassation regarding annulment does not extend to judgments and rulings rendered by those courts. The jurisdiction of the Court of Cassation is limited to judgments and rulings rendered by judicial courts. However, the exceptions are any jurisdictional conflict between the judicial and administrative courts, as well as rulings from the Belgian Court of Audit and some disciplinary bodies, as explained below.
Rulings of the Court of Audit
Administrative rulings from the Belgian Court of Audit however do fall under the jurisdiction of the Court of Cassation. The Court of Audit decides by administrative ruling whether the accounts of public accounting officers answerable to the Treasury are in balance or not, and if not whether the balance is in their favour or in the State's favour. If the Court of Audit determines that the account of an accounting officer shows a deficit, the Court of Audit will hold a public hearing with the officer in question. The Court of Audit will subsequently either grant discharge to the accounting officer, or either find the officer at fault and sentence him to fully or partially indemnify the State from his own means. The Court of Cassation hears appeals in cassation against such rulings of the Court of Audit. If the Court of Cassation finds that the ruling violates the law, the court will annul it, and refer the case to a committee formed ad hoc from members of the legislative assembly concerned (for the federal government: the Belgian Chamber of Representatives). This ad hoc committee will then rule on the case without the possibility of any subsequent appeal.
Rulings of disciplinary bodies
The second kind of non-judicial rulings that nevertheless fall under the jurisdiction of the Court of Cassation are disciplinary rulings by some professional bodies for liberal professions. This concerns rulings in disciplinary cases issued by, amongst others, the Belgian Order of Physicians, the Belgian Order of Pharmacists, the Belgian Order of Veterinarians, the Belgian Order of Architects, the bar associations, the Belgian Institute of Company Auditors, and the Belgian Institute of Accountants and Tax Advisors. This also concerns rulings in disciplinary cases issued by the tribunals of first instance against notaries or court bailiffs. The Court of Cassation hears appeals in cassation against such disciplinary rulings. If the Court of Cassation finds that the ruling violates the law, the court will annul it, and refer the case back to the professional body concerned. If possible, however, the professional body concerned must rehear the case in a different composition (meaning by different members as the first time). The professional body concerned is obliged to adhere to the ruling of the Court of Cassation with regards to the points of law on which it ruled.
Jurisdictional conflicts
Between judicial and administrative courts
The Court of Cassation has generally speaking no jurisdiction over judgments and rulings rendered by administrative courts. The Council of State is the supreme court within the Belgian system of administrative courts, which as such handles cassation proceedings against administrative judgments or rulings from lower authorities. However, article 158 of the Belgian Constitution lays down that the Court of Cassation rules on any so-called "conflict of attribution" (Dutch: conflict van attributie, French: conflit d'attribution, German: Kompetenzkonflikt) between administrative and judicial courts. These conflicts of attribution can arise in the following forms:
Any party to administrative proceedings who believes the Council of State overstepped its administrative jurisdiction in a case, or vice versa believes the Council of State unduly declared it had no jurisdiction because it deemed a case as not administrative in nature, can seek the annulment of any such ruling by the council before the Court of Cassation. If the Court of Cassation annuls the ruling of the Council based on the ground that the Council does have jurisdiction (and unduly declared it did not), the case will referred back to the council. The council will then hear the case again in a different composition (meaning by different judges as the first time) and is required to adhere to the Court of Cassation's ruling regarding its proper jurisdiction.
A particular case arises when a judicial court and an administrative court both declare they have jurisdiction in a particular case ("positive conflicts"), or vice versa when they both declare themselves incompetent to hear a particular case ("negative conflicts"). The Court of Cassation is competent to settle these matters as well.
By these procedures, the Court of Cassation has the final say over the jurisdictional division between the judicial and administrative courts.
Between different judicial courts
The Court of Cassation also rules on certain jurisdictional conflicts between different courts or tribunals within the judiciary. Although the particularities differ between criminal and non-criminal cases, these procedures are jointly referred to as "regulation of jurisdiction" (Dutch: regeling van rechtsgebied, French: règlement de juges, German: Bestimmung des zuständigen Gerichts).
In criminal cases, jurisdictional conflicts can arise when two distinct cases concerning the same crime are brought before two different courts ("positive conflicts"). A jurisdictional conflict can also arise when one court or judge (usually in an investigative capacity) refers a criminal case to another court or judge (usually a trial court), but the latter declares itself incompetent to hear the case ("negative conflicts"). If both courts involved in such positive or negative conflicts do not belong to the same territorial jurisdiction, and the matter thus cannot be settled by an appellate court, the Court of Cassation will settle the matter and refer the case to the appropriate court. The applicable procedures for settling such conflicts in criminal cases are laid down in the Belgian Code of Criminal Procedure.
In non-criminal (civil, commercial, ...) cases, jurisdictional conflicts can arise when multiple conflicting judgments have been rendered by multiple courts or judges concerning the same or interrelated lawsuits, on the condition that all ordinary appeal procedures have been exhausted against these judgments. If such is the case, any party to the proceedings may request the Court of Cassation to resolve the conflict. The Court will do so by annulling either judgment and, if there is cause, refer the case to the appropriate court for a retrial. The applicable procedures for settling these conflicts are laid down in the Belgian Judicial Code.
Prejudicial questions
Under Book IV, Title II, Chapter II (articles IV.86–IV.89) of the Belgian Code of Economic Law, the Court of Cassation must answer any prejudicial question (, , ) asked by another court concerning a case pending before it. The question must concern the interpretation of any provision of Book IV of the aforementioned code of law (on the topic of competition law). These questions will mostly arise in cases before the Market Court involving a decision of the Belgian Competition Authority (BCA). The federal minister of the Economy of Belgium, the European Commission and the BCA may provide an advisory opinion to the Court as amicus curiae. The Court of Cassation will then issue a preliminary ruling on the question asked, and the requesting court must adhere to the ruling of the Court of Cassation with regards to the points of law on which it ruled.
Review of old criminal cases
Belgian law provides for two extraordinary procedures through the Court of Cassation to review old criminal cases, in which a final and (in principle) irrevocable conviction has already been rendered, to correct miscarriages of justice. The first procedure is referred to as the "reopening of the procedure" (, , ). A request to "reopen the procedure" can be initiated in a particular criminal case when the European Court of Human Rights has ruled that the prosecution undertaken or judgment rendered in that case violated the European Convention on Human Rights. If the alleged violation concerns a judgment from a lower court, the Court of Cassation will annul that judgment if there is cause and either remit the case to a different court of the same rank for a retrial, or otherwise pronounce a cassation without referral. If the alleged violation concerns a ruling of the Court of Cassation itself, the court will examine the request in a different composition (meaning by different judges) as that in which the contested ruling was rendered. If the request is honoured, the court will revoke its earlier ruling and issue a new one, taking into account the decision of the European Court of Human Rights.
The second procedure is referred to as "request for revision" (, , ). A request for revision can be submitted (notwithstanding some exceptions) when the accused has been sentenced for the same charges by multiple conflicting judgments and the innocence of the accused can be deduced from the conflicting judgments, when one of the witnesses in the case has been convicted for perjury, or when new evidence has come to light that could have led to the accused either being acquitted or being sentenced to a lesser penalty. When the court grants the request in a case of conflicting judgments or perjury, it will annul the contested lower court judgment and remit the case to a different court of the same rank for a retrial. When new evidence has come to light and the court finds that the request is admissible and there is a potential cause for revision, it will refer the case to the 'Commission for revision in penal cases'. This is a commission consisting of five members who are appointed by the federal minister of Justice of Belgium. This commission will further examine the request and provide a non-binding opinion to the Court of Cassation. The court will then either reject the request or grant it; if the request is granted, the contested conviction will be annulled and the case will be referred to the appropriate court for a retrial.
Proceedings against judicial officers
Recusal
In any judicial proceedings, any party may request a magistrate (judge or prosecutor) to recuse themself (, , ) for a number of causes, such as for an appearance of bias, family ties with any party involved, prior involvement in the case, or a conflict of interest. If a magistrate refuses to recuse themself upon such a request, the court immediately higher in the Belgian judicial hierarchy will decide on the matter. As such, the Court of Cassation will decide on any requests to oblige a magistrate from a court of appeal or a court of labour to recuse themself from a case. Since there is no higher court in the Belgian judicial hierarchy, the Court of Cassation itself will also decide on any request to oblige any of its own magistrates to recuse themselves. The applicable procedures are provided for in the Belgian Judicial Code.
Judicial disqualification
Belgian law also provides for an extraordinary procedure for judicial disqualification (, , ), i.e. to remove a case from a judge or entire court, and refer it to another judge or court, through the Court of Cassation. For criminal cases, the applicable procedures are laid down in the Belgian Code of Criminal Procedure; for non-criminal (civil, commercial, ...) cases, these are laid down in the Belgian Judicial Code. A judge or entire court can only be disqualified for a select number of causes, such as for an appearance of bias, or in case a final judgment has not been rendered yet from six months since the proceedings were concluded. The prosecutor-general at the Court of Cassation may also request a judicial disqualification for public security reasons. If the Court of Cassation grants the request, it will indicate the judge or court to which the case will be referred.
Liability in case of misconduct
Belgian law provides for an extraordinary procedure known as "redress from the judge" (, , ) as well. This procedure through the Court of Cassation is meant to hold magistrates (judges or prosecutors) civilly liable in cases of judicial misconduct or prosecutorial misconduct, as established by the law. The applicable procedures to hold magistrates liable are laid down in the Belgian Judicial Code. A judge or prosecutor may be held liable for deceitful acts during an investigation or adjudication, or for other acts for which the law explicitly holds them liable. A judge may also be held liable for "denial of justice" (, , ), when they refuse to adjudicate a case that is correctly brought before them. Prosecutors cannot be held liable for denial of justice because they have the power to exercise prosecutorial discretion. If the court grants a request to hold a magistrate liable, the court will order the magistrate to pay damages to the claimant, and may annul any fraudulent act if there is cause. If the court rejects the request, it may order the claimant to pay damages to the magistrate involved.
Disciplinary proceedings
Lastly, the Court of Cassation has the power to initiate disciplinary proceedings against its own members and certain members of lower courts. For instance, the first president of the court is responsible for initiating disciplinary proceedings against the other judges of the court, or against the first presidents of the courts of appeal and the courts of labour. The general assembly of the court (see further below) in turn is responsible for initiating disciplinary proceedings against the court's first president. The prosecutor-general at the court can also initiate disciplinary proceedings against all judges of the court, or against the other members of the prosecutor-general's office. The federal minister of Justice of Belgium in turn is responsible for initiating disciplinary proceedings against the prosecutor-general at the court. All the aforementioned only serves to initiate proceedings however, because disciplinary proceedings against magistrates are decided on by non-permanent disciplinary tribunals for the judiciary. These disciplinary tribunals are only assembled once disciplinary proceedings are initiated. They are composed of judges appointed to them for a five-year term. The disciplinary tribunals can decide to apply disciplinary sanctions up to removal from office.
A sole disciplinary power exercised by the Court of Cassation itself is that against members of the Council of State, the Belgian supreme administrative court. The Court of Cassation decides in general assembly (see further below) on disciplinary proceedings, concerning suspension or removal from office, against members of the Council of State.
Court procedure
Role of the prosecutor's office
Unlike the public prosecutor's offices attached to other courts, the prosecutor-general's office attached to the Court of Cassation does not engage in any criminal investigations or prosecutions. The prosecutor-general's office functions independently and separately from the rest of the Public Prosecution Service of Belgium. Its function is to provide an advisory opinion to the court regarding the legality and regularity of any contested judgment or ruling, and the manner in which to interpret and apply the law to any case. In this capacity, the prosecutor-general's office intervenes in all cases brought before the court. It is for example possible for the prosecutor-general's office to request the annulment of a criminal conviction, secured by a lower prosecutor's office before a lower court, if it finds the conviction to be based on a misinterpretation of the law or in breach of essential procedural requirements. In some cases, the prosecutor-general's office may initiate cassation proceedings itself "in the name of the law" against certain decisions it finds to violate the law.
Role of the bar
In all cases, except criminal and fiscal cases, the intervention of an attorney at the Court of Cassation (one of the twenty members of the court's bar association) is mandatory. Any petition to start cassation proceedings in these cases must be signed by an attorney at the court. Other attorneys are therefore required to involve an attorney at the court if they wish to start cassation proceedings. This way, the attorneys at the court fulfill a certain filter function; they are meant to discourage claimants from starting proceedings that will likely be unsuccessful. It is possible though for attorneys at the court to sign a petition "on request" when they think it has little chances of success, to allow a claimant to start proceedings regardless. Attorneys at the court may only draw up and sign a petition, or they may be requested by a claimant to also handle the rest of the cassation proceedings before the court.
In criminal cases, the intervention of an attorney at the court is not mandatory, but since 2015 any petition to start cassation proceedings in criminal cases must be signed by an attorney with a special certificate. This special certificate can be obtained by any attorney who has followed a specific training. In fiscal cases (cases concerning tax law), the intervention of an attorney is required as well, but this attorney does not have to meet any specific requirements. Any attorney may thus initiate cassation proceedings in fiscal cases.
Judicial assistance
Any party who cannot afford the costs and fees related to cassation proceedings, can submit a request for judicial assistance to the bureau for judicial assistance (, , ) of the Court of Cassation. The bureau for judicial assistance is headed by one of the judges of the court, assisted by a clerk. The judge of the bureau will ask the opinion of an advocate-general on all requests. If the request is deemed to be admissible, the judge will also ask the opinion of one of the attorneys at the court regarding the chances of success of any proceedings. Judicial assistance will only be granted if the requester is sufficiently indigent, and if the proceedings have a reasonable chance of success. Judicial assistance consists of the total or partial waiving of court fees and bailiff fees, as well as of attorney's fees for the interventions of an attorney at the court that are mandatory by law.
It is important to note that judicial assistance is different from legal aid. Legal aid (, , ) relates to aid and representation by an attorney, at a reduced fee or free of charge, for indigent persons in general. Legal aid can be obtained from sources outside of the Court of Cassation.
Kind of hearing
Three chambers
Most cases and matters brought before the Court of Cassation are heard by one of the court's three chambers. The Belgian Judicial Code lays down by which of the three chambers a case ought to be heard, depending on its nature:
The first chamber hears appeals in cassation against judgments and rulings in civil and commercial cases;
The second chamber hears appeals in cassation against judgments and rulings in criminal cases;
The third chamber hears appeals in cassation against judgments and rulings in social (labour and social protection) cases.
Other cases (cases involving fiscal law, administrative law, or disciplinary rulings by some professional bodies) are divided over the chambers by the first president of the court. In practice, most of these cases are heard by the first chamber. The first president may also at any time, whenever the needs of the court require so, refer cases to another chamber than the one before which they normally ought to be heard. Cases are heard by either the Dutch or French section of each chamber depending on the language of the proceedings.
Specific hearings and assemblies
However, the first president may require cases to be heard in "full bench" or "plenary hearing" (, , ), upon the opinion of the prosecutor-general's office and the judge-rapporteur. This means that the Dutch and French sections of the chamber will hold a joint session to hear the case. This usually pertains to cases where different interpretations of the law may exist between the two sections of a chamber. In this manner, hearing cases in full bench is meant to promote the uniform interpretation of the law by both sections.
The law also prescribes that some cases must be heard by the court in "joint chambers" or "full court" (, , ). This means that the judges of multiple chambers will hold a joint session to hear the case. The instances for which the law requires such a hearing in joint chambers are fairly uncommon. Cases required to be heard in this manner include jurisdictional conflicts between administrative and judicial courts, and appeals in cassation against a judgment handed down in a criminal case against a minister of the federal government or one of the regional governments of Belgium.
The broadest manner in which the court can convene, is in "general assembly" (, , ). The court does not convene in general assembly to adjudicate cases; the general assembly only handles certain matters of an internal nature. The prerogatives of the general assembly of the court include, amongst other things: initiating disciplinary proceedings against the first president of the court, appointing the president and section presidents of the court, providing an opinion on candidates for the office of judge at the court to the federal minister of Justice of Belgium, and drawing up the annual report of the court. A sole exception are any disciplinary proceedings against members of the Council of State, on which the Court of Cassation must decide in general assembly.
Number of judges
The number of judges which must hear cases in the different configurations of the court, is laid down in the Belgian Judicial Code. To prevent deadlocks, cases are always heard by an uneven number of judges. By default, a case is heard by one of the two sections of a chamber, which sits with five judges. If a case is heard in full bench (by both sections of a chamber), the chamber will sit with nine judges. In principle, all judges of the court can sit in hearings in joint chambers, but the number of judges hearing cases in joint chambers must be at least eleven. If the court convenes in general assembly, an absolute majority of its thirty judges must be present to be able to take any decision. If this quorum for a general assembly is not met, the assembly will be adjourned to a later date. If at a later date the quorum is still not met for an adjourned general assembly, the assembly may take decisions without the quorum being met.
However, the first president or the section president may, upon the opinion of the prosecutor-general's office and the judge-rapporteur, order a case to be heard by only three judges of a section of a chamber. Before 2014, this was only permitted if the outcome of the case appeared to be obvious. After a 2014 amendment, the scope of such hearings with a limited number of judges was broadened to all cases where it appeared an answer to important questions of law, in the interest of the uniform interpretation or the evolution of the law, was not needed. This limited panel of judges must decide on the case unanimously. If the three judges cannot reach a unanimous decision, or if one of them requests it, the case must be referred to the full section of the chamber to be heard by five judges.
Process of an appeal in cassation
Petition
In criminal cases, a petition to initiate cassation proceedings needs to be submitted to the clerk's office of the court or tribunal that rendered the contested decision. Prison inmates or people who have been institutionalized in a psychiatric facility may also submit their petition to the director of the establishment. The petition will then be transmitted to the clerk's office of the Court of Cassation. In criminal cases, the petition needs to submitted within fifteen days after the contested decision was rendered, save for some exceptions. The petition needs to be signed by an attorney with a special certificate (as explained above). If the petition (also) targets a decision on civil damages to a civil party involved in the criminal proceedings, a writ of the petition also needs to be served to the civil party by a court bailiff. It is a feature of the Belgian judicial system in general, that the courts and tribunals which have jurisdiction over criminal cases, will also decide on any civil damages sought by a victim who is a civil party to the case.
In non-criminal (civil, commercial, ...) cases, the petition needs to be submitted directly to the clerk's office of the Court of Cassation. In these cases, the petition needs to be submitted within three months after the contested decision was rendered, save for some exceptions. The petition also needs to be signed by an attorney at the court except in fiscal cases (as explained above). A writ of the petition needs to be served to the defendant by a court bailiff.
The petition must be drawn up in the language of the contested decision, which will determine by which section of a chamber the case will be heard. If the contested decision is in German, the claimant can choose to draw up the petition in any of the three languages of Belgium (either Dutch, French or German).
Written pleadings
In criminal cases, the claimant can submit written pleadings (, , ) to elaborate on the initial petition. These pleadings must be submitted to the clerk's office at least fifteen days before the hearing is scheduled, and at least two months after the initial petition was submitted. They must also be served to the civil party (if applicable). The civil party can submit written pleadings as a response at least eight days before the hearing is scheduled, and must serve these to the claimant. All of the aforementioned pleadings need to be signed by an attorney with a special certificate (as explained above).
In non-criminal cases, the claimant can submit written pleadings to elaborate on the initial petition, which must be submitted to the clerk's office within fifteen days after the petition was submitted. These pleadings must also be served to the defendant. The defendant can submit written pleadings as a response within three months after the initial petition or pleadings of the claimant have been served to them. If the defendant raises a cause for non-admissibility, the defendant's pleadings also need to be served to the claimant. In that case, the claimant may submit additional pleadings as a reaction within one month, and needs to serve these to the defendant as well. All of the aforementioned pleadings need to be signed by an attorney at the court, except for fiscal cases (as explained above). In exceptional cases, the aforementioned terms may also be shortened by the first president of the court.
Preliminary examination
After the petition and written pleadings have been submitted, the first president of the court designates one of the judges who will hear the case as judge-rapporteur (, , ). The judge-rapporteur will examine the case and prepare a preliminary report. The case will also be presented to the prosecutor-general's office, to be examined by the prosecutor-general or one of the advocates-general. The prosecutor-general or advocate-general will prepare an advisory opinion on the case. If they intend to ex officio raise a cause of non-admissibility in non-criminal cases, they must inform the parties of such before the hearing.
In criminal cases, the section president of the section that would hear the case, can since 2014 summarily rule to reject the appeal in cassation if the prosecutor-general's office also advises as such. This can only be the case if the appeal in cassation is non-admissible; for example if the term limit to submit a petition has been exceeded, if the petition has not been signed by a proper attorney, or if the claimant does not stipulate any irregularity or cause for nullity that could lead to cassation. The section president will issue such a ruling of non-admissibility without a public hearing and without considering any arguments from the claimant. The claimant involved will be informed of such a ruling and be provided with brief reasons for the rejection. There is no recourse against such a ruling.
Hearing and ruling
After the preliminary examination and if the case was not ruled inadmissible (only criminal cases), the court will hold a public hearing on the scheduled day where all the required judges are present. The parties involved are not required to be present but can be if they wish so. First, the preliminary report will be presented by the judge-rapporteur; then the prosecutor-general or advocate-general may give his advisory opinion orally. This advisory opinion may also be given in writing in addition. In general, the parties involved do not present any oral arguments at the hearing, as their arguments already have been submitted in writing prior to the hearing. If present, however, the attorneys at the court are permitted to bring oral arguments forward in response to the opinion of the prosecutor-general or advocate-general. After these pleas, the judges will retreat and deliberate. During the hearing, the judges are assisted by a clerk.
If the Court of Cassation deems it necessary, it will request a preliminary ruling from the European Court of Justice or the Benelux Court of Justice regarding the interpretation of respectively European Union law or Benelux law. The Court of Cassation may also request the Belgian Constitutional Court to rule on the constitutionality of a law or legal provision with regards to the Belgian Constitution, if such is questioned in a case before it. The Court of Cassation will stay the case before it until the European Court of Justice, the Benelux Court of Justice or the Constitutional Court has issued the requested ruling.
The judges usually decide on their ruling the same day or shortly after the hearing. The rulings decided on by the judges are pronounced in open court by the section president, in the presence of the prosecutor-general or advocate-general. The parties involved are not required to be present but can be if they wish so. In its ruling, the court will only answer to the arguments brought forward or questions of law raised by the parties involved. If no arguments are brought forward as to why the contested decision needs to be annulled, the court will declare the case to be non-admissible and dismiss it. In criminal cases however, the court will also verify ex officio whether the contested decision was issued in a regular manner and respected the formalities prescribed under penalty of nullity. The court will thus either rule the case to be non-admissible and dismiss it; either reject the appeal in cassation; or either annul the contested decision partially or wholly (cassation), in which case it will either remit the case to the appropriate court for a retrial or either pronounce a cassation without referral (as explained above).
Aspects of the rulings of the Court of Cassation
No case selection
The Court of Cassation does not have discretionary power to select the cases it hears. There is no writ of certiorari or other prior approval required to initiate a case before the court. As such, the Court of Cassation is required to hear all appeals in cassation that are correctly brought before it. However, the mandatory intervention of an attorney at the court in all non-criminal and non-fiscal cases, and the mandatory intervention of an attorney with a special certificate in criminal cases, is meant to discourage people from initiating frivolous and ill-considered proceedings nonetheless. The aforementioned attorneys form a kind of extrajudicial filter to help reduce the court's caseload.
As described in other parts of this article, additional measures to reduce the caseload of the court have been introduced over the last years as well. This for example concerns:
The possibility to have simple cases heard by a limited panel of only three judges (since 2014);
The possibility for the section president to summarily dismiss non-admissible criminal cases (since 2014);
The abolishment of "double cassation", where a ruling of the court was only binding for a lower court after a second cassation on the same grounds, in favour of the court's rulings being immediately binding for a lower court (since 2017).
No individual opinions
The court always issues one single ruling on a case before it, which represents the (majority) opinion of the court. The Court does not have a tradition of dissenting opinions or concurring opinions since the deliberations of the judges are in principle secret. The individual opinions of the judges regarding the Court's rulings are thus not publicly known. Moreover, the Court of Cassation has ruled that any violation of the secrecy of deliberations of judges can be punished under article 458 of the Belgian Penal Code, which penalizes violations of professional secrecy requirements.
No binding case law
By virtue of Article 6 of the Belgian Judicial Code, no Belgian court may issue a ruling that amounts to a generally binding rule, as that is considered the purview of the legislative power. As a consequence, the rulings of the Court of Cassation only ever apply to the case at hand, and do not have the value of stare decisis. This means that the court's rulings are not formally binding for lower courts in a general sense, and thus do not create case law in an official sense. However, the court's rulings have an important persuasive value for lower courts, since the court is likely to annul any lower court judgment conflicting with one of its earlier rulings. The most persuasive form of precedent by the court is the jurisprudence constante, which follows from a series of rulings in which a particular principle or rule was applied in a likewise manner by the court. Although the court itself aims to adhere to its own precedents, peculiar and extraordinary circumstances may nonetheless compel the court to depart from its prior precedents. This way, the court ensures the evolution of the law in conjunction with the evolution of the rest of society.
This principle does not apply to a court to which the Court of Cassation has referred a case for retrial after a judgment was annulled. After a 2017 amendment, Article 1110 of the Belgian Judicial Code and Article 435 of the Belgian Code of Criminal Procedure oblige any such court to adhere to the ruling of the Court of Cassation with regards to the points of law on which it ruled. Before 2017, any court retrying a case referred to it by the Court of Cassation was not formally bound by the court's ruling. This could result in the judgment following the retrial being appealed to the court again. In this event, the case was to be heard by the court in joint chambers. If the court would then annul the judgment again on the same grounds as the first time, the case would again be remitted to a different court for a retrial. Only this time, the court in question would be bound by the ruling of the Court of Cassation with regards to the points of law on which it ruled.
No constitutional review
The Belgian Constitution, at its adoption in 1831, did not contain any provision either allowing or either prohibiting the Belgian judiciary to engage in the constitutional review of legislative acts. In a ruling rendered on 23 July 1849, the Court of Cassation ruled for the first time on the topic that the Belgian judiciary, including the court itself, cannot review the constitutionality of legislative acts. The court considered that reviewing or considering the constitutionality of legislative acts is the sovereign purview of the legislature. The court has since not deviated from this point of view, and has reaffirmed it in a number of subsequent rulings. The court has however tested the limits of this legal doctrine in for example its "Waleffe" ruling (see further below).
In the 1980s, the Constitutional Court of Belgium (originally named as "Court of Arbitration") was founded as a result of the federalisation of Belgium. This court has since been awarded the power to review the constitutionality of legislative acts with regards to the division of powers over the federal and regional levels of government, and with regards to constitutional rights. Since then, all courts and tribunals of the Belgian judiciary (including the Court of Cassation), whilst still not reviewing the constitutionality of legislative acts themselves, can ask prejudicial questions to the Constitutional Court. If as a result the Constitutional Court nullifies an unconstitutional legislative act or legislative provision, the requesting court will leave aside the nullified act or provision.
Notable rulings of the Court of Cassation
"Flandria" ruling: In this ruling rendered on 5 November 1920, the court stated that the Belgian State could be held liable for a tort like any other private individual, based on article 1382 of the Belgian Civil Code. The ruling was rendered in a case concerning a badly constructed public road that had caused damage to an adjacent property. The ruling ended the previously presumed sovereign immunity from civil liability of the Belgian State.
"Waleffe" ruling: In this ruling rendered on 20 April 1950, the court established the presumption of constitutionality. According to this legal doctrine laid down by the court, whenever confronted with an ambiguous legislative act that could be interpreted in both a manner that would violate the Belgian Constitution and in a manner that would be in conformity with the Belgian Constitution, Belgian judges must assume the legislature did not intend to violate the Constitution and must thus choose the interpretation that is in conformity with the Constitution.
"Franco-Suisse Le Ski" ruling: In this ruling rendered on 27 May 1971, the court confirmed the primacy of self-executing international treaties over domestic laws in case of conflicts between both; and more specifically the primacy of European Union law over any domestic law. This principle, espousing a monistic approach, even stands when the conflicting domestic law was adopted after the treaty entered into force. The cause for the ruling was a tax dispute involving the Belgian cheese company Franco-Suisse Le Ski, which stemmed from import tariffs on dairy products that had been recently approved by Belgian authorities but were later found to be in violation of the EEC Treaty.
"Spaghetti" ruling: In this ruling rendered on 14 October 1996, the court disqualified the investigative judge Jean-Marc Connerotte from the Dutroux case for allegations of bias, because he had attended fundraising dinner for the victims in the case where he also received a small gift. The disqualification and subsequent replacement of the investigative judge in the extremely sensitive Dutroux case caused national outcry, and was one of the main factors leading up to the so-called "White March". This was a demonstration in Brussels of about 300,000 people who demanded better protection for children and a better functioning justice system.
"Antigone" ruling: In this ruling rendered on 14 October 2003, the court reduced the scope of the exclusionary principle regarding unlawfully obtained evidence in criminal cases. Until then, the Belgian judiciary had generally adhered to the principle that unlawfully obtained evidence is inadmissible and must be excluded from the criminal proceedings and the consideration of the judge(s), even though such a remedy was not explicitly provided for in Belgian law. The Court of Cassation ruled that unlawfully obtained evidence must only be excluded if its reliability was affected, if the use of the evidence would be an explicit cause of nullity as provided for by law, or if the use of the evidence would be in violation of the right to a fair trial. The cause for the ruling was the conviction of a man for illegally possessing a firearm, which was discovered during a police search later held to be unlawful. The police search was part of a coordinated police operation in the city of Antwerp under the code name "Antigone". This important case law was later codified as such into the "Preliminary title" of the Belgian Code of Criminal Procedure.
Applicable legislation
Most of the legal provisions that establish the structure, jurisdiction and procedure of the Court of Cassation, can be found in the Belgian Judicial Code:
Part II, Book I, Title I, Chapter V of the Code defines the structure and subdivisions of the court;
Part III, Title I, Chapter V of the Code defines the jurisdiction of the court;
Part IV, Book III, Title IV of the Code defines the procedural rules for cassation proceedings in non-criminal (civil, commercial, ...) cases.
Part IV, Book III, Title IVbis of the Code defines some specific rules for cassation proceedings in disciplinary cases.
However, the Belgian Code of Criminal Procedure defines the procedural rules for cassation proceedings in criminal cases.
The provisions regarding prejudicial questions to the Court of Cassation on the topic of competition law, are laid down in the Belgian Code of Economic Law.
Statistics
Caseload
According to its annual report, a total of 2,522 new cases were brought before the Court of Cassation in 2019, of which 1,386 were cases in the Dutch language and 1,136 were in the French language. The number of cases still pending at the end of 2019 stood at 2,008. In 2019, the court also issued 2,420 final decisions in cases pending before it, which were therefore closed (as far as concerns the Court of Cassation at least). When looking at the preceding years, one can observe that the number of new cases in 2019 has risen slightly compared to 2018, but is still significantly lower than in 2011 (3,583 new cases). The number of rulings issued in 2019 however stands at the lowest in recent years. In its report, the court itself attributes this to shortages in support personnel, the resignation of seven magistrates (judges and members of the prosecutor's office) from the court, and the burdensome appointment procedure to replace them.
Nature of the cases
The court's 2019 annual report also contains statistics about the nature of the cases brought before it. Of the 2,522 new cases brought before the court in 2019, 1,348 were criminal cases, 658 were civil and commercial cases, 170 were fiscal cases, 92 were social cases (involving labour or social protection law), 16 were disciplinary cases (concerning decisions taken by some professional bodies), and 238 cases were requests for judicial assistance in proceedings before the court. Of the aforementioned cases:
12 concerned requests to disqualify a judge or court in a lower court case, and refer the case to a different judge or court, that were granted by the court;
2 concerned matters that were heard and ruled upon by a chamber of the court in full bench;
2 concerned matters that were heard and ruled upon by the court in joint chambers.
In 2019, no prejudicial questions had been asked to the Court of Cassation.
Outcome of the cases
The court's 2019 annual reports provides (rounded-up) statistics on the outcome of adjudicated cases as well. Of all the cases the court ruled on in 2019, 54% resulted in the rejection of the appeal in cassation and 22% resulted in a cassation (meaning an entire or partial annulment of the contested judgment or ruling). In addition, 11% of the cases resulted in a summary ruling of non-admissibility (only criminal cases), 6% of the cases concerned the rejection of a request for judicial assistance, 3% concerned the granting of judicial assistance, 3% of the cases were abandoned by the claimant before a final decision, and 1% concerned the disqualification of a judge in a lower court case. There exists a non-negligible difference between criminal and non-criminal cases regarding the chances of success of an appeal in cassation: whilst 41% of the non-criminal cases resulted in a cassation, only 14% of the criminal cases resulted in a cassation as well.
Trivia
At the beginning of each "judicial year" (, , ) on the 1st of September, the Court of Cassation holds a ceremonial session with all of the magistrates (judges and prosecutors) of the court, where the prosecutor-general will hold an oration, usually on a legal topic. This oration is known as a "mercurial" (, , ). During the ceremony, the magistrates wear their ceremonial attire.
The ceremonial attire of the magistrates of the Court consists of a red court dress and white jabot. In addition, the ceremonial dresses of the first president of the Court and of the prosecutor-general are lined with ermine. The magistrates may wear any decorations or medals awarded to them on their court dresses. These dresses are only worn on ceremonial occasions; during normal hearings the judges and prosecutors wear a simple black court dress with white jabot and red girdle. Both their ceremonial and usual court attire are prescribed by the law.
Each year in October, the prosecutor-general at the court must submit a report to the Belgian Federal Parliament, listing all of the laws or legal provisions that caused problems during the last judicial year. This concerns laws and legal provisions that turned out to be difficult to interpret or apply by the courts and tribunals of Belgium. This report is meant to allow legislators to correct or improve defective, ambiguous or otherwise problematic legislation.
Most rulings of the Court of Cassation, as well as some of the advisory opinions given by the prosecutor-general's office, are bundled and published yearly as a reference work. The Dutch-language rulings are published in the Arresten van het Hof van Cassatie, the French-language rulings in the Pasicrisie belge.
The Court of Cassation of Belgium is a member of the (abbreviated as AHJUCAF), which is an organisation founded in 2001 that encompasses around fifty supreme courts from primarily or partially French-speaking nations. The organisation aims to promote the cooperation and the exchange of ideas between the participating supreme courts.
See also
Court of cassation (general article)
Council of State (Belgium)
Constitutional Court (Belgium)
References
Terminology in Dutch, French and German
Legislation
Journal articles and publications
Other references
Literature
Van Eeckhoutte, Willy; Ghysels, Jan (2014). Cassatie in strafzaken [Cassation in penal cases] (in Dutch). Mortsel: Intersentia. .
Maes, Bruno & Wouters, Paul (eds.); De Codt, Jean (2016). Procederen voor het Hof van Cassatie – Procéder devant la Cour de cassation [Litigating before the Court of Cassation] (in Dutch and French). Antwerp: Knopspublishing. .
Parmentier, Claude (2018). Comprendre la technique de cassation [Understanding the technique of cassation] (in French) (2nd ed.). Brussels: Larcier. .
Baudoncq, Frederiek (2018). Voorziening in cassatie [Appeal in cassation] (in Dutch). Mechelen: Wolters Kluwer. .
External links
Website of the Court of Cassation of Belgium
Website of the bar association at the Court of Cassation
Page on 'Belgium' on the website of the Network of the Presidents of the Supreme Judicial Courts of the European Union
Page on 'Belgium' on the website of the Association des hautes juridictions de cassation des pays ayant en partage l'usage du français
Cassation
Belgium Court of Cassation
Courts in Belgium
Courts and tribunals established in 1831 |
4528804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moor%20frog | Moor frog | The moor frog (Rana arvalis) is a slim, reddish-brown, semiaquatic amphibian native to Europe and Asia. Moor frogs are known for their ability to freeze solid and survive thawing. The frog makes use of various cryoprotectants i.e. antifreeze that decrease its internal freezing temperature. The species is distributed over a large range, covering a significant portion of Eurasia. Male moor frogs are known to turn blue temporarily during the height of mating season. This coloration is assumed to signal a mate's fitness. Moor frogs typically mate through multimale amplexus a form of polyandry.
The moor frog spawns its eggs in large batches in still bodies of acidic waters. Human-caused pollution is causing excessive acidification of habitat which harms egg health. The moor frog's habitat is also under destruction due to a variety of other anthropogenic means. The species has an IUCN listing of Least Concern. However, a majority of European states independently consider the conservation status of the moor frog to be unfavorable. The moor frog, like other members of Rana, is omnivorous and will consume anything that it can physically ingest.
Description
The moor frog is a small bog frog, characterized by a solid belly, a large, dark ear spot, and often a pale stripe down the centre of the back. The species is reddish-brown, but can also be yellow, grey, or light-olive. Common traits include white or yellow pigmentation on its underside and black stripes from its nostrils along the sides of its head. The Moor frog ranges from 5.5 to 6.0 cm (2.2 to 2.4 in) long, but can reach up to 7.0 cm (2.8 in) in length. Their heads are more tapered than those of the common frog (Rana temporaria).
The skin on their flanks and thighs is smooth, and their tongue is forked and free. Pupils are horizontally oriented, feet are partially webbed, and back legs are shorter than those in the same family of frogs. Males, unlike females, have nuptial pads on their first fingers and paired guttural vocal sacs.
Taxonomy
The family the moor frog belongs to, Ranidae, is a broad group containing 605 species. The family contains ranoid frogs that do not belong to any other families and are found on every continent but Antarctica. The moor frog belongs to genus Rana, which includes species found in Europe and Asia. The moor frog is not found in the Americas.
The moor frog's scientific name, Rana arvalis, means "frog of the fields". It is also called the Altai brown frog because frogs from the Altai Mountains in Asia have been included in the R. arvalis species. The Altai frogs have some different characteristics such as shorter shins, but currently there is no official distinction and all frogs are known as one species—Rana arvalis.
The moor frog was first reported by Nilsson in volume 3 of Skandinavisk fauna with a moderate muzzle and prominent first cuneiform bone.
Distribution and habitat
The moor frog can be found in a large majority of Europe and Asia. The species' east-west range extends from northeastern France and northern Belgium all the way to the Lena River in Siberia. The north-south range extends as far north as the 69th parallel in Finland and as far south as the Pannonian basin in Central Europe.
The moor frog can be found in a wide range of altitudes. In the western region of its range, the moor frog can be found as high up as 900 meters above sea level, and in the eastern portion, the moor frog can be found as high up as 2000 meters in the Altai. Within this geographical range, the moor frog is often found in bodies of still water with littoral vegetation and pH below 6. The diversity of habitats demonstrates the frog's plasticity.
Moor frogs can live in tundras, forests, forest steppes, steppes, forest edges, glades, semideserts, swamps, meadows, fields, bushlands, and gardens. They prefer areas untouched by humans, such as damp meadows and bogs, but are able to live in agricultural and urban areas.
Moor frogs provide a good model for studying local adaptation as they experience a wide range of environments and are relatively limited in their movements. Their restriction in movements implies limited gene flow and facilitates evolution through adaptive genetic differentiation among populations.
The species has been successfully bred in captivity in the UK and a reintroduction has been proposed as part of Celtic Reptile & Amphibian's rewilding plans.
Historical distribution
The earliest fossil record of the moor frog extends back to between the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene found in Dvorníky-Včeláre, Slovakia. Other fossil records of the moor frog from the early Pleistocene were found on land inside the modern range of the moor frog. Fossil records from the middle Pleistocene demonstrate the range extended as far south as south-central France and as far west as the eastern coast of Great Britain. Records from the late Pleistocene show the range extended as far south as Bosnia and Herzegovina and Azerbaijan.
Distribution in Romania
The moor frog is found in three regions in Romania. The first is the Transylvanian region which includes the Western Plains (with the largest Romanian population of moor frogs), the Transylvanian Plateau, and the Eastern Carpathians. The second region is the northern part of Romanian Moldavia. The third and smallest region is the Tisa River Basin—north of Maramureș. Most populations of moor frog in Romania are isolated and not contiguous due to the edge effects of human developments. Each population typically has 200-400 adults; however, exceptional populations of 2000 adults have been found as well. Most Romanian populations of moor frog can be found between 108-414 meters above sea level; exceptional populations have been found to exist at 740 meters above sea level.
In Romania, the moor frog is known to live in humid habitats that border land with human activity, such as flooded agricultural fields, ditches on the side of roads, small canals and streams, and human settlements. The moor frog is sparingly found in habitats with little human activity. Swamps are one of the few habitats with little human activity that host moor frogs.
Diet
An adult moor frog's diet consists of any mobile and terrestrial animals that they can physically ingest. Moor frogs most commonly consume beetles; however, other insects from the orders hemiptera (true bugs), hymenoptera, and diptera (flies) are consumed as well. Moor frogs also consume non-insect invertebrates from the orders gastropoda (snails and slugs), arachnida, and myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes). Beetles make up the majority of the moor frog's diet due to their abundance. Large moor frogs do appear to have a preference for beetles because they are larger than most other insect prey.
Large moor frogs tend to consume large prey and small moor frogs consume small prey. This behavior is assumed to have evolved to reduce competition between moor frogs or to maximize net energy gained from feeding, as large moor flogs consuming both large and small prey would leave little food for smaller moor frogs. Aside from size preferences, individual moor frogs do not appear to prefer more energetically favorable prey over less energetically favorable prey of equal size. The moor frog will ingest any animal that it is able to swallow.
Moor frogs are opportunistic predators that wait for prey to appear before consuming them, as opposed to intentional predators that actively hunt for prey. More mobile prey are more often consumed by the moor frog because of their opportunistic nature.
Plant matter and inedible objects such as pebbles are also found to be consumed by the moor frog. Plant matter is found to be consumed in greater quantities when more prey has been consumed, which suggests that plant matter is consumed accidentally during the capture of prey. The moor frog's shed skin is also consumed; however, it is unknown whether consumption of shed skin is accidental or intentional in nature.
Mating
Multimale amplexus, in which multiple males mate with a single female, is the predominant method of mating that the moor frog performs. The sperm of male moor frogs compete in the female reproductive tract for fertilization of the female's egg.
Female frogs do not appear to prefer males of a particular size. Instead, they tend to prefer to mate with males that have successfully helped produce offspring with them in the past.
Long thumb length is correlated with poor sperm quality, and short thumb length is correlated with higher sperm quality. Males with higher quality sperm breed progeny with greater chances of survival. Despite this correlation, female individuals do not appear to prefer thumb length or be able to detect variation in thumb length.
Blue coloration
Male moor frogs turn a conspicuous blue during the mating season, but only for a few days during peak reproductive activity. Females remain brown during this time. While the blue is conspicuous to human vision, the greatest color change in male moor frogs occurs in the ultraviolet region from 350 to 450 nm, invisible to human vision. Males who have mated appear bluer and have been recorded as having higher body temperatures.
Blue reflectance may be a form of intersexual communication. It is hypothesized that males with brighter blue coloration may signal greater sexual and genetic fitness; however, studies have only revealed tadpoles fathered by bright blue individuals had greater chances of survival when pitted against large beetle larvae than when fathered by dull individuals.
Ecology
Hibernation
Moor frogs hibernate sometime between September and June, depending on their latitude. Frogs in southwestern plain habitats will hibernate (around November or December) and wake earlier (February). However, frogs in cold, polar areas will hibernate sooner (in September) and wake later (in June).
Breeding
The mating season takes place between March and June, right after the end of hibernation. Males form breeding choruses that may sound similar to air escaping from a submerged empty bottle, similar to those of the agile frog Rana dalmatina. Males can also develop bright-blue coloration for a few days during the season.
Spawning happens quickly and is completed in 3 to 28 days. The spawn of each frog is laid in one or two clusters of 500-3000 eggs in warm, shallow waters.
Effects of acidification on population
Environmental plasticity
Increased acidity levels in breeding areas may be problematic for moor frog populations, as it reduces survival and growth of the aquatic embryos and larvae. When exposed to acidity, moor frogs have been shown to be able to adapt relatively rapidly (within 16–40 generations). Local adaptation to acidity is also possible in survival during the embryonic stage, during which frogs are most sensitive to severe acidity. Moreover, compared to those from neutral sites, acidic origin populations have higher embryonic and larval acid tolerance (survival and larval period were less negatively affected by low pH), higher larval growth but slower larval development rates, and larger metamorphosing size. Divergence in embryonic acid tolerance and metamorphic size correlates most strongly with breeding pond pH, whereas divergence in larval period and larval growth correlates most strongly with latitude and predator density, respectively.
Moor frogs can adapt to the various effects of acidification through long-term selection causing genetic change or spontaneous behavioral changes mediated by hormonal responses. Stressors that demand immediate solutions, such as a sudden shift in temperature or appearance of a predator, demand that an individual can respond appropriately, such as moving to a more temperate location or evading or fighting off a predator. The extent to which an individual can adapt to respond to a new situation is referred to as an individual's phenotypic plasticity. These plastic adaptations can be quantitatively analyzed through the measurement of hormones that spike when individuals are under stress, such as cortisol. Moor frog tadpoles use and understand a variety of chemicals that signal stressors, and acidification can chemically disrupt a tadpole's ability to receive and send signals, thus making an individual tadpole unable to respond to environmental stressors. Acid-tolerant Moor frogs are larger and more active than Moor frogs that have not acclimatized to acidification. Acid-tolerant moor frogs also exhibit stronger hormonal responses to immediate dangers like the presence of a predator, which, in turn, creates a stronger behavioral response to evade those predators.
Some acid-tolerant Moor frogs have lower levels of sodium, which may be an adaptation to acidification.
Maternal effects
Frogs from acidic environments may favor different reproductive strategies than those in more benign environments. Compared to neutral-origin females, acid-origin females tend to invest relatively more in fecundity than in egg size, invest more in their offspring than in self-maintenance, and increase their reproductive effort as their residual reproductive value decreases. Consequently, acid origin females increase the clutch size and total reproductive output with age, while neutral origin females only increase egg size but not clutch size or total reproductive output with age.
Environmental acidification has various reproductive impacts: decreased maternal investment, selection for investment in larger eggs at a cost to fecundity, hindered reproductive output, altered relationship between female phenotype and maternal investment, and strengthened egg-size-fecundity trade-off. High habitat acidity often imposes great costs to survival, which may lead to the culling of Moor frogs. High acidity imposes stress on eggs; when a habitat is acidic enough, embryos often exhibit developmental defects and become inviable. Egg coats are maternally derived structures that surround Moor frog eggs to protect them. Egg coats can buffer the low pH of the Moor frog's acidic habitats; however, drastic decreases in habitat pH caused by human-made pollution affects an egg coat's function. High habitat acidity causes thinning and a loss in the egg coat's ability to attract water. Thinned egg coats are more tacky and opaque. These eggs are more susceptible to drying out, pathogen infection, UV light degradation, and poor gas exchange. The disabling of the egg coat leaves an embryo defenseless and tremendously susceptible to developmental defects. Moor frogs that are more easily killed by acidic waters are less fit and their genes are lost from the gene pool. Acidification is strong enough to cause rapid adaptation due to the high selection pressure it places on the Moor frog. As a result, certain highly acidic habitats have seen the development of Moor frogs that are less sensitive to the stress of highly acidic waters. Eggs of acid-tolerant frogs have coats with a greater negative charge. This suggests glycans give the egg coat its hydrophilic properties. Acid-tolerant eggs also have egg coats that are more acidic which suggests a greater concentration of negatively charged glycans as compared to typical Moor frogs. High acidity is able to reduce an egg coat's attraction to water because high proton concentration in acidic water is able to protonate the coat, thus neutralizing a glycan's charge. This is also why high habitat pH causes egg coat glycans to deprotonate which restores the egg coat's negative charge/attraction to water.
Physiology
Cold tolerance
Moor frogs are renowned for their ability to tolerate freezing temperatures because most frog species live in hot and humid tropical environments. Many frogs that do live in cold climates will attempt to overwinter in bodies of water because ambient temperatures are moderated by water. In these cases, temperatures only reach a few degrees below freezing. The moor frog is only known to overwinter on land. They overwinter in pits of leaf litter and between tree stumps. Moor frogs from European Russia and Western Siberia are able to tolerate freezing to temperatures as low as -16°C. Moor frogs from Denmark are only able to survive freezing temperatures as low as -4°C for 3 to 4 days. The minimum freezing temperatures at which frogs are able to survive with 0% mortality is different between frog populations. Minimum freezing temperatures with some chance of survival appears to decrease from Western Europe to Western Siberia. However, in the aforementioned Siberian and Danish populations mitochondrial DNA testing revealed that they were closely related.
The supercooling point (SCP) is the lowest temperature at which an organism can be cooled to (below freezing) before ice crystals form (cold-tolerant animals often use cryoprotectants that decrease the freezing temperature to prevent the formation of ice). Freeze-tolerant frogs may see up to 65% of their body freeze solid during winter. Moor frogs, like many frogs, are particularly susceptible to freezing solid because of their skin which is thin and porous—permeable to the exchange of gases and liquids. Formation of ice crystals externally can act as nucleation sites for the formation of crystals inside the moor frog. When temperatures reach below the SCP a moor frog's skin darkens, muscles become rigid, eyes dull, and solid ice can be readily felt through touch. At temperatures between 0°C and 1°C frogs assume normal behavior but still respond to external stimuli i.e. frogs will leap away if disturbed. At temperatures immediately below freezing frogs assume an overwintering posture with their limbs adducted. When touched at below-freezing temperatures, frogs are only capable of slight movements of the limbs and body. Siberian populations exhibit 0% mortality at -8°C, 25% mortality at -10°C, and 50% mortality at -12°C. A few members from a population from Karasuk were able to freeze solid to -16°C, thaw, and survive. The time a frog spends frozen does not seem to affect mortality rather the absolute minimum temperature they experience has the greatest effect on mortality. Frogs have been recorded to spend around 3 months in this frozen state with the potential to survive thawing.
Cryoprotectants
Freezing temperatures impose tremendous stress on the moor frog; breathing stops, circulation stops, ice forms in the tissues, and cells are severely dehydrated. To tolerate these tremendous stressors the moor frog and many other ice-tolerant animals greatly subdue metabolic processes, produce antioxidants, and use other biochemical means to make freezing tolerable i.e. cryoprotectants (anti-freeze). Moor frogs are known to utilize glucose as a cryoprotectant which is formed through gluconeogenesis—a natural process in livers. Because gluconeogenesis is generally restricted to the liver and glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose) continues through wintering, it is presumed there are cryoprotectants other than glucose at play in other parts of the body i.e. the muscles. Glycerol is found in much greater concentrations in the liver and muscles of frozen moor frogs. Mannose, maltose, and maltitol are also known to be in higher concentrations in the liver and muscles of frozen moor frogs; however, the change in concentration is not as drastic as the change in concentration of glycerol between frozen and non-frozen moor frogs. Freezing temperatures directly increase the rate at which glucose is broken down. The manufacture of these products all requires the use of glucose, which is stored in a polymeric form, glycogen, in the muscles. As expected, the production of these cryoprotectants and continued metabolism (even though it is slowed) consumes a great quantity of glycogen that is not replenished as the frog is not feeding during the winter.
Lactate and ethanol are found in higher concentrations in frozen moor frogs. The moor frog is the only known terrestrial vertebrate to produce ethanol as a product of glycolysis. These two molecules are products of anaerobic processes which is to be expected because breathing/aerobic processes drastically slow down to the point of stopping when the moor frog is in a frozen state. Products of the breakdown of DNA are found in higher concentrations in frozen moor frogs suggesting that freezing is a highly stressful process for the frog. Frozen moor frogs also have greater concentrations of antioxidants; which are presumably made in anticipation of the oxidative stress when aerobic respiration resumes after thawing.
Metabolism during freezing
Moor frogs still exhibit aerobic respiration at temperatures immediately below 0°C i.e -0.5°C to -1°C. However, the amount of oxygen consumed exponentially decreases with each decrease in degree Celsius. The majority of glucose degradation still occurs through anaerobic processes. Glycogen content in muscles reaches 35% in males, 20% in females, and 25% in juveniles by mass in autumn before wintering. Glycogen in the muscles also decrease much more over winter than in the liver as limbs freeze before the core does. The mass of glycogen in the liver decreased by 10 times in females and up to 30 times in males. In a study, female Moor frogs lost 82% in mass of body fat after wintering and males lost 81%.
Conservation
Population threats
It is currently classified as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). However, the moor frog may soon be impacted by the destruction and pollution of breeding sites and adjacent habitats, mostly through urbanization, recreational use of waterside areas, and intensive agriculture. The species does not appear to be notably susceptible to chytridiomycosis, although the fungus has been detected in frogs in Germany.
The 2009 IUCN Red List status of the moor frog does not properly reflect the current declining nature of the moor frog. There is a general lack of research on the conservation status of the moor frog in many EU member states and in-range countries. However, a European Habitats Directive performed in 2013 revealed that 19 of the 28 member states of the time reported that the conservation status of the moor frog was unfavorable. 11 of the 19 said that their status was in decline as well. It is known that existing populations in Europe are small in number which indicates a significant loss of genetic diversity. This lack of genetic diversity threatens the current stability of populations and long-term survival because of the increased risk of inbreeding.
12 helminth and nematode species are known to parasitize the moor frog. Trematode infection can cause the formation of cysts in larvae; particularly at areas undergoing metamorphosis. These cysts can cause the formation of extra limbs, deformation to the vertebral skeleton. Frogs with these deformations are particularly susceptible to predation by the trematode's final and definitive hosts.
Conservation status in France
The moor frog is considered nearly extinct in France where the western limit of the moor frog range extends. As of 2020, there are only four isolated populations in France. These four were once a contiguous metapopulation. In France, moor frog habitats are limited and of poor quality due to significant human development that encroaches on and destroys moor frog habitats. Edge effects of human developments also fragment and degrade remaining habitats. Mild inbreeding greatly reduces the moor frog fitness due to the small number of individuals in these isolated populations.
Conservation efforts
Acidification, eutrophication, and other forms of water pollution negatively affect the aquatic habitats of moor frogs. Moor frogs normally enjoy acidic environments; however, peat bogs which produce these acidic conditions have poor buffering properties that make them susceptible to drastic decreases of pH even below 4.5. There are various conservation practices being initiated in order to remediate these pH driven effects. Liming of peat bogs by adding chalk can increase pH. Acidification of freshwater aquatic habitats has the detrimental effect of reduced biodiversity. One study showed in highly acidic waters, pH 4.2, eggs of the moor frog were especially susceptible to fungal infection. Many eggs were infected and those that were had a mortality rate of 50%. Organic sediment is removed from pools before the addition of limestone particles (<3mm) to prevent eutrophication. Before liming of acidic waters, moor frog eggs can expect to be infected with fungi 75-100% of the time. Liming treatment is able to reduce the presence of fungal infection to 0-25% of the time by increasing pH to 5-6. While this method may allow for moor frog reproduction to occur in the short-term, the effect is only temporary and acidification will ultimately reoccur. Protection and addition of riparian zones by preventing grazing and replanting littoral vegetation aids the rewetting process of drained land. Drainage of land for agriculture is especially dangerous to the moor frog because they are prone to desiccation. Conservation efforts undertaken for the moor frog are most effective when executed in small scale phases. These small scale phases are more easily managed and receive more attention.
References
Some parts of this article were translated from the article Grenouille des champs on the French language Wikipedia.
External links
The Animal Files
moor frog
Arctic land animals
Amphibians of Russia
Amphibians of Europe
Amphibians of Asia
Amphibians described in 1842
Taxa named by Sven Nilsson |
4529085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidad%20Tecnol%C3%B3gica%20de%20M%C3%A9xico | Universidad Tecnológica de México | The Universidad Tecnológica de México (UNITEC) (Technological University of México) is a private university located in Mexico City, with campuses in the states of Guanajuato, Jalisco, México and Querétaro. It offers high school, bachelor, and postgraduate programs. Ignacio Guerra Pellegaud founded it in 1966 and since 2008 is part of the Laureate International Universities Network. The UNITEC has 10 campuses: Cuitláhuac, Marina and Sur in Mexico City; Atizapán, Ecatepec, Los Reyes, and Toluca in the State of Mexico; Leon in the State of Guanajuato; Guadalajara in the State of Jalisco; and Querétaro in the State of Querétaro. Additionally, it has an Online Campus. UNITEC total enrollment is higher than 90,000; more than 64,000 students are concentrated in the campuses of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area, which makes it the largest private university in this country region.
History
Before Laureate
UNITEC was founded in 1966 by a group of Mexican entrepreneurs committed to the development and progress of the country. Its activities began with the bachelor's degrees of Business Administration and Public Accounting
Campuses
Marina Campus (Mexico City)
In 1968, the first campus of the university was opened in the building located, up to this day, in Avenida Marina Nacional 162, Col. Anáhuac I Sección, 11320 Ciudad de México, which is now part of the Marina-Cuitláhuac Campus.
In 1975 started teaching the bachelor's degrees of Business administration, Marketing, Finance and Economics, consolidating the Economic-Administrative Sciences area; a year later the Postgraduate Studies Division was created, teaching postgraduate specializations of Marketing, Human resources Administration, Financial Administration and Industrial Operations.
Dentistry Clinic
In 1970 the bachelor's degree in Dental Surgeon was created, a program that gives distinction to the university. This year UNITEC had also de first generation of graduates.
In 2003, the new Dentistry Clinic was inaugurated whose facilities are nowadays a vanguard model in dental technology and education. With this infrastructure and through its service to the community, it offers diagnostic, emergency, and radiology services; as well as surgical, reconstructive, and rehabilitation care; and pediatric care, endodontics and orthodontics.
To perform dental care, an instructor supervises every five students. As part of the preparation of the students, from the first semester students practice with artificial teeth, models and simulators. During the second semester, they make inroads in the Dentistry Clinic, performing cleaning and prophylaxis. In the third semester, they extend the practice in the endodontics and the dental surgery to perform cavities. From the sixth semester, they have access to the comprehensive clinic.
The Faculty of Dentistry was the first private university to obtain certification from the National Council of Dental Education (CONAEDO) by exceeding the necessary academic and clinical standards.
Cuitláhuac Campus (Mexico City)
This campus opened in 1990, in street Norte 67, San Salvador Xochimanca neighborhood. By 1994, its facilities were completed in their entirety with six buildings. With this campus, it establishes for the first time the School of Engineering with the bachelor's degrees of Civil Engineering, Electrical engineering, Electronics and Communications Engineering, Industrial and Systems Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Chemical engineering, as well as Architecture and Graphic design. At the same time, the high school program was reopened. In January and September 1992, it was added the Computer Systems Engineering and the bachelor's degree of Administrative Computing.
Sur Campus (Mexico City)
Opened on 25 August 1997 for High School, bachelor, postgraduate programs, and continuing education. The campus was built on an area of 23,000 m2, in which archaeological sites of the Mexican culture were found during its construction.
Atizapán Campus (State of Mexico)
Inaugurated on 31 August 1999, located in the municipality of Atizapán de Zaragoza, in the State of Mexico, for students of high school programs, bachelor programs, postgraduate studies and continuing education. The campus was built on what used to be an extensive sports club. The first stage of its construction was completed in 1999. Later the buildings of the campus were completed having a capacity of around 12,000 students.
Ecatepec Campus (State of Mexico)
Opened on 30 September 2002, located in the State of Mexico, teaching high school and 12 bachelor's degree programs.
Zapopan Campus (State of Jalisco)
In response to the increase in demand, this campus began operations in September 2004; it is located in Anillo Periférico Poniente 79000, Jardines del Collí, Zapopan, State of Jalisco. In 2008, this campus ceased to be part of UNITEC.
Campus Cumbres (State of Nuevo León)
Opens its doors in September 2004, it is located at Palmas Avenue No. 5500, Cumbres Sector 4, Monterrey, State of Nuevo León. In 2008, this campus ceased to be part of UNITEC.
Universidad Latina de Costa Rica
This university was acquired in 2005 and in 2008 ceased to be part of UNITEC. .l.
Universidad Americana (Costa Rica)
In July 2005, the Pro-Education Consortium, a Mexican private educational institution, acquired the Universidad Americana (American University). This consortium was composed by UNITEC in México, as well as Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, Universidad Americana, Instituto Latino de Formación Integral (ILAFORI), and Colegio Latino in Costa Rica. In 2008, this university ceased to be part of UNITEC.
INITE
From 1996 to 2008, UNITEC through the Educational Technology Research Institute (INITE) developed its own books and didactic notebooks, over 12 years accumulated an approximate of more than 2 million of copies. In July 2008, INITE ceased to be part of UNITEC.
From Laureate
Acquisition
In May 2008, Laureate Education Inc. start a purchase process in order to acquire UNITEC, pending the approval of the Federal Competition Commission. Finally, on 8 July 2008, it was announced that the company, through its subsidiary Laureate International Universities, acquired the university belonging to Ignacio Guerra Pellegaud. Because of this, the campuses of Coyoacán, Zapopan and Cumbres of UNITEC became part of the Universidad del Valle de México (UVM).
Toluca Campus (State of Mexico)
Started operations in 2013 at Paseo Tollocan 701, Santa Ana Tlapaltitlán, Toluca, State of México, offering high school programs, bachelor's degree, and, from 2016, postgraduate programs.
León Campus (State of Guanajuato)
Leon Campus was inaugurated in September 2015, provides services to the lowland region, it is located on Juan Alonso de Torres East Blvd.1041, San José del Consuelo, León, State of Guanajuato. Its educational offer are high school and bachelor's degree programs.+
Guadalajara Campus (State of Jalisco)
Guadalajara Campus was inaugurated in September 2016; it is located in Tlaquepaque, Mexico. It is the result of 50 years of experience, more than 160 thousand alumni and more than 80 programs. It is located on Lázaro Cárdenas Street No. 405, Prados Tlaquepaque, San Pedro Tlaquepaque, State of Jalisco. Its educational programs offer are high school and bachelor's degree programs.
Querétaro Campus (State of Querétaro)
Started operations in September 2017, it is located at Febrero 5, Av. 1412, San Pablo, municipality of Santiago de Querétaro, State of Querétaro. Its educational offer are high school and bachelor's degree programs.
Los Reyes Campus (State of Mexico)
Los Reyes Campus started operations in September 2018; it is located in the Mexico-Puebla Federal Highway, km 17.5, Los Reyes Acaquilpan, Municipality of La Paz, zip code 56410, in the State of Mexico (next to the Santa Marta subway station).
Rectors and chief executive officers
Rectors
Ignacio Guerra Pellegaud (1966–1994)
Manuel Campuzano Treviño (1994–2002)
Raúl Méndez Segura (2003–2008)
Manuel Campuzano Treviño (2008–2017)
Alejandro Montano Durán (January 2018 – to date)
Chief Executive Officers
Manuel Campuzano Treviño (2008 – November 2017)
Milton Da Rocha Camargo (November 2017 – December 2018)
Gerardo Santiago Cuetos (January 2019 – to date)
Academic programs offer and Delivery models
Nowadays UNITEC offer three academic delivery models: Traditional, Working-adult (executive) and On-line. It includes 60 academic programs in high school, bachelor's degrees, and postgraduate degrees.
High school programs
High school
Bachelor Degrees
Administration and Social Sciences Area
Business Administration
Communication and Management of Entertainment Enterprises
Tourism Business Management
Communication Sciences
International Business
Communication and Media
Public Accounting
Public Accounting and Finance
Law
Economics
Finance
Marketing
Publicity and Digital Marketing
International Business
Pedagogy
Publicity and Media
International Relations
Architecture and Design Area
Architecture
Graphic Design
Industrial Design
Design, Animation and Digital Art
Digital Design and Animation
Engineering Area
Information Technology Management Engineering
Environmental and Sustainability Engineering
Civil Engineering
Business Management Engineering
Computer Systems Engineering
Digital Systems and Robotics Engineering
Software and Networks Engineering
Telecommunications and Electronics Engineering
Industrial Engineering and Administration
Industrial and Systems Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Mechatronics Engineering
Chemical Engineering
Health Sciences Area
Dentistry
Nursing
Physiotherapy
Nutrition
Psychology
International in Tourism and Gastronomy Area
International bachelor's degree in Tourism and Meetings
Bachelor's degree Gastronomy
Master Degrees
Business Administration (MBA)
Analytics and Business Intelligence
Law
Communication Management
Project Management
Multimedia Design
Education
Hearing Trials
Migration Systems
Psychology
Information Technology Security
Sustainable Business Development
Health Organizations Management
Dentistry Postgraduate Specializations
Endodontics
Pediatric Dentistry
Restoration Dentistry
Orthodontics
Periodontology
With these academic programs, UNITEC offers:
95 programs by academic model
450 programs-campus
Notable alumni
Eruviel Ávila Villegas - graduated from the bachelor's degree of law. Former Governor of the State of Mexico.
Business Incubator
The program promotes the creation and development of value-added companies for the university community and the public through specialized advisory services, training, mentoring and networking. It mainly serves intermediate and traditional technology projects. It also has the certification of the Ministry of Economy and the National Institute of the Entrepreneur (INADEM) as a Basic Incubators Network. It consists of five incubators located in the Atizapán, Ecatepec, Toluca, Sur and Cuitláhuac campuses. With the support of this network, 80% of the businesses created remain with commercial activities after the first two years of operation, creating sources of employment and offering effective solutions to different problems in the country.
James McGuire International contest
Since 2012, the business incubator has supported innovative projects whose participants have won the James McGuire Entrepreneurship Contest, which is an international-level competition open to all institutions of the Laureate University Network, and it is intended to support students to realize their business projects. Some of the projects that have won this contest are shown in the following illustration.
Labor Liaison Center
The Labor Liaison Center of UNITEC offers a set of services to promote the insertion of students and graduates in the labor environment:
Students are offered:
Access to part-time vacancies in the mornings or in the afternoons (for students in terms 1–4)
Access to vacancies where they can start their professional experience (for students in terms 5 to 9)
Access to the online work exchange (for advanced students and new graduates)
Work orientation workshops
Access to face-to-face job fairs
Access to virtual job fairs
Interview simulations
Review of curriculum vitae
In each campus, there is a Labor Liaison Center where the students receive support:
From a specialized advisor
To develop an effective strategy in the job search
To establish a direct link with the world of work
Additionally, from the campus, the student or graduate can visit the in-plants of talent management companies, such as Adecco, Manpower, Superchamba, OCC, ANIQ, and Compañia de Talento y Probecarios.
Social Mobility and Employability
The International Finance Corporation (IFC), part of the World Bank Group, carried out a study on the employability and social mobility of graduates for UNITEC in 2014 and 2015. The results show the following:
The employment rate for UNITEC students is 92%, being 5.7 points higher than other private universities
UNITEC students are hired in their first job in less time once graduated: 4.2 vs. 8.1 months of other private universities
The labor benefits of UNITEC students are better than other public and private universities
27% of UNITEC students have been promoted to managerial positions vs. 18% of the other universities
38% of UNITEC students have recently been promoted in their jobs vs. 21% from other private universities.
The percentage of UNITEC graduates who have experienced positive changes in their socioeconomic level is 30 points higher than that of other private universities (41% vs. 11%).
72% of the graduates of UNITEC express positive changes in the prestige offered by their profession with respect to their parents' occupation. 62% from other private universities.
The IPSOS market research company carried out a Study of Graduates in 2015, which yielded the following results:
9 out of 10 worked on what they studied
95% have professional work
Earn 29% more than the national average
Accreditations
Institutional Accreditation (FIMPES)
The Mexican Federation of Private Institutions for Higher Education (Federación Mexicana de Instituciones Particulares de Educación Superior, FIMPES), is a group of particular Mexican institutions that has the purpose of improving communications and collaboration between them. It currently affiliates 109 universities across the country. FIMPES provide accreditations to educational institutions that meet quality standards that guarantee the education of professionals who graduate from them.
The accreditation is related to the improvement of the educational quality in Mexico and with the guarantee that the accredited institutions meet the established standards. This means that the institution has a relevant mission to the context of higher education, and that it has enough resources, programs and services to comply with it.
UNITEC has obtained the highest level of institutional accreditation by FIMPES in 2000, repeated the same accreditation level in 2006 and in 2015. This last accreditation ends in 2022.
Accreditation Council for Higher Education (COPAES)
The Accreditation Council for Higher Education (COPAES) is a non-profit civil association that acts as the only instance authorized by the Federal Government through the Ministry of Public Education (Secretaria de Educación Pública, SEP), to confer formal recognition and supervise organizations whose purpose is to accredit undergraduate academic programs that are taught in Mexico, in any of its modalities (traditional, on-line and blended).
At present, UNITEC has 49 programs-campus accredited with seven institutions recognized by COPAES, as is shown in the following table.
UNITEC ranked 14 th nationally among 408 public and private institutions with the highest number of programs-campus accredited by COPAES, and 5 th place in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area.
Reported results by National Center of Higher Education Evaluation (CENEVAL)
UNITEC presents superior results to the national average in the levels of satisfactory and outstanding performance of the General Exit Exam (EGEL) of CENEVAL, since 2007.
UNITEC is the 4th university in Mexico with the greatest number of registered programs in EGEL (General Exit Exam) High Performance bachelor's degrees Registry of CENEVAL, with 42 programs-campus from July 2016 – to June 2017.
In the period January–June 2018, UNITEC was ranked 1st in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area and in 3 rd position among the first 25 public and private universities nationwide with the largest number of students who received the CENEVAL Award to EGEL Excellence Performance.
Recognition of the Ministry of Public Education (Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP)
In September 2002, the UNITEC undergraduate programs received the certificate of enrollment in the Administrative Simplification Program and the Academic Excellence Plans and Programs Registry by the Ministry of Public Education.
UNITEC was the first University in Mexico to obtain the record of Academic Excellence granted by the SEP at the senior and middle levels.
Higher Education Institutions Ranking
According to the Reader's Digest Selections ranking, which considers three dimensions: infrastructure, prestige and evaluation of professionals, UNITEC is in the TOP 20 of the 100 best universities in Mexico.
QS Stars Rating
The QS Stars ranking is a methodology of Quacquarelli Symond (leading provider of information and solutions for higher education at the global academic of quality assessment) that classifies 2 thousand higher education institutions in 50 countries.
UNITEC has five stars in the following categories:
Employability
Teaching
Online education
Social responsibility
UNITEC is the first university in Mexico with five QS stars in the online education category.
Quality certification ISO 9001:2015
UNITEC obtained certification in ISO 9001:2015 for the period 2019–2022 in the process of recruitment, selection, and contracting faculty, granted by the Mexican Institute of Standardization and Certification (Instituto Mexicano de Normalización y Certificación A.C., IMNC).
References
External links
Universidad Tecnológica de México
.
Universidad Tecnológica de México
1966 establishments in Mexico |
4529106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%2018 | New York State Route 18 | New York State Route 18 (NY 18) is an east–west state highway in western New York in the United States. It runs parallel to the south shore of Lake Ontario for most of its length between Niagara County and Monroe County. NY 18, which also passes through Orleans County, acts as a northerly alternate to NY 104, another east–west route that parallels NY 18 to the south on Ridge Road. The western terminus of NY 18 is at a complex grade-separated interchange with NY 104 outside the village of Lewiston. Its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 104 in an area of Rochester known as Eastman Business Park.
NY 18 was assigned in 1924 and originally extended from the Pennsylvania state line near Salamanca to downtown Buffalo via Dayton and Hamburg. It was extended northeast to Rochester via Niagara Falls as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and east to NY 250 in the town of Webster by the following year. NY 18 was truncated on its west end to the town of Lewiston in the early 1960s and on its east end to Rochester in the early 1970s.
Although NY 18 is signed as east–west, it runs primarily north–south through the western portion of Niagara County. After leaving Niagara County, NY 18 shifts farther south, gradually moving away from the shore of Lake Ontario. In central Orleans County, NY 18 meets the Lake Ontario State Parkway at the Lakeside Beach State Park. The parkway then becomes the lakeside road, and NY 18 veers south to follow a more inland routing.
Route description
Niagara County
NY 18 begins at a junction with NY 104 south of a complex grade-separated interchange that includes NY 18F, NY 104, and the Niagara Scenic Parkway on the eastern edge of the village of Lewiston. From NY 104 east, a right-turn ramp allows access to Creek Road Extension, the first street that modern-day NY 18 occupies. NY 104 continues north from the ramp, passing over NY 18 westbound (which terminates at the merge ramp with NY 104 west) on its way to the village while NY 18 proceeds to the northeast on Creek Road Extension, bypassing Lewiston to the southeast. After , the highway curves to the north and meets NY 104 at an unconventional grade-separated interchange that has a pair of two-way ramps connecting the two state routes. NY 18 continues on, passing under NY 104 and paralleling the Niagara Scenic Parkway as it proceeds north.
At a wye in the Porter hamlet of Blairville, NY 18 breaks from its north–south alignment and turns to the northeast before curving northward once more, returning to a perfect north–south alignment at an intersection with NY 93 in the hamlet of Towers Corners. Southwest of the Four Mile Creek State Park, NY 18 turns a full 90 degrees to the east and begins to parallel the southern shore of Lake Ontario. Here, NY 18 meets the northern terminus of NY 18F, changes names from Creek Road to Lake Road, and becomes part of the Seaway Trail, a National Scenic Byway. The route proceeds northeast to Four Mile Creek State Park, where it intersects the northern end of the Niagara Scenic Parkway. East of the park, NY 18 gradually moves to the north, decreasing the area between the route and the lakeshore as it proceeds east.
Now in Wilson and less than from the lakeshore, NY 18 meets the northern terminus of NY 425. Farther east, in Olcott, NY 18 intersects the northern extent of NY 78. On the eastern edge of town, the route intersects Transit Road, which runs along the transit line first surveyed by the Holland Land Company. This portion of Transit Road does not meet the NY 78-occupied portion in Lockport, however. After meeting the northern end of NY 148 in Somerset, NY 18 intersects the northern terminus of NY 269 at the Niagara–Orleans County line.
Orleans County
Across the county line, NY 18 becomes the Roosevelt Highway. It continues across the northern edge of the county and the southern fringe of Lake Ontario, meeting the northern terminus of NY 63 in Yates Center, north of Lyndonville. While NY 63 ends here, Lyndonville Road continues north to the lake as County Route 63-1 (CR 63-1). This portion of Lyndonville Road was once part of NY 63. In Carlton, NY 18 intersects the northern terminus of NY 279, the last in a series of north–south routes that terminate at NY 18. Not far to the east, the route serves Lakeside Beach State Park and indirectly connects to the western terminus of the Lake Ontario State Parkway. At this point, the Seaway Trail leaves NY 18 to follow the parkway along the lakeshore.
East of the park, NY 18 breaks from the Lake Ontario shore and begins to make its way southward, curving to the southeast as it meets NY 98 north of the hamlet of Baldwin Corner. The routes converge to form a concurrency south to the hamlet, where NY 18 continues east. At the Carlton–Kendall town line, NY 18 curves southeastward once again before reverting to an easterly alignment in Kendall. After passing NY 237 south of the hamlet of Kendall, NY 18 intersects NY 272 at the Orleans–Monroe County line. NY 18 merges onto the county line road, overlapping NY 272 along the county line for just under to the continuation of Roosevelt Highway, where NY 18 continues east into Monroe County.
Monroe County
NY 18 remains Roosevelt Highway until Hamlin–Parma Town Line Road, where is becomes West Avenue. In the hamlet of Hamlin, it meets NY 19. NY 18 passes NY 260 before swerving northward onto West Avenue at the Hamlin–Parma town line and proceeding eastward toward the village of Hilton. In Hilton, NY 18 meets NY 259 (Lake Avenue) in the center of the village. The two routes overlap for a short distance east along Main Street before turning south to exit the village on South Avenue.
NY 18 and NY 259, now named Hilton–Parma Corners Road, remain concurrent until Parma Center, where NY 18 turns east to follow Parma Center Road for roughly through a rural portion of Parma. Parma Center Road ends upon intersecting NY 261 (Manitou Road) at the Parma–Greece town line; as a result, NY 18 joins NY 261 for one block southward before returning east on Latta Road and entering the Rochester suburb of Greece. NY 18 passes through the rural northwestern part of the town and the more developed, densely populated northeastern section, meeting NY 390 at exit 26 in the latter. The junction is the northernmost exit on NY 390 prior to its merging with the Lake Ontario State Parkway to the north.
A small distance east of NY 390, NY 18 passes Greece Arcadia High School and intersects Mount Read Boulevard in the hamlet of Mount Read before intersecting Dewey Avenue a half-mile to the east. NY 18 turns south onto Dewey Avenue; however, state maintenance continues to follow Latta Road east to where it crosses into the Rochester city limits at Charlotte. This section of Latta Road is designated as NY 941A, an unsigned reference route. NY 18, meanwhile, becomes maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 132, an unsigned designation that follows Dewey Avenue north to its end at the Lake Ontario shoreline. The route continues south on Dewey Avenue to the Rochester city line, where CR 132 ends and maintenance of the route shifts to the city of Rochester. NY 18 ends about later at a junction with NY 104 in an industrialized area known as Eastman Business Park.
History
Origins and early changes
In 1908, the New York State Legislature created Route 18, an unsigned legislative route that ran from the Pennsylvania state line at Ripley to the mouth of the Niagara River north of Youngstown with a gap through the city of Buffalo. North of Buffalo, Route 18 followed Niagara Falls Boulevard (modern NY 950K and U.S. Route 62 or US 62) to Niagara Falls and current NY 104 and NY 18F between Niagara Falls and Lake Ontario. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, the portion of legislative Route 18 north of Buffalo became the basis for NY 34, which began at Main Street (NY 5) in Buffalo and followed the path of legislative Route 18 through Niagara Falls and along the Niagara River to Lake Ontario. NY 18 was assigned at the same time; however, it initially went from the Pennsylvania state line at Limestone north to Buffalo along what is now US 219, NY 417, NY 353 and US 62. In Cattaraugus County, NY 18 initially followed Leon and New Albion Roads between Cattaraugus and Little Valley.
NY 18 was extended northeastward to Rochester as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, effectively doubling the route's length. Instead of ending at the junction of Ohio and Main Streets (the latter then part of NY 5) in downtown Buffalo, NY 18 now overlapped with NY 5 along Main Street north to Niagara Falls Boulevard, where it turned north and proceeded to Lake Ontario over NY 34. At Youngstown, the route turned east, following a previously unnumbered alignment along the lakeshore to Rochester, where it ended at NY 31 (now NY 104) in Kodak Park. The route was extended further eastward to NY 250 in Webster by the following year by way of East Ridge Road, Culver Road, and Lake Road. NY 18 was never extended eastward past its junction with NY 250.
While the general routing of NY 18 between Youngstown and Rochester was the same in 1930 as it is now, it initially followed a slightly different alignment through eastern Orleans County and western Monroe County. NY 18 broke from its current alignment at Carr Road and followed Carr, Kenmore and Kendall Roads through the town of Kendall to the hamlet of Morton, from where it continued to Hamlin via the now-decommissioned NY 360 and NY 19. Additionally, NY 18 utilized Hamlin Center Road and what is now NY 260 between Hamlin and Roosevelt Highway.
The majority of NY 18's routing south of the village of Lewiston was incorporated into the U.S. Highway System in the early 1930s after US 62 and US 219 were extended into New York and US 104 was assigned. NY 18 now began concurrent to US 219 at the state line and overlapped the route northward to the city of Salamanca. US 219 left NY 18 here, and the latter continued independently to the town of Dayton, where it intersected US 62. From there, US 62 followed NY 18 north to a junction with US 104 (Main Street) in Niagara Falls. US 62 ended here, and NY 18 became concurrent to US 104 upon turning onto Main Street. The overlap ended in the village of Lewiston, where US 104 turned east to follow Ridge Road instead.
Realignments and truncation
By 1931, NY 18 was realigned to follow its current alignment between Hamlin and the Parma town line while the modern routing of NY 18 between the Orleans County line and Hamlin was designated as NY 360. The alignments of NY 360 and NY 18 between NY 272 and Hamlin were flipped , placing both routes on their modern routings through Hamlin. NY 18 was moved onto its present routing through Kendall , bypassing the hamlets of Kendall and Morton to the south. In the Buffalo area, NY 18 was realigned twice in the 1930s: first by 1935 to bypass downtown to the east on Bailey Avenue between Abbott Road and Main Street and again in the late 1930s to use Bailey Avenue and Eggert Road between Main Street and Niagara Falls Boulevard. The Cattaraugus–Little Valley segment of the route was realigned to travel directly between the two locations. Its former routing via New Albion became NY 18F; however, that designation was eliminated , and ownership of the New Albion route was transferred to Cattaraugus County, which has maintained it as portions of County Routes 5 and 6 ever since.
NY 18 was rerouted between Lewiston and Youngstown on January 1, 1949, to follow a more inland highway through western Niagara County. The former routing of NY 18 alongside the Niagara River was redesignated as NY 18F. To the east in Rochester, NY 18 was realigned in the early 1950s to follow East Ridge Road east to the then-southern terminus of the Sea Breeze Expressway. The route turned north, following the highway to its end at Culver Road, where it rejoined its pre-expressway alignment. The western terminus of NY 18 was moved north to its present location in Lewiston on January 1, 1962, eliminating the three lengthy overlaps that existed between Pennsylvania and Lewiston. The lone independent portion of NY 18 south of Lewiston was renumbered NY 353.
On January 1, 1970, NY 47 was extended northward to encompass the entirety of the now-complete Sea Breeze Expressway, creating an overlap with NY 18 between Ridge and Culver Roads. Prior to the extension, NY 47 had ended at Empire Boulevard (US 104, now NY 404). The overlap proved to be temporary as NY 18 was truncated westward to its current eastern terminus in Kodak Park. The former routing of NY 18 between NY 590 and NY 250 was redesignated as NY 941L, an unsigned reference route. East Ridge Road, meanwhile, was now devoid of any designations as US 104 had been shifted onto the Keeler Street Expressway several years before. As a result, ownership and maintenance of the Irondequoit section of East Ridge Road was transferred to Monroe County, which designated it as the unsigned CR 241. Culver Road, meanwhile, is now CR 120.
Olcott realignment
The alignment of NY 18 through Olcott Beach dated back to the early 1800s, starting with a foot bridge over Eighteen Mile Creek in 1811, built out of wood. This was replaced by a white oak frame bridge built in 1825 for $500 (1825 USD) for the use of transporting wagons across the creek. General James Weisner contracted to build the bridge, which was wide, along with 20 long spans. That bridge was replaced in 1878 by an iron structure with dimensions of . This new span was a swing bridge, compared to the prior fixed structures. The New York State Department of Public Works replaced that structure with another fixed span in 1935. This span was too low to the water line, causing a bottleneck of boats and ships entering Eighteen Mile Creek. This two-lane structure was a long structure, that also caused a bottleneck for drivers because there became no parking in Olcott.
Frustration grew in the 1960s to this low-level bridge. This involved a community movement to get a new bridge built through Olcott in 1966. This would involve razing the former span from 1935 and opening Eighteen Mile Creek back to the boaters who could not fit under the span. The creek, navigable from nearby Burt, would get more use without the bridge blocking the boats from entering. A new bridge would need to be a high, compared to , which the older structure was. Residents felt that if they got a new bridge built, they could make at least $60,00 for attracting schooners to Olcott. They felt that with boat owners, Olcott's average income would skyrocket to $500,000 a year. The construction of a new bridge would expand the harbor in Olcott overall. The petition for a new bridge attracted almost 400 signatures from local residents, boaters and landowners.
This petition reached State Senator Earl W. Brydges, a resident of Wilson. He drafted legislation to fund $500,000 to the Department of Public Works to construct a new bridge in Olcott. Assemblyman V. Sumner Carroll of Niagara Falls followed with the Assembly. Initial estimates for a new bridge, located south of the current structure, would be $370,000. This would keep traffic flow from being interrupted for construction, building an improved alignment of NY 18. The right-of-way costs would be cheaper and the harbor would have a new structure to appease the design of the area.
By February 1967 the support for a new bridge grew locally. The bridge, which now cost over $1.75 million to build, would be high. Engineers suggested that would be the highest rebuilding the current structure could go. Engineers also considered alternate concepts, but the design of the area prohibited any options besides a new bridge. This new bridge would involve building an approach at West Creek Road near the local water tower. This would bypass downtown Olcott to the south, crossing Eighteen Mile Creek before reaching a junction with NY 78 south of the current intersection between NY 18 and NY 78. The alignment would then cross Franklin Street and through nearby Krull Park where it would meet then-current NY 18. This new alignment would be long, coming at the cost of 16 structures. This would include farm buildings, barber shop, gas station and a few homes. Some locals asked if the construction would be superfluous with the construction of the nearby Lake Ontario State Parkway, which they stated would be several miles south of Olcott.
By January 1968, the number of properties affected rose to 67, with 20 homes affected in various fashions. The new bridge would cost $1.1 million, would be long, with four lanes wide. The new approaches to the bridge would cost $1.4 million to build. At that point, the Department of Public Works speculated construction would begin in 1968. Meanwhile, money was granted for the study of widening the Olcott harbor channel for boaters. On June 21, 1968, it was announced that the Tuscarora Construction Company of Amherst made a winning $2,578,783 bid for construction of the bridge and its approaches.
Construction began in August 1968, with land clearing and construction of the physical bridge in October 1968. The New York State Department of Transportation said the project would be complete by December 1, 1970. Construction rapidly advanced through 1968 into and into 1969, with the new piers being built by April 1969. Concrete was being poured in the piers, while power, gas and electric lines were being realigned for construction. With the construction running ahead of schedule, there was a belief that the project could be finished ahead of schedule. Construction of abutments was to start soon in May 1969.
The process was so rapidly advancing that despite the late delivery of steel in October 1969 for the new structure, it failed to stop the construction. The rapid pace continued into 1970, with the construction ahead of the new November 15, 1970, deadline. However, construction continued until the bridge opened on November 9, 1970, to traffic at 11 am.
The Army Corps of Engineers expanded navigation of Eighteen Mile Creek to Burt in February 1972 thanks to bridge construction. However, despite the new bridge, the history of bridges at Olcott caused problems for boaters. Despite the old bridge being torn out, the pilings of the 1878 structure were still present underwater.
Suffixed routes
NY 18 has had seven suffixed routes using six designations; only one, NY 18F, still exists. Most of the routes were renumbered when NY 18 was truncated to Lewiston .
NY 18A was an alternate route of NY 18 between Collins and Hamburg. It was assigned in 1930 and mostly replaced with an extended NY 75 .
NY 18B was an alternate route of NY 18 through the eastern suburbs of Buffalo. It was assigned and mostly replaced with an extended NY 277 .
NY 18C was a short-lived alternate route of NY 18 through the eastern Buffalo suburbs. It was assigned and began at NY 18 (now US 62) at Big Tree in Hamburg and followed Big Tree Road and modern US 20 to NY 35 (now US 20 and NY 130) in Depew. The Transit Road portion of the route overlapped with NY 78. NY 18C was truncated to consist only of the Transit Road portion and removed entirely as part of US 20's realignment through western New York.
NY 18D was a spur route linking NY 18 to the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge north of downtown Niagara Falls. It was assigned and renumbered to NY 182 on January 1, 1962.
NY 18E was a short spur assigned in the early 1930s to a connector between then-NY 18 (now NY 18F) and the original Queenston–Lewiston Bridge in Lewiston. It was removed in the early 1960s when the original bridge to Queenston was replaced with the modern Lewiston–Queenston Bridge a short distance upstream.
The NY 18F designation has been used for two distinct highways:
The first NY 18F was assigned to NY 18's original routing between Cattaraugus and Little Valley. The designation was removed .
The current NY 18F () is an alternate route of NY 18 in western Niagara County that serves the riverside villages of Lewiston and Youngstown. It was assigned in 1949.
Major intersections
See also
List of county routes in Cattaraugus County, New York
References
External links
018
Transportation in Niagara County, New York
Transportation in Monroe County, New York
Transportation in Orleans County, New York |
4529229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 1981 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 1981 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 49th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 13 and 14 June 1981. It was also the eighth round of the World Endurance Championship of Drivers, and the fifth round of the World Championship for Makes.
Defending champions Rondeau entered a strong 5-car team. The Porsche works team challenged them with the final development of their 936, now fitted with the 2.65-litre turbo engine from the abandoned Indianapolis project. The prospect was sufficient to entice Jacky Ickx out of retirement again, teamed up with Derek Bell with whom he had already won the race in 1975. From the start, Ickx took the lead which he held until the first pit-stops. Soon after, the race was interrupted by two serious accidents on the Mulsanne Straight killing French driver Jean-Louis Lafosse and a track marshal. These events saw the first deployment at Le Mans of the pace-car system to slow the race, as repairs and medical attention were carried out.
When racing resumed Reinhold Joest's own 936 replica was now leading, but soon pitted with a cracked turbo-fan giving the lead to the 935 of the Kremer team. However, Bell soon overhauled it to re-take the lead that they would not relinquish for the rest of the race, as the car never missed a beat. The gap continued to grow through the night, eventually becoming 14 laps by the end – the largest winning margin in over a decade. The race had a surprising number of car problems in the first few hours for the leading teams, which strung out the field. The second Porsche had sparkplug issues as early as the first lap, but the pair ran 1-2 through the night, until its clutch failed at 7am. It fell to the two GTP-class Rondeau to mount the pursuit, finishing second and third. Fourth was the Charles Ivey team 935, winning the Group 5 class after the more fancied teams fell away, while the Charles Pozzi Ferrari 512 BB, finishing fifth, won the IMSA-GTX class and gave that marque its best result for eight years.
The win for Porsche made Ickx the first driver to achieve five outright victories and was a suitable finale to mark the last season of Group 6 racing.
Regulations
The much-anticipated change of regulations to the new Group C was coming up in 1982 and meant there was little innovation. The significant change was in the qualifying system, which had proven so problematic for the previous year's race. The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) therefore reverted to its two days of qualifying, with four hours each on the Wednesday and Thursday. Engine changes were allowed again between qualifying and the race.
The class-by-class quota was also discarded so it would be the 55 fastest cars that would be on the grid and, finally, it would be each car's single fastest lap that would decide its grid position. Every car had to qualify within 110% of the average of the times of the three fastest cars in their class. Each car, and every driver, also had to qualify within 130% of the average of the three fastest cars overall.
The circuit had been widened at the approach to the Esses, adding a grass runoff after the Dunlop Curve. With an eye on improving safety measures further, this year saw the introduction of Mercedes "safety cars". Following the process used in American racing, they would be introduced to gather the field to slow it down in the event of a serious event on the circuit. Owing to the length of the circuit, three would be used to keep the field spread more evenly. The Le Mans Chamber of Commerce put up a fuel-efficiency award, co-sponsored by the Esso company.
With the retirement of Charles Deutsch as the Le Mans race director, the ACO appointed Marcel Martin to take his place. This year the race was rescheduled to 3pm, an hour earlier, to allow time on the Sunday afternoon for the French national elections.
Entries
With declining fields, the FIA opened up the World Championship for Makes to allow Group 6 cars with engines greater than 3-litres, as well as Sports Prototypes of the pre-1976 Group 5 period. To get sufficient numbers for Le Mans, the ACO also broadened it criteria – accepting entries from 10 classes: Group 6 (and Gp 5/75) over and under 2-litre; Group 5 over and under 2-litre; Group 4; Le Mans GTP and from North America, the IMSA GTX (over/under 2-litre), GTO and GTU. They even accepted entries for the upcoming Group C.
Works entries came from Porsche, Lancia and Mazda (all competing in different classes), while specialist manufacturer Lola returned to the 2-litre class. The renewed interest with big-engine prototypes made the Group 6 class the best-supported with sixteen entries.
Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started.
Group 6, GTP and Group C
This year the Porsche works team returned with its last development of the 936. It was fitted with the 2.65-litre turbo engine from the abandoned Indianapolis project. Built in conjunction with Ted Field's Interscope team, it had been banned in America, but the removal of the 3-litre upper-limit in the WCM made it eligible to be used at Le Mans. Converted to run on petrol instead of methanol and wound down in boost, it still generated 620 bhp at a canter and blasted the car down the Mulsanne straight at 355 kp/h (220 mph). The team also replaced the troublesome 5-speed gearbox with the old, race-proven 4-speed version from their 917/30 CanAm of the early '70s, that had been built to handle up to 1000 bhp. One chassis was pulled out of the Porsche museum and revamped. The preparation and prospects were sufficient to entice Jacky Ickx out of retirement once again, lured by the opportunity to become the first driver to achieve five Le Mans victories. He asked to have Derek Bell as his co-driver, with whom he had already shared one of his races win, in 1975 with Mirage. The second car would be driven by works driver Jochen Mass and Hurley Haywood. American Rick Mears was to have been the third driver, but the burns he received from the Indianapolis 500 had not healed sufficiently. His seat was taken by Australian Vern Schuppan who had finished third in the same race.
In 1980, Le Mans local Jean Rondeau had become the first driver-constructor winner of the race. Sponsorship was not a problem this year and he was able to return in force with five cars (three in Group 6 and two in Le Mans GTP). All were the new M379C version, which had revised aerodynamics and an updated braking system. Two of the Group 6 cars were running the new 3.3-litre 530 bhp Cosworth DFL engine, a special endurance version of the Cosworth DFV. Those cars were run by Rondeau with Jean-Pierre Jaussaud (his winning co-driver) again, and Henri Pescarolo this time with French F1 driver Patrick Tambay. The third Group 6 car had Jean Ragnotti, who had won the year's Monte Carlo Rally, with Jean-Louis Lafosse. The two GTP entries were 60 kg heavier, with shorter windscreens and heavier wings. Their drivers were Le Mans local François Migault (in the race-winning chassis from the previous year), and Gordon Spice (despite him suffering a serious road-accident less than a month earlier) in one;)and Jean-Louis Schlesser/Philippe Streiff/Jacky Haran in the other. Once again, Keith Greene (formerly of De Cadenet and Dome) was the team manager, while the engines were again tuned by Swiss engine-specialist Heini Mader.
Reinhold Joest entered his 540 bhp Porsche 936 replica again, that had finished second the year before. With his regular co-driver in the championship, Jochen Mass, driving for the Porsche works team, it was only in race-week itself that Joest announced his co-drivers: young German DRM driver Klaus Niedzwiedz and American Dale Whittington, youngest of the three brothers.
One of the more unusual entries this year was from the Kremer brothers. With big engines again eligible in Group 6, they looked back to a decade earlier when the Porsche 917 was the fastest car on the track. They reasoned that with the current advances in engineering they could make it even better. They loaned an ex-Pedro Rodriguez model from the Midlands Motor Museum in England and fashioned a copy. Along with the 4.5-litre flat-12 engine, it was fitted with extra strengthening, revised suspension for modern tyres and adjusted aerodynamics. The team got a very experienced crew to drive it: Bob Wollek, Xavier Lapeyre and Guy Chasseuil.
In 1980, Porsche had entered three of its new 924 model, as true GT Prototypes. This year the company repeated the experiment with its next development of the model, the Porsche 944, potentially for the new Group B regulations coming in 1982. A new 2.5-litre, 16-valve twin-cam engine was fitted with a single turbo and could put out up to 410 bhp. But several engine failures during testing meant it was detuned down to 370 bhp for the race. Despite that, with the latest aerodynamic kit, the car could reach 305 kp/h (190 mph). Works driver Jürgen Barth was partnered with current World Rally Champion Walter Röhrl. Having achieved homologation, the works team also entered a 924 Carrera GTR in the IMSA GTO class, to be driven by Andy Rouse and Manfred Schurti.
Alain de Cadenet had plans this year to bring the new Ford C100 to Le Mans but it was still well short of being ready. So instead he entered his own Lola-derived model from the previous year, but fitted with the new 3.3-litre Cosworth DFL designed for the new Ford. This year his co-drivers were the Belgian Martin brothers, and De Cadenet gave up his usual British racing green for their red and white Belga tobacco sponsorship. After the debacle in qualifying, Nick Faure sold his De Cadenet LM76 to Tony Birchenough's Dorset Racing Associates. Nick was invited to join Irishmen Martin Birrane and Vivian Candy with the driving duties. Also disgruntled after the previous year's qualifying, Ian Bracey returned with his IBEC project. More refinement to the chassis and body had lightened it by 23 kg meaning it could reach 320 kp/h (200 mph). Once again, the drivers would be Tony Trimmer and Tiff Needell.
This year, the WM team got greater support from Peugeot. The three P79/80 cars were prepared for the GTP class while a new P81 was designed around the upcoming Group C regulations. A late decision by the team then converted one of the GTP cars to P81 specification. All were fitted with Peugeot's 2.7-litre V6 engine with the twin KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbos. Peugeot had uprated them with four valves per cylinder and they now put out over 500 bhp to give excellent top-end speed, reaching almost 360 kp/h (225 mph) on the Mulsanne. After its success the previous year, a camera was once again mounted in the Dorchy/Fréquelin WM.
Eric Broadley's Lola Cars had been having recent success with their T600 model in the IMSA series and was making plans for Group C. A quasi-works team was managed by GRID racing, set up by Giuseppe Risi and Ian Dawson, racing in Europe by Guy Edwards and Emilio de Villota. In North America, Cooke-Woods Racing took their new car and fitted it with a 700 bhp, 3-litre turbo Porsche engine, assembled at Bob Garretson's facility in California. The engine's larger size meant the whole drivetrain and rear suspension had to be redesigned to accommodate it. Garretson's regular drivers, Brian Redman and Bobby Rahal were slated for the car. André Chevalley's small Swiss team had reworked their own adaptation of the Lola T286 with a major revision. More robust suspension and uprated aerodynamics added an extra 74 kg but made the car significantly faster. Chevalley raced with his regular co-driver Patrick Gaillard, and they were joined by Bruno Sotty
Dome brought the RL80 remodelled with composite bodywork. It was also now fitted with bigger front wheels and front brakes with extensive testing at the Fuji Speedway, with their regular team drivers Chris Craft and Bob Evans. Another radical wedge-shaped car appeared this year. The Ardex came from French aerodynamics specialist Max Sardou, who had previously worked with Matra and the March-BMW M1 project. The 470 bhp, 3.5-litre BMW engine, mounted in the front, was offset almost beside the driver. A very long, sloped windshield, large diffuser undertray and enclosed rear wheels were all designed to try and maximise downforce. A rogue entry came in from the American Z&W Enterprises team. Called a Mazda prototype for an IMSA GTP category spot, what turned up instead was, rather, a rough conversion of a 12-year old McLaren Can-Am fitted with a 5.7-litre Chevrolet V8 engine.
Group 6 (2-litre)
Through the late 1970s the 2-litre class had enjoyed strong support with a big entry-list of good variety, even though reliability was a perennial problem. This year however, there was only a desultory four entries, all based on the Lola chassis. Three French privateers ran the latest model, the T298, all with the BMW 2-litre engine, now developing 300 bhp. Jean-Philippe Grand returned with Le Mans local Yves Courage as co-driver, as did Pierre Yver, both with Primagaz sponsorship. Jean-Marie Lemerle had swapped out his ROC engine for the BMW after failing to quality last year.
A new entry using a Lola chassis was the French Renard-Delmas. Based on the T298 model, it was designed and built by Parisian engineering students and assisted by Citroën. It was fitted with one of the race-proven Simca-ROC engine. Louis Descartes and Hervé Bayard would be the drivers.
Group 5 (over 2-litre)
The Porsche 935 remained the dominant model in Group 5, as it had been through this whole period. This dominance had been led by the two leading German teams of Georg Loos and the Kremer brothers, but this year the Gelo Racing team did not arrive. The Kremer-kit models were selling very well and four were entered in Group 5. Two of those were to be run by Kremer Racing, again in conjunction with American Ted Field's Interscope Racing. However the injury to Danny Ongais at the Indianapolis 500 forced one to be cancelled. Instead, Field signed up Don and Bill Whittington to race the other car with him. The brothers had given the Kremers their greatest triumph when they won the saturated 1979 race.
The Weralit team had won an unexpected victory at the Monza round of the World Championship, and the drivers then (Jürgen Lässig, Edgar Dören and Gerhard Holup) were at Le Mans hoping to shake up the field again. Frenchman Claude Bourgoignie had an entry, but no sponsor, so he approached Brit Dudley Wood if he wanted to bring his older K3/79. Wood accepted and gave Bourgoignie a seat alongside his regular co-driver John Cooper. There were also two of the older 934-935 conversions from the Group 4 car, for Swiss Claude Haldi and Frenchman André Gahinet.
Reinhold Joest had followed the Kremer example and was building kit-car adaptations of the 935 (called the "935J") for both the WCM and IMSA series, achieving reasonable success. They reprofiled the nose-section and extended the roof and rear with a larger wing. The Vegla team of Dieter Schornstein ran one in the WCM and won outright in the rain at the Silverstone round. Class-winners in 1980, the same drivers came again to Le Mans.
Their opponents would come from four BMW M1s, coming from four nationalities supported by the works team with strong driver line-ups. Both Hugues de Chaunac's local ORECA team (Philippe Alliot/Johnny Cecotto/Bernard Darniche) and Briton Steve O'Rourke's EMKA team were ex-Procars and had been doing well in the World Championship. O'Rourke was also manager of rock-band Pink Floyd and would have to fly to London each night (including during the race) as the band finished The Wall concert tour in London. Driving would rest with 13-race veteran David Hobbs and Eddie Jordan. The other two BMWs were assembled by Peter Sauber and prepared by his Swiss compatriot Heini Mader, and now tuned to put out 500 bhp. Fitted with space-frame chassis they were 90 bhp lighter than the Procars. Sauber ran one himself, led by drivers Dieter Quester and Marc Surer. He sold the other to German Gerhard Schneider, who won the foreshortened Nürburgring race outright with his drivers Hans-Joachim Stuck and Nelson Piquet, and entered this race in the IMSA-GTX class.
Group 5 (2-litre)
Lancia had won the 1980 World Championship for Makes from Porsche on a countback, by dominating the 2-litre class. Continuing with a successful strategy with the Montecarlo, they had done extensive work on the aerodynamics and tyre development with Pirelli. With a narrow championship lead this season, three works cars came to Le Mans with an talented line-up that included five F1 drivers. Class-winners for Lancia in 1980, Carlo Facetti and Martino Finotto, having crashed their very fast Ferrari 308 at Nürburgring, were brought in to bolster the young "hot-shots". With half an eye to getting a finish, and mindful of the poor performance the year before, the engines were detuned to 400 bhp. Once again, they were supported by a semi-works entry from the Italian Jolly Club customer team.
Surprise competition to Lancia came from Swede Jan Lundgardh with his special Porsche 935. It followed an idea from 1977 when the works team ran a small-engine Porsche in the DRM to take on the Escorts and BMWs. With support from the factory, Lundgardh's "baby-Porsche" (as it was coined) had a 1425cc turbocharged engine and was fitted with the streamlined, Kremer bodykit that made it 55 kg lighter than the Lancias. His co-drivers were Mike Wilds and Kremer team driver Axel Plankenhorn.
IMSA GTX
As in Group 5, the Porsche 935 was ruling the IMSA series, but this year there would be five Ferraris to take on five Porsches. Curiously, Ferraris did not compete under the European Group 5 rules. There were three Kremer-modified Porsches from America, entered by Bob Akin, Preston Henn and Ralph Kent-Cooke. The latter sported the larger 3.2-litre twin-turbo engine and had won four IMSA races, including Daytona, for Bob Garretson. But with those winning drivers, Redman and Rahal, in Kent-Cooke's Group 6 car the owner took the wheel with Garretson and Anne-Charlotte Verney. Bob Akin's team had a brand new Kremer Porsche after their other car had been destroyed in the fatal accident at the Nürburgring that had killed Herbert Müller just a month earlier. Akin would have Paul Miller and Craig Siebert as co-drivers. Preston Henn had bought the IMSA-championship winning car from Dick Barbour but raced it without success this year in the US, until getting third at the Nürburgring. For this race he had Mike Chandler and Frenchman Marcel Mignot on his team. Joest entered a 935J with a 2.8-litre engine in the GTX class, for Porsche test driver Günther Steckkönig, with Kenper Miller and Mauricio de Narváez.
Up against the Porsches was an international squadron of Ferrari 512 BBs. Regular attendee, Charles Pozzi had sold two of his cars to American Tom Davis Jnr to run in IMSA, who in turn commissioned Pozzi to run the entry in this race with his regular team drivers, Claude Ballot-Léna/Jean-Claude Andruet in the seat. American Luigi Chinetti's North American Racing Team and the Belgian ETCC team-mates Pierre Dieudonné and Jean Xhenceval returned, and Brit Simon Phillips arrived with the last of the 25 LM BB models produced. That of the Roman Bellancauto team had a special streamlined bodyshell designed by Armando Palanca, and the engine tuned by Roberto Lippi.
Group 4 GT and IMSA GTO/GTU
The Group 4 GT class would be a battle between six Porsche and BMW privateers. After its success the previous year, there were three 924 Carrera 2-litre turbos from France, Great Britain and Australia. The three 924s were an international collection: Richard Lloyd's GTi Engineering had recently purchased their car. It was recalled to the Porsche factory, along with a brand new car for their Australian importer Alan Hamilton. With factory support, both were given a full engine rebuild to resolve the model's perennial fuel-feed issues. The Australian car had three of Australasia's top drivers: Peter Brock, Colin Bond and Jim Richards. The third car was entered by the French Eminence Racing Team of the Alméras brothers. Thierry Perrier returned, running a 3-litre turbo Porsche 934, with his ethanol-blend fuel. He and his two co-drivers were also part of a medical test from a team of young doctors. Fitted with heart monitors, each driver would have his blood pressure and other medical tests taken at each pit-stop. They would also only take their sustenance from calorie tablets.
However, this season it was the BMW M1 that had been the car to beat, with five class wins in the championship to date. Two such cars were entered, from François Sérvanin's Zol-Auto team and Dr Helmut Marko, the 1971 Le Mans winner. His car carried on the tradition of the BMW Art Car. German artist (and some-time racer) Walter Maurer hand-painted images of Munich on the car. It would be driven by Christian Danner, Peter Oberndorfer and Prince Leopold von Bayern.
Mazda was getting more interested in motor-racing and had recently formed a racing division, called Mazdaspeed to race the RX-7 model. A new 1308cc twin-rotary engine, producing 320 bhp, was put in the uprated RX-7 253i. In Europe they were raced by Tom Walkinshaw Racing With the FIA's 2:1 equivalence factor for rotaries, the car was rated as 2.6-litres which placed it in the GTO IMSA class. Two cars were entered by the works team; one driven by Walkinshaw with Tetsu Ikuzawa and Peter Lovett, and the other by works driver Yojiro Terada, current BSCC champion Win Percy and Hiroshi Fushida. American Mazda dealer Pierre Honegger returned with his older RX-7. The smaller 1142cc size of its 12A twin-rotary engine put it in the lower GTU class – the only one entered at Le Mans this year – but despite that it was almost 30% heavier than the works cars, and the heaviest car in the field.
The biggest car in the field was the 6.4-litre Chevrolet Camaro entered by Billy Hagan's Stratagraph NASCAR team. The all-aluminium "stock-block" V8 put out 620 bhp and, despite the basic aerodynamics, could push the car up to 310 kp/h (195 mph) down the Mulsanne – though stopping it was a problem. Hagan scored a coup by getting triple-NASCAR champion Cale Yarborough. He joined a select group of drivers to have competed in the Daytona 500, Indianapolis 500 and Le Mans 24 Hours.
Practice and Qualifying
The weather through the race-week was perfect, with warm sunny weather. Within the first session Ickx had thrown down the gauntlet with special Dunlop qualifying tyres, beating Bob Wollek's 1979 lap record by half a second with a 3:29.4. The team then stamped their authority on the race when Mass locked out the front row with a 3:32.6. Niedzwiedz was a distant third in the Joest Porsche (3:34.5), five seconds behind Ickx while Tambay (3:35.2) and Jaussaud (3:36.2) were next in the best of the Rondeaux. Sixth were the Whittingtons leading Group 5, while the WMs of Boutsen (3:37.9) and Dorchy (in 8th and 9th) were the fastest in Group C and GTP respectively.
The new GRID-Lola qualified twelfth, unable to crack 280 kp/h (175 mph) slower. Despite having a top speed almost 70 kp/h (45 mph) slower than the Porsches, it was a credit to its handling that it was only 13 seconds down on lap-time. The 917-replica was a disappointment, back in 18th (3:46.5), and also suffering from lack of top-end speed, unable to get over 290 kp/h (180 mph). The original gearing ratios were too long, the tail gave too much drag and there was insufficient airflow to the engine. The Kremers swapped the engine for a more powerful 4.9-litre version that helped a little bit. Just behind them was Alain de Cadenet, with the new Cosworth DFL still needing shake-down testing.
Preston Henn's 935 (3:46.2) was the quickest GTX car in 17th, while the best of the BMWs was that of Hans Stuck in 21st (3:47.6, 15 seconds better than last year) and the best Ferrari was the NART entry in 29th (3:52.6). The young Formula 1 drivers put the 2-litre Lancias in the middle of the bigger Group 6 cars with Patrese qualifying 24th (3:48.1, also 15 seconds faster than their best qualifying in 1980). Despite several trips down the Mulsanne escape-road, Yarborough man-handled the big Camaro round into 39th (3:59.6) and the best Mazda only did a 4:04.8. In contrast to Group 5, it was the BMWs that dominated in Group 4, with the Marko car coming in 41st (4:00.1).
The average of the three fastest cars (Ickx, Mass and Joest) was 3:32.19, so the 130% maximum time would be 4:35.85. There were disappointing non-qualifiers: despite superior theoretical aerodynamics, both the Ardex and the Lola-Porsche were thwarted by engine issues. The heavy GTU Mazda had a torrid qualifying week. After the transporter lurched into a ditch en route to the circuit, shunting the car's engine bay, they also fell afoul of the 110% qualification rule (despite being 14 seconds faster than the previous year), as did the two factory-assisted Porsche 924s in Group 4 – embarrassingly put out by poor installation at the factory. Finally, the Z&W McLaren "special" never got close – with a dismal 5:13.0 its best time.
Race
Start
Race-day was even hotter that earlier in the week and 170,000 spectators were present to see Jean-Marie Balestre, president of FISA drop the flag at 3pm. Ickx moved into the lead and at the end of the first lap had a clear margin over Pescarolo, Field and Joest. There was sensation straight away when Mass, in the second works Porsche, pitted after one lap, running on five cylinders with a chronic misfire. A second stop two laps later replaced a damaged spark-plug and left the German at the tail of the field. He was joined by de Villota in the GRID Lola with a faulty gear linkage. Then on lap 9, Rondeau pitted with a broken fuel-pump. The 90-minutes repairs took away any chance of a back-to-back victory. Three of the four WMs, all initially running in the top-10 also had early issues to pit for.
The first fuel-stops started around 45 minutes into the race, with Ickx ceding the lead over to the more fuel-efficient Joest-Porsche, and in fact the Rondeaux could run for half an hour longer than the Porsche. The Camaro was the first retirement just before an hour was up, when Yarborough ran out of brakes at Arnage.
Accidents
At 4:15pm, the new pace-cars had to be deployed for the first time. Thierry Boutsen had a massive accident just after the Hunaudières kink when the suspension on his WM broke at almost 350 kp/h (215 mph). When the rear-end collapsed, the car skated along the guardrail throwing debris for 150 metres, including into a marshal's post, killing Thierry Mabillat and critically injuring two other marshals and a gendarme. Amazingly, Boutsen was able to step away uninjured. The field continued circulating behind the pace cars for half an hour while the barrier was repaired. While more cars pitted for fuel, the running order was Joest, Field, Bell, Tambay and Spice (Rondeaux), and De Cadenet dicing with Craft in the Dome.
However, just half an hour later, the pace cars were called out again. Once again down the Mulsanne straight a car had crashed – the Rondeau of Jean-Louis Lafosse. The lap before, while running third, he spun and clipped a guardrail, damaging the front chassis. The next lap as he grabbed fifth gear, about 1.5 kilometers down the straight the car suddenly slewed to the right, hitting another marshal's post, crushing the legs of the occupants, before spearing across into the other side. The combined impact almost broke the car in two and killed Lafosse instantly, as well as injuring two marshals. Lafosse was a veteran of ten Le Mans and had finished second in both 1975 for Ligier, and then 1976 for Mirage. This time the pace cars were out for twenty minutes. At this time it was Joest-Porsche in the lead, driven by Niedzwiedz. But soon after going back to green, he pitted with a cracked turbo-fan, handing the lead to the Interscope-Kremer 935. Tambay also had to pit, with the same problem in his Cosworth DFL as his team-leader, losing two hours in repairs.
The Kremer-917 had been working its way up the field slowly and was sitting ninth soon after 6pm when Lapeyre was forced on the grass overtaking a backmarker. That rough ride fractured an oil-pipe that eventually led to its retirement a few hours later.
Going into the fourth hour Derek Bell was back on the same lap as Bill Whittington and soon overtook the Kremer 935. Trying to keep up the pace, the American suffered a burnt-out piston that soon led to their retirement. Having got back into the lead, the works Porsche would never be headed. For once Ickx would have a completely trouble-free run, with the car never missing a beat. Instead all the team's bad luck would fall on the sister car.
The miserable weekend for WM continued when Dorchy's camera car had an engine-fire at Mulsanne corner. Then just on 7pm, Raulet collided with the Gabbiani's Lancia as they braked for the right-hander. This brought out the safety cars for a third time although, fortunately, neither driver was injured.
So, after 4 hours, and the number of problems many of the leading cars had undergone, the race order was well mixed: Bell (56) had a lap's lead over Migault's Rondeau with the Vegla 935J just ahead (54) of the NART Ferrari leading the GTX class. The Interscope-Kremer 935 (53) had slipped to fifth with its engine issues, about to be passed by the youngest Whittington brother in the Joest car, the Haran Rondeau and the remaining WM. Ninth, climbing back up the field, was the second Porsche 936 and when Haywood took over, he proceeded to take six positions over the next hour to be just a lap behind the Rondeau. After their turbo problems, the Joest Porsche had also been steadily coming back up the field. Then in the sixth hour, Whittington was going at speed when the front wheel came off. He limped back to the pits but the damage to the front end was too great to continue. After its bad start, the Lola had been running better until 8.40pm when de Villota dumped a puddle of oil at the Esses from a major engine leak, and the repairs took 3 hours.
Night
After the early demise of the 2-litre Porsche, the Lancia team allowed itself to ease off to guarantee maximum points. As others fell away, the works cars came up the field, all comfortably in the top-20. This was a relief after Gabbiani had been punted off early and the team-leading car of Heyer/Patrese/Ghinzani blew a head gasket and cracked a cylinder head at 5am. This left one works car and the Jolly Club car circulating. Similarly, the works Porsche GTs were running reliably in the top-20, with the Schurti/Rouse 924 (that started 48th) running just outside the top-10 throughout the night.
Around 10pm, the fuel-pump on Pescarolo's Rondeau broke again and, once again, 'Pesca' was left stranded out on the track after his efforts to restart the car flattened the battery. As dusk fell, Mass moved up into second, four laps behind Ickx, and the two 936s maintained a comfortable 1-2 position throughout the night, gradually extending their lead. At the eight-hour mark, Ickx had done 116 laps, 3 laps ahead of the sister car with Spice/Migault a further two laps behind. Fourth was now the Ivey 935 of Cooper/Wood/Bourgoignie (110) leading Group 5. A lap back was the other Rondeau GTP chased by the Pozzi Ferrari (leading GTX), with De Cadenet, the NART Ferrari (being slowed by clutch issues) and the Vegla Porsche another lap behind. Tenth (108) was the other Joest 935. Half the top-20 qualifiers had already retired and four more were now well down the field.
During the night, the Ivey car dropped down the field with electrical problems. The pit crew changed the nose section three times to try and fix the lights. Jean Rondeau had been languishing at the back of the field after their early fuel pump drama. Before midnight, he pitted with bad steering issues. Despite a careful examination the crew could not find the issue, but mindful of the suspension problems that befell Lafosse, the car was retired. The Joest car retired when an oil leak caused a spectacular engine-fire. Günther Steckkönig leapt out very quickly and avoided injury. About the same time the other 935J was delayed with a broken turbo rotor. Further delays the next morning with the exhaust system meant the Vegla car eventually finished tenth.
By the halfway point Ickx/Bell led (176) and there were four-laps gaps between the top three cars, while the second Rondeau had moved up to fourth (166). Soon after, the De Cadenet lost its fuel pump, costing 30 minutes to repair. But when the engine issues recurred in the morning, it could not be saved and Martin had to park it at Indianapolis.
Morning
The good run of the Porsches ended soon after 6am when Schuppan came into the pits without a clutch. The repair took over an hour to fix, dropping them down to 12th place before starting another drive back through the field. The Vegla Porsche was delayed by a broken turbo fan. At 7am, after 16 hours, Ickx/Bell (237 laps) now had a substantial 13-lap lead over the Rondeau with Haran/Schlesser/Streiff now up in second. The other Rondeau had been delayed by ignition problems that limited their maximum revs and speed, and later they also lost fourth gear. The Ivey Porsche (219) was being closed in by Haywood (218) in the recovering 936. From a strong drive through the night by Anny-Charlotte Verney, the Cooke-Woods Porsche was now leading the GTX-class just ahead of the NART Ferrari (218). Behind them, the Pozzi Ferrari (216), Porsche 944 of Röhrl/Barth (215) and 924 (Schurti/Rouse- 213) filled out the top-10.
After running as high as fifth during the night, De Cadenet had lost an hour getting the fuel pump replaced. It fell down the field and finally came to a halt, early in the morning, coming out of Mulsanne. In mid-morning, the NART Ferrari suffered a puncture that made it lose time getting back to the pits. Then Gurdjian went off at the Porsche Curves and its race was done. BMW had not had a good race, and three of the cars retired in the morning hours after running outside the top-20. It was ironic for Steve O'Rourke who had only taken over driving duties at 7.40am after arriving late, that his EMKA-BMW only lasted a couple more hours.
Finish and post-race
Schuppan had fought his way back up to fourth by noon when he drifted to a stop in the Porsche Curves with fuel-injection problems. Using his two-way radio to the pits, after 45 minutes he was able to get the car restarted and crawl back to the team. After another 45 minutes, and a new fuel-pump was fitted they rejoined at 1pm, eventually finishing down the field in 12th.
Bell drove the final two hours in the leading Porsche, in the end taking a very comfortable victory – at 186 km, it was the biggest winning margin in over a decade. But it was still a major exertion – on the rostrum Bell fainted from the heat and exhaustion. The two Rondeaux finished second and third, in formation, once again claiming the GTP class win. Fourth was the unheralded Ivey 935 winning Group 5 which, aside from an quarter hour spent on an alternator issue in the morning, had run well through the Sunday. After battling ignition issues at every fuel stop, Charles Pozzi's Ferrari team snatched an exciting GTX win in a back-and-forth duel with the Cooke-Woods 935 that finished barely 1.8 mi. behind. The sixth place for Anne-Charlotte Verney was the best result for a female driver since Odette Siko got fourth in 1932. Bob Garretson went on to win this year's World Championship of Drivers.
Only one of the four WMs finished – that of Mendez/Mathiot/Morin. It had got up to 12th at the halfway point but then broken front suspension took over an hour to repair, dropping them half a dozen places. As others retired, they eventually made it back to finish 13th. After all their tribulations (including another broken oil cooler and an off-road excursion), the Lola soldiered on to finish 15th . Thereafter, however, fortunes changed and the team won two of their three other WCM races, at Pergusa and Brands Hatch.
Across three classes, only one of the BMWs finished and none had a particularly auspicious race with all suffering from clutch problems. Having pitted on the first lap of the race, the ORECA car of Alliot/Cecotto/Darniche made up four places in the afternoon, as others fell away, to finish 16th.
Thierry Perrier repeated his Group 4 win in his ethanol-Porsche, as the only finisher in the class, coming home in 17th. The sole surviving Group 6 2-litre car, of Frenchmen Jean-Philippe Grand and Yves Courage, despite finishing last, had covered sufficient distance to win the Prize for Thermal Efficiency. The Renard-Delmas prototype had broken its suspension as night fell, then an overheating engine blew a head gasket in the morning. The team parked the car at 11am and came back on track to complete a final lap to take the flag, however, they were too far behind to be classified. The hard-luck story of the race was with the Bob Akin Porsche 935. Brand new, and with no spare engine, it had been practiced very conservatively. Then at race-pace it had lost 20 laps from a range of problems. But it had carried on and was tenth in the final hour. Going onto the final lap, Miller had to stop at Mulsanne corner with smoke filling the cockpit. Despite all his efforts, a short circuit had burned out the electrics and it would not restart.
The works Lancia of Alboreto/Cheever/Facetti had a good race and stayed the course to finish eighth, to claim the maximum points in the 2-litre class. A surprising 1-2 overall victory at Watkins Glen later in the year was good enough to beat Porsche for the World Championship for the second year running.
The new pace-car system had had its teething problems, with inconsistent radio communications between the officials and the three cars, with restarts being a bit chaotic. The two fatalities cast a pall over the race celebrations.
As well as being a record-breaking victory for Ickx it was also a sixth win for Porsche (now second behind the nine wins of Ferrari), and a fine commemoration of the 50th year since the marque's first Le Mans. Ickx commented:
" I gave up Formula 1, retired, because I was tired of racing. But to come back to this; well it's like coming here fifteen years ago”.
Porsche's ease of success with the new engine confirmed the racing division's decision to adopt it for their new Group C project – the Porsche 956
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Note *: Not Classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of the winner) by the race's end.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Energy Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Pole Position –J. Ickx, #11 Porsche 936/81– 3:29.4secs;
Fastest Lap –J. Mass, #12 Porsche 936/81 – 3:34.0secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – 170 000
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Armstrong, Doug – editor (1981) Automobile Year #29 1981–82 Edita SA
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2012) Le Mans 1980-89 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1981 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 18 Nov 2021
Le Mans History – Le Mans entry-list and hour-by-hour placings (incl. pictures, quotes, highest speeds per car, YouTube links). Retrieved 18 Nov 2021
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 18 Nov 2021
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 18 Nov 2021
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 18 Nov 2021
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 18 Nov 2021
Classic Cars – Results table for the World Challenge for Endurance Drivers. Retrieved 18 Nov 2021
Motorsport Memorial – motor-racing deaths by year. Retrieved 27 Dec 2021
YouTube – 45-min race summary, in colour and with commentary. Retrieved 11 Jan 2022
YouTube – 50-min BBC behind-the-scenes documentary of the race, in colour. Retrieved 9 Feb 2022
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1981 in French motorsport
Le Mans |
4529709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Cordray | Richard Cordray | Richard Adams Cordray (born May 3, 1959) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the COO of Federal Student Aid in the United States Department of Education. He served as the first director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) from 2012 to 2017. Before that, Cordray variously served as Ohio's attorney general, solicitor general, and treasurer. He was the Democratic nominee for governor of Ohio in 2018.
Cordray was raised near Columbus, Ohio and attended Michigan State University. He was subsequently a Marshall Scholar at Brasenose College, Oxford and then attended the University of Chicago Law School, where he was editor-in-chief of the Law Review. In 1987 he became an undefeated five-time Jeopardy! champion.
Cordray was elected to the Ohio House of Representatives in 1990. After redistricting, Cordray decided to run for the United States House of Representatives in 1992 but was defeated. The following year he was appointed by the Ohio Attorney General as the first Solicitor General of Ohio. His experience as Solicitor led to his appearance before the United States Supreme Court to argue six cases. Following Republican victories in Ohio statewide elections in 1994, Cordray left his appointed position and entered the private practice of law. While in private practice he unsuccessfully ran for Ohio Attorney General in 1998 and the United States Senate in 2000. He was elected Franklin County treasurer in 2002 and reelected in 2004 before being elected Ohio State Treasurer in 2006.
Cordray was elected Ohio Attorney General in November 2008 to fill the remainder of the term ending in January 2011. In 2010, Cordray lost his bid for reelection to former U.S. Senator Mike DeWine. He became Director of the CFPB via recess appointment in July 2011 and was confirmed by the Senate in 2013. Cordray left the agency in late 2017 to run for governor of Ohio, an election he lost to DeWine.
Early life and education
Cordray was born in Columbus, Ohio, the middle child between brothers Frank Jr. and Jim, and was raised in Grove City, Ohio, where he attended public schools. At Grove City High School, Cordray became a champion on the high school quiz show In The Know and worked for minimum wage at McDonald's. He graduated from high school in 1977 as co-valedictorian of his class. His first job in politics was as an intern for United States Senator John Glenn as a junior at Michigan State University's James Madison College. Cordray earned Phi Beta Kappa honors and graduated summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in legal and political theory in 1981. As a Marshall Scholar, he earned a Master of Arts with first class honors in economics from Brasenose College, Oxford. He was a member of the Oxford University Men's Basketball Team and earned a Varsity Blue in 1983. At the University of Chicago Law School, where he earned his Juris Doctor with honors in 1986, he served as editor-in-chief of the University of Chicago Law Review.
Early career
After starting work as a law clerk at the U.S. Supreme Court, Cordray returned to his high school to deliver the commencement speech for the graduating class of 1988. He began his career by clerking for Judge Robert Bork of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit and for Justice Anthony Kennedy of the Supreme Court of the United States. After clerking for Kennedy in 1989, he was hired by the international law firm Jones Day to work in its Cleveland office.
From 1989 to at least 2000, Cordray taught various courses at the Ohio State University Moritz College of Law and Georgetown University.
Ohio House of Representatives
In 1990 Cordray ran for an Ohio State House of Representatives seat, in the 33rd district (southern and western Franklin County), against six-term incumbent Republican Don Gilmore. Unopposed for the Democratic nomination, he defeated Gilmore by an 18,573–11,944 (61–39%) margin.
1992 congressional election
In 1991 the state Apportionment Board, controlled by a 3–2 Republican majority despite the party's 61–38 minority in the state House of Representatives, redrew state legislative districts following the results of the 1990 Census, in the hope of retaking control of the state House. The new boundaries created nine districts each with two resident incumbent Democrats, pairing Cordray with the 22-year incumbent Mike Stinziano. Unable to be elected in another district due to a one-year residency requirement, Cordray opted not to run for reelection.
Cordray ran for Ohio's 15th congressional district in the 1992 U.S. House of Representatives elections, and won the Democratic nomination over Bill Buckel by an 18,731–5,329 (78–22%) margin, following the withdrawal of another candidate, Dave Sommer. Cordray's platform included federal spending cuts, term limits for Congress and a line-item veto for the president. When Deborah Pryce, then a Franklin County municipal judge, announced that she would vote to support abortion rights, Linda S. Reidelbach entered the race as an independent. Thus the general election was a three-way affair, with Pryce taking a plurality of 110,390 votes (44.1%), Cordray 94,907 (37.9%) and Reidelbach 44,906 (17.9%).
Ohio solicitor general
While in private practice in 1993, Cordray co-wrote a legal brief for the Anti-Defamation League, in a campaign supported by Ohio's attorney general, for the reinstatement of Ohio's hate crime laws. This was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court, but not ruled on because of its similarity to a previous Wisconsin ruling.
In 1993 the government of Ohio created the office of state solicitor general to handle the state's appellate work. The state solicitor, appointed by the Ohio attorney general, is responsible for cases that are to be argued before the Ohio Supreme Court and the United States Supreme Court. Until 1998, the Solicitor worked without any support staff. Cordray, who had earlier worked for a summer in the office of the United States solicitor general, was the first Solicitor to be appointed, in September 1993. He held the position until he resigned after Ohio Attorney General Lee Fisher was defeated by Betty Montgomery in 1994. His cases before the Supreme Court included Wilson v. Layne () and Hanlon v. Berger (). Though he lost his first case, he won his second case, which garnered a substantial amount of media attention for its consideration of the constitutionality of media ride-alongs with police. Other cases included Household Credit Services v. Pfennig (), Brown v. Legal Foundation of Washington (), Demore v. Kim (), and Groh v. Ramirez ().
Cordray contested the Ku Klux Klan's right to erect a cross at the Ohio Statehouse after the state's Capitol Square Review and Advisory Board denied the Klan's request during the 1993 Christmas holiday. He argued that the symbolic meaning of the cross was different from the Christmas tree and menorah, which the state permits. The Klan prevailed in the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on December 21, 1993, and erected a 10-foot (3 m) cross the following day. The same board denied the Klan a permit to rally on Martin Luther King Day (January 15, 1994) due to the group's failure to pay a $15,116 bill from its Oct. 23 rally and its refusal to post a bond to cover expenses for the proposed rally. When the same 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals overturned the decision to deny the 1994 permit, the state chose not to appeal. The following year the Klan again applied to erect a cross for the Christmas holiday season, and the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals concurred with the prior ruling. The United States Supreme Court did not agree to hear arguments on the topic until a few weeks after Cordray resigned from his solicitor general position. After his resignation in 1994 he several times represented the federal government in the U.S. Supreme Court: two of Cordray's appearances before were by appointment of the Democratic Bill Clinton Justice Department and two were by the Republican George W. Bush Justice Department.
Cordray was granted a ruling by the Ohio Supreme Court that lower courts could not grant a stay of execution for a death row inmate. At the same time, Fisher, Cordray's boss, sought a referendum to mandate that appeals in death penalty cases be made directly to the Supreme Court. In 1994 the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Steffen v. Tate (39 F.3d 622 1994) limited death row inmates to a single federal appeal and said that federal courts cannot stay an execution if the case is still in a state court.
In early 1996 Cordray was elected to the Ohio Democratic Party Central Committee from the 15th district by a 5,472–1,718 margin over John J. Kulewicz. From 1995 to 2007 Cordray was a sole practitioner and Of Counsel to Kirkland & Ellis.
In late 1996 Cordray, who was in private practice at the time, was a leading contender and finalist for a United States attorney position during the second term of the Clinton administration, along with Kent Markus and Sharon Zealey. Zealey was eventually selected.
1998 Ohio Attorney General election
During the 1998 election for Ohio attorney general, Cordray ran unopposed in the Democratic primary but was defeated, 62%–38%, by one-term Republican incumbent Betty Montgomery.
2000 U.S. Senate election
Cordray entered the U.S. Senate elections in a race that began as a three-way contest for the Democratic nomination to oppose first-term Republican incumbent Mike DeWine. The three-way race was unusual since the three candidates (Cordray, Rev. Marvin McMickle, and Ted Celeste) were encouraged to campaign together in order to promote name recognition, conserve resources and lessen infighting. Ohio Democratic party leaders believed Cordray was better suited for an Ohio Supreme Court seat and urged him to drop out of the Senate race. Despite the Ohio Democrats not endorsing any candidate in the primary election, the entry of Dan Radakovich as a fourth competitor, and the anticipated entry of former Mayor of Cincinnati and television personality Jerry Springer, Cordray persisted in his campaign. Celeste, the younger brother of former Ohio governor Dick Celeste, won with 369,772 votes. He was trailed by McMickle (the only black Senate candidate in the country in 2000) with 204,811 votes, Cordray with 200,157, and Radakovich with 69,002.
Franklin county treasurer
Cordray was unopposed in the May 7, 2002, primary election for the Democratic nomination as Franklin County treasurer. He defeated Republican incumbent Wade Steen, who had been appointed in May 2001 to replace Bobbie M. Hall. The election was close, unofficially 131,199–128,677 (50.5%–49.5%), official margin of victory 3,232. Cordray was the first Democrat to hold the position since 1977, and he assumed office on December 9, 2002, instead of after January 1 because he was filling Hall's unexpired term.
The Franklin County Republican party made no endorsement in the 2004 election, but Republican Jim Timko challenged Cordray. Cordray defeated him and was elected to a four-year term by a 272,593–153,625 (64%–36%) margin.
As Franklin County treasurer Cordray focused on four major initiatives: collection of delinquent tax revenue through a tax lien certificate sale, creation of a land bank, personal finance education, and the development of a community outreach program. He managed a portfolio that averaged $650 million and consistently beat its benchmarks, and set new records for delinquent tax collection in Franklin County, which was the only Ohio county with a AAA credit rating. He also served as president of the Board of Revision and chair of the Budget Commission. In 2005, Cordray was named the national County Leader of the Year by American City & County magazine.
Later career
Ohio treasurer
In the 2006 Democratic party primary election for Ohio treasurer, Cordray was set to face Montgomery County Treasurer Hugh Quill, but Quill withdrew before the election. He defeated Republican nominee Sandra O'Brien for state treasurer in the 2006 election. Cordray succeeded Jennette Bradley in a near-statewide sweep by the Democratic Party. Cordray noted that when he assumed statewide office, Ohio was challenged with restoring public trust after the misdeeds of former Ohio Governor Bob Taft. Referring to what would be required to follow Ohio Attorney General Marc Dann and his interim successor Nancy Rogers, he said: "... we have been patiently rebuilding the public trust there [in the state government] and I think it would be a very similar task there in the Attorney General's office."
Ohio attorney general
2008 election
Cordray announced his 2008 candidacy for Ohio state attorney general on June 11, 2008. He was endorsed by Ohio Governor Ted Strickland. The vacancy in the office of the attorney general was created by the May 14, 2008, resignation of Marc Dann, who was embroiled in a sex scandal. Several leading Republican party contenders such as Montgomery, Jim Petro, DeWine, Maureen O'Connor, and Rob Portman declined to enter the race. Cordray's opponents in the race were Michael Crites (Republican), and Robert M. Owens (Independent). Cordray had a large financial advantage over his opponents, with approximately 30 times as much campaign financing as Crites. Crites's campaign strategies included attempts to link Cordray with Dann—an association The Columbus Dispatch called into question—and promoting himself as having more years of prosecutorial experience. Cordray asserted that he managed the state's money safely despite the turbulence of the financial crisis of 2007–2008.
Ohio statewide offices are regularly contested every four years in the midterm election years. 2008 was a Class 2 senatorial election year, and Ohio is a state with class 1 and class 3 senators. Thus the Attorney General race was the only statewide non-presidential race in the 2008 election aside from contests for two seats on the Ohio Supreme Court. Cordray defeated Crites, 57%–38%.
Tenure
Bank of America
In July 2009 Denny Chin, a judge on the United States district court for the Southern District of New York, granted lead plaintiff status to a group of five public pension funds for investor class-action lawsuits against the Bank of America Corporation over its acquisition of Merrill Lynch & Company. The claim was that Bank of America misled investors about Merrill's financial well-being prior to the January 1, 2009 acquisition despite awareness that Merrill was headed toward a significant loss that amounted to $15.84 billion in its fourth quarter. The suit also alleged that significant bonus payments were concealed.
The curious dealings led to congressional hearings about why the merger commenced without any disclosures. In September 2009 Cordray, on behalf of Ohio's largest public employee pension funds (State Teachers Retirement System of Ohio and the Ohio Public Employees Retirement System), the Teacher Retirement System of Texas and pension funds from Sweden and the Netherlands, filed suit alleging that Bank of America, its directors and four executives (Bank of America Chief Executive Kenneth Lewis, Bank of America Chief Financial Officer Joe Price, accounting chief Neil Cotty and former Merrill chairman and CEO John Thain) acted to conceal Merrill's growing losses from shareholders voted to approve the deal the prior December.
Prior to the filing the five funds had filed individual complaints, but the September filing of an amended complaint joined the actions with Cordray representing the lead plaintiff. The amended complaint included details about conversations and communications between Bank of America and Merrill Lynch executives that were revealed in media reports, congressional testimony and investigations by the Securities and Exchange Commission. The filing was an attempt to recover losses endured when Bank of America's share price fell after the transaction. The damages were sought from Bank of America, individual executives, the bank's board of directors, including any insurers that cover directors' legal liabilities. Among the specifics of the claim were that Bank of America agreed to allow Merrill Lynch to pay as much as $5.8 billion in undisclosed year-end discretionary bonuses to executives and employees and that Bank of America and Merrill Lynch executives were aware of billions of dollars in losses suffered by Merrill Lynch in the two months before the merger vote but failed to disclose them.
Bid rigging case
In April 2010 Cordray reached a $1 billion settlement with American International Group (AIG), one of four remaining named defendants (along with Marsh & McLennan, Hartford Financial Services and Chubb Corp.), in a 2007 antitrust case regarding business practices between 2001 and 2004. The settlement was divided among 26 Ohio universities, cities and schools. Zurich Financial Services settled in 2006. Cordray believes that Marsh was the organizing company for the illegal practices and noted that a trial could commence in 2011. AIG admitted no wrongdoing and said the settlement was to avoid risks and prolonged expenses.
2010 election
On November 2, 2010, Cordray lost his reelection bid to former U.S. senator Mike DeWine by two points.
Cordray was repeatedly mentioned as a potential 2014 candidate for governor of Ohio, but after being confirmed to a five-year term to head the CFPB, he declined to run.
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2012–2017)
On December 15, 2010, Special Advisor to President Barack Obama Elizabeth Warren announced that she had selected Cordray to lead the enforcement arm of the newly-created United States Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB), saying, "Richard Cordray has the vision and experience to help us build a team that ensures every lender in the marketplace is playing by the rules." In announcing his appointment to this position Cordray also said that he intended to once again run for statewide office in Ohio in 2014. Cordray described the opportunity to The Wall Street Journal as a chance to resume "... in many ways doing on a 50-state basis the things I cared most about as a state attorney general, with a more robust and a more comprehensive authority."
On July 17, 2011, Cordray was selected over Warren as the head of the entire CFPB, but his nomination was immediately in jeopardy because 44 Senate Republicans had previously vowed to derail any nominee in order to push for a decentralized structure to the organization. This was part of a pattern of conflict between Republicans in the Senate and the Obama administration that had led to record numbers of blocked and failed nominations. On July 21, 2011, Senator Richard Shelby wrote an op-ed article for The Wall Street Journal affirming continued opposition (that went back to a May 5 letter to the President) to a centralized structure, noting that both the Securities Exchange Commission and Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation had executive boards and that the CFPB should be no different. Politico interpreted Shelby's statements as saying that Cordray's nomination was "Dead on Arrival". In October, as the nomination remained on hold, the National Association of Attorneys General endorsed Cordray. On December 8, 2011, the Senate failed to secure cloture on Cordray's nomination. The final vote was 53–45, with 50 out of 51 Democrats voting for cloture, and 45 out of 47 Republicans voting against.
On January 4, 2012, Obama gave Cordray a recess appointment to the post, bypassing the Senate, which had been holding, over the holiday recess, pro forma sessions of the Senate (gaveling in and gaveling out minutes later, without any legislative business being conducted) in order to block Obama from making a recess appointment. The White House's position was that the Senate was effectively in recess, and therefore that Obama was empowered to make a recess appointment; this move was criticized by Republican senators, who argued that Congress had not officially been in recess, and that Obama did not have the authority to bypass Senate approval.
The validity of the recess appointment was challenged by the courts, and in June 2014, in the decision in NLRB v. Noel Canning, the Supreme Court unanimously vacated recess appointments made while the Senate was in pro forma session, determining that the Senate was not in recess at the time of the appointments. This decision did not affect Cordray because, almost two years after the recess appointment, he had been confirmed by the Senate.
On January 24, 2013, Obama renominated Cordray as CFPB director. Senate Republicans opposed his nomination , but amid a July 2013 push by Senate Democrats to eliminate the filibuster for all executive-branch nominees, senators struck a deal to pave the way for a final, up-or-down vote. The Senate voted 71–29 on July 16, 2013, to invoke cloture on Cordray's nomination, and confirmed Cordray in a 66–34 vote the same day.
Republican groups including American Rising Squared and Congressman Jeb Hensarling filed complaints that Cordray had violated the Hatch Act by considering a run for governor of Ohio while serving as the Director of the CFPB, but the United States Office of Special Counsel cleared Cordray of any wrongdoing.
Cordray has said that after President Trump was inaugurated, Trump and Office of Management and Budget Director Mick Mulvaney worked to undermine Cordray and the CFPB. On November 15, 2017, Cordray announced his resignation as director of the CFPB, sparking a legal dispute over who would succeed him as acting director.
2018 Ohio gubernatorial election
On December 5, 2017, Cordray announced his candidacy for governor of Ohio in the 2018 election. He won the Democratic primary on May 8, 2018, and faced Republican challenger and Ohio Attorney General Mike DeWine in the general election. On August 1, 2018, former President Barack Obama endorsed Cordray for governor. In the November 6, 2018 general election DeWine defeated Cordray with 50.4% of the vote to Cordray's 46.7%; third-party candidates received 2.9%.
Personal life
On July 11, 1992, Cordray married Margaret "Peggy" Cordray, a law professor at Capital University Law School. The Cordrays have twins, a daughter and son, and reside near Grove City, Ohio. His father retired as an Orient Developmental Center program director for intellectually disabled residents after 43 years of service. His mother, Ruth Cordray, from Dayton, Ohio, died in 1980. She was a social worker, teacher and founder of Ohio's first foster grandparent program for individuals with developmental disabilities. Richard Cordray carried the Olympic Flame through Findlay, Ohio, as part of the nationwide torch relay to the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia and has served as a member of the Advisory Board for the Friends of the Homeless and part of Al Gore's select group known as Leadership '98.
Appearances on Jeopardy!
Cordray is an undefeated five-time champion and Tournament of Champions semifinalist on Jeopardy! In 1987 he won $45,303 from the show, which he used to pay law school debt, to pay taxes and to buy a used car. The total winnings came from $40,303 in prize money during his five-contest streak and $5,000 for a first-round win in the Tournament of Champions. His campaign for public office in 1990 precluded him from participating in the Super Jeopardy! elimination tournament of champions, as ABC, the network that carried the tournament, had a policy against political contestants appearing on the show (excluding Celebrity Jeopardy!). But he did compete in the Battle of the Decades tournament, appearing in the show aired February 5, 2014, and finishing second to aerospace consultant Tom Nosek. Because of his duties as a federal employee, he turned down the $5,000 he won for that appearance.
See also
List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 1)
List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 6)
Notes
External links
Richard Cordray for Governor
Richard Cordray at Jeopardy! Archives
1959 births
Living people
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
Jeopardy! contestants
Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
Marshall Scholars
Democratic Party members of the Ohio House of Representatives
Michigan State University alumni
Obama administration personnel
Ohio Attorneys General
People from Grove City, Ohio
People of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
Recess appointments during the Obama administration
Solicitors General of Ohio
State treasurers of Ohio
Trump administration personnel
University of Chicago Law School alumni
Candidates in the 2018 United States elections
Biden administration personnel |
4529789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-linked%20severe%20combined%20immunodeficiency | X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency | X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) is an immunodeficiency disorder in which the body produces very few T cells and NK cells.
In the absence of T cell help, B cells become defective. It is an X-linked recessive inheritance trait, stemming from a mutated (abnormal) version of the IL2RG gene located on the X-chromosome. This gene encodes the interleukin receptor common gamma chain protein, which is a cytokine receptor sub-unit that is part of the receptors for IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21.
Symptoms and signs
People with X-SCID often have infections very early in life, before three months of age. This occurs due to the decreased amount of immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels in the infant during the three-month stage. This is followed by viral infections such as pneumonitis, an inflammation of the lung which produces common symptoms such as cough, fever, chills, and shortness of breath. A telltale sign of X-SCID is candidiasis, a type of fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Candidiasis involves moist areas of the body such as skin, the mouth, respiratory tract, and vagina; symptoms of oral candidiasis include difficulty in swallowing, pain on swallowing and oral lesions. Recurrent eczema-like rashes are also a common symptom. Other common infections experienced by individuals with X-SCID include diarrhea, sepsis, and otitis media. Some other common symptoms that are experienced by X-SCID patients include failure to thrive, gut problems, skin problems, and muscle hypotonia.
In some patients symptoms may not appear for the first six months after birth. This is likely due to passive immunity received from the mother in order to protect the baby from infections until the newborn is able to make its own antibodies. As a result, there can be a silent period where the baby displays no symptoms of X-SCID followed by the development of frequent infections.
Genetics
X-SCID is caused by a mutation occurring in the xq13.1 locus of the X-chromosome. Most often, this disease affects males whose mother is a carrier (heterozygous) for the disorder. Because females have two X-chromosomes, the mother will not be affected by carrying only one abnormal X-chromosome, but any male children will have a 50% chance of being affected with the disorder by inheriting the faulty gene. Likewise, her female children will have a 50% chance of being carriers for the immunodeficiency. X-SCID can also arise through de novo mutations and can be prevented in females by X-inactivation. In X-inactivation the preferential selection of the non-mutant X chromosome during development results in the outcome that none of the mature female cells actively express the X-SCID mutation, they are immunologically unaffected and have no carrier burden. A de novo mutation is an alteration in a gene caused by the result of a mutation in a germ cell (egg or sperm) or in the fertilized egg itself, rather than having been inherited from a carrier. Since only 1/3 of all X-SCID patients have a positive family history of SCID, it is hypothesized that de novo mutations account for a significant percentage of cases. X-inactivation occurs in a completely random manner, in females, very early in embryonic development. Once an X is inactivated, it remains inactivated throughout the life of that cell and any of its daughter cells. It is important to note that X-inactivation is reversed in female germline cells, so that all new oocytes receive an active X. Regardless of which X is inactivated in her somatic cells, a female will have a 50% chance of passing on the disease to any male children.
Pathophysiology
Interleukins are produced by lymphocytes, among other cell types, and are released in response to antigenic and non-antigenic stimuli. The gene IL2RG codes for the common gamma chain protein, which is a common subunit of the individual receptors for Interleukin 2, Interleukin 4, Interleukin 7, Interleukin 9, Interleukin 15 and Interleukin 21. Signalling from these receptors normally promotes growth and differentiation of T-cells, B cells, natural killer cells, glial cells, and cells of the monocyte lineage, depending on the cell type and receptor activated. The most important receptors for X-SCID are those for Interleukin 2, Interleukin 4, Interleukin 7, and Interleukin 15. Specifically, Interleukin 2 and Interleukin 7 are responsible for T-cell proliferation and survival. Likewise, the action of Interleukin 4 and Interleukin 15 will lead to proliferation and differentiation of B-cells into antibody secreting plasma cells. Lastly, Interleukin 15 helps generate developed and matured natural killer cells.
The gene that encodes the common gamma chain in these interleukin receptors is mutated in X-SCID. The mutation leads to an absent or abnormally functioning common gamma chain. The mutation can occur through large, or even single nucleotide, deletions in the IL2RG gene, that disable the common gamma chain so that it is unable to bind with other receptor subunits and signal cytokine activation. Normally, when the interleukin binds to the trimeric receptor protein containing the alpha, beta, and gamma subunits, the common gamma subunit activates Janus Kinase 3 (JAK3), which leads to the phosphorylation of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 5, STAT5. The STAT5 proteins dimerize and translocate to the nucleus, controlling subsequent downstream signalling. Due to the fact that the common gamma chain is absent or abnormal, this downstream pathway is inhibited. This change prevents the T-lymphocytes from signaling other cells, like B-lymphocytes and natural killer cells. Because these cells never receive these signals, they can never mature and differentiate into full grown immune cells.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of X-SCID is possible through lymphocyte cell counts, lymphocyte function tests, and genetic testing. A healthy immune system should contain large amounts of lymphocytes, but individuals with X-SCID will contain unusually small amounts of T-cells, non-functional B-cells, and some natural killer cells.
Individuals with X-SCID often have decreased lymphocyte function. This can be tested through the introduction of agents to the immune system; the reaction of the lymphocytes is then observed. In X-SCID, Antibody responses to introduced vaccines and infections are absent, and T-cell responses to mitogens, substances that stimulate lymphocyte transformation, are deficient. IgA and IgM immunoglobulins, substances that aid in fighting off infections, are very low.
The absence of a thymic shadow on chest X-rays is also indicative of X-SCID. In a normal child, a distinctive sailboat shaped shadow near the heart can be seen. The thymus gland in normal patients will gradually decrease in size because the need for the thymus gland diminishes. The decrease in the size of the thymus gland occurs because the body already has a sufficient number of developed T-cells. However, a patient with X-SCID will be born with an abnormally small thymus gland at birth. This indicates that the function of thymus gland, of forming developed T-cells, has been impaired.
Since the mutation in X-SCID is X-linked, there are genetic tests for detecting carriers in X-SCID pedigrees. One method is to look for family-specific IL2RG mutations. Finally, if none of those options are available, there is an unusual pattern of nonrandom X-chromosome inactivation on lymphocytes in carriers, thus looking for such inactivation would prove useful.
If a mother is pregnant and the family has a known history of immunodeficiency, then doctors may perform diagnostic assessment in-utero. Chorionic Villus Sampling, which involves sampling of the placental tissue using a catheter inserted through the cervix, can be performed 8 to 10 weeks into gestation. Alternatively, Amniocentesis, which entails extracting a sample of the fluid which surrounds the fetus, can be performed 15 to 20 weeks into gestation.
Early detection of X-SCID (and other types of SCID) is also made possible through detection of T-cell recombination excision circles, or TRECs. TRECs are composed of excised DNA fragments which are generated during normal splicing of T-cell surface antigen receptors and T-cell maturation. This maturation process is absent across all SCID variants, as evidenced by the low counts of T-lymphocytes. The assay is performed using dried blood from a Guthrie card, from which DNA is extracted. Quantitative PCR is then performed and the number of TRECs determined. Individuals who have the SCID phenotype will have TREC counts as low as <30, compared to approximately 1020 for a healthy infant. A low TREC count indicates that there is insufficient development of T-cells in the thymus gland. This technique can predict SCID even when lymphocyte counts are within the normal range. Newborn screening of X-SCID based on TREC count in dried blood samples has recently been introduced in several states in the United States including California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New York, Texas, and Wisconsin. In addition, pilot trials are being performed in several other states beginning in 2013.
Treatments
Treatment for X-linked SCID can be divided into two main groups, the prophylactic treatment (i.e. preventative) and curative treatment. The former attempts to manage the opportunistic infections common to SCID patients and the latter aims at reconstituting healthy T-lymphocyte function.
From the late 60s to early 70s, physicians began using "bubbles", which were plastic enclosures used to house newborns suspected to have SCIDS, immediately after birth. The bubble, a form of isolation, was a sterile environment which meant the infant would avoid infections caused by common and lethal pathogens. On the other hand, prophylactic treatments used today for X-linked SCID are similar to those used to treat other primary immunodeficiencies. There are three types of prophylactic treatments, namely, the use of medication, sterile environments, and intravenous immunoglobulin therapy (IVIG). First, antibiotics or antivirals are administered to control opportunistic infections, such as fluconazole for candidiasis, and acyclovir to prevent herpes virus infection. In addition, the patient can also undergo intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) supplementation. Here, a catheter is inserted into the vein and a fluid, containing antibodies normally made by B-cells, is injected into the patient's body. Antibodies, Y-shaped proteins created by plasma cells, recognize and neutralize any pathogens in the body. However, the IVIG is expensive, in terms of time and finance. Therefore, the aforementioned treatments only prevent the infections, and are by no means a cure for X-linked SCID.
Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a standard curative procedure and results in a full immune reconstitution, if the treatment is successful. Firstly, a bone marrow transplant requires a human leukocyte antigen (HLA) match between the donor and the recipient. The HLA is distinct from person to person, which means the immune system utilizes the HLA to distinguish self from foreign cells. Furthermore, a BMT can be allogenic or autologous, which means the donor and recipient of bone marrow can be two different people or the same person, respectively. The autologous BMT involves a full HLA match, whereas, the allogenic BMT involves a full or half (haploidentical) HLA match. Particularly, in the allogenic BMT the chances of graft-versus-host-disease occurring is high if the match of the donor and recipient is not close enough. In this case, the T-cells in the donor bone marrow attack the patient's body because the body is foreign to this graft. The depletion of T-cells in the donor tissue and a close HLA match will reduce the chances of graft-versus-host disease occurring. Moreover, patients who received an exact HLA match had normal functioning T-cells in fourteen days. However, those who received a haploidentical HLA match, their T-cells started to function after four months. In addition, the reason BMT is a permanent solution is because the bone marrow contains multipotent hematopoietic stem cells which become common lymphoid or common myeloid progenitors. In particular, the common lymphoid progenitor gives rise to the lymphocytes involved in the immune response (B-cell, T-cell, natural killer cell). Therefore, a BMT will result in a full immune reconstitution but there are aspects of BMT that need to be improved (i.e. GvHD).
Gene therapy is another treatment option which is available only for clinical trials. X-linked SCID is a monogenic disorder, the IL2RG gene is mutated, so gene therapy will replace this mutated gene with a normal one. This will result in a normal functioning gamma chain protein of the interleukin receptor. In order to transfer a functional gene into the target cell, viral or non-viral vectors can be employed. Viral vectors, such as the retrovirus, that incorporate the gene into the genome result in long-term effects. This, coupled with the bone marrow stem cells, has been successful in treating individuals with X-SCID. In one particular trial by Cavazzana-Calvo et al., ten children were treated with gene therapy at infancy for X-SCID. Nine of the ten were cured of X-SCID. However, about three years after treatment, two of the children developed T-cell leukemia due to insertion of the IL2RG gene near the LMO2 gene and thereby activating the LMO2 gene (a known oncogene). A third child developed leukemia within two years of that study being published, likely as a direct result of the therapy. This condition is known as insertional mutagenesis, where the random insertion of a gene interferes with the tumor suppressor gene or stimulates an oncogene. There is currently no approved gene therapy on the market, but there are many clinical trials into which X-SCID patients may enroll. Therefore, research in the field of gene therapy today and in the future is needed to avoid the occurrence of leukemia. In particular, research into the use of insulator and suicide genes is warranted as this may prevent cancer from developing. The insulator gene inhibits the activation of adjacent genes. On the other hand, the suicide gene is stimulated when a tumour begins to form, and this will result in the deactivation of the therapeutic gene. Moreover, the use of restriction enzymes such as the zinc-finger nuclease (ZFN) is being studied. The ZFN allows the researcher to choose the site of gene integration. Vector safety is important in the field of gene therapy, hence vectors that self-inactivate the promoter and enhancer (SIN) and adenoviruses that creates no immune response are prominent areas of research for vector biologists.
Prognosis
X-linked SCID is a known pediatric emergency which primarily affects males. If the appropriate treatment such as intravenous immunoglobulin supplements, medications for treating infections or a bone marrow transplant is not administered, then the prognosis is poor. The patients with X-linked SCID usually die two years after they are born. For this reason, the diagnosis of X-linked SCID needs to be done early to prevent any pathogens from infecting the infant.
However, the patients have a higher chance of survival if the diagnosis of X-linked SCID is done as soon as the baby is born. This involves taking preventative measures to avoid any infections that can cause death. For example, David Vetter had a high chance of having X-linked SCID because his elder sibling had died due to SCID. This allowed the doctors to place David in the bubble and prevented infections. In addition, if X-linked SCID is known to affect a child, then live vaccines should not be administered and this can save the infant's life. Live attenuated vaccines, which consist of weakened pathogens inserted into the body to create an immune response, can lead to death in infants with X-linked SCID. Moreover, with proper treatments, such as a bone marrow transplant, the prognosis is good. The bone marrow transplant has been successful in treating several patients and resulted in a full immune reconstitution and the patient can live a healthy life. The results of bone marrow transplant are most successful when the closest human leukocyte antigen match has been found. If a close match is not found, however, there is a chance of graft-versus-host-disease which means the donor bone marrow attacks the patient's body. Hence, a close match is required to prevent any complications.
Epidemiology
There is no information on birth ratios/rates, but "X-Linked SCID is the most common form of SCID and it has been estimated to account for 46% to 70% of all SCID cases."
See also
Severe combined immunodeficiency
List of genetic disorders
Notes and references
References
https://web.archive.org/web/20081122091233/http://www.scid.net/about.htm
External links
Combined T and B–cell immunodeficiencies
Cell surface receptor deficiencies |
4529793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inostrancevia | Inostrancevia | Inostrancevia is an extinct genus of large carnivorous therapsids which lived during the Late Permian in what is now European Russia and South Africa. The first known fossils of this gorgonopsian were discovered in the Northern Dvina, where two almost complete skeletons were exhumed. Subsequently, several other fossil materials were discovered in various oblasts, and these finds will lead to a confusion about the exact number of valid species in the country, before only three of them were officially recognized : I. alexandri, I. latifrons and I. uralensis. More recent research carried out in South Africa has discovered fairly well-preserved remains of the genus, being attributed to the species I. africana. The whole genus is named in honor of Alexander Inostrantsev, professor of Vladimir P. Amalitsky, the paleontologist who described the taxon.
Inostrancevia is the biggest known gorgonopsian, the largest fossil specimens indicating an estimated size between and long. The animal is characterized by its robust skeleton, broad skull and a very advanced dentition, possessing large canines, the longest of which can reach and probably used to shear the skin off its prey. Like most other gorgonopsians, Inostrancevia had a particularly large jaw opening angle, which would have allowed to deliver fatal bites.
First regularly classified as close to African taxa such as Gorgonops or rubidgeines, phylogenetic analyses published since 2018 consider it to belong to a group of derived Russian gorgonopsians, now being classified alongside the genera Suchogorgon, Sauroctonus and Pravoslavlevia. According to the Russian and South African fossil records, the faunas where Inostrancevia is recorded were fluvial ecosystems containing many tetrapods, where it turns out to have been the main predator.
Research history
Recognized species
During the 1890s, Russian paleontologist Vladimir Amalitsky discovered freshwater sediments dating from the Upper Permian in Northern Dvina, Arkhangelsk Oblast, northern European Russia. The locality, known as PIN 2005, consists of a creek with sandstone and lens-shaped exposures in a bank escarpment, containing many particularly well-preserved fossil skeletons. This type of fauna from this period, previously known only from South Africa and India, is considered as one of the greatest paleontological discoveries of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After the preliminary reconnaissance of the place, Amalitsky conducts systematic research with his companion , and sent several of his findings to Warsaw, Poland, in order to be prepared there. The exhumations of the fossils then lasted until 1914, when the research stopped due to the start of the World War I. The fossils discovered within the site will subsequently be moved to the Museum of Geology and Mineralogy of the Russian Academy of Sciences. All the fossils listed were not prepared, and more than 100 tons of concretions were promised for new discoveries by the museum in question.
The multiple administrative activities and difficult conditions during Amalitsky's last years have severely hampered his fossil research, leading to his unexpected death in 1917. However, among all the fossils identified before his death are two remarkably complete skeletons of large gorgonopsians, cataloged PIN 1758 and PIN 2005/1578 (the latter of which would later be recognized as the lectotype of the genus). After identification, he assigned the two specimens to a new genus and species, which he named Inostranzevia alexandri. The genus name was already proposed by Amalitsky long before its official description, which was published posthumously in 1922. Although he did not provide the etymology of the term in his descriptions, the full name of the taxon is named in honor of the renowned geologist Alexander Inostrantsev, who was Amalitsky's teacher himself. The two skeletons were placed under the property of the Institute of Paleontology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. However Amalitsky's article generally describes all the fossil discoveries made in the Northern Dvina, and not Inostrancevia itself, the article mentioning that further research on this gorgonopsian is subject to research.
It was in 1927 that one of Amalitsky's colleagues, , published the first formal description of the genus. In his monograph he names several additional species, and revises in detail the morphology of the two known skeletons of I. alexandri. Of all the named species, only I. latifrons was the only one recognized as a clearly distinct species within the genus, being based on skulls discovered within Arkhangelsk Oblast as well as a very incomplete skeleton from the village of Zavrazhye, located in Vladimir Oblast. The specific epithet latifrons comes from the Latin latus "broad" and frōns "forehead", in reference to the size and the more robust cranial constitution than that of I. alexandri. In his book, Pravoslavlev also changed the typography of the name "Inostranzevia" to "Inostrancevia". This last term has since entered into universal usage and must be maintained according to the rule of article 33.3.1 of the ICZN. Although Pravoslavlev's work was of a major importance, a re-examination of the skeletal anatomy is needed in order to broaden the understanding of the animal's biology.
In 1974, Leonid Tatarinov described the third species, I. uralensis, based on rare remains of part of the skull from an individual smaller than the other two recognized species. The specific epithet uralensis refers to the Ural River, located in Orenburg Oblast, where the holotype specimen of the taxon was found.
The fourth known species, I. africana, was discovered from two specimens found between 2010 and 2011 respectively by Nthaopa Ntheri and John Nyaphuli at Nooitgedacht Farm in the Karoo Basin, South Africa. The two known specimens, holotype NMQR 4000 and paratype NMQR 3707, are recorded in the Balfour Formation, and more specifically in the Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone, from where they are dated to between 254 and 251.9 millions years ago. In 2023, Christian F. Kammerer and his colleagues publish a revision which unexpectedly confirms that these specimens belong to the genus Inostrancevia, which is a great first, because the genus was previously reported only in Russia. However, these specimens have some differences with the Russian species, being classified in the newly erected species I. africana, the specific epithet referring to Africa, the continent from which the taxon lived. The article officially describing this animal is mainly concerned with the stratigraphic significance of the finds and is only a brief introduction to the anatomy of the new fossil material, the latter being subjects for a study to be published later.
Formerly assigned species
Due to the poor quality of preservation of some Inostrancevia fossils, several specimens were therefore incorrectly found to belong to separate taxa. Only four species are recognized today, with three (I. alexandri, I. latifrons and I. uralensis) from Russia and one (I. africana) from South Africa.
In his 1927 monograph, Pravoslavlev names two additional species of the genus Inostrancevia: I. parva and I. proclivis. In 1940, the paleontologist Ivan Yefremov expressed doubts about this classification, and considered that the holotype specimen of I. parva should be viewed as a juvenile of the genus and not as a distinct species. It was in 1953 that Boris Pavlovich Vyuschkov completely revised the species named for Inostrancevia. For I. parva, he moves it to a new genus, which he names Pravoslavlevia, in honor of the original author who named the species. Although being a distinct and valid genus, Pravoslavlevia turns out to be a closely related taxon. Also in his article, he considers that I. proclivis is a junior synonym of I. alexandri, but remains open to the question of the existence of this species, arguing his opinion with the insufficient preservation of type specimens. This taxon will be definitively judged as being conspecific to I. alexandri in the revision of the genus carried out by Tatarinov in 1974.
Also in is work, Pravoslavlev names another genus of gorgonopsians, Amalitzkia, with the two species it includes: A. vladimiri and A. annae, both named in reference to the pair of paleontologists who carried out the work on the first specimens known of I. alexandri. In 1953, Vjuschkov discovered that the genus Amalitzkia is a junior synonym of Inostrancevia, renaming A. vladimiri to I. vladimiri, before the latter was itself recognized as a junior synonym of I. latifrons by later publications. For some unclear reason, Vjuschkov refers A. annae as a nomen nudum, when his description is quite viable. Just like A. vladimiri, A. annae will be synonymized with I. latifrons by Tatarinov in 1974.
Other species belonging to distinct lineages were sometimes inadvertently classified in the genus Inostrancevia. For example, in 1940, Efremov classifies a gorgonopsian of then-problematic status as I. progressus. However, in 1955, Alexey Bystrow moved this species to the separate genus Sauroctonus. A large maxilla discovered in Vladimir Oblast in the 1950s was also assigned to Inostrancevia, but the fossil would be reassigned to a large therocephalian in 1997, and later designated as the holotype of the genus Megawhaitsia.
Description
Size
The specimens PIN 2005/1578 and PIN 1758, belonging to I. alexandri, are among the largest and most complete gorgonopsian fossils identified to date. Both specimens are around long, with the skulls alone measuring over . However, I. latifrons, although known from more fragmentary fossils, is estimated to have a more imposing size, the skull being long, indicating that it would have measured and weighed . The size of I. uralensis is unknown due to very incomplete fossils, but it appears to be smaller than I. latifrons.
Morphology
The majority of descriptions made of the genus as a whole concern I. alexandri, the other Russian species being known only from partial or very fragmentary remains. The skeletal anatomy of I. africana is a subject for a further study, as the article describing it focuses on the stratigraphic importance of the finds and not on its morphology.
Skull
The overall shape of the skull of Inostrancevia is similar to those of other gorgonopsians, although it has many differences allowing it to be distinguished from African representatives. It has a broad back skull, a raised and elongated snout, relatively small eye sockets and thin cranial arches. The pineal foramen is located near the posterior edge of the parietals and rests on a strong projection in the middle of an elongated hollow like impression. The sagittal suture is reinforced with complex curvatures. The ventral surface of the palatine bones is completely smooth, lacking traces of palatine teeth or tubercles. Just like Viatkogorgon, the top margin of the quadrate is thickened. The three recognized Russian species have notable characteristics between them: I. alexandri is distinguished by its relatively narrow occiput, a broad and rounded oval temporal fenestra and the transverse flangues of the pterygoid with teeth; I. latifrons is distinguished by a comparatively lower and broader snout, larger parietal region, fewer teeth and a less developed palatal tuberosities; and I. uralensis is characterized by a transversely elongated oval slot-like temporal fenestra.
The jaws of I. alexandri are powerfully developed, equipped with teeth able to hold and tear the skin of prey. The teeth are also devoid of cusps and can be distinguished into three types: the incisors, the canines and the postcanines. All teeth are more or less laterally compressed and have finely serrated front and rear edges. When the mouth is closed, the upper canines move into position at the sides of the mandible, reaching its lower edge. The canines of I. alexandri measuring between and , they are among the largest identified among non-mammalian therapsids, only the anomodont Tiarajudens have similarly sized canines. In the upper and lower jaws, these canines are roughly equal in size and are slightly curved. The incisors turn out to be very robust. The postcanine teeth are present on the upper jaw, on its slightly upturned alveolar edges. In contrast, they are completely absent from the lower jaw. There are indications that the tooth replacement would have taken place by the young teeth, growing at the root of the old ones and gradually supplanting them. The capsule of the canines is very large, containing up to three capsules of replacement canines at different stages of development.
Postcranial skeleton
The skeleton of Inostrancevia is of very robust constitution, mainly at the level of the limbs. The ungual phalanges have an acute triangular shape. Inostrancevia has the most autapomorphic postcranial skeleton identified on a gorgonopsian. The scapula of this latter is unmistakable, with an enlarged plate-like blade unlike that of any other known gorgonopsians, but its anatomy is also unusual, with ridges and thickened tibiae, especially at their joint margins. The scapular blade of Inostrancevia being extremely enlarged, its morphology will most likely be subject to future study regarding its paleobiological function.
Classification
In the original description published in 1922, Inostrancevia was initially classified as a gorgonopsian close to the African genus Gorgonops. Subsequently, few gorgonopsians will be listed in Russia, but the identification of Pravoslavlevia will mark a new turning point in its classification. In 1974, Tatarinov classified the two genera in the family Inostranceviidae. In 1989, Denise Sigogneau-Russell proposes a similar classification, but moves the taxon reuniting the two genera as a subfamily, being renamed Inostranceviinae, and is classified in the more general family Gorgonopsidae. In 2002, in his revision of the Russian gorgonopsians, Mikhail F. Ivakhnenko re-erects the family Inostranceviidae and classifies the taxon as one of the lineages of the superfamily "Rubidgeoidea", placed alongside the Rubidgeidae and Phtinosuchidae. One year later, in 2003, he reclassifies Inostrancevia in the family Inostranceviidae, similar to Tatarinov's proposal, but the latter classifies it alone, making it a monotypic taxon. In 2007, based on observations made on the occipital bones and canines, Eva V. I. Gebauer moved Inostrancevia as a sister taxon to the Rubidgeinae, a lineage consisting of robust African gorgonopsians. In 2016 Christian F. Kammerer regarded Gebauer's analysis as "unsatisfactory", citing that many of the characters used by her analysis were based upon skull proportions that are variable within taxa, both individually and ontogenetically (i.e. traits that change through growth).
In 2018, in their description of Nochnitsa, Kammerer and Vladimir Masyutin propose that all Russian and African taxa should be separately grouped into two distinct clades. For Russian genera (except basal taxa), this relationship is supported by notable cranial traits, such as the close contact between pterygoid and vomer. The discovery of other Russian gorgonopsians and the relationship between them and Inostrancevia has never before been recognized, for the simple reason that some authors undoubtedly compared them to African genera. The classification proposed by Kammerer and Masyutin will serve as the basis for all other subsequent phylogenetic studies of gorgonopsians. As with previous classifications, Pravoslavlevia is still considered as the sister taxon of Inostrancevia.
The following cladogram shows the position of Inostrancevia within the Gorgonopsia after Kammerer and Rubidge (2022):
Paleobiology
Hunting strategy
One of the most recognizable characteristics of Inostrancevia, and other gorgonopsians as well, is the presence of long, saber-like canines on the upper and lower jaws. How these animals would have used this dentition is debated, the bite force of saber-toothed predators like Inostrancevia, using three-dimensional analysis, was determined by Stephan Lautenschlager and colleagues in 2020 to uncover answers. Their findings detail that despite morphological convergence among saber-toothed predators, there is a diversity in possible killing techniques. The similarly sized gorgonopsian Rubidgea is capable of producing a bite force of 715 newtons. Although lacking the necessary jaw strength of being capable of crushing bone, the analysis details that the most massive gorgonopsians possess a more powerful bite than other saber-toothed predators. The study also indicated that the jaw of Inostrancevia was capable of a massive gape, perhaps enabling this latter to deliver a lethal bite similar to the hypothesised killing technique of Smilodon, another sabre-toothed predator.
Palaeoecology
European Russia
During the Late Permian when Inostrancevia lived, the Southern Urals (close in proximity to the Sokolki assemblage) were located around latitude 28–34°N and defined as a “cold desert” dominated by fluvial deposits. The Salarevo Formation in particular (a horizon where Inostrancevia hails from) was deposited in a seasonal, semi-arid to arid area with multiple shallow water lakes which was periodically flooded. The Paleoflora of much of European Russia at the time was dominated by a genus of peltaspermaceaen, Tatarina, and other related genera, followed by ginkgophytes and conifers. On the other hand, ferns were relatively rare and sphenophytes were only locally present. There are also hygrophyte and halophyte plants in coastal areas as well as conifers that are more resistant to drought and higher altitudes.
The fossil sites from which Inostrancevia was recorded contain abundant fossils of terrestrial and shallow freshwater organisms, including ostracods, fishes, reptiliomorphs like Chroniosuchus and Kotlassia, the temnospondyl Dvinosaurus, the pareiasaur Scutosaurus, the dicynodont Vivaxosaurus and the cynodont Dvinia. Inostrancevia was the top predator in its environment and could have preyed on the majority of the previously mentioned tetrapods. Other smaller predators have existed alongside Inostrancevia, such as the smaller related gorgonopsian Pravoslavlevia and the therocephalian Annatherapsidus.
South Africa
According to the fossil record, the Upper Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone, from which I. africana is known, would have been a well-drained floodplain. The area preceding just before the Permian-Triassic extinction, this would explain why there is no more diversification of animals than in the older strata of the Balfour Formation.
As in the other formations of the Karoo Basin, dicynodonts are the most common animals in the Upper Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone. Among the most abundant dicynodonts are Daptocephalus (hence the name of the site), Diictodon and Lystrosaurus. Few genera of therocephalians are known within the site, only Moschorhinus and Theriognathus having been listed. The presence of the cynodont Procynosuchus is also reported. The gorgonopsians Arctognathus and Cyonosaurus should be present based on their wide temporal distribution within the Karoo Basin, but formal fossils have not yet been discovered. As in the Russian fossil record, I. africana would have been the main predator in the area, most likely preying on contemporary dicynodonts.
Extinction
Gorgonopsians, including Inostrancevia, disappeared during the Late Lopingian in Permian-Triassic extinction event, mainly due to volcanic activities that originated in the Siberian Traps. The resulting eruption caused a significant climatic disruption unfavorable to their survival, leading to their extinction. Their ecological niches gave way to modern terrestrial ecosystems including sauropsids, mostly archosaurs, and among the few therapsids surviving the event, mammals. However, some Russian gorgonopsians have already disappeared a little time before the event, having consequently abandoned some of their niches to large therocephalians. After the extinction of the rubidgeines in their respective territory of Africa, Inostrancevia migrated from Russia to thus take, for a limited time, the role of apex predator within this place. The presence of dicynodonts like Lystrosaurus would have been an opportunity for being a prey, as the latter thrived throughout the Permian-Triassic boundary.
See also
Sauroctonus
Suchogorgon
Pravoslavlevia
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Gorgonopsia
Apex predators
Prehistoric therapsid genera
Lopingian synapsids of Europe
Wuchiapingian genera
Permian Russia
Fossils of Russia
Fossil taxa described in 1922
Taxa named by Vladimir Prokhorovich Amalitskii |
4529816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juggernaut%20%28character%29 | Juggernaut (character) | Juggernaut (Cain Marko) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, he first appeared in X-Men #12 (July 1965) as an adversary of the eponymous superhero team. Since then, he has come into conflict with other heroes, primarily Spider-Man and the Hulk.
Cain Marko is a regular human who was empowered by a gem belonging to the deity Cyttorak, becoming a literal human juggernaut. He possesses superhuman strength and durability, and is virtually immune to most physical attacks; his helmet also protects him from mental attacks. Although not a mutant, Juggernaut has been featured as a prominent member of the Brotherhood of Mutants. He is also the stepbrother of Professor X.
Since his debut during the Silver Age of Comic Books, the character has appeared in over five decades of Marvel publications, featuring prominently in the X-Men titles and starring in two one-shot solo publications. The character has also been associated with Marvel merchandise including clothing, toys, trading cards, animated television series, video games. Vinnie Jones played Juggernaut in the 2006 film X-Men: The Last Stand, while Ryan Reynolds provided motion capture and voice acting for the CGI character in the 2018 film Deadpool 2. In some reinterpretations (most notably the X-Men film series), Marko is a mutant who was born with his powers, while in others they simply come from his costume.
In 2008, Juggernaut was ranked 188th on Wizards list of Top 200 Comic Book Characters. In 2009, Juggernaut was ranked 19th on IGN's list of Top 100 Comic Book Villains. IGN also ranked him as Spider-Man's 22nd greatest enemy.
Publication history
The character debuted as an antagonist of the eponymous mutant superhero team in X-Men #12–13 (July & September 1965). In the first of these issues, he rampaged unseen throughout the X-Men's headquarters while the team's leader, Professor X, related the character's origin in a series of flashbacks.
After an initial defeat in the following issue, the Juggernaut returned in X-Men #32–33 (May–June 1967), and returned again in X-Men #46 (July 1968), then fought the sorcerer Doctor Strange in Doctor Strange #182 (September 1969), X-Men member the Beast in Amazing Adventures #16 (January 1973), and the Hulk in The Incredible Hulk vol. 2 #172 (February 1974).
After the canceled X-Men returned in the mid-1970s, the Juggernaut returned to fight a new iteration of the team in X-Men #101–103 (October 1975–February 1976). Storylines in Spider-Woman #37–38 (April & June 1981) and The Amazing Spider-Man #229–230 (June–July 1982) explored the Juggernaut's relationship with his ally Black Tom Cassidy.
The X-Men and Spider-Man proved to be regular foes for the character, who appeared in The Uncanny X-Men #183 (July 1984), Marvel Team-up #150 (February 1985), and The Uncanny X-Men #194 (June 1985). The Juggernaut guest-starred in Secret Wars II #7 (January 1986), battled a new generation of mutants in X-Men #217–218 (April & June 1987), appeared in a flashback story in Marvel Saga #21 (August 1987), and in a humorous episode in Excalibur #3 (December 1988).
The Juggernaut also participated in the "Acts of Vengeance" storyline in Thor #411–412 (December 1989) and returned in Thor #429 (February 1991). Other appearances included an encounter with his creator, Cyttorak, in X-Men Unlimited #12 (September 1996) and starring in the one-shot issue Juggernaut #1 (April 1997).
In 1994 Marvel purchased Malibu Comics and began a series of crossovers that saw Marvel characters entering the Malibu Ultraverse. In 1995–1996, Juggernaut lead a group of Ultras, who were named The All New Exiles. The All New Exiles met up with the X-Men in a special Malibu/Marvel collaboration, The All New Exiles vs X-Men #0, dated October 1995.
The character appeared in Juggernaut: The Eighth Day #1 (November 1999) and Avengers vol. 3 #23–25 (December 1999–February 2000) with similarly powered avatars and attempted a reformation in The Uncanny X-Men # 410–413 (September–December 2002) and X-Men #162–164 (November 2004–January 2005). The Juggernaut confronted his stepbrother, Charles Xavier—leader of the X-Men—in X-Men: Legacy #219 (February 2009), and fought the Hulk in Hulk #602 (November 2009).
He appeared as a regular character in Thunderbolts beginning with issue #144, and remained on the team until issue #158, during the Fear Itself limited series.
Juggernaut had a solo comic in 2020, by Fabian Nicieza and Ron Garney. Despite being a character from the X-Men franchise, it has plots of its own that do not crossover with the ongoing Dawn of X.
Fictional character biography
1960s
Cain Marko is the son of Kurt Marko, who becomes Charles Xavier's stepfather when he marries Sharon Xavier after the death of her husband Brian, for which Kurt is partially responsible. Kurt Marko favors Charles and abuses his own son, Cain. Cain resents Charles and bullies him frequently. Cain Marko and his step-brother Charles serve in the US Army and are stationed in Korea. Marko finds a hidden temple dedicated to the entity Cyttorak. On entering, Marko finds and holds a huge ruby and reads the inscription on the stone aloud: "Whosoever touches this gem shall be granted the power of the Crimson Gem of Cyttorak! Henceforth, you who read these words, shall become ... forevermore ... a human juggernaut!" The gem channels Cyttorak's power into Marko. The transformation causes a cave-in, and the character is buried and presumably killed, not being heard from again until a sudden assault on the X-Men's headquarters.
Xavier recounts the Juggernaut's origin to the X-Men, and after shrugging off the mansion's defenses and brushing aside the X-Men, Marko is seen clearly in the final panel as he confronts Xavier. The X-Men regroup and attack, while Xavier summons Fantastic Four member the Human Torch to aid the mutants; the Torch generates 'pulses' of flame that essentially hypnotize the Juggernaut, distracting him long enough for Angel to remove his helmet, making Marko susceptible to a telepathic attack by Xavier.
The Juggernaut returns seeking revenge and is delayed by three of the X-Men while Cyclops and Marvel Girl, aided by the astral form of mystic Doctor Strange, find and use another jewel of Cyttorak, which banishes the Juggernaut to the "Crimson Cosmos", the home dimension of Cyttorak. When the Juggernaut reappears, the character has gained mystical abilities and briefly battles the mystic Doctor Strange before being banished to an alternate universe by the cosmic entity Eternity.
1970s
Juggernaut reappears on Earth through sheer force of will, although the alien dimension caused him to age rapidly. The panicking villain battles former X-Man the Beast before being drawn back to the same dimension. An entity from his prison dimension reverses the aging process and removes the mystical powers on the proviso that the villain never return. The Juggernaut is accidentally pulled back to Earth at the Hulkbuster base by an interdimensional device designed to banish the Hulk. The Hulk aids the Juggernaut in escaping from the base but attacks him when the Juggernaut threatens a civilian. During the battle, the Juggernaut's helmet is removed, and he is surprised and defeated by Professor X, Cyclops, and Marvel Girl.
The Juggernaut befriends Black Tom Cassidy, the cousin of X-Man Banshee, and battles the first generation of new X-Men. When Tom falls off the battlements of Cassidy Keep after a sword duel with Banshee, Juggernaut jumps after him into the sea.
1980s
Black Tom uses his niece Siryn, who possesses the same powers as her father Banshee, to steal a shipment of the metal vibranium. The Juggernaut battles Spider-Woman and the X-Men and is the only one of the criminal trio to escape capture. After freeing him from prison, Black Tom decides that the psychic Madame Web could be useful in his criminal pursuits. On arriving in New York City, Tom sends the Juggernaut to capture Madame Web; Juggernaut destroys several city blocks in the process, and ignores Spider-Man's best efforts to stop him. He almost kills Web by accident when he removes her from a life support device, and abandons her. A frustrated Spider-Man lures the Juggernaut into setting concrete, poured for the foundation of an office high-rise, into which he sinks without a trace; he takes over a month to dig his way out.
The Juggernaut, in civilian guise, has a bar fight with the X-Man Colossus, who is at first unaware of the villain's true identity. After another battle against Spider-Man and the X-Men, the Juggernaut encounters the futuristic Sentinel Nimrod, who humiliates and defeats him. The Juggernaut is one of the villains assembled by Mephisto to battle the cosmic entity the Beyonder. The Juggernaut battles an all-new generation of X-Men, appears in a flashback story with the original X-Men, and has a humorous encounter with Captain Britain.
The Juggernaut also participates in the "Acts of Vengeance," battling the Thunder God Thor and teen superteam the New Warriors.
1990s
The Juggernaut continues to feature prominently in Marvel titles battling Thor once again and starring opposite other characters such as the mutant team X-Force, Doctor Strange, the Hulk (allied at the time with master villain the Red Skull and tricking and capturing the Hulk with the same "civilian" guise used against Colossus), mercenary Deadpool, the villain turned antihero Venom, and multiple battles with the X-Men. Briefly, he traveled to the Ultraverse and joined the superhero team Exiles. After his return to the Marvel Universe, the Juggernaut suffers a major setback during the Onslaught storyline, being defeated and then humiliated by the entity when imprisoned in the Gem of Cyttorak. The Juggernaut, however, escapes.
The Juggernaut also stars in a solo story and the "Eighth Day" storyline, which introduces the entities the Exemplars. The Juggernaut and seven other humans are revealed to have all been empowered and corrupted by mystical entities, and as avatars enforce their will on Earth. The Juggernaut resists the influence of Cyttorak and when captured by other Exemplars is aided by the superhero team the Avengers. Leader Captain America convinces the other Exemplars that they have been manipulated by the mystical entities, who then decide to leave Earth.
2000s
The Juggernaut, courtesy of a ruse engineered by Black Tom Cassidy, allies with and joins the X-Men; the plan is to destroy the team from within. When Cassidy openly betrays the Juggernaut, Marko attempts to change his ways and joins the X-Men.The Uncanny X-Men #410 - 411 (Oct. 2002); #412 (Nov. 2002). Marvel Comics. The Juggernaut befriends a young mutant boy called Sammy Paré, who helps Marko reform, despite setbacks such as a battle with the Canadian superhero team Alpha Flight. However, when Paré discovers that Exodus' Brotherhood of Mutants is preparing to attack the X-Men's headquarters while unaware that Juggernaut is the mole in their group, he is killed by Black Tom Cassidy. An enraged Juggernaut attacks Cassidy and his allies, and the battle strands all participants in the Mojoverse.
The Juggernaut reappears and joins the team New Excalibur for a brief period. One storyline expands on the Juggernaut's origin and reveals that Marko is only the most recent of a series of incarnations of Cyttorak's avatar; each battles a challenger to the death for the right to retain the entity's power.
During the World War Hulk storyline, the Juggernaut's power begins to wane, but by shunning his stepbrother Xavier and returning to his villainous nature, he is able to restore the link with Cyttorak, becoming powerful enough to hold his own against the Hulk. Despite an attempt by Xavier to reform Marko, he concedes that redemption is impossible.
2010s
While training his son Skaar, Bruce Banner bombs Juggernaut's house to initiate a confrontation between Skaar and the Juggernaut. Skaar manages to win his first fight by throwing the Juggernaut into open space, proving to his father that he has the ability to use cunning and strategy in combat, and not simply physical strength.
During The Gauntlet storyline, Spider-Man finds the Juggernaut unconscious. The government comes along and transports the Juggernaut to a secure facility. Spider-Man sneaks into the facility to ask the Juggernaut who did this to him. Then, a new Captain Universe breaks into the room and claims he's there to slay the Juggernaut. Spider-Man learns that Captain Universe is a man named William Nguyen who wants revenge on Juggernaut for ruining his life during his previous fight with Spider-Man over Madame Web. When he insists on trying to kill Juggernaut instead of fixing the tectonic plates beneath New York City, the Uni-Power leaves Nguyen and enters the Juggernaut. The Juggernaut, as Captain Universe, repairs the damage to the tectonic plates that was caused by him during the same rampage that ruined Nguyen's life.
Following the Siege storyline, Juggernaut is shown at The Raft at the start of the Heroic Age storyline – weakened, since Cyttorak apparently took his temporary empowerment by the Uni-Power as an affront and withheld part of his "blessing". Following Luke Cage's appointment as leader of the Thunderbolts, Cain is brought up for suggestion for the program. While Cage is initially against his joining, Professor X telepathically contacts Luke and asks him to reconsider, believing he has a chance at redemption despite what he previously told Cain. Juggernaut agrees to do whatever Luke says, partly because he is now suffused with nanomachines which can affect him in his weakened state.
During the Fear Itself storyline, one of the seven Hammers of the Worthy that was launched to Earth by Serpent: God of Fear lands near Juggernaut. Juggernaut lifts it and becomes Kuurth: Breaker of Stone. His transformation is enough to level the Raft, causing a mass prison break. Kuurth makes his way to California and fights the X-Men. Magik, Colossus, and Shadowcat go to Cyttorak's dimension and inform it that the Serpent has control over Juggernaut. Magik strikes a deal with Cyttorak, who chooses her to become the new host of the Juggernaut's powers. However, the entity transfers the Juggernaut's powers to Colossus instead. Colossus is able to turn the tide on Kuurth before Kuurth is teleported away by the Serpent. During the last battle between the Avengers and the Worthy, Kuurth is defeated by Wolverine using his Uru armor and loses his hammer when the Serpent is killed by Thor.
Cain Marko, apparently having been incarcerated after the events of Fear Itself, having lost the power of both Kuurth and Cyttorak (but retaining his enormous physique) is released into military custody. Subsequently, he is taken to the borders of the country of Sharzhad just as the Thunderbolts return from their tumultuous tumble through time, and Satana aids Man-Thing in opening a gateway to the Crimson Cosmos (or possibly an alternate universe where Cain Marko had died while still the Juggernaut). Pushing his hand through, Marko is re-empowered, becoming the Juggernaut once more, just in time to thunder forth and smash through the otherwise unbreakable force field surrounding the country. This allows the Thunderbolts to resolve an otherwise deadly threat to the planet, as had been orchestrated by the Ghost, who had sent the request for Marko's release back through time. He soon loses these borrowed powers again and lives in solitude in the desert, still, it seems, super-strong, although not mystically-empowered. Meanwhile, Magik purges the Juggernaut powers from Colossus with her Soulsword.
After a time, Cyttorak causes the Crimson Gem to reappear in the ancient temple and emit a call for suitable candidates to become a new Juggernaut. Cain Marko, finally having found peace—even tending a vegetable garden—senses the call and, having armed himself, coerces the Vanisher to take him to the Gem's location. He comes into conflict with a team of X-Men (having been alerted by Colossus, who also perceived the call), as well as seekers of the Juggernaut's power such as Man-Killer. Marko and Colossus struggle with one another, only to realize that they have the same goal—to destroy the Crimson Gem and prevent another avatar being empowered. Ahmet Adbol, the former Living Monolith, claims the Gem and is transformed into an amalgam of Living Monolith and Juggernaut. As the colossal new Juggernaut wreaks havoc in the countryside, Colossus invokes Cyttorak, and the god responds to his former exemplar. Arguing that the Monolith-Juggernaut will eventually fail Cyttorak, as all his former avatars have done, Colossus challenges him to try something new: empower him enough to kill Cyttorak himself. Apparently daunted by this prospect, the god withdraws his power from Ahmet Abdol and instead empowers another avatar, to a greater extent than any Juggernaut has ever been. However, the new avatar is not Colossus, but once more Cain Marko. Marko is full of rage, which he focuses on the X-Men and specifically Cyclops (who isn't even present), for killing Professor Xavier. Now more powerful than ever and stripped of even his last weaknesses, he feels that Charles Xavier was the only one who ever truly believed in Cain Marko. Colossus fights the empowerd Juggernaut taking his best shots. Peter strikes the sea side cliff edge where they had been fighting, causing Cain to fall into the ocean below. However, he is seen rising from the waves once again.
The Juggernaut and Black Tom resurface attacking a luxury yacht, but they are confronted by the time-displaced young X-Men, with Jean knocking Black Tom out while Beast - who has been training in magic - creates a dimensional portal that passes through Hell before sending Juggernaut to Siberia.
Cain next appears in Iceman #5, still looking for those responsible who killed his step-brother Charles Xavier. He runs into Iceman, who is having family issues of his own. Bobby, thankful for the distraction, engages Cain. At the end of the fight, Iceman encases Juggernaut in an ice cage and rockets him into the nearby river via ice elevator slingshot. Then he creates some ice simulacrum that carry/swim him down river, removing Cain from the area altogether.
A continuation where Iceman #5 left off, Cain is apprehended by S.H.I.E.L.D. and is being flown to a secure location but gets accidentally summoned by Dr. Voodoo to the X-Mansion. Cain fights a mixed team of veterans (Rogue, Quicksilver, Wanda, Dr. Voodoo & Wasp) and newbie (Quicksilver's latest girl-friend: Synapse). Once Juggernaut has engaged them, Rogue power punches him away from the team to give them more space. Quicksilver attempts to finish the fight quickly by racing Synapse over to Cain to get his helmet off so she can mentally neutralize him. Pietro quickly gets the helmet off but finds out Cain's wearing a mental protection skull cap underneath. Cain subsequently attacks Synapse, almost killing her. More battle ensues and Dr. Voodoo sends his summoned Cyttorak minions to "fix" Cain's armor and thus "sealing" him inside his armor. The little Cyttorak builders then carry Cain back into Cyttorak's realm and Doctor Voodoo closes the portal.
During the "Sins Rising" arc, Juggernaut is shown to be an inmate at Ravencroft. Using Mister Negative's powers to corrupt the clone of Ashley Kafka, a revived Sin-Eater steals Juggernaut's powers.
During the "Sinister War" storyline, Kindred revived Sin-Eater again and one of the demonic centipedes that emerged from his body took possession of Juggernaut making him one of the members of the Sinful Six.
Powers and abilities
Wolverine describes Juggernaut as "the closest thing on Earth to an irresistible force". When Cain Marko finds the stone of mystical entity Cyttorak, he is empowered with magical energies and transformed into an immortal avatar for the entity in question. As the Juggernaut, Marko possesses superhuman strength, being capable of shattering mountains, lifting and using buildings as weapons, and extreme durability.
Juggernaut is able to generate a mystical force field that grants him additional invulnerability to any physical attack when it is at its maximum, including Colossus's punches. Even when the force field is temporarily absorbed by Thor's hammer, the Juggernaut's natural durability still proves to be great enough to withstand blows from Thor. The Juggernaut is described as physically unstoppable once in motion, does not tire from physical activity, and is able to survive without food, water, or oxygen. The Juggernaut heals quickly, as when he was stabbed through the eyes by Shatterstar, the wounds were healed almost immediately.
It is possible for an opponent with sufficient physical or mystical strength of their own to turn the Juggernaut's unstoppable movement against him, by redirecting his motion so that he gets stranded in a position in which he has no escape; both the Hulk and his son, Skaar, have done this physically, and Thor has done it mystically with Mjolnir.Thor #412. Marvel Comics. The only character to have stopped Juggernaut while he was in motion as an act of pure physical strength was the Hulk while he was War, a horseman of Apocalypse and empowered with Celestial technology.
When Marko gains complete access to the Gem's powers during the Trion saga, it increases his power a thousandfold. Trion Juggernaut is capable of altering the size of matter, growing in size, tracking, levitation, absorbing and projecting energy, increasing his own strength, and creating portals through space-time. Conversely, when Marko once shared the Gem's power with his best friend, Black Tom, the power it bestowed upon them both was halved, making them more vulnerable to attacks from Spider-Man and the X-Men.
The character is vulnerable to mental attacks, a weakness that has been exploited via the removal of his helmet, which normally protects him from such. The Juggernaut has circumvented this weakness on occasion by wearing a metal skullcap inside his main helmet. If Juggernaut loses his helmet, he can magically recreate it from available raw materials (as long as he possesses the full power of the gem).
After Cyttorak's re-empowering of Cain Marko, his strength and durability were raised to higher levels than ever before, and his vulnerability to mental attacks was negated.
Reception
In 2014, Entertainment Weekly ranked Juggernaut 81st in their "Let's rank every X-Man ever" list.
In 2018, CBR.com ranked Cain Marko 4th in their "Age Of Apocalypse: The 30 Strongest Characters In Marvel's Coolest Alternate World" list.
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
In the Age of Apocalypse universe, Cain is a monk who works as a protector of Avalon. He guides Mystique and Nightcrawler to meet Destiny, but subsequently suffers an aneurysm when his desire not to hurt others conflicts with his lust for violence during an attack on Avalon.
Days of Future Past
Juggernaut is mentioned in thought by Rachel Summers as having been alive in her original timeline, where he shared the power of the Cyttorak Jewel with Black Tom and they assisted the mutant resistance in their fight against the Sentinels for a time.
Marvel Zombies
In the Marvel Zombies universe, a zombified Juggernaut is seen in a horde of zombified villains. He is later killed by Wolverine when Wolverine shoves his fist in Juggernaut's mouth and proceeds to use his newly obtained cosmic powers to decapitate him.
MC2
In the futuristic MC2 universe, the title J2 stars the son of the Juggernaut, Zane Yama. Yama, who inherits his father's powers and goes by the name J2, joins the future Avengers and is reunited with his father Cain Marko, who is trapped in an alternate dimension.
What If?
There are two different stories of "What If" that revolve around Juggernaut:
In a reality where Xavier acquires the Crimson Gem rather than Cain, Cain joins forces with Magneto and Xavier's disillusioned students, the X-Men. Believing that Xavier's more ruthless methods contradict his alleged dream of peaceful co-existence and using a telepathy-blocking headband to prevent Xavier from realizing what he is up to, they expel the Juggernaut into space. Cain leaves with Magneto after Xavier's Juggernaut is dispatched.
In What if? vol. 2 #94, in a reality where Cain successfully defeats the X-Men in their first battle, the Sentinels are thus released in mass numbers without the X-Men to oppose them, resulting in Earth's destruction in their subsequent assault. Although Cain eventually destroys the Sentinels through sheer persistence, he is left alone wandering in a post-apocalyptic wasteland with all other humans, and even animals, having been killed by the radiation released by the Sentinels. In his eagerness for human company, he also unintentionally destroys a hidden enclave of humans and mutants conserved by Magneto.
Ultimate Marvel
The Ultimate Marvel imprint title Ultimate X-Men features an alternate universe version of the Juggernaut, who is originally part of the Weapon X program and has ties to Rogue, having grown up in the same trailer park. At some point in his life he was incarcerated by Weapon X and forced to act as a living weapon under the direction of Col. John Wraith. Juggernaut is part of the strike force that takes out the X-Men, forcing them into Weapon X as well. Cain and Rogue share a cell while both are forced to serve Weapon X. When The Brotherhood of Mutant Supremacy remove the security implants that are prohibiting the mutants from leaving their cells, Juggernaut fights for his freedom. After the entire ordeal, Cain is offered a place with both Xavier's X-Men and The Brotherhood. Cain chooses The Brotherhood but later leaves the team for parts unknown. Cain is captured by S.H.I.E.L.D. However, en route to a prison designed to contain the Hulk, there is an accident, and Cain broke free. Retrieving his helmet, he tracks down Rogue, who is a thief along with Gambit, stealing the Cyttorak Gem from the Fenris twins. He also reveals that he has a crush on Rogue. Juggernaut is bonded with the gem when Gambit shoves it into his helmet.
During the Ultimatum storyline, Juggernaut helps Rogue in defending the X-Mansion from anti-mutant soldiers led by William Stryker. He is shot in the eye by a poisonous dart fired by one of the anti-mutant soldiers and dies in Rogue's arms.
Marvel Apes
In the Marvel Apes universe, there is a primate version of Juggernaut called Juggermonk''' who is a member of the Ape-Vengers.
Worst X-Man Ever
Juggernaut attempted to steal a fortune only to battle the New Mutants. Juggernaut was ultimately stopped when Minerva created a well under Juggernaut sending him to the bottom of the Earth.
In other media
Television
The Juggernaut appears in the Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends episode "A Firestar is Born", voiced by William H. Marshall and with stock grunts provided by Bob Holt.
The Juggernaut appears in X-Men: Pryde of the X-Men, voiced by Ron Gans. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutant Terrorists.
The Juggernaut appears in X-Men: The Animated Series, voiced by Rick Bennett.
The Juggernaut makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the Fantastic Four episode "Nightmare in Green".
The Juggernaut appears in X-Men: Evolution, voiced by Paul Dobson. This version is Professor X's half-brother whose powers are the result of a dormant mutant ability awakened by the Gem of Cyttorak. Throughout his appearances, Mystique frees him from prison to facilitate her goals multiple times, though the X-Men successfully defeat him each time.
The Juggernaut appears in Wolverine and the X-Men, voiced by Fred Tatasciore. This version is an inhabitant of Genosha and a member of Magneto's Acolytes.
The Juggernaut appears in The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Tom Kenny. This version is a member of Doctor Doom's Lethal Legion.
The Juggernaut appears in Black Panther, voiced by Peter Lurie.
The Juggernaut appears in Ultimate Spider-Man, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson.
The Juggernaut appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers, voiced by Shota Yamamoto.
Film
In the first script for X-Men (2000), written by Andrew Kevin Walker, the Juggernaut was going to appear as a member of Magneto's Brotherhood of Mutants. However, this was scrapped when Walker rewrote the script.
The Juggernaut appears in X-Men: The Last Stand, portrayed by Vinnie Jones. This version is a mutant with the inability to be halted once he starts running and superhuman strength sufficient to fight Wolverine to a standstill and possesses no explicit connection to Charles Xavier or the Gem of Cyttorak. He is recruited into Magneto's Brotherhood to oppose the creation of a "mutant cure". During the Brotherhood's final battle with the X-Men, Magneto orders the Juggernaut to destroy the cure, but the latter is foiled by Kitty Pryde and knocks himself out when he attempts to run through a wall while in the presence of the power-negating Leech. Jones has said he would like to reprise the role in a spin-off, as he felt there was too little time in The Last Stand for him to imbue the character with depth.
The Juggernaut was originally going to appear in X-Men: Days of Future Past, portrayed Josh Helman. However the character was replaced by Quicksilver while Helman was recast as William Stryker instead.
The Juggernaut appears in Deadpool 2 as a computer-generated special effects character created through the use of motion capture performance. While he is credited "as himself", it was later revealed that the character was a composite of multiple actors. Ryan Reynolds provided the voice acting, with his pitch digitally altered, as well as the physical motion capture for the character in various scenes while David Leitch provided the facial motion capture performance and performed on-set motion capture performance in shots where Reynolds as Deadpool and the Juggernaut interact. The Juggernaut is initially imprisoned at the Icebox, an isolated prison for mutants used by the Department of Mutant Contentment, where he befriends Russell Collins. Collins frees the Juggernaut while they are being transferred to another prison, allowing the latter to destroy the convoy before they head off to destroy the orphanage where Collins was abused by its headmaster. While Deadpool, Cable, and Domino intercept them, the Juggernaut fends them off until Colossus, Negasonic Teenage Warhead, and Yukio arrive and defeat him.
Video games
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in The Uncanny X-Men.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in Captain America and The Avengers.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in X-Men (1992).
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in Spider-Man and the X-Men in Arcade's Revenge.
The Juggernaut appears in X-Men (1993).
The Juggernaut appears as a Danger Room simulation in X-Men: Mutant Apocalypse.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in X-Men: Children of the Atom.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss and playable character in Marvel Super Heroes.
The Juggernaut appears as a playable character in X-Men vs. Street Fighter.
The Juggernaut appears as an assist character in Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes.
The Juggernaut appears as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in X-Men: Mutant Academy 2 as a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
The Juggernaut appears as a playable character in X-Men: Next Dimension, voiced by Fred Tatasciore. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in X2: Wolverine's Revenge, voiced again by Fred Tatasciore.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in X-Men Legends, voiced by John DiMaggio.
The Juggernaut appears as a playable character in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, voiced again by John DiMaggio. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in the Game Boy Advance version of X-Men: The Official Game.
The Juggernaut appears as a playable character in the Xbox 360, PS3, PS4, Xbox One and PC versions of Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced again by John DiMaggio. Additionally, his Ultimate Marvel counterpart appears as an unlockable alternate skin.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in Spider-Man: Shattered Dimensions, voiced by Matt Willig. While evading Silver Sable and the Wild Pack, who pursue him for a bounty on his head, he unknowingly picks up a fragment of the Tablet of Order and Chaos that Spider-Man was after. After losing his helmet while fighting Spider-Man, the Juggernaut discovers the fragment and uses its power to strengthen himself. Due to the fragment interfering with the Gem of Cyttorak however, Spider-Man is able to defeat him. Following this, the Juggernaut is apprehended by the Wild Pack in the end credits.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced by Travis Willingham.
The Juggernaut appears in X-Men: Destiny, voiced once again by Fred Tatasciore. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss and unlockable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
The Juggernaut appears as a boss and playable character in Marvel Heroes, voiced again by Fred Tatasciore.
The Juggernaut appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Andrew Kishino. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
The Juggernaut appears in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Peter Lurie. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
Books
The Juggernaut appears as a holodeck simulation in Planet X.
The Juggernaut appears in the novel X-Men: The Jewels of Cyttorak ().
The Juggernaut appears in the third novel of the X-Men: Mutant Empire trilogy, fighting alongside the X-Men to stop Magneto from conquering Manhattan.
Music
The song "Legendary Iron Hood" by Open Mike Eagle from the album Brick Body Kids Still Daydream is written from the perspective of the Juggernaut.
Internet parody
On February 14, 2006, the parody troupe My Way Entertainment released "The Juggernaut Bitch!!", an overdub of part of the X-Men animated TV series episode "Phoenix Saga (Part 3): The Cry of the Banshee". "The Juggernaut Bitch!!" uses a variety of slang, profanity and non sequiturs through ad-libbing. The parody includes the often-repeated line, "Don't you know who the fuck I am? I'm the Juggernaut, bitch!" At first, the clip was made available on the duo's college website, but when YouTube became popular, so did the parody.
The internet meme became so popular that the line was included in X-Men: The Last Stand during Juggernaut's fight with Kitty Pryde. In June 2006, My Way released a sequel, "J2: Juggment Day", using footage from the episode "Juggernaut Returns". On June 10, 2007, My Way released a second sequel, titled "J3: Shadow of the Colossi", on its website, using footage from "The Unstoppable Juggernaut" and "Pryde of the X-Men". The video game Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2'' has an achievement called "I'm the Juggernaut..." which references the parody.
Collected editions
See also
"Nothing Can Stop the Juggernaut!"
References
External links
Juggernaut (Cain Marko) at Marvel.com
Characters created by Jack Kirby
Characters created by Stan Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1965
Deadpool characters
Excalibur (comics)
Fictional avatars
Fictional Korean War veterans
Male characters in film
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters who use magic
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with immortality
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics male superheroes
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Ultraverse
Villains in animated television series
X-Men supporting characters |
4530054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate%2010%20in%20Arizona | Interstate 10 in Arizona | In the U.S. state of Arizona, Interstate 10 (I‑10), the major east–west Interstate Highway in the United States Sun Belt, runs east from California, enters Arizona near the town of Ehrenberg and continues through Phoenix and Tucson and exits at the border with New Mexico near San Simon. The highway also runs through the cities of Casa Grande, Eloy, and Marana. Segments of the highway are referred to as either the Papago Freeway, Inner Loop, or Maricopa Freeway within the Phoenix area and the Pearl Harbor Memorial Highway outside metro Phoenix.
Route description
I-10 through Arizona is designated a "Purple Heart Trail", after those wounded in combat who receive the Purple Heart. The western terminus is located at the California border at the Colorado River in La Paz County where I-10 continues westward into California towards Los Angeles. Here, the same physical road is signed as both I‑10 and U.S. Route 95 (US 95).
Western segment
The highway runs east by northeast through Ehrenberg, the Dome Rock Mountains, and Quartzsite and then turns to an east by southeast orientation just before the junction for US 60. It continues this path entering Maricopa County and the Phoenix Metro area. The route turns east by northeast again at the junction for State Route 85 (SR 85) northwest of downtown Buckeye, and turns due east at Verrado Way (exit 120). Here, the speed limit drops from . The landscape by this point is largely urban.
Papago Freeway
From there, I-10 traverses through the communities of Goodyear, Avondale, and Tolleson, meeting with local streets and area freeways such as Loop 303 (at the former Cotton Lane interchange, exit 124) and the Loop 101 Agua Fria Freeway along the way. By December 2019, the simple diamond interchange with 59th Avenue (exit 138) was totally rebuilt, transforming it into the first of two junctions with the Loop 202 Ed Pastor Freeway. As it makes its way through Phoenix, the highway meets with I‑17 and US 60 for the first time just northwest of downtown at The Stack.
Inner Loop
East of The Stack, I-10 forms the north edge of downtown. Near 3rd Avenue, the highway enters a half-mile tunnel () that runs under a park and the central branch of the City of Phoenix Library. Emerging past 3rd Street, the highway continues due eastward for another before coming to another interchange for Route 51 and Loop 202 (second of three junctions with the latter), called the Mini Stack. At this interchange, I‑10 turns southward for about , passing near Sky Harbor Airport and reaching the second junction with I‑17/US 60. Here, I‑17 terminates as I‑10 skews eastward again. After this junction, the highway is cosigned with US 60.
Maricopa Freeway
Continuing southeast over the Salt River and eastward, I‑10 and US 60 enter Tempe and meets with SR 143. Then, at the Broadway Curve, the freeway turns southward again, with US 60 splitting off to become its own freeway. I‑10 continues southward running along the city borders of Phoenix on the west, and Tempe, Guadalupe, Tempe again, and finally Chandler on the east. Immediately north of the Gila River Indian Community, I‑10 has its third and final intersection with Loop 202. Past Loop 202, the highway turns to a more south by southeast direction going through the Gila River Indian Community and entering Pinal County.
Broadway Curve
As of a 2006 estimate, the Broadway Curve portion of I‑10 in Tempe carries an average of 294,000 vehicles per day. This number is predicted to increase by over 150,000 to approximately 450,000 by 2025. This section of I‑10 is currently twelve lanes wide, and is the widest section of freeway in the valley. Construction is underway (as of July 2021) to widen the Broadway Curve area.
Eastern segment
After exiting the Phoenix metropolitan area, I‑10 continues southward into Casa Grande intersecting I‑8 before heading southeast towards Tucson, paralleling the Santa Cruz River. Several projects have occurred recently, including construction of a new exit at Twin Peaks Rd in Marana and widening of I‑10 from Prince Rd to I-19 in Tucson to four lanes in each direction, which was later extended to Ruthrauff Rd/El Camino Del Cerro. After I-10's junction with I-19, I-10 heads southeast towards Benson and Willcox before entering New Mexico.
History
I‑10 in Arizona was laid out by the Arizona Highway Department in 1956–1958 roughly paralleling several historic routes across the state. Particularly east of Eloy, it follows the Butterfield Stage and Pony Express routes, and loops south to avoid the north–south Basin and Range mountains prevalent in the state. In fact, the route from its junction with I‑8 east to New Mexico is almost exactly the same route used by the old horse-drawn stagecoaches, which had to go from waterhole to waterhole and avoid the hostile Apache Indians. This is why I-10 is more of a north–south route between Phoenix and Tucson than east–west. The Southern Pacific Sunset Route line had to take the route of least hills, and in the 1920s highways were laid down next to the trains across southern Arizona.
When the project was being designed in the 1950s, the Arizona Highway Department fought for a nearly straight-shot west from Phoenix for the new freeway, instead of angling northwest out of Phoenix along US 60/US 70/US 89, through Wickenburg. Wickenburgers battled to bring the freeway through their city but lost that battle. The detour up through Wickenburg was logical decades earlier, when nearly all U.S. highways through Arizona were laid out along railroad tracks, and US 60/US 70 was routed mostly parallel to the Santa Fe rail tracks east of Wickenburg, and the Arizona and California Railway west to Vicksburg. The two old federal routes then struck west across the desert and state line, picking up the Southern Pacific mainline at Indio, California, and I-10 overlies the old roads most of that distance.
West of Phoenix
Moving east from the California line at Ehrenburg, I-10 follows the old route of US 60/US 70 for the first east from Blythe, California. In 1960, this westernmost stretch of I-10 was built from near the Colorado River east to the future spot where the "Brenda Cutoff" section of I-10 would connect a decade later. Until the early 1970s, this was the last freeway stretch until Phoenix. The "Brenda Cutoff" was named for a gas station on the old road just east of the fork where US 60 now terminates at I-10. Now an obscure name, "Brenda Cutoff" was the working title that the Arizona Highway Department called the stretch of freeway from US 60 to near Buckeye. The Brenda Cutoff paralleled old sand roads used in the 1920s for Phoenix-Los Angeles traffic, but mostly abandoned after US 60/US 70 was built to the north, through Wickenburg.
The Brenda Cutoff's opening on June 18, 1973 was eagerly awaited and was a big deal in newspapers in Phoenix and Los Angeles. It saved motorists from having to drive through Glendale, Sun City, Wickenburg and Salome, about out of the way, and it eliminated about of two-lane highway. But the freeway was opened only as far east as Tonopah, and heavy traffic was routed down narrow county roads through the desert and fields between Tonopah and Buckeye. In addition, there was only one very-small gas station on the very-long route between Buckeye and Quartzsite, on the old county road at the tiny crossroads of Palo Verde. Signs warning "No Services Next 106 Miles" were posted at either end of the Brenda Cutoff those first few years.
The freeway was extended past Tonopah as far east as Phoenix's western fringes (at Cotton Lane) in about 1974. I-10's freeway section ended in Goodyear until the controversial Papago Freeway was finished across the western Valley of the Sun in 1990. During the "west valley gap" years, westbound I-10 traffic was routed off the Maricopa Freeway at 19th Avenue in Phoenix, and stayed on the access road as it curved past the Durango Curve. Los Angeles-bound traffic then turned left on Buckeye Road and followed the "TO 10" signs down Buckeye Road (first marked US 80 until 1977, then SR 85) for nearly 15 years.
Phoenix metropolitan area
The interstate's route through Phoenix was hotly contested in the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s. A plan proposed by the Arizona Department of Transportation involved monstrous block-sized 270-degree "helicoil" interchanges at Third Avenue and Third Street that would connect motorists to freeway lanes in the air, but voters killed it in 1973 as a result of opposition from the Arizona Republic newspaper and a growing nationwide anti-freeway sentiment. Voters on election day were treated to a photo depiction on the front page of the newspaper that in later years was shown to have drastically overstated the freeway's height, but there is no question the proposed viaducts and helicoils would have been a visual gash across central Phoenix.
Beginning in 1961, a stub of what is now the Inner Loop portion of I‑10 was built northward from the Maricopa Freeway (then I‑10) along 20th Street, ending north at Buckeye Road. This stub was originally designated I-510. The Inner Loop name was given to it in 1969, at which time the highway changed numbers, to I-410. The I-10/I-510 interchange was the first multilevel interchange in Arizona and lasted until the Inner Loop was built as a real freeway in the 1980s. This putative freeway was two lanes in each direction and would have been hopelessly inadequate as a leg of the Inner Loop as it was intended.
After 1973, Arizona engineers favored a more-modest plan to link I-10 with I‑17 at the "Durango Curve" near 19th Avenue at Buckeye Road, and avoid the "Moreland Corridor" alignment of the Papago Freeway by adopting a route south of Buckeye Rd. In 1983, ADOT unveiled the current below grade plans on Moreland Street, three blocks south of McDowell Road. Despite some local opposition, I-10 was finally completed in central Phoenix on the Inner Loop alignment, north of Van Buren Street, on August 10, 1990. The state is now considering a reliever freeway in West Phoenix, parallel to I-10 on the old Durango Street corridor, and was originally designated as Route 801, which has since been changed to SR 30.
The original 1962 alignment of I-10 through Phoenix was on the Black Canyon and Maricopa Freeways, now signed as I-17 and US 60, starting at about Grand Avenue. From 1962 to 1974, I‑10 in Phoenix ended at 40th Street, and truck traffic through Phoenix and Mesa was directed to use Arizona Route T-69 via 40th Street south and Baseline Road east to connect to SR 87 and SR 93, the shortcuts to Tucson. The I-10 signs were moved from the Maricopa Freeway to the Papago Freeway/Inner Loop alignments when it opened in 1990—the last gap of I-10 to be completed between Santa Monica and Jacksonville. This was the only time in Arizona where the posted freeway was moved from one road to another: the state never posted interstate signs on older state or U.S. highways. ADOT instead made frequent use of interstate shields with the word "TO" above and arrows below the shield.
For several years in the early 1970s, an orphan section of I-10 was opened between Baseline Road and Williams Field Road (now Chandler Blvd.) but was not marked as any highway, nor was it connected to the rest of the Interstate Highway System. ADOT, it seems, did not want to divert trucks down from T-69 in Guadalupe down into the cotton fields west of Chandler. This section got its interstate signs when the freeway south to Tucson was completed in about 1970, and the "Broadway Curve" was connected a year or so later—for almost two years, I-10 traffic used Baseline Road and 40th Street through the Japanese flower gardens until the last link between Tucson and Phoenix opened in about 1972.
From 1958 to 1972, the interstate was unmarked south from Tempe and Mesa, and traffic used either SR 87 through Coolidge or SR 93 through Casa Grande, or US 80/US 89 through Mesa and Florence. I‑10 signs reappeared at the town of Picacho, the 1962–1970 western terminus of the freeway from Tucson.
I‑10 was widened from Verrado Way to Loop 101, a total of . This included a new HOV lane from Dysart Road (exit 129) to Loop 101, later adding a HOV lane from Estrella Pkwy (exit 126) to Dysart Road. From Estrella Pkwy to Verrado Way, an additional lane was added.
New interchanges have been added, whereas Citrus Road has a new exit at 123, Sarival Avenue has a new exit at 125, and Fairway Drive has a new exit at 130.
Southeast of Phoenix
The road from Casa Grande to Tucson was originally SR 84 and SR 93, and when it was rebuilt as a freeway in 1961–1962 it was cosigned as I‑10 and routes 84 and 93 through 1966, when 84 was truncated at Picacho. This section of interstate was completed in 1961, and forced the demolition of the town center at Marana. The freeway through Tucson, which was rebuilt and widened in stages from 1989 to 2014, with frontage roads added, was originally signed as SR 84 from Miracle Mile to Sixth Avenue.
The original highway from Casa Grande to Tucson entered the Old Pueblo via Miracle Mile, a road modeled after German Autobahns but without overpasses or an exclusive right of way. Traffic circles at either end of Miracle Mile were the best Tucson could come up with in 1937. The section of Miracle Mile West stretching between Miracle Mile and the Southern Pacific overpass was signed as Business Loop 10, SR 84, and SR 93 in the 1960s. It is now marked as the southern leg on SR 77, the new designation for US 80/US 89 north out of Tucson. The Business Loop designation was dropped in 1998.
The present-day I‑10 alignment along the Santa Cruz River was laid out after a city bond issue passed in 1948 to build a riverbank-side boulevard with room for a four-lane freeway in the median to follow. The route was originally called the Tucson Limited Access Highway and the Tucson Freeway. Construction on the bypass began on December 27, 1950. The first section of bypass artery, from Congress Street north to Miracle Mile West, was opened on December 20, 1951 but had no overpasses or interchanges at Grant Road (then DeMoss-Petrie Road), Speedway Boulevard or St. Mary's Road. It was first signed SR 84A. The remainder of the route was finished by 1956 to a new cloverleaf interchange at Sixth Avenue (then US 80 and US 89). In 1958, the state added the bypass to the Interstate Highway System as part of I-10 and began converting it to full freeway standards. The freeway was finally completed in 1961, and parts of it obliterated the original road. The SR 84A designation was entirely concurrent with I-10 between Sixth Avenue and Miracle Mile until October 11, 1963, when the designation was finally retired in favor of I-10.
The old cloverleaf at Sixth Avenue was the first built in Arizona, opening in the early 1950s as a southern Tucson gateway junction to the roads linking Tucson, Benson, Nogales, and the hoped-for Tucson bypass along the Santa Cruz River. It was converted to a diamond interchange by 1964 and the old "quick dip" underpass was removed and replaced by an interstate-standard overpass in the late 1980s.
Although the controversial I‑10 route across Phoenix was the last gap of I‑10 to be completed, two pieces of the interstate were subsequently left sitting on divided remnants of old US 80 and were neither built to interstate nor modern safety standards. One was the old Sixth Avenue interchange, and a small section of freeway east to the overpass over the old Southern Pacific (now Union Pacific) spur to Nogales and Guaymas. That section was replaced about 1990.
The last section of old US 80 that carried the I‑10 traffic was an underpass beneath the Union Pacific mainline east of Tucson, where the freeway median shrank to a guardrail at Marsh Station Road and the Pantano railroad overpass was too low. This underpass and section of former US 80 was originally constructed between 1952 and 1955 to replace the older more dangerous route over the 1921 Ciénega Bridge. The Marsh Station Road interchange was replaced in 2011, with the railroad mainline rerouted in 2012 and the railroad overpass removed in 2013. The remainder of the old US 80 section was rebuilt to interstate standards, with completion in 2014.
East of Tucson, I‑10 parallels and, in some cases, overlies old US 80 to Benson, and was originally cosigned as US 80 and SR 86. The section of I-10 from Valencia Road to Rita Road was the first construction project in the state of Arizona funded by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. Construction began in 1957 and was completed in 1960. From Benson, the interstate follows the Southern Pacific mainline east through Willcox and Bowie to New Mexico, rather than bend south to the Mexican border along old US 80 (signed as SR 80 after 1989), through Douglas. The road from Benson east through Willcox was designated SR 86 in about 1935, that route number was subsequently shifted west and exists now between Why and Tucson. The bypass around Benson was opened about 1979, and other than the Phoenix gap was the last section of I‑10 to be opened.
Future
Construction is planned for the segment from Loop 202 (Santan Freeway) in Chandler to SR 387 near Casa Grande. A third lane will be added in each direction along with improvements to several interchanges, crossroads and bridges. An HOV lane will be constructed for the segment from Loop 202 to Riggs Road. Construction was originally planned to begin in 2025 but was sped up to begin in 2023 when Governor Doug Ducey signed a bill allocating funds for this project. It is planned to be completed in 2026.
HOV lane connections are planned to be constructed at the Loop 101 interchange in Tolleson. Construction is planned to begin in 2025 and be completed in 2027.
In 2011, ADOT started a study to improve the I-10 in the Tucson area. In December 2020, ADOT released final design concept report that will widen I-10 by two to four lanes from the I-19 to Kolb Road interchanges. Several interchanges will be reconfigured with exit 264 being replaced. SR 210 will also be extended as a freeway to I-10 at the Alvernon Way interchange. The project will be done in 18 phases with two phases already receiving some funding. The project is expected to cost $1.2 billion.
I-10 on the north side of Tuscon will also be widened from three to four lanes in each direction between Ina Road to 22nd Street. Construction for this started in March 2022 and is expected to last until 2025. In April 2023, the Orange Grove Road interchange was closed by ADOT as part of the project. This and the Sunset Road interchange will be closed until at least late 2024.
Exit list
References
External links
Interstate 10 - Arizona (AARoads.com)
Papago Freeway at arizonaroads.com
010
10
Arizona
1010
Transportation in La Paz County, Arizona
Transportation in Maricopa County, Arizona
Transportation in Pinal County, Arizona
Transportation in Pima County, Arizona
Transportation in Cochise County, Arizona |
4530612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen%20Melzer | Jürgen Melzer | Jürgen Melzer (born 22 May 1981) is an Austrian former professional tennis player. Melzer reached a career-high singles ranking of world No. 8 in April 2011, and a doubles ranking of world No. 6 in September 2010. He has a younger brother, Gerald Melzer, with whom he played doubles in several tournaments.
In 1999, Melzer won the boys' singles title at Wimbledon. For many years, he was known as one of the best players on the tour not to have progressed past the third round of a major. He ended this by reaching the semifinals of the 2010 French Open, losing to Rafael Nadal after coming from two sets down to defeat Novak Djokovic in the quarterfinals. As of June 2023, he remains the only person to defeat Djokovic from two sets down.
Melzer had greater success in doubles, winning the men's doubles title at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships and the 2011 US Open partnering Philipp Petzschner, as well as the mixed doubles title at the 2011 Wimbledon Championships partnering Iveta Benešová (whom he would later marry and divorce).
Career
Personal life
Melzer married Iveta Benešová, a WTA Tour tennis player, on 14 September 2012 and divorced in 2015. Melzer is a left-handed tennis player, but is right-handed in everyday life.
Junior career
Melzer played his first junior match in September 1995 at the age of 14 at a Grade-3 tournament in Austria.
At the 1999 Australian Open, Melzer won the doubles draw partnering singles champion Kristian Pless. Then, at the 1999 Wimbledon Championships. He won the singles draw defeating junior world No. 1 and doubles partner, Kristian Pless, in the final.
Melzer ended his junior career after his Wimbledon victory. Throughout his junior career, he reached as high as world No. 26 in 1998 (and No. 24 in doubles) and posted a win–loss record of 52–26 in singles and 47–23 in doubles.
Junior Grand Slam results – Singles:
Australian Open: 3R (1999)
French Open: 1R (1998)
Wimbledon: W (1999)
US Open: 2R (1998)
Junior Grand Slam results – Doubles:
Australian Open: W (1999)
French Open: 1R (1998)
Wimbledon: QF (1999)
US Open: 1R (1998)
Early years
In 1998, Melzer started playing in Futures in his country, where he won his first two matches, but lost the next four.
In 1999, he started playing outside of Austria in Futures and Challengers. He competed in his first main-draw match in the 1999 CA-TennisTrophy in Vienna, Austria, where he defeated Lars Burgsmüller, before losing to then world No. 11, Nicolas Kiefer, in two sets.
In 2000, Melzer continued playing in Futures and Challengers, but was only able to reach one quarterfinal. He also made his Grand Slam debut at the Wimbledon Championships, but lost to Australian Mark Philippoussis in four sets.
In 2001, he reach his first Futures final event at Poprad, Slovakia, losing to Juraj Hasko. However, he captured his first title at the Challenger in Mönchengladbach, Germany over local hero Jens Knippschild in three sets. He had his first top-100 and top-20 win over Fabrice Santoro, then world No. 18 in the CA-TennisTrophy, but lost in the next round to Michel Kratochvil in two tiebreaks.
In 2002, he regularly competed in Challenger events, reaching two finals, but losing in both attempts to Alexander Popp in Heilbronn, Germany and to Luis Horna in Fürth, Germany. He reached his first ATP Tour quarterfinal in the Internationaler Raiffeisen Grand Prix, defeating Sargis Sargsian and Andrea Gaudenzi in straight sets, before losing to eventual champion Nicolás Lapentti. However, he did better in the Croatia Open by reaching the semifinals, defeating Vincent Spadea, Agustín Calleri, and Victor Hănescu, before losing to eventual champion Carlos Moyá. He also won his first Grand Slam match at the US Open over Jack Brasington, before losing to Nicolás Massú in four sets. At the Vienna Open, he earned one of the biggest wins of his career by defeating then world No. 2, Tommy Haas, to reach the quarterfinals, before losing to Jiří Novák in two sets.
The start of 2003 was not a good one for the Austrian, as he lost three consecutive Tour-level main-draw matches, including his Australian Open debut. He rebounded in April by reaching the semifinals, losing to then world No. 2 Andre Agassi. He also made his French Open debut, but lost to David Ferrer. At Wimbledon, Melzer upset then world No. 15, Fernando González, to earn his first Wimbledon victory, but lost to Jonas Björkman in four sets the following round. Melzer reached his first ATP Tour final at the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships without defeating a player in the top 100, but lost to Robby Ginepri in the final. In the US Open, Melzer reached the second round again, but lost Juan Carlos Ferrero. He earned another top-20 victory over Tommy Robredo in the Vienna Open.
2004–2006
In 2004, the Austrian reached his first third round of a Grand Slam at the Australian Open with victories over Tomas Behrend, and Galo Blanco, before losing to Sjeng Schalken. Melzer made his Master Series debut at Indian Wells, losing to Victor Hănescu. He then won his first Master Series matches at the Miami Masters with victories over Ivo Karlović, and then world No. 8, Tim Henman, but lost to Todd Martin in straight sets in the third round. He next reached the quarterfinals of the Hamburg Masters with victories over Nicolás Massú, Irakli Labadze, and Marat Safin, but lost to former world No. 1, Lleyton Hewitt. Melzer then reached the semifinals of the Internationaler Raiffeisen Grand Prix, losing to Xavier Malisse in three sets. He then won his first French Open match over Wayne Ferreira, but then lost to Lleyton Hewitt in four sets.
In the Canada Masters, he reached the quarterfinals, losing to Nicolas Kiefer, with straight-set victories over Andre Agassi and Fernando González. In the US Open, he reached the third round for the first time, but lost to Michaël Llodra. In his last tournament of the year, he reached the third round of the Paris Masters, losing to Marat Safin in straight sets.
In 2005, he reached the quarterfinals of the Adelaide International, losing to Juan Ignacio Chela. In the Australian Open he reached the third round, losing to then world No. 2, Andy Roddick, in a tough three-setter. At the SAP Open, he lost in the semifinals to Cyril Saulnier, but earned his third victory over Andre Agassi en route. He reached his second semifinal of the year at the U.S. Clay Court Championships, but lost to Andy Roddick. He reached his second ATP tour final at the Hypo Group Tennis International, but lost to Nikolay Davydenko in three sets. At Roand Garros and Wimbledon, Melzer reached the third round and lost to Guillermo Coria on both occasions. He then lost six straight main-draw matches in the Austrian Open to Fernando Verdasco, and the Rogers Cup, Cincinnati Masters, New Haven Open, US Open, and Open de Moselle. He then continued his bad run with second-round losses at the Vienna Open, the Madrid Masters, and the St. Petersburg Open.
In 2006, he continued his bad run with a 1–8 record and a seven-match losing streak in the first three months, with his only win coming in the Medibank International over Juan Ignacio Chela. He then rebounded in the U.S. Clay Court Championships, where he reached his third final without dropping a set, but lost to Mardy Fish. He also reached the semifinals of the BMW Open, losing to eventual champion Olivier Rochus, and the quarterfinals of the Hypo Group Tennis International, losing to Jiří Novák. However, he fell in the first rounds of the French Open and Wimbledon. At the Hall of Fame Open, he reached the semifinals, but was upset by eventual champion Mark Philippoussis. He also reached the quarterfinals of the Austrian Open and the New Haven Open. He then suffered two losses to Juan Mónaco in the third round of the Mercedes Cup and the first round of the Warsaw Open. At the US Open, he lost to Alessio di Mauro, thus not winning a single Grand Slam match in the year. He then reached back-to-back finals at the Romanian Open and the Open de Moselle. He won his first ATP Tour title at the Romania Open, defeating Filippo Volandri in straight sets in the final, with victories over Gilles Simon and Paul-Henri Mathieu. At the Open de Moselle, he lost to Novak Djokovic. He ended the year with a quarterfinal showing at the Vienna Open, losing to Andy Roddick, but earned his first win over Juan Carlos Ferrero. He made a first-round exit at the St. Petersburg Open, losing to Lukáš Dlouhý.
2007–2009
In 2007, Melzer began the year with a first-round exit at the Qatar Open and a semifinal exit at the Medibank International, withdrawing against James Blake. Melzer reached the second rounds of the Australian Open, the M.K. Championships, the Indian Wells Masters, and the Miami Masters. He also reached the final of the Tennis Channel Open, losing to Lleyton Hewitt. He also reached the quarterfinals of the U.S. Clay Court Championships and the BMW Open. In the Masters Series on clay, he lost in the first rounds of the Monte Carlo Masters and the Rome Masters, and the third round of the Hamburg Masters, losing to Fernando González. After that, he suffered back-to-back losses to Juan Mónaco in the Hypo Group Tennis International and the French Open. He then suffered a left wrist injury in his first-round loss to Nikolay Davydenko in the Gerry Weber Open which caused him to miss two months of tennis, including Wimbledon. He came back at the Cincinnati Masters, reaching the third round and losing to Lleyton Hewitt. From then on, he was unable to secure back-to-back wins.
In 2008, Melzer reached the second round of his first three tournaments, including the Australian Open. He again failed to secure back-to-back wins, compiling a 3–9 record in his next nine tournaments and putting him out of the top 100 since April 2003. It was not until the Hypo Group Tennis International that he recorded back-to-back wins by reaching the quarterfinals, losing to Igor Kunitsyn in three sets. He carried his good performance through the French Open with a third-round exit to Frenchman Gaël Monfils, having led two sets to one. On grass, he was able to reach the quarterfinals of the Ordina Open and the third round at Wimbledon. He then returned to clay at the Austrian Open and reached his seventh final, but lost once again to Juan Martín del Potro. Melzer made a good performance at the Beijing Olympics by reaching the final eight, losing to eventual gold medalist Rafael Nadal. He then had a good performance by reaching the third rounds of the Pilot Pen Tennis and the US Open. Melzer made a good year end with quarterfinal results in the Thailand Open and the Vienna Open, which put him back to the top 40.
In 2009, Melzer again made a poor first quarter of the year, only managing one back-to-back win in his first ten tournaments, and it was at the Australian Open, where he reached the third round, losing to Andy Murray. It was not until the Italian Open that he recorded back-to-back wins, including a win over Nikolay Davydenko, but lost to Fernando González in the following round. He then reached the quarterfinals of the Austrian Open and the Gerry Weber Open once again, and the third round of the French Open and Wimbledon for the second year in a row. He reach his first semifinal of a year at the Croatia Open, but lost to eventual champion Nikolay Davydenko. He also reached the quarterfinals of the Pilot Pen Tennis with a victory over Victor Hănescu, but lost in the following round to Fernando Verdasco. In the semifinal of Thailand Open Melzer lost to eventual champion Gilles Simon in two sets. At the Shanghai Masters, Melzer defeated a then-world No. 5, Juan Martín del Potro, before losing to Feliciano López. This was his second victory over a top-5 player. The first was his win over a then-world No. 2, Tommy Haas, in 2002. He ended 2009 on a high note by winning his second career title at the Bank Austria-TennisTrophy over Marin Čilić in straight sets, which included a victory over Radek Štěpánek in the quarterfinals.
2010: French Open semi-final, top 10 doubles debut
Melzer lost in the first round of the Australian Open at the start of the season, but then reached the semifinals in Zagreb, losing to defending/eventual champion Marin Čilić. After a quarterfinal appearance in Rotterdam, where he lost to Nikolay Davydenko, Melzer reached the semifinals in Dubai, where he lost to Mikhail Youzhny. Later in the year, Melzer reached the quarterfinals of the ATP Masters 1000 in Madrid, losing to Nicolás Almagro. Melzer followed this up with his best result in a Grand Slam to date by reaching the semifinals of the French Open. He beat Dudi Sela and Nicolas Mahut before he caused a significant upset by defeating ninth seed David Ferrer in straight sets, followed by a four-set win over Teymuraz Gabashvili (who had beaten Andy Roddick in the previous round), and by a five set triumph over Novak Djokovic, coming back from a two-set deficit for the first time in his career. He was eventually defeated by four-time champion Rafael Nadal, in straight sets.
Melzer followed this up by reaching the fourth round of Wimbledon, where he was defeated by Roger Federer in their first career meeting. However, at the same tournament, he achieved his greatest success by winning the doubles title with German partner Philipp Petzschner.
After playing a few clay-court tournaments, reaching the final in one, and having good results in the others, Melzer moved on to the hard-court season, losing to Peter Polansky in the first round of Montreal and Ernests Gulbis in the second round of Cincinnati. He then played the US Open, where he reached the fourth round for the third consecutive Grand Slam tournament, having never been past the third round prior to the French Open. He played Roger Federer for a spot in the quarterfinals, having also played him in the fourth round of Wimbledon. Federer once again defeated him in straight sets.
At the Shanghai Masters in October, Melzer recorded one of the biggest wins of his career against world No. 1, Rafael Nadal. This was Melzer's first victory against Nadal and the first time he had beaten a reigning no. 1. He then lost to Argentina's Juan Mónaco in the quarterfinals.
In the last week of October, he won his third career title, defending his 2009 victory at the Vienna Open against his compatriot Andreas Haider-Maurer in a thrilling final; coming back from a set and a break down at 4–5 down (Haider-Maurer serving at 15–0) and three points away from defeat, to put up a heroic comeback and clinch the three set epic victory.
On 3 November, he was named Austrian Sportsman of the Year.
Melzer's final tournament of the year as a singles player was the Paris Masters, where he advanced to the quarterfinals, before losing to world No. 2, Roger Federer.
As a result of winning the Wimbledon doubles championship, Melzer and his doubles partner Petzschner qualified for a doubles team spot in the ATP Tour Finals, but his bid to qualify as a singles player ended when Andy Roddick defeated Ernests Gulbis in the third round of the Paris Masters, giving Roddick an insurmountable lead in qualifying points for the last individual spot in the ATP World Tour Finals.
2011: Top 10 debut in singles
Melzer started the year at the Australian Open. He reached the third round without dropping a set, before defeating 21st seed Marcos Baghdatis in the third round after Baghdatis retired with Melzer leading. He was defeated by Andy Murray in the fourth round. Despite the loss, Melzer cracked the top 10 for the first time in his career.
Since then, Melzer failed to chalk up any back-to-back wins until appearing at the Monte-Carlo Masters. Seeded ninth, he finally won consecutive matches as he beat Robin Haase, and Nicolás Almagro, to reach the quarterfinals for the first time in this tournament. There, he pulled off a surprise two-set win over No. 3 ranked and second seed Roger Federer to reach the semifinal stage for the first time in an ATP Masters 1000 tournament. However, he failed to reach his first final in such a tournament after losing against David Ferrer.
In the 2011 US Open men's doubles final, he arguably had his greatest success of the year when he and his doubles partner Philipp Petzschner won a controversial decision over the Polish team of Mariusz Fyrstenberg and Marcin Matkowski to claim the trophy. During a net exchange, a ball ricocheted off Petzschner's left shin, though he denied it. Instant replay of the telecast clearly confirmed the illegal return. Jurgen/Petzschner broke through in that game and won the match in straight sets, splitting a $420,000 purse.
2012
In singles, Melzer had an inauspicious start to the year, exiting in the first round in Brisbane and the Australian Open. He did make the final in Brisbane in doubles, partnering Philipp Petzschner, and he won the tournament in Memphis against Canadian Milos Raonic.
In Monte Carlo, he made the quarterfinals in doubles, partnering Florian Mayer. After that, he had a series of quick exits in singles: the first round at the French Open, the second at Wimbledon, and the first at the US Open. However, he made it to the semifinals at Wimbledon in doubles.
He partnered with Leander Paes in Canada and made it to the semifinals, losing to the Bryan brothers.
The fall went somewhat better in singles, with a quarterfinal showing in Shanghai and a semifinal in Valencia. He also made quarterfinal showings in Beijing and Shanghai and a semifinal in Vienna, with various partners. However, the Paris Masters was back to a first-round exit in singles against Grigor Dimitrov and a first-match defeat in doubles.
2013
Melzer made the quarterfinals in Brisbane, where he was eliminated by Grigor Dimitrov. At the Australian Open, he was defeated in the third round in straight sets by Tomáš Berdych.
He made the final in Zagreb, only to lose to Marin Čilić in straight sets. He went out in the first round at Indian Wells, but made it to the quarterfinals in Miami, losing to David Ferrer in three sets. He was eliminated in the third round at Monte Carlo by Jo-Wilfried Tsonga.
He made a quick first-round exit at the French Open, but made it to the fourth round at Wimbledon, losing to young rising player Jerzy Janowicz.
At Wimbledon, he made it to the quarterfinals in doubles.
His only singles tournament victory was in Winston-Salem, where he defeated Gaël Monfils, when the Frenchman had to retire in the second set. After that, Melzer was defeated in the first round of the US Open in straight sets by Evgeny Donskoy. He made it to the semifinals in Kuala Lumpur, losing to Portuguese João Sousa in three tight sets.
2014
Melzer pulled out of the Australian Open with a shoulder injury. At the ATP 500 Barcelona, he reached the third round by defeating Jerzy Janowicz, but lost to Philipp Kohlschreiber. At the Rome Masters he defeated John Isner and Marin Čilić to reach the third round, where he lost to Andy Murray. The Austrian won over David Goffin at Roland Garros to reach the second round, where he fell to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. At s-Hertogenbosch, he defeated Fernando Verdasco in the quarterfinals and lost to Roberto Bautista Agut in the semifinals. Melzer defeated Guillermo García López in the first round of the Paris Masters and lost again to Tsonga in the second round.
2015
Melzer failed to qualify for Wimbledon in 2015. Notably, he faced his younger brother Gerald in the first round qualifying and won in straight sets. Jürgen described it as the "worst tennis day of my life and I hope we will never play each other again.".
2016
In July, Melzer upset world No. 9, Dominic Thiem, at the Austrian Open after a long injury absence. This was his first victory over a top-10 player in over five years. In the next round, the quarterfinal, he lost to his brother Gerald.
2017
Melzer qualified for the Australian Open, but lost to the eventual champion Roger Federer in the first round.
2018: Retirement from singles
Melzer announced his retirement from the ATP Tour in singles, with the Vienna Open marking his final appearance. Ranked at world No. 426, he upset No. 22 Milos Raonic in the first round. This victory was his 350th and final career win, because he withdrew from the second round due to illness.
2019: First doubles title in 5 years
Melzer won the doubles title at the Sofia Open, partnering Nikola Mektić.
2020: ATP Finals runner-up in doubles
In October, Melzer announced his retirement from professional tennis after the 2021 Australian Open.
He qualified for the third time for the ATP Finals in doubles, this time with partner Édouard Roger-Vasselin. They reached the final, which they lost to Wesley Koolhof and Nikola Mektić.
2021: Retirement from tour
Contrary to his announcement, Melzer did not play at the Australian Open due to COVID-19 quarantine measures. Instead, he played in the doubles competitions of the other three Grand Slam tournaments where he each lost in the first round. He played his final tournament on the ATP Tour at the Vienna Open, where he partnered Alexander Zverev and also lost in the first round.
Coaching
After retiring from tennis, he began coaching compatriot Joel Schwärzler at the ÖTV performance centre in Südstadt. In October 2023, Schwärler won the ITF Junior Masters event in Chengdu.
Performance timelines
Singles
Doubles
Current through the 2021 Vienna Open.
Mixed doubles
Significant finals
Grand Slam finals
Doubles: 2 (2 titles)
Mixed doubles: 1 (1 title)
Year-end championships
Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)
Masters 1000 finals
Doubles: 2 (1 title, 1 runner-up)
ATP career finals
Singles: 13 (5 titles, 8 runner-ups)
Doubles: 37 (17 titles, 20 runner-ups)
ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals
Singles: 11 (5–6)
Doubles: 10 (6–4)
Record against top 10 players
Melzer's match record against those who have been ranked in the top 10, with those who have been No. 1 in boldface.
Ivan Ljubičić 5–0
Mardy Fish 4–1
Marat Safin 4–1
Tommy Robredo 4–4
Fabio Fognini 3–0
David Goffin 3–2
John Isner 3–2
Rainer Schüttler 3–2
Nicolás Almagro 3–3
Juan Carlos Ferrero 3–4
Fernando Verdasco 3–6
Marin Čilić 3–7
Radek Štěpánek 2–0
Andre Agassi 2–1
Roberto Bautista Agut 2–1
Tommy Haas 2–1
Milos Raonic 2–1
Arnaud Clément 2–3
Fernando González 2–2
Nicolás Lapentti 2–2
Stanislas Wawrinka 2–2
Richard Gasquet 2–3
Gilles Simon 2–4
Tomáš Berdych 2–5
Mikhail Youzhny 2–5
David Ferrer 2–7
Gastón Gaudio 1–0
Sébastien Grosjean 1–0
Wayne Ferreira 1–0
Alexander Zverev 1–0
Mario Ančić 1–1
Marcos Baghdatis 1–1
Pablo Carreño Busta 1–1
Todd Martin 1–1
David Nalbandian 1–1
Mariano Puerta 1–1
Dominic Thiem 1–1
Janko Tipsarević 1–1
Kevin Anderson 1–2
Tim Henman 1–2
Nicolás Massú 1–2
Greg Rusedski 1–2
Novak Djokovic 1–3
Rafael Nadal 1–3
Kei Nishikori 1–3
Roger Federer 1–4
Gaël Monfils 1–4
Juan Martín del Potro 1–5
Nikolay Davydenko 1–6
Juan Mónaco 1–7
Nicolas Kiefer 1–8
Jonas Björkman 0–1
James Blake 0–1
Ernests Gulbis 0–1
Carlos Moyá 0–1
Diego Schwartzman 0–1
Jack Sock 0–1
Paradorn Srichaphan 0–1
Guillermo Coria 0–2
Grigor Dimitrov 0–2
Mark Philippoussis 0–2
Robin Söderling 0–2
Guillermo Cañas 0–3
Jiří Novák 0–3
Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 0–6
Lleyton Hewitt 0–7
Andy Murray 0–7
Andy Roddick 0–10
Wins over top 10 players
He has a 13–60 (.178) record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10.
References
External links
Official site
Biofile with Jurgen Melzer
ESPN: Jürgen Melzer match opponents and scores
1981 births
Living people
Australian Open (tennis) junior champions
Austrian male tennis players
Olympic tennis players for Austria
People from Deutsch-Wagram
Tennis players from Vienna
Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Wimbledon champions
Wimbledon junior champions
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' doubles
Sportspeople from Lower Austria |
4530693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron%20Latimer | Baron Latimer | The title Baron Latimer or Latymer has been created, by the definitions of modern peerage law, four times in the Peerage of England. Of these, one (of Snape) was restored from abeyance in 1913; one (of Braybrook) is forfeit; the other two (both of Corby) are dormant, although their heir is well known.
Name and title
All of these, and the title of Viscount Latimer, belong to the descendants of the same medieval family, whose surname was Latimer (Latiner or "translator"); the fourteenth-century form of the name should therefore be le Latimer, but it is often found as de Latimer as though it were a placename.
Armorials
The arms of Latimer appear originally to have been Gules, a cross patonce or. The stems of a cross patonce should expand, as a cross pattée, then terminate more or less like a cross flory. The earliest surviving representation is on the seal of William Latimer, 1st Baron Latimer (died 1305), affixed to the Barons' Letter of 1301 to the Pope.
The arms of William le Latimer were blazoned in Franco-Norman verse by the heralds in the Caerlaverock Roll of Arms made in Scotland during the Siege of Caerlaverock in 1300 as follows:
De Guilleme le Latimer portoit en rouge bien pourtraite. Ki la crois patée de or mier ("William le Latimer bore in red well painted the cross patée of gold ...")
The term "patee" in this verse of the poem should not be interpreted as paty, or pattée, but rather as patonce. His cross patonce is also displayed in a contemporary stained glass window in Dorchester Church.
In the blazons of the Latimer arms in subsequent rolls the cross is blazoned as patee and patey, though in later times as cross patonce:
Sire William de LATIMER: de goules, a un croys patee de or (Roll, tempore. ED. II.
Monsire Le LATIMER, port de gules a une crois patey or (Roll, temp. ED. III)
Gules, a cross patonce or (LATIMER, Northamp.)
The late-medieval heraldic Angevin French terms patee and patey were incorrectly considered equivalent to the 18th century heraldic English patée by most heralds of the 19th century, supposing an early variance in the family arms. But throughout the 14th century the arms consistently displayed Gules, a cross patonce or.
One 19th century archivist incorrectly described the cross patonce of William Latimer, 4th Baron Latimer, as a cross flory.
Barons Latimer (of Corby; 1299)
Latimer
By modern law the existence of a barony by writ requires three things: a (recorded) writ, evidence that the recipient of the writ actually sat in Parliament, and that the Parliament meets the modern legal definition by including representatives of the shires or towns. The oldest writs for the Latimers date from 1299, although the first Baron Latimer also sat in the Parliament of 1290.
William Latimer, 1st Baron Latimer (died 1305). He sealed the Barons' Letter of 1301 to the Pope as Will(elmu)s le Latimer D(omi)n(u)s de Corby ("William le Latimer Lord of Corby"), his seal showing a cross patonce.
William Latimer, 2nd Baron Latimer (died 1327), son.
William Latimer, 3rd Baron Latimer (c. 1300 – 1335), son.
William Latimer, 4th Baron Latimer (c. 1329 – 1381), son.
Elizabeth Latimer, 5th Baroness Latimer (c. 1356 – 1395), only surviving child and Baroness in her own right. Within five months of her father's death she married (as his second wife) John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby, whom she survived and remarried to Robert Willoughby, 4th Baron Willoughby de Eresby, by whom she had a daughter Margaret. By her first husband John Neville she had children as follows:
John Neville, 6th Baron Latimer.
Elizabeth Neville, who married her step-brother Sir Thomas Willoughby.
Neville
John Nevill, 6th Baron Latimer (c. 1383 – 1430), who secured a divorce from his wife, and had no children. He left his lands to his half-brother, Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, although he was not descended from the Latimers. The Earl died in 1425, and the lands were passed on to George Neville, one of his younger sons, who was summoned to Parliament as Baron Latimer (second creation).
By modern law, however, the ancient Latimer title could not be transferred by will. John Neville's sisters had both predeceased him. Margaret had died unmarried, and Elizabeth had married Sir Thomas Willoughby, one of her step-father's younger sons, so the Barony of Latimer is held to have passed to her son and heir, Sir John Willoughby.
Willoughby
Three generations of Willoughbys succeeded, and are in modern law heirs to the barony of Latimer; the numbers are their ordinal as Baron(ess) Latimer, if the title is ever claimed:
7 John Willoughby (c. 1400 – 1437)
8 John Willoughby (died 1480)
9 Robert Willoughby (c. 1452 – 1502)
In the intervening seventy years, it had been generally accepted that peers had an inheritable right to receive a writ, but it was not yet decided exactly how the right was inherited.
Robert Willoughby, who was one of Henry VII's military commanders, was summoned to Parliament under the style of Baron Willoughby de Broke in 1491. Richard Neville, 2nd Baron Latimer, the grandson of George Neville, 1st Baron Latimer above, sat in the same Parliament, having just come of age. There were land disputes between the two families, and the new Baron Willoughby de Broke claimed that he should have been summoned as Baron Latimer. Richard Neville responded through his counsel that baronies by writ were inherited in the male line; when John Neville died, his barony became extinct; his grandfather had been granted a new Barony of Latimer, because there wasn't one.
The decision was that there were two baronies of Latimer. Robert Willoughby was heir to the older one, created in 1299, and had a right to claim it, but the summons to George Neville in 1432 had created a second barony of Latimer. The land dispute was settled by a marriage between the younger members of the family, and Robert Willoughby chose not to claim the barony of Latimer. He already had a seat in the House of Lords.
9 Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke (c.1452–1502; repeated from above)
10 Robert Willoughby, 2nd Baron Willoughby de Broke (1472–1521), often called Lord Broke or Brooke.
His son, Edward Willoughby, (c.1495 - November 1517) married Margaret Neville, eldest daughter of Richard Neville, 2nd Baron Latimer, and died in his father's lifetime.
The death of the second Baron Willoughby de Broke gave rise to another clarification of peerage law. His son, Edward Willoughby, who predeceased him, left three daughters, two of whom, Anne and Blanche, died childless. The survivor, Elizabeth Willoughby (the greatest heiress of her time), married Sir Fulke Greville. Neither she nor her eldest son, another Fulke Greville, nor her grandson, Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke, claimed the title. His grand-nephew and heir general, Sir Richard Verney, claimed the title of Lord Brooke in 1694 as the heir of Robert Willoughby, 2nd Baron Willoughby de Broke; this petition was rejected. However, in 1696 he made a second application, and it was decided that Elizabeth Willoughby had succeeded to the title about 1535, at her youngest sister's death - and Richard Verney therefore became Baron Willoughby de Broke.
11 Elizabeth Willoughby, 3rd Baroness Willoughby de Broke, granddaughter.
Greville
12 Sir Fulke Greville (c. 1526 – 1606), son.
13 Sir Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke (1554–1628), son; cr. Baron Brooke 1621; by special remainder in the patent, that title passed to his Greville cousin and adoptive son Robert Greville, 2nd Baron Brooke.
14 Margaret Verney née Greville, (c. 1561 – 1631), sister.
Verney
15 Sir Greville Verney (c. 1586 – 1642), son.
16 Greville Verney (c. 1620 – 1648), son.
17 Sir Greville Verney (1649–1668), posthumous son.
18 William Verney (1668–1683), son, succeeded at the age of six weeks.
19 Richard Verney, 11th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1621–1711), great-uncle.
20 George Verney, 12th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1659–1728), son.
21 Richard Verney, 13th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1693–1752), son.
22 John Verney, 14th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1738–1816), nephew (brother's son).
He later took the surname Peyto-Verney as beneficiary of the will of his cousin, Margaret Peyto; married the sister of Frederick North, Lord North, the prime minister.
23 John Peyto-Verney, 15th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1762–1820), son.
24 Henry Peyto-Verney, 16th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1773–1852), brother.
25 Robert John Verney, 17th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1809–1862), sororal nephew; born Robert John Barnard but assumed the name of Verney shortly after his accession.
26 Henry Verney, 18th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1844–1902), son.
27 Richard Greville Verney, 19th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1869–1923), son.
Leader of the Ditchers in the dispute over the Parliament Act 1911.
28 John Henry Peyto Verney, 20th Baron Willoughby de Broke (1896–1986), son.
29 Leopold David Verney, 21st Baron Willoughby de Broke (b. 1938), son.
One of the 92 representative peers under the House of Lords Act 1999 (UKIP).
All of the Lords Willoughby de Broke have also been heirs to the Barony of Latimer, but none of them have claimed it. The 21st Baron Willoughby de Broke, Leopold David Verney, would be the 29th Baron Latimer if he chose to claim it; his heir apparent is the Hon. Rupert Greville Verney (b. 1966).
Barons Latimer or Latymer (of Snape; 1432)
As said above, George Neville, a younger son of the first Earl of Westmorland, succeeded to the lands of his uncle, John Neville, 6th Baron Latimer, although he was not descended from the ancient Latimers. He was summoned to Parliament as Baron Latimer in 1432; by modern law, as decided in the 1490s, this was a new creation of a new Barony of Latimer. It descended as follows.
George Neville, 1st Baron Latimer (died 1469)
Richard Neville, 2nd Baron Latimer (1468–1530), grandson.
John Neville, 3rd Baron Latimer (1493–1543), son.
Married three times. His first wife was Dorothy de Vere, sister and eventual co-heiress of John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford; his third wife - and widow - was Catherine Parr, later Queen of England.
John Neville, 4th Baron Latimer (1520–1577), only son (his mother was Dorothy de Vere).
These Barons Latimer held Snape Castle in Wensleydale.
John Neville, 4th Baron Latimer, had four daughters, all of whom had issue.
Catherine Percy, Countess of Northumberland.
Dorothy Cecil, afterward Countess of Exeter.
Lucy Cornwallis.
Elizabeth Danvers.
Tudor custom was divided on what happened in such a case; the style of Lord Latimer was claimed both by the earls and dukes of Northumberland, descendants of his eldest daughter, and by his cousin and heir male, another Richard Neville (died 1590), son of William Neville, younger brother of the 3rd Baron Latimer. Modern law, as worked out over the next century, was that the barony was divided into quarters among the four daughters and their heirs, a situation called abeyance. If three of the lines died out, the fourth would inherit; if not, the Crown might, at its pleasure, confer the title on any of the heirs - customarily, the one who petitioned for it.
Lucy Cornwallis had only daughters, so her share was itself divided. In 1911, the heritor of one of these sub-shares (Francis Burdett Thomas Money-Coutts, of the prominent Liberal banking family) petitioned that the abeyance be determined, and in February 1913, he was summoned to Parliament. He and his heirs have chosen to spell their title Latymer, and most sources follow them.
Francis Money-Coutts, 5th Baron Latymer (1852–1923) (abeyance terminated 1913)
Hugh Burdett Money-Coutts, 6th Baron Latymer (1876–1949), son
Thomas Burdett Money-Coutts, 7th Baron Latymer (1901–1987), son
Hugo Nevill Money-Coutts, 8th Baron Latymer (1926–2003), son
Crispin James Alan Nevill Money-Coutts, 9th Baron Latymer (b. 1955), son
The heir apparent is the present holder's son the Hon. Drummond William Thomas Money-Coutts (b. 1986)
Barons Latimer (of Corby; 1299; bis)
William, the first Lord Latimer above named, was of an advanced age when he received his first recorded writ of summons, to the Parliament of Christmas 1299. He is recorded as having sat in one of the Parliaments of 1290, but no writ is recorded; by modern law no peerage was formed.
Two members of his family were summoned and sat in Parliament in his lifetime: his eldest son, another William, and his nephew Thomas. The younger Sir William Latimer was summoned to, and sat in, the Parliament of Candlemas, 1299, ten months before his father, and continued to be summoned for the rest of his life. By modern law, this would create a separate Barony of Latimer, although the two have been held by the same people since the elder Sir William's death in 1305.
This barony is therefore also dormant, although the heir is, like the other barony of 1299, also the present Baron Willoughby de Broke. If David Verney, 21st Baron Willoughby de Broke claimed this title, he would be 28th Baron Latimer, but have somewhat higher precedence.
Barons Latimer (of Braybrook; 1299)
Sir William Latimer, first Baron Latimer above, was also accompanied to the Parliament of Christmas 1299 by his nephew, Sir Thomas le Latimer, who was summoned by writ and sat; Sir William and his late brother Sir John had married sisters, the heiresses of Walter Ledet of Braybrook and Corby; each of the brothers had inherited one of the castles, and Sir John had died at the end of 1282.
This summons created a fourth Barony of Latimer by modern law, although Thomas Latimer, first Lord Latimer of this line, was only summoned until 1308, and none of his heirs were summoned at all. Complete Peerage traces the line of descent as follows:
Thomas le Latimer (c. 1270 – 1334), founder.
Warin le Latimer (c. 1300 – 1349), son.
Married Catherine la Warre, daughter of John la Warr, 2nd Baron De La Warr
John le Latimer (c. 1323 – 1356), son.
Warin le Latimer (c. 1341 – 1361), brother.
Thomas le Latimer (1341–1401), brother
Edward le Latimer (c. 1345 – 1411), brother
John Griffin (c. 1380 – 1445), great-nephew
Grandson of Elizabeth Griffin, née Latimer, sister of the previous heirs.
Nicholas Griffin, (1426–1482), nephew.
John Griffin (1454–1485), son
Nicholas Griffin (1474–1509), son
Thomas Griffin (1485–1566), son
His son, Rice Griffin, was killed 1549, in Kett's Rebellion, leaving a daughter:
Mary Griffin, (before 1546 - ?), granddaughter, married Thomas Markham.
Griffin Markham (c. 1570 - after 1644), attainted 1603.
Sir Griffin Markham was one of the bravoes employed in the Bye Plot, an effort to kidnap James I of England and Scotland. He was attainted and exiled, at which point this shadowy peerage became forfeit.
Unless this attainder were reversed, this barony would not belong to anybody. Even if it were, it is not clear who could claim it, since the accounts of Markham's family vary. One source says he left two daughters, another that he was childless; one that he himself was one of twelve sons, yet another that he was one of six sons and there were four daughters.
Viscount Latimer
Thomas Osborne, the Restoration politician, worked his way up from a baronetcy to being first Duke of Leeds. In this climb, his third peerage title was Viscount Latimer, conferred 15 August 1673; he was to become Earl of Danby the next June.
All of Osborne's titles are now extinct at the death of the last Duke of Leeds in 1964; but Viscount Latimer was used as a title of courtesy for Osborne's eldest son from 1674 to his death, in his father's lifetime, in January 1689.
This title does recognize Osborne as a member of this same extended family: his grandmother was the daughter of Elizabeth Danvers, fourth daughter of John Nevill, 4th Baron Latimer, of the 1432 creation. He had no share in the abeyance; his grandmother had three brothers, his great-uncles: Charles Danvers, Henry Danvers, 1st Earl of Danby, and John Danvers the regicide, and her own heir was his uncle Thomas Walmesley, whose heir is the present Baron Petre.
Notes
Sources
Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, extant, extinct, or dormant'' London, 1910–1959, with supplemental volume XIV, 1994.
"Latimer (of Braybrooke)"
"Latimer (of Corby)"
"Latimer or Latymer (Nevill)"
"Willoughby de Broke"
"Brooke"
"Leeds"
External links
Baronies in the Peerage of England
1299 establishments in England
Forfeited baronies in the Peerage of England
Dormant baronies in the Peerage of England
Noble titles created in 1299
Noble titles created in 1432 |
4531255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20enforcement%20in%20Germany | Law enforcement in Germany | Law enforcement in Germany is constitutionally vested solely with the states, which is one of the main features of the German political system.
Policing has always been a responsibility of the German states even after 1871 when the country was unified. The 1919 constitution of the Weimar Republic did provide for the possibility of creating a national police force, should the necessity arise, but it was only in the Nazi era that Gestapo (secret state police) were unified under central control and a national police force created (the Reich Security Main Office—Reichssicherheitshauptamt, or RSHA). The police became a tool of the centralized state and the Nazi party.
Following the defeat of 1945, Germany was divided; in 1949 the three western zones were turned into the new West Germany, while the Soviet zone became East Germany. Each country pursued a different path concerning law enforcement.
In light of the gross misuse of power by the centralized Nazi state, the new West German constitution provided a strict separation of powers, placing law enforcement firmly in the hands of the states. The only policing agencies allowed at the federal level were the paramilitary Federal Border Guard (German: Bundesgrenzschutz), also responsible for coast guard services, and the Federal Criminal Police, both under the supervision of the Federal Ministry of the Interior. East Germany created a centralized police force under the Ministry of the Interior, the paramilitary Volkspolizei (literally "People's Police"). It also established a border police force (German: Grenztruppen der DDR), initially an independent force, later integrated into the army and then reorganized as an independent military organization. Because Germany's borders became largely open in 2005, due to the development of the European Union and spread of the Schengen Agreement to all neighbouring countries, the Bundesgrenzschutz was renamed to Federal Police (German: Bundespolizei). The duties of the Federal Police still are limited to the security of railway lines, main railway stations, airports, sea ports, and several other special duties.
Federal agencies
Federal Criminal Police Office
Another central police agency, the Federal Criminal Police Office (German: Bundeskriminalamt / BKA), with approximately 7,100 agents, operates nationwide from headquarters in Wiesbaden. The BKA is a clearinghouse for criminal intelligence records.
It provides assistance to the State Criminal Police Offices (German: Landeskriminalamt / LKA) in forensic matters, research, and criminal investigations. It is also the national point of contact for the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol).
The BKA conducts own criminal investigations or enters existing cases only when requested by state authorities, or in cases involving two or more states. The BKA has been involved in investigations against various terrorist groups since the 1960s.
Federal Customs Service
The Federal Customs Service (German: Bundeszollverwaltung) is the executive and fiscal administrative agency of the Federal Ministry of Finance. It was founded in 1949 in West Germany. The purpose of the Customs Service is to administer federal taxes, execute demands for payment on behalf of the federal government and federal statutory corporations, monitor the cross border movements of goods with regard to compliance with bans and restrictions, and prevent illicit work. Uniformed federal agents are used for the execution of the financial legislation. Subordinated to the federal customs service, the Customs Investigation Bureau in Cologne (German: Zollkriminalamt / ZKA) coordinates customs investigations nationwide in particular monitoring foreign trade, uncovering violations of EU market regulations, illegal technology exports, subsidy fraud in the agricultural sector, drug trafficking and money laundering. In response to the increasing violence against law enforcement officers, the customs SWAT team, the Central Customs Support Group (German: Zentrale Unterstützungsgruppe Zoll / ZUZ) was implemented in 1997 as the customs tactical unit for dangerous missions.
Federal Intelligence Service
The Federal Intelligence Service (German: Bundesnachrichtendienst / BND) was based in Munich. Since February 2019, the Service is based in Berlin. The BND is restricted to the investigation of threats originating outside of Germany. It depends heavily on wiretapping and other surveillance techniques applied to international communications. Such activities are authorized only to counter the danger of an armed threat to the country, but intelligence authorities have pressed for the added power to monitor suspected international traffickers of weapons and drugs.
Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution
The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (German: Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz / BfV) is primarily the domestic intelligence service of Germany, concerned with espionage, treason, and sedition. It has no powers of arrest and cannot use force, but it carries out surveillance and supplies the BKA and other police agencies with information e.g. on terrorist groups. Its main office is in Wiesbaden. Similar and independent offices exist in each state. Although they cooperate closely with the federal office, they operate under the control of state authorities.
Federal Police
Established in 1951, the Bundespolizei (BPOL) is the uniformed federal police force. It is subordinated to the Federal Ministry of the Interior (Bundesministerium des Innern (BMI)). The Bundespolizei was previously known as the Bundesgrenzschutz (BGS) ("Federal Border Guard") and had a more restricted role until July 1, 2005 when the law renaming the BGS as the BPOL was enacted.
All personnel on duty carry sidearms. Some units have light aircraft and helicopters to facilitate rapid access to remote border areas and for patrol and rescue missions. A coast guard force forms a part of the BPOL. It is equipped with 14 large patrol craft and several helicopters.
In addition to controlling Germany's border, the BPOL serves as a federal reserve force to deal with major disturbances and other emergencies beyond the scope of Land police. The BPOL guards airports , and several highly trained detachments are available for special crisis situations requiring demolition equipment, helicopters, or combat vehicles. After shortcomings in police procedures and training were revealed by the terrorist attack on Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympics, a task force known as Border Guard Group 9 (GSG-9) was formed to deal with terrorist incidents, especially hostage situations. The GSG-9 won world attention when it rescued 86 passengers on a Lufthansa airliner hijacked to Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1977.
A military rank structure similar to that of the Bundeswehr was replaced in the mid-1970s by civil service-type personnel grades. The service uniform was green but has been changed to blue.
The West German Railway Police (Bahnpolizei), formerly an independent force, and the East German Transportpolizei were restructured under the BGS to form the Bundespolizei in 1990.
Military police
The Feldjäger are responsible for carrying out military law in Germany. It was formed in October 1955. They have no power over civilians.
State agencies
State Criminal Investigation Office
The State Criminal Police Office (German: Landeskriminalamt / LKA), is an independent law enforcement agency in most German states, that is directly subordinated to the respective state ministry of the interior. The LKA supervises police operations aimed at preventing and investigating criminal offences and coordinates investigations of serious crime, involving more than one regional headquarter. They can take over investigative responsibility in cases of serious crime, e.g. drug trafficking, organized crime, environmental and white-collar crime or extremist and terrorist offences. Each Landeskriminalamt is also a modern central office for information, analyzing police intelligence from home and abroad and transmitting it to police stations. It collates data on criminal offences and offenders in crime statistics that are used as a basis for new strategies, policy decisions and legislative initiatives. It also analyzes certain offense areas, evaluates the police measures executed in each case, forecasts expected tendencies and describes events in annual reports.
State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution
The State Office for the Protection of the Constitution (German: Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz / lfV) in every single state, is the domestic intelligence service, concerned with espionage, treason, and sedition. Due to the negative experiences of abusing power in Nazi-Germany, the domestic intelligence duties are not centralized and therefore maintained by the states. As the BfV, the LfV have no powers of arrest and cannot use force, but it carries out surveillance and supplies police agencies with information on extremist parties, international crime, drug trafficking, terrorism, and other illegal activities.
State Police Forces
The German states are responsible for managing the bulk of Germany's police forces. Each state has its own police force known as the State Police (German: Landespolizei). Each state promulgates a law which lays down the organisation and duties of its police (Landespolizeigesetz or Sicherheits- und Ordnungsgesetz).
Although the state police forces are regulated by sixteen different legislatures and are, in fact, different police forces, there has been an increasing tendency toward standardization of police activities nationwide. Concerns about terrorism and the growth of organized crime have strengthened the movement to centralize police procedures and operations. The idea of creating one single police code for the whole of Germany (allgemeines Polizeigesetz) came up in the 1960s but never passed.
These forces are organized by cities, towns, or rural communities, but all are integral components of the police forces of the state in which they are located. The respective state minister of interior supervises police operations in his or her jurisdiction. Although the internal organizations differ somewhat, all state police are divided into the Protective Police (German: Schutzpolizei / SchuPo), a uniformed service carrying out routine law and order duties, and Criminal Police Office (German: Kriminalpolizei / almost always abbreviated with KriPo), who carry out criminal investigations. The separate Administrative Police formerly had duties that included the registration of residents and the issuance of passports, identity cards, and various permits. These functions have been transferred to civil state government departments (Einwohnermeldeamt—Resident registration office) in all states.
The uniforms and vehicle colour schemes of the state police forces are different, but somewhat similar all over Germany, the state police forces are structured differently in each state as well. For example, in some states the Kripo can be part of the ordinary police force, in some states it is organized separately.
The idea of using the same colour for police uniforms and vehicles throughout the European Union has been realized in all German state police forces and the federal police. All vehicle liveries and uniforms changed from white/green to silver/blue until 2018. The basic silver colour for vehicles in the most states, is actually increasing the resale value and thus lowers leasing costs. The uniforms already have been changed by all state police forces and the federal police from the green/beige version introduced in 1979 to blue ones. Hamburg was the first state to make the transition, Bavaria the last state, finishing the replacement of the green/beige uniforms in 2018.
Auxiliary State Police Forces
Some German states maintain auxiliary police forces under different denominations, depending on the state's legislation. In most auxiliary forces, the officers are armed with pepper spray, in some forces with the regular equipment of professional police officers. Some states maintain a "Voluntary Police Service" (German: Freiwilliger Polizeidienst) like Baden-Württemberg and Hesse, some a "Security Watch" (German: Sicherheitswacht), like Bavaria and Saxony, and only Brandenburg offers a "Security Partner" (German: Sicherheitspartner) program.
Their main duty is crime prevention by:
conducting walking patrols to deter street crime
patrolling near schools and kindergartens
maintaining contact with potential victims of crime and juvenile delinquents.
Bavaria has instituted a system of citizen patrols (Sicherheitswacht) in which unarmed teams of two volunteers patrol assigned areas to improve subjective security. These teams carry a radio to call for help if necessary and a pepper spray for protection. A white armband with black letters identifying them as a "Security Watch" patrol.
Citizens in Baden-Württemberg can participate in the volunteer police programme, where roughly 1,200 citizens voluntarily assist their local police in 20 towns. These volunteers are specially trained, wear regular uniforms and are sworn and armed with normal police gear.
Citizens in Hesse and Saxony can also participate in a Volunteer Police program, where some citizens voluntarily assist their local police. The volunteers are trained for 50 hours in Hesse and 60 hours in Saxony, receive uniforms, pepper spray and a mobile phone in Hesse and a radio in Saxony.
In Brandenburg there were established about 200 security partners along the Polish border as well as around Greater Berlin. The legal basis is a decree of the State Minister of the Interior of 11 October 1995.
People can also join on a full-time basis the Wachpolizei, which has less authority (and less pay) than regular police officers to perform basic police tasks, like the guarding of premisses like an embassy, to release regular officers for patrol work.
Local agencies
Municipal order enforcement agencies
In Germany municipal code enforcement is organized very heterogeneously, depending on state, county and municipal regulations. Currently, many cities in Germany maintain local order enforcement agencies, with limited police-type duties. Those bylaw enforcement officers in general are city employees. Contingent on the respective unit, the officers wear - usually police like - uniforms or wear plain clothes with an armband or a labeled jacket, they could be armed or unarmed. The order enforcement officers are the municipal administration's "eyes and ears on the street". Mostly they are charged with monitoring municipal by-laws and laws that fall under the responsibility of municipalities, which include monitoring the conduct of shop owners, sanitation inspections, veterinary inspections and minor infractions and misdemeanors such as illegal parking, littering, state and local dog regulations etc. They usually only hand out warnings and fines and can only perform a citizen's arrest as any other citizen can. If they see any major crimes they are required to call the state police for a criminal investigation, while they can intervene in ongoing crimes themselves.
Even the denominations are manifold, depending on local regulations as well, most of the time the denominations are:
Municipal Code Enforcement Service ()
Community Enforcement Service ()
Order Enforcement Office (), most common denomination
Municipal Enforcement Service ()
Municipal Guard / Municipal Watch ()
Municipal police forces
In Baden-Württemberg municipal police officers do have the same rights, powers and obligations like the counterparts of the state police. The tasks of a municipal police force depend on the size of the municipality's territory and the number of inhabitants in which it is operating. The "police authority" () of a town or city can transfer more tasks and responsibilities to its police force, only if approved by the regional government of the state ().
In the state of Hesse, city police forces provide the local order enforcement. The officers wear police uniforms and are armed. Similar to the municipal order enforcement units, there are different denominations:
City Police ()
Community Police ()
Training
Police training is primarily the responsibility of the individual states, although the federal government provides assistance and coordination. The high level of police professionalism is attributed in large degree to the length and thoroughness of training. The situation is different in the five new states of eastern Germany. Long accustomed to a society made compliant by eliminating opposing opinions, police forces of the eastern states have to adapt to the growing numbers of opposing right-wing groups and factions.
Most police recruits spend about two and a half years in the regular police academy training (). The auxiliary police forces, with fewer powers and often not equipped with a duty-weapon, are trained in just 12 weeks. In case of higher education (), recruits can also start off at a higher rank, comparable to Lieutenant (Rank: ), which they have to attend police college for and acquire a bachelor's degree.
After about six years of duty as a patrol officer, an individual with an outstanding record who does well on a highly competitive examination and started off in the regular police academy () can go on to two or three years at a higher police school or a college of public administration to qualify for a bachelor's degree (). The very few candidates who qualify for the highest ranks of the police study for one year at the Federal Police Leadership Academy in Münster-Hiltrup.
Off duty carry
Depending on the certain state police regulation, German police officers may be authorized to carry their department-issued firearms while off duty. Some states allow their officers to apply for the approval to purchase a private firearm, that can be carried off-duty. Further restrictions that forbid off-duty carry exist (i.e. when drinking alcohol, at public events). In their private properties, the officers are required to have a safe to store their gun while not carrying it.
Women in the Police
The state police forces have had female members since the implementation of the several police forces after World War II. Initially, female officers were assigned to cases involving juveniles and women, working in plainclothes without weapons. Since the mid-1970s, female police officers have performed general police patrol duties and their proportion of total police officers is steadily rising. However, their representation in leadership positions is still relatively low.
Alert Police
The Alert Police (), literally "Readiness or Standby Police" is available in each state for riot control, although their primary function is training police recruits. In this tasks it is comparable with Anti-Riot Police Forces in other countries. Beside this, the Federal Police maintains a as well, to assist the state police forces if necessary. While the states are free to choose the equipment and to organize their police forces autonomously, the state and federal alert police units receive standardized weapons, vehicles, anti-riot gears and communications equipment from the federal government by law. An office in the Federal Ministry of Interior monitors and coordinates the deployment of the units, which can be called upon to assist the police of other states in case of riots or other civil unrest.
The Alert Police is assigned to barracks where they are organized along military lines into squads, platoons, and 120- to 150-member training or standby companies. In most states, the contingents consists of one 600- to 800-member battalion, but in six of the larger states they are organized into regiments.
Duties vary according to local requirements. In Hamburg, for example, the patrol the subway system, assist in police raids in the red-light district, and are present at large demonstrations and soccer matches. Their units are equipped with their own transport, tents, and rations, enabling them to be shifted quickly to other without having to rely on outside support. The Readiness Police have water cannons and armoured vehicles but are armed with lighter weapons than those of the federal police.
All state alert police forces and the federal alert police force maintain specialized units as well, the so-called Arrest Units (, lit. "Units for arrests and securing evidence", abbreviated BFE). The BFE units were established in 1987 after two police officers were killed during demonstrations against the expansion of Frankfurt Airport.
As a reaction to several terrorist attacks in Europe since 2015, an additional unit, the BFE+, was implemented in summer 2015. The BFE+ should provide specialized operators for long lasting (search) operations for example after a terrorist attack.
Career brackets
In general, the German law enforcement authorities of today have personnel of three available career brackets, the lowest being the "" ("middle service"), followed by the so-called "" ("elevated service") and the "" ("higher service"). Only the Federal Customs Administration (Bundeszollverwaltung) and the Departments of Justice and Corrections of the states ( — Justice Enforcement Service) still have personnel of the very lowest career bracket "" ("simple service"). To understand this structure it may be helpful to compare it with military rank structures because decades ago it was really similar.
Development of career
Today nine of sixteen State Police Forces recruit only for the career bracket of the "".
Entry into "" requires successful completion of 10 years of schooling, or a successful training in any other job and some years of working in this job. Period of training is 2 years at the police academy starting with the rank of . The highest possible rank in this bracket is that of . In the mid to late seventies the "" was disestablished for the detective branch , but in some states of the former GDR, they still exist. Rank designation, in this case, f.e. .
Entry into the "" requires a high-school diploma and period of training is 3 years at a college of administration and justice. The highest possible rank in this career is that of .
The third career bracket is the so-called "". A direct entry into this career bracket is possible and requires a law degree of a university, but the majority of these officers had started their career in "" or "". The period of training is 2 years at the or German Police University. That is the only official centralised educational institution of the German police. Starting at the rank of "" or "" (literally "police counsellor" or "detective counsellor") up to "" ("police president"), which is (in most German states) equivalent to the rank of Chief of Police in the USA.
Judiciary
The German legal system is a civil law mostly based on a comprehensive compendium of statutes, as compared to the common law systems. The (Federal Constitutional Court, being located in the city of Karlsruhe) is the German supreme court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review. Germany's supreme court system, called ("Supreme Federal Courts of Justice"), is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice ("" in Karlsruhe) and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court ("" in Erfurt), the Federal Social Court ("Bundessozialgericht" in Kassel), the Federal Fiscal Court ("" in Munich) and the Federal Administrative Court ("" in Leipzig). The (International Penal Law Code) regulates the consequences of crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes, and gives German courts universal jurisdiction under specific circumstances.
Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the (literally Penal Law Book) and the (literally Civil Law Book) respectively. The German penal system is aimed towards rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the general public. Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges ( or assessors) sit side by side with professional judges.
Equipment
Vehicles
German police typically use cars from German manufacturers. Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Audi, Opel and BMW are commonly used as patrol cars (Streifenwagen). States used to prefer vehicles built in or close to the respective state. However, with most states now leasing instead of buying their vehicles and in light of European Union rules on contract bidding, states have less latitude in choosing which manufacturer will provide their patrol cars than they did.
In the Saarland which is historically closely tied to neighboring France, vehicles from French companies as well as European Fords are used as police cars. The Bavarian State Police uses mainly BMW and Audi vehicles, as both companies are based in Bavaria (BMW in Munich and Audi in Ingolstadt). In the eastern states of Germany, mostly Volkswagens are in use (Volkswagen is based in Wolfsburg, close to the eastern states). The Hessian police prefer Opel cars (the Opel brand formerly belonged to General Motors, currently it is owned by PSA, which is a part of Stellantis) is based in Rüsselsheim near Frankfurt am Main in Hesse). Baden-Württemberg mostly uses Mercedes-Benz and Volkswagen cars for their police force.
Before the police reform in the mid-1970s, Germany had many city police forces and each had its own police car livery. Dark blue, dark green and white were popular colours. However, the dark colours were perceived as a disadvantage as many accidents occurred at night during high-speed chases. Therefore, the conference of interior ministers decided on standardising police car liveries so that the cars appeared non-threatening and could be easily visible at night. Bright green and white became the colours associated with police vehicles in Germany beginning in the 1970s. More recently, police forces changed to silver cars and vans instead of white ones as they were easier to sell than the white ones when their police service was over. In an effort to harmonize the coloring of police in Europe, Germany has adopted a blue-silver livery with the addition of neon reflective surfaces to increase visibility.
Today, German police forces generally lease patrol cars from a manufacturer, usually for a period of three years. The leasing company marks the patrol cars using plastic foils with reflecting strips as borders instead of painting them. The foils are removed when the cars are sold to the public as standard silver used cars when the lease runs out.
Unlike in other countries like the United States, police cars in Germany rarely come with any special equipment (apart from the obvious, like flashing lights or sirens) not available to other users of the same model, as the cars on sale in European markets are generally considered to be fit for police duty without any further alteration.
Type of vehicles
These vehicles are used by law enforcement agencies in Germany:
Uniforms
History
From 1945 onwards, due to the multilayer organisation in municipal and rural state law enforcement agencies, Nazi Police forces wore completely different colored uniforms. In the mid-seventies the aftermath of Munich massacre a reorganisation of the state police forces took place. This opportunity was taken to implement a standard police uniform for all West German states and West Berlin. All state police forces implemented the same green and beige uniform, most parts designed by Heinz Oestergaard. The standard uniform consisted of a tunic, parka, pullover without shroud, coat, visor cap and necktie in moss-green, trouser, pullover and cardigan in brown-beige, shirt (long and short sleeve) in bamboo-yellow. Shoes, boots, holsters, leather jackets and other leather gear were black. Leather gloves were olive-drab. There were some exceptions. Visor caps with a white top were worn by the traffic police and by the Schutzpolizei during traffic regulation duties.
The state river or water police forces (German: Wasserschutzpolizei) wore uniforms of a completely different design. The basic uniform was navy-blue, the shirt was white and the visor cap had a white top. The BGS wore an all forest green uniform with a bamboo-yellow shirt. After German Reunification the Volkspolizei was broken up into Landespolizei and switched to the standard uniform. During the period of transition, they still wore their old uniforms but with Western-style sleeve and cap ensigns.
Transition to blue uniforms of state and federal police units
Like most European countries have blue police uniforms, all German State Police Forces (German: Landespolizei) and the Federal Police (German: Bundespolizei) have shifted to blue uniforms to conform with the common blue image of most police forces in Europe. In line with the uniforms, police vehicles and various items of equipment also changed the color to blue. Although there are 16 states, currently only six types of state police uniforms are in use, because many states co-operate in the design and sourcing of the police uniforms.
State level
Federal level
See also
List of law enforcement agencies in Germany
Police forces of Nazi Germany
Police of Germany
Zollkriminalamt (German Customs Investigation Bureau)
Staatsanwaltschaft (public prosecutor's office)
Crime in Germany
Prisons in Germany
List of killings by law enforcement officers in Germany
Legal aid in Germany
References |
4531372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%20Line%20%28Sound%20Transit%29 | T Line (Sound Transit) | The T Line, formerly known as Tacoma Link, is a light rail line in Tacoma, Washington, part of the Link light rail system operated by Sound Transit. It travels and serves 12 stations between Tacoma Dome Station, Downtown Tacoma, and Hilltop. The line carried 934,724 total passengers in 2019, with a weekday average of over 3,100 boardings. Tacoma Link runs for nine to 18 hours per day, using streetcars at frequencies of 12 to 20 minutes.
Tacoma Link was approved in a regional transit ballot measure passed in 1996 and began construction in 2000. It was the first modern light rail system to be constructed in Washington state and succeeded a former streetcar system that ceased operations in 1938. Service on Tacoma Link began on August 22, 2003, at five stations, replacing a downtown shuttle bus. A sixth station, Commerce Street/South 11th Street, was opened in 2011. It was designated as the Orange Line in 2019 and renamed to the T Line in 2020.
Sound Transit extended the T Line by to the Stadium District and the Hilltop area west of Downtown Tacoma on September 16, 2023. A longer western extension to the Tacoma Community College campus via South 19th Street is planned to open in 2041.
History
Background and proposals
Public transit service in Tacoma began with the opening of the city's first horse-drawn streetcar line on May 30, 1888, running on Pacific Avenue between Downtown and Old Town. The city's streetcar system was expanded and electrified, growing to by 1912 and serving outlying areas while feeding into the Seattle–Tacoma Interurban. The streetcar and cable car network was gradually replaced with motor buses, with the final streetcar leaving service on June 11, 1938. Bus service in Tacoma was gradually consolidated under the Tacoma Transit Company, which was acquired by the city in 1961 and folded into Pierce Transit in 1980.
A regional transit system, later named Sound Transit, was formed in the early 1990s to address traffic congestion in the region and proposed several projects for the Tacoma area. Tacoma had been targeted for urban revitalization, particularly around the University of Washington branch that opened in 1990. Among the proposed revitalization projects was the construction of a multimodal station near the Tacoma Dome that would be connected to Downtown Tacoma by a "shuttle" light rail line, costing approximately $40 million to construct. The Tacoma Dome Station would also be served by commuter rail and a regional light rail line continuing north to Federal Way, Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, and Seattle. A combined light rail line that served both Downtown Tacoma and the Tacoma–Seattle corridor was part of a $6.7 billion ballot measure that was rejected by voters in March 1995, but planning for the multimodal Tacoma Dome Station continued.
Approval and planning
A second transit plan was proposed without the Federal Way line, which was dropped in favor of express bus service, but retained the Downtown Tacoma connector. It was passed by voters in November 1996, allocating $50 million for a line in Tacoma that would be built as a "starter line" within the following six years. Tacoma Dome Station opened for buses in October 1997 and a shuttle bus connecting to Downtown Tacoma operated by Pierce Transit began service on February 2, 1998. The Downtown Connector was transferred to Sound Transit in 2000.
Route planning for the Downtown Tacoma line, named "Tacoma Link", began in early 1998 with the intent to create a new transportation connection to downtown retail and cultural attractions. A set of 20 potential route alignments were considered for connecting Tacoma Dome Station to the University of Washington campus, the South 13th Street area, and the Theater District. The preliminary options were narrowed down to five candidates in the draft environmental impact statement, which were grouped based on their use of either Commerce Street or Pacific Avenue to travel north–south through downtown. The line's cost rose by $12 million to $77 million due to the choice of low-floor streetcars that would be level with the platform.
The Commerce Street alignment was favored by the Tacoma city government, but a final decision by the city council and Sound Transit was delayed in favor of further studies. The Pacific Avenue option was narrowly favored by downtown businesses due to its increased traffic, but Commerce Street was seen as a less controversial route that would allow for easier expansion to the Stadium District. The city council approved the Commerce Street alignment in May 1999, and Sound Transit followed suit in July. Sound Transit also endorsed studies into making Tacoma Link a fare-free system due to projections that the costs of fare collection would exceed revenue on the line. Designs for the line's five stations were completed in early 2000, based on simple stations with unique design elements that reflect neighborhood identity.
Construction and disputes
Construction of the light rail line near the Tacoma Dome began in August 2000, resulting in a reduction in parking that drew complaints from business owners. A formal groundbreaking was held on October 18, 2000, shortly after the commencement of Sounder commuter rail service to Tacoma Dome Station. Work on the downtown section was delayed into the following year due to a contract dispute and design changes to avoid buried telecommunications systems. During bidding for the $25 million construction contract, a low bid was rejected due to not meeting Sound Transit's small business participation standards. Gary Merlino Construction was awarded the contract in February 2001 and began in July; construction on the line's operations and maintenance facility in the Dome District had already begun a month earlier under a separate subcontractor.
The transition between Pacific Avenue and Commerce Street near the future Greater Tacoma Convention and Trade Center was to be via a public plaza, which began construction in June 2001. The first rails were laid in November 2001, with a formal ceremony the following month to mark the start of work on the entire Link light rail network. Sound Transit agreed to handle operations of the light rail trains on an interim basis for an indefinite period of time, opting not to contract with Pierce Transit or the city government. Major construction along Pacific Avenue began in February 2002, causing periodic closures that affected buses and businesses who requested the use of mitigation funds to make up for lost revenues. The three streetcars ordered by Sound Transit for Tacoma Link were manufactured in the Czech Republic by Škoda Transportation and delivered in September 2002, costing $3 million each. The cars were put on public display in Tacoma and Seattle over the following months to promote light rail projects.
As light rail construction prepared to reach Commerce Street, Qwest filed a lawsuit against Sound Transit to receive compensation for relocating its telecommunications lines away from the tracks; a U.S. District Court judge ruled in favor of Sound Transit, due to the use of public right of way by Qwest for their telecommunications lines. Another dispute, with BNSF Railway over a railroad crossing on Pacific Avenue that would intersect the light rail tracks, was settled in January 2003 with an agreement to suspend freight operations through the intersection. Commerce Street was re-opened for use by buses in February 2003 as light rail construction neared completion. The final section of track was welded in place in early April, marking the ceremonial end of track construction, and the installation of overhead power systems began later in the month. Testing of the streetcars began on June 18, 2003, as the line was electrified for the first time 65 years after the discontinuation of the original streetcar network. The first accident for the new line occurred during testing on August 5, when a delivery truck driver scraped a streetcar while illegally parked on the tracks.
Opening and later projects
Tacoma Link opened for service on August 22, 2003, becoming the first modern light rail system in Washington state. 4,400 people rode the train on the opening day, which was marked by a ribbon-cutting event and a community festival at Tacoma Dome Station. Weekday ridership on the line averaged 2,000 patrons during its opening month, matching original projections for regular ridership in 2010; the system reached 500,000 boardings in April 2004 and one million by December. The project's total cost, $80.4 million, ran above the original estimates due to inflation and additional street improvements, including sidewalks, lighting, benches, and bicycle racks.
Prior to the start of light rail service, the Puyallup Tribe of Indians proposed an extension of Tacoma Link to their new casino-hotel complex, approximately southeast of Tacoma Dome Station near Interstate 5. A study into the extension was commissioned in 2004 by the Puyallup Tribe, with Sound Transit finding that the project would cost and estimated $38 million to $72 million depending on which of the four potential routes were chosen. The study also projected that ridership levels would require a new fleet of two-car trains and longer platforms for the rest of the line, leading to increased costs. Two additional extensions to the west were also studied by Sound Transit for inclusion into a long-range plan, but were deferred due to their high costs. The Tacoma city government also proposed a network of streetcars in 2007, looking to emulate the Portland Streetcar system rather than extending Tacoma Link.
The city government also proposed the construction of an infill station between the Convention Center and Theater District to serve downtown commuters. Sound Transit approved the proposal and opened Commerce Street/South 11th Street station on September 15, 2011. It was constructed using funding from the city and tied into a new plaza built atop a nearby parking garage. Due to the addition of the new station, train frequencies were reduced from every 10 minutes during peak hours to every 12 minutes. Tacoma Link was renamed to the Orange Line as part of a systemwide rebranding by Sound Transit in September 2019. The name was later withdrawn due to issues with the Red Line in Seattle; an updated designation, the T Line (colored orange), was introduced in 2022.
Hilltop Extension
A extension of the T Line from Downtown Tacoma to the Stadium District and Hilltop neighborhood opened on September 16, 2023. It runs mostly in mixed traffic on Stadium Way, Division Avenue, and Martin Luther King Jr. Way; the project included the construction of six new stations and the relocation of the existing terminus at Theater District to Old City Hall station. The extension serves Stadium High School and the adjacent Stadium Bowl; Tacoma General Hospital; and St. Joseph Medical Center.
The Hilltop Extension was approved by voters as part of the Sound Transit 2 ballot measure in 2008 and was estimated to cost $217 million, primarily paid for by local funding and federal grants. Construction began with a groundbreaking in November 2018 and track laying in June 2019 under the direction of Walsh Construction. By March 2021, construction was 75 percent complete, including most trackwork and installation of catenary poles.
The T Line suspended operations and was replaced with shuttle buses for ten weeks beginning in August 2022 to connect the extension's tracks, electrical infrastructure, and other systems to the existing line. Unfortunately, a stray electric current was discovered, which meant that extra work was required to prevent corrosion. Since the shutdown, the station at Theater District was permanently closed due to its proximity to the new station at Old City Hall.
The extension was expected to open in early 2023, but was delayed to later in the year due to construction issues that were identified after track installation. Sound Transit attributed some of the delay to incorrect city records on the location of utility lines as well as change orders for catenary pole installation. Construction was completed in July 2023, and testing with "simulated service" began that same month with reduced frequency on the entire line. The extension cost $282 million to construct and is projected to increase daily ridership to 2,000 to 4,000 by 2026 and over 10,800 by 2035. It has spurred transit-oriented development in Hilltop and the Stadium District, including several multi-family residential buildings that opened in the 2020s.
Route
The T Line is long and generally runs at-grade in mixed traffic with an exclusive lane for its single-track section. Outbound trains travel west from an operations and maintenance facility located on East 25th Street near McKinley Avenue to the line's terminus at Tacoma Dome Station. The station has a single side platform for Link trains, located south of the 2,283-space parking garage and bus loop and north of the Sounder commuter rail and Amtrak station. The single-track railway continues west in the median of East 25th Street and crosses under Interstate 705 before reaching South 25th Street station on the south curb of the street near A Street.
T Line trains then turn north onto Pacific Avenue and travel in the median for several blocks parallel to Interstate 705, splitting into two tracks after South 21st Street. The dual-tracked railway reaches Union Station/South 19th Street station, located adjacent to the historic Union Station (now a courthouse), the Washington State History Museum, the Museum of Glass, and the University of Washington, Tacoma campus. Near the Tacoma Art Museum, the tracks leave Pacific Avenue and travel northwest onto Commerce Street above Tollefson Plaza, crossing over the Prairie Line Trail and stopping at South 15th Street near the Greater Tacoma Convention and Trade Center.
On Commerce Street, Link trains share lanes with mixed traffic through a major bus transfer area for Pierce Transit. Trains stop at Theater District at South 11th Street, located near Tacoma's city hall and the historic Pantages and Rialto theaters. The line stops near Tacoma's historic city hall building and at 4th Street on Stadium Way as it ascends towards the Stadium District. The tracks turn west onto North 1st Street near the eponymous Stadium High School and Stadium Bowl and stop in the neighborhood's commercial district before merging onto Division Avenue. The T Line passes Wright Park and turns south onto Martin Luther King Jr. Way with two stops in the Tacoma General Hospital complex. The line stops at South 11th Street in the Hilltop neighborhood and continues south to its inbound terminus near St. Joseph Medical Center.
Stations
The six original stations on the T Line are built with platforms that are long enough to accommodate one car at a time, but were designed to support further expansion for multi-car trains. Each station features shelters, seating, rider information, and public artwork that reflects the history of the surrounding neighborhood. Each station on the Hilltop Extension has decorative canopies designed by Tacoma artist Kenji Hamai Stoll.
Service
T Line trains run 18 hours per day on weekdays, from 4:30 am to 10:30 pm, 15 hours per day on Saturdays, from 7:00 am to 10:30 pm, and 8 hours per day on Sundays and holidays, from 9:40 am to 6:30 pm. Trains operate at a frequency of every 12 minutes during the day on weekdays and Saturdays and every 20 minutes on Sundays, some holidays, and during early morning and evening service on weekdays. Operating hours are occasionally extended into the late evening for events at the Tacoma Dome, with trains running more frequently.
The T Line takes approximately 23 minutes to traverse its entire route from the Tacoma Dome Station to St. Joseph station. A maximum of two trains are able to operate on the original T Line section due to the single-track section between Union Station and Tacoma Dome Station. Prior to the opening of Commerce Street/South 11th Street station in 2011, trains ran at frequencies of 10 minutes during the day and 20 minutes during other hours. A restoration of 10-minute frequencies was planned as part of the Hilltop Extension's opening in 2023, but was reduced to 12 minutes due to operational issues and a lack of break time for drivers.
Ridership
The T Line carried a total of 934,724 passengers in 2019, averaging 3,109 riders on weekdays. Ridership on the line fluctuates based on several factors, including special events scheduled at the Tacoma Dome or hosted in Downtown Tacoma, and class times at the University of Washington campus in Tacoma. T Line patronage peaked at 1.024 million annual riders in 2012, but has since declined due to the loss of several major downtown employers. Total ridership from 2017 to 2018 declined by 7.6 percent year over year due to the closure of the Tacoma Dome for renovations, but rebounded in 2019. Ridership fell to under a half-million total passengers in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Fares
Fares were originally not charged on the T Line, with operating costs covered by Sound Transit and $29,000 annually from the Tacoma Business Improvement Area. Sound Transit chose to launch the service without fares due to the cost of collection exceeding projected revenues. A budget shortfall caused by the late 2000s recession caused Sound Transit to consider a $1 fare in 2010, but the decision was pushed to a later date.
The Sound Transit Board approved a $1 base fare in September 2013 that would take effect the following year. It would be increased to $1.50 in 2016 to cover the cost of fare enforcement and installation of ticket vending machines. The proposed fare was unpopular with riders, business owners, and local boosters due to the potential impact on tourism, with a predicted 25 percent drop in ridership. Before the fare could take effect, the Downtown Tacoma Business Improvement Area agreed to fund the difference in revenue by paying $29,000 annually to Sound Transit for two years of free fares.
The Tacoma Business Improvement Area agreed to renew its $29,000 annual subsidy in April 2016, covering the equivalent of a $2 fare until the opening of the Hilltop Extension. A $2 adult fare and $1 reduced fare for low-income adults, senior citizens, and disabled adults was implemented and collected beginning with the opening of the Hilltop Extension in September 2023. Fares for passengers under the age of 18 are waived as part of a statewide program.
Rolling stock and equipment
The T Line fleet consists of eight low-floor articulated streetcars that are long and wide with two articulation joints, between which is a low-floor central section. The cars and platforms are built for level boarding, with a mechanical wheelchair ramp deployed by operators upon request. All streetcars in the T Line fleet are stored and maintained at an operating base located east of Tacoma Dome Station and Freighthouse Square. The system has several operational differences from the 1 Line fleet, including electrical systems and its minimum turning radius, that makes the two lines incompatible with each other.
The first three streetcars are Škoda 10 Ts, numbered 1001 to 1003, that were manufactured in the Czech Republic by Škoda Transportation. They are identical to cars used by the Portland Streetcar system in Portland, Oregon. Each Škoda streetcar has 30 seats and can carry an additional 85 passengers at crush load. They each weigh and can reach a top speed of . They are unable to be coupled and draw their electrical power from overhead catenary that is energized at 750 volts direct current.
The second generation of T Line vehicles are five Liberty NXT streetcars, numbered 2001 to 2005, that were manufactured in the United States by the Brookville Equipment Corporation. The Brookville streetcars have the same general dimensions as the Škoda vehicles but seat 26 passengers and can carry up to 100 passengers at crush load. The five streetcars were ordered in 2017 at a cost of $26.5 million and delivered between March and November 2022. The contract with Brookville also includes an option to order five additional cars.
Future expansion
Tacoma Community College Extension
An extension beyond the Hilltop neighborhood to the Tacoma Community College campus in western Tacoma was funded by the Sound Transit 3 ballot measure, approved by voters in 2016, and is scheduled to open in 2041. The extension would use South 19th Street and stop at six stations, carrying approximately 18,000 daily riders and costing up to $478 million. Train frequency would be increased to six minutes during peak periods and a section of the original line near Union Station would be double-tracked.
References
External links
Tacoma Link schedule
Tacoma Link Expansion: Hilltop Extension
2003 establishments in Washington (state)
Link light rail
Railway lines opened in 2003
Transportation in Tacoma, Washington
Zero-fare transport services
750 V DC railway electrification |
4532165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng%20Zhi | Deng Zhi | Deng Zhi (178 - 251), courtesy name Bomiao, was a government official, diplomat and military general of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. A descendant of Deng Yu, Deng Zhi started his career in the late Eastern Han dynasty under the warlord Liu Bei as a low-level officer in Pi County. After Liu Bei discovered his talent, Deng Zhi steadily rose through the ranks to become a county prefect and later a commandery administrator and imperial secretary. In 223, the Shu regent Zhuge Liang sent him as Shu's envoy to meet Sun Quan, the ruler of Shu's ally state Wu, and reestablish the Wu–Shu alliance against their common rival state Wei. Deng Zhi succeeded in his mission and earned praise from Sun Quan for strengthening Wu–Shu ties. In 227, Deng Zhi became a military general and he participated in the first Shu invasion of Wei by leading a decoy force with Zhao Yun to distract the Wei general Cao Zhen. Although they lost the battle, Deng Zhi and Zhao Yun managed to rally their troops to put up a firm defence during their retreat and minimise their losses. Following Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Deng Zhi rose to higher general ranks and was stationed in present-day Chongqing for about 10 years before he was recalled back to the Shu capital Chengdu in his 70s to serve as General of Chariots and Cavalry. In 248, he suppressed a rebellion in Fuling (around present-day Pengshui County, Chongqing). He died in 251.
Early life
Deng Zhi was born in the late Eastern Han dynasty in Xinye County (新野縣), Yiyang Commandery (義陽郡), which is present-day Xinye County, Henan. He was a descendant of Deng Yu, a general who served under Emperor Guangwu in the early Eastern Han dynasty.
Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Deng Zhi migrated to Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), where he did not receive as much recognition from the locals as he expected. He then decided to consult Zhang Yu, a low-ranking official in Yi Province who was also a famous fortune teller. Zhang Yu told him: "Sir, once you are above the age of 70, you will rise to the position of General-in-Chief and will receive a peerage as a marquis."
Deng Zhi later heard that Pang Xi, the Administrator of Baxi Commandery (巴西郡; around present-day Langzhong, Sichuan), had a reputation for hosting retainers, so he travelled there and became one of Pang Xi's retainers.
Service under Liu Bei
In 214, after the warlord Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province from the provincial governor Liu Zhang, Deng Zhi was appointed as a low-level officer in charge of the granary in Pi County. One day, when Liu Bei visited Pi County, he spoke to Deng Zhi and discovered his talent. He was so impressed with Deng Zhi that he appointed Deng Zhi as the Prefect of Pi County, and later promoted him to the position of Administrator of Guanghan Commandery (廣漢郡; around present-day Guanghan, Sichuan).
After the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty in 220, Liu Bei declared himself emperor in May 221 and established the state of Shu to challenge the legitimacy of the state of Wei, which replaced the Eastern Han dynasty. Around this time, due to his good performance in office, Deng Zhi was reassigned from Guanghan Commandery to the Shu capital, Chengdu, to serve as a Master of Writing (尚書) in the imperial secretariat.
As Shu's envoy to Wu
Between August 221 and October 222, Liu Bei went to war with his former ally Sun Quan, who broke their alliance in 219 by seizing Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province and executing Guan Yu, one of Liu Bei's top generals. However, he ended up suffering a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Xiaoting against Sun Quan's forces.
Before Liu Bei died in June 223, Sun Quan sought to make peace with him after the Battle of Xiaoting. In response, Liu Bei had sent Song Wei (宋瑋) and Fei Yi as his representatives to meet Sun Quan and agree on a truce. Following Liu Bei's death, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor of Shu, became regent to Liu Bei's son and successor Liu Shan as Liu Shan was still underage at the time.
Just when Zhuge Liang feared that Sun Quan would break the truce and was unsure of what to do, Deng Zhi came to see him and told him: "His Majesty is still young and vulnerable. He has only recently ascended the throne. We should send an emissary to Wu to reestablish friendly ties with them." Zhuge Liang replied: "I have thought about this for a long time but I haven't found a suitable person to do this. Now I have found the right person." When Deng Zhi asked him who he had in mind, Zhuge Liang replied: "You, Sir." He then sent Deng Zhi as Shu's envoy to Wu to meet Sun Quan.
First trip to Wu
When Deng Zhi showed up in Wu, Sun Quan refused to meet him so he wrote a memorial to Sun Quan as follows: "I came here today not just for the sake of Shu, but also for the sake of Wu." Sun Quan then granted Deng Zhi an audience and told him: "I genuinely wish to form an alliance with Shu. However, I am worried that the ruler of Shu is still young and vulnerable, and that Shu is so small and weak that it can't save itself from being conquered by Wei. That's why I am having second thoughts."
Deng Zhi replied:
Sun Quan thought for a long time before replying: "Sir, you are right." He then decided to break ties with Wei, form an alliance with Shu, and then appointed Zhang Wen as his envoy to follow Deng Zhi back to Shu. Deng Zhi would also negotiate for the return of Zhang Yi who had been captured in a revolt by the locals in Nanzhong led by Yong Kai and sent to Wu.
Second trip to Wu
In Shu, after Zhang Wen reaffirmed the Wu–Shu alliance against Wei, Deng Zhi accompanied him on his journey home and paid another diplomatic visit to Wu. During this time, Sun Quan told Deng Zhi: "How wonderful it would be if two rulers can rule the Empire together in peacetime!" Deng Zhi replied: Sun Quan laughed and told Deng Zhi: "You are truly an honest person!"
Sun Quan later wrote a letter to Zhuge Liang as follows: "Ding Gong does it superficially while Yin Hua does it incompletely. Only Deng Zhi does well in bridging ties between our two states." Sun Quan's treatment of Deng Zhi compared with Fei Yi and was considered superior to another favoured envoy Zong Yu.
First Shu invasion of Wei
In 227, Zhuge Liang ordered troops from throughout Shu to mobilise and assemble in Hanzhong Commandery in preparation for a large-scale military campaign against Shu's rival state, Wei. During this time, he commissioned Deng Zhi as General Who Spreads Martial Might (揚武將軍) and appointed him as Central Supervisor of the Army (中監軍).
In the spring of 228, Zhuge Liang ordered Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi to lead a detachment of troops to Ji Valley (箕谷) and pretend to attack Mei County (郿縣; southeast of present-day Fufeng County, Shaanxi) via Xie Valley (斜谷). Their mission was to distract and hold the Wei forces' attention, while Zhuge Liang led the Shu main army to attack Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu). In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei emperor Cao Rui sent Zhang He to attack Zhuge Liang at Mount Qi, and Cao Zhen to attack Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi at Ji Valley.
Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi lost to Cao Zhen at the battle in Ji Valley because Zhuge Liang had given them command of the weaker soldiers while he led the better troops to attack Mount Qi. Nevertheless, Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi managed to rally their men into putting up a firm defence as they retreated, thus minimising their losses.
In the meantime, the Shu vanguard led by Ma Su suffered a disastrous defeat at Jieting (街亭; or Jie Village, located east of present-day Qin'an County, Gansu) against Wei forces under Zhang He's command. Zhang He then seized the opportunity to attack and recapture three Wei commanderies which defected to the Shu side. Upon learning of the Shu defeats at Ji Valley and Jieting, Zhuge Liang pulled back the Shu forces and retreated to Hanzhong Commandery by the late spring of 228. As a senior official, he would be listed by Zhuge Liang among the names calling for the sack of Li Yan for the attempted cover-up of his failure with supplies.
Guarding Jiangzhou and pacifying Fuling
After Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Deng Zhi rose to the positions of Vanguard Military Adviser (前軍師) and General of the Vanguard (前將軍). He was also appointed as the nominal Inspector of Yan Province as Yan Province was not Shu territory. In addition, he was enfeoffed as a village marquis under the title "Marquis of Yangwu Village" (陽武亭侯). Shortly after, he was put in charge of guarding Jiangzhou (江州; present-day Chongqing) near the eastern border of Shu. His fame was compared to other border commanders Wang Ping and Ma Zhong.
When he was at Jiangzhou, Deng Zhi had several exchanges with the Wu emperor Sun Quan, who also sent him expensive gifts on numerous occasions.
In 243, Deng Zhi was promoted to General of Chariots and Cavalry (車騎將軍) and granted acting imperial authority.
In 248, the people in Fuling (涪陵; around present-day Pengshui County, Chongqing), a small vassal state under Shu, killed their Commandant and started a rebellion. In response, Deng Zhi led troops to attack the rebels, defeated them and executed their leaders. Peace was restored in Fuling.
Death
Deng Zhi died in 251. at the age of 74 (by East Asian age reckoning). He was buried in a location about five li southwest of present-day Zitong County, Sichuan.
Encounter with the ape
The Chronicles of Huayang recorded that when Deng Zhi led Shu imperial forces to suppress the rebellion in Fuling in 248, he encountered a black ape in the hills. As he enjoyed firing crossbows, he decided to use the ape for target practice and fired a bolt at it. The ape pulled out the bolt from its wound and used twigs and leaves to nurse the wound. When Deng Zhi saw that, he said: "Alas! I have violated the laws of nature. I will die soon!"
Another account says that Deng Zhi saw a female ape carrying its child on a tree. He fired a crossbow bolt at them and hit the female ape. The baby ape pulled out the bolt from its mother's wound and used twigs and leaves to nurse the wound. After seeing that, Deng Zhi sighed, threw his crossbow into the water, and knew that he was going to die soon.
Family
Deng Zhi's mother was Zheng Tiansheng (鄭天生).
Deng Zhi's son, Deng Liang (鄧良), inherited his father's peerage and became the next Marquis of Yangwu Village (陽武亭侯). He served as an official in the selection bureau of the imperial secretariat during the Jingyao era (258–263) of Liu Shan's reign and was one of the officers sent to surrender to Deng Ai. After the fall of Shu, he served under the Jin dynasty as the Administrator of Guanghan Commandery (廣漢郡; around present-day Guanghan, Sichuan).
Appraisal
Throughout his career of over 20 years as a general, Deng Zhi was known for showing wisdom and fairness in giving out rewards and punishments, as well as for treating his soldiers very well. He also led a frugal and simple life as he relied solely on his official salary and government-issued items for his basic needs. When he became General of the Vanguard, his salary increased substantially and even far greater as General of Chariots and Cavalry but this increase of income was mostly used to pay off debts and support his family and relatives. As he owned no private property throughout his life, his family often struggled to make ends meet and they had no excess wealth at the time of his death.
Deng Zhi was also known for being firm and candid, and direct when he expressed his thoughts and feelings. As a result, he neither got along well with the scholar-elite and literati nor gained much respect and prestige among his contemporaries. Jiang Wei was one of the few who regarded Deng Zhi highly.
Despite his positive traits, Deng Zhi was known for being arrogant and condescending. Many of his colleagues, including his superior Fei Yi, tended to give in to him. However, there was one Zong Yu who stood up to Deng Zhi. In 243, when Deng Zhi returned to the Shu capital Chengdu from his previous post at Jiangzhou to serve as General of Chariots and Cavalry, he met Zong Yu and asked him: "According to the rules of propriety, a man should no longer serve in the military once he reaches 60. Why do you still want to receive command of troops at this age?" Zong Yu rebuked him: "You are already 70, but you haven't relinquished your command of troops. So why can't I receive command of troops when I am 60?"
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Deng Zhi is a minor character in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period of China. His first trip to Wu as Shu's envoy in the year 223 is dramatised and exaggerated in Chapter 86.
When Deng Zhi shows up in Wu, Zhang Zhao suggests to the Wu king Sun Quan to intimidate Deng Zhi and boil him alive (in the same way the King of Qi executed Li Yiji) if he tries to lobby them to make peace with Shu. Sun Quan heeds Zhang Zhao's suggestion by setting up a large cauldron filled with boiling oil outside the meeting hall, and ordering heavily armed guards to line the path leading to the hall.
Upon his arrival outside the hall, Deng Zhi sees the display and understands Sun Quan's intentions. He shows no sign of fear and calmly walks into the hall, smiling at the heavily armed guards who glare at him. After entering the hall, he does not kneel when he pays respect to Sun Quan, who shouts at him: "Why are you not kneeling?" Deng Zhi confidently replies: "An emissary of a great kingdom does not bow to the lord of a lesser state." An enraged Sun Quan says: "You don't know your place. Are you trying to use that tongue of yours to convince me in the same way Li Yiji tried to lobby the King of Qi? You can throw yourself into that cauldron now!" Deng Zhi laughs and replies: "People all say Eastern Wu has many talents. Who would expect that they fear a scholar?" An angry Sun Quan asks: "Why should I be afraid of a common man?" Deng Zhi replies: "If you don't fear Deng Bomiao, then why are you worried that I am here to lobby you?" Sun Quan asks: "You are here on Zhuge Liang's behalf to lobby me to reject Wei and join Shu. Is that true?" Deng Zhi replies: "I am but a scholar from Shu. I came here specially in the interests of Wu, yet you try to intimidate me with heavily armed guards and an oil cauldron. Doesn't that show how narrow-minded and intolerant you are?"
Sun Quan feels anxious and ashamed after hearing Deng Zhi's words, so he orders the guards to leave and offers Deng Zhi a seat in the hall. He then asks Deng Zhi: "Sir, can you tell me what are the interests of Wu and Wei?" Deng Zhi asks him back: "Your Majesty wants to make peace with Shu or Wei?" Sun Quan replies: "I wish to make peace with Shu, but I am afraid that the ruler of Shu is too young and inexperienced that he cannot ensure Shu's survival." Deng Zhi says: "While Your Majesty is a dynastic hero, Zhuge Liang is also a hero of his time. Shu has high mountains as its natural defences while Wu has the rivers as natural barriers. If we combine our geographical advantages and form an alliance, we can conquer the Empire if we advance, and we can still maintain our positions if we recede. This is the natural course of things. If Your Majesty agrees to send your son as a hostage to Wei, they will eventually summon you to their imperial court or make your crown prince serve them. If you refuse, they will take it as treason and attack you. When that happens, Shu will follow the flow and take whatever it can from you. The lands in Jiangnan will then no longer belong to Your Majesty. If Your Majesty disagrees with what I have just said, then I will die immediately in front of Your Majesty to rid myself of being labelled a lobbyist."
After finishing his speech, Deng Zhi leaves his seat, dashes out of the hall and prepares to throw himself into the cauldron. Sun Quan immediately stops him, invites him back to the hall, and treats him like an honoured guest. He then tells Deng Zhi: "Sir, what you just said is in line with my thoughts. I desire to make peace and ally with Shu. Sir, are you willing to help me?" Deng Zhi replies: "Just now Your Majesty wanted to boil me alive. Now Your Majesty wants me to help you with diplomacy. If Your Majesty can't make up your mind, how can you gain people's trust?" Sun Quan replied: "I have made up my mind. Sir, you can be sure about that."
Sun Quan then sends Zhang Wen as his envoy to accompany Deng Zhi back to Shu to meet Zhuge Liang and reestablish the Wu–Shu alliance against Wei.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Notes
References
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Tao, Hongjing (499). Zhen'gao.
178 births
251 deaths
Shu Han generals
Shu Han government officials
Politicians from Nanyang, Henan
Political office-holders in Sichuan
Three Kingdoms diplomats
Generals from Henan |
4532252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20Welsh%20Assembly%2C%202005 | List of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly, 2005 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2005. Statutory Instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales so every Statutory Instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The Statutory Instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the Acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly.
1-100
The Education (Information About Individual Pupils) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 35 (W.2))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth am Ddisgyblion Unigol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 35 (Cy.2))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Additional Functions) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 36 (W.3))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau Ychwanegol) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 36 (Cy.3))
The Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment Scheme (Set-aside) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 45 (W.4))
Rheoliadau Cynllun Taliad Sengl y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Neilltir) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 45 (Cy.4))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Additional Functions) (Amendment) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 68 (W.6))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau Ychwanegol) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 68 (Cy.6))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Functions) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 69 (W.7))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 69 (Cy.7))
The Plant Health (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 70 (W.8))
Gorchymyn Iechyd Planhigion (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 70 (Cy.8))
The Public Audit (Wales) Act 2004 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 71 (W.9) (C.3))
Gorchymyn Deddf Archwilio Cyhoeddus (Cymru) 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 71 (Cy.9) (C.3))
The Day Care (Application to Schools) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 118 (W.10))
Rheoliadau Gofal Dydd (Eu Cymhwyso i Ysgolion) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 118 (Cy.10))
The Council Tax (Alteration of Lists and Appeals) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 181 (W.14))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Newid Rhestrau ac Apelau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 181 (Cy.14))
The Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 182 (W.15))
Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau Plastig mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 182 (Cy.15))
The Horse Passports (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 231 (W.21))
Rheoliadau Pasbortau Ceffylau (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 231 (Cy.21))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Demand Notices) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 256 (W.22))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Hysbysiadau Galw am Dalu) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 256 (Cy.22))
The Food (Pistachios from Iran) (Emergency Control) (Wales) (No.2) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 257 (W.23))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Cnau Pistasio o Iran) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 257 (Cy.23))
The National Health Service (Performers Lists) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 258 (W.24))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Rhestri Cyflawnwyr) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 258 (Cy.24))
The Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 259 (W.25))
Rheoliadau Ychwanegion Bwyd Amrywiol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 259 (Cy.25))
The Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 360 (W.29))
The Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 363 (W.30))
Rheoliadau Diogelwch Bwyd (Hylendid Bwyd yn Gyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 363 (Cy.30))
The Contaminants in Food (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 364 (W.31))
Rheoliadau Halogion mewn Bwyd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 364 (Cy.31))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) (Prescription of Drugs Etc.) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 366 (W.32))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Contractau Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Rhagnodi Cyffuriau Etc.) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 366 (Cy.32))
The Town and Country Planning (Blight Provisions) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 367 (W.33))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Darpariaethau Malltod) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 367 (Cy.33))
The Accounts and Audit (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 368 (W.34))
Rheoliadau Cyfrifon ac Archwilio (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 368 (Cy.34))
The Town and Country Planning (Costs of Inquiries etc.) (Standard Daily Amount) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 371 (W.35))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Costau Ymchwiliadau etc.) (Swm Dyddiol Safonol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 371 (Cy.35))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 21) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 375 (W.36) (C.17))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 21) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 375 (Cy.36) (C.17))
The Central Rating List (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 422 (W.40))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 6) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 423 (W.41) (C.19))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 6) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 423 (Cy.41) (C.19))
The Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003 (Healthcare Inspections) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 424 (W.42))
Rheoliadau Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol (Iechyd Cymunedol a Safonau) 2003 (Arolygiadau Gofal Iechyd) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 424 (Cy.42))
The Smoke Control Areas (Exempted Fireplaces) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 426 (W.43))
Gorchymyn Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Lleoedd Tân Esempt) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 426 (Cy.43))
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 427 (W.44))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau a Chyfarpar) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 427 (Cy.44))
The Education Development Plans (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 434 (W.45))
Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Datblygu Addysg (Cymru) (Diwygio 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 434 (Cy.45))
The Dairy Produce Quotas (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 537 (W.47))
Rheoliadau Cwotâu Cynnyrch Llaeth (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 537 (Cy.47))
The Public Audit (Wales) Act 2004 (Commencement No. 2 and Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 558 (W.48) (C.24))
Gorchymyn Deddf Archwilio Cyhoeddus (Cymru) 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 2 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol ac Arbedion) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 558 (Cy.48) (C.24))
The Diseases of Animals (Approved Disinfectants) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 583 (W.49))
Gorchymyn Clefydau Anifeiliaid (Diheintyddion a Gymeradwywyd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 583 (Cy.49))
The Salmonella in Laying Flocks (Survey Powers) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 586 (W.50))
Rheoliadau Salmonela mewn Heidiau Dodwy (Pwerau Arolygu) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 586 (Cy.50))
Community Health Councils (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 603 (W.51))
Rheoliadau Cynghorau Iechyd Cymuned (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 603 (Cy.51))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 662 (W.52))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 662 (Cy.52))
The National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 663 (W.53))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Symiau at Anghenion Personol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 663 (Cy.53))
The Local Government (Best Value Performance Indicators) (Wales) (Revocation) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 664 (W.54))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Dangosyddion Perfformiad Gwerth Gorau) (Cymru) (Dirymu) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 664 (Cy.54))
The Local Government (Best Value Performance Indicators) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 665 (W.55))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Dangosyddion Perfformiad Gwerth Gorau) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 665 (Cy.55))
The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 666 (W.56))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion sy'n Dod o Anifeiliaid (Mewnforion Trydydd Gwledydd) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 666 (Cy.56))
The Children Act 2004 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 700 (W.59) (C.30))
Gorchymyn Deddf Plant 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 700 (Cy.59) (C.30))
The Council Tax (Situation and Valuation of Dwellings) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 701 (W.60))
The Council Tax (Reductions for Disabilities and Transitional Arrangements) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 702 (W.61))
The Public Audit (Wales) Act 2004 (Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 757 (W.62))
Gorchymyn Deddf Archwilio Cyhoeddus (Cymru) 2004 (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 757 (Cy.62))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Alteration of Lists and Appeals) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 758 (W.63))
The Fire and Rescue Services (National Framework) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 760 (W.64))
Gorchymyn y Gwasanaethau Tân ac Achub (Fframwaith Cenedlaethol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 760 (Cy.64))
The Public Audit (Wales) Act 2004 (Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 761 (W.65))
Rheoliadau Deddf Archwilio Cyhoeddus (Cymru) 2004 (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 761 (Cy.65))
The Children Act 2004 (Amendment of Miscellaneous Regulations) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 774 (W.64))
Rheoliadau Deddf Plant 2004 (Diwygio Rheoliadau Amrywiol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 774 (Cy.64))
The National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1013 (W.67))
The Carers (Equal Opportunities) Act 2004 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1153 (W.70) (C.53))
Gorchymyn Deddf Gofalwyr (Cyfleoedd Cyfartal) 2004 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1153 (Cy.70) (C.53))
The Countryside Access (Appeals Procedures) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1154 (W.71))
Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Gweithdrefnau Apelau) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1154 (Cy.71))
The Marketing of Fruit Plant Material (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1155 (W.72))
Rheoliadau Marchnata Deunyddiau Planhigion Ffrwythau (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1155 (Cy.72))
The Sweeteners in Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1156 (W.73))
Rheoliadau Melysyddion mewn Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1156 (Cy.73))
The Air Quality Limit Values (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1157 (W.74))
Rheoliadau Gwerthoedd Terfyn Ansawdd Aer (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1157 (Cy.74))
The Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1158 (W.75))
Rheoliadau Anifeiliaid a Chynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Mewnforio ac Allforio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1158 (Cy.75))
The Potatoes Originating in the Netherlands (Revocation) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1161 (W.76))
Rheoliadau Tatws sy'n Tarddu o'r Iseldiroedd (Dirymu) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1161 (Cy.76))
The Potatoes Originating in the Netherlands (Notification) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1162 (W.77))
Gorchymyn Tatws sy'n Tarddu o'r Iseldiroedd (Hysbysu) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1162 (Cy.77))
The Adoption and Children Act 2002 (Commencement No. 8) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1206 (W.78) (C.54))
Gorchymyn Deddf Mabwysiadu a Phlant 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 8) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1206 (Cy.78) (C.54))
The Fodder Plant Seed (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1207 (W.79))
The School Lunches (Prescribed Requirement) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1208 (W.80))
Gorchymyn Ciniawau Ysgol (Gofyniad Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1208 (Cy.80))
The Food with Added Phytosterols or Phytostanols (Labelling) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1224 (W.82))
Rheoliadau Bwyd â Ffytosterolau neu Ffytostanolau Ychwanegol (Labelu) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1224 (Cy.82))
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (Commencement No.4) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1225 (W.83) (C.55))
Gorchymyn Deddf Ymddygiad Gwrthgymdeithasol 2003 (Cychwyn Rhif 4) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1225 (Cy.83) (C.55))
The Secure Tenancies (Notices) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1226 (W.84))
Rheoliadau Tenantiaethau Diogel (Hysbysiadau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1226 (Cy.84))
The Head Teachers' Qualifications and Registration (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1227 (W.85))
Rheoliadau Cymwysterau a Chofrestru Prifathrawon (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1227 (Cy.85))
The Demoted Tenancies (Review of Decisions) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1228 (W.86))
Rheoliadau Tenantiaethau Isradd (Adolygu Penderfyniadau) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1228 (Cy.86))
The Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No.3 and Consequential and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1229 (W.87) (C.56))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cynllunio a Phrynu Gorfodol 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 3 a Darpariaethau Canlyniadol a Throsiannol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1229 (Cy.87) (C.56))
The Tir Mynydd (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1269 (W. 89))
Rheoliadau Tir Mynydd (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1269 (Cy.89))
The Countryside Access (Means of Access, Appeals etc.) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1270 (W.90))
Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Dull Mynediad, Apelau etc.) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1270 (Cy.90))
The Food Labelling (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1309 (W.91))
Rheoliadau Labelu Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1309 (Cy.91))
The Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1310 (W.92))
Rheoliadau Cig Dofednod, Cig Adar Hela wedi'i Ffermio a Chig Cwningod (Hylendid ac Archwilio) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1310 (Cy.92))
The Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1311 (W.93))
Rheoliadau Ychwanegion Bwyd Amrywiol (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1311 (Cy.93))
The Business Improvement Districts (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1312 (W.94))
Rheoliadau Ardaloedd Gwella Busnes (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1312 (Cy.94))
The Adoption Agencies (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1313 (W.95))
Rheoliadau Asiantaethau Mabwysiadu (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1313 (Cy.95))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 7) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1314 (W.96) (C.58))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 7) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1314 (Cy.96) (C.58))
The Feed (Corn Gluten Feed and Brewers Grains) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1323 (W.97))
The Smoke Flavourings (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1350 (W.98))
Rheoliadau Cyflasynnau Mwg (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1350 (Cy.98))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Priority of Charges) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1351 (W.99))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Blaenoriaeth Arwystlon) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1351 (Cy.99))
The Rights of Re-entry and Forfeiture (Prescribed Sum and Period) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1352 (W.100))
Rheoliadau Hawliau Ailfynediad a Fforffediad (Swm a Chyfnod Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1352 (Cy.100))
101-200
The Commonhold and Leasehold Reform Act 2002 (Commencement No. 3 and Saving and Transitional Provision) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1353 (W.101) (C.59))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cyfunddaliad a Diwygio Cyfraith Lesddaliad 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 3 ac Arbediad a Darpariaeth Drosiannol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1353 (Cy.101) (C.59))
The Leasehold Houses (Notice of Insurance Cover) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1354 (W.102))
Rheoliadau Tai Lesddaliad (Hysbysiad o Warchodaeth Yswiriant) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1354 (Cy.102))
The Landlord and Tenant (Notice of Rent) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1355 (W.103))
Rheoliadau Landlord a Thenant (Hysbysu o Rent) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1355 (Cy.103))
The Leasehold Valuation Tribunals (Procedure) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1356 (W.104))
Rheoliadau Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio Lesddaliadau (Gweithdrefn) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1356 (Cy.104))
The Service Charges (Consultation Requirements) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1357 (W.105))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Gwasanaeth (Gofynion Ymgynghori ) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1357 (Cy.105))
The TSE (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1392 (W.106))
Rheoliadau TSE (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1392 (Cy.106))
The Feeding Stuffs (Establishments and Intermediaries) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1393 (W.107))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd Anifeiliaid (Sefydliadau a Chyfryngwyr) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1393 (Cy.107))
The National Curriculum (Key Stage 3 Assessment Arrangements) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1394 (W.108))
Gorchymyn y Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol (Trefniadau Asesu Cyfnod Allweddol 3) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1394 (Cy.108))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 6 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1395 (W.109) (C.60))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 6 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1395 (Cy.109) (C.60))
The National Curriculum Assessment Arrangements (Miscellaneous Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1396 (W.110))
Rheoliadau Trefniadau Asesu y Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol (Diwygiadau Amrywiol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1396 (Cy.110))
The Production of Bovine Collagen Intended for Human Consumption in the United Kingdom (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1397 (W.111))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchu Colagen Buchol y Bwriedir i Bobl ei Fwyta yn y Deyrnas Unedig (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1397 (Cy.111))
The Education (Admission Appeals Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1398 (W.112))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Trefniadau Apelau Derbyn) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1398 (Cy.112))
The National Assembly for Wales (Social Services Explanations) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1510 (W.114))
Rheoliadau Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru (Esboniadau ynghylch Gwasanaethau Cymdeithasol) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1510 (Cy.114))
Education (Disapplication of the National Curriculum at Key Stage 1) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1511 (W.115))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Datgymhwyso'r Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol yng Nghyfnod Allweddol 1) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1511 (Cy.115))
The Adoption Support Services (Local Authorities) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1512 (W.116))
Rheoliadau Gwasanaethau Cymorth Mabwysiadu (Awdurdodau Lleol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1512 (Cy.116))
The Special Guardianship (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1513 (W.117))
Rheoliadau Gwarcheidiaeth Arbennig (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1513 (Cy.117))
The Adoption Support Agencies (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1514 (W.118))
Rheoliadau Asiantaethau Cymorth Mabwysiadu (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1514 (Cy.118))
The Food (Chilli, Chilli Products, Curcuma and Palm Oil) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1540 (W.119 ))
The Colours in Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1628 (W.122))
Rheoliadau Lliwiau mewn Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1628 (Cy.122))
The Contaminants in Food (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1629 (W.123))
Rheoliadau Halogion mewn Bwyd (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1629 (Cy.123))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1630 (W.124))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1630 (Cy.124))
The Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1647 (W.128))
Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1647 (Cy.128))
The Education (Listed Bodies) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1648 (W.129))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cyrff sy'n Cael eu Rhestru) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1648 (Cy.129))
The Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1649 (W.130))
Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau Plastig mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1649 (Cy.130))
The Scallop Fishing (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1717 (W.132))
Gorchymyn Pysgota am Gregyn Bylchog (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1717 (Cy.132))
The Street Works (Sharing of Costs of Works) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1721 (W.133))
Rheoliadau Gwaith Stryd (Rhannu Costau Gwaith) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1721 (Cy.133))
The Individual Learning Accounts Wales (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1722 (W.134))
Rheoliadau Cyfrifon Dysgu Unigol Cymru (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1722 (Cy.134))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1723 (W.135))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1723 (Cy.135))
The Hazardous Waste (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1806 (W.138))
Rheoliadau Gwastraff Peryglus (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1806 (Cy.138))
The Home Loss Payments (Prescribed Amounts) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1808 (W.139))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Colli Cartref (Symiau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1808 (Cy.139))
The Highways (Schools) (Special Extinguishment and Special Diversion Orders) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1809 (W.140))
Rheoliadau Priffyrdd (Ysgolion) (Gorchmynion Dileu Arbennig a Gwyro Arbennig) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1809 (Cy.140))
The Street Works (Recovery of Costs) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1810 (W.141))
Rheoliadau Gwaith Stryd (Adennill Costau) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1810 (Cy.141))
Street Works (Records) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1812 (W.142))
Rheoliadau Gwaith Stryd (Cofnodion) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1812 (Cy.142))
The Education (Nursery Education and Early Years Development and Childcare Plans) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1813 (W.143))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Addysg Feithrin a Chynlluniau Datblygu Blynyddoedd Cynnar a Gofal Plant) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1813 (Cy.143))
The Housing Act 2004 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1814 (W.144) (C.75))
Gorchymyn Deddf Tai 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1814 (Cy.144) (C.75))
The Social Housing Ombudsman (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1816 (W.145))
Rheoliadau Ombwdsmon Tai Cymdeithasol (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1816 (Cy.145))
The Education (Induction Arrangements for School Teachers) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1818 (W.146))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Trefniadau Ymsefydlu ar gyfer Athrawon Ysgol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1818 (Cy.146))
The Independent Review of Determinations (Adoption) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1819 (W.147))
Rheoliadau Adolygu Dyfarniadau'n Annibynnol (Mabwysiadu) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1819 (Cy.147))
The List of Wastes (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1820 (W.148))
Rheoliadau'r Rhestr Wastraffoedd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1820 (Cy.148))
The Higher Education Act 2004 (Commencement No.2 and Transitional Provision) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1833 (W.149) (C.79))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg Uwch 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 2 a Darpariaeth Drosiannol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1833 (Cy.149) (C.79))
The Fees in Higher Education Institutions (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1860 (W.152))
Rheoliadau Ffioedd mewn Sefydliadau Addysg Uwch (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1860 (Cy.152))
The Education (Review of Staffing Structure) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1910 (W.153))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Adolygu Strwythur Staffio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1910 (Cy.153))
The Public Audit (Wales) Act 2004 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1911 (W.154) (C.83))
Gorchymyn Deddf Archwilio Cyhoeddus (Cymru) 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 3) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1911 (Cy.154) (C.83))
The Genetically Modified Organisms (Transboundary Movement) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1912 (W.155))
Rheoliadau Organeddau a Addaswyd yn Enetig (Eu Symud ar draws Ffin) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1912 (Cy.155))
The Genetically Modified Organisms (Deliberate Release) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1913 (W.156))
Rheoliadau Organeddau a Addaswyd yn Enetig (Eu Gollwng yn Fwriadol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1913 (Cy.156))
The Genetically Modified Organisms (Traceability and Labelling) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1914 (W.157))
Rheoliadau Organeddau a Addaswyd yn Enetig (Eu Holrhain a'u Labelu) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1914 (Cy.157))
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Wales) (Amendment)(No. 2) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1915 (W.158))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau a Chyfarpar) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1915 (Cy.158))
The Cardiff to Glan Conwy Trunk Road (A470) (Blaenau Ffestiniog to Cancoed Improvement) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2291 (W.170))
Gorchymyn Cefnffordd Caerdydd i Lan Conwy (A470) (Gwelliant Blaenau Ffestiniog i Gancoed) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2291 (Cy.170))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2605 (W.180))
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The Housing (Right of First Refusal) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2680 (W.186))
Rheoliadau Tai (Hawl Cynnig Cyntaf) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2680 (Cy.186))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Information to Secure Tenants) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2681 (W.187))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Gwybodaeth i Denantiaid Diogel) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2681 (Cy.187))
The Access to Information (Post-Commencement Adoptions) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2689 (W.189))
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The Adoption Information and Intermediary Services (Pre-Commencement Adoptions) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2701 (W.190))
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Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No. 4 and Consequential, Transitional and Savings Provisions) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2722 (W.193) (C.110))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cynllunio a Phrynu Gorfodol 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 4 a Darpariaethau Canlyniadol a Throsiannol a Darpariaethau Arbed) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2722 (Cy.193) (C.110))
The Public Services Ombudsman (Wales) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 1 and Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2800 (W.199) (C.116))
Gorchymyn Deddf Ombwdsmon Gwasanaethau Cyhoeddus (Cymru) 2005 (Cychwyn Rhif 1 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol ac Arbedion) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2800 (Cy.199) (C.116))
The Food Labelling (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2835 (W.200))
Rheoliadau Labelu Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2835 (Cy.200))
201-300
The Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2837 (W.201))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Mân Dreuliau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2837 (Cy.201))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2838 (W.202))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2838 (Cy.202))
The Town and Country Planning (Local Development Plan) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2839 (W.203))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Cynlluniau Datblygu Lleol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2839 (Cy.203))
The Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease (Contingency Planning) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2840 (W.204))
Gorchymyn Ffliw Adar a Chlefyd Newcastle (Cynllunio Wrth Gefn) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2840 (Cy.204))
The TSE (Wales) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2902 (W.205))
Rheoliadau TSE (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2902 (Cy.205))
Reporting of Prices of Milk Products (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2907 (W.206))
Rheoliadau Adrodd ar Brisiau Cynhyrchion Llaeth (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2907 (Cy.206))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 7) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2910 (W.207) (C.124))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 7) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2910 (Cy.207) (C.124))
The Annual Parents' Meeting (Exemptions) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2911 (W.208))
Rheoliadau Cyfarfod Blynyddol Rhieni (Esemptiadau) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2911 (Cy.208))
The New Maintained Schools (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2912 (W.209))
Rheoliadau Ysgolion a Gynhelir Newydd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2912 (Cy.209))
The Education Act 2002 (Transitional Provisions and Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2913 (W.210))
Rheoliadau Deddf Addysg 2002 (Darpariaethau Trosiannol a Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2913 (Cy.210))
The Government of Maintained Schools (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2914 (W.211))
Rheoliadau Llywodraethu Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2914 (Cy.211))
The Governor Allowances (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2915 (W.212))
Rheoliadau Lwfansau Llywodraethwyr (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2915 (Cy.212))
The Change of Category of Maintained Schools (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2916 (W.213))
Rheoliadau Newid Categori Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2916 (Cy.213))
The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 (Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2929 (W.214))
Gorchymyn Deddf y Gwasanaethau Tân ac Achub 2004 (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 2929 (Cy.214))
The Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures in Zoos) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2984 (W.218))
The Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 2985 (W.219))
The London — Fishguard Trunk Road (A40) (Combined Footpath/Cycleway, Windyhall, Fishguard) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3034 (W.222))
Gorchymyn Cefnffordd Llundain — Abergwaun (A40) (Troetffordd/Ffordd Feiciau Gyfun, Windyhall, Abergwaun) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3034 (Cy.222))
The Vegetable Seed (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3035 (W.223))
The Cereal Seed (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3036 (W.224))
The Beet Seed (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3037 (W.225))
The Seed (Registration, Licensing and Enforcement) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3038 (W.226))
National Health Service (Appointment of Consultants) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3039 (W.227))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Penodi Ymgynghorwyr) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3039 (Cy.227))
The Bovine Products (Restriction on Placing on the Market) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3051 (W.228))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Buchol (Cyfyngu ar eu Rhoi ar y Farchnad) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3051 (Cy.228))
The Honey (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3052 (W.229))
Rheoliadau Mêl (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3052 (Cy.229))
The Education (Free School Lunches) (State Pension Credit) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3110 (W.230))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Ciniawau Ysgol am Ddim) (Credyd Pensiwn y Wladwriaeth) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3110 (Cy.230))
The Tryptophan in Food (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3111 (W.231))
Rheoliadau Tryptoffan mewn Bwyd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3111 (Cy.231))
The Adoption and Children Act 2002 (Commencement No. 11)(Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3112 (W.232) (C.134))
Gorchymyn Deddf Mabwysiadu a Phlant 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 11)(Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3112 (Cy.232) (C.134))
The Local Authority (Non-agency Adoptions) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3113 (W.233))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Mabwysiadau heb fod drwy Asiantaeth) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3113 (Cy.233))
Local Authorities (Prescribed Fees) (Adoptions with a Foreign Element) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3114 (W.234))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Ffioedd Rhagnodedig) (Mabwysiadu gydag Elfen Dramor) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3114 (Cy.234))
The Local Authority Adoption Service (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3115 (W.235))
Rheoliadau Gwasanaeth Mabwysiadu Awdurdodau Lleol (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3115 (Cy.235))
The School Councils (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3200 (W.236))
Rheoliadau Cynghorau Ysgol (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3200 (Cy.236))
The Wales Tourist Board (Transfer of Functions to the National Assembly for Wales and Abolition) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3225 (W.237))
Gorchymyn Bwrdd Croeso Cymru (Trosglwyddo Swyddogaethau i Gynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru a Diddymu'r Bwrdd) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3225 (Cy.237))
The Welsh Development Agency (Transfer of Functions to the National Assembly for Wales and Abolition) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3226 (W.238))
Gorchymyn Awdurdod Datblygu Cymru (Trosglwyddo Swyddogaethau i Gynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru a Diddymu) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3226 (Cy.238))
The Food Labelling (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3236 (W.241))
Rheoliadau Labelu Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3236 (Cy.241))
The Housing Act 2004 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3237 (W.242) (C.138))
Gorchymyn Deddf Tai 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3237 (Cy.242) (C.138))
The National Council for Education and Training for Wales (Transfer of Functions to the National Assembly for Wales and Abolition) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3238 (W.243))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Cenedlaethol Cymru dros Addysg a Hyfforddiant (Trosglwyddo Swyddogaethau i Gynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru a Diddymu'r Cyngor) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3238 (Cy.243))
The Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (Transfer of Functions to the National Assembly for Wales and Abolition) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3239 (W.244))
Gorchymyn Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (Trosglwyddo Swyddogaethau i Gynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru a Diddymu'r Awdurdod) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3239 (Cy.244))
The Removal and Disposal of Vehicles (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3252 (W.245))
Rheoliadau Symud Ymaith a Gwaredu Cerbydau (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3252 (Cy.245))
The Official Feed and Food Controls (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3254 (W.247))
Rheoliadau Rheolaethau Swyddogol ar Fwyd Anifeiliaid a Bwyd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3254 (Cy.247))
The Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003 Commencement (Wales) (No. 3) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3285 (W.249) (C.140))
Gorchymyn Cychwyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol (Iechyd Cymunedol a Safonau) 2003 (Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3285 (Cy.249) (C.140))
The Education (Recognised Bodies) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3287 (W.250))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cyrff sy'n Cael eu Cydnabod)(Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3287 (Cy.250))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3288 (W.251))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3288 (Cy.251))
The Food Hygiene (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3292 (W.252))
Rheoliadau Hylendid Bwyd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3292 (Cy.252))
The Adoption Information and Intermediary Services (Pre-Commencement Adoptions) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3293 (W.253))
Rheoliadau Gwybodaeth Mabwysiadu a Gwasanaethau Cyfryngol (Mabwysiadu Cyn-gychwyn) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3293 (Cy.253))
The Bovine Products (Restriction on Placing on the Market) (Wales) (No.2) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3296 (W.254))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Buchol (Cyfyngu ar eu Rhoi ar y Farchnad) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3296 (Cy.254))
The Fishery Products (Official Controls Charges) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3297 (W.255))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Pysgodfeydd (Taliadau Rheolaethau Swyddogol) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3297 (Cy.255))
The Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Consequential Amendments to Subordinate Legislation) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3302 (W.256))
Gorchymyn Deddf Partneriaeth Sifil 2004 (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol i Is-ddeddfwriaeth) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3302 (Cy.256))
The Non-Domestic Rating Contributions (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3345 (W.259))
Rheoliadau Cyfraniadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3345 (Cy.259))
The Children Act 2004 (Commencement No. 5) (Wales) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3363 (C.260) (W.143))
Gorchymyn Deddf Plant 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 5) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3363 (C.260) (Cy.143))
The Valuation Tribunals (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3364 (W.261))
Rheoliadau Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3364 (Cy.261))
The Representations Procedure (Children) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3365 (W.262))
Rheoliadau Gweithdrefn Sylwadau (Plant) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3365 (Cy.262))
The Social Services Complaints Procedure (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3366 (W.263))
Rheoliadau Gweithdrefn Gwynion y Gwasanaethau Cymdeithasol (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3366 (Cy.263))
The Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Cross Compliance) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3367 (W.264))
Rheoliadau Cynllun Taliad Sengl a Chynlluniau Cymorth y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Trawsgydymffurfio) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3367 (Cy.264))
The Feed (Hygiene and Enforcement) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3368 (W.265))
Rheoliadau Bwyd Anifeiliaid (Hylendid a Gorfodi) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3368 (Cy.265))
The Meat (Official Controls) (Charges) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3370 (W.267))
Rheoliadau Cig (Rheolaethau Swyddogol) (Ffioedd) (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 3370 (Cy.267))
The Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3384 (W.268))
The Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures in Zoos) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3385 (W.269))
The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 3395 (W.271))
External links
Welsh SI List
2005
Welsh Assembly Statutory Instruments
2005 in Wales |
4532448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham%20New%20Yorker%20Hotel | Wyndham New Yorker Hotel | The New Yorker Hotel is a mixed-use hotel building at 481 Eighth Avenue in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. Opened in 1930, the New Yorker Hotel was designed by Sugarman and Berger in the Art Deco style and is 42 stories high, with four basement stories. The hotel building is owned by the Unification Church, which rents out the lower stories as offices and dormitories. The upper stories comprise The New Yorker, A Wyndham Hotel, which has 1,083 guestrooms and is operated by Wyndham Hotels & Resorts. The building also contains two restaurants and approximately of conference space.
The facade is largely made of brick and terracotta, with Indiana limestone on the lower stories. There are setbacks to comply with the 1916 Zoning Resolution, as well as a large sign with the hotel's name. The hotel contains a power plant and boiler room on its fourth basement, which was an early example of a cogeneration plant. The public rooms on the lower stories included a Manufacturers Trust bank branch, a double-height lobby, and multiple ballrooms and restaurants. Originally, the hotel had 2,503 guestrooms from the fourth story up. The modern-day hotel rooms start above the 19th story.
The New Yorker was built by Mack Kanner and was originally operated by Ralph Hitz, who died in 1940 and was succeeded by Frank L. Andrews. Hilton Hotels bought the hotel in 1954 and, after conducting extensive renovations, sold the hotel in 1956 to Massaglia Hotels. New York Towers Inc. acquired the New Yorker in 1959 but surrendered the property to Hilton in 1967 as part of a foreclosure proceeding. The hotel was closed in 1972 and sold to the French and Polyclinic Medical School and Health Center, which unsuccessfully attempted to develop a hospital there. The Unification Church purchased the building in 1976 and initially used it as a global headquarters. After the top stories of the building reopened as a hotel in 1994, the lower stories were used as offices and dormitories. The hotel rooms have undergone multiple renovations since the hotel reopened. The New Yorker joined the Ramada chain in 2000 and was transferred to the Wyndham brand in 2014.
Site
The Wyndham New Yorker Hotel is at 481 Eighth Avenue, occupying the western side of the avenue between 34th Street and 35th Street, in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The land lot is rectangular and covers . It has a frontage of on Eighth Avenue to the west and on both 34th Street to the south and 35th Street to the north. Manhattan Center abuts the hotel to the west, while One Penn Plaza, Madison Square Garden, and Pennsylvania Station are to the southeast. Just prior to the New Yorker's development, the site was occupied by 17 buildings, owned by Frederick Brown and the Manufacturers Trust Company. When the New Yorker was built, a bank branch for Manufacturers Trust was constructed at its base.
Architecture
The New Yorker Hotel was designed by Sugarman and Berger and is 42 stories high. The New Yorker Hotel also has four basement levels. Much like the contemporary Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building, the New Yorker was designed in the Art Deco style, which was popular in New York City in the 1920s and 1930s.
Form and facade
The New Yorker has a relatively plain facade. The first story of the hotel is clad with of Deer Island granite. The second through fourth stories are clad with Indiana Limestone. The lowest stories are decorated with cast-stone blocks that contain floral designs. There are also some geometric designs on these stories. The hotel also contains marquees above its entrances on Eighth Avenue and 34th Street. Above each marquee is a LED sign that could change color during special occasions.
The fifth through 43rd stories are clad in face brick with some terracotta ornament. The facade mainly consists of vertical bays of windows, separated by vertical gray-brick piers. According to architect Robert A. M. Stern, the alternating bays and piers gave "an impression of boldly modeled masses. This was furthered by the deep-cut light courts, which produced a powerful play of light and shade that was enhanced by dramatic lighting at night". The building contains setbacks to comply with the 1916 Zoning Resolution. The setbacks, characterized by architectural writer Anthony W. Robins as "blocky", are ornamented with stone parapets that contain floral and rhombus patterns.
The western facade contains a sign with the name "New Yorker" in capital letters. The original sign was illuminated from 1941 to 1967. The sign was dark until 2005, when it was replaced with an LED sign manufactured by LED Solution of Kitchener, Ontario. The sign can be seen from northern New Jersey, across the Hudson River to the west. Each of the letters can be illuminated separately, allowing the sign to display various messages on special occasions such as celebrations.
Mechanical features
The hotel contained 23 elevators when it opened. Of these, 12 were passenger elevators, six were service elevators, and two were freight elevators. There was also one elevator from ground level to the subway station; one elevator from ground level to the ballroom; and one elevator within a bank branch in the building.
Power plant
The hotel contains a power plant and boiler room on its fourth basement, which could support the needs of 35,000 daily guests at the time of the hotel's opening. When the New Yorker opened, it was one of the few large buildings in New York City with its own power plant. The power plant included four uniflow steam engines and one diesel engine. One of the steam engines was rated at , while the others were rated at . Each of the engines drove a direct current generator. The power plant was operated from a switchboard measuring long and high. The switchboard contained manual pushbuttons; one button crushed coal that was blown into the furnaces, while another button deposited ashes.
When the hotel opened, the power plant contained more than 200 direct current motors, rated at a combined . The plant could generate up to , but the hotel only used on average. It was anticipated that the excess electricity would be sold to nearby buildings, but this did not happen. At the time, this was the largest private power plant in the United States, as well as an early example of a cogeneration plant. The power plant saved the hotel's operators an estimated $48,000 per year. In 2008, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers designated the New Yorker Hotel's direct current power plant as a Milestone in Electrical Engineering; at the time, the hotel was one of 75 worldwide recipients of that award.
The hotel's own direct current generators were still in use during the Northeast blackout of 1965. The hotel's power system had been modernized to alternating current by 1967. Due to increased energy costs, four cogeneration units were installed in the hotel in 2001, providing 50 percent of the hotel's electricity in the summer and 80 percent in the winter. The cogeneration plant has a total capacity of . The building also purchases electricity from New York City's power grid, operated by Consolidated Edison. The cogeneration plant reduced the hotel's reliance on the power grid, saving an estimated $400,000 annually by 2009.
Other utilities
The three largest motors in the original power plant were each capable of and supplied three of the hotel's four chillers (the fourth chiller was supplied by a steam engine). The ice plant was capable of making 400,000 blocks of ice per day. The modern-day hotel receives ice from a chiller plant in a neighboring building; the chillers produce ice at night, when energy costs are lower. The chiller plant replaced air conditioners that were installed within the windows of 2,000 rooms.
Steam exhaust from the original power plant was used for functions such as heating. All services that used heat, such as cooking equipment, laundry machines, lights, vacuum cleaners, refrigeration, and air conditioning units were supplied by steam from the power plant. A boiler plant was installed at the New Yorker in 1998, reducing the need to buy steam from the New York City steam system. The boiler plant, which cost $1.5 million to install, saved an average of $3 million annually by 2009. Following a renovation in 2009, the hotel was retrofitted with a four-pipe system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), allowing guests to set their own temperature settings.
Most of the building's modern-day hot water supply comes from the cogeneration plant. The building contains a storage tank with a capacity of . Water from the tank is transferred into the cogeneration units. There are water tanks on the 25th, 35th, and 44th stories. Sewage is pumped from the basements to the New York City sewage system, and a sump pump supplies soapy warm water to the hotel's restaurants.
Interior
The New Yorker spans . The original hotel contained public rooms on its first through fourth stories, as well as guestrooms from the fourth story to the roof. Lajos "Louis" Jambor had painted 26 murals for the hotel's interior, which cost a total of $150,000 (). The public rooms, originally decorated in the Art Deco style, were redecorated in various styles over the years. Many of Jambor's murals were covered up during the mid-20th century. When the New Yorker reopened as a commercial hotel in 1994, its guestrooms were concentrated on the upper stories, while the lower stories remained in use as offices. The building also contains two restaurants and approximately of conference space.
The hotel has four basement levels. The first basement contained the kitchen, which had a dishwashing room; divisions for fish, meat, and poultry; an ice cream room; and a pastry room. On the second basement level were a linen room and valet shop, while on the third basement was the laundry room. The lowest of the hotel's basements contained the power plant.
Bank branch
There was a Manufacturers Trust bank branch on the first basement and second floor, designed by Sugarman and Berger. The branch's main entrance was a carved bronze door leading to a lobby, where stairs led up to the second floor and down to the basement. The stairs to the second floor were made of red and black marble and were decorated with a pair of murals by Jambor, which symbolized industry and commerce. The banking room itself had a terrazzo floor and marble walls and columns, as well as large windows on 34th Street. The room contained glass tellers' desks made of bronze and glass, and there was a department for the bank's officers on the eastern wall. The banking room was surrounded by a mezzanine on three sides. The soffit under the mezzanine was made of wood, and there were various pieces of marble furniture. The second floor also contained a women's lounge and service rooms for the bank.
From the ground-floor lobby, a terrazzo stair with an iron railing led to the safe-deposit department in the basement. The entrance to the safe-deposit department was through a wrought-iron grille with the bank's initials. The space itself contained coupon desks and a private conference room, all with wood paneling. The bank branch was closed during the 1980s and was abandoned for several decades. By 2017, the old safe-deposit department had been converted into the Butcher and Banker restaurant. The restaurant retained many of the bank's original design features, such as the vault door and safe-deposit drawers.
Public rooms
The first basement contained a tunnel linking to the original Pennsylvania Station as well as to 34th Street–Penn Station on the New York City Subway's Eighth Avenue Line (). Through Penn Station, this tunnel also connected to 34th Street–Penn Station on the New York City Subway's Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line (). This tunnel opened in February 1930 but was closed by the 1960s; it was being used as a storage area by the 2000s. The Coffee House cafe and the 250-seat Mosaic Room ballroom were constructed in the basement in 1955. The cafe and ballroom were connected to the lobby via a pair of escalators. After the hotel reopened, the basement had a self-service laundry and fitness center. In the early 2010s, the basement laundry room was converted to meeting spaces, each covering .
The main entrance on Eighth Avenue leads to a double-story lobby. It originally had green-marble paneling; some of Jambor's murals, depicting scenes from New York City's history, were placed on the lobby's north and south walls and on the ceiling. The lobby was redesigned in 1953 with glass screens and wooden paneling, as well as classical details like Corinthian columns and chandeliers. During a 2009 renovation, designers restored the marble floor, installed a chandelier suspended from the coffered ceiling, and added new check-in and concierge desks. In addition, storefronts within the lobby were removed to make way for entrances to the Tick Tock Diner and Cooper's Tavern restaurants.
A mezzanine overlooked the lobby. On the mezzanine level was a double-height main ballroom with walnut paneling and more murals by Jambor on each wall. The main ballroom also contained a projection room at its rear. Also at mezzanine level was a terrace ballroom with space for 300 people; it had tapestries on its walls. When the hotel reopened in the 1990s, the two ballrooms on the mezzanine (now the second floor) were restored, and seven meeting rooms were constructed on the third floor. In the mid-2000s, an exhibit with 500 artifacts from the hotel's history was installed on the mezzanine. Joseph Kinney, the hotel's chief engineer and unofficial archivist, collected the artifacts.
There were ten private dining "salons" and five restaurants employing 35 master cooks. The dining salons could fit between 15 and 200 people each. The restaurants included the main restaurant; a "terrace restaurant", featuring live events and entertainment; a men's grill room called the Manhattan Room; a tea room; and a cafe. The terrace restaurant abutted an outdoor "summer terrace" with a retractable ice rink. The terrace restaurant hosted both ice shows and Big Bands. The ice shows were discontinued in 1946 because of the expense of replacing the ice rink and because of the American Guild of Variety Artists' support for removing the ice shows, although they resumed in 1948 due to high demand. The Terrace Room's shows were discontinued permanently in 1950 after the federal government imposed a 20 percent excise tax on such shows. By 1999, the Terrace Room operated as a television studio for TV channel MSG. The fourth story was supposed to contain an in-house medical department with four operating rooms, as well as a beauty parlor and a women's parlor.
Guest rooms
Originally, the hotel had 2,503 guestrooms. The fourth story contained some public rooms and some guestrooms. The hotel was almost entirely composed of guestrooms from the fifth story up. At the time of the hotel's opening, each guestroom had a radio set that could be tuned to one of four channels; according to the hotel's managers, this made the New Yorker the first large hotel in the world with "a central system of radio with a radio receiving set in every room". Approximately 50 suites on the upper stories had private terraces. During the mid-20th century, the guestrooms on the fifth through eighth stories typically hosted trade-show exhibits throughout the year.
When the hotel reopened in 1994, it had 250 guestrooms, which by 1999 had been expanded to 1,005 guestrooms. These included 35 mini-suites, which overlooked the Hudson River and Lower Manhattan, as well as four deluxe suites, which had balconies. Following a renovation in the late 2000s, the hotel had 912 rooms, arranged in 17 layouts. During that renovation, the guestrooms were largely redesigned in the Art Deco style, with geometric carpets, star-shaped ceiling lights, and curtains. There are two rooms with terraces directly under the hotel's large "New Yorker" sign. In addition, Educational Housing Services operates 169 rooms on the 24th to 27th stories as part of a student dormitory.
History
The New Yorker Hotel was built by Mack Kanner, who had helped create the Garment District of Manhattan during the mid-1920s. Kanner had previously hired Sugarman and Berger to design the Navarre Building within the Garment District. Kanner wished to build a hotel on 34th Street, which he believed was "destined to be the most important crosstown thoroughfare in the city".
Construction
Kanner and Jacob S. Becker announced plans for a hotel at Eighth Avenue and 34th Street in February 1928, while they were developing the Navarre Building. The hotel was to have 38 stories rising , as well as five basements descending . With 2,503 rooms, it would be larger than the nearby Hotel Pennsylvania, which at the time had the most rooms of any hotel in the city. The New Yorker would also be the second-tallest hotel in New York City, behind the Ritz Tower. The building was planned to cost $8 million. Workers began excavating the site the same month. The George J. Atwill Company, the excavation contractor, employed 350 workers in three shifts. Plans for the hotel were filed in March 1928, when Sugarman and Berger submitted blueprints to the New York City Department of Buildings.
The American Bridge Company was hired in June 1928 to manufacture the hotel's steel frame, which was to include of steel. The site had been cleared by August 1928, after of rock had been removed from the site. The excavation cost $1 million and, according to the New York Herald Tribune, was "perhaps the deepest cut ever excavated in Manhattan". That September, the hotel received a $9.5 million mortgage loan from the Manufacturers Trust Company. At a ceremony on October 25, 1928, Kanner drove a golden rivet into the hotel's steel frame, where the superstructure had begun to rise above the foundation. By this point, the hotel was planned to contain 45 stories above ground. Seven hundred masonry workers and helpers began constructing the facade in January 1929. The hotel's construction was delayed for two weeks that February, when all masonry workers went on strike. The strike took place amid allegations that masonry contractor John J. Meehan had directed workers to install brickwork of substandard quality.
Kanner drove the last rivet into the hotel's steel frame in April 1929. Ralph Hitz was hired as the hotel's first manager that July. Hitz hired about fifty of his colleagues from Cincinnati, and he led a $500,000 advertising campaign for the hotel, which at the time was far removed from many of Midtown Manhattan's major attractions. Hitz also hired Bernie Cummins's orchestra to play at the hotel. The hotel's facade had been completed in September 1929. The hotel required massive amounts of materials, including 51,000 bedsheets, 85 miles of carpets, 45 tons of glass, and six carloads of china. The New Yorker ultimately cost $22.5 million and contained 2,500 rooms, making it the city's largest hotel. In addition, it was the world's second-largest hotel behind the Stevens Hotel in Chicago. The New Yorker was one of 37 hotels to be built in Manhattan during 1929, and it was one of two hotels near Penn Station with more than 1,000 rooms to be completed that year, the other being Hotel Governor Clinton.
Opening and early years
A pre-opening ceremony for the New Yorker was hosted on December 28, 1929, and the Manufacturers Trust bank branch at the hotel's base opened the next day. The hotel officially opened on January 2, 1930. Eight hundred guests made reservations on the first day, many of whom took home souvenirs, prompting Hitz to predict that "the total loss will exceed everything in the past history of hotel openings". Upon the hotel's completion, it employed 17 manicurists, 43 barbers, and numerous multilingual waiters. Nightly room rates ranged from $3.30 for a single-bedroom unit to $30 for a suite with a terrace. The New Yorker also employed 92 "telephone girls", as well as 95 switchboard operators and 150 laundry staff, who washed 450,000 pieces of linen per day.
Hitz operation
The hotel had been completed at the beginning of the Great Depression, so it was initially largely empty. The New York Observer said that, according to one urban legend, the hotel's management attracted business by turning on all the lights, announcing that the hotel was fully booked, and directing would-be guests to the Pennsylvania. In its first year of operation, the New Yorker recorded a profit of $1.293 million. Hitz added 12 suites of "sample rooms" in early 1931, where products and furnishings were exhibited. Hitz then decided to create the National Hotel Management Company, a national hotel chain managed by the New Yorker Hotel's staff. He acquired the Book Cadillac Hotel in Detroit as the first hotel in the chain in January 1932.
Hitz renewed his original five-year lease for 30 more years in 1933, and Frank L. Andrews was hired the next year as the hotel's general manager. When Andrews was promoted to a vice president of the National Hotel Management Company in 1936, George V. Riley became the hotel's resident manager, overseeing day-to-day operations. The Equitable Life Assurance Society gave the New Yorker Hotel a loan of $6.5 million in 1938, and Leo A. Molony of the Hotel Pennsylvania was hired as the New Yorker's resident manager the same year. Hitz continued to acquire hotels for his chain, which contained seven hotels when it was disbanded upon his death in January 1940.
Andrews operation
After Hitz died, Andrews became the New Yorker Corporation's president. The hotel had received three million total guests by 1941. The same year, the hotel's managers installed custom-made ultraviolet devices in the hotel's bathrooms, which it advertised under the name "Protecto-Ray". Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, the New York Observer said that "actors, celebrities, athletes, politicians, mobsters, the shady and the luminous—the entire Brooklyn Dodgers roster during the glory seasons—would stalk the bars and ballrooms, or romp upstairs".
In spite of its popularity, the New Yorker consistently lost money from the 1930s to the early 1950s. The Manufacturers Trust Company's president disclosed in early 1946 that it had taken over control of the hotel. The New Yorker's managers announced the same year that they would install television sets in some of the public rooms. The hotel's managers also installed TVs in 100 guestrooms in 1948, making it the second hotel in the city with guestroom TVs, after the Roosevelt. That year, the hotel spent $50,000 () to combine eight double rooms into one luxury suite. Gene Voit was named as the New Yorker's general manager in 1951. Andrews announced in early 1953 that he planned to spend $600,000 on renovating the hotel, hiring Eleanor Le Maire to redesign the lobby.
Mid-20th century
Hilton purchase and renovations
Hilton Hotels agreed in November 1953 to acquire the New Yorker for $12.5 million, prompting Andrews to announce that he would retire from the New Yorker Hotel Corporation. Hilton Hotels took title to the hotel the following month and immediately started renovating the hotel, completing the first phase of the project in March 1954. A meditation chapel opened within the New Yorker that May. The chain allocated another $1.5 million to further renovations in June 1954, and it hired the Walter M. Ballard Corporation to convert the hotel's former Empire Tea Room into a restaurant for $175,000. Hilton Hotels refurbished the hotel's cafe and installed an escalator from the lobby to the cafe, the first escalator in a hotel in New York City. The chain planned to repaint all of the rooms, as well as renovate hallways and guestrooms on four stories so they could be used for trade exhibits. In addition, the chain planned to replace twin beds in 100 guest rooms, redecorate 45 luxury suites, and install air-conditioning in several public rooms.
Meanwhile, Hilton Hotels had purchased the Statler Hotels chain in 1954. At the time, it owned large hotels in many major cities, including the New Yorker, the Roosevelt, the Pennsylvania, the Plaza, and the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City. Consequently, the federal government filed an antitrust action against Hilton in April 1955. The New Yorker was making a profit by the end of 1955, At that point, Conrad Hilton was negotiating to sell the hotel, amid rumors that the chain was planning to sell multiple hotels to resolve the federal lawsuit. To resolve the suit, Hilton Hotels agreed to sell three hotels in February 1956, including either the Roosevelt or the New Yorker.
Subsequent ownership
Hilton sold the New Yorker in May 1956 to Massaglia Hotels for $20 million, despite the fact that the chain had already sold the Roosevelt. As partial payment for the New Yorker, Joseph Massaglia Jr. of Massaglia Hotels sold the Senator Hotel in Sacramento, California, to Hilton. Massaglia took over the hotel at the beginning of September 1956, paying an estimated $20 million. Charles W. Cole of Massaglia Hotels began managing the hotel, and Douglas Shaffer was appointed as the hotel's resident manager in July 1957. Massaglia then negotiated for a year and a half to sell the hotel to New York Towers Ltd., an investment syndicate led by Alexander Gross.
New York Towers ultimately bought the hotel in September 1959 with plans to spend $2 million on renovations. New York Towers renovated the main ballroom, lobby, and guestrooms, and it added air conditioning throughout the hotel. The New Yorker's managers announced these changes at a reception in September 1960. The hotel experienced a large fire that November, which killed one person and damaged the sixth floor. The New York City Fire Department ordered seven stories to be closed after the fire, although these stories reopened within two days, after the hotel's owners had conducted emergency repairs. In anticipation of the opening of the nearby Madison Square Garden arena, New York Towers renovated the New Yorker's two main ballrooms, as well as several smaller public rooms. The hotel's operators predicted that the arena's opening would attract additional conventions to the hotel.
Gross's firm had fallen behind on mortgage payments by 1966, and the hotel went into receivership that April. According to The Wall Street Journal, "other real estate industry sources" indicated that the hotel had lost $4 million since New York Towers bought it. The next month, the New Yorker's owners filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, claiming $21.5 million in debt, half of which came from seven mortgages. At an auction in December 1967, Hilton repurchased the New Yorker Hotel for $5.6 million. Hilton's public relations director said the chain had reacquired the hotel because the surrounding neighborhood was "coming back to life" with the development of Madison Square Garden and nearby office buildings. Hilton began refurbishing the hotel yet again in June 1968, spending $5 million on the main ballroom and lobby. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hotel largely catered to guests in the garment industry, as well as businessmen who were attending trade shows there. The New Yorker had downsized to 2,000 rooms, but it was still one of New York City's largest hotels.
Closure and redevelopment attempts
Hospital plan
By December 1971, Hilton Hotels planned to sell the New Yorker for $13.5 million to the French and Polyclinic Medical School and Health Center, which planned to convert the building into a 749-room hospital. According to French and Polyclinic vice president Xavier Lividini, Hilton officials did not believe the area could support "too many hotels". The medical center ultimately agreed to buy the hotel for $8.8 million; it made a down payment of $1.8 million and received a $7.1 million mortgage loan. In addition, it leased the underlying land from Hilton for 99 years, acquiring an option to purchase the land in the future Hilton closed the hotel on April 19, 1972. French and Polyclinic had wanted to begin converting the New Yorker immediately, with plans to open the hospital in 1974. At the time of the New Yorker's closure, the number of hotel rooms in New York City was declining, and the city had lost 3,800 rooms in 1972 alone, over half of which had been in the New Yorker.
French and Polyclinic added some living spaces and administrative offices for nurses and staff, as well as space for its postgraduate medical school. Before the medical center could fully convert the hotel into a hospital, the New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) had to approve the plans, and the New York State Housing Finance Agency (HFA) had to agree to a mortgage commitment for the project. NYSDOH did not approve the plans until eight months after the hotel closed. Afterward, the HFA twice rejected French and Polyclinic's application for a mortgage commitment, saying that the medical center did not have enough capital for the conversion. French and Polyclinic also spent around $210,000 per month on the hospital building, including $80,000 on a first mortgage, $75,000 on maintenance fees, and $60,000 in taxes. The medical center received a tax abatement for the hotel building in June 1973. French and Polyclinic filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy that July, allowing the medical center to defer payment of other debts and allocate funding for the New Yorker project. State assemblyman Andrew Stein said the medical center's bankruptcy was a direct result of its acquisition of the New Yorker.
The medical center's president, Stanley Salmen, resigned in late 1973 after controversies over the bankruptcy filing and the New Yorker's delayed renovation. To reduce its increasing losses, in September 1974, the medical center proposed converting the New Yorker into a homeless shelter for 500 families who had been displaced by emergencies. Manhattan Community Board 4, which represented the neighborhood, indicated that October that it needed additional time to consider plans for the shelter. French and Polyclinic unsuccessfully attempted to obtain private funding for the hospital from Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, and the city government rejected the shelter plan that November. The medical center continued to use the hotel as an office and dormitory but only occupied one-tenth of the building. French and Polyclinic officially abandoned its plans for the hospital at the end of November 1974. The cancellation of the hospital eventually forced French and Polyclinic to close completely in 1977.
Further redevelopment attempts
After French and Polyclinic abandoned its plans for the hospital, Hilton Hotels agreed to take back the hotel, which it did in February 1975. Hilton had no plans to reopen the hotel at the time. The chain tried to sell the hotel but struggled to find a buyer. The New Yorker was one of three shuttered hostelries on Eighth Avenue in Midtown that were having trouble attracting buyers; the others were the Royal Manhattan Hotel and the 51st Street YWCA. By mid-1975, Hilton Hotels maintained a loss reserve of $5.5 million on the hotel. The New York Daily News reported in June 1975 that the New Yorker owed the second-most real-estate taxes of any building in New York City, with $1.8 million in back taxes.
A syndicate led by Irving Schatz had acquired a purchase option for the hotel by early 1976; at the time, the New Yorker's only occupant was a ground-level bank branch. Schatz planned to convert the building into 1,000 apartments. Hilton and Equitable Life allowed Schatz to extend his option, but he could not obtain financing from major savings banks because of the low occupancy rate of a nearby residential development, Manhattan Plaza.
Unification Church acquisition
The Unification Church, led by Sun Myung Moon, agreed to buy the hotel in May 1976. The church paid $5.6 million, a discount of more than $3 million from the price that French and Polyclinic had paid several years earlier. As part of the sale, Hilton Hotels agreed to pay $1.1 million in back taxes to the city. The church also acquired the neighboring Manhattan Center, which it had similarly bought at a deep discount. After acquiring the New Yorker Hotel, the Unification Church converted the hotel for use by its members, and it became the World Mission Center, the church's global headquarters. The Unification Church had about 1,500 full-time volunteers in the New York City area at the time; these volunteers would renovate the hotel themselves and use it as a dormitory. U.S. representative Bella Abzug criticized the fact that Moon planned to hire his adherents, rather than unionized laborers, for the renovations. By August 1976, there were 150 volunteers living on the hotel's 20th through 30th floors. According to the Unification Church, its volunteers had been placed in "the best rooms, where the best plumbing is".
The church requested in 1977 that the New York City Board of Estimate grant a tax exemption to the New Yorker, which had been valued at $11 million the prior year. The church stopped paying taxes in 1978, while its application for a tax exemption was pending. During the same time, the Board of Estimate had refused to give the Unification Church a tax exemption for three other properties, on the basis that it was not a true church. The New York Supreme Court affirmed the city's refusal to give a tax exemption for these buildings, but the New York Court of Appeals overturned the Supreme Court's decision in May 1982, ruling that the three properties did qualify for a tax exemption. Although the Appeals Court ruling did not specifically name the New Yorker Hotel, church officials insisted that the hotel was also tax-exempt. City officials disagreed and, in August 1982, initiated foreclosure proceedings on the hotel, which had $4.5 million in unpaid back taxes. At the time, church officials used the hotel as a dormitory and conducted services there. Ultimately, the New Yorker received an 83 percent property-tax exemption.
The New Yorker did not operate as a commercial hotel, as all of the guestrooms were reserved for church members. The hotel largely housed unmarried adherents of the Unification Church, but their numbers had dwindled after the church conducted a mass-marriage ceremony at Madison Square Garden in 1982. Consequently, the New Yorker was closed during the winter of 1982–1983 because the Unification Church could not pay its fuel costs. The church began renovating the hotel in 1987, evicting 1,200 members who lived there; Newsday reported that the church had not decided what it would do with the hotel. During the next decade, an increasing proportion of residents got married and moved away, and quality of life in the neighborhood improved. In addition, there was increasing demand for hotel rooms in New York City.
Reopening
1990s and early 2000s
In May 1994, the Unification Church decided to convert the New Yorker's top eight stories to 250 guestrooms, marketing them to business travelers visiting Javits Center, Penn Station, and Madison Square Garden. The church also redeveloped the ground-floor banking space, although the remaining stories continued to operate as offices and dormitories. The hotel was reopened in stages, and the first 178 rooms opened on June 1, 1994, operated by the New Yorker Hotel Management Company. The New Yorker contained 240 rooms by 1995. Barry Mann became the hotel's general manager. The hotel's clientele largely consisted of tourists from Asia, Europe, and South America, and between 60 and 80 percent of bookings came from wholesalers and travel brokers.
The hotel began a $30 million renovation in 1997. Within two years, the hotel had expanded to 860 rooms; the lowest stories included amenity areas, while the 7th through 17th floors were rented out as commercial office space. Also in 1999, nearly 400 workers in non-managerial positions joined a labor union after several workers complained about low wages and the presence of asbestos in the hotel. The New Yorker failed to attract business travelers as originally anticipated, so it joined the Ramada hotel chain in January 2000. Hotel management believed that the Ramada franchise agreement would raise revenues by up to 200 percent. The hotel was henceforth renamed the Ramada New Yorker. To further attract businesspeople, hotel management offered a promotion in which room prices were linked to the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
Tourism in New York City had stagnated by early 2001, but business was even more negatively impacted by the September 11 attacks, which caused the hotel's profit margin to decrease from 25 to 5 percent. At the time of the attacks, the hotel had 1,100 rooms. The hotel's operators decided to convert the 17th floor back into offices, since the destruction of the World Trade Center had caused a shortage of office space in Manhattan; by early 2002, fifteen former tenants of the World Trade Center had relocated to the hotel. The Barbizon School of Modeling leased in 2002. Ten psychotherapists also rented offices on the 17th floor, and Educational Housing Services rented space for dormitories on the 24th through 27th floors in 2003. Kevin Smith, the president of the New Yorker Hotel Management Company, considered converting the guestrooms to condominiums but ultimately rejected the plan.
2000s renovations
Smith announced plans in 2004 to renovate the hotel in advance of a proposed expansion of the Javits Center and the redevelopment of the James A. Farley Building. Decreased cash flows after the September 11 attacks had prompted the managers to defer renovations, but tourism in New York City had begun to recover by then, and guests were being attracted to newer hotels. The project would cost $43 million and would include renovating the lobby and meeting rooms, adding a central HVAC system, and refurbishing the upper-story guestrooms. The lower stories would retain of office space and of dormitories, and the Tick Tock Diner and the La Vigna restaurant at ground level would be refurbished.
The first stage of the renovation took place in 2005, when the hotel's management replaced the large sign on the facade, which had not been lit since 1967. A new LED sign was installed in advance of the hotel's 75th anniversary and was illuminated in December 2005. Smith announced in August 2007 that he would complete a further renovation of the hotel for $65 million. At the time, the hotel had 840 rooms. The renovation was designed by Stonehill & Taylor Architects. The project involved replacing guestroom furnishings; redesigning the lobby, entrance, and foyer; renovating the restaurant; replacing the individual air-conditioning in each room with a central HVAC system; and upgrading Wi-Fi and televisions. As part of the project, the marble floors in the lobby were restored, and a new sprinkler system was added. In addition, the Cooper's Tavern restaurant opened at ground level in 2007. The hotel also removed two thousand air-conditioning units from windows. During the renovation, a Fordham University student sued the Unification Church, alleging that her dormitory room (which was not part of the Ramada hotel) had an infestation of bedbugs.
The financial crisis of 2007–2008 caused a decrease in business, prompting the New Yorker to reduce its payroll by 25 percent during early 2009. The hotel's renovation was completed in February 2009 at a final cost of $70 million. Following the renovation, the New Yorker had 912 guestrooms, including 64 suites. Some of the commercial space on the lower stories was converted back to guestrooms, which spanned the 19th to 40th stories. In addition, the hotel expanded its meeting facilities to across two ballrooms and twelve conference rooms. The completion of the project coincided with a decrease in tourism due to the late-2000s financial crisis, prompting the hotel's managers to reduce room rates. To celebrate the hotel's 80th anniversary, in 2010, its managers offered discounted room rates to guests who were at least 80 years old. The Unification Church, which still owned the hotel building, began marketing of office space on five of the lower floors in 2011.
2010s modifications and Wyndham takeover
The Unification Church began renovating the New Yorker Hotel again in 2013 for $30 million. The church sought to attract business travelers in anticipation of the Hudson Yards and Manhattan West redevelopment projects and the 7 Subway Extension. To make the hotel more appealing to business travelers, the church installed laundry machines on each of the hotel's dormitory stories, freeing up space for meeting rooms within the former laundry room in the basement. After some of the office tenants' leases expired, the church converted some office space into additional rooms. The church planned to eventually expand the hotel to 1,500 rooms by converting of office space. The hotel added 114 rooms in January 2014, in advance of Super Bowl XLVIII.
The Wyndham Hotel Group, which operated both the midscale Ramada chain and the upscale Wyndham chain, rebranded the New Yorker as a Wyndham hotel that March. At the time, the hotel had 1,083 rooms. After the New Yorker became part of the Wyndham chain, the hotel's operators planned to upgrade the hotel's signage with color-changing LEDs, similar to those on the Empire State Building three blocks east. Also in 2014, the Bar Below Kitchen & Cocktail Vault was announced for the hotel's basement. The Butcher and Banker steakhouse, developed by restaurateur Matt Abramcyk, opened within the former Manufacturers Trust bank branch in November 2017.
Notable people
Staff
Hotel management pioneer Ralph Hitz was selected as its first manager, eventually becoming president of the National Hotel Management Company. An early ad for the building boasted that the hotel's "bell boys were 'as snappy-looking as West Pointers'" and "that it had a radio in every room with a choice of four stations". A New Yorker bellboy, Johnny Roventini, served as tobacco company Philip Morris's pitchman for twenty years, popularizing their "Call for Philip Morris" advertising campaign.
Guests
The New Yorker hosted the headquarters of Major League Baseball (MLB)'s National League in its early years, complementing the Commodore Hotel across midtown, which hosted MLB's American League. During the 1941 World Series, the hotel housed the Brooklyn Dodgers, who were competing against the New York Yankees. One advertisement for the hotel, in 1945, featured Federal Bureau of Investigation director J. Edgar Hoover. In May 1949, the hotel hosted the first concurrent annual meetings of the Amateur Hockey Association of the United States, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association, and the International Ice Hockey Federation.
The hotel's guests included such figures as Spencer Tracy, Joan Crawford, and Fidel Castro. The actor Mickey Rooney frequented the first iteration of the hotel, and John F. Kennedy also stayed there while serving in the U.S. Senate. Muhammad Ali recuperated there after his March 1971 fight against Joe Frazier at the Garden. The New Yorker also hosted many popular Big Bands, such as Peggy Lee, Glenn Miller, Benny Goodman, and Tommy Dorsey.
The inventor Nikola Tesla lived in room 3327 at the hotel during the final years of his life. Tesla gave speeches to reporters every year on his birthday until he died there in 1943. By the 2000s, The New Yorker magazine wrote that Tesla's presence had attracted three kinds of guests, namely "electrical engineers and technology enthusiasts; people interested in U.F.O.s, anti-gravity airships, death-ray weapons, time travel, and telepathic pigeons; Serbs and Croats."
Critical reception
A reviewer for The Washington Post wrote in 1999 that the hotel was popular among large groups, saying: "If being close to the action is important to you, you won't be unhappy. If you want a good night's sleep . . . well, make sure you're not on a floor occupied by, say, a high school band." A reviewer for The New York Times praised their room in 2000 as "clean, reasonably sized, and with a lovely vintage tiled prewar bathroom", but criticized the lack of soundproof windows, the crowded lobby, and the gritty character of surrounding neighborhood. Similarly, an Ottawa Citizen reporter said: "True, the 40-floor art deco hotel has a somewhat dingy exterior, but the location (near Madison Square Garden, Penn Station and Macy's) and the views (maximized by having guest rooms from the 19th floor up) belie the first impression." By contrast, a writer for the National Post called the New Yorker "a nice but unglamorous hotel" in 2001. The New York Observer wrote in 2011, "There was nothing bespeaking the New Yorker's pre-Moonie swagger, save for maybe the piano against the wall, behind a superfluous red cordon."
After the New Yorker Hotel came under the Wyndham brand in 2014, it received mixed reviews. A reviewer for Oyster.com said, "The nice bright rooms, convenient location [...] and rich history make the 912-room Wyndham New Yorker a reasonable pick for the price", though they noted that the hotel's rooms were quite small. Similarly, the U.S. News & World Report said that many guests praised the Wyndham New Yorker's "comfortable accommodations" but criticized the hotel's small rooms and facility fees.
Replica
The New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains a replica of the New Yorker Hotel, which measures 38 stories tall. A portion of the New York-New York's interior was also designed to resemble the New Yorker Hotel's interior.
See also
Art Deco architecture of New York City
List of hotels in New York City
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Official Chain website
Educational Housing Services website
1929 establishments in New York City
1930 establishments in New York City
34th Street (Manhattan)
Art Deco architecture in Manhattan
Art Deco skyscrapers
Art Deco hotels
Eighth Avenue (Manhattan)
Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan
Hotel buildings completed in 1929
Hotels in Manhattan
Nikola Tesla
Skyscraper hotels in Manhattan
Unification Church properties |
4532553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin%20McInnes | Gavin McInnes | Gavin Miles McInnes (; born 17 July 1970) is a Canadian writer, podcaster, far-right commentator and founder of the Proud Boys. He is the host of Get Off My Lawn with Gavin McInnes on Censored.TV, which he founded. He co-founded Vice magazine in 1994 at the age of 24, and relocated to the United States in 2001. In 2016 he founded the Proud Boys, an American far-right organization which was designated a terrorist group in Canada and New Zealand after he left the group. McInnes has been described as promoting violence against political opponents, but has claimed that he only has supported political violence in self-defense and that he is not far-right or a supporter of fascism, identifying as "a fiscal conservative and libertarian".
Born to Scottish parents in Hertfordshire, England, McInnes immigrated to Canada as a child. He graduated from Carleton University in Ottawa before moving to Montreal and co-founding Vice with Suroosh Alvi and Shane Smith. He relocated with Vice Media to New York City in 2001. During his time at Vice, McInnes was called a leading figure in the New York hipster subculture. He holds both Canadian and British citizenship and lives in Larchmont, New York.
In 2018, McInnes was fired from Blaze Media, and was banned from Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram for violating terms of use related to promoting violent extremist groups and hate speech. In June 2020, McInnes's account was suspended from YouTube for violating YouTube's policies concerning hate speech, posting content that was "glorifying [and] inciting violence against another person or group of people."
Early life
Gavin Miles McInnes was born on 17 July 1970 in Hitchin, Hertfordshire, England, the son of Scottish parents James McInnes, who later became the Vice-President of Operations at Gallium Visual Systems Inc. – a Canadian defence company – and Loraine McInnes, a retired business teacher. His family migrated to Canada when McInnes was four, settling in Ottawa, Ontario. He attended Ottawa's Earl of March Secondary School. As a teen, McInnes played in an Ottawa punk band called Anal Chinook. He graduated from Carleton University.
Career
Vice Media (1994–2007)
McInnes co-founded Vice in 1994 with Shane Smith and Suroosh Alvi. The magazine was launched as the Voice of Montreal with government funding. The intention of the founders was to provide work and a community service. When the editors later sought to dissolve their commitments with the original publisher Alix Laurent, they bought him out and changed the name to Vice in 1996. Richard Szalwinski, a Canadian software millionaire, acquired the magazine and relocated the operation to New York City in the late 1990s.
During McInnes's tenure he was described as the "godfather" of hipsterdom by WNBC and as "one of hipsterdom's primary architects" by AdBusters. He occasionally contributed articles to Vice, including "The VICE Guide to Happiness" and "The VICE Guide to Picking Up Chicks", and co-authored two Vice books: The Vice Guide to Sex and Drugs and Rock and Roll, and Vice Dos and Don'ts: 10 Years of VICE Magazine's Street Fashion Critiques.
In an interview in the New York Press in 2002, McInnes said that he was pleased that most Williamsburg hipsters were white. McInnes later wrote in a letter to Gawker that the interview was done as a prank intended to ridicule "baby boomer media like The Times". After he became the focus of a letter-writing campaign by a black reader, Vice apologized for McInnes's comments. McInnes was featured in a 2003 New York Times article about Vice magazine; McInnes' political views were described by the Times as "closer to a white supremacist's."
In 2006, he was featured in The Vice Guide to Travel with actor and comedian David Cross in China. He left Vice in 2008 due to what he described as "creative differences". In a 2013 interview with The New Yorker, McInnes said his split with Vice was about the increasing influence of corporate advertising on Vice's content, stating that "Marketing and editorial being enemies had been the business plan".
After Vice (2008–2018)
After leaving Vice in 2008, McInnes became increasingly known for far-right political views.
In 2008, McInnes created the website StreetCarnage.com. He also co-founded an advertising agency called Rooster where he served as creative director.
McInnes was featured in season 3 of the Canadian reality TV show Kenny vs. Spenny, as a judge in the "Who is Cooler?" episode. In 2010, McInnes was approached by Adult Swim and asked to play the part of Mick, an anthropomorphic Scottish soccer ball, in the short-lived Aqua Teen Hunger Force spin-off Soul Quest Overdrive. After losing a 2010 pilot contest to Cheyenne Cinnamon and the Fantabulous Unicorn of Sugar Town Candy Fudge, six episodes of Soul Quest Overdrive were ordered, with four airing in Adult Swim's 4 AM DVR Theater block on 25 May 2011 before quickly being cancelled. McInnes jokingly blamed the show's cancellation on the other cast members (Kristen Schaal, David Cross, and H. Jon Benjamin) not being "as funny" as him.
McInnes wrote a column for Taki's Magazine, beginning around 2011, that made casual use of racial and anti-gay slurs, as described by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC).
In 2012, McInnes wrote a memoir book called How to Piss in Public. In 2013 he directed The Brotherhood of the Traveling Rants, a documentary on his tour as an occasional standup comedian. For the film, he faked a serious car accident. Also that year, McInnes starred in the independent film How to Be a Man, which premiered at Sundance Next Weekend. He has also played supporting roles in other films including Soul Quest Overdrive (2010), Creative Control (2015) and One More Time (2015).
In August 2014, McInnes was asked to take an indefinite leave of absence as chief creative officer of Rooster, following online publication at Thought Catalog of an essay about transphobia titled "Transphobia is Perfectly Natural" that sparked a call to boycott the company. In response, Rooster issued a statement, saying in part: "We are extremely disappointed with his actions and have asked that he take a leave of absence while we determine the most appropriate course of action."
In June 2015, broadcaster Anthony Cumia announced that McInnes would be hosting a show on his network, therefore retiring the Free Speech podcast that he had started in March. The Gavin McInnes Show premiered on Compound Media on 15 June. McInnes is a former contributor to Canadian far-right portal The Rebel Media and a regular on conspiracy theorist media platform Infowars' The Alex Jones Show, and Fox News' Red Eye, The Greg Gutfeld Show, and The Sean Hannity Show.
In 2016, he founded the Proud Boys, a neo-fascist, men's rights and male-only organisation classified as a "general hate" organization by the SPLC. He has rejected this classification, claiming that the group is "not an extremist group and [does] not have ties with white nationalists".
McInnes left Rebel News in August 2017, declaring that he was going to be "a multi-media Howard Stern-meets-Tucker Carlson". He later joined CRTV, an online television network launched by Conservative Review. The debut episode of his new show Get Off My Lawn aired on 22 September 2017.
Events in 2018
On 10 August 2018, McInnes's Twitter account, as well as the account for the Proud Boys, was permanently suspended by Twitter due to their rules against violent extremist groups. The suspension was ahead of the first anniversary of the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, and the small Unite the Right 2 Washington protest in August 2018 in which the Proud Boys participated.
On 12 October 2018, McInnes participated in a reenactment of the 1960 assassination of socialist politician Inejiro Asanuma by Otoya Yamaguchi at the Metropolitan Republican Club. After the event, a contingent of Proud Boys were caught on tape beating a protester outside the venue, after a leftist protester threw a plastic bottle at them.
On 21 November 2018, shortly after news broke that the FBI had reportedly classified the Proud Boys as an extremist group with ties to white nationalists, McInnes said that his lawyers had advised him that quitting might help the nine members being prosecuted for the incidents in October and he said "this is 100% a legal gesture, and it is 100% about alleviating sentencing", and said it was a "'stepping down gesture', in quotation marks". Two weeks later the Special Agent in Charge of the FBI's Oregon office said that it had not been their intent to label the entire group as "extremist", only to characterize the possible threat from certain members of the group that way.
Later that month, McInnes was planning on travelling to Australia for a speaking tour with Milo Yiannopoulos and Tommy Robinson (Stephen Yaxley-Lennon's pseudonym), but was informed by Australian immigration authorities that "he was judged to be of bad character" and would be denied a visa to enter the country. Issuing a visa to McInnes was opposed by an online campaign called "#BanGavin", which collected 81,000 signatures.
On 3 December 2018, Conservative Review Television (CRTV), on which McInnes had hosted the Get Off My Lawn program, merged with BlazeTV, the television arm of Glenn Beck's TheBlaze, to become Blaze Media. McInnes was expected to host his program for the new company, whose co-president called McInnes "a comedian and provocateur, one of the many varied voices and viewpoints on Blaze Media platforms." Less than a week later, on 8 December, it was announced that McInnes was no longer associated with Blaze Media, with no details given as to why.
Two days later, on 10 December, McInnes, who had previously been banned by Amazon, PayPal, Twitter, and Facebook, was banned from YouTube for "multiple third-party claims of copyright infringement." Asked to comment about his firing and bannings, McInnes said that he had been victimized by "lies and propaganda", and that "there has been a concerted effort to de-platform me." In his e-mail to Huffington Post, McInnes stated that "Someone very powerful decided long ago that I shouldn't have a voice ... I'm finally out of platforms and unable to defend myself. ... We are no longer living in a free country." McInnes also indicated some personal responsibility for the situation in an interview on the ABC News program Nightline, saying. "I'm not guilt free in this. There's culpability there. I shouldn't have said, you know, violence solves everything or something like that without making the context clear and I regret saying things like that." McInnes stopped short of apologizing or actually retracting his past statements, saying, "That ship has sailed."
Larchmont lawn sign controversy
In reaction to the Proud Boys fight in October 2018, residents of the suburban Westchester community of Larchmont, where McInnes lives, began a "Hate Has No Home Here" campaign, which involved displaying that slogan on lawn signs around the community. One resident said "We stand together as a community, and violence and hate are not tolerated here." Several days after the signs began appearing, McInnes' wife sent emails to their neighbours saying that the media had misrepresented McInnes.
Amy Siskind, an activist and writer who lives in nearby Mamaroneck, posted on Facebook that she was planning an anti-hate vigil. After a local newspaper ran a story about it, McInnes and his family appeared at Siskind's door without invitation or forewarning; she called the police.
At the end of December, with the lawn sign campaign still ongoing, McInnes wrote a letter which was dropped off at the homes of his neighbours. In it, he asked them to take down their signs, and described himself as "a pro-gay, pro-Israel, virulently anti-racist libertarian," saying that there was nothing "hateful, racist, homophobic, anti-Semitic or intolerant" in "any of my expressions of my worldview," contrary to his past remarks, such as saying he was "becoming anti-Semitic" after a trip to Israel, or referring to transgender people as "gender niggers". McInnes said that the Proud Boys was a "drinking club [he] started several years ago as a joke". Despite the letter's formality, in a podcast on 4 January 2019, McInnes called the neighbours "assholes", described their behaviour as "cunty" and said "If you have that sign on your lawn, you're a fucking retard."
One Larchmont resident said about him: "I don't care what Gavin says, I've done my research ... He incites violence. He spouts divisive, racist language. And while he may try to say he disowns his followers, he's a part of the problem. So when I read his letter, I was like, yeah, right, this is ridiculous."
Several days after the letter was sent out, HuffPost reported that they had viewed evidence provided by some neighbours that McInnes' wife, Emily – who identifies as a liberal Democrat – had harassed and intimidated them, including with the threat of legal action. Her threats were such that several neighbours notified the police.
Lawsuit against the SPLC
Although McInnes cut ties with the Proud Boys publicly in November 2018, stepping down as chairman, in February 2019 he filed suit against the Southern Poverty Law Center over their designation of the Proud Boys as a "general hate" group. The defamation suit was filed in federal court in Alabama. In the papers filed, McInnes claimed that the hate group designation is false and motivated by fund-raising concerns, and that his career has been damaged by it. He claimed that SPLC contributed to his or the Proud Boys' being deplatformed by Twitter, PayPal, Mailchimp, and iTunes.
The SPLC says on its website that "McInnes plays a duplicitous rhetorical game: rejecting white nationalism and, in particular, the term 'alt-right' while espousing some of its central tenets," and that the group's "rank-and-file [members] and leaders regularly spout white nationalist memes and maintain affiliations with known extremists. They are known for anti-Muslim and misogynistic rhetoric. Proud Boys have appeared alongside other hate groups at extremist gatherings like the 'Unite the Right' rally in Charlottesville." In response to the suit, Richard Cohen, the president of SPLC, wrote "Gavin McInnes has a history of making inflammatory statements about Muslims, women, and the transgender community. The fact that he's upset with SPLC tells us that we're doing our job exposing hate and extremism."
Censored.TV and other ventures (2019-present)
Censored.TV and Get Off My Lawn launch
In 2019, McInnes launched Censored.TV, an online video platform. The platform was originally named FreeSpeech.TV, but was changed to its current title for copyright purposes. The platform features McInnes' primary show, Get Off My Lawn (GOML). GOML is a pre-recorded, daily show which airs on weekdays with Thursdays as an exception, in which the show airs live under the alternative title Get Off My Lawn Live.
In May 2021, Milo Yiannopoulos wrote on Telegram that Censored.TV is "laying off all its staff" and lacked enough funding to sustain production of Yiannopoulous' show on the platform. McInnes later dismissed these allegation whilst announcing the arrival of several new shows on his platform.
On August 27, 2022, McInnes faked his own arrest during a live broadcast of Censored.TV. In the recording, McInnes appeared to look off past the camera, before saying ""We're shooting a show, can we do this another time?" adding "I didn't let you in." McInnes then walked off the set. It was widely speculated that McInnes had been arrested, until former McInnes-ally Owen Benjamin outed McInnes by posting text messages between the two of them. "Prank. Don't tell," McInnes wrote to Benjamin. Benjamin responded, "U gonna reveal its a prank? Cuz I have friends writing blogs about it." McInnes replied "Never," adding that he "never said" the FBI had raided his studio. After being outed by Benjamin, McInnes returned to the public on September 6, 2022.
In December 2022, McInnes interviewed Kanye West and white nationalist Nick Fuentes. In the interview, McInnes claimed to be trying to save West from his own antisemitism; McInnes faulted not Jews but "liberal elites of all races", while West said Jews should forgive Adolf Hitler and predicted that antisemitism would be "awesome for a presidential campaign".
New York trial of Proud Boys
Although McInnes was not a defendant in the August 2019 trial of members of the Proud Boys for their part in the violence that occurred after a meeting of the Metropolitan Republican Club in October 2018, prosecutors repeatedly invoked his name, his words and his views in their questioning of the defendants, after testimony by the defendants and other Proud Boys opened the door to that line of questioning. During closing arguments, a prosecutor said that "Gavin McInnes is not a harmless satirist. He is a hatemonger," while the defense said that McInnes was being "demonized."
Views
McInnes describes himself as "a fiscal conservative and libertarian" and part of the New Right, a term that he prefers rather than alt-right. The New York Times has described McInnes as a far-right provocateur. He has referred to himself as a "western chauvinist" and started a men's organization called Proud Boys who swear their allegiance to this cause.
In November 2018 it was reported on the basis of an internal memo of the Clark County, Washington Sheriff's Office – based on an FBI briefing – that the Bureau classified the Proud Boys "an extremist group with ties to white nationalism". Two weeks later, the Special Agent in Charge of the FBI's Oregon office denied that the FBI had made that designation about the entire group, ascribing it to a misunderstanding on the part of the Sheriff's Office. The SAIC, Renn Cannon, said that their intent was simply to characterize the possible threat from certain members of the group, not to classify the entire group. The Southern Poverty Law Center classifies them as a "general hate group". McInnes has said his group is not a white nationalist group.
In 2003, McInnes said, "I love being white and I think it's something to be very proud of. I don't want our culture diluted. We need to close the borders now and let everyone assimilate to a Western, white, English-speaking way of life."
Violence
In a speech given at New York University in February 2017, after a clash between the Proud Boys and antifa protestors, McInnes said: "Violence doesn't feel good, justified violence feels great, and fighting solves everything. ... I want violence. I want punching in the face." He says that he has only advocated for acting in self-defense.
Race and ethnicity
McInnes has been accused of racism and of promoting white supremacist rhetoric. He has used racial slurs against Susan Rice and Jada Pinkett Smith, and more widely against Palestinians and Asians. In September 2004, he told a reporter for the Chicago Reader at a party that he "wanted to fuck the shit out of [a young Asian lady] until she started talking." The reporter, Liz Armstrong, wrote: "He went on to posit that since Asians' eyes don't work so good in terms of facial expressions they have no choice but to emote with their mouths."
McInnes has said that there is a "mass conformity that black people push on each other". He is also listed as a contributor to the 2016 book Black Lies Matter which criticizes the Black Lives Matter movement. He said that New Jersey U.S. Senator Cory Booker, who is Black, is "kind of like Sambo."
Religion
Judaism
In March 2017, a group of Rebel Media hosts, including McInnes, spent a week touring Israel. On the trip, McInnes made a non-Rebel video in which he defended Holocaust deniers, blamed Jews for the Treaty of Versailles, and said he was "becoming anti-Semitic". The Times of Israel said he was "apparently drunk" in the video. Israel National News called it a "faux rant" and "intentionally offensive". He later said that his comments were taken out of context. McInnes also produced a comedic video for Rebel called "Ten Things I Hate about Jews", later retitled "Ten Things I Hate About Israel". After his statements were promoted by white supremacists (in contrast to other videos from the Rebel Media tour), McInnes publicly declined their support. Upon McInnes' return to America, Rebel Media produced a video of McInnes in which he said, "I've got tons of Nazi friends. David Duke and all the Nazis totally think I rock... No offence, Nazis, I don't want to hurt your feelings, but I don't like you. I like Jews." Rebel Media's owner, Ezra Levant, who is Jewish-Canadian, defended McInnes. In a December 2022 interview for Censored.TV with Kanye West and the white nationalist Nick Fuentes, he claimed to be trying to save West from antisemitism and said that "every individual I meet starts off with a clean slate".
Islam
McInnes is anti-Islam. He has said that "Muslims are stupid... the only thing they really respect is violence and being tough." He also has equated Islam with fascism, stating "Nazis are not a thing. Islam is a thing." In April 2018, McInnes labelled a significant section of Muslims as both mentally ill and incestuous, claiming that "Muslims have a problem with inbreeding. They tend to marry their first cousins... and that is a major problem [in the U.S.] because when you have mentally damaged inbreds – which not all Muslims are, but a disproportionate number are – and you have a hate book called the Koran [sic]... you end up with a perfect recipe for mass murder."
Gender
McInnes has described himself as "an Archie Bunker sexist", and has said that "95 percent of women would be happier at home". On the topic of female police officers, he said, "I understand [women] are good for domestics, but I don't understand why there are so many female police officers. They're not strong, they're like super fat police officers. It doesn't make any sense to me."
In 2003, Vanessa Grigoriadis in The New York Times quoted McInnes saying, "'No means no' is puritanism. I think Steinem-era feminism did women a lot of injustices, but one of the worst ones was convincing all these indie norts that women don't want to be dominated." McInnes has been accused of sexism by various media outlets including Chicago Sun-Times, Independent Journal Review, Salon, Jezebel, The Hollywood Reporter, and Slate. In October 2013, McInnes said during a panel interview that "people would be happier if women would stop pretending to be men" and that feminism "has made women less happy". He said, "We've trivialized childbirth and being domestic so much that women are forced to pretend to be men. They're feigning this toughness, they're miserable." A heated argument ensued with University of Miami School of Law professor Mary Anne Franks.
White genocide
McInnes has espoused the white genocide conspiracy theory saying that white women having abortions and immigration is "leading to white genocide in the West". In 2018, regarding South African farm attacks and land reform proposals, he said that black South Africans were not "trying to get their land back – they never had that land", instead stating there were "ethnic cleansing" efforts against white South Africans.
Filmography
Film
How to Be a Man (2013) – as Mark McCarthy
Creative Control (2015) – as Scott
One More Time (2015) – as Record Producer
White Noise (2020) – as Himself
Television
Kenny vs Spenny: "Who is Cooler" episode (2006) – as himself (guest judge)
Soul Quest Overdrive (2010, 2011) – as Mick (voice)
Vice Guide to Travel (2006) – as himself (host)
Personal life
McInnes resides in the U.S. on a green card. In 2005, he married Manhattan-based publicist and consultant Emily Jendrisak, the daughter of Native American activist Christine Whiterabbit Jendrisak who describes herself as a liberal Democrat. About his wife's ethnicity and their children together, McInnes said, "I've made my views on Indians very clear. I like them. I actually like them so much, I made three." They live in Larchmont, New York.
In his 2020 documentary White Noise, and in a follow up article about alt-right activist Lauren Southern, Daniel Lombroso, a journalist for The Atlantic reported that McInnes sexually propositioned Southern after an appearance on his show in June of 2018. McInnes denied having done so.
References
Further reading
External links
1970 births
Living people
Advertising directors
British emigrants to Canada
British emigrants to the United States
British expatriate male actors in the United States
British magazine founders
British magazine publishers (people)
British male comedians
British male film actors
British male non-fiction writers
British memoirists
British podcasters
British libertarians
British white nationalists
Businesspeople from Ottawa
Canadian columnists
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian expatriate male actors in the United States
Canadian expatriate writers in the United States
Canadian magazine founders
Canadian magazine publishers (people)
Canadian male comedians
Canadian male film actors
Canadian male non-fiction writers
Canadian mass media company founders
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian podcasters
Canadian libertarians
Canadian white nationalists
Canadian Zionists
Carleton University alumni
Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
Canadian critics of Islam
Critics of multiculturalism
Male actors from Hertfordshire
Male actors from Ottawa
Male critics of feminism
People from Hitchin
Vice Media
Writers from Hertfordshire
Writers from Ottawa
21st-century Canadian memoirists
21st-century Canadian businesspeople
21st-century Canadian male actors
Proud Boys
Canadian Roman Catholics
Alt-right Christians
Comedians from Hertfordshire |
4532818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Impact%20Wrestling%20tournaments | List of Impact Wrestling tournaments | Impact Wrestling has held a variety of professional wrestling tournaments competed for by wrestlers that are a part of their roster.
Sporadic tournaments
NWA World Tag Team Championship Tournament (2002)
The NWA World Tag Team Championships tournament was held to crown new NWA World Tag Team Champions after Jeff and Jerry Jarrett formed NWA:Total Nonstop Action (NWA:TNA) to control/feature the NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship and the NWA World Tag Team Championship as their championships. AJ Styles and Jerry Lynn won the tournament to become the first NWA World Tag Team Championships in TNA.
AJ Styles and Jerry Lynn were a last minute replacement for James Storm and Chris Harris who were attacked backstage.
NWA World Heavyweight Championship #1 Contenders Tournament (2002)
An 8-man tournament was held to crown a #1 contender for the NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship which was held at the time by Ron Killings. Jeff Jarrett won the tournament and would later win the championship.
TNA Hard 10 Tournament
The TNA Hard 10 Tournament was a hardcore tournament for a trophy that would proclaim the winner the most hardcore wrestler in TNA. It featured eight wrestlers competing in matches where a point-scoring system was used to determine the winner. The system was that 1 point was awarded for a direct hit with an object and 5 points for putting your opponent through a table, with 10 points needed to win. The only tournament was held in 2003, which was won by The Sandman.
TNA Anarchy Alliance Tag Team Tournament
The TNA Anarchy Alliance Tag Team Tournament was a tag team tournament held in 2003 to determine the number one contenders for the NWA World Tag Team Championship, which was won by America's Most Wanted (Chris Harris and James Storm).
NWA World Tag Team Championship Tournament (2004)
The NWA World Tag Team Championship Tournament was a tag team tournament held in 2004 in order to crown new NWA World Tag Team Champions, which was won by Kid Kash and Dallas.
NWA World Heavyweight Championship #1 Contender Tournament (2004)
The NWA World Heavyweight Championship Number One Contender Tournament was a 4-man tournament held in October 2004 in order to crown new number one contender for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at TNA's first-ever monthly pay-per-view event Victory Road.
X Cup Tournaments
The TNA X Cup Tournaments are X Division tournaments that feature various wrestlers and/or Teams from around the World. So far, there have been two Super X Cup Tournaments, one America's X Cup Tournament, and three World X Cup Tournaments.
Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament
Fight for the Right Tournament
The Fight for the Right Tournament was a tournament to determine the number one contender for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and later for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship.
Paparazzi Championship Series
The Paparazzi Championship Series was a tournament that began at Turning Point 2006 and involved five X Division competitors competing in a variety of matches where points are awarded for victories. These matches included limbo, Texas hold 'em, musical chairs, and a push-up contest, among others. The tournament was created to give the wrestlers airtime while also continuing the Paparazzi Productions storyline surrounding Austin Starr, Alex Shelley and Kevin Nash. Throughout the competitions, Nash kept bringing up Bob Backlund, which led up to Backlund being a guest judge at Final Resolution 2007 during the finals of the competition. Shelley defeated Starr in the finals to win a bowling trophy presented by Nash at Final Resolution 2007. The other three participants in the tournament were Sonjay Dutt, Jay Lethal and Senshi. Nash viciously needled the other three (especially Dutt) throughout the challenge, but kept the actual competition fair and even, always inviting the losers of each contest to "feel free to kiss the winner".
Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament
The Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament was held during April and May 2008 for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship. It took place on TNA Impact! and at Sacrifice on May 11, 2008. It was announced on the April 24, 2008 episode of Impact! by Management Director Jim Cornette. It involved twelve teams overall.
TNA X Division Championship Tournament (2009)
The tournament was the result of a match for the TNA X Division Championship at Final Resolution between Eric Young and Sheik Abdul Bashir ending in a controversial fashion, with Young winning the championship thanks to the referee's help. Management Director Jim Cornette stripped Young of the belt and announced the tournament to crown the new champion. The tournament final took place at Genesis.
Team 3D Invitational Tag Team Tournament
To reinvigorate the tag team division, Team 3D (Brother Ray and Brother Devon) announced on the April 23, 2009 episode of Impact! that they would be hosting a tag team tournament. The winning team would receive a trophy, a check for $100,000 and a match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship (held by Team 3D). The tournament started that same night and matches would be held over the next few weeks and TNA announced that the finals would be held at the Sacrifice pay-per-view.
TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship Tournament (2009)
TNA announced a Knockouts tag team tournament for the new TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship on the August 20, 2009 episode of TNA Impact!. Round one matches started on the August 27, 2009 episode of TNA Impact!.
TNA World Heavyweight Championship #1 Contenders Tournament (2009)
On the September 3, 2009 episode of Impact!, a two-bracket one-night tournament was held to determine two competitors that would face Matt Morgan and Kurt Angle for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at No Surrender. Sting won the first bracket, and AJ Styles won the second bracket.
TNA Championship Series
The TNA Championship Series took place on the Thanksgiving Day edition of Impact! on November 26, 2009. The winner of the tournament would earn himself a shot at the Championship of his own division. However, the winner of the tournament, Bobby Lashley, did not receive his title match.
Participants:
Abyss (Heavyweight Division)
Bobby Lashley (Heavyweight Division)
Desmond Wolfe (Heavyweight Division)
Suicide (X Division)
Kurt Angle (Heavyweight Division)
D'Angelo Dinero (Heavyweight Division)
Homicide (X Division)
Robert Roode (Tag Team Division)
New Year's Knockout Eve Tournament
The New Year's Knockout Eve Tournament took place on the December 31, 2009, edition of Impact!. The winner of the tournament would earn a shot at the TNA Women's Knockout Championship on the live three-hour Monday night edition of Impact! on January 4, 2010.
8 Card Stud Tournament
The 8 Card Stud Tournament took place on February 14, 2010, at the Against All Odds pay-per-view and its winner would get to challenge the TNA World Heavyweight Champion in the main event of April's Lockdown pay-per-view.
TNA Tag Team Championship Series
On the June 17, 2010, edition of Impact! TNA vacated the TNA World Tag Team Championship and announced a two-week-long tournament, with the winners facing The Motor City Machine Guns (Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin), who were the number one contenders prior to the titles being vacated, for the titles at Victory Road.
TNA World Tag Team Championship #1 Contenders Tournament (2010)
On the August 4, 2010, edition of TNA Xplosion, TNA announced a two-week-long tournament to determine the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship.
Teams:
Desmond Wolfe and Magnus
Generation Me (Max and Jeremy Buck)
Hernandez and Rob Terry
Ink Inc. (Jesse Neal and Shannon Moore)
TNA World Heavyweight Championship Tournament (2010)
On the August 19, 2010, edition of TNA Impact!, the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated, after champion Rob Van Dam suffered a storyline injury. The title was put up in a tournament featuring the top eight ranked wrestlers in the TNA Championship Committee rankings. The finals of the tournament would take place at Bound for Glory on October 10.
TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship Tournament (2010)
On the December 9, 2010, edition of Impact! TNA vacated the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship, after one half of the previous champions, Hamada, had been released by the promotion, and set up a four–team tournament to determine new champions. The finals of the tournament would take place on the December 23 edition of Impact!.
{{4TeamBracket
| RD1=SemifinalsTNA Impact!
| RD2=FinalsTNA Impact!
| RD1-seed1=
| RD1-team1=The Beautiful People
| RD1-score1=Pin
| RD1-seed2=
| RD1-team2=Daffney and Sarita
| RD1-score2=04:00
| RD1-seed3=
| RD1-team3=Madison Rayne and Tara| RD1-score3=Pin
| RD1-seed4=
| RD1-team4=Mickie James and Miss Tessmacher
| RD1-score4=04:00
| RD2-seed1=
| RD2-team1=Angelina Love and Winter*
| RD2-score1=Pin
| RD2-seed2=
| RD2-team2=Madison Rayne and Tara
| RD2-score2=05:00
}}
*Winter replaced Velvet Sky, who had been attacked backstage by Sarita.
TNA X Division Championship #1 Contender Tournament (2011)
On the January 27, 2011, edition of Impact!, TNA started a tournament to determine a new number one contender for the TNA X Division Championship, held by Kazarian. The tournament consisted of three three–way semifinal matches, taking place on the January 27, February 3 and February 10 editions of Impact!, with the finals, another three–way match, taking place at Against All Odds on February 13. The finals ended with a double countout, after Jeremy and Max Buck failed to make it to the event due to travel issues.
Xplosion Championship Challenge
On the May 24, 2011, edition of TNA Xplosion, Desmond Wolfe was announced as the new Xplosion Commissioner. His first act as commissioner was setting up a tournament exclusive to Xplosion where the winner would receive a title shot against any active champion in TNA. The finals of the tournament took place at the August 9 tapings of the August 24 edition of Xplosion.
X Division Showcase
On the June 16, 2011, edition of Impact Wrestling, TNA started a twelve-man tournament for a contract in the promotion's X Division. The finals of the tournament would take place on July 10 at Destination X.First roundAustin Aries defeated Jimmy Rave and Kid Kash (Impact Wrestling, June 16, 2011)
Zema Ion defeated Dakota Darsow and Federico Palacios (Impact Wrestling, June 23, 2011)
Low Ki defeated Jimmy Yang and Matt Bentley (Impact Wrestling, June 30, 2011)
Jack Evans defeated Jesse Sorensen and Tony Nese (Impact Wrestling, July 7, 2011)FinalsAustin Aries defeated Jack Evans, Low Ki and Zema Ion (Destination X, July 10, 2011)
Maximum Impact Tournament
On November 23, 2011, TNA announced the start of the Maximum Impact Tournament, an eight-man tournament, which would take place on Xplosion. The winner would receive a shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship during TNA's tour of the United Kingdom in January 2012. The finals of the tournament took place on December 13 at the tapings of the January 4, 2012, edition of Xplosion. The winner, Samoa Joe, received his title shot on January 27 in Manchester, in a match taped for Xplosion, but was defeated by the defending TNA World Heavyweight Champion, Bobby Roode.
Wild Card Tournament
On the December 15, 2011, edition of Impact Wrestling, TNA started a tag team tournament to determine the number one contenders for the TNA World Tag Team Championship, held by the team Crimson and Matt Morgan, at Genesis. The pairings were, in storyline, decided by a random draw.
TNA X Division Championship Tournament (2012)
On the June 28, 2012, episode of Impact Wrestling, TNA announced a tournament for the TNA X Division Championship, which would take place at Destination X, where Austin Aries would vacate the title for a shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. The tournament was preceded by four qualifying matches featuring wrestlers from the independent circuit. TNA contracted wrestlers Douglas Williams, Kid Kash and Zema Ion were given automatic spots in the first round of the tournament. The eighth and final spot in the tournament would be filled by the winner of a four-way between the losers of the qualifying matches. At Destination X the eight wrestlers will face each other in four singles matches, with the winners advancing to an Ultimate X match for the X Division Championship.
TNA X Division Championship #1 Contender Tournament (2013)
On the January 3, 2013, edition of Impact! TNA started a tournament to determine a new number one contender for the TNA X Division Championship, held by Rob Van Dam. The tournament consisted of two singles semifinal matches, taking place on the January 3 and January 10 editions of Impact!, with the finals taking place at Genesis on January 13.
TNA Gut Check Tournament (2013)
The TNA Gut Check Tournament''' was a 4-man tournament held from May 9 thru June 2, 2013 in order to determine which TNA Gut Check competitor would compete in the Bound for Glory Series the finals of the tournament took place at Slammiversary XI. Sam Shaw advanced to the finals of the tournament after Silva was no longer able to compete.
Jokers Wild Tag Team Tournament
On the July 11, 2013 edition of Impact a tournament was held where the twelve Bound for Glory Series participants were randomly paired up into six tag teams. There were then three tag matches with the winning teams advancing to a six-man Gauntlet Battle Royal. Once there were two competitors left in the match, the match became a regular singles match with the winner earning 25 points in the Bound for Glory Series.
TNA X Division Championship Tournament (2013)
On the Destination X edition of Impact! TNA started a tournament to determine a new TNA X Division Champion, since the title was vacated after Chris Sabin traded it in for a shot at the World Championship. The tournament consisted of three three–way semifinal matches, taking place on the July 18 edition of Impact!, with the finals, another three–way match, taking place on July 25, 2013.
TNA World Heavyweight Championship Tournament (2013)
On October 29, 2013, TNA President Dixie Carter vacated the TNA World Heavyweight Championship after the previous champion A.J. Styles left the company with the championship title. On the October 31 edition of Impact Wrestling, Carter announced an eight-man tournament to determine a new TNA World Heavyweight Champion, that would begin on November 7. Seven of the eight men were former TNA World Heavyweight Champions including Jeff Hardy, Chris Sabin, Bobby Roode, James Storm, Kurt Angle, Austin Aries, and Samoa Joe. The eighth would be determined later in the night in a gauntlet match, which was eventually won by Magnus last eliminating Kazarian and Sting. Also later that night, Carter announced the "Wheel of Dixie" in which she would spin a wheel full of different stipulation that the competitors would compete in. The stipulations on the "Wheel of Dixie" were a Falls Count Anywhere match, a Bull Rope match, a Submission match, a Ladder match, a Full Metal Mayhem match, a Coalminer's Glove match, a Tables match, a Dixieland match, a Tuxedo match, and Last Man Standing match. The Storm/Roode match was originally a Bull Rope match but Storm asked Carter to change it to a Florida Death match, which was not on the "Wheel of Dixie", which Carter agreed to.
TNA X Division Championship Tournament (2014)
On the Destination X edition of Impact! TNA started a tournament to determine a new TNA X Division Champion, since the title was vacated after Austin Aries traded it in for a shot at the World Championship. The tournament consisted of three three–way semifinal matches, taking place on the July 31 edition of Impact!, with the finals, another three–way match, taking place on August 7, 2014.
Gold Rush Tournament (2014)
On September 17, 2014 TNA Executive Director Kurt Angle announced a "Gold Rush" tournament. Which took place on September 24, 2014. Where the winners of 5 qualifying matches would advance to the main event later that night. The winner of the main event would earn a championship match against any TNA champion, at any time.
TNA World Tag Team Championship #1 Contender Tournament (2014)
On the October 15, 2014, edition of Impact Wrestling, TNA started an eight tag team tournament to determine the number one contenders for the TNA World Tag Team Championship, held by The Wolves (Eddie Edwards and Davey Richards).
TNA World Tag Team Championship Tournament (2015)
Between March 14 and March 16, 2015 episodes of Impact Wrestling a tournament was held to crown new TNA World Tag Team Champions.
TNA X Division Championship Tournament (2015)
On the Destination X 2015 edition of Impact! TNA started a tournament to determine a new TNA X Division Champion, since the title was vacated after Rockstar Spud traded it in for a shot at the World Championship. The tournament consisted of three three–way semifinal matches, taking place on the June 10th edition of Impact!, with the finals, another three–way match, taking place on June 27, 2015.
TNA World Title Series (2015)
On October 7, 2015, it was announced that a tournament would take place, after TNA World Heavyweight Champion Matt Hardy vacated the title a day prior due to a legal injunction filed by former champion Ethan Carter III. The World Title Series places 32 wrestlers into 8 groups of 4, with the first round being under a round-robin format. Also, for the first time ever, the Knockouts were given an opportunity to compete for the World Heavyweight Title.
Each winner in the round-robin matches is awarded 3 points, and a draw is worth 1 point for each, with each match having a 15-minute time limit. The two members of each group with the most points will advance to the final 16, where at that point the tournament switches to a single elimination format.
Impact Grand Championship Tournament (2016)
The title was introduced at the August 13, 2016 tapings of TNA's television program Impact Wrestling after TNA President Billy Corgan announced that the TNA King of the Mountain Championship would be deactivated and retired in favor for the Impact Grand Championship. Corgan also announced an 8-man single elimination tournament that would feature new rules that would apply to the title. The new rules would be similar like the UFC in which each match will be three timed rounds, with a team of judges to award the win based on points, if there is no winner via pin or submission within the time limit. The final match was at 2016's Bound for Glory, where, due to injury Eddie Edwards subbed for Drew Galloway against Aron Rex to determine the inaugural champion.
Impact Knockouts Championship Tournament (2017)
On November 23, 2017 it was announced after Gail Kim retired and vacated the Impact Knockouts Championship that it would be a 6-Women tournament to determine who would be the new Knockouts Champion where two triple threat matches will happen and one finals.
Mashup Tournament
The Mashup Tournament was held in 2019 to determine the #1 contender for the Impact World Championship at Bound for Glory. Four qualification matches for the tournament were held on the July 19, 2019 episode of Impact Wrestling, where wrestlers were randomly paired as partners in tag team matches and the winners of the four tag team matches qualified for a fatal four-way elimination match in the main event of that episode and the participants of the winning team qualified for the #1 contender's match at Unbreakable.
Impact World Championship #1 Contender's Tournament
A tournament was held to determine the new #1 contender for the Impact World Championship from the May 12, 2020 to June 2, 2020 episodes of Impact!.
†Trey was attacked before his match and his The Rascalz teammate Wentz took his place in the finals.
Impact Knockouts Tag Team Revival Championship Tournament (2020–2021)
Over the course of 2020, Impact Wrestling (which had been renamed from TNA in 2017) signed several female talents such as Nevaeh, Tasha Steelz, Deonna Purrazzo, and Kimber Lee, all of which were paired with already established names on the roster. After months of competition between the tag teams in the Knockouts division, on October 24 at the Bound for Glory pay-per-view, Madison Rayne announced that after nearly eight years of inactivity, Impact Wrestling is reviving the Knockouts Tag Team Championship. It was also announced that an eight-team tournament would take place over the next two months to determine the next champions. The brackets were announced in November, with the final taking place at the Hard To Kill pay-per-view in January 2021. At Hard To Kill, Fire 'N Flava (Kiera Hogan and Tasha Steelz) defeated Havok and Nevaeh in the tournament final to win the revived titles.
Tournament Bracket
Homecoming Tournament
A tournament featuring mixed tag teams was held to determine the "King and Queen" at Homecoming on July 31, 2021.
Knockouts Knockdown Tournament (2021)
On the September 23 episode of Impact!, producer Gail Kim announced an eight-woman, one night tournament for the Knockouts Knockdown event, where the winner will earn a future shot at the Impact Knockouts Championship.
Impact X Division Championship Tournament (2021)
On the September 23 episode of Impact!, Impact started a tournament to determine the new Impact X Division Champion, since the title was vacated after Josh Alexander invoked Option C to challenge for the Impact World Championship. The tournament consist of three three–way semi-final matches, with the finals, another three–way match, will taking place at Bound for Glory.
Impact Digital Media Championship Tournament (2021)
On the September 30 episode of Impact!, the Impact Digital Media Championship was introduced and it was announced that an intergender tournament will be held with the inaugural champion being crowned in the final at Bound for Glory. The first round matches will air on Tuesdays and Wednesdays on Impact Plus and on YouTube for Impact Ultimate Insider members, before being distributed to the public across all social media platforms 24 hours later.First roundJohn Skyler defeated Zicky Dice – October 5, 2021
Crazzy Steve defeated Hernandez – October 6, 2021
Fallah Bahh defeated Sam Beale – October 12, 2021
Jordynne Grace defeated Johnny Swinger – October 13, 2021
Chelsea Green defeated Madison Rayne – October 19, 2021
Tenille Dashwood defeated Alisha Edwards – October 20, 2021Final'Jordynne Grace defeated Chelsea Green, Crazzy Steve (with Black Taurus), Fallah Bahh, John Skyler, and Madison Rayne* – October 23, 2021
Impact X Division Championship Tournament (2022)
On October 20, 2022, after Frankie Kazarian vacated the Impact X Division Championship for a shot at the Impact World Championship it was announced that there will be an eight-man tournament to determine who will be the new Impact X Division Champion on November 18, 2022, at Impact Pay-per-view Over Drive.
Impact World Tag Team Championship #1 Contendership Tournament (2023)
On August 2, 2023 a new four man tag team tournament was announced where the winners will face Subculture (Mark Andrews and Flash Morgan Webster) (with their female valet Dani Luna in their corner) for the Impact World Tag Team Championships at Impact Pay-per-view Emergence of year 2023.
Annual tournaments
Bound for Glory Series
The Bound for Glory Series are a tournament in which 12 wrestlers compete in a series of matches over several months to determine who receives a shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Bound for Glory.
Feast or Fired
The Feast or Fired match is a pole match featured in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. In the match, all four ring posts have poles attached, and a briefcase hangs from each pole. The match features a large group of participants, who attempt to scale the turnbuckles and grab the cases. Each case contains a different item, either a title shot or a pink slip.
TNA Turkey Bowl
The TNA Turkey Bowl was a tournament held in 2007 and 2008 aired on the Thanksgiving night episode of TNA Impact! The tournament consisted of three preliminary three way matches. Each match featured a member of the Heavyweight Division, The X Division, and The Tag Team Division with the winner of the match going on to the finals. The winner of the finals, also a three-way match, won $25,000. The wrestler who lost in the finals was forced to put on a turkey suit.
The TNA Turkey Bowl returned with a different format in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2016 which aired on the Thanksgiving night episode of Impact Wrestling.
One Night Only
Impact One Night Only is a periodic series of PPV events held around a particular theme. This section is for annual One Night Only events.
Joker's Wild
Joker's Wild consists of seven tag team matches, where partners are picked by a random lottery. The winning teams advance to the main event, a 14-man battle royal for the chance to win a $100,000 prize.
Queen of the Knockouts
Knockouts Knockdown is an event where current members of the TNA Knockouts Division take on female wrestlers from the independent circuit, with the winners advancing to the main event, a gauntlet battle royal where the winner will be crowned "Queen of the Knockouts."
World Cup
Teams of wrestlers from around the World compete in Heavyweight, X Division, Tag Team and Knockouts Division matches, the winning team members gaining points for their respective teams. The two teams with the most points face off in the main event in a Five-on-Five Elimination tag team match to crown the winners of the TNA World Cup.
In January 2019 taping, Impact brought back the World Cup name for a tournament in partnership with Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide. Team Impact consisted of Sami Callihan, Eli Drake, Eddie Edwards and Fallah Bahh, and Team AAA consisted of Aero Star, El Hijo del Vikingo, Puma King and Psycho Clown. The match, which aired the February 15 Impact!'', was a 4 on 4 single elimination match. The match came down to Edwards and Clown with, Clown eliminating Edwards, after Drake hit Edwards with a kendostick.
See also
Professional wrestling tournament
References
Professional wrestling-related lists |
4533337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20W.%20O%27Daniel | John W. O'Daniel | Lieutenant General John Wilson O'Daniel (February 15, 1894 – March 27, 1975), nicknamed "Iron Mike", was a senior United States Army officer who served in World War I, World War II, and the Korean War. He is perhaps best known for serving with the 3rd Infantry Division in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Southern France during World War II. He was the commanding general (CG) of Audie Murphy, the most decorated soldier in the U.S. Army during World War II.
O'Daniel was an athlete, a teacher, a diplomat, and a lifetime military professional. He was short of stature (five foot six inches), an outspoken, doughty, gravel-voiced, combat leader of men through three major wars (World War I, World War II and the Korean War) spanning a forty-year military career. His motto was, "sharpen your bayonet". In his memoirs, General Dwight D. Eisenhower called him "one of our outstanding combat soldiers". The press likened him to General George S. Patton Jr. for his strong personal opinions and his fearless demeanor, as well as his dash and daring in moving the 3rd Infantry Division across the European Theater of Operations (ETO).
Early life
John Wilson O'Daniel was born in Newark, Delaware on February 15, 1894. He graduated from high school at Oxford, Pennsylvania in 1912 and attended Delaware College in Newark, Delaware (now known as the University of Delaware), where he played varsity football and received the nickname "Mike". He enlisted in the Delaware National Guard in 1913 with Company E, 1st Delaware Infantry. On July 19, 1916, he was mobilized, and served as a corporal and sergeant with the First Infantry at the Mexico border in Deming, New Mexico. He was honorably discharged from service on his 23rd birthday, February 15, 1917.
Early military career and World War I
After graduation from Delaware College in 1917, the same year the United States entered World War I, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Infantry Branch of the United States Army Reserve on August 15 at Reserve Officers Training Camp at Fort Myer, Virginia. He received his regular commission on October 26 and was assigned to the 11th Infantry Regiment, part of the 5th Division, at Camp Forrest, Tennessee. O'Daniel was assigned to command a platoon in K Company of the regiment. His company commander, First Lieutenant Mark W. Clark, would go on to become a great friend and would be destined to play a large part in the newly commissioned O'Daniel's future military career.
In May 1918 he was, together with the rest of his battalion and division, shipped out to the Western Front to reinforce the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), commanded by General John J. Pershing, for the remainder of the war and many months afterward. He took over command of the K Company when Clark, now a captain, was promoted to command the battalion, only to be wounded soon after. O'Daniel participated in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, where he was badly wounded on September 12, 1918, the first day of the battle. Testifying to his endurance and aggressiveness in battle was his nickname, "Iron Mike", awarded by his peers, said to be a result of his actions at Saint-Mihiel, where he fought for twelve hours, even though he was hit in the face by a German machine gun bullet and severely wounded. It was for this action that he was later awarded the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC), the nation's second highest award for valor, for his actions, as well as the Purple Heart. The citation for his DSC reads:
He recovered shortly afterward and went on to participate in what was, and still is, the largest battle in the history of the U.S. Armed Forces, the Meuse–Argonne offensive.
After the war ended, on November 11, 1918 at 11:00am, he returned with the regiment to the United States in September 1919 and was later transferred to the 25th Infantry Regiment at Camp Stephen D. Little at Nogales, Arizona.
Between the wars
O'Daniel became an infantry instructor with New Jersey National Guard at Trenton in May 1924. In September 1927 he entered the Infantry School at Fort Benning Georgia and graduated in May 1928. He was transferred in July 1928 to the 21st Infantry at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii and in January 1930 was placed in command of the Military Police Detachment of the Hawaiian Department at Fort Schafter. In October 1931 he joined the 12th Infantry at Fort Howard, Maryland.
In the 1930s with the country locked in the Great Depression, O'Daniel undertook a series of assignments that departed from traditional military roles. In May 1933, O'Daniel became assistant to the Officer in Charge of the New York Port of Embarkation for the Pilgrimage of War Mothers and Widows. From September to November 1933, he was on Civilian Conservation Corps duty at Smokemont, North Carolina and then was assigned to the 22nd Infantry Regiment at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. In July 1934 he was appointed Army liaison officer with the Tennessee Valley Authority. In March 1935 he became adjutant of District "D" of the Civilian Conservation Corps at Fort McClellan, Alabama. He was named Executive Officer of District "D" in July 1935, earning advancement to major in August, and a year later he became Professor of Military Science and Tactics at the Academy of Richmond County at Augusta, Georgia.
O'Daniel entered the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, in September and graduated in June 1939. He was then assigned to Fort Brady, Michigan as an instructor of the Citizen's Military Training Camp and Officer's Reserve Corps. In August 1939 he became branch instructor in the Michigan Military Area with headquarters in Detroit. On August 18, 1940, O'Daniel was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel.
World War II
In January 1941, during World War II (although the United States was still neutral), he became commander of the 2nd Battalion, 24th Infantry Regiment at Fort Benning with which he participated in the Third Army maneuvers in Louisiana–a critical test of logistical and combat capabilities for the later fighting in World War II. Shortly after the American entry into World War II, on December 24, 1941, he was promoted to colonel and became Assistant Chief of Staff for operations of the Third Army and Director of the Junior Officers Training Center in San Antonio, Texas. In June 1942 he was named Operations Officer of the Amphibious Training Center at Camp Edwards, Massachusetts.
North Africa, Sicily and Italy
In July 1942 O'Daniel was transferred to Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ) in Europe as Commander of the American Invasion Training School in the United Kingdom. In September he assumed command of the 168th Infantry Regiment, part of the 34th Infantry Division, a National Guard formation under Major General Charles W. Ryder, leading it in the Allied invasion of French North Africa (Operation Torch), and led the regiment on November 8–9, 1942 in the capture of Algiers and the subsequent run for Tunis. He was also rewarded with a promotion to the one-star general officer rank of brigadier general, on November 20. In December, he was assigned by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark (who had served with O'Daniel in the 11th Infantry in World War I) to organize the U.S. Fifth Army Invasion Training Center in North Africa which trained the forces for future amphibious landings.
In July 1943 O'Daniel landed in Sicily (which was given the codename of Operation Husky) with the 3rd Infantry Division, under Major General Lucian Truscott. On July 24, 1943, two weeks after the initial landings on Sicily, he returned to Algiers and was attached to the inexperienced 36th "Texas" Infantry Division, another National Guard formation, recruiting from Texas, under the command of Major General Fred L. Walker, for the Salerno landings (Operation Avalanche) in September. Although not required to do so, he chose to land with the troops at Salerno, landing with the 36th's 142nd Infantry Regiment, and, in the words of his biographer, "played a significant role in defending the beachhead, as well as the conduct of beach operations for the 36th Infantry Division". His performance during the fighting continued to impress his more senior commanders, in particular with Walker, who had served with "Mike" in the 1920s, who later personally awarded O'Daniel wuth the Silver Star.
Again, his stay was short as he became officer in charge of amphibious operations for the Fifth Army on October 10, and the following month he succeeded Brigadier General William W. Eagles as the assistant division commander (ADC) of the 3rd Infantry Division, still commanded by Major General Truscott, which had landed in Italy the month before. The division crossed the Volturno Line and advanced up the spine of Italy until being held up by the formidable German Winter Line (also known as the Gustav Line) defenses. The division, after spearheading the Fifth Army's advance and having seen much hard fighting and sustaining heavy casualties, was withdrawn for rest in November.
He took part in the landings at Anzio (Operation Shingle) in January 1944. Operation Shingle was an amphibious assault around the Italian town of Anzio in an attempt to outflank the Gustav Line and capture the Italian capital of Rome. In February O'Daniel assumed command of the 3rd Infantry Division from Major General Truscott, who was promoted to the command of VI Corps from Major General John P. Lucas, while still on the beachhead. While under his command the division repelled several furious German counterattacks, finally breaking out of the beachhead encirclement in May during Operation Diadem and driving to Rome, where he was promoted to the two-star rank of major general. He was also awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal for his service in Italy and, on May 30, 1944, he was promoted to major general.
Much publicized, if not completely reported, was the comment he made at a staff meeting in response to a question from British General Sir Harold R. L. G. Alexander, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the Allied Armies in Italy (later redesignated the 15th Army Group). "I believe your division did not give an inch", asked General Alexander. "Is that true?" The reply from O'Daniel was "Not a God-damned inch."
Western Europe
He served there until August 1944 when O'Daniel and his 3rd Division landed at the St. Tropez Peninsula in Southern France and drove north through the Vosges Mountains to Germany. O'Daniel led the 3rd Division up the Rhône Valley to Strasbourg, in the Colmar Pocket where it decimated German forces in January 1945 and when it smashed across the Siegfried Line at Zweibrücken in March 1945. He frequently flew over the front lines in a light airplane dropping notes to the troops below, exhorting them to advance. He led the division across the River Rhine and participated in the capture of the Nazi citadel at Nuremberg on April 20, 1945, after ruthless house to house fighting. O'Daniel hoisted his flag over Adolf Hitler Square in the center of the city and paid a rousing tribute to the exhausted infantrymen around him for having "driven the hun" from one of the last remaining Nazi strongholds.
Just before noon on April 20, 1945–Adolf Hitler's birthday–the 2nd Battalion of the 30th Infantry Regiment reached the Adolf Hitler Platz in the center of the town after taking its ground in a building-to-building fight. The street markers in the square were replaced by others bearing the name "Eiserner Michael Platz" (Iron Mike Square) in honor of the 3rd Division's CG, Major General John W. O'Daniel, who was known to his intimate friends and to thousands of Marnemen as "Iron Mike."
At 1830, in the battered Adolf Hitler Platz, a rifle platoon from each regiment, as well as tanks, TDs, and Flak wagons, stood in silent array. Old Glory ascended an improvised flagpole and the band played the National Anthem. Major General John W. O'Daniel then spoke.
"Again the 3d Division has taken its objective," he said. "We are standing at the site of the stronghold of Nazi resistance in our zone. Through your feats of arms, you have smashed fifty heavy antiaircraft guns, captured four thousand prisoners, and driven the Hun from every house and every castle and bunker in our part of Nuremberg.
"I congratulate you upon your superior performance. . .
The band broke into "Dogface Soldier." A few bewildered civilians contemplated the red, white, and blue banner flying at half-staff in mourning for President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The 3rd Infantry Division went on to conquer Augsburg, Munich, and Salzburg. It ended the war with the capture of Berchtesgaden, Hitler's mountain stronghold in May 1945. Representatives of German Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring surrendered to him and he turned them over to General Jacob L. Devers, commander of the 6th Army Group, near Munich on May 5, 1945. One of O'Daniel's proudest trophies from the war was a pair of Hermann Göring's trousers. He called them "a lot of pants". At war's end it was reported that O'Daniel's "Rock of the Marne" 3rd Division had been awarded one fourth of all Medals of Honor presented during the war for its feats in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, France and Germany.
In July 1945, O'Daniel was assigned temporary duty with Army Ground Forces Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Later that month he became the commandant of the U.S. Army Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, and in November 1946 was also appointed Commanding General there.
Cold War and later military career
O'Daniel was soon in the midst of the Cold War. He was named Military Attaché at Moscow Russia in June 1948 and after temporary duty with the Intelligence Division at Army headquarters, assumed that position the following September, serving until August 1950 when he was appointed Infantry Inspector in the Office of the Chief of Army Field Forces at Fort Monroe, Virginia. He once recalled that it was the only time he ever wore all of his military decorations he had received, "to dazzle the Russians who were impressed with his medals." After returning from Moscow he made news when he wrote a lengthy magazine article about his experience and was quoted as saying, "For all its advertised glory, Moscow first impressed me, and still does, as a vast slum." The Soviet newspaper Pravda responded by accusing him of being a spy and a liar.
In July 1951, he went to Korea to command I Corps (United States), U.S. 8th Army for his last combat assignment. During his service in Korea, he was awarded the Air Medal for meritorious achievement on flights from July 21 to August 14, 1951, and the Commendation Ribbon for meritorious achievement on July 18, 1951. O'Daniel gained an appreciation for the use of airpower saying "The airlift to Korea is one of the greatest developments of this war. It gives a commander advantages he never had in wars before." He pinned on his third star on December 20, 1951.
On September 1, 1952, O'Daniel became commanding general of U.S. Army Forces Pacific returning once again to Fort Schafter, Hawaii.
In April 1954, at the behest of President Eisenhower, he was posted as the Chief of the Military Assistance Advisory Group for Indo-China, leading the vanguard of America's involvement in Indochina. America was seeking to bolster wavering French resolve against Communist aggression. O'Daniel took a voluntary drop in rank so he would not outrank the French commander at that time. His appointment was somewhat controversial because some viewed him as not having the requisite tact and sophistication. Eisenhower defended him, believing that his critics underestimated him. "Despite his nickname and his tough exterior", Eisenhower wrote, "General O'Daniel was a man of great ability and tact". He had been chosen for the assignment largely on the basis of his successful role in creating and supervising the training programs which had transformed the South Korean Army into an effective fighting force during the Korean War. Eventually, he came to lead the 342-man group tasked with building South Vietnam's defense forces, as permitted by the Geneva Accord.
He was optimistic that with American help Communism in Southeast Asia could be held at bay. He recommended an increased American presence as France disengaged from the area. His advice was taken, and he proceeded with 350 additional men to train and equip a more competent and professional South Vietnamese military. "Iron Mike" became a forceful advocate of the U.S. commitment to South Vietnam, calling it "a test of our guts and our resilience." At the end of 1955, he passed his command to Lt. Gen. Samuel Tankersley Williams. A monument to O'Daniel was erected at Quang Trung, about ten miles west of Saigon, the site of the largest training camp in the country at the time.
O'Daniel retired from active service on December 31, 1955. At his retirement ceremony General Maxwell Taylor, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, paid a personal tribute during a Pentagon ceremony. Commenting that "'Iron Mike' always gets his objective", General Taylor told the story of how O'Daniel captured Berchtesgaden in May 1945. Racing down one side of the Autobahn and finally putting his forces across the single available bridge, O'Daniel's men won the spirited race to the prized objective from the soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division. General Taylor had been in command of the 101st at the time. O'Daniel was awarded a third oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal at the ceremony.
Decorations
His military decorations include the French Croix de Guerre, the British Order of the Bath, the Italian Medaglia d'Argento al Valore Militare, the Distinguished Service Cross, the Army Distinguished Service Medal with three Oak Leaf Clusters, the Silver Star with Oak Leaf Cluster, the Legion of Merit with three Oak Leaf Clusters, the Bronze Star with three Oak Leaf Clusters, and the Purple Heart.
He was given Delaware's highest civilian medal, the Governor's Medal as well as the Conspicuous Service Cross of Delaware. He was awarded an honorary PhD from the University of Delaware in 1956.
Distinguished Service Cross
Army Distinguished Service Medal with three Oak Leaf Clusters
Silver Star with Oak Leaf Cluster
Legion of Merit with three Oak Leaf Clusters
Bronze Star with three Oak Leaf Clusters
Purple Heart
Croix de guerre 1939-1945
Order of the Bath
Silver Medal of Military Valor
Later life
After returning from South Vietnam and retiring, he was chairman of a civilian group called American Friends of Vietnam, demonstrating his personal commitment to the Vietnamese people.
He attended a reunion in Newark at the University of Delaware also attended by retired Marine Corps Lieutenant General Robert T. Pepper, and General Julian C. Smith in 1967. O'Daniel sent his alma mater a portrait given to him by Ngo Dinh Diem, the first president of South Vietnam. The Middletown Transcript recorded his last visit to Delaware on Nov 28 1971: "Lt. Gen. John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel, World War II hero, returned to Newark to settle the estate of his aunt Miss Etta J. Wilson."
A 1945 oil portrait of O'Daniel by Stanley Arthurs hangs in Alumni Hall at the University of Delaware.
He died in San Diego on March 27, 1975, survived by his wife Gretchen, a daughter, Mrs. Ruth Snyder of Pacific Grove California, and four grandchildren. His first wife, Ruth died in 1965. His only son, John W. O'Daniel Jr., a paratrooper, was killed in action in World War II, near Arnhem in September 1944 during Operation Market Garden, while serving in the 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment, part of Major General James Gavin's 82nd Airborne Division. A brother, J. Allison O'Daniel, was killed in an air crash while serving in World War I.
See also
O'Daniel's Battle sled
References
Sources
Documents from the U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
"Iron Mike O'Daniel Dead: A General in Three Wars," Obituary New York Times, 29 March 1975 p. 26
"O'Daniel Starts Vietnam Training," New York Times, 13 Feb 1955
"Died. Lieut. General John W. ("Iron Mike")O'Daniel, 81," Time Magazine: 7 April 1975
"Lt. Gen. John (Iron Mike) O'Daniel Dies," Obituary Washington Post, March 30, 1975. p. B6
"'Iron Mike' Always Gets His Objective, Says General Taylor (He Should Know)," ANAFJ, 17 Dec 1955.
"Gen. O'Daniel Dies; Served in 3 U.S. Wars," Wilmington Evening Journal, 29 March 1975
"Generals O'Daniel, Pepper, Julian Smith Return for Delaware Annual Reunion," Newark Post Newark Delaware, Thursday May 11, 1967
"When Talking About Heroes, Remember these Three Men," Elbert Chance, News Journal Compass, October 22, 1987
Official Biography prepared by DoD Office of Public Information, August 1954
External links
Generals of World War II
J.W. O'Daniel Find a grave
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Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
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Recipients of the Silver Medal of Military Valor
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
United States Army personnel of World War I
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1894 births
1975 deaths
People from Newark, Delaware
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4533683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout%203 | Fallout 3 | Fallout 3 is a 2008 action role-playing game developed by Bethesda Game Studios and published by Bethesda Softworks. The third major installment in the Fallout series, it is the first game to be developed by Bethesda after acquiring the rights to the franchise from Interplay Entertainment. The game marks a major shift in the series by using 3D graphics and real-time combat, replacing the 2D isometric graphics and turn-based combat of previous installments. It was released worldwide in October 2008 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360.
The game is set within a post-apocalyptic, open world environment that encompasses a scaled region consisting of the ruins of Washington, D.C., and much of the countryside to the north and west of it in Maryland and Virginia, referred to as the Capital Wasteland. There is also DLC set in Pennsylvania and pre-War Alaska. It takes place within Fallout usual setting of a world that deviated into an alternate timeline thanks to atomic age technology, which eventually led to its devastation by a nuclear apocalypse in the year 2077 (referred to as the Great War), caused by a major international conflict between the United States and China over natural resources and the last remaining supplies of untapped uranium and crude oil. The main story takes place in the year 2277, around 36 years after the events of Fallout 2, of which it is not a direct sequel. Players take control of an inhabitant of Vault 101, one of several underground shelters created before the Great War to protect around 1,000 humans from the nuclear fallout, who is forced to venture out into the Capital Wasteland to find their father after he disappears from the Vault under mysterious circumstances. They find themselves seeking to complete their father's work while fighting against the Enclave, the corrupt remnants of the former U.S. Government that seeks to use it for their own purposes.
Fallout 3 was met with universal acclaim and received a number of Game of the Year awards, praising the game's open-ended gameplay and flexible character-leveling system, and is considered one of the best video games ever made. Fallout 3 sold more than Bethesda's previous game, The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion and shipped almost 5 million copies in its first week. The game received post-launch support, with Bethesda releasing five downloadable add-ons. The game was met with controversy upon release in Australia, for the recreational drug use and the ability to be addicted to alcohol and other drugs; in India, for cultural and religious sentiments over the mutated cattle in the game being called Brahmin, a varna (class) in Hinduism; and in Japan, where a questline involving the potential detonation of a nuclear bomb in a prominent town was heavily altered. The game was followed by spin-off Fallout: New Vegas, developed by Obsidian Entertainment in 2010. The fourth major installment in the Fallout series, Fallout 4, was released in 2015.
Gameplay
Unlike previous titles of the series, Fallout 3 is played from the first-person perspective. The players have the option to switch between this and an "over-the-shoulder" third-person perspective at any time after the initial stages of the game. While many elements from previous titles are reused, such as the S.P.E.C.I.A.L. system, and the types of enemy encountered, major elements in the combat system are added, changed, or removed.
Character creation and attributes
Character creation is done through a tutorial prologue that encompasses the different ages of the player's character, which also covers tutorials on movement, the HUD, combat, interactions with the game world, and the use of the Pip-Boy 3000. The character's creation is done in steps, with the player first setting up their appearance along with what race and gender their character is, and the name they have. Next, they customize their character's primary attributes via the S.P.E.C.I.A.L. system (Strength, Perception, Endurance, Charisma, Intelligence, Agility, and Luck) which is retained in Fallout 3, and determines the base level of the Skills the character has. Which three Skills their character focuses on can either be left to the choices they make with a series of questions, or by choosing manually what they desire.
Character creation is not finalized until the player leaves Vault 101 and enters the Capital Wasteland, allowing players the option to modify their character's appearance, primary attributes and Skill choices if they are not satisfied with their choices. As the character progresses through the game, experience points (XP) are earned from accomplishing various actions, such as completing a quest, killing an enemy, and so forth, with a new level granted upon reaching the necessary amount of XP. A new level grants the player the ability to allocate points to the various Skills available and thus improve upon them, making them more effective; for instance, a higher lock-picking skill allows the player to be able to tackle more difficult locks on doors and containers, while a higher medicine skill increases the amount of health recovered with Stimpaks. Once the character achieves their second level, they can be granted a Perk, which offers advantages of varying quality and form, such as being able to carry more items, finding more ammo in containers, and having a higher chance to perform a critical hit. Many Perks have a set of prerequisites that need to be satisfied, often requiring a certain Skill level to acquire them, while a new Perk can be granted for every two levels earned by the character. Additional improvements to Skill levels can be made by finding Skill books, which confer a permanent boost to levels, while players can search for and find a series of 20 bobbleheads that confer a bonus to these and primary attributes.
An important statistic tracked by the game is Karma, which is affected by the decisions and actions the character performs during the game. Positive actions to Karma include freeing captives and helping others, while negative actions towards this include killing good characters and stealing. Actions vary in the level of karma change they cause; thus, pickpocketing produces less negative karma than the killing of a good character. Karma can have tangible effects to the player, beyond acting as flavor for the game's events, in that it can affect the ending the player gets, alter dialogue with non-player characters (NPCs) or give off unique reactions from other characters, while also granting access to certain perks that require a specific Karma level. However, the player's relationships with the game's factions are distinct, so any two groups or settlements may view the player in contrasting ways, depending on the player's conduct.
Health, weapons, and apparel
A character's health is divided between two types: HP (health points) and Limbs. While HP is the general amount of health that a character and other NPCs have (friendly, neutral, or hostile) and which depletes when damage is taken, either from combat, setting off traps, falling from a height or self injury, Limb health is specific to each portion of the body, namely the arms, legs, head, and torso, although non-human enemies feature additional appendages, and robotic enemies feature different types of appendages. Limbs can be damaged in the same way as HP, although once depleted they become crippled and induce a negative status effect, such as blurred vision if the head is crippled, or reduced movement speed if one or both legs are crippled. Both HP and Limbs can be recovered through the use of medical medicine in the form of Stimpaks, as well as sleeping and visiting a doctor, while HP can be slowly recovered by consuming food and drinking water and/or soft drinks. Players can also be affected by other negative health effects, including radiation poisoning and withdrawal symptoms. While the latter occurs when the player's character becomes addicted to alcohol or other drugs and confers negative effects if the player does not continue using them, radiation poisoning occurs when the character absorbs radiation, either by walking through areas with background radiation or consuming food and drink that is contaminated with a small amount of radiation. The negative impacts of both can affect S.P.E.C.I.A.L. attributes and can be treated by a doctor; radiation can be dealt with by using Rad Away. Furthermore, the amount of background radiation absorbed can be reduced through the use of Rad-X drugs and special apparel, both of which improve resistance to radiation.
All weapons and apparel found, regardless of whether they are a makeshift-weapon such as a lead pipe, or a gun, degrade over time the more they are used, and thus become less effective. For firearms, degrading into poor condition causes them to do less damage and possibly jam when reloading, while apparel that reduces damage becomes less protective as it gradually absorbs damage from attacks. When too much damage is taken, the items break and cannot be used. To ensure weapons and apparel continue to work effectively, such items require constant maintenance and repairs which can be done in one of two ways. The first method is to find certain vendors who can repair items, although how much they can repair an item depends on their skill level, while the cost of the repairs depends upon the cost of the item itself. The second method is for players to find a second of the same item that needs repairs (or a comparable item), and salvaging parts from it for the repair, although how much they can do depends on their character's repair skill. In addition to finding weaponry, the player can create their own. To craft such weapons, the player must use a workbench, possess either the necessary schematics or the right Perk, and scavenge for the items needed to make them. These weapons usually possess significant advantages over other weapons of their type. Each weapon's schematic has three copies that can be found, and possessing additional copies improves the condition (or number) of items produced at the workbench, while a higher repair skill will result in a better starting condition for the related weapon. Weapon schematics can be found lying in certain locations, bought from vendors, or received as quest rewards.
V.A.T.S.
The Vault-Tec Assisted Targeting System (V.A.T.S.) is a new element in the Fallout series that serves as a successor to the aimed shot mechanic from the earlier games, and plays an important part in combat within Fallout 3. The system was introduced by Bethesda's developers, who described it as a hybrid between timeturn-based and real-time combat, so much in that while using V.A.T.S., real-time combat is paused and action is played out from varying camera angles in a computer graphics version of bullet time. Using the system costs action points (AP), the amount of which depends on the weapon being used and thus limiting the actions of the player's combat during a turn. Through the system, the player can switch between multiple targets (if there is more than one around at any time), and also target specific areas of them to inflict damage; a player could either target the head for a quick kill, go for the legs to slow an enemy's movements, or shoot at their weapons to disarm them, and for some enemies, they can put them into a berserker rage by hitting specific parts. The chance of striking a different area, displayed as a percentage ratio, is dependent on the weapon being used, and the distance between the character and the target; a character who is a higher level when using V.A.T.S is also more likely to hit an enemy with the system than a lower level character. The use of V.A.T.S. does confer a negative effect, in that it eliminates most of the first-person shooter elements of the game; aiming is taken over by the computer, and the player is unable to move as a means of avoiding attacks. Furthermore, ranged weapons are capable of hitting limbs, while melee weapons focus on the target in whole when using V.A.T.S.
Companions
During their travels across the Wasteland, the player can be accompanied by a single NPC companion, who can assist in combat. Which companion can accompany the player depends on who they have encountered that can join them; it is possible to not encounter all depending on how the game is played. Only one companion may travel with the player, and should they wish to take another with them, the first must be dismissed (either voluntarily by the player or as a consequence of other events) or die in combat. One unique companion the player can have, that can allow a second to join without issue, is a dog named Dogmeat, who can be killed during the game if the player misuses him or places him in a severely dangerous situation; the release of the Broken Steel DLC, makes it possible to replace Dogmeat, provided the player acquires a Perk that grants the opportunity of getting another dog.
Plot
Setting
Fallout 3 takes place in the year 2277, and within the region that covers most of the ruined city of Washington, D.C., Northern Virginia, and parts of Maryland (mostly Montgomery County). The game's scaled landscape includes war-ravaged variants of numerous real-life landmarks, such as the White House, the Jefferson and Lincoln Memorials, Arlington National Cemetery, and the Washington Monument, with a small number of settlements dotted around the Capital Wasteland that consist of descendants of survivors from the Great War, including one that surrounds an unexploded bomb, another consisting primarily of ghoul inhabitants, and another formed within the hulking remains of an aircraft carrier. While the city can be explored, much of the interior zones are cut off by giant rubble over many of the roads leading in, meaning that access to some areas can only be achieved by using the ruins of the city's underground metro tunnels (loosely based on the real-life Washington Metro).
The region has two major factions within it: the Enclave and the Brotherhood of Steel. While the Enclave is similar in goal to their western brethren, the eastern branch of the Brotherhood of Steel seeks to assist the people of the Wasteland, although a small group rejected this and became outcasts who seek to resume their original goal of salvaging high-level technology. Other factions include former slaves who seek to inspire others for freedom by restoring the Lincoln Memorial, a group that feast on blood, and a group who tend and care for a region of the wastes where plants have become abundant.
Story
For the first 19 years of their life from 2258 to 2277, the player character grows up within the isolated confines of Vault 101 (designed to never be opened as a social experiment by the pre-war corporation known as Vault-Tec) alongside their father James, a doctor and scientist who assists in the Vault's clinic. While growing up, their father comments about their deceased mother Catherine and her favorite passage from the Bible (Revelation 21:6), which speaks of "the waters of life." Upon reaching their 19th birthday, chaos erupts when James suddenly leaves the Vault, causing the Overseer to lock down the Vault and send security guards after James' child. The player character escapes from the Vault with the aid of the Overseer's daughter Amata, and starts searching for James. They begin at the nearby town of Megaton, named for the undetonated atomic bomb at the center of town, and eventually venture into the ruins of Washington, D.C. At the Galaxy News Radio station in Washington, D.C., the player character is given the moniker of The Lone Wanderer after helping the station's enthusiastic DJ Three Dog. Three Dog directs the Lone Wanderer towards Rivet City, a derelict aircraft carrier serving as a fortified human settlement, where they meet with Doctor Madison Li, a scientist who worked alongside James. Li informs the Lone Wanderer that their parents were not born in Vault 101, but lived outside of it, where they worked together on a plan to purify all the water in the Tidal Basin and eventually the entire Potomac River, with a giant water purifier built in the Jefferson Memorial, called Project Purity. However, constant delays and Catherine's death during childbirth forced James to abandon the project and seek refuge in Vault 101, where he took the Lone Wanderer to raise within a safe environment far away from the dangers of the wasteland.
The Lone Wanderer learns that James seeks to revive the project and continue his work by acquiring a Garden of Eden Creation Kit (G.E.C.K.), a powerful piece of technology issued by Vault-Tec intended to assist in rebuilding civilization after the war. They track James to Vault 112, and frees him from a virtual reality program being run by the Vault's sadistic Overseer, Dr. Stanislaus Braun, whom James had sought out for information on a G.E.C.K.. Reunited, the pair return to Rivet City and recruit Li and the other project members to resume work at the Jefferson Memorial. As they begin testing the project, the Memorial is invaded by the Enclave, a powerful military organization formed from the remnants of the United States government, which continues to remain active despite the demise of their brethren on the West Coast thirty years previously. Seeking to stop them from gaining control of his work, James urges the Lone Wanderer to finish his work and find a G.E.C.K. before flooding the project's control room with massive amounts of radiation, preventing the Enclave's military leader, Colonel Augustus Autumn, from taking control of the project; he dies in the process from radiation overdose. Autumn survives, however, and the rest of the team flees from the remaining Enclave soldiers. The Lone Wanderer, accompanied by the remaining Project Purity members, make contact with the Brotherhood of Steel within the ruins of the Pentagon, now known as the Citadel. With their help, the Lone Wanderer travels to Vault 87 to find a G.E.C.K., which had been used as a testing site for the Forced Evolutionary Virus (FEV) and is now a breeding ground for the Super Mutants. The Lone Wanderer recovers the G.E.C.K. from within the Vault with the optional help of a friendly Super Mutant named Fawkes. As they make their way out, the Lone Wanderer is captured by Colonel Autumn and the Enclave, and the G.E.C.K confiscated.
At the Enclave base at Raven Rock, the Lone Wanderer is freed from their cell by the Enclave leader, President John Henry Eden, who requests a private audience with them, but Colonel Autumn defies Eden's orders, takes command of the Enclave's military, and orders the Lone Wanderer to be shot on sight. Despite the setback, the Wanderer meets with Eden who is revealed to be a sentient ZAX series supercomputer that took control of the Enclave after President Dick Richardson was killed on the West Coast. Seeking to repeat Richardson's plans, Eden reveals his intentions of using Project Purity to infect the water with a modified strain of FEV that will make it toxic to any mutated life, thus killing off most life in the Wasteland including humans. The Enclave, who would be immune to the effects because of their genetic purity as a result of their isolation, would be free to take control of the area. The Lone Wanderer is forced to take a sample of the new FEV before leaving the base, which they can do peacefully or by convincing Eden to self-destruct. Returning to the Citadel, where news of the Enclave's possession of the G.E.C.K. is known to the Brotherhood, the Lone Wanderer joins them in a desperate final assault on the Jefferson Memorial, which is spearheaded through the use of a giant prewar military robot named Liberty Prime. After reaching the control room, the player has the choice to either convince Autumn to leave or kill him. Li informs the Wanderer that the purifier is ready for activation, but that the code must be input manually within the control room, meaning whoever goes in will be subjected to lethal amounts of radiation. To make matters worse, the purifier has been damaged and will self-destruct if not activated.
At this point, the Lone Wanderer can either:
Do nothing and let the purifier explode, destroying the Jefferson Memorial and killing everyone inside in the process.
Sacrifice themselves and input the right code that is hinted throughout the game.
Send Sarah Lyons into the chamber and give her the right code.
Except for the first choice, the Lone Wanderer has the choice of introducing the modified FEV into the purifier or not, which further affects the ending. Whatever the choice, a bright light enshrouds all, and an ending slideshow begins, including any actions they took that had an influence on the wasteland.
Broken Steel ending
Although the main story ends here, the introduction of the Broken Steel DLC creates a new choice with the ending, in that the Lone Wanderer can send one of their radiation-immune companions, most notably Fawkes, into the chamber to input the code. Furthermore, the game remains open-ended from this point onwards, with the Wanderer surviving the radiation they were subjected to. The Wanderer wakes up two weeks later to the news that the purifier is working well and supplying clean water to the people of the Wasteland. However, if the player decides to infect the water purifier with the modified FEV, then adverse effects can be seen across the Capital Wasteland. The player's choice will also influence Sarah Lyons' fate. Sarah Lyons does not survive if sent into the chamber in the Broken Steel ending.
Development
Interplay Entertainment
Fallout 3 was initially under development by Black Isle Studios, a studio owned by Interplay Entertainment, under the working title Van Buren. Black Isle Studios was the developer of Fallout 2, and many staff members had worked on the original Fallout before Black Isle was spun off as a distinct developer within Interplay. When Interplay Entertainment went bankrupt and closed down Black Isle Studios before the game could be completed, the license to develop Fallout 3 was sold for a $1,175,000 minimum guaranteed advance against royalties to Bethesda Softworks, a studio primarily known as the developer of The Elder Scrolls series. Bethesda's Fallout 3, however, was developed from scratch, using neither Van Buren code nor any other materials created by Black Isle Studios. In May 2007, a playable technology demo of the canceled project was released to the public.
Shortly after the release of the original Fallout, Tim Cain, Jason Anderson, and Leonard Boyarsky, key members of the original Fallout team, left Interplay and formed Troika Games. When Interplay sought to sell the rights to Fallout, Troika tried, unsuccessfully, to acquire the license. Boyarsky, who served as the original art director of Fallout, when asked about Interplay Entertainment's sale of the rights to Bethesda Softworks rather than Troika, said: "To be perfectly honest, I was extremely disappointed that we did not get the chance to make the next Fallout game. This has nothing to do with Bethesda, it's just that we've always felt that Fallout was ours and it was just a technicality that Interplay happened to own it. It sort of felt as if our child had been sold to the highest bidder, and we had to just sit by and watch. Since I have absolutely no idea what their plans are, I can't comment on whether I think they're going in the right direction with it or not."
Bethesda Softworks
Bethesda Softworks started working on Fallout 3 in July 2004, but principal development did not begin until after The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion and its related extras and plug-ins were completed. Bethesda Softworks made Fallout 3 similar to the previous two games, focusing upon non-linear gameplay, story, and black comedy. Bethesda pursued an ESRB rating of M (for "mature") by including the adult themes, violence, and depravity characteristic of the Fallout series. They shied away from the self-referential gags of the game's predecessors that broke the illusion that the world of Fallout is real. Fallout 3 uses a version of the same Gamebryo engine as Oblivion, and was developed by the team responsible for that game. Liam Neeson was cast as the voice of the player's father.
In February 2007, Bethesda stated that the game was "a fairly good ways away" from release but that detailed information and previews would be available later in the year. Following a statement made by Pete Hines that the team wanted to make the game a "multiple platform title", the game was announced by Game Informer to be in development for Windows, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3. According to game director Todd Howard, the original plan was to recreate Washington, D.C., entirely in the game, but it was reconstructed by half; this was because a full implementation would require too complicated a job and an excessive long-term development.
During a March 21, 2008, Official Xbox Magazine podcast interview, Todd Howard revealed that the game had expanded to nearly the same scope as Oblivion. There were originally at least 12 versions of the final cutscene, but, with further development, this expanded to over 200 possible permutations in the final release, all of which are determined by the actions taken by the player. Bethesda Softworks attended E3 2008 to showcase Fallout 3. The first live demo of the Xbox 360 version of the game was shown and demonstrated by Todd Howard, taking place in downtown Washington, D.C. The demo showcased various weapons such as the Fat Man nuclear catapult, the V.A.T.S. system and the functions of the Pip-Boy 3000 as well as combat with several enemies. The demo concluded as the player neared the Brotherhood of Steel-controlled Pentagon and was attacked by an Enclave patrol.
Howard confirmed that, in addition to thematics about slavery and cannibalism, there would be the presence of splatter scenes and exposition of evident mutilations on enemies with release of gibs. The inspiration to include scenes with such explicit violence came from the "crash mode" of the driving simulator series Burnout. Instead of cars that disintegrated because of the damage, the idea of applying kinematics on bodies who suffered wounds and mutilations due to ballistic trauma or beatings.
Emil Pagliarulo, a writer formerly at Looking Glass Studios, was commissioned by Bethesda to write the main script of Fallout 3. He also worked in part to The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivions script. Pagliarulo took charge of writing the incipit of Fallout 3, then played by Ron Perlman, and he tried to be inspired by first Fallouts incipit, in 1997, which he considered vitally important to describe the story that Fallout 3 would have to tell. To succeed in making this script effective, Pagliarulo, had to go in the opposite direction to his previous work on Oblivion, which both for setting and characters, represented an extreme Fallout inverse.
The main model to follow, for Pagliarulo, was always the first Fallout, which by his own admission had more the peculiarity of synthesis in dialogues, rather than Fallout 2, which had a more blear and muddled screenplay written by Chris Avellone, who Pagliarulo would nonetheless describe as "a fantastic writer."
Music and audio
The score was composed by Inon Zur, who does not consider himself the only person responsible for the musical work on Fallout 3. Zur cited game director Todd Howard and the sound designer Mark Lambert for helping him to manage the in-game sound implementation, stating he made only 50%. Zur also said that he conceived the soundtrack based on what the player would perceive on psychological level, rather than on what the player would see on the screen, so placing the listener musically ahead over the environment in which he or she moves. Apart from a few exceptions, Inon Zur said that the soundtrack of the game was mainly composed using a sampler.
Several actors of film and video games lent their voices to Fallout 3, including Liam Neeson as James, Ron Perlman as the game's narrator, Malcolm McDowell as President John Henry Eden, Craig Sechler as Butch DeLoria, Erik Todd Dellums as Three Dog, and Odette Yustman as Amata Almodovar. Veteran voice actors Dee Bradley Baker, Wes Johnson, Paul Eiding, and Stephen Russell also provided voice-overs for the game. Blindlight manager Lev Chapelsky told Edge that his company tried to get former U.S. President Bill Clinton to voice Eden, though Bethesda said he was never seriously considered. The Fallout 3 soundtrack continued the series' convention of featuring sentimental 1940s American big band music, including the main theme, a few other incidental songs recorded by The Ink Spots and The Andrews Sisters, and songs by other artists such as Roy Brown, Billie Holiday, Billy Munn, Cole Porter, and Bob Crosby.
Remaster
An internal ZeniMax presentation, dated to 2020 and released as part of the FTC v. Microsoft case in 2023, indicated that a "Fallout 3 Remaster" was earmarked for a release in 2024, among other unannounced titles. The document was produced prior to Microsoft's acquisition of ZeniMax in 2021, so it remains unclear whether the project is still in development.
Marketing and release
Trailers
A teaser site for the game appeared on May 2, 2007, and featured music from the game and concept art, along with a timer that counted down to June 5, 2007. The artists and developers involved later confirmed that the concept art, commissioned before Oblivion had been released, did not reveal anything from the actual game. When the countdown finished, the site hosted the first teaser trailer for the game, and unveiled a release date of fall 2008. The press kit released with the trailer indicated that Ron Perlman would be on board with the project. The trailer featured The Ink Spots song "I Don't Want to Set the World on Fire", which the previous Fallout developer Black Isle Studios originally intended to license for use in the first Fallout game. The trailer, which was completely done with in-engine assets, closed with Ron Perlman saying his trademark line which he also spoke in the original Fallout: "War. War never changes." The trailer showed a devastated Washington, D.C., evidenced by the partially damaged Washington Monument in the background as well as the crumbling buildings that surrounded a rubble-choked city thoroughfare.
A second trailer was first shown during a GameTrailers TV E3 special on July 12, 2008. The trailer zoomed out from a ruined house in the Washington, D.C., suburbs, and provided a wider view of the capital's skyline including the Capitol Building and Washington Monument in the distance. On July 14, 2008, an extended version of this trailer was made available, which besides the original content, included a Vault-Tec advertisement and actual gameplay. Both versions of the trailer featured the song "Dear Hearts and Gentle People" as recorded by Bob Crosby and the Bobcats.
Film festival
On July 11, 2008, as a part of promoting Fallout 3, Bethesda Softworks partnered with American Cinematheque and Geek Monthly to sponsor A Post-Apocalyptic Film Festival Presented by Fallout 3. The festival took place on August 22–23 at Santa Monica's Aero Theater. Six post-apocalyptic movies were shown which depict life and events that could occur after a world-changing disaster, including Wizards, Damnation Alley, A Boy and His Dog, The Last Man on Earth, The Omega Man, and Twelve Monkeys.
Retail versions
Fallout 3 was released in five separate versions, three of which were made available worldwide:
The Standard Edition includes the game disc and instruction manual.
The Collector's Edition includes the game disc, manual, a bonus making-of disc, a concept artbook, and a 5" Vault Boy Bobblehead, all of which is contained in a Vault-Tec lunchbox. In Australia, the Collector's Edition was available at Gametraders and EB Games.
The Limited Edition includes the game disc and manual, as well as a Brotherhood of Steel Power Armor figurine. This edition was available only in the UK through the retailer Game.
The Survival Edition includes everything from the Collector's Edition, as well as a model of the Pip-Boy 3000 from the game which functions as a digital clock. The Survival Edition is available from Amazon.com to U.S. customers only.
The Game of the Year Edition, which includes the original Fallout 3 game as well as all five of the downloadable content packs, was released on October 13, 2009, in North America and October 16, 2009 in Europe. It was released in Australia on October 22, 2009, and in Japan on December 3, 2009. It was made available on Steam on December 17, 2009. Xbox 360 and PC versions of Fallout 3 and Oblivion double pack was announced for release in North America on April 3, 2012.
Downloadable content
Bethesda's Todd Howard confirmed during E3 2008 that downloadable content (DLC) would be prepared for the Xbox 360 and Windows versions of Fallout 3. There are five DLCs: Operation: Anchorage, The Pitt, Broken Steel, Point Lookout, and Mothership Zeta, released in that order. Of the five, Broken Steel has the largest effect on the game, altering the ending and allowing the player to continue playing past the end of the main quest line.
Originally, there was no downloadable content announced for the PlayStation 3 version of the game. Although Bethesda had not offered an explanation as to why the content was not released for PlayStation 3, Lazard Capital Markets analyst Colin Sebastian speculated that it may have been the result of a money deal with Bethesda by Sony's competitor, Microsoft. When asked if the PlayStation 3 version would receive an update that would enable gameplay beyond the main quest's completion, Todd Howard responded: "Not at this time, no." In May 2009, Bethesda announced that the existing DLC packs (Operation: Anchorage, The Pitt and Broken Steel) would be made available for the PlayStation 3; the later two (Point Lookout and Mothership Zeta) were released for all platforms.
On October 1, 2009, a New Xbox Experience premium theme for the game was released for the Xbox 360. Consumers could pay 240 Microsoft Points, or by having downloaded all other downloadable content. The PlayStation 3 received a free theme, featuring a Brotherhood of Steel Knight in the background, and includes symbols from the game as icons on the PS3 home menu. In December 2008, the editor known as the G.E.C.K. (Garden of Eden Creation Kit) was made available for the Windows version of the game as a free download from the Fallout 3 website.
Reception
Reviews
Fallout 3 received "universal acclaim" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. 1UP.com's Demian Linn praised its open-ended gameplay and flexible character-leveling system. While the V.A.T.S. system was called fun, enemy encounters were said to suffer from a lack of precision in real-time combat and little variety in enemy types. The review concluded, Fallout 3 is a "hugely ambitious game that doesn't come around very often." IGN editor Erik Brudvig praised the game's "minimalist" sound design, observing how "you might find yourself with nothing but the sound of wind rustling through decaying trees and blowing dust across the barren plains ... Fallout 3 proves that less can be more." The review noted that the "unusual amount of realism" combined with the "endless conversation permutations" produces "one of the most truly interactive experiences of the generation." In a review of the game for Kotaku, Mike Fahey commented: "While Inon Zur's score is filled with epic goodness, the real stars of Fallout 3s music are the vintage songs from the 1940s."
Tim Cain, Fallout and Fallout 2 game director, praised the art direction and the attention to details in the game but did not like the way the endings were not enough constructed around player's actions and decisions. He was also critical of how the game recycled plot elements from the first two games, such as Super Mutants and the Enclave, saying that if his company, Troika Games, had acquired the license, he would have come up with a completely original story for the East coast. Chris Avellone, Fallout 2s main writer, described the game as having "enough options and tools at disposal to insure was having fun no matter what the challenges", praising the immersion in Fallouts world, the success in carrying on the legacy of the previous two games, and the fulfilling open-world component; he criticized the writing of some characters and some of gameplay's choices in balancing the skills of the player character. Will Tuttle of GameSpy commended the game for its "engaging storyline, impeccable presentation, and hundreds of hours of addictive gameplay." Although Edge awarded the game 7 out of 10, in a later anniversary issue it placed the game 37th in a "100 best games to play today" list, saying "Fallout 3 empowers, engages and rewards to extents that few games have ever achieved."
Some criticisms concerned the bugs in regards to the physics and crashes, some of which broke quests and even prevented progression. The AI and stiff character animations are another common point of criticism, as is the ending. Edge stated that "the game is cumbersome in design and frequently incompetent in the details of execution", taking particular issue with the nakedness of the HUD, the clarity of the menu interface, and that the smaller problems are carried over from Oblivion. Edge liked the central story but said "the writing isn't quite as consistent as the ideas that underpin" and that the "voice-acting is even less reliable."
Sales
During first week of publication, Fallout 3 beat all previous Fallout chapters' combined sales, making 57% stronger sales than the first week's performance of Bethesda's The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion in 2006. As of early November 2008, Fallout 3 shipped over 4.7 million units, grossing . According to NPD Group, as of January 2009, the Xbox 360 version had sold 1.14 million units, and the PlayStation 3 version had sold 552,000 units. The Xbox 360 version was the 14th best-selling game of December 2008 in the United States, while the PlayStation 3 version was the 8th best-selling PlayStation 3 game in that region and month. The Xbox 360 version received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Sales in the United Kingdom reached 750,000 units by May 2009.
Fallout 3 was one of the most played titles in Xbox Live in 2009 and Games for Windows – Live in 2009, 2011, and 2012. In June 2015, following Fallout 4s announcement at Electronic Entertainment Expo, Fallout 3s sales were boosted up to 1000%. In November 2015, Electronic Entertainment Design and Research, a market research firm, estimated that the game had sold 12.4 million copies worldwide.
Awards and legacy
Fallout 3 won several awards following its showcasing at E3 2007. IGN gave it the Game of E3 2007 award, and GameSpot gave it the Best Role-Playing Game of E3 2007 award. Following the game's demonstration at E3 2008, IGN also gave it Best Overall RPG, Best Overall Console Game, and Overall Game of the Show for E3 2008. Game Critics Awards gave the game Best Role-Playing Game and Best of Show for E3 2008.
After its release, Fallout 3 won numerous awards from gaming journalists and websites. At the 2009 Game Developers Choice Awards, it won overall Game of the Year along with Best Writing. It was also awarded Game of the Year by IGN, GamesRadar, GameSpy, UGO Networks, Gamasutra and the Golden Joystick Awards. The game also won Xbox 360 Game of the Year from Official Xbox Magazine, GameSpy, and IGN, while winning PC Game of the Year from GamePro, GameSpy, GameTrailers and GameSpot, with the latter two also awarding it Best RPG.
During the 12th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards (now known as the D.I.C.E. Awards), the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences awarded Fallout 3 with Role-Playing Game of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Original Story, along with receiving nominations for Overall Game of the Year, Computer Game of the Year, Console Game of the Year, Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction, Outstanding Achievement in Game Design, and Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering.
Fallout 3 is considered to be one of the best video games of all time. At the end of 2009, Fallout 3 was featured in IGN's "Best Video and Computer Games of the Decade", with the game being placed top game of 2008 and seventh overall game of the 2000–2009 decade. Fallout 3 was voted for and won the Adventure section for the platform Modern Windows. That same year, G4tv ranked it as the 75th top video game of all time. IGN put Fallout 3 at number 10 in the "Top 100 RPGs of All Time" list, saying "Fallout 3 is the epitome of the deep, modern RPG and the archetype that many developers will mimic moving forward."
In 2012, Fallout 3 was also exhibited in The Art of Video Games, at Smithsonian American Art Museum. In November 2015, Fallout 3 has been made available on Xbox One via download from Xbox Live, as part of the initial 104 titles dedicated to the backward compatibility with Xbox 360.
Technical issues on PlayStation 3
Shortly before the game's release, IGN posted a review of the game, citing numerous bugs and crashes in the PlayStation 3 release. The game also contained a bug, causing the game to freeze and the screen to blur when friends signed out of and into the PlayStation Network. The IGN review was edited shortly thereafter, removing all references to the PS3 version's bugs, causing controversy in the PlayStation communities. Reviewing PlayStation 3 Game of the Year edition, Digital Chumps and Spawn Kill confirmed that most bugs remained, citing occasional freezes, several animation and scripting issues, along with other bugs, requiring a restart of the game. IGN retroactively cited bugs with the original release as well as the Game of the Year edition, calling it "a fantastic game" but warned players to "be aware that you might have to deal with some crashes and bugs."
Controversy and fandom
Not all fans were happy with the direction the Fallout series was taken in after its acquisition by Bethesda Softworks. Notorious for their support of the series' first two games, Fallout and Fallout 2, members centered on one of the oldest Fallout fansites, No Mutants Allowed, have criticized departures from the original games' stories, gameplay mechanics and setting. Criticisms include the prevalence of unspoiled food after 200 years, the survival of wood-framed dwellings following a nuclear blast, and the ubiquity of Super Mutants at early levels in the game. Also criticized are the quality of the game's writing, its relative lack of verisimilitude, the switch to a first-person action game format, and the level of reactiveness of the surrounding game world to player actions. In response, Jim Sterling of Destructoid has called fan groups like No Mutants Allowed "selfish" and "arrogant", stating that a new audience deserves a chance to play a Fallout game; and that if the series had stayed the way it was back in 1997, new titles would never have been made and brought to market. Luke Winkie of Kotaku tempers these sentiments, saying that it is a matter of ownership; and that in the case of Fallout 3, hardcore fans of the original series witnessed their favorite games become transformed into something else.
Regional variations
Drug references
On July 4, 2008, Fallout 3 was refused classification by the Australian Classification Board (ACB) in Australia, thus making it illegal to distribute or purchase the game in the country. For the game to be reclassified, the offending content in the Australian version of the game had to be removed by Bethesda Softworks and the game resubmitted to the ACB. According to the ACB board report, the game was refused classification due to the "realistic visual representations of drugs and their delivery method [bringing] the 'science-fiction' drugs in line with 'real-world' drugs."
A revised version of the game was resubmitted to the ACB and reclassified as MA 15+ on August 7, 2008, or not suitable for people under the age of 15 unless accompanied by a parent or adult guardian; this new rating ensured that the game could retail legally in Australia. According to the ACB board report, the drug content was not removed entirely from the revised version of the game, but the animation showing the actual usage of the drugs was removed; the minority view on the decision stated that the drug content was still enough to warrant a refused classification rating.
In a later interview with UK gaming magazine Edge, Bethesda Softworks revealed that there would be only one version of Fallout 3 released worldwide, and that this version would have all real-world drug references removed. It was later clarified that the only change made would be that morphine, a real-world drug that would have appeared in the game, would instead be renamed to the more generic Med-X.
Release in India
On October 22, 2008, Microsoft announced that the game would not be released in India on the Xbox 360 platform. Religious and cultural sentiments were cited as the reason. The statement read that "Microsoft constantly endeavors to bring the best games to Indian consumers in sync with their international release. However, in light of cultural sensitivities in India, we have made the business decision to not bring Fallout 3 into the country." Although the specific reason was not revealed in public, it is possible that it is because the game contains two-headed mutated cows called Brahmin, or that Brahmin is also the name of an ancient, powerful hereditary caste of Hindu priests and religious scholars in India, or its similarity to the spelling of brahman, a type of cow that originated in India. Brahman, a breed of Zebu, are revered by Hindus.
Sensitivity in Japan
Bethesda Softworks changed the side quest "The Power of the Atom" in the Japanese version of Fallout 3 to relieve concerns about depictions of atomic detonation in inhabited areas, as the memory of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki remains strong in the country. In non-Japanese versions, players are given the option of either defusing, ignoring, or detonating the dormant atomic bomb in the town of Megaton; in the Japanese version, the character of Mr. Burke is absent, making it impossible to choose the detonation option. Also in the Japanese release, the Fat Man nuclear catapult weapon was renamed Nuka Launcher, as the original name was a reference to Fat Man, the bomb used on Nagasaki. According to Tetsu Takahashi, responsible for localizing Fallout 3 to Japan under his company ZeniMax Asia, the available actions prior to localizing "The Power of the Atom" and the ability to kill civilians almost got the game banned by CERO before it received an Adult Only Rating.
See also
Tale of Two Wastelands
References
External links
Fallout 3 at MobyGames
2008 video games
Action role-playing video games
Anti-war video games
Bethesda Game Studios games
Censored video games
Fallout (series) video games
Game Developers Choice Award for Game of the Year winners
Gamebryo games
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Golden Joystick Award for Game of the Year winners
Montgomery County, Maryland in fiction
Open-world video games
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Spike Video Game Award winners
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Censorship in India |
4535082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20Anderson%20%28British%20Army%20officer%29 | Kenneth Anderson (British Army officer) | General Sir Kenneth Arthur Noel Anderson, (25 December 1891 – 29 April 1959) was a senior British Army officer who saw service in both world wars. He is mainly remembered as the commander of the British First Army during Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of North Africa and the subsequent Tunisian campaign which ended with the capture of almost 250,000 Axis soldiers. An outwardly reserved character, he did not court popularity either with his superiors or with the public.
His American superior, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, wrote that he was "blunt, at times to the point of rudeness". In consequence he is less well known than many of his contemporaries. According to Richard Mead, however, "he handled a difficult campaign more competently than his critics suggest, but competence without flair was not good enough for a top commander in 1944."
Early life and First World War
Kenneth Arthur Noel Anderson was born on 25 December 1891 in Madras, British India, the son of Arthur Robert Anderson, a Scottish railway engineer, and Charlotte Gertrude Isabella Duffy Fraser.
He was sent to England, where he was educated at Charterhouse School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst before being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Seaforth Highlanders, a line infantry regiment of the British Army, on 19 September 1911. He was sent to join the 1st Battalion in British India and was promoted to lieutenant on 29 November 1913.
Still in India upon the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Anderson's battalion, commanded by Archibald Ritchie, was sent to the Western Front, arriving there late the following month, as part of the Dehra Dun Brigade of the 7th (Meerut) Division, and remained with his battalion throughout the many battles it was involved in. He was promoted to the acting rank of captain on 10 April 1915, and captain on 1 October 1915.
He was, between 24 December 1915 and 3 July 1916, adjutant of the 23rd (Service) Battalion of the Northumberland Fusiliers (4th Tyneside Scottish), a Kitchener's Army unit serving as part of the 102nd (Tyneside Scottish) Brigade of the 34th Division. He was awarded the Military Cross (MC) for bravery in action and was wounded during the Battle of the Somme on the opening day of the battle, 1 July 1916. Anderson was one of 629 casualties, which included 19 officers, sustained by the battalion on that day. The citation for his MC read:
He took eighteen months to recover from the wounds he received, before rejoining the 1st Battalion, Seaforths, by then in Palestine, in time to celebrate victory. He was appointed to the acting rank of major on 12 May 1918, and reverted to captain in July 1919.
On 12 February 1918, Anderson married Kathleen Lorna May Gamble (1894–1983), the only daughter of Sir Reginald Arthur Gamble and his wife Jennie. Her brother was Captain Ralph Dominic Gamble, of the Coldstream Guards. They had two children, Michael Iain Anderson, born in 1927, and a daughter.
Between the wars
Anderson's military career during the interwar period was active. He served as adjutant to the Scottish Horse from 1920 to 1924, and was promoted to major during this posting. He attended the Staff College, Quetta from 1927 to 1928, where he apparently did not do that well. His superior, Colonel Percy Hobart, thought it "questionable whether he had the capacity to develop much." Other staff council also had reservations, but "hoped that he might suffice".<ref>Lippman, David H., World War II Plus 55", Article </ref> His fellow students in his year there included several who would achieve high command, such as Frederick Morgan, David Cowan, Geoffrey Bruce, Harold Briggs, along with Ronald Hopkins of the Australian Army. Those above included William Slim and James Steele, while those below included Douglas Gracey, John Crocker, Henry Davies, Colin Gubbins and Australian George Vasey and E. L. M. Burns of the Canadian Army.
Anderson, after graduating from Quetta, became a General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2) in the 50th (Northumbrian) Division, a Territorial Army (TA) formation. In 1930 Anderson was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 2 June 1930 became Commanding Officer (CO) of the 2nd Battalion, Seaforths in the North West Frontier, for which he was mentioned in despatches and, returning to Scotland, as a full colonel, went on to command the 152nd (Seaforth and Cameron) Infantry Brigade, part of the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division, another TA unit, in August 1934. Still as a full colonel in March 1936 he was appointed to a staff job (GSO1) in India and in January 1938 was appointed acting brigadier to command of the 11th Infantry Brigade, part of the 4th Infantry Division, then commanded by Major-General Dudley Johnson, which he trained hard, despite inadequate equipment.
Second World War
France and Belgium
Shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, Anderson led the 11th Brigade, still part of the 4th Division, overseas to France where it became part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). Anderson saw service with the BEF throughout the "Phoney War" period and during the Battle of France in May 1940 and, when Major-General Bernard Montgomery, General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the 3rd Infantry Division, was promoted to command II Corps during the evacuation from France, the departing II Corps GOC, Lieutenant-General Sir Alan Brooke, chose Anderson, of whom he thought highly, to take temporary command of Montgomery's 3rd Division.
United Kingdom
Upon returning to the United Kingdom after the withdrawal from Dunkirk, Anderson briefly returned to his 11th Brigade. However, on 13 June, he was promoted to the acting rank of major-general and became GOC of the 1st Infantry Division, which had fought in France. His rank of major-general was made permanent on 17 June 1940 (with seniority backdated to 26 July 1938). The division was tasked with defending the coast of Lincolnshire against a German invasion and was serving under the command of I Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Harold Alexander, who had commanded the 1st Division in France and with whom Anderson would encounter later, itself serving under Northern Command. On 11 July he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath, and on 26 July 1940 was mentioned in despatches for his service in France and Belgium.
On 18 May 1941 Anderson handed over the division to Major-General Edwin Morris and was promoted to the acting rank of lieutenant-general and given command of VIII Corps, which he commanded until December before assuming command of II Corps. The duration of his stay with II Corps was not long, however, as in April 1942, after being succeeded as GOC by Lieutenant-General James Steele, he was promoted to General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of Eastern Command. On 19 May his rank of lieutenant-general was made temporary.
Despite his lack of experience in commanding larger formations in battle, in August 1942 Anderson was given command of the First Army, replacing Lieutenant-General Edmond Schreiber who had developed a kidney disease and was not considered fit enough for active service in the Army's planned involvement in Operation Torch, codename for the Allied invasion of French North Africa. The first choice replacement, Lieutenant-General Sir Harold Alexander, had been almost immediately selected to replace General Sir Claude Auchinleck as Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of Middle East Command in Cairo, Egypt and his replacement, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, was himself redirected to the Western Desert to command the British Eighth Army, following the death of Lieutenant-General William Gott, the original nominee. Anderson, therefore, became the fourth commander in no more than a week. Despite his new appointment, it was still somewhat strange for Anderson, with no experience in command in battle of anything above a brigade, to receive such an important assignment. The most likely reason is that, even at this stage of the war, there simply were not enough experienced senior commanders to go around. One man in particular who believed this to be true was the-then Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), General Sir Alan Brooke, who had been Anderson's corps commander in France two years earlier. In his diary in October 1941 he wrote: "...it is lamentable how poor we are in Army and Corps commanders; we ought to remove several, but Heaven knows where we will find anything very much better." Despite this, Brooke actually formed a very high opinion of Anderson, although this would fade in time.
North Africa
Following the Torch landings, which occurred in early November 1942, although much of his troops and equipment had yet to arrive in the theatre, Anderson was keen to make an early advance from Algeria into Tunisia to preempt Axis occupation following the collapse of the Vichy French administration there. His available force, at this stage barely a division strong, was engaged in late 1942 in a race to capture Tunis before the Axis were able to build up their forces and launch a counterattack. This was unsuccessful although elements of his force got to within of Tunis before being pushed back.
As further Allied forces arrived at the front they suffered from a lack of co-ordination. Eventually, in late January 1943, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the American Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), persuaded the French to place their newly formed XIX Corps under Anderson's First Army and also gave him responsibility for the overall "employment of American troops", specifically the U.S. II Corps, commanded by Major General Lloyd Fredendall. However, control still proved problematical with forces spread over 200 miles (320 km) of front and poor means of communication (Anderson reported that he motored over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) in four days in order to speak to his corps commanders). Anderson and Fredendall also failed properly to coordinate and integrate forces under their command. Subordinates would later recall their utter confusion at being handed conflicting orders, not knowing which general to obey – Anderson or Fredendall. While Anderson was privately aghast at Fredendall's shortcomings, he seemed frozen by the need to preserve a united Allied front, and never risked his career by strongly protesting (or threatening to resign) over what many of his own American subordinates viewed as an untenable command structure.
The II Corps later suffered a serious loss at Kasserine Pass, where Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel launched a successful offensive against Allied forces, first shattering French forces defending the central portion of the front, then routing the American II Corps in the south. While the lion's share of the blame fell on Fredendall, Anderson's generalship abilities were also seriously questioned by both British and Allied commanders.Atkinson (2003), p. 173 When Fredendall disclaimed all responsibility for the poorly-equipped French XIX Corps covering the vulnerable central section of the Tunisian front, denying their request for support, Anderson allowed the request to go unfulfilled.Blumenson (1966), p. 177 Anderson was also criticised for refusing Fredendall's request to retire to a defensible line after the initial assault in order to regroup his forces, allowing German panzer forces to overrun many of the American positions in the south. Furthermore, the U.S. 1st Armored Division commander, Major General Orlando Ward, vehemently objected to the dispersal of his division's three combat commands on individual assignments requested by Anderson which he believed diluted the division's effectiveness and resulted in its heavy losses.Murray, Brian J. Facing The Fox, America in World War II, (April 2006)
In particular, his American subordinate, Major General Ernest N. Harmon (later to replace Ward as commander of the U.S. 1st Armored Division) and Major General George S. Patton (who briefly replaced Fredendall in command of the U.S. II Corps) thought little of Anderson's ability to control large forces in battle.Rolf (2015) p. 33: Patton thought Anderson was, "earnest, but dumb" a sentiment not dissimilar to that expressed by Anderson's superior, Major-General Percy Hobart, when Anderson attended the Staff College at Quetta in the late 1920s. Major General Harmon had been in Thala on the Algerian border, witnessing the stubborn resistance of the British Nickforce, which held the vital road leading into the Kasserine Pass against the heavy pressure of the German 10th Panzer Division, which was under Rommel's direct command. Commanding the British Nickforce was Brigadier Cameron Nicholson, an effective combat leader who kept his remaining forces steady under relentless German hammering. When the U.S. 9th Infantry Division's attached artillery arrived in Thala after a four-day, journey, it seemed like a godsend to Harmon. Inexplicably, the 9th Division was ordered by Anderson to abandon Thala to the enemy and head for the village of Le Kef, away, to defend against an expected German attack. Brigadier Nicholson pleaded with the American artillery commander, Brigadier General Stafford LeRoy Irwin, to ignore Anderson's order and stay. Harmon agreed with Nicholson and commanded, "Irwin, you stay right here!" The 9th Division's artillery did stay, and with its 48 guns raining a whole year's worth of a (peacetime) allotment of shells, stopped the advancing Germans in their tracks. Unable to retreat under the withering fire, the Afrika Corps finally withdrew after dark. With the defeat at Thala, Rommel decided to end his offensive.
As Allied and Axis forces built up in Tunisia, 18th Army Group HQ was formed in February 1943 under General Sir Harold Alexander to control all Allied forces in Tunisia. Alexander wanted to replace Anderson with Lieutenant General Sir Oliver Leese, GOC XXX Corps of Montgomery's Eighth Army, and Montgomery felt that Leese was ready for such a promotion, writing on 17 March 1943 to Alexander "your wire re Oliver Leese. He has been through a very thorough training here and has learned his stuff well. I think he is quite fit to take command of First Army." Alexander later changed his mind, writing to Montgomery on 29 March that "I have considered the whole situation very carefully – I don't want to upset things at this stage." Anderson managed to hold on to his position and performed well after V Corps, under Lieutenant-General Charles Allfrey, held off the last Axis attack during Operation Ochsenkopf. In May 1943 he secured his position further when Allied forces achieved victory and the unconditional surrender of the Axis forces, 125,000 of whom were German. General Eisenhower, his superior officer, had stated after observing Anderson in action that he, "studied the written word until he practically burns through the paper" but later wrote of him that he was
Anderson was the first recipient of the American Legion of Merit in the grade of Chief Commander, for his service as First Army commander in North Africa; he received his award on 18 June 1943. On his return to Britain from Tunis in July, after the disbandment of the First Army, Anderson was initially given command of the British Second Army during the preparations for Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy. The Second Army was to form part of the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group, then under General Sir Bernard Paget. Anderson's rank of lieutenant-general was made substantive on July and he was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in August. However, the criticisms of Alexander and Montgomery (who in March 1943 had written to Alexander saying, "it is obvious that Anderson is completely unfit to command any army" and later described him as, "a good plain cook") had gained currency and in late January 1944, soon after Montgomery arrived from fighting in Italy to take command of the 21st Army Group from Paget, Anderson was replaced by Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey, a much younger man and one of Montgomery's protégées. Brooke described it in his diary on 18 January:
Anderson was given Eastern Command, his former command before taking over the First Army almost eighteen months earlier, which was widely viewed as a demotion. His career as a field commander was over and his last purely military appointment was as GOC-in-C East Africa Command.
Post-war
After the war he was military C-in-C and Governor of Gibraltar, where his most notable achievements were to build new houses to relieve the poor housing conditions, and the constitutional changes which established a Legislative Council. He was promoted full general in July 1949 when he was made a Knight of the Venerable Order of Saint John and retired in June 1952 and lived mainly in the south of France. His last years were filled with tragedy: his only son, Michael, a lieutenant in the Seaforth Highlanders, died in action in Malaya, aged 22, on 12 November 1949 and his daughter also died after a long illness. Anderson himself died of pneumonia in Gibraltar on 29 April 1959, at the age of 67. His death, according to Gregory Blaxland, "caused little stir. He was one of nature's losers in the contest for fame."
References
Bibliography
Anderson, Lt.-General Kenneth (1946). Official despatch by Kenneth Anderson, GOC-in-C First Army covering events in NW Africa, 8 November 1942 – 13 May 1943 published in
The Times'' obituary (30 April 1959).
External links
British Army Officers 1939–1945
Generals of World War II
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1891 births
1959 deaths
British Army generals of World War II
British Army personnel of World War I
Chief Commanders of the Legion of Merit
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Deaths from pneumonia in the United Kingdom
Governors of Gibraltar
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Graduates of the Staff College, Quetta
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
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People educated at Charterhouse School
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France)
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Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia |
4535237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tale%20of%20the%20Pie%20and%20the%20Patty-Pan | The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan | The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan (originally, The Pie and the Patty-Pan) is a children's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter, and published by Frederick Warne & Co. in October 1905. It tells of a cat called Ribby and a tea party she holds for a dog called Duchess. Complications arise when Duchess tries to replace Ribby's mouse pie with her own veal and ham pie, and then believes she has swallowed a small tin pastry form called a patty-pan. Its themes are etiquette and social relations in a small town.
A version of the tale was composed by Potter in 1903, but set aside to develop other projects. In 1904, she failed to complete a book of nursery rhymes for Warnes, and the 1903 tale was accepted in its stead. Potter elaborated its setting and storyline, and developed the tale more fully before publication. The illustrations depict the cottages and gardens of Sawrey, a village in the Lake District near Potter's Hill Top farm, and have been described as some of the most exquisite Potter ever produced. Ribby was modelled on a cat living in Sawrey, Duchess on two Pomeranians belonging to Potter's neighbour Mrs Rogerson, Tabitha Twitchit on Potter's cat at Hill Top, and Dr Maggoty on the magpies in the London Zoological Gardens.
The tale was originally published in a larger size than Potter's previous books, but was reduced in the 1930s to bring it into line with the other books in the Peter Rabbit series. It was given its present title at that time. Potter declared the tale her next favourite to The Tailor of Gloucester. Beswick Pottery released porcelain figurines of the tale's characters through the latter half of the 20th century, and Schmid & Co. released a music box in the 1980s.
Development and publication
The Potter family summered occasionally at Lakefield, a country house in the village of Sawrey. "They came with their servants, their carriage and pair, and Miss Potter with her pony and phaeton," a village resident recalled. "Miss Potter was about the village sketching everywhere and often came to our house."
Close to Lakefield and off the road in their own enclosure were three dwellings known as Lakefield Cottages. Mr. Rogerson, a gardener and caretaker at Lakefield, lived in one of the cottages, and eventually his wife's two pedigree Pomeranians – Darkie and Duchess – would become the models for Potter's fictional Duchess. Darkie had a fine black mane, but Duchess was more intelligent and could sit up with a lump of sugar balanced on her nose.
In the summer of 1902, Potter sketched the interior of the third Lakefield Cottage belonging to a Mrs. Lord. These drawings included a watercolour and pen-and-ink sketches of the living-room, pen-and-ink sketches of the pots of geraniums on the living-room window sill, the entrance passage, the pantry, the stairs, some of the upstairs rooms, and details of the carved oak furniture. In some of the sketches Potter roughly outlined a cat. She also sketched the village including the sloping path down to the Lakefield Cottages and the post office door. These became the backgrounds for The Pie and The Patty-Pan.
During a rainy holiday in Hastings at the end of November 1903, Potter outlined a tale about a cat, a dog, and a tea party she called Something very very NICE. She discussed the Lakefield sketches as backgrounds for the tale with Warne. He proposed a large format volume similar to L. Leslie Brooke's Johnny Crow's Garden to do justice to the detail of the illustrations, but the entire project was set aside when The Tale of Benjamin Bunny and The Tale of Two Bad Mice were chosen for development and publication in 1904.
Potter had long wanted to develop a book of nursery rhymes, but such a project left Warne cold. Rhymes were already well represented in the firm's catalogue, and Warne felt Potter's unbridled enthusiasm for the genre would make the project a headache for him. In the past, he had tried to discourage Potter's interest in rhymes, believing her own stories superior, but she persisted. He reluctantly agreed to a book of rhymes for 1905, but Potter did not have it ready at the end of 1904, so he accepted the tea party tale instead. Early in 1905, it was decided the book would be published at the end of the year.
By March 1905, Potter was anxious to begin work on the tale. She thought the 1903 version too thin and rewrote the entire story, retaining Ribby the cat and Duchess the dog as the central characters while elaborating the setting and developing a stronger plot line. It was decided the tale would be published in a format slightly larger than her previous productions with ten full-colour illustrations and other illustrations in pen and sepia ink.
Like the tale's companion piece set in the Newlands Valley, The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle, the cat and dog story is set in a real place, Near Sawrey, and is the only Potter tale to refer to Sawrey by name. Tabitha Twitchit disdainfully comments on her cousin's choice of party guest: "A little dog, indeed! Just as if there were no CATS in Sawrey!" The characters in the tale were modelled on real world individuals. Ribby's counterpart lived in Sawrey, and Tabitha Twitchit's counterpart lived at Hill Top, though her fictional shop is located in nearby Hawkshead. Dr. Maggotty was drawn from magpies in the London Zoological Gardens. Potter made notes in her sketchbook about the bird's anatomical structure and the colour of its feathers: "Brown black eye, nose a little hookier than jackdaw, less feathered." The bird's tail was over half its total length she noted, and its feathers were "very blue" and parts were green.
The illustrations depict the village's gardens, cottages, and, in the background of the frontispiece, Hill Top. Although the real Duchess lived at Lakefield Cottages, in the tale her home became Buckle Yeat, a picturesque cottage in the village, and Duchess is shown in its garden reading Ribby's invitation. In the illustration of Duchess leaving home with her veal and ham pie in a basket, Potter took some artistic licence and combined the doorway of the village post office with the Buckle Yeat garden. Completely faithful to life in the village, Potter even included the pattens Mrs. Rogerson wore to the pump in the illustration depicting Duchess standing in the Lakefield Cottage porch holding a bouquet. The illustration of Duchess standing on a red sofa cushion was painted at Melford Hall and Potter's young cousin Stephanie Hyde Parker was permitted to put some red paint on the cushion. She later wondered if Potter removed it.
Towards the end of May 1905, Potter sent the illustrations to Warne for his review, writing, "I think it promises to make a pretty book." He criticised a picture of the cat and Potter wrote him, "If you still feel doubtful about the little cat—will you post it back to me at once ... I don't feel perfectly satisfied with the eyes of the large head, but I think I can get it right, by taking out the lights carefully, if you will ask Hentschel not to do it before we have proofs. The drawing is getting much too rubbed."
On 25 May, Warne asked Potter to send him one of the two dummy books she had in her possession in order to check the size of the plates before continuing with the printer's blocks. He thought there was "too much bend" about the dog's nose and the division between its legs was unclear. He kept the two plates back for Potter's inspection before sending them off to make the blocks. On 26 May, he received two more originals and the circular portrait of the cat for the cover. He thought the background of the colour illustration of Ribby and Duchess sitting at the table too light, but liked the pen-and-ink sketches. Potter struggled with the dog illustrations, and sent Warne a photograph of her canine model to prove the dog's ruff was as large as she had depicted it.
Potter's own three-door oven, her hearthrug, her indoor plants, her coronation teapot, and her water pump are minutely detailed with more color than in other productions. The large format of the original edition, the captions accompanying the full page color illustrations, and the occasional lack of coordination between picture and text all display Potter's delight in the pictures, sometimes at the expense of the text.
One of the illustrations did not coordinate properly with Potter's text. She altered the drawing and wrote Warne, "I have altered the oven as it will save a good many corrections. I did a good deal to the cat but she is still looking at the top one. I don't think it signifies as she talks about both ovens ... I don't think I have ever seriously considered the state of the pie but the book runs some risk of being over cooked if it goes on much longer! I am sorry about the little dog's nose. I saw it was too sharp. I think I have got it right. I was intending to explain the ovens by saying the middle handle is very stiff so that Duchess concludes it is a sham;–like the lowest. I think only two pages want changing; I think it will come right."
The drawings were finished and in early June 1905 Warne approved. Potter wrote she was glad he liked the drawings, and "if the book prints well, it will be my next favourite to Tailor. She was energized with the completion of the book and wrote Warne she wanted to settle on future work before leaving for a holiday in Wales. In Merioneth she received his letter of proposal on 25 July and accepted, but he died suddenly and unexpectedly on 25 August 1905 before a marriage took place. Potter became deeply depressed and was ill for many weeks. However, she rallied to complete the last two tales she had discussed with him: The Pie and the Patty-Pan and The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher.
The Pie and the Patty-Pan was published in October 1905 in a large format, priced at one shilling, and dedicated to Joan, the sixth child of Potter's former governess Annie Carter Moore, and to Beatrix, Mrs. Moore's newborn and Potter's god-daughter: "For Joan, to read to Baby". The Pie was the first of Potter's books to be published in a format larger (177 mm by 138 mm) than the standard size (139 mm by 104 mm) of the Peter Rabbit books; and the first of her books to integrate pen-and-ink and colour illustrations between its boards.
The book's endpapers had been overlooked. Potter wrote to the firm: "I conclude there is no time to get an end-paper design done—unless Mr. Stokoe has already designed one—I do not mind one way or another; I had begun to scribble something but it looks a bit stiff." Mr. Stokoe apparently did not design one because the endpapers were either plain white or mottled lavender. Several years later, they were replaced with a design featuring a pie and a patty-pan and the cover illustration changed to Ribby sitting by the fire. In the 1930s, the book's size was reduced to bring it into line with the rest of the Peter Rabbit books. The title was changed at that time to The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan.
Potter declared the tale her next favourite to The Tailor of Gloucester. The pictures are some of the most beautiful Potter ever created, especially the profusions of flowers in the doorways and garden plots. The colours in the illustrations are not the muted browns and greens the reader expects in a Potter illustration, nor are they the contrasting colours such as the muted reds and blues Potter uses occasionally to give her illustrations a splash of colour. Instead, the colours are bright oranges, violets, and yellows seldom seen in her other books. Even Ribby's lilac dress and Duchess's black mane illustrate Potter's concern for colour in this book.
Plot
"Once upon a time", Ribby, a "Pussy-cat" invites her friend, a dog called Duchess to tea with plans to serve her "something so very very nice" baked in a pie dish with a Pink rim. Ribby promises Duchess she shall have the entrée entirely to herself, and Ribby will eat Muffins. Duchess accepts the invitation fondly but hopes she will not be served Mouse Pie. Duchess is disgusted by Mouse as a meal, and considers writing to Ribby to tell her this, however cannot bring herself to do it.
Duchess had been planning on inviting Ribby to tea, hoping to serve Ribby a Veal and Ham pie, also baked in a pie dish with a Pink rim (both pie dishes were bought at the shop of Tabitha Twitchet’s, Ribby’s cousin). Duchess reads the invitation again and realizes she will have the opportunity to switch the pies when Ribby leaves to buy Tea, sugar, and Marmalade. Duchess’s pie just needs to be cooked and it will be ready. Ribby has two ovens, one above the other, and she puts her mouse pie in the lower oven, fearing that the higher oven will overcook the pie. She tidies the house, sets the table, and leaves to buy Tea, Marmalade and Sugar. Duchess meantime has left home with her ham and veal pie in a basket, passes Ribby on the street, and hurries on to Ribby's house. She puts her pie into the higher oven, and searches quickly for the mouse pie (which she does not find because she neglects to look in the lower oven). Meanwhile, Ribby is buying her Groceries at her Cousin, Tabitha Twitchet’s, shop. After a pleasant gossip with her Cousin, Ribby informs Tabitha about her upcoming tea with Duchess. As Ribby leaves, Tabitha mutters under her breath about how she disapproves of Duchess the Dog. When Ribby returns home, Duchess sneaks out the back door. At the appointed hour, Duchess appears at Ribby's door and the tea begins. Distracted for a moment, Duchess does not see which oven Ribby opens to remove the pie. Duchess eats greedily, believing she is eating her ham and veal pie. She wonders what has happened to the patty-pan she put in her pie, and, not finding it under the crust, is convinced she has swallowed it. She sets up a howl; Ribby is perplexed and annoyed, however when Duchess is convinced she is dying. Ribby agrees to go and find Dr. Maggoty, a Magpie Doctor.
Duchess is left alone, sitting by the fireplace, and discovers her Veal and Ham Pie (overcooked) in the oven. Duchess realises she ate Mouse Pie. Knowing she cannot adequately explain her Veal and Ham Pie to Ribby, she puts it outside the back door intending to sneak back and carry it home after she leaves. Ribby and Dr. Maggoty arrive and, after much fuss, Duchess takes her leave, only to find that the magpie (who has left by the back door) and a couple of jackdaws have eaten her Veal and Ham Pie when she returns to collect it. Ribby later finds the remains of the smashed pie dish and the patty-pan outside the back door and declares, "Well I never did! ... Next time I want to give a party – I will invite Cousin Tabitha Twitchit!"
Scholarly commentaries
M. Daphne Kutzer, Professor of English at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh at the time of her Beatrix Potter: Writing in Code (2003) believes The Pie and its two immediate predecessors (the tales of Two Bad Mice and Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle) are transitional works in Potter's life and literary career. All three books confront the meaning of domesticity, work, and social hierarchies while exhibiting an underlying discomfort with the unyielding strictures of Victorian domesticity, and a disengagement from the broad political and social concerns of her earlier books to the more narrow political and social concerns of working farmers and rural people.
Ruth K. MacDonald of New Mexico State University at the time of her Beatrix Potter (1986) argues that the theme of The Pie is the very proper social relations between neighbours in a small town. She points to the overly formal quality of the letters exchanged between the heroines as one example of the theme, and another, she indicates, is the manner in which the two pass each other on the street without a word to one another because "they were going to have a party". Though Duchess probably does not speak to Ribby for fear of revealing her plan to switch the two pies, Ribby probably does not speak to Duchess out of an exaggerated sense of politeness or because she is rushed. At the hour of the party, Duchess is anxious to arrive on time, yet not too early, and loiters outside Ribby's cottage before delivering her most "genteel little tap-tappity" and asking "Is Mrs. Ribston at home?" MacDonald notes that these instances not only underscore the elaborate codes of behaviour Potter's fictional animals observe but, by extension, the villagers of Sawrey. For Potter, the result of such elaborate etiquette was nonsensical, distorted behaviour. Nevertheless, the cat and dog remain friends at the end of the story, and, in carefully avoiding any offence, their social pretenses and codes of etiquette are maintained.
Merchandise
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics, and part of the process in making them so was marketing strategy. She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales with spinoffs such as a Peter Rabbit doll, an unpublished Peter Rabbit board game, and a Peter Rabbit nursery wallpaper between 1903 and 1905. Similar "side-shows" (as she termed the spinoffs) were conducted over the following two decades.
In 1947, Frederick Warne & Co. gave Beswick Pottery of Longton, Staffordshire rights and licences to produce the Potter characters in porcelain. Ribby coming from the farm with butter and milk was released as a figurine in 1951; Duchess with a bouquet of flowers in 1955; Duchess holding the ham and veal pie in 1979; and Ribby and the broken pie dish in 1992. A limited edition tableau depicting Duchess and Ribby was produced only in 2000.
Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph, Massachusetts was granted licensing rights to Beatrix Potter in 1977. A music box playing "Music Box Dancer" and topped with a porcelain figure of Duchess holding a bouquet was released in 1980.
Reprints and translations
As of 2010, all of Potter's 23 small format books remain in print, and available as complete sets in presentation boxes, and as a 400-page omnibus. First edition copies and early reprints of The Pie are offered by antiquarian booksellers. The Pie was available as a hardcover volume but also in paperback, audiobook, and electronic formats.
The English language editions of the books still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983. The printing plates for the Potter books were remade from new photographs of the original drawings in 1985, and all 23 volumes released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition.
Potter's books have been translated into nearly thirty languages including Greek and Russian. In 1986, MacDonald observed that the Potter books had become a traditional part of childhood in both English-speaking lands and those in which the books had been translated.
Notes
References
External links
Peter Rabbit official website
1905 children's books
Books by Beatrix Potter
Children's books about cats
Children's books about dogs
Frederick Warne & Co books
Picture books by Beatrix Potter
British children's books
British picture books |
4535280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willow%20Bunch%2C%20Saskatchewan | Willow Bunch, Saskatchewan | Willow Bunch is a town in Saskatchewan, Canada. It is located southwest of the provincial capital of Regina. The population was 286 at the 2011 census.
Previous names for Willow Bunch include Hart-Rouge and Talle-de-Saules. The area has seen influences from Métis and Fransaskois.
History
The Métis of Willow Bunch
Around 1824, the Métis began to move towards Southern Saskatchewan: "As they ventured farther out, they began to set up winter camps and stay year-round. One of the first settlements was at Wood Mountain, which was settled in about 1868-69. But in 1879, fires forced the Métis to move to the eastern slope of the hills to a place known as 'Talle de Saule.'" The Métis settlement in Willow Bunch is one of the first in Saskatchewan. They initially arrived in groups consisting of large extended families; no one journeyed individually. As a result of travelling between communities regularly, the Métis began to intermingle, creating relationships with the different groups of settlers. This gave rise to the growth of the settlement in Willow Bunch. The majority of the Métis settlers that came to Willow Bunch were partially of First Nations and of French or Scottish descent.
At the end of the 1860s, many Métis settlers moved towards Wood Mountain, Saskatchewan, from the Red River Colony, Pembina, North Dakota, and other communities in the North West. They came in search of bison. Soon after the arrival of the Métis, Jean-Louis Legaré set up a trading post in Willow Bunch, aiding the Métis as a trader of bison goods. Nearing the mid-1880s, there was a decline of bison in the Wood Mountain region, as a result of the United States government's attempt to starve out Sitting Bull. With the end of the Bison Hunt, the Métis began life as ranchers: "We brought our stock and expertise to Willow Bunch. No one knew more about horsemanship and training horses than we did". The Métis population in Willow Bunch became known as a "hub of the first tentative ranching operations in southwestern Saskatchewan." The Métis originally referred to the town and its surrounding area as "Talle de Saule" which means "Clump of Willow." This nickname soon gave rise to the town's name of Willow Bunch.
The red willows found around Willow Bunch were an important factor in the everyday lives of the Métis. The multifaceted willow played a large role in their wellbeing:
In spring, our women harvested the supple, young shoots to make baskets. Our men fashioned the wood into pipe stems, emergency snowshoes, snares, wooden nails, whistles for the children, beading looms, and frames for stretching hides. Rotted willow wood was used to smoke hides. Green willow branches were burned to smoke meat. We twisted the inner bark fibers into temporary rope, twine and fish nets. We weather proofed rawhide by wrapping it in willow bark. We used willow branches as lathing for our houses. Our men scraped off the inner cambium layer and added other ingredients, such as bearberry, to make a smoking mixture, 'Kinnikinick'. We repaired our carts, made a shelter when we were caught in a storm, burned for fuel and had a variety of other practical uses for the wood of the willow.
The Métis found use for the willows in a variety of ways, including as a medicinal ingredient. Thus, places where the willows grew were considered a healing place. This is why "the people would settle near clumps of willow and name their community accordingly."
The Métis today
The town of Willow Bunch is occupied with Francophone and Métis people.
Willow Bunch is the Rural Municipality #42 in southern Saskatchewan. In 2006, the total Aboriginal population for the RM #42 was 407. The Métis in Willow Bunch "played a key role in maintaining the peace during the time that the Sioux and the other American tribes were forced from the United States into the area of Wood Mountain. " The Métis had a strong relationship with the Sioux, especially with Chief Sitting Bull. "The fires of 1880 on Wood Mountain resulted in the movement of our people to other communities. It was at this time that the Métis pioneers moved to Willow Bunch at the suggestion of Andre Gaudry." The Métis were already settled in Willow Bunch when the North West Resistance, led by Louis Riel, battled the Canadian government over land rights. It was in 1885, "the Resistance had an impact on the Métis of Willow Bunch...marked the end of the influence of the Métis on the development of Western Canada. "
Following the 1885 Resistance, many changes occurred for the Métis nation of Willow Bunch. "[They] were told that the land property that [they] settled on didn't belong to [them]. It became an issue ... as new immigrants arrived [they] found their identity and culture continually being eroded. " The Métis of Willow Bunch still feel the indifference within this small town due to lack of the historical Métis knowledge to the newcomers. "That feeling of inferiority that many of [them] were taught to feel ... That practice of one group being denigrated at the expense of another is still evident today. " The Métis of Willow Bunch will hopefully coexist with the non-Métis community without the idea of superiority over another. Alike to most First Nations situations, the Métis will continue to fight for their rights not only in Willow Bunch but across this nation.
The Willow Bunch Métis Local #17
The Métis Local #17 in Willow Bunch is one of the first Locals established within the Métis Nation of Saskatchewan.
Historical background to 1880
For Saskatchewan, Willow Bunch has the title as one of the oldest settlements established. Founded in 1870 by variety of groups of Métis hunters and settlers, Willow Bunch has strong historical connections with Red River Métis. Later on, Jean-Louis Légaré would migrate from Manitoba to Willow bunch, where he played a lead role in early Willow Bunch history.
In the mid-1800s, those who were living in Manitoba's Red River area were succumbing to the harsh climate and living conditions. Bison were becoming scarce due to over hunting in their area. Work was more difficult to find since the merging of the Hudson's Bay Company and the Northwest Company in 1821. Along with pests, frosts and droughts which led to lower crop harvests, over-population of the Metis people were a part of the uneasy living conditions. This led to the Métis migrating somewhere else to settle.
The Métis had to stay close to the bison, which meant they were to move west of Red River. Places like Saint Joseph's in North Dakota became established winter places that the Métis would go to. Later, declining buffalo herds led to the Métis migrating farther and farther away. In the 1860s, living conditions, including crop conditions, were so severe that the Hudson's Bay Company had to step in to help avoid starvation.
Later, the Red River Métis moved towards what is now southern Saskatchewan after the Red River Uprising in 1869. This led to the first Metis settlement established, called La Coulee Chapelle, which is St. Victor today (located about 19 km west of Willow Bunch). Before this uprising, areas like Wood Mountain, Eastend and Cypress Hills were places that Métis would migrate to.
It is said that Andre Gaudry was one of the first settlers in the area. Willow Bunch was part of a district known as Montagne de Bois, or Wood Mountain.
1880–1910
Bonneauville
After a devastating prairie fire destroyed much of the grass and timber in the area around Wood Mountain, Saskatchewan, many First Nations and Métis people were driven by a bison shortage and an increasing population to seek out new settlements. Many settled along the Milk River, south of the 49th parallel, and the Frenchman River, one of its tributaries in Saskatchewan. A number of them settled in the area known by the Métis as Talle de Saules (clump of willows) and Hart Rouge, now known as Willow Bunch.
In 1881, Jean-Louis Légaré, a French-Canadian trader and one of the founding members of the Willow Bunch community, settled in what is part of the present-day Jean Louis Légaré Regional Park. Légaré, who married into the Métis community, opened a trading post/store there, and often traded various necessities to the local Métis for bison goods. In the spring of 1881, it was estimated he had around $3,000 worth of bison products in his store.
A boy named Édouard Beaupré, better known as the Willow Bunch Giant, was the first child born and baptized in the area in 1881.
The forerunner settlement of Willow Bunch was established in 1883, around two miles east of Légaré's store and one-and-a-half miles east of the present town. A small village grew around a spot where Reverend Pierre St. Germain, the head of the local parish at the time, chose to build a Catholic church. The chapel and residence were completed in 1884, and the settlement became known as Bonneauville with the arrival of Pascal Bonneau Sr. and his family in 1886.
The North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) soon built a barracks in Bonneauville in 1886 as part of "B" Division, with 12 men and 13 horses, following the Riel Rebellion in Batoche in 1885. By fall of that year, however, only two constables were left.
Ranching: early years
Ranching soon became one of the mainstays of the local economy. Légaré brought in 45 head of cattle from Manitoba in 1884, and petitioned Government of Canada to do a land survey in 1886. Eight townships were surveyed, including Bonneauville. By 1893, the NWMP reported there were 300 people in the Willow Bunch area.
Sheep were introduced to the area in 1894, of which the Métis tended small herds. Growth, however, was slow for ranchers. Limited markets and a lack of transportation infrastructure in southwestern Saskatchewan forced ranchers to start out small. Bonneau Sr. and his three sons began ranching in 1886 with only four horses and four cattle, but by 1900, Bonneau Sr. had a herd of 400 head of cattle and 400 head of horses. After opening a cheese factory in 1888, Jean-Louis Légaré maintained the largest ranching operation in the area for a time. The ranching operation of Bonneau, Sr.'s son, Pascal Bonneau Jr., became even bigger. By 1900 Bonneau Jr. had a herd of 5,000 to 6,000 head.
Weather and prairie fires took their toll on ranchers in the area. A combination of drought and harsh winter weather between 1886 and 1887 devastated herds in southwestern Saskatchewan. Légaré himself lost 350 head of cattle in 1893-1894, forcing the closure of the cheese factory. Prairie fires in 1885 were also responsible for the destruction of the willows that the town and area were named for.
Ranchers gave little thought about where their cattle roamed, and often did not grow hay for the winter. Légaré was among those who rejected the use of hay. In 1903–04, a severe winter, recounted by Reverend Claude J. Passaplan as the worst in recorded history at the time, followed prairie fires and an early frost, leaving cattle with nothing to eat. The Métis around Willow Bunch lost all of their cattle as a result. An even worse winter in 1906–07 caused a loss of an estimated 60 to 70 per cent of all cattle in southwestern Saskatchewan.
Beginnings of Willow Bunch
Slowly, farming began to overtake ranching, and thoughts of moving the settlement into a more suitable site for growing the community began in 1898. The Catholic Bishop of the area made a request for 160 acres of land, but received only 80 from Jean-Louis Légaré, which became the present site of Willow Bunch. Several delays from a number of changes to the headship of the local parish delayed action until 1905, the year of Saskatchewan's confederation, when Reverend Alphonse Lemieux was assigned to the parish. He arrived in Bonneauville to find the church in a dilapidated state. That year, a new rectory was built at the present site of Willow Bunch, followed by a new church in 1906.
The town that would become Willow Bunch started to grow. A hospital was built in 1909, headed by Dr. Arsene Godin, called the Red Cross Hospital. The first official act of the Rural Municipality of Willow Bunch #42 was a meeting, chaired by Pascal Bonneau Jr., on January 4, 1910.
1911–1930
At the end of 1927, according to the Willow Bunch "Parish Bulletin", there were "77 baptisms, 11 marriages and six burials for a population of 1,348 distributed over 227 families of which 219 are French-speaking." During this time several buildings that were constructed, the residents celebrated their 50-year golden jubilee and there was an active political culture. But by the end of 1929, over 200 people had left Willow Bunch due to the intense drought and the effects of the Great Depression.
Notable buildings
The Convent of the Sisters of the Cross was built in April–May 1914 using a $3,000 grant from the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Regina. The stones and sand for the foundation and all building materials were hauled for free by parishioners of the Willow Bunch Catholic Church. Construction was halted after World War I broke out because of a lack of funding and the loss of many skilled workers who joined the army. Construction resumed and was completed in 1921.
In 1920 the Statue of Sacred Heart of Jesus was erected using donations of $4,000 from the community. The Statue was then consecrated on July 13, 1922 at the Golden Jubilee. In November 1922, T.W. Sr. and Kate Bennett's house served as the United Church of Willow Bunch until December 1926 when the United Church was opened and dedicated to the service and worship of God. Although the budget for the project was set at $1500 the town operated well below as the lot was bought for $175 and the carpenters were contracted for $850.
In 1924, The Canadian Red Cross installed a nursing outpost at the Willow Bunch hospital, also known as the "Pasteur Hospital." The hospital was expanded to more than twice its length in 1925. On September 14, 1927, the Sisters of Charity of St. Louis took over general operations but the Sisters left in 1929 due to the Depression.
The first home built with running water and flush toilets was completed in 1917. In 1922, the Willow Bunch Rural Telephone Company was founded and a building was erected. That year, there were 12 subscribers. In 1926, a railroad line was constructed through Willow Bunch, enabling passenger train service.
Golden Jubilee
On July 12 and 13, 1922, Willow Bunch celebrated its 50th Anniversary in a Golden Jubilee Celebration. On the first day, a mass was attended by 800 people.
Political culture
William W. Davidson was elected as the Conservative Party Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) in the provincial Willow Bunch electoral district in 1912. Abel James Hindle was elected the Liberal Party MLA from 1917 to 1925 at which time he stepped down and passed the nomination to James Albert Cross. Cross was MLA until 1929 when another Liberal, Charles William Johnson was elected. At the Federal level, the Federal riding of Willow Bunch was established in 1924, and Thomas Donnelly was elected and remained in power until the riding was abolished in 1933.
On November 8, 1922, Donnelly attempted to introduce a motion that "the federal government of the Dominion of Canada should no longer assist immigrants to this country in any financial way except so far as financial assistance is at present being extended to female domestics."
When the Willow Bunch Municipal Council heard Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey wanted to negotiate for peace with the Allies at the close of World War I, they offered this reply:
This municipality is overjoyed at even the prospect of a possibly peace, but not the peace evolved by terms. One does not make peace with a mad dog or a venomous reptile. There can be but one condition and one only under which hostilities will cease- imperialism strangled beyond resuscitation and militarism banished for ever. Peace on these conditions may be possible but on no other.
According to the Willow Bunch Legion, there were seven recorded Willow Bunch casualties during World War I.
1931-1945
The drought and aftermath
Throughout the 1930s, Willow Bunch and the rest of southern Saskatchewan was hit with numerous dust storms. The dust storms were the outcome of a devastating drought, and the agricultural damage ended up costing the Saskatchewan provincial government more than $20 million. The drought also spawned a swarm of grasshoppers.
In 1937, the Sitkala school, which had only two classrooms, was destroyed by fire.
Southern Saskatchewan Coal Operators' Association
Despite the poor agriculture, the production of coal was on the rise. On Sept. 19, 1932, Willow Bunch hosted the first annual meeting of the Southern Saskatchewan Coal Operators' Association at the R.M.'s municipal hall. At the meeting, association president Robert Campkin discussed how the unity of local mines would help increase the retrieval of lignite coal. The price of lignite was set at $2 per ton in the 1930s.
Wheat resurgence
Once the weather stabilized, the price of wheat spiked from six bushels per acre in 1938 to 16 bushels per acre in 1939. Willow Bunch welcomed the first load of wheat to the town's south country grain elevator on Aug. 5, 1939. The wheat came from a local farm, which was renowned as the "Million Dollar Farm" because of its exceptional wheat quality.
Establishing the credit union
Willow Bunch established a credit union in 1942, creating a membership-owned alternative to private banks.
Newspapers
The Willow Bunch Beacon, a local newspaper, was published in 1943. It focused on postwar conflicts, the decline in wheat prices, the domestic coal situation in Saskatchewan, and Canada's need for more poultry, meat, and eggs. An annual subscription cost $1.50.
The Avonlea Beacon was published from 1944 until 1951.
1943 to 1960
Beginning in 1943, Saskatchewan Power began supplying electricity to the village from a coal burning plant in Estevan.
The Overseers of the village included: George Martin (1945), Wilfrid Benoit (1955), and Marcel Ingrand (1959.
In 1949, the Convent and the public school consolidated and a new school was built. The Brothers of the Christian Schools joined the teaching staff in 1950; they remained until 1963.
By the mid-1950s, the population was approaching 800.
In 1960 Willow Bunch was incorporated as a town.
The European Hotel, built in 1907, was damaged by fire in 1959.
Quarters were made available by the town of Willow Bunch for an RCMP detachment at a location was vacated in 1947. In 1951, the detachment moved to a new location, and continued to be used until 1966.
In 1957, the Hoath United Church closed and move the small congregation to the Willow Bunch church.
1970–1980
Willow Bunch Museum
In 1972, the Willow Bunch Museum and Heritage Society was established, and located in the former Union Hospital (operated from 1946 to 1969). The museum moved to the Sisters of the Cross Convent School in 1984.
Palace Theater
The Knights of Columbus constructed a building in 1925, which was used for public meetings in 1928. It became a theatre in 1931, and was the town's community social centre, showing movies, and also being used for Knights of Columbus meetings and bowling in the basement. It closed in 1969. In 1973, the building became town property.(Willow Bunch Museum Picture Reference)
RCMP leave Willow Bunch
In 1976, the two-man Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachment in Willow Bunch moved to the nearby town of Coronach, Saskatchewan. Residents of Willow Bunch protested at the Regina Legislature on two occasions to prevent the move.
1990 - present
Grain elevators
For many years there were four grain elevators in Willow Bunch. Saskatchewan Wheat Pool No. 88 A, United Grain Growers (UGG) No. 1 and the McLaughlin Elevator all opened in 1926. McCabe Brothers began operations in 1929. The capacity of each elevator varied between 30,000 and 32,000 bushels. By the early 1980s the elevators began to shut down, following a trend which was seen right across the province and the prairies. The Pool A, McLaughlin (which by then was Pool B) and McCabe Brothers (now UGG No. 2) elevators all closed in 1984. UGG No. 1 would follow in 1999. The final elevator to close was Sask. Pool C, which opened in 1982 with a capacity of 3,670 metric tonnes, ceased operations in 2001. It is now privately owned.
Willow Bunch School
Enrolment at Willow Bunch School had been declining since the mid-1960s, when approximately 425 students were enrolled. In 2006, the school's population was approximately 50 students. In 2007, the Prairie South School Division began a review of its schools in seven communities, including Willow Bunch. The division maintained it was becoming a challenge to "deliver an effective learning program in a fiscally responsible manner." In 2007, the Prairie South School Division voted to close five schools by the end of August, including the school in Willow Bunch.
Library
In 2009 the library moved to a new home. Established in 1973, the Willow Bunch Library is a branch of the Palliser Regional Library. Originally located in the Hills of Home Senior Centre, the entire collection was moved to the former RM office, which was vacated in 2008 as the Town of Willow Bunch and RM offices were amalgamated. The move took place on April 20, 2009, with the grand opening a month and a half later on June 12.
Political history
Municipal organization began in Willow Bunch in the year 1910, when the community was formed as District #42. A meeting which was held at Philip Légaré's house, chaired by Pascal Bonneau Jr. on January 4, marked the first official act. Pascal Bonneau Jr., Dr. Arsene Godin, Alphonse Dauphinais, Amedee Beaubien, W. Ineson, James Hazlett, and A. Saunier were the first members, elected in 1910.
Amedee Beaubien replaced Pascal Bonneau Jr. as president after Bonneau died. E.P. de Laforest was elected secretary-treasurer for the year 1910 and was replaced by Alex P. Beausoleil in 1911.
The results of the elections in December 1911 were Treffle Bonneau as Reeve/Mayor, and O.A. Hainstock, B. Lowman, Alphonse Dauphinais, Peter Kabrud, Joseph Lapointe, and Alfred Lalonde were elected as councillors.
In 1912, Treffle Bonneau served as the first reeve of Willow Bunch Rural Municipality (RM) #42. This meant that he was also the mayor for the town at this time. In 1913, a committee which Treffle Bonneau served on sought provincial intervention in relation to rural municipal taxation on grazing lands.
In 1927, the first RM-owned office was built and Leopold Sylvestre, the secretary-treasurer, occupied the office from 1927 to 1958. He served 31 years, making him the longest serving secretary-treasurer of any RM in the province.
In 1961, Rachel Skinner was elected to her second term as councillor. Mrs. George Drouin also served her second term that year, and the two women were said to give stronger representation on a six-man council than any other town in the province.
In 1912, there was a redistribution of federal electoral districts, including the RM of Willow Bunch. At the time, it was decided that the redistribution was fair and provided for the just representation of the people.
However, the federal electoral district riding of Willow Bunch that was created in 1924 was abolished in 1933 when the riding was redistributed into Moose Jaw, Swift Current and Wood Mountain. Liberal Candidate Dr. Thomas Donnelly was elected to the new riding in 1925. He also won in the 1926 and 1930 elections.
During the 1928 Liberal Party nomination, Donnelly was the unanimous choice of the Liberals of the Willow Bunch provincial constituency. The other nominees were T.E. Gamble, an MLA from Ogema, J.B Swift, from Assiniboia, Thomas Gallant from Gravelbourg, and A.J. Hindle, ex-M.L.A for Willow Bunch.
The Conservative candidate, nominated in 1928, was J. Gibbins, a farmer from the Assiniboia district.
A political issue of the day had to do with whether to give immigrants financial assistance. In 1928, there was a resolution that no further financial assistance would be given by the federal government. Notice of a motion on the topic was given by Dr. Donnelly in Willow Bunch in 1928.
In 1929, a vote recount had to take place in Willow Bunch following the application of the unsuccessful candidate, C.W Johnson.
Notable people
Édouard Beaupré, one of the tallest men in recorded history.
Carmen Campagne, children's entertainer.
Women's organizations
Through various groups and organizations that the women of Willow Bunch belong to, they often spend their time volunteering and raising money for charities and community causes. The Legion Ladies Auxiliary #287 was formed June 8, 1974 in Willow Bunch. Its curling team won first in the Legion auxiliary zone district curling bonspiel in 1982. The Catholic Women's League started on October 29, 1963 in Willow Bunch. The League says it is, "dedicated to serving the needs of the community and increasing the spiritual growth of its members as they work and share together". Its members raise money doing raffles, teas, bake sales, etc. and then donate to various organizations and charities. The Federation des Femmes Canadiennes Françaises was originally formed in 1914 in Canada to help soldiers of World War I. It came to Willow Bunch in 1967. Since the war their goal has been to help French Canadian women reach their full potential and to be proud of their heritage as a member of the minority in the community. They have carried out substantial work for different charities including distributing meals for, "Meals on Wheels". The Happy Hobby Club originated at the house of Elizabeth "Beth" Marie Louise Viala in October 1955. They enjoyed themselves meeting on a weekly basis and often worked on projects, which they sold to raise money for charities (such as quilts). They also put on social events in the Community Centre (formerly the Sharon School building). They had annual picnic for members and their families; one year, 100 people were in attendance. The Kinettes Club of Willow Bunch was formed on January 27, 1978 with Mary Eger as the formation president. Their goal was to help with Kinsmen club projects as well as to start their own projects in order to promote Willow Bunch and stimulate community interest. Their events include Ladies Night Out and the Community Birthday Calendar.
The Convent
The Willow Bunch Convent was operated by the Sisters of the Cross. It was opened in 1914 for students and over 40 boarders who would live there, and the 91 Sisters who served until the closing of the school in 1983.
Mayors and reeves
In 1912, Willow Bunch was recognized as a rural municipality by the Government of Saskatchewan. The first reeves were Treffle Bonneau, O.A. Hainstock, B. Lowman, Alphonse Dauphinais, Peter Kabrud, Joseph Lapointe and Alfred Lalonde.
Willow Bunch officially became a village on November 15, 1929. After this, the village nominated its first "overseer", Emmanuel Lebel.
On October 1, 1960, Willow Bunch was incorporated as a town, with overseer Marcel Ingrand as mayor.
Geography
Climate and ecology
Willow Bunch sits in a small valley in southern Saskatchewan, about 740 metres above sea level.
Underground aquifers are one of the most important water sources in the area, although many are too deep to drill wells into.
Willow Bunch Lake
Willow Bunch Lake, located north of the town, is 2,200 feet along the base and 1,875 feet in the north-eastern region of the lake.
Vegetation and soil
Large scale cultivation was impractical for early settlers, as the soil contained saline flats, stony deposits, and slough areas, and the settlement lacked railway access to export markets. Livestock was preferred, particularly by the Métis, enabled by the hills and grassy pastures near Willow Bunch. The area experienced drought in the 1890s, and livestock losses were significant in 1893. By 1884, bison no longer roamed the Willow Bunch area, which affected the settlement's Métis, who were forced to focus more on farming.
Industry
Agriculture has been and continues as Willow Bunch's largest industry, with spring wheat, durum, oats, barley, and flax seeing the most consistent production over the last 30 years, since 1982. Among these top five crops, the most productive year over the past 70 was in 1993 when 71.5 bushels per acre of oats were produced. These numbers are gathered from the rural municipality of Willow Bunch, RM 42, an area spanning 1,047.8 square kilometres. As of the 2011 Canadian census, there were 102 farms in the Willow Bunch area, operated by a total of 125 farmers. The average age of farm operators in the area is 53.4, while the average farmer's age overall in Saskatchewan is 54.2. In the area, there are 16 animal production farms and 86 crop production farms.
Along with a sustainable agricultural industry, Willow Bunch has seen the trademark grain elevators and rail lines that allow the industry to thrive. In 1925, CN expanded its railway into the town, operating up until the mid-2000s. The Saskatchewan Trails Association lists the rail line between Willow Bunch and Bengough as being abandoned around 2005.
For a large portion of the 1900s, four massive grain elevators towered over Willow Bunch. They were owned by United Grain Growers Ltd., Saskatchewan Pool Elevators Ltd., McLaughlin Company Ltd., and McCabe Brothers Grain Co. Ltd. Today, only one elevator remains, built in 1983, originally owned by the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool, and now jointly owned and operated as Prairie Giant Processing Inc. It is used for grain storage and cleaning.
In days past, the mining industry was a particular boon to residents of the town and area. Immigrants who had experience with coal mining in Europe, located lignite coal in the area and developed coal mines, including open pit, shaft, and straight cut. Twenty three different mines were in operation during the early to mid-1900s, all with different owners. Frédérick Desjardins' mine stands out as the longest operating, continuing until the late 1950s. Currently, the nearest coal mine is in Coronach; the Popular River Mine employs 800 people.
Services
Services include a town-owned thrift shop, a volunteer fire department; an auctioneering service; the Jolly Giant Pub; the Stagecoach Motel; Route 36 Sales & Service, a convenience store and gas bar; a Conexus Credit Union; a community rink, library, and swimming pool; the Hills of Home Senior Centre Club; a variety store; and the RM office for the region.
Transportation
There are two highways servicing Willow Bunch. Highway 36 runs on a north–south axis, eventually reaching the United States border at the Coronach Border station, and extending north to Highway 13. Highway 705 intersects Willow Bunch on an east–west axis, spanning 63 kilometres west to Wood Mountain, and extending more than 230 kilometres east, stopping at provincial Highway 47.
The "hamlet"
An area known as "the hamlet" used to divide Willow Bunch's Métis and French settlers. The old, abandoned homes of Metis families can be seen outlining a coulee south of town.
Dutch Hollow Art Club
The Dutch Hollow Art Club formed in 1954 after the country school of Dutch Hollow closed. Activities include shell craft, sewing, ceramics, and cookbook making.
Tourism
Willow Bunch Museum
The museum supplies the history of its town and surrounding area in a former convent of the Sisters of the Cross. The Museum was established in 1972 by a group of local students through a government summer employment program. It has two full floors of eight exhibits, which are individually dedicated to Édouard Beaupré, pioneers, the chapel, town archives, homemakers, Métis, North-West Mounted Police/tools and technology, and the hospital. Local and former residents donated the artifacts; however, many of them are packed in boxes that are still waiting to be displayed.
Agriculture
The Willow Bunch area relies primarily on agriculture for income. There are currently 102 active farms in the area, producing grains, spring oats, winter oats, lentils, barley, nuts, berries, and livestock.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Willow Bunch had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
The average median age of the population in Willow Bunch is 50.2, with 88% of the population over the age of 15 years of age. Within Willow Bunch, males represent 55% of the population, while females account for 45%.
A majority of the population in Willow Bunch are married or living with a common law partner. This group makes up 57% of the population. Single residents account for 19% of the population and separated, divorced and widowed individuals make up 10% of the population.
There are 120 families in Willow Bunch, resulting in a total of 90 children from 0–25 years old. However the average number of children still at home according to the Canadian Census 2011 is 0.8. A majority of families are small families; two-person families represent the largest percentile (58%), while families of five or more make up the smallest section of the population (4%).
A majority of residents in Willow Bunch are of European or Métis Origins. The 2011 census reported 100% of Willow Bunch residents were not of a visible minority.
All residents in Willow Bunch are Canadian citizens. A very small portion of the community identify as immigrants (3%), while the remainder are not immigrants (97%).
The 2011 Canadian Household Survey reported Willow Bunch residents are primarily Christian.
Christianity: 85% (Catholic 51%) (United Church 34%)
No religious affiliation: 11%
Other religions: 0%
Most Willow Bunch residents speak English as their mother tongue (84%), a smaller percentile identify French as their first official language (17%). A large percentage of the community is bilingual speaking both French and English (21%).
In terms of occupation, the 2011 Canadian Household Survey reported that residents held the following positions:
Management occupations: 5%
Business, finance and administrative occupations: 12%
Sales and Service occupations:12%
Trades, transport and equipment operators and related occupations: 12%
Natural resources, agriculture and related production occupations: 22%
Occupation not applicable: 36%
The median income in Willow Bunch is $24, 252.
Men $59,661
Women $19,084
Education
The French language is a symbol of Willow Bunch, Saskatchewan. It remains a spoken language of the Métis, francophones and various other peoples who live there today. However, French was not always a priority in the town's schools.
Before Willow Bunch became situated in its current location in the early 20th century, it was known as Bonneauville. Bonneauville was the location of the town's first school, which opened in 1886 and had no formal name. It was, however, known as a "Free Catholic School."
At the time, Bonneauville was governed by the North-West Territories, as the province of Saskatchewan had yet to be created. There was no legislative act regulating education in the area. Consequently, the school was dependent on ratepayers for funding. Having this burden enabled the residents of Bonneauville, under the North-West Territories Act of 1875, to choose which language the school would teach their children in. Because records were vague during the school's first two years of operation, it is difficult to ascertain which language they learned in. However, it is likely that they learned in French because the majority of residents were francophones in 1888.
On November 28, 1888, the school was formally established as Sitkala Roman Catholic Public (R.C.P.) # 23 by Proclamation of Lieutenant Governor Joseph Royal. Jean-Louis Legaré, Prudent Lapointe, Narcisse Lacerte and Isidore Ouellette were trustees for Sitkala R.C.P. Lapointe's brother, Joseph Lapointe was the school's only teacher until Antonia Granger was hired in 1889.
Twenty-six students from 20 families attended the school in its first term, which ended on March 31, 1889.
They were taught reading, dictation, writing, arithmetic, drill, grammar, and geography, all in French. They also learned English as a second language.
In 1907, Sitkala R.C.P. relocated to what would be known as Willow Bunch. The Sisters of the Cross Convent, a private, French-English school, was built there seven years later in 1914.
Since Saskatchewan had been formed in 1905, both schools fell under the province's jurisdiction. In turn, they had to abide by the Saskatchewan Act. Under the Act, their right to French education was protected. Just over 25 years later, this right no longer existed.
In 1931, the School Act prohibited French as the sole language of instruction in schools. However, it allowed students to be taught solely in French from Kindergarten to Grade 1. Students in higher grades were able to learn in French for one hour each day.
Six years later, in 1937, Sitkala R.C.P. joined the public school system. Increasing enrolment rates led the Convent to follow suit, but 12 years later in 1949. The Willow Bunch School was built that same year.
With three schools in the town, minimal French education remained a part of the curriculum. Despite this, students were able to sing French songs in celebration of Saskatchewan's Diamond Jubilee in 1965. They also sang Polish, Irish, Czech, English and Aboriginal songs. Nonetheless, their francophone parents were not content with the curriculum being taught.
In May 1969, a Willow Bunch advisory board responded to the parents' concern and began campaigning for equal instruction in French at the Willow Bunch School. The Department of Education supported their inquiry, and proposed it to the Borderland School Unit # 4, which administered the school at the time. However, the Unit rejected their proposal for several months. After meetings October through November, the Unit's position changed.
On November 21, the Willow Bunch School officially became bilingual, making it the fifth school in the province to acquire that status. Grade 1 students received equal instruction in French or English. For higher grades, time allotments for French instruction were implemented one year at a time, over six years, until bilingual instruction was offered in all grades. Reading, writing, and mathematics were taught in English, while language instruction, social studies, health education and religious education were offered in both languages. Parents had the option of enrolling their children in the English or French program.
French-instructed classes, like social studies, provided students with a holistic understanding of the history of other peoples in the area. Students learned about the clothing, spiritual beliefs, dwellings, nutrition, languages and recreational activities of First Nations peoples. The Métis were also included in these teachings, but only regarding their participation in the 1885 North-West Rebellion
The provincial government promised to help with the school's increased costs attributed to it being bilingual. However, in 1977, the French program only had four full-time teachers. The English program had 30.
By then, French had already become less-spoken in peoples' homes. In 1961, 477 people most often spoke it at home. By 1976, there were only 235.
Since the Willow Bunch School closed in 2007, this number has dropped to 15.
The Willow Bunch School was closed in 2007. Students are now bused to the nearby communities of Assiniboia, Bengough, and Coronach.
Architecture and built environment
According to the Census of Canada, the town has 160 private dwellings with the latest of them being built in 1990.
Notable buildings and locations
Skating Rink
Willow Bunch has had two skating rinks before the current one. The current community skating rink was built in 1957, and a lobby was added in 1959.
Willow Bunch Museum
Originally built as a convent in 1914 by the Sisters of the Cross, this three-storey mansard-roof edifice is now Willow Bunch Museum.
Planning and construction of the convent began in April 1914. During the First World War construction was momentarily suspended as many of the workers who were originally from France left the town to fight in the war. Because of this, the interior of the top floor was never finished. The building also has served as a private and public school during its existence. The building was put up for sale in 1983 due to declining members of the convent, and the school division no longer renting classroom space, and was purchased by the town in 1985 to house the museum.
References
Bibliography
External links
Fransaskois culture
Métis in Saskatchewan
Towns in Saskatchewan
Division No. 3, Saskatchewan |
4535498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Berkowitz | David Berkowitz | David Richard Berkowitz (born Richard David Falco, June 1, 1953), also known as the Son of Sam and the .44 Caliber Killer, is an American serial killer who pleaded guilty to eight shootings that began in New York City on July 29, 1976. Berkowitz grew up in New York City and served in the United States Army. Using a .44 Special caliber Bulldog revolver, he killed six people and wounded seven others by July 1977, terrorizing New Yorkers and gaining worldwide notoriety. Berkowitz eluded the biggest police manhunt in the city's history while leaving letters that mocked the police and promised further crimes, which were highly publicized by the press.
Berkowitz was arrested on August 10, 1977, and subsequently indicted for eight shootings. He confessed to all of them, and initially claimed to have been obeying the orders of a demon manifested in the form of a black dog belonging to his neighbor, "Sam". After being found mentally competent to stand trial, he pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and was sentenced to six consecutive life sentences in state prison with the possibility of parole after 25 years. He subsequently admitted that the dog-and-devil story was a hoax. In police investigations, Berkowitz was also implicated in many unsolved arsons in the city.
Intense media coverage of the case lent a kind of celebrity status to Berkowitz, which many observers noted that he seemed to enjoy. The New York State Legislature enacted new statutes, known popularly as "Son of Sam laws", designed to keep criminals from financially profiting from the publicity created by their crimes. The statutes have remained in New York despite various legal challenges, and similar laws have been enacted in several other states. During the mid-1990s, Berkowitz, by then professing to be a converted evangelical Christian, amended his confession to claim that he had been a member of a violent Satanic cult that orchestrated the incidents as ritual murder. A new investigation of the murders began in 1996 but was suspended indefinitely after inconclusive findings.
Early life
David Berkowitz was born Richard David Falco on June 1, 1953, in Brooklyn, New York. Within a few days of his birth, his biological mother, Elizabeth "Betty" Broder, gave the child away. Broder had grown up as part of an impoverished family and was working as a waitress. In 1936, she had married Tony Falco, an Italian American. After a marriage of less than four years, Falco left her for another woman.
The infant Richard was adopted by Pearl and Nathan Berkowitz of the Bronx. The couple were hardware store retailers of modest means, and childless in middle age. They reversed the order of the boy's first and middle names and gave him their own surname, raising the young David Richard Berkowitz as their only child. Journalist John Vincent Sanders wrote that Berkowitz's childhood was "somewhat troubled". Although of above-average intelligence, he lost interest in his education at an early age and became infatuated with petty larceny and starting fires. He suffered head injuries as a child. Neighbors and relatives would recall Berkowitz as difficult, spoiled, and a bully. His adoptive parents consulted at least one psychotherapist due to his misconduct, but his misbehavior never resulted in a legal intervention or serious mention in his school records. He attended Public School #123 and Public School #77.
Berkowitz's adoptive mother died of breast cancer when he was 14 years old, and his home life became strained in later years, particularly because he disliked his adoptive father's second wife. Berkowitz lived with his father while attending Christopher Columbus High School (graduating in 1971) and college in a four-and-a-half-room apartment at 170 Dreiser Loop in Co-op City from 1967 to 1971. In 1971, at age 17, Berkowitz joined the United States Army and served at Fort Knox in the U.S. and with an infantry division in South Korea. After an honorable discharge in June 1974, he located his birth mother, Betty. After a few visits, she disclosed the details of his birth. The news greatly disturbed Berkowitz, and he was particularly distraught by the array of reluctant father figures.
Forensic anthropologist Elliott Leyton described Berkowitz's discovery of his birth details as the "primary crisis" of his life, a revelation that shattered his sense of identity. His communication with his birth mother later lapsed, but for a time he remained in communication with his adoptive sister, Roslyn. Berkowitz attended Bronx Community College for one year, enrolling in the spring of 1975. In 1976, he went to work as a driver for the Co-Op City Taxi Company. He subsequently had several non-professional jobs, and at the time of his arrest was working as a letter sorter for the United States Postal Service.
Beginning of crimes (late 1975 to early 1977)
During the mid-1970s, Berkowitz began committing violent crimes. He bungled his first attempt at murder using a knife, then switched to a handgun and began a lengthy crime spree throughout the New York boroughs of the Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens, seeking young female victims. All but one of the crime scenes involved two victims; he infamously committed some of his attacks while the women sat with boyfriends in parked cars. Berkowitz exhibited an enduring enjoyment of his activities, often returning to the scenes of his crimes.
Forman stabbing (December 1975)
Berkowitz claimed that when he was 22 years old he committed his first attack on Christmas Eve 1975, when he used a hunting knife to stab two women in Co-op City. The first alleged victim, a Hispanic woman, was never identified by police. The second was 15-year-old Michelle Forman, a sophomore at Truman High School, whom he stabbed six times on a bridge near Dreiser Loop and whose injuries were serious enough for her to be hospitalized for a week. Berkowitz was not suspected of these crimes, and soon afterward he relocated to an apartment in Yonkers.
Lauria and Valenti shooting (July 1976)
The first shooting attributed to Berkowitz occurred in the Pelham Bay neighborhood of the Bronx. At about 1:10 a.m. on July 29, 1976, Donna Lauria (18), an emergency medical technician, and her friend Jody Valenti (19), a nurse, were sitting in Valenti's double-parked Oldsmobile discussing their evening at Peachtree's, a New Rochelle discotheque. Lauria opened the car door to leave and noticed a man quickly approaching. Startled and angered by the man's sudden appearance, she said, "Now what is this..." The man produced a gun from the paper bag that he carried and crouched. Bracing one elbow on his knee, he aimed his weapon with both hands and fired. Lauria was struck by one bullet that killed her instantly. Valenti was shot in her thigh, and a third bullet missed both women. The shooter turned and walked away quickly.
Valenti survived her injury and said that she did not recognize the killer. She described him as a white male in his thirties with a fair complexion, about tall and weighing about . His hair was short, dark, and curly in a "mod style". This description was repeated by Lauria's father, who claimed to have seen a similar man sitting in a yellow compact car parked nearby. Neighbors gave corroborating reports to police that an unfamiliar yellow compact car had been cruising the area for hours before the shooting. Years later, in 1993, an imprisoned Berkowitz admitted in an interview with journalist Maury Terry that he had shot Lauria and Valenti.
Denaro and Keenan shooting (October 1976)
On October 23, 1976, a similar shooting occurred in a secluded residential area of Flushing, Queens, next to Bowne Park. Carl Denaro (20), a Citibank security guard, and Rosemary Keenan (18), a Queens College student, were sitting in Keenan's parked car when the windows suddenly shattered. "I felt the car exploded," Denaro said later. Keenan quickly started the car and sped away for help. The panicked couple did not realize that someone had been shooting at them, even though Denaro was bleeding from a bullet wound to his head. Keenan had only superficial injuries from the broken glass, but Denaro eventually needed a metal plate to replace a portion of his skull. Neither victim saw the attacker.
Police determined that the bullets embedded in Keenan's car were .44 caliber, but they were so deformed that they thought it unlikely that they could ever be linked to a particular weapon. Because Denaro had shoulder-length hair, police later speculated that the shooter had mistaken him for a woman. Keenan's father was a 20-year veteran police detective of the New York City Police Department (NYPD), causing an intense investigation. As with the Lauria–Valenti shooting, however, there seemed not to be any tangible motive for the shooting; police made little progress with the case. Many details of the Denaro–Keenan shooting were very similar to the Lauria–Valenti case, but police did not initially associate them, partly because the shootings occurred in different boroughs and were being investigated by different police precincts.
DeMasi and Lomino shooting (November 1976)
High school students Donna DeMasi (16) and Joanne Lomino (18) walked home from a movie shortly after midnight on November 27, 1976. They were chatting on the porch of Lomino's home in Floral Park when a young man dressed in military fatigues approached them and began to ask directions.
In a high-pitched voice he said, "Can you tell me how to get...", but then quickly produced a revolver. He shot each of the victims once and, as they fell to the ground injured, he fired several more times, striking the house before running away. A neighbor heard the gunshots, rushed out of his house, and saw a blond man run past gripping a pistol in his left hand. DeMasi had been shot in the neck, but the wound was not life-threatening. Lomino was hit in the back and hospitalized in serious condition; she was ultimately rendered paraplegic.
Freund and Diel shooting (January 1977)
At about 12:40 a.m. on January 30, 1977, secretary Christine Freund (26) and her fiancé, bartender John Diel (30), were sitting in Diel's car near the Forest Hills LIRR station in Queens, preparing to drive to a dance hall after having seen the movie Rocky. Three gunshots penetrated the car. In a panic, Diel drove away for help. He sustained minor superficial injuries, but Freund was shot twice and died several hours later at the hospital. Neither victim had seen their attacker.
Police made the first public acknowledgment that the Freund–Diel shooting was similar to earlier incidents, and that the crimes might be connected. All the victims had been struck with .44 caliber bullets, and the shootings seemed to target young women with long dark hair. NYPD sergeant Richard Conlon stated that police were "leaning towards a connection in all these cases." Composite sketches were released of the black-haired Lauria–Valenti suspect and the blond Lomino–DeMasi suspect, and Conlon noted that police were looking for multiple suspects, not just one.
Voskerichian shooting (March 8)
At about 7:30 p.m. on March 8, 1977, Columbia University student Virginia Voskerichian (19) was walking home from school when she was confronted by an armed man. She lived about a block from where Freund had been shot. In a desperate move to defend herself, Voskerichian lifted her textbooks between herself and her killer, but the makeshift shield was penetrated. The bullet struck her head and ultimately killed her.
Press and publicity (March 10)
In a March 10, 1977, press conference, NYPD officials and Mayor Abraham Beame declared that the same .44 Bulldog revolver had fired the shots that killed Lauria and Voskerichian. Official documents were later revealed, however, saying that while police strongly suspected that the same .44 Bulldog had been used in the shootings, the evidence was actually inconclusive.
The crimes were discussed by the local media virtually every day. Circulation increased dramatically for the New York Post and the Daily News, tabloid newspapers with graphic crime reporting and commentary. Foreign media featured many of the reports as well, including front page articles of newspapers such as the Vatican's L'Osservatore Romano, the Hebrew newspaper Maariv, and the Soviet Izvestia.
Crimes continue (April to July 1977)
Esau and Suriani shooting (April)
At about 3:00 a.m. on April 17, 1977, Alexander Esau (20), a tow truck operator, and Valentina Suriani (18), a Lehman College student and an aspiring actress and model, were sitting in a car belonging to Esau's brother on the Hutchinson River Parkway service road in the Bronx, about a block from Suriani's home and only a few blocks away from the scene of the Lauria–Valenti shooting. A resident of a nearby building heard four shots and called the police. Suriani, who was sitting on the driver's seat, was shot once and Esau twice, both in the head. Suriani died at the scene, and Esau died in the hospital several hours later without being able to describe his attacker(s). Police said that the weapon used for the crime was the same as the one which they had suspected in the earlier shootings. In 1993, Berkowitz confirmed that he was the shooter.
Crime-scene letters (May)
Son of Sam letter
Police discovered a handwritten letter near the bodies of Esau and Suriani, written mostly in block capitals with a few lower-case letters, and addressed to NYPD Captain Joseph Borrelli. With this letter, Berkowitz identified himself as "Son of Sam" for the first time. The press had previously dubbed the killer "the .44 Caliber Killer" because of his weapon of choice. The letter was initially withheld from the public, but some of its contents were revealed to the press and the name "Son of Sam" quickly replaced the old name.
The letter expressed the killer's determination to continue his work, and taunted police for their fruitless efforts to capture him. In full, with misspellings intact, the letter read:
At the time, police speculated that the letter-writer might be familiar with Scottish English. The phrase "me hoot it urts sonny boy" was taken as a Scottish-accented version of "my heart, it hurts, sonny boy". The police also hypothesized that the shooter blamed a dark-haired nurse for his father's death due to the "too many heart attacks" phrase, and the facts that Lauria was a medical technician and Valenti was studying to be a nurse.
The killer's unusual attitude towards the police and the media received widespread scrutiny. Psychologists observed that many serial killers gain gratification by eluding pursuers and observers; the feeling of control over media, law enforcement, and even entire populations provides a source of social power for them. After consulting with several psychiatrists, police released a psychological profile of their suspect on May 26, 1977. He was described as "neurotic" who probably had paranoid schizophrenia, and believed himself to be a victim of demonic possession.
Letter to Jimmy Breslin
On May 30, 1977, Daily News columnist Jimmy Breslin received a handwritten letter from someone who claimed to be the .44 Caliber Killer. The letter was postmarked early that same day in Englewood, New Jersey. On the reverse of the envelope, neatly hand-printed in four precisely centered lines, were the words: Blood and Family – Darkness and Death – Absolute Depravity – .44. The letter inside read:
Underneath the "Son of Sam" was a logo or sketch that combined several symbols. The writer's question, "What will you have for July 29?" was considered an ominous threat: July 29 would be the anniversary of the Lauria-Valenti shooting. Breslin notified police, who thought that the letter was probably from someone with knowledge of the shootings. The Breslin letter was sophisticated in its wording and presentation, especially when compared to the crudely written first letter, and police suspected that it might have been created in an art studio or similar professional location by someone with expertise in printing, calligraphy, or graphic design. The unusual writing caused the police to speculate that the killer was a comic-book letterer, and they asked staff members of DC Comics whether they recognized the lettering. The "Wicked King Wicker" reference caused police to arrange a private screening of The Wicker Man, a 1973 horror movie.
The Daily News published the letter a week later (after agreeing with police to withhold portions of the text) and Breslin urged the killer to surrender. The dramatic article made that day's paper the highest-selling edition of the Daily News to date—more than 1.1 million copies were sold. Police received thousands of tips based on references in the publicized portions of the letter, all of which proved useless. As all of the shooting victims to date had long dark hair, thousands of women in New York City acquired short cuts or brightly colored dyes and beauty supply stores had trouble meeting the demand for wigs.
Lupo and Placido shooting (June)
On June 26, 1977, Salvatore Lupo (20), a mechanic's helper, and Judy Placido (17), a recent high school graduate, had left the Elephas discotheque in Bayside, Queens, and were sitting in Lupo's parked car at about 3:00 a.m. when three gunshots blasted through the vehicle. Lupo was wounded in the right forearm, while Placido was shot in the right temple, shoulder, and back of the neck; both victims survived their injuries. Lupo told police that they had been discussing the Son of Sam case only moments before the shooting. Neither Lupo nor Placido had seen their attacker, but two witnesses reported a tall, dark-haired man in a leisure suit fleeing from the area; one claimed to see him leave in a car and even supplied a partial license plate number.
Moskowitz and Violante shooting (July)
With the first anniversary of the initial .44 caliber shootings approaching, police established a sizable dragnet that emphasized past hunting grounds in Queens and the Bronx. However, the next and final .44 shooting occurred in Brooklyn.
Early on July 31, 1977, secretary Stacy Moskowitz and clothing salesman Robert Violante (both 20) were sitting in Violante's car, which was parked under a streetlight near a city park in Bath Beach, on their first date. They were kissing when a man approached within three feet (90 cm) of the passenger side of the car and fired four rounds, striking both victims in the head before he escaped into the park. Violante lost his left eye; Moskowitz, the only blonde victim of Berkowitz, died from her injuries.
That night, Detective John Falotico was awakened at home and told to report to the 10th Homicide Division at the 60th Precinct station house in Coney Island. He was given two weeks to work on the Moskowitz and Violante case as a normal murder investigation—if it could not be solved in that timeframe, it was to be given to the Son of Sam task force.
Suspicion and capture (August 1977)
Suspicion (August 9)
Local resident Cacilia Davis was walking her dog at the scene of the Moskowitz-Violante shooting when she saw patrol officer Michael Cataneo ticketing a car that was parked near a fire hydrant. Moments after the traffic police had left, a young man walked past her from the area of the car and seemed to study her with some interest. Davis felt concerned because he was holding some kind of "dark object" in his hand. She ran to her home only to hear shots fired behind her in the street. Davis remained silent about this experience for four days until she finally contacted police, who closely checked every car that had been ticketed in the area that night. Berkowitz's yellow 1970 Ford Galaxie was among the cars that they investigated.
On August 9, 1977, NYPD detective James Justis telephoned the Yonkers Police Department to ask them to schedule an interview with Berkowitz. The Yonkers police dispatcher who first took Justis' call was Wheat Carr, the daughter of Sam Carr and sister of Berkowitz's alleged cult confederates John and Michael Carr. As soon as Justis mentioned the name "David Berkowitz" to Wheat, she said, "Let me tell you about him. I know him. He lives right behind me." She also informed Justis that Berkowitz had shot and wounded their black Labrador Retriever, named Harvey, and that Harvey was her father Sam's dog. When Justis heard "Sam", he had a very good feeling that Berkowitz was the real culprit they'd been looking for.
Justis asked Yonkers police for some help tracking down Berkowitz. According to Mike Novotny, a Yonkers police sergeant, the department had their own suspicions about Berkowitz in connection with strange crimes in their jurisdiction which were referred to in one of the Son of Sam letters. Yonkers investigators even told Justis that Berkowitz might be the Son of Sam.
Arrest (August 10)
The following day, on August 10, 1977, police investigated Berkowitz's car, which was parked outside his apartment building at 35 Pine Street, Yonkers. They saw a gun in the back seat, searched the car, and found a duffel bag filled with ammunition, maps of the crime scenes, and a threatening letter addressed to Inspector Timothy Dowd of the Son of Sam task force. Police decided to wait for Berkowitz to leave the apartment rather than risk a violent confrontation in the building's narrow hallway; they also waited to obtain a search warrant for the apartment, worried that their search might be challenged in court. The initial search of the vehicle was based on the handgun that was visible in the back seat, although possession of such a gun was legal in New York State and required no special permit. The warrant still had not arrived when Berkowitz exited the apartment building at about 10:00 p.m. and entered his car. Detective John Falotico approached the driver's side of the car and pointed his gun close to Berkowitz's temple, while Detective Sgt. William Gardella pointed his gun from the passenger's side.
A paper bag containing a .44 caliber Bulldog revolver of the type that was identified in ballistics tests was found next to Berkowitz in the car. Berkowitz then stated flatly, "Well, you got me." As described in Son of Sam (1981) by Lawrence D. Klausner, Falotico remembered the big, inexplicable smile on the man's face:
An alternate version claims that Berkowitz's first words were reported to be, "Well, you got me. How come it took you such a long time?" Falotico was officially credited by the NYPD as the arresting officer of the Son of Sam. Police searched Berkowitz's apartment and found it in disarray, with Satanic graffiti on the walls. They also found diaries that he had kept since he was aged 21—three stenographer's notebooks nearly all-full wherein Berkowitz meticulously noted hundreds of arsons that he claimed to have set throughout New York City. Some sources speculate that this number might be over 1,400.
Soon after Berkowitz's arrest, the address of the apartment building was changed from 35 Pine Street to 42 Pine Street in an attempt to end its notoriety. Berkowitz was briefly held in a Yonkers police station before being transported directly to the 60th Precinct in Coney Island, where the Son of Sam task force was located. At about 1:00 a.m., Mayor Beame arrived to see the suspect personally. After a brief and wordless encounter, he announced to the media: "The people of the City of New York can rest easy because of the fact that the police have captured a man whom they believe to be the Son of Sam."
Confession (August 11)
Berkowitz was interrogated for about thirty minutes in the early morning of August 11, 1977. He quickly confessed to the shootings and expressed an interest in pleading guilty. The investigation was led by John Keenan, who took the confession. During questioning, Berkowitz claimed that his neighbor's dog was one of the reasons that he killed, stating that the dog demanded the blood of pretty young girls. He said that the "Sam" mentioned in the first letter was his former neighbor Sam Carr, and that Harvey, Carr's black Labrador, was possessed by an ancient demon which issued irresistible commands that Berkowitz kill people.
A few weeks after his capture, Berkowitz was permitted to communicate with the press. In a letter to the New York Post dated September 19, 1977, he alluded to his original story of demonic possession, but closed with a warning that has been interpreted by some investigators as an admission of criminal accomplices: "There are other Sons out there, God help the world." At a press conference in February 1979, however, Berkowitz declared that his previous claims of demonic possession were a hoax. Berkowitz later stated in a series of meetings with his special court-appointed psychiatrist David Abrahamsen that he had long contemplated murder to get revenge on a world that he felt had rejected and hurt him.
Sentencing and prison
Sentencing
Three separate mental health examinations determined that Berkowitz was competent to stand trial. Despite this, defense lawyers advised Berkowitz to enter a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity, but he refused. Berkowitz appeared calm in court on May 8, 1978, as he pleaded guilty to all of the shootings. At his sentencing two weeks later, Berkowitz caused an uproar when he attempted to jump out of a window of the seventh-floor courtroom. After he was restrained, he repeatedly chanted, "Stacy [his last victim] was a whore" and shouted, "I'd kill her again! I'd kill them all again!" The court ordered another psychiatric examination before sentencing could proceed. During the evaluation, Berkowitz drew a sketch of a jailed man surrounded by numerous walls; at the bottom he wrote, "I am not well. Not well at all". Nonetheless, Berkowitz was again found competent to stand trial.
On June 12, 1978, Berkowitz was sentenced to 25-years-to-life in prison for each murder, to be served consecutively. He was ordered to serve time in Attica Correctional Facility, a supermax prison in upstate New York. Despite prosecutors' objections, the terms of Berkowitz's guilty plea made him eligible for parole in 25 years.
Detention
After his arrest, Berkowitz was initially confined to a psychiatric ward in Kings County Hospital, where the staff reported that he seemed remarkably troubled by his new environment.
On the day after his sentencing, he was taken first to Sing Sing prison, then to the upstate Clinton Correctional Facility for psychiatric and physical examinations. Two more months were spent at the Central New York Psychiatric Center in Marcy before his admission to Attica prison. Berkowitz served about a decade in Attica until he was relocated () to Sullivan Correctional Facility in Fallsburg, where he remained for many years. Later, he was transferred to Shawangunk Correctional Facility in Ulster County. Berkowitz described his life in Attica Correctional Facility as a "nightmare".
In 1979, there was an attempt on Berkowitz's life in which the left side of his neck was slashed from front to back, resulting in a wound that required more than fifty stitches to close. Berkowitz refused to identify his assailant, and he claimed only that he was grateful for the attack: It brought a sense of justice or, in Berkowitz's own words, "the punishment I deserve".
Evangelical faith
In 1987, Berkowitz became an evangelical Christian in prison. According to his personal testimony, his moment of conversion occurred after reading Psalm 34:6 from a Bible given to him by a fellow inmate. He says he is no longer to be referred to as the "Son of Sam" but the "Son of Hope."
Soon after his imprisonment, Berkowitz invited Malachi Martin, an exorcist, to help him compose an autobiography, but the offer was not accepted. During later years, Berkowitz developed his memoirs with assistance from fellow evangelicals. His statements were released as a 1998 interview video, Son of Hope, with a more extensive work released in book form, entitled Son of Hope: The Prison Journals of David Berkowitz (2006). Berkowitz does not receive any royalties or profit from any sales of his works. He has continued to write essays on faith and repentance for evangelical websites.
A website is maintained on Berkowitz's behalf by a church group, since he is not allowed access to a computer. Berkowitz stays involved with prison ministry, and regularly counsels troubled inmates. While in the Sullivan facility, he pursued education and graduated with honors from Sullivan Community College.
Parole hearings
Berkowitz is entitled to a parole hearing every two years as mandated by state law, though he has consistently refused to ask for his release, sometimes skipping the hearings altogether. Before his first parole hearing in 2002, Berkowitz sent a letter to New York Governor George Pataki requesting that it be canceled. He wrote, "In all honesty, I believe that I deserve to be in prison for the rest of my life. I have, with God's help, long ago come to terms with my situation and I have accepted my punishment." Officials at the Sullivan facility rejected his request.
At his 2016 hearing at Shawangunk, New York, Berkowitz stated that while parole was "unrealistic", he felt he had improved himself behind bars, adding: "I feel I am no risk, whatsoever." His lawyer, Mark Heller, noted that prison staff considered Berkowitz to be a "model prisoner." Commissioners denied a parole. His next parole hearing is scheduled for May 2024.
Other activities
In 2002, during the D.C. sniper attacks, Berkowitz wrote a letter telling the sniper to "stop hurting innocent people." He made his comments in a three-page letter to Fox News personality Rita Cosby after she wrote to him seeking his comment on the sniper attacks. During June 2005, Berkowitz sued one of his previous lawyers for the misappropriation of a large number of letters, photographs, and other personal possessions. Hugo Harmatz, a New Jersey attorney, had represented Berkowitz in an earlier legal effort to prevent the National Enquirer from buying one of his letters. Harmatz then self-published his own collection of letters and memorabilia—Dear David (2005)—which he had obtained from Berkowitz during their consultations. Berkowitz stated that he would drop the lawsuit only if the attorney signed over all the money he made to the victims' families. In October 2006, Berkowitz and Harmatz settled out of court, with Harmatz agreeing to return the disputed items and to donate part of his book profits to the New York State Crime Victims Board.
Satanic cult accomplice claims
In 1979, Berkowitz mailed a book about witchcraft to police in North Dakota. He had underlined several passages and written a few marginal notes, including the phrase: "Arliss Perry, Hunted, Stalked and Slain. Followed to Calif. Stanford University." The reference was to Arlis Perry, a 19-year-old North Dakota newlywed who had been murdered at Stanford on October 12, 1974. Her death, and the notorious abuse of her corpse in a chapel on campus, was a widely reported case. Berkowitz mentioned the Perry attack in other letters, suggesting that he knew details of it from the perpetrator himself. Local police investigators interviewed him but by 2004 had concluded he had "nothing of value to offer." The Perry case was solved in 2018.
After his admission to Sullivan prison, Berkowitz began to claim that he had joined a Satanic cult in the spring of 1975. In 1993, he made these claims known when he announced to the press that he had killed only three of the Son of Sam victims: Lauria, Esau, and Suriani. In his revised version of the events, Berkowitz said that other shooters were involved and that he fired the gun only in the first attack (Lauria and Valenti) and the sixth (Esau and Suriani). He said that he and several other cult members were involved in every incident by planning the events, providing early surveillance of the victims, and acting as lookouts and drivers at the crime scenes. Berkowitz stated that he could not divulge the names of most of his accomplices without putting his family directly at risk.
Among Berkowitz's alleged unnamed associates was a female cult member who he claims fired the gun at Denaro and Keenan; Berkowitz attributed their survival to the alleged accomplice's unfamiliarity with the powerful recoil of a .44 Bulldog. He declared that "at least five" cult members were at the scene of the Freund–Diel shooting, but the actual shooter was a prominent cult associate who had been brought in from outside New York with an unspecified motive—a cult member whom he identified only by his nickname, "Manson II". Another unnamed person was the gunman in the Moskowitz–Violante case, a male cult member who had arrived from North Dakota for the occasion, also without explanation.
Berkowitz did name two of the cult members: John and Michael Carr. The two men were sons of the dog-owner Sam Carr, and they lived on nearby Warburton Avenue. Both of these other "sons of Sam" were long dead: John Carr had been killed in a shooting judged a suicide in North Dakota during 1978, and Michael Carr had been in a fatal car accident in 1979. Berkowitz claimed that the perpetrator of the DeMasi–Lomino shooting was John, and he added that a Yonkers police officer, also a cult member, was involved in this crime. He claimed that Michael fired the shots at Lupo and Placido. Author Maurice Terry wrote that Michael was an active member of the Church of Scientology and noted that Berkowitz at the time of his arrest had been in possession of a list of telephone numbers, including the number for the Fort Harrison Hotel, the church's spiritual headquarters in Clearwater, Florida. In a video interview posted in 2016, Berkowitz said he had been influenced by reading literature from the Process Church of the Final Judgment.
Media re-examination
Journalist John Hockenberry asserted that, even apart from the Satanic cult claims, many officials doubted the single-shooter theory, writing:
"What most don't know about the Son of Sam case is that from the beginning, not everyone bought the idea that Berkowitz acted alone."
John Santucci, the Queens district attorney at the time of the killings, and police investigator Mike Novotny both expressed their convictions that Berkowitz had accomplices. NYPD officer Richard Johnson, involved in the original investigation, opined that unresolved discrepancies in statements from witnesses and surviving victims indicate Berkowitz did not act alone:
"Why are there three [suspect] cars, five different [suspect] descriptions, different heights, different shapes, different sizes of the perpetrator? Somebody else was there."
Other contemporaries voiced their belief in the Satanic cult theory, including Donna Lauria's father. Berkowitz survivor Carl Denaro stated his opinion that "more than one person was involved" but admitted he could not prove the cult theory. His conclusion rests on his criticism of Berkowitz's statement to police as "totally false."
Diel's recollection is that he physically bumped into Berkowitz outside the Wine Gallery restaurant as he and Freund departed and walked to his car where the shooting occurred; Berkowitz, in contrast, told police that he passed within a few feet of Diel and Freund shortly before they entered the car. Diel contends he and Freund passed no one on their way to the car, and that the position of the car parked at the curb would have made it impossible for Berkowitz to have sneaked up on them in the few minutes between their encounter outside the restaurant and the shooting at the car; Diel thus reasons he was shot by someone other than Berkowitz.
Journalist Maury Terry published a series of investigative articles for Gannett newspapers in 1979 which challenged the official finding of a lone gunman in the Son of Sam case. Vigorously denied by police at the time, Terry's articles were widely read and discussed; they were later assembled in a book. Largely impelled by these reports of accomplices and Satanic cult activity, the Son of Sam case was reopened by Yonkers police during 1996, but no new charges were filed. Due to a lack of findings, the investigation was eventually suspended but remains open. In 2021, Terry's work served as the basis for the Netflix series The Sons of Sam: A Descent Into Darkness. From prison, Berkowitz continued to assert and expand upon his claims of demonic possession. He stated in a series of nine videos in 2015 that the "voice" he heard was that of Samhain, a druid devil and the true origin of "Son of Sam." He added that it never was a dog, saying that detail was fabricated by the media.
Skeptics
Berkowitz's later claims about having been in a Satanic cult were widely dismissed. Breslin rejected his story of Satanic cult accomplices, stating that "when they talked to David Berkowitz that night, he recalled everything step by step by step. The guy has 1,000 percent recall and that's it. He's the guy and there's nothing else to look at." Other skeptics included former FBI profiler John Edward Douglas, who spent hours interviewing Berkowitz and concluded he was an "introverted loner, not capable of being involved in group activity." NYPD psychologist Dr. Harvey Schlossberg stated in Against The Law, a documentary about the Son of Sam case, that he believes that the Satanic cult claims are nothing but a fantasy concocted by Berkowitz to absolve himself of guilt. In his book Hunting Humans (2001), Elliott Leyton argued that "recent journalistic attempts to abridge—or even deny—Berkowitz's guilt have lacked all credibility."
Legacy
Decades after his arrest, the name "Son of Sam" remains widely recognized as that of a notorious serial killer, with popular culture manifestations perpetuating this. Berkowitz himself continues to express remorse on Christian websites and on more mainstream news, including speaking out against gun violence and instead spreading the message to "take the glory out of guns".
Neysa Moskowitz, who previously had not hidden her hatred of Berkowitz, wrote him a letter shortly before her own death in 2006, forgiving him for killing her daughter, Stacy. Moskowitz lost all her children at young ages (Jody, aged 9, in a possible suicide in 1968; Stacy; and Ricky, aged 37, in 1999 of scleroderma). She had no survivors except, according to the New York Post, her daughter's murderer.
Legal effects
After rampant speculation about publishers offering Berkowitz large sums of money for his story, the New York State Legislature swiftly passed a new law that prevented convicted criminals (and their relatives) from making any financial profit from books, movies, or other enterprises related to the stories of their crimes. The United States Supreme Court struck down the so-called "Son of Sam law" for violating the First Amendment's right of free expression in the 1991 case of Simon & Schuster, Inc. v. Crime Victims Board, but New York produced a constitutionally revised version of the law in the following year. Similar laws have since been enacted in 41 states and at the federal level.
In popular culture
Literature
Breslin, in collaboration with writer Dick Schaap, published a novelized account of the murders, .44 (1978), less than a year after Berkowitz's arrest. The highly fictionalized plot recounts the exploits of a Berkowitz-based character dubbed "Bernard Rosenfeld." Outside of North America, the book was renamed Son of Sam.
The 2016 young adult novel Burn Baby Burn by Meg Medina is set in New York City during 1977, and depicts how fear of being one of the Son of Sam victims affected the daily lives of people.
He is also referred to by Lee Child in his Jack Reacher Series short novella "High Heat" (2013).
TV and film
The Spike Lee drama Summer of Sam was released in 1999, with actor Michael Badalucco in the role of Berkowitz. The film depicts the tensions that develop in a Bronx neighborhood during the shootings, and Berkowitz's part is largely symbolic. A minor character in the script, he functions "mostly as a berserk metaphor for Lee's view of the seventies as a period of amoral excess." Berkowitz was reported to be disturbed by what he called exploitation of "the ugliness of the past" in Lee's film.
Other movie portrayals of Berkowitz include Ulli Lommel's Son of Sam (2008; direct-to-video) and the CBS television movie Out of the Darkness (1985). The character of Son of Sam played a significant minor role in the miniseries The Bronx Is Burning (2007). Oliver Cooper portrayed him in the TV series Mindhunter (2019). In 2021, Netflix released documentary series The Sons of Sam: A Descent Into Darkness, going back to describing in detail the Satanic cult theory as well as Maury Terry's investigations into the case.
In the Seinfeld episode "The Diplomat's Club," Kramer uses the mailbag of David Berkowitz, owned by Newman, as collateral for a bet on airplane arrival times. In another Seinfeld episode, "The Frogger," Kramer proposes the name "Son of Dad" as a nickname for a serial killer called The Lopper, a reference to Berkowitz's nickname "Son of Sam." In the Seinfeld episode "The Junk Mail," Jerry's friend Frankie finds George in Jerry's van and says through the closed driver's side window, "Seinfeld's van!" George mistakes this for "Son of Sam!" and exclaims, "I knew it wasn't Berkowitz!" In the episode "The Engagement" Newman says, when the police arrive to arrest him, "What took you so long?", echoing Berkowitz.
In the Only Murders in the Building episode "The Tell", several characters play a card game created for the television show called "Son of Sam". This game is similar to the party game Mafia, where one player is assigned the role of a killer, in this case the Son of Sam, who eliminates other players over a series of rounds. Each round, the other players have the opportunity to try to guess who is the Son of Sam.
Music
Son of Sam has been mistakenly associated with the contemporaneous song "Psycho Killer" (1977) by Talking Heads. Likewise, Elliott Smith stated that his song "Son of Sam" is not literally about Berkowitz, a claim some have found hard to believe due to the song's lyrics. Compositions more directly inspired by the events include:
"Son of Sam" (1978) by The Dead Boys
"Son of Sam" by Chain Gang
"Looking Down the Barrel of a Gun" (1989) by the Beastie Boys
Todd Rundgren mentioned the Son of Sam on his song "Bag Lady" from his 1978 album Hermit of Mink Hollow. Billy Joel mentioned these events in the opening line of his song "Close to the Borderline" on his 1980 album Glass Houses. Guitarist Scott Putesky used the stage name "Daisy Berkowitz" while playing with Marilyn Manson in the 1990s, and the band's song "Son of Man" conspicuously describes Berkowitz. Several other rock musicians established a full ensemble named Son of Sam during 2000. Shinedown included a song called "Son of Sam" on their 2008 album The Sound of Madness. A cartoon composite of Berkowitz and the breakfast cereal icon Toucan Sam was featured in Green Jellÿ's comedy-rock video Cereal Killer (1992) by the name of "Toucan Son of Sam," but it was later removed under threat of a copyright lawsuit by the Kellogg Company.
See also
List of serial killers by number of victims
List of serial killers in the United States
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Harmatz, Hugo (2005) Dear David: Letters to Inmate #78-A-1976, Son of Sam. Benra Publ. .
David Berkowitz collection (not yet digitized): Letters received by Berkowitz while incarcerated in prison, written by various correspondents. Housed at Lloyd Sealy Library Special Collections, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York City.
External links
Welcome to The People vs. David Berkowitz, repository of investigatory files and documents relating to the David Berkowitz case
Arise and Shine, official website
1953 births
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United States Army soldiers |
4535852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%20sequestration | Carbon sequestration | Carbon sequestration (or carbon storage) is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool. Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process but it can also be enhanced or achieved with technology, for example within carbon capture and storage projects. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: geologic and biologic (also called biosequestration).
Carbon dioxide () is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. These changes can be accelerated through changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as converting crop land into land for non-crop fast growing plants. Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects, including large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers or aging oil fields. Other technologies that work with carbon sequestration include bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, enhanced weathering, direct air carbon capture and sequestration (DACCS).
Forests, kelp beds, and other forms of plant life absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores are considered volatile carbon sinks as the long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. For example, natural events, such as wildfires or disease, economic pressures and changing political priorities can result in the sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can also be stored in the Earth's crust by injecting it into the subsurface, or in the form of insoluble carbonate salts (mineral sequestration). These methods are considered non-volatile because they remove carbon from the atmosphere and sequester it indefinitely and presumably for a considerable duration (thousands to millions of years).
To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: Seaweed farming, ocean fertilisation, artificial upwelling, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids. The idea of direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection has been abandoned.
Terminology
The term carbon sequestration is used in different ways in the literature and media. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines it as "The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool". Subsequently, a pool is defined as "a reservoir in the Earth system where elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, reside in various chemical forms for a period of time".
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines carbon sequestration as follows: "Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide." Therefore, the difference between carbon sequestration and carbon capture and storage (CCS) is sometimes blurred in the media. The IPCC however defines CCS as "a process in which a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial sources is separated, treated and transported to a long-term storage location".
Hence CCS is a technology application that utilises artificial carbon sequestration techniques.
History of the term (etymology)
The term sequestration is based on the Latin sequestrare, which means set aside or surrender. It is derived from sequester, a depositary or trustee, one in whose hands a thing in dispute was placed until the dispute was settled. In English "sequestered" means secluded or withdrawn.
In law, sequestration is the act of removing, separating, or seizing anything from the possession of its owner under process of law for the benefit of creditors or the state.
Roles
In nature
Carbon sequestration is part of the natural carbon cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of Earth.
Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes.
In climate change mitigation
Carbon sequestration - when acting as a carbon sink - helps to mitigate climate change and thus reduce harmful effects of climate change. It helps to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels and industrial livestock production.
Carbon sequestration, when applied for climate change mitigation, can either build on enhancing naturally occurring carbon sequestration or by applying artificial carbon sequestration processes.
Within the carbon capture and storage approaches, carbon sequestration refers to the "storage" component. Here, artificial carbon storage technologies are applied, such as gaseous storage in deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas fields), and solid storage by reaction of CO2 with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates.
For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using the natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured, or it must be significantly delayed or prevented from being re-released into the atmosphere (by combustion, decay, etc.) from an existing carbon-rich material, by being incorporated into an enduring usage (such as in construction). Thereafter it can be passively stored or remain productively utilized over time in a variety of ways. For instance, upon harvesting, wood (as a carbon-rich material) can be incorporated into construction or a range of other durable products, thus sequestering its carbon over years or even centuries.
Biologic carbon sequestration on land
Biological carbon sequestration (also called biosequestration) is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation and sustainable forest management. Land-use changes that enhance natural carbon capture have the potential to capture and store large amounts of carbon dioxide each year. These include the conservation, management, and restoration of ecosystems such as forests, peatlands, wetlands, and grasslands, in addition to carbon sequestration methods in agriculture.
Methods and practices exist to enhance soil carbon sequestration in both sectors of agriculture and forestry.
Forestry
In terms of carbon retention on forest land, it is better to avoid deforestation than to remove trees and subsequently reforest, as deforestation leads to irreversible effects e.g. biodiversity loss and soil degradation. Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in the future compared to keeping existing forests intact. It takes much longer − several decades − for reforested areas to return to the same carbon sequestration levels found in mature tropical forests.
There are four primary ways in which reforestation and reducing deforestation can increase carbon sequestration. First, by increasing the volume of existing forest. Second, by increasing the carbon density of existing forests at a stand and landscape scale. Third, by expanding the use of forest products that will sustainably replace fossil-fuel emissions. Fourth, by reducing carbon emissions that are caused from deforestation and degradation.
The planting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric into biomass. For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die. To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses and management of the frequency of disturbances might be necessary in order to avoid extreme events. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via biochar, bio-energy with carbon storage (BECS), landfill or stored by use in construction.
Reforestation with long-lived trees (>100 years) will sequester carbon for substantial periods and be released gradually, minimizing carbon's climate impact during the 21st century. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 1.2 trillion trees. Planting and protecting them would offset some 10 years of CO2 emissions and sequester 205 billion tons of carbon. This approach is supported by the Trillion Tree Campaign. Restoring all degraded forests world-wide would capture about 205 billion tons of carbon in total, which is about two-thirds of all carbon emissions.
During a 30-year period to 2050 if all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of mass timber in low rise construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year, thus negating approximately 2% of annual carbon emissions as of 2019. This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from the displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce.
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Proforestation is the practice of growing an existing forest intact toward its full ecological potential.
Urban forestry
Urban forestry increases the amount of carbon taken up in cities by adding new tree sites and the sequestration of carbon occurs over the lifetime of the tree. It is generally practiced and maintained on smaller scales, like in cities. The results of urban forestry can have different results depending on the type of vegetation that is being used, so it can function as a sink but can also function as a source of emissions. In hot areas of the world, trees have an important cooling effect through shade and transpiration. This can save on the need for air conditioning which in turn can reduce GHG emissions.
Wetlands
Wetland restoration involves restoring a wetland's natural biological, geological, and chemical functions through re-establishment or rehabilitation. It has also been proposed as a potential climate change mitigation strategy. Wetland soil, particularly in coastal wetlands such as mangroves, sea grasses, and salt marshes, is an important carbon reservoir; 20–30% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5–8% of the world's land is composed of wetlands. Studies have shown that restored wetlands can become productive sinks and many restoration projects have been enacted in the US and around the world. Aside from climate benefits, wetland restoration and conservation can help preserve biodiversity, improve water quality, and aid with flood control.
As with forests, for the sequestration process to succeed, the wetland must remain undisturbed. If it is disturbed somehow, the carbon stored in the plants and sediments will be released back into the atmosphere and the ecosystem will no longer function as a carbon sink. Additionally, some wetlands can release non- greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide which could offset potential climate benefits. The amounts of carbon sequestered via blue carbon by wetlands can also be difficult to measure.
Wetlands are created when water overflows into heavily vegetated soil causing plants to adapt to a flooded ecosystem. Wetlands can occur in three different regions. Marine wetlands are found in shallow coastal areas, tidal wetlands are also coastal but are found farther inland, and non-tidal wetlands are found inland and have no effects from tides. Wetland soil is an important carbon sink; 14.5% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5.5% of the world's land is composed of wetlands. Not only are wetlands a great carbon sink, they have many other benefits like collecting floodwater, filtering air and water pollutants, and creating a home for numerous birds, fish, insects, and plants.
Climate change could alter soil carbon storage changing it from a sink to a source. With rising temperatures comes an increase in greenhouse gasses from wetlands especially locations with permafrost. When this permafrost melts it increases the available oxygen and water in the soil. Because of this, bacteria in the soil would create large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane to be released into the atmosphere.
The link between climate change and wetlands is still not fully known. It is also not clear how restored wetlands manage carbon while still being a contributing source of methane. However, preserving these areas would help prevent further release of carbon into the atmosphere.
Peatlands, mires and peat bogs
Peatlands hold approximately 30% of the carbon in our ecosystem. When they are drained for agricultural land and urbanization, because peatlands are so vast, large quantities of carbon decompose and emit into the atmosphere. The loss of one peatland could potentially produce more carbon than 175–500 years of methane emissions.
Peat bogs act as a sink for carbon because they accumulate partially decayed biomass that would otherwise continue to decay completely. There is a variance on how much the peatlands act as a carbon sink or carbon source that can be linked to varying climates in different areas of the world and different times of the year. By creating new bogs, or enhancing existing ones, the amount of carbon that is sequestered by bogs would increase.
Agriculture
Compared to natural vegetation, cropland soils are depleted in soil organic carbon (SOC). When soil is converted from natural land or semi-natural land, such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, steppes, and savannas, the SOC content in the soil reduces by about 30–40%. This loss is due to the removal of plant material containing carbon, in terms of harvests. When land use changes, the carbon in the soil will either increase or decrease, and this change will continue until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated climate. The decreasing of SOC content can be counteracted by increasing the carbon input. This can be done with several strategies, e.g. leave harvest residues on the field, use manure as fertiliser, or including perennial crops in the rotation. Perennial crops have a larger below ground biomass fraction, which increases the SOC content. Perennial crops reduce the need for tillage and thus help mitigate soil erosion, and may help increase soil organic matter. Globally, soils are estimated to contain >8,580 gigatons of organic carbon, about ten times the amount in the atmosphere and much more than in vegetation. Researchers have found that rising temperatures can lead to population booms in soil microbes, converting stored carbon into carbon dioxide. In laboratory experiments heating soil, fungi-rich soils released less carbon dioxide than other soils.
Modification of agricultural practices is a recognized method of carbon sequestration as soil can act as an effective carbon sink offsetting as much as 20% of 2010 carbon dioxide emissions annually. (See No-till farming). Restoration of organic farming and earthworms may entirely offset CO2 annual carbon excess of 4 Gt per year and drawdown the residual atmospheric excess. (See Compost).
Carbon emission reduction methods in agriculture can be grouped into two categories: reducing and/or displacing emissions and enhancing carbon removal from the atmosphere. Some of these reductions involve increasing the efficiency of farm operations (e.g. more fuel-efficient equipment) while some involve interruptions in the natural carbon cycle. Also, some effective techniques (such as the elimination of stubble burning) can negatively impact other environmental concerns (increased herbicide use to control weeds not destroyed by burning).
As enforcement of forest protection may not sufficiently address the drivers behind deforestation – the largest of which being the production of beef in the case of the Amazon rainforest – it may also need policies. These could effectively ban and/or progressively discourage deforestation-associated trade via e.g. product information requirements, satellite monitoring like the Global Forest Watch, related eco-tariffs, and product certifications.
Prairies
Prairie restoration is a conservation effort to restore prairie lands that were destroyed due to industrial, agricultural, commercial, or residential development. The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion. The mass of SOC able to be stored in these restored plots is typically greater than the previous crop, acting as a more effective carbon sink.
Urban lawns
Urban lawns can store significant amounts of carbon. The amount stored increases over time from the most recent disturbance (e.g. house construction).
Carbon farming
Bamboo farming
Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential.
Deep soil
On a global basis, it is estimated that soil contains about 2,500 gigatons of carbon. This is greater than 3-fold the carbon found in the atmosphere and 4-fold of that found in living plants and animals. About 70% of the global soil organic carbon in non-permafrost areas is found in the deeper soil within the upper 1 meter and stabilized by mineral-organic associations.
Enhancing carbon removal
All crops absorb during growth and release it after harvest. The goal of agricultural carbon removal is to use the crop and its relation to the carbon cycle to permanently sequester carbon within the soil. This is done by selecting farming methods that return biomass to the soil and enhance the conditions in which the carbon within the plants will be reduced to its elemental nature and stored in a stable state. Methods for accomplishing this include:
Use cover crops such as grasses and weeds as a temporary cover between planting seasons
Concentrate livestock in small paddocks for days at a time so they graze lightly but evenly. This encourages roots to grow deeper into the soil. Stock also till the soil with their hooves, grinding old grass and manures into the soil.
Cover bare paddocks with hay or dead vegetation. This protects soil from the sun and allows the soil to hold more water and be more attractive to carbon-capturing microbes.
Restore degraded, marginal, and abandoned land, which slows carbon release while returning the land to agriculture or other use. Degraded land with low soil carbon pool has particularly high potential to store soil carbon, which can be farther enhanced by proper selection of vegetation.
Agricultural sequestration practices may have positive effects on soil, air, and water quality, be beneficial to wildlife, and expand food production. On degraded croplands, an increase of one ton of soil carbon pool may increase crop yield by 20 to 40 kilograms per hectare of wheat, 10 to 20 kg/ha for maize, and 0.5 to 1 kg/ha for cowpeas.
The effects of soil sequestration can be reversed. If the soil is disrupted or intensive tillage practices are used, the soil becomes a net source of greenhouse gases. Typically after several decades of sequestration, the soil becomes saturated and ceases to absorb carbon. This implies that there is a global limit to the amount of carbon that soil can hold.
Many factors affect the costs of carbon sequestration including soil quality, transaction costs and various externalities such as leakage and unforeseen environmental damage. Because reduction of atmospheric is a long-term concern, farmers can be reluctant to adopt more expensive agricultural techniques when there is not a clear crop, soil, or economic benefit. Governments such as Australia and New Zealand are considering allowing farmers to sell carbon credits once they document that they have sufficiently increased soil carbon content.
Biochar
Biochar is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass waste. The resulting material is added to a landfill or used as a soil improver to create terra preta. Addition of pyrogenic organic carbon (biochar) is a novel strategy to increase the soil-C stock for the long term and to mitigate global warming by offsetting the atmospheric C (up to 9.5 Gigatons C annually). In the soil, the biochar carbon is unavailable for oxidation to and consequential atmospheric release. However concerns have been raised about biochar potentially accelerating release of the carbon already present in the soil.
Terra preta, an anthropogenic, high-carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By pyrolysing biomass, about half of its carbon can be reduced to charcoal, which can persist in the soil for centuries, and makes a useful soil amendment, especially in tropical soils (biochar or agrichar).
Geologic carbon sequestration
Burial of biomass
Burying biomass (such as trees) directly, mimics the natural processes that created fossil fuels. The global potential for carbon sequestration using wood burial is estimated to be 10 ± 5 GtC/yr and largest rates in tropical forests (4.2 GtC/yr), followed by temperate (3.7 GtC/yr) and boreal forests (2.1 GtC/yr). In 2008, Ning Zeng of the University of Maryland estimated 65 GtC lying on the floor of the world's forests as coarse woody material which could be buried and costs for wood burial carbon sequestration run at 50 USD/tC which is much lower than carbon capture from e.g. power plant emissions. CO2 fixation into woody biomass is a natural process carried out through photosynthesis. This is a nature-based solution and suggested methods include the use of "wood vaults" to store the wood-containing carbon under oxygen-free conditions.
In 2022 a certification organisation published methodologies for biomass burial. Other biomass storage proposals have included the burial of biomass deep underwater, including at the bottom of the black sea.
Geological sequestration
Geological sequestration refers to the storage of CO2 underground in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline formations, or deep, un-minable coal beds.
Once CO2 is captured from a point source, such as a cement factory, it can be compressed to ≈100 bar into a supercritical fluid. In this form, the CO2 could be transported via pipeline to the place of storage. The CO2 could then be injected deep underground, typically around 1 km, where it would be stable for hundreds to millions of years. Under these storage conditions, the density of supercritical CO2 is 600 to 800 kg/m3.
The important parameters in determining a good site for carbon storage are: rock porosity, rock permeability, absence of faults, and geometry of rock layers. The medium in which the CO2 is to be stored ideally has a high porosity and permeability, such as sandstone or limestone. Sandstone can have a permeability ranging from 1 to 10−5 Darcy, with a porosity as high as ≈30%. The porous rock must be capped by a layer of low permeability which acts as a seal, or caprock, for the CO2. Shale is an example of a very good caprock, with a permeability of 10−5 to 10−9 Darcy. Once injected, the CO2 plume will rise via buoyant forces, since it is less dense than its surroundings. Once it encounters a caprock, it will spread laterally until it encounters a gap. If there are fault planes near the injection zone, there is a possibility the CO2 could migrate along the fault to the surface, leaking into the atmosphere, which would be potentially dangerous to life in the surrounding area. Another risk related to carbon sequestration is induced seismicity. If the injection of CO2 creates pressures underground that are too high, the formation will fracture, potentially causing an earthquake.
While trapped in a rock formation, CO2 can be in the supercritical fluid phase or dissolve in groundwater/brine. It can also react with minerals in the geologic formation to precipitate carbonates.
Worldwide storage capacity in oil and gas reservoirs is estimated to be 675–900 Gt CO2, and in un-minable coal seams is estimated to be 15–200 Gt CO2. Deep saline formations have the largest capacity, which is estimated to be 1,000–10,000 Gt CO2. In the US, there is estimated to be at least 2,600 Gt and at most 22,000 Gt total CO2 storage capacity.
There are a number of large-scale carbon capture and sequestration projects that have demonstrated the viability and safety of this method of carbon storage, which are summarized by the Global CCS Institute. The dominant monitoring technique is seismic imaging, where vibrations are generated that propagate through the subsurface. The geologic structure can be imaged from the refracted/reflected waves.
In September 2020, the US Department of Energy awarded $72 million in federal funding to support the development and advancement of carbon capture technologies.
has been used extensively in enhanced crude oil recovery operations in the United States beginning in 1972. There are in excess of 10,000 wells that inject in the state of Texas alone. The gas comes in part from anthropogenic sources, but is principally from large naturally occurring geologic formations of . It is transported to the oil-producing fields through a large network of over of pipelines. The use of for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods in heavy oil reservoirs in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) has also been proposed. However, transport cost remains an important hurdle. An extensive pipeline system does not yet exist in the WCSB. Athabasca oil sands mining that produces is hundreds of kilometers north of the subsurface Heavy crude oil reservoirs that could most benefit from injection.
Mineral sequestration
Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of limestone over geologic time. Carbonic acid in groundwater slowly reacts with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium, alkalis and silica and leave a residue of clay minerals. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain much of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates.
Several serpentinite deposits are being investigated as potentially large scale storage sinks such as those found in NSW, Australia, where the first mineral carbonation pilot plant project is underway. Beneficial re-use of magnesium carbonate from this process could provide feedstock for new products developed for the built environment and agriculture without returning the carbon into the atmosphere and so acting as a carbon sink.
One proposed reaction is that of the olivine-rich rock dunite, or its hydrated equivalent serpentinite with carbon dioxide to form the carbonate mineral magnesite, plus silica and iron oxide (magnetite).
Serpentinite sequestration is favored because of the non-toxic and stable nature of magnesium carbonate. The ideal reactions involve the magnesium endmember components of the olivine (reaction 1) or serpentine (reaction 2), the latter derived from earlier olivine by hydration and silicification (reaction 3). The presence of iron in the olivine or serpentine reduces the efficiency of sequestration, since the iron components of these minerals break down to iron oxide and silica (reaction 4).
Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks
Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) are metal-organic frameworks similar to zeolites. Because of their porosity, chemical stability and thermal resistance, ZIFs are being examined for their capacity to capture carbon dioxide. ZIFs could be used to keep industrial emissions of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.
Mineral carbonation
CO2 exothermically reacts with metal oxides, producing stable carbonates (e.g. calcite, magnesite). This process (CO2-to-stone) occurs naturally over periods of years and is responsible for much surface limestone. Olivine is one such metal oxide. Rocks rich in metal oxides that react with CO2, such as MgO and CaO as contained in basalts, have been proven as a viable means to achieve carbon-dioxide mineral storage. The reaction rate can in principle be accelerated with a catalyst or by increasing temperatures and/or pressures, or by mineral pre-treatment, although this method can require additional energy. The IPCC estimates that a power plant equipped with CCS using mineral storage would need 60–180% more energy than one without. Theoretically, up to 22% of crustal mineral mass is able to form carbonates.
Ultramafic mine tailings are a readily available source of fine-grained metal oxides that could serve this purpose. Accelerating passive CO2 sequestration via mineral carbonation may be achieved through microbial processes that enhance mineral dissolution and carbonate precipitation.
Carbon, in the form of can be removed from the atmosphere by chemical processes, and stored in stable carbonate mineral forms. This process (-to-stone) is known as "carbon sequestration by mineral carbonation" or mineral sequestration. The process involves reacting carbon dioxide with abundantly available metal oxides – either magnesium oxide (MgO) or calcium oxide (CaO) – to form stable carbonates. These reactions are exothermic and occur naturally (e.g., the weathering of rock over geologic time periods).
CaO + →
MgO + →
Calcium and magnesium are found in nature typically as calcium and magnesium silicates (such as forsterite and serpentinite) and not as binary oxides. For forsterite and serpentine the reactions are:
+ 2 → 2 +
+ 3 → 3 + 2 + 2
These reactions are slightly more favorable at low temperatures. This process occurs naturally over geologic time frames and is responsible for much of the Earth's surface limestone. The reaction rate can be made faster however, by reacting at higher temperatures and/or pressures, although this method requires some additional energy. Alternatively, the mineral could be milled to increase its surface area, and exposed to water and constant abrasion to remove the inert Silica as could be achieved naturally by dumping Olivine in the high energy surf of beaches. Experiments suggest the weathering process is reasonably quick (one year) given porous basaltic rocks.
naturally reacts with peridotite rock in surface exposures of ophiolites, notably in Oman. It has been suggested that this process can be enhanced to carry out natural mineralisation of .
When is dissolved in water and injected into hot basaltic rocks underground it has been shown that the reacts with the basalt to form solid carbonate minerals. A test plant in Iceland started up in October 2017, extracting up to 50 tons of CO2 a year from the atmosphere and storing it underground in basaltic rock.
Researchers from British Columbia, developed a low cost process for the production of magnesite, also known as magnesium carbonate, which can sequester CO2 from the air, or at the point of air pollution, e.g. at a power plant. The crystals are naturally occurring, but accumulation is usually very slow.
Concrete is a promising destination of captured carbon dioxide. Several advantages that concrete offers include, but not limited to: a source of plenty of calcium due to its substantial production all over the world; a thermodynamically stable condition for carbon dioxide to be stored as calcium carbonates; and its long-term capability of storing carbon dioxide as a material widely used in infrastructure. Demolished concrete waste or recycled concrete could be also used aside from newly produced concrete. Studies at HeidelbergCement show that carbon sequestration can turn demolished and recycled concrete into a supplementary cementitious material, which can act as a secondary binder in tandem with Portland cement, in new concrete production.
Sequestration in oceans
Marine carbon pumps
The ocean naturally sequesters carbon through different processes. The solubility pump moves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the surface ocean where it reacts with water molecules to form carbonic acid. The solubility of carbon dioxide increases with decreasing water temperatures. Thermohaline circulation moves dissolved carbon dioxide to cooler waters where it is more soluble, increasing carbon concentrations in the ocean interior. The biological pump moves dissolved carbon dioxide from the surface ocean to the ocean's interior through the conversion of inorganic carbon to organic carbon by photosynthesis. Organic matter that survives respiration and remineralization can be transported through sinking particles and organism migration to the deep ocean.
Vegetated coastal ecosystems
Seaweed farming and algae
Seaweed grow in shallow and coastal areas, and capture significant amounts of carbon that can be transported to the deep ocean by oceanic mechanisms; seaweed reaching the deep ocean sequester carbon and prevent it from exchanging with the atmosphere over millennia. Growing seaweed offshore with the purpose of sinking the seaweed in the depths of the sea to sequester carbon has been suggested. In addition, seaweed grows very fast and can theoretically be harvested and processed to generate biomethane, via anaerobic digestion to generate electricity, via cogeneration/CHP or as a replacement for natural gas. One study suggested that if seaweed farms covered 9% of the ocean they could produce enough biomethane to supply Earth's equivalent demand for fossil fuel energy, remove 53 gigatonnes of per year from the atmosphere and sustainably produce 200 kg per year of fish, per person, for 10 billion people. Ideal species for such farming and conversion include Laminaria digitata, Fucus serratus and Saccharina latissima.
Both macroalgae and microalgae are being investigated as possible means of carbon sequestration. Marine phytoplankton perform half of the global photosynthetic CO2 fixation (net global primary production of ~50 Pg C per year) and half of the oxygen production despite amounting to only ~1% of global plant biomass.
Because algae lack the complex lignin associated with terrestrial plants, the carbon in algae is released into the atmosphere more rapidly than carbon captured on land. Algae have been proposed as a short-term storage pool of carbon that can be used as a feedstock for the production of various biogenic fuels.
Large-scale seaweed farming (called "ocean afforestation") could sequester huge amounts of carbon. Wild seaweed will sequester large amount of carbon through dissolved particles of organic matter being transported to deep ocean seafloors where it will become buried and remain for long periods of time. Currently seaweed farming is carried out to provide food, medicine and biofuel. In respect to carbon farming, the potential growth of seaweed for carbon farming would see the harvested seaweed transported to the deep ocean for long-term burial. Seaweed farming has gathered attention given the limited terrestrial space available for carbon farming practices. Currently seaweed farming occurs mostly in the Asian Pacific coastal areas where it has been a rapidly increasing market. The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends "further research attention" on seaweed farming as a mitigation tactic.
Ocean fertilisation
Artificial upwelling
Artificial upwelling or downwelling is an approach that would change the mixing layers of the ocean. Encouraging various ocean layers to mix can move nutrients and dissolved gases around, offering avenues for geoengineering. Mixing may be achieved by placing large vertical pipes in the oceans to pump nutrient rich water to the surface, triggering blooms of algae, which store carbon when they grow and export carbon when they die. This produces results somewhat similar to iron fertilization. One side-effect is a short-term rise in , which limits its attractiveness.
Mixing layers involve transporting the denser and colder deep ocean water to the surface mixed layer. As the ocean temperature decreases with depth, more carbon dioxide and other compounds are able to dissolve in the deeper layers. This can be induced by reversing the oceanic carbon cycle through the use of large vertical pipes serving as ocean pumps, or a mixer array. When the nutrient rich deep ocean water is moved to the surface, algae bloom occurs, resulting in a decrease in carbon dioxide due to carbon intake from phytoplankton and other photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. The transfer of heat between the layers will also cause seawater from the mixed layer to sink and absorb more carbon dioxide. This method has not gained much traction as algae bloom harms marine ecosystems by blocking sunlight and releasing harmful toxins into the ocean. The sudden increase in carbon dioxide on the surface level will also temporarily decrease the pH of the seawater, impairing the growth of coral reefs. The production of carbonic acid through the dissolution of carbon dioxide in seawater hinders marine biogenic calcification and causes major disruptions to the oceanic food chain.
Basalt storage
Carbon dioxide sequestration in basalt involves the injecting of into deep-sea formations. The first mixes with seawater and then reacts with the basalt, both of which are alkaline-rich elements. This reaction results in the release of and ions forming stable carbonate minerals.
Underwater basalt offers a good alternative to other forms of oceanic carbon storage because it has a number of trapping measures to ensure added protection against leakage. These measures include "geochemical, sediment, gravitational and hydrate formation." Because hydrate is denser than in seawater, the risk of leakage is minimal. Injecting the at depths greater than ensures that the has a greater density than seawater, causing it to sink.
One possible injection site is Juan de Fuca plate. Researchers at the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory found that this plate at the western coast of the United States has a possible storage capacity of 208 gigatons. This could cover the entire current U.S. carbon emissions for over 100 years.
This process is undergoing tests as part of the CarbFix project, resulting in 95% of the injected 250 tonnes of CO2 to solidify into calcite in two years, using 25 tonnes of water per tonne of CO2.
Mineralization and deep sea sediments
Similar to mineralization processes that take place within rocks, mineralization can also occur under the sea. The rate of dissolution of carbon dioxide from atmosphere to oceanic regions is determined by the circulation period of the ocean and buffering ability of subducting surface water. Researchers have demonstrated that the carbon dioxide marine storage at several kilometers depth could be viable for up to 500 years, but is dependent on injection site and conditions. Several studies have shown that although it may fix carbon dioxide effectively, carbon dioxide may be released back to the atmosphere over time. However, this is unlikely for at least a few more centuries. The neutralization of CaCO3, or balancing the concentration of CaCO3 on the seafloor, land and in the ocean, can be measured on a timescale of thousands of years. More specifically, the predicted time is 1700 years for ocean and approximately 5000 to 6000 years for land. Further, the dissolution time for CaCO3 can be improved by injecting near or downstream of the storage site.
In addition to carbon mineralization, another proposal is deep sea sediment injection. It injects liquid carbon dioxide at least 3000 m below the surface directly into ocean sediments to generate carbon dioxide hydrate. Two regions are defined for exploration: 1) the negative buoyancy zone (NBZ), which is the region between liquid carbon dioxide denser than surrounding water and where liquid carbon dioxide has neutral buoyancy, and 2) the hydrate formation zone (HFZ), which typically has low temperatures and high pressures. Several research models have shown that the optimal depth of injection requires consideration of intrinsic permeability and any changes in liquid carbon dioxide permeability for optimal storage. The formation of hydrates decreases liquid carbon dioxide permeability, and injection below HFZ is more energetically favored than within the HFZ. If the NBZ is a greater column of water than the HFZ, the injection should happen below the HFZ and directly to the NBZ. In this case, liquid carbon dioxide will sink to the NBZ and be stored below the buoyancy and hydrate cap. Carbon dioxide leakage can occur if there is dissolution into pore fluid or via molecular diffusion. However, this occurs over thousands of years.
Adding bases to neutralize acids
Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water, so ocean acidification is a significant consequence of elevated carbon dioxide levels, and limits the rate at which it can be absorbed into the ocean (the solubility pump). A variety of different bases have been suggested that could neutralize the acid and thus increase absorption. For example, adding crushed limestone to oceans enhances the absorption of carbon dioxide. Another approach is to add sodium hydroxide to oceans which is produced by electrolysis of salt water or brine, while eliminating the waste hydrochloric acid by reaction with a volcanic silicate rock such as enstatite, effectively increasing the rate of natural weathering of these rocks to restore ocean pH.
Single-step carbon sequestration and storage
Single-step carbon sequestration and storage is a saline water-based mineralization technology extracting carbon dioxide from seawater and storing it in the form of solid minerals.
Abandoned ideas
Direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection
It was once suggested that CO2 could be stored in the oceans by direct injection into the deep ocean and storing it there for some centuries. At the time, this proposal was called "ocean storage" but more precisely it was known as "direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection". However, the interest in this avenue of carbon storage has much reduced since about 2001 because of concerns about the unknown impacts on marine life, high costs and concerns about its stability or permanence. The "IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage" in 2005 did include this technology as an option. However, the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report in 2014 no longer mentioned the term "ocean storage" in its report on climate change mitigation methods. The most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 also no longer includes any mention of "ocean storage" in its "Carbon Dioxide Removal taxonomy".
Cost
Cost of the sequestration (not including capture and transport) varies but is below US$10 per tonne in some cases where onshore storage is available. For example Carbfix cost is around US$25 per tonne of CO2. A 2020 report estimated sequestration in forests (so including capture) at US$35 for small quantities to US$280 per tonne for 10% of the total required to keep to 1.5 C warming. But there is risk of forest fires releasing the carbon.
Researchers have raised the concern that the use of carbon offsets – such as by maintaining forests, reforestation or carbon capture – as well as renewable energy certificates allow polluting companies a business-as-usual approach to continue releasing greenhouse gases and for being, inappropriately trusted, untried techno-fixes. This also includes the 2022 IPCC report on climate change criticized for containing "a lot of pipe dreams", relying on large negative emissions technologies. A review of studies by the Stanford Solutions Project concluded that relying on Carbon capture and storage/utilization (CCS/U) is a dangerous distraction, with it (in most and large-scale cases) being expensive, increasing air pollution and mining, inefficient and unlikely to be deployable at the scale required in time.
Society and culture
Applications in climate change policies
United States
Starting in the mid-late 2010s, many pieces of US climate and environment policy have sought to make use of the climate change mitigation potential of carbon sequestration. Many of these policies involve either conservation of carbon sink ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, or encouraging agricultural and land use practices designed to increase carbon sequestration such as carbon farming or agroforestry, often through financial incentivization for farmers and landowners.
The Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad, signed by president Joe Biden on January 27, 2021, includes several mentions of carbon sequestration via conservation and restoration of carbon sink ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. These include emphasizing the importance of farmers, landowners, and coastal communities in carbon sequestration, directing the Treasury Department to promote conservation of carbon sinks through market based mechanisms, and directing the Department of the Interior to collaborate with other agencies to create a Civilian Climate Corps to increase carbon sequestration in agriculture, among other things.
See also
Carbon budget
Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage
References
Carbon dioxide removal
Emissions reduction
Forestry and the environment
Photosynthesis
Reforestation
Sustainable food system |
4535866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workforce%20productivity | Workforce productivity | Workforce productivity is the amount of goods and services that a group of workers produce in a given amount of time. It is one of several types of productivity that economists measure. Workforce productivity, often referred to as labor productivity, is a measure for an organisation or company, a process, an industry, or a country.
Workforce productivity is to be distinguished from employee productivity which is a measure employed at the individual level based on the assumption that the overall productivity can be broken down into increasingly smaller units until, ultimately, to the individual employee, in order be used for example for the purpose of allocating a benefit or sanction based on individual performance (see also: Vitality curve).
In 2002, the OECD defined it as "the ratio of a volume measure of output to a volume measure of input". Volume measures of output are normally gross domestic product (GDP) or gross value added (GVA), expressed at constant prices i.e. adjusted for inflation. The three most commonly used measures of input are:
hours worked, typically from the OECD Annual National Accounts database
workforce jobs; and
number of people in employment.
Measurement
Workforce productivity can be measured in two ways, in physical terms or in price terms.
the intensity of labour-effort, and the quality of labour effort generally.
the creative activity involved in producing technical innovations.
the relative efficiency gains resulting from different systems of management, organization, co-ordination or engineering.
the productive effects of some forms of labour on other forms of labour.
These aspects of productivity refer to the qualitative dimensions of labour input. If an organization is using labour much more intensely, one can assume it's due to greater labour productivity, since the output per labour-effort may be the same. This insight becomes particularly important when a large part of what is produced in an economy consists of services. Management may be very preoccupied with the productivity of employees, but the productivity gains of management itself are very difficult to prove. While labor productivity growth has been seen as a useful barometer of the U.S. economy’s performance, recent research has examined why U.S. labor productivity rose during the recent downturn of 2008–2009, when U.S. gross domestic product plummeted.
The validity of international comparisons of labour productivity can be limited by a number of measurement issues. The comparability of output measures can be negatively affected by the use of different valuations, which define the inclusion of taxes, margins, and costs, or different deflation indexes, which turn the current output into constant output. Labor input can be biased by different methods used to estimate average hours or different methodologies used to estimate employed persons. In addition, for level comparisons of labor productivity, the output needs to be converted into a common currency. The preferred conversion factors are Purchasing Power Parities, but their accuracy can be negatively influenced by the limited representativeness of the goods and services compared and different aggregation methods. To facilitate international comparisons of labor productivity, a number of organizations, such as the OECD, the Groningen Growth Centre, the International Labor Comparisons Program, and The Conference Board, prepare productivity data adjusted specifically to enhance the data’s international comparability.
Factors of labour productivity and quality
In a survey of manufacturing growth and performance in Britain and Mauritius, it was found that:
"The factors affecting labour productivity or the performance of individual work roles are of broadly the same type as those that affect the performance of manufacturing firms as a whole. They include: (1) physical-organic, location, and technological factors; (2) cultural belief-value and individual attitudinal, motivational and behavioural factors; (3) international influences – e.g. levels of innovativeness and efficiency on the part of the owners and managers of inward investing foreign companies; (4) managerial-organizational and wider economic and political-legal environments; (5) levels of flexibility in internal labour markets and the organization of work activities – e.g. the presence or absence of traditional craft demarcation lines and barriers to occupational entry; and (6) individual rewards and payment systems, and the effectiveness of personnel managers and others in recruiting, training, communicating with, and performance-motivating employees on the basis of pay and other incentives."
It was further found that:
"The emergence of computers has been noted as a significant factor in increasing labor productivity in the late 1990s, by some, and as an insignificant factor by others, such as R.J. Gordon. Although computers have existed for most of the 20th century, some economic researchers have noted a lag in productivity growth caused by computers that didn't come until the late 1990s."
Maximizing workforce productivity: strategies and perspectives
Workforce productivity, a cornerstone of economic and organizational success, represents the efficiency and effectiveness with which individuals and teams accomplish tasks and contribute to their respective fields. It encompasses a multifaceted spectrum of factors, ranging from time management and employee engagement to the integration of cutting-edge technologies and the promotion of well-being.
It serves as a foundational concept for optimizing the efficiency and effectiveness of individuals and teams in the workplace and encompasses a broad spectrum of strategies and perspectives that many use to both understand and enhance productivity in their workplace.
1. Time Management and Efficiency:
Time management and efficiency refer to the systematic organization and allocation of tasks and resources to maximize productivity. It involves strategies for effectively utilizing available time to achieve desired goals. Time management entails the systematic organization and planning of how to allocate your time among various tasks and activities. By reducing time wastage and prioritizing tasks, individuals and organizations can enhance their productivity.
2. Employee Engagement and Satisfaction:
Employee engagement and satisfaction are essential factors influencing workforce productivity. Employee engagement refers to the level of commitment and enthusiasm employees have toward their work, while satisfaction relates to their contentment with their job and workplace. Research has shown that engaged and satisfied employees tend to be more productive, leading to improved overall organizational performance.
In 2009, Harter and colleagues conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis, comprising 199 research studies conducted across 152 organizations spanning 44 industries and 26 countries. Their findings revealed substantial disparities between business units that ranked in the top and bottom 25% in terms of engagement. Specifically, they observed an 18% decline in productivity among the bottom performers compared to the top performers. Furthermore, there was a substantial 60% reduction in product quality, as measured by defects in the products.
3. Workplace Technology and Automation
Workplace technology and automation involve the integration of technological solutions and automated processes to streamline tasks and workflows. This can significantly impact workforce productivity by reducing manual labor, minimizing errors, and accelerating processes. However, striking a balance between automation and human involvement is crucial to maintain a productive and adaptable workforce.
In today's workforce, automation is seen as an invaluable ally. An extensive survey found that over 90% of employees believe automation solutions have significantly boosted their productivity, with 85% stating that these tools have enhanced collaboration within their teams. Furthermore, nearly 90% expressed a high level of trust in automation solutions, relying on them to streamline processes, reduce errors, and accelerate decision-making.
4. Training and Skill Development
Training and skill development programs are vital for enhancing workforce productivity. Continuous learning and skill improvement enable employees to stay relevant in rapidly changing industries. Organizations that invest in training programs can bridge skill gaps, increase employee competence, and ultimately boost productivity.
This not only reduces errors and rework but also boosts their confidence and job satisfaction. Moreover, continuous skill development keeps the workforce updated with the latest industry trends and technologies, ensuring that the organization remains competitive. In the long run, investing in employee training not only improves individual performance but also contributes significantly to the overall productivity and success of the workplace.
5. Communication and Collaboration
Effective communication and collaboration are often cited as strategies for team and organizational productivity. Communication ensures that team members are aligned with objectives, and collaborative tools facilitate efficient teamwork. Overcoming communication barriers and adopting modern collaboration techniques can be used to enhancing productivity in today's interconnected workplaces.
When teams communicate clearly and openly, they can share ideas, information, and feedback more efficiently. This strategy aims to minimize misunderstandings and align the workforce's efforts towards common goals. Collaboration, on the other hand, encourages the pooling of diverse skills and perspectives, leading to innovative solutions and problem-solving.
In a workplace where communication flows smoothly and collaboration is encouraged, employees are more likely to work cohesively, capitalize on each other's strengths, and produce high-quality results. Thus, nurturing a culture of effective communication and collaboration not only fosters a positive work environment but also drives productivity to new heights.
6. Health and Well-being
Employee health and well-being are closely linked to productivity. Maintaining physical and mental health is essential for sustained high performance. Additionally, maintaining this equilibrium can also have a positive impact on personal relationships.
Achieving a satisfactory work-life balance offers a multitude of advantages to employers. It results in increased productivity, reduced absenteeism, and enhanced physical and mental well-being, as employees exhibit higher commitment and motivation towards their work. Companies that promote a healthy work-life balance, provide mental health support, and encourage overall well-being tend to have more productive and engaged employees.
7. Performance Metrics and KPIs
Performance metrics and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are quantifiable measures used to assess and track productivity. Setting and monitoring these indicators help organizations evaluate their progress toward goals, identify areas for improvement, and make data-driven decisions to enhance productivity.
Performance metrics and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are widely used tools in the context of workplace productivity assessment. These quantitative and qualitative measures serve as benchmarks for evaluating employee and organizational performance. They enable businesses to gauge the effectiveness of their processes and the attainment of predetermined objectives. By establishing and tracking these metrics, organizations can identify areas requiring improvement and optimize resource allocation. Moreover, KPIs help in aligning individual and team goals with the strategic objectives of the enterprise, fostering a sense of purpose and accountability among the workforce. In essence, the systematic use of performance metrics and KPIs empowers organizations to make data-driven decisions, address operational inefficiencies, and ultimately enhance workplace productivity.
8. Leadership and Management
Leadership and management are foundational elements in the context of workplace productivity. Leadership, in essence, embodies the art of inspiring and guiding individuals or teams toward achieving collective objectives. Effective leaders set a clear vision, establish a compelling direction, and serve as role models, instilling a sense of purpose and motivation within the workforce. In contrast, management focuses on the efficient allocation and utilization of resources, encompassing tasks such as organizing work processes, distributing responsibilities, and monitoring progress. The interplay between these two functions is critical, as it establishes an organizational culture where employees are not only encouraged but also empowered to excel. This synergy is often used to cultivate an environment marked by high morale, reduced turnover, and ultimately, elevated productivity levels, making leadership and management integral components of a thriving workplace.
9. Flexibility, Temporary Staff, and Remote Work
Flexibility in work arrangements, including remote work, has gained prominence in recent times. Remote work best practices, technology adoption, and balancing flexibility with productivity goals are topics of significance in modern workplaces. Ensuring remote teams remain productive is a key challenge for organizations.
Flexibility in workforce arrangements, including the use of temporary staff and the adoption of remote work, can significantly impact workplace productivity when managed effectively. Embracing these practices allows organizations to adapt to changing demands and access a broader talent pool. Temporary staff can provide expertise for specific projects or cover peak workloads, while remote work offers employees greater autonomy and work-life balance. However, it's essential to note that when not managed well, these arrangements can have adverse consequences. Without clear guidelines and communication, temporary staff may not integrate seamlessly, and remote work can lead to feelings of isolation and reduced collaboration. Therefore, successful implementation of flexibility measures requires careful planning, robust communication channels, and adequate support systems to ensure that these practices contribute positively to overall workplace productivity. These strategies enable organizations to respond to evolving operational requirements and access a wider talent pool.
10. Workplace Culture and Values
Workplace culture and values are foundational elements that influence productivity. A culture that values productivity and aligns with employee goals can motivate individuals to perform at their best. Promoting diversity and inclusion within the workplace can also enhance productivity by tapping into a broader range of talents and perspectives.
11. Conflict Resolution and Team Dynamics
Conflict resolution and positive team dynamics are essential for maintaining productivity. Resolving conflicts constructively and building high-performing teams are topics of interest in human resource management. Strategies for conflict prevention can contribute to a harmonious work environment conducive to productivity.
Conflicts, though inevitable in any professional setting, can disrupt workflow and hinder progress. Effective conflict resolution strategies, however, mitigate these disruptions by addressing issues promptly and constructively, ensuring that differences in opinions or working styles do not escalate into major obstacles. Furthermore, promoting positive team dynamics, characterized by open communication, trust, and collaboration, creates an environment where team members feel valued and supported. This, in turn, encourages the exchange of ideas and sharing of responsibilities, resulting in increased efficiency and creativity. Ultimately, a workplace that prioritizes conflict resolution and nurtures harmonious team dynamics not only mitigates productivity hurdles but also cultivates an environment conducive to continuous improvement and innovation.
12. Innovation and Creativity
Organizations that encourage creative thinking and provide the necessary resources for innovation can find more efficient ways of working, leading to productivity improvements.
Innovation and creativity can be pivotal drivers of workplace productivity. When employees are encouraged to think creatively and come up with innovative solutions, it opens doors to improved processes, products, and services. Creative problem-solving allows for more efficient ways of tackling challenges, while innovation leads to the development of new tools and techniques. Moreover, a culture that values innovation fosters employee engagement and satisfaction, as individuals are empowered to contribute their unique insights and ideas. This sense of ownership and involvement not only bolsters morale but also fuels a heightened sense of purpose, ultimately resulting in a more productive workforce. In essence, innovation and creativity not only drive workplace productivity but also position organizations for sustained success in a rapidly evolving business landscape.
See also
List of countries by labour productivity
Overall labor effectiveness
Personal income in the United States
References
External links
Figures for the US from BLS
Labour economics indices
Productivity
Industrial and organizational psychology
Performance psychology |
4535954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrinin | Citrinin | Citrinin is a mycotoxin which is often found in food. It is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi that contaminates long-stored food and it causes different toxic effects, like nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic and cytotoxic effects. Citrinin is mainly found in stored grains, but sometimes also in fruits and other plant products.
History
Citrinin was one of the many mycotoxins discovered by H. Raistrick and A.C. Hetherington in the 1930s. In 1941 H. Raistrick and G. Smith identified citrinin to have a broad antibacterial activity. After this discovery the interest in citrinin rose. However, in 1946 A.M. Ambrose and F. DeEds demonstrated that citrinin was toxic to mammals. As a result, the interest in citrinin decreased, but there still was a lot of research. In 1948 the chemical structure was found by W.B. Whalley and coworkers. Citrinin is a natural compound and it was first isolated from Penicillium citrinum, but is also produced by other Penicillium species, such as the Monascus species and the Aspergillus species, which are both fungi. During the 1950s W.B. Whalley, A.J. Birch and others identified citrinin as a polyketide and investigated its biosynthesis using radioisotopes. During the 1980s and 1990s J. Staunton, U. Sankawa and others also investigated its biosynthesis using stable isotopes and NMR. The gene cluster expression system for citrinin was reported in 2008.
In 1993 the World Health Organisation International Agency for Research on Cancer started to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of mycotoxins. The health hazards of mycotoxins to humans or animals have been reviewed extensively in recent years. To ensure agricultural productivity and sustainability, animal and public health, animal welfare and the environment, maximum levels of undesirable substances in animal feed are laid down in the EU Directive of the European Parliament and the Council of 7 May 2002. While maximum levels for various mycotoxins were set for a number of food and feed products, the occurrence of citrinin is not regulated yet under these or other regulations within the European Union. No maximum levels have been reported yet by the Food and Agriculture Organization for citrinin in food and feed.
Structure and reactivity
Citrinin is a polyketide mycotoxin, which is a secondary metabolite of some fungi species. Its IUPAC name is (3R,4S)-4,6-dihydro-8-hydroxy-3,4,5-trimethyl-6-oxo-3H-2-benzopyran-7-carboxylic acid and the molecular formula is C13H14O5. Citrinin has a molecular weight of 250.25 g/mol. It forms disordered yellow crystals which melt at 175 °C. Citrinin is a planar molecule which contains conjugated bonds. As a result of these conjugated bonds citrinin is autofluorescent. Citrinin crystals can hardly be dissolved in cold water, however in polar organic solvents and aqueous sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium acetate dissolving is possible.
As stated above, citrinin decomposes at temperatures higher than 175 °C, providing that it is under dry conditions. When water is present, the decomposition temperature is around 100 °C. Several decomposition products of citrinin are known, including phenol A, citrinin H1, citrinin H2 and dicitrinin A. The structures of the decomposition products are shown in figure 1, depicted on the left. Citrinin H1 is produced out of two citrinin molecules and its toxicity is increased compared to the original toxicity of citrinin. Citrinin H2, a formylated derivative of phenol A, is less toxic than citrinin. Phenol A seems to be produced mainly under acidic conditions. Dicitrinin A is a dimer of citrinin molecules which is mainly formed during decomposition in a neutral environment, when a high concentration of citrinin is present.
The way citrinin reacts in the body is not understood yet and its intermediates during biotransformation are also not known.
Coexposure with ochratoxin A
Citrinin often occurs together with other mycotoxins like ochratoxin A or aflatoxin B1, because they are produced by the same fungi species. The combination which is observed most often is citrinin with ochratoxin A and this is also the most studied combination. The effects of co-occurrence of these mycotoxins are either additive or synergistic. The nephrotoxic effects of ochratoxin A and citrinin, for example, are increased synergistic when exposure to both takes place. Next to that, the co-exposure of these compounds is expected to be involved in the pathogenesis of a human kidney disease, called Balkan Endemic Nephropathy. The interaction of both substances might also influence apoptosis and necrosis in hepatocytes.
Presence in food and exposure
The existing information on occurrence of citrinin in food suggests that relatively high citrinin concentrations can be found in stored grains and grain-based products. Because of this and the fact that people in general have a high consumption of cereal-based foods, the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (the CONTAM Panel) considered that grains might be the major contributor of dietary exposure to citrinin. The CONTAM Panel concluded that not enough data were available in the literature to carry out a dietary exposure assessment.
Another way to be exposed to citrinin is through inhalation and skin contact. However, the extent of possible health hazards caused by inhaled citrinin or through dermal exposure of citrinin is largely unclear. Researchers found that citrinin is also used in indoor materials. When analyzing 79 bulk samples, they found that citrinin was present in three of them, with a concentration range between 20 and 35000 ng/g. Also, other mycotoxins were present in several samples.
Toxicity
There are different types of toxicity. The types of toxicity that have been studied for citrinin are acute toxicity, nephrotoxicity, genotoxicity and its carcinogenicity.
Acute toxicity
The acute toxicity of citrinin depends on the route of administration and on the species used for the research. Oral administration required the highest dose for lethality and the LD50 of this administration route is 134 mg/kg bodyweight (b.w.) for rabbit. Intravenous administration required the lowest dose for lethality. The LD50 is 19 mg/kg b.w. for rabbit. Intraperitoneal the LD50 is 50 mg/kg b.w. for rabbit. Subcutaneous the LD50 is 37 mg/kg b.w. for guinea-pig. Via crop the LD50 is 57 mg/kg bodyweight for ducklings.
Nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity
In a study with male rats, it was found that the rats showed an increased ratio of kidney weight to body weight after an exposure of 70 mg citrinin/kg b.w. for 32 weeks and an increase in the ratio of liver weight to body weight after an exposure of 80 weeks. After an exposure of 40 weeks to citrinin the rats also showed small adenomas.
Genotoxicity
In mammalian cells in vitro, citrinin did not induce DNA single-strand breaks, oxidative DNA damage or sister chromatids exchanges but induced micronuclei, aneuploidy and chromosomal aberrations. In vivo it induced chromosome abnormalities and hypodiploidy in the bone marrow of mice. This indicates that citrinin is mutagenic.
Biosynthesis
Citrinin is biosynthesized by fungi species of Penicillium, Monascus and Aspergillus. For the production of citrinin, a minimal set of genes is needed. These genes are conserved in most species which produce citrinin. They are citS, mrl1, mrl2, mrl4, mrl6, and mrl7. CitS produces a citrinin synthase (CitS). The product of the mrl1 gene is a serine hydrolase (CitA), but its function is not known yet. Mrl2 encodes a non heme Fe(II) dependent oxygenase (CitB) which is involved in ring expansion. A NAD(P)+ dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase (CitD) is encoded by mrl4 and another dehydrogenase (CitE) is encoded by mrl6. The mrl7 gene encodes for a NAD(P)+ dependent oxidoreductase (CitC).
The first step of citrinin biosynthesis in fungi is the binding of citrinin synthase to the starting compound, a thiol ester. After that the serine hydrolase, encoded by mrl1, forms a ketoaldehyde at which CitB can work. CitB oxidizes the C-atom of a methyl group bound to the aromatic ring and produces an alcohol. The oxidoreductase encoded by mrl7 converts this alcohol into a bisaldehyde. Then CitD converts it into a carboxylic acid, via a thiohemiacetal intermediate which rises as a result of the transfer of hydride from NADPH. The last step is the reduction of a carbon atom by CitE, after which citrinin is released. During this pathway also several side product are released.
Aspergillus oryzae has been transformed to efficiently industrially produce citrinin, which is not normally one of its SMs.
Mechanism of action
Various in vitro studies have revealed the involvement of citrinin toxicity in reduced cytokine production, inhibition of RNA and DNA synthesis, induction of oxidative stress, inhibition of nitride oxide gene expression, increase in ROS production and activation of apoptotic cell death via signal transduction pathways and the caspase-cascade system.
Cytokine production and cell viability
Johannessen et al. (2007) investigated the production of cytokine and cell viability in response to citrinin treatment. Levels of TGFβ1 along with cell viability were reduced to 90% of control levels when incubated 48 h with 25 μg/mL citrinin. Incubation with 50 μg/mL for 48 hours and 72 hours further reduced TGFβ1 and cell viability levels to 40% and 20% of control values.
Further Johannessen found that levels of IL-6 were reduced to 90% when exposed to 25 μg/mL citrinin (CTN) and to 40% when exposed to 50 μg/mL. Levels of IL-8 and cell viability were also reduced to 80% and 20% when exposed to respectively 25 and 50 μg/mL CTN for 72 hours. These results show that pleiotropic cytokine TGFβ1 and pro-inflammatory cytokines were (slightly) decreased when exposed to increasing doses of CTN. IL-6 and IL-8 however remained mostly at non-toxic concentrations.
Effect on cell viability and apoptosis
Yu et al. (2006) investigated the effect of CTN on cell viability for a HL-60 cell line. When exposed to 25 μM CTN for 24 hours, no significant decrease was found. However, when incubated to higher amounts, 50 and 75 μM, the overall viability dropped to 51% and 22% of control levels respectively.
Chan (2007) also tested the effect of citrinin on cell viability, but in an embryonic stem cell line (ESC-B5) in vitro. The ESC-B5 cells were treated with 10–30 μM CTN for 24 hours and a dose-dependent reduction in cell viability was found. Chan further determined that this reduction in cell viability was due to apoptosis and not necrosis as CTN exposure led to an increase of nuclear DNA fragmentation or breakdown of chromatin, which are both characteristics of apoptosis.
Other indications that the reduction of cell viability is caused by citrinin induced apoptosis are: increased ROS production in ESC-B5, increased Bax and decreased Bcl2, release of cytochrome c in the cytosol, stimulation of caspase-cascade (increasing activity of caspase-3, −6, −7 and −9). Moreover Huang found that JNK and PAK2 (both associated with apoptosis) were activated in a dose-dependent manner after CTN treatment of osteoblasts. Huang further investigated the role of JNK and ROS by suppressing JNK activation with a JNK inhibitor (SP600125) and found a significant reduction in caspase-3 and apoptosis, but no effect on ROS generation. These results suggest that ROS is an upstream activator of JNK and can possibly control caspase-3 to trigger apoptosis when treated with CTN.
Effect on immune response
Mycotoxins in general can either stimulate or suppress immune responses. Liu et al. (2010) investigated the role of CTN on nitric oxide (NO) production, a proinflamatory mediator, in MES-13 (glomerular mesangial cells from an SV40 transgenic mouse) cells.
It has been found that endotoxin LPS and inflammatory mediators as IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-1β can induce iNOS (NO synthesis enzyme) gene expression by activating transcription factors including NF-κB and STAT1a.
When exposed to CTN the NO production reduced in a dose-responsive manner and this was not due to reduction in cell viability as still 95% of cells were alive while the NO production dropped with 20 or 40% for 15 and 25 μM. Expression of iNOS protein was found to be reduced when treated with CTN in comparison to cells treated with LPS/INF-γ on both RNA and protein level. CTN also reduced STAT-1a phosphorylation and IRF-1 (a transcription factor that is targeted by STAT-1a and can bind to the IRE of the iNOS gene) mRNA levels.
Furthermore Liu et al.. (2010) found that addition of CTN caused lower DNA binding activity between NF-κB and LPS/IFN-y resulting in a reduction of nuclear NF-κB protein. Phosphorylation of IκB-α, an upstream inhibitor of NF-κB, was also reduced upon addition of CTN. These results suggest that CTN inhibits iNOS gene expression through suppression of NF-κB by blocking IκB-α phosphorylation.
Metabolism of citrinin
Reddy et al. (1982) described the distribution and metabolism of [14C]Citrinin in pregnant rats. These rats were subcutaneously administered with 35 mg/kg C-labeled citrinin on day 12 of pregnancy. From plasma concentrations it could be concluded that radioactivity rapidly disappeared after 12 hours and eventually only 0.9% was left. A total recovery of 98% was found 72 hours after administration in several tissues and the percentages of reactivity found in liver, gastrointestinal tract (mostly small intestine), kidney, uterus and fetus are listed in the table 1 below.
Table 1: Distribution of citrinin through tissues
Most of the radioactively labeled citrinin (77%) was excreted via urine. About 21% was found in feces, this was a late effect as no radioactivity was found after 30 minutes and only 3% after 6 hours. Therefore, the presence of 6.8% radioactivity in the gastrointestinal tract after 30 minutes probably reflected the secreted label by the liver and underwent enterohepatic circulation before ending up in the intestine.
Metabolites
At 1 hour after dosing, one metabolite (A) was found in plasma using HPLC. The retention times of parent compound citrinin (C) and this metabolite (A) were 270 and 176 seconds, respectively. The metabolite was more polar than citrinin. Urine samples at different times yielded two metabolites at 180 (A) and 140 (B) seconds, which were both more polar than CTN. Bile samples taken 3 hours after dosing yielded a retention time of 140 seconds, indicating metabolite B. Uterus extracts yielded metabolite A (retention time: 180 seconds) and fetus yielded no metabolite, only the parent compound citrinin. These results suggest that only the parent compound, which is found in plasma and uterus, can enter the fetus and the metabolite (A), also present in plasma and uterus, does not. This can be because the metabolite was more polar and can thereby not cross the placental barrier.
In comparison with male rats, two metabolites were found in urine, plasma, and bile with similar retention times and more polar appearance than the parent compound. These results suggest the liver as origin for citrinin metabolism in male rats.
Citrinin and dihydrocitrinon in urines of German adults
A recent study of Ali et al. (2015) investigated the levels of citrinin (CTN) and its human metabolite dihydrocitrinone (HO-CTN) in urine samples of 50 healthy adults (27 females and 23 males). Citrinin and its major metabolite could positively be detected in respectively 82% and 84% of all urine samples. The levels measured for CTN ranged from 0.02 (limit of detection, LOD) to 0.08 ng/mL and for HO-CTN from 0.05 (LOD) to 0.51 ng/mL. The average urine level was 0.03 ng/mL for CTN and 0.06 ng/mL for HO-CTN. When adjusted to creatinine content, 20.2 ng/g crea (CTN) and 60.9 ng/g crea (HO-CTN) it was clear that the appearance of the metabolite in urine is 3x higher. This suggests that urine can potentially be used as an additional biomarker for citrinin exposure.
Efficacy
Many people have a high consumption of grain products and as citrinin is found in grain products, this can lead to high consumption of citrinin. There is a concern about the concentration of citrinin that causes nephrotoxicity. Based on the report of the European Food Safety Authority, the critical citrinin concentration from children (up to 3–9 years old) is 53 μg/kg of grains and grain-based products while 19 to 100 μg/kg is for adults. Unfortunately, there is no firm conclusion for the exact citrinin concentration that can cause nephrotoxicity for long periods of consumption.
Adverse effect
Research has shown that the kidney is the main target organ of citrinin. It shows change in histopathology and mild morbidity of the rat's kidney. Citrinin causes a disruption of the renal function in rats, which shows that there is an accumulation of the citrinin in kidney tissue. It is also shown that citrinin is transported into renal proximal tubular cells. An organic anion transporter is required for this transportation process. Recent studies show that the mitochondria respiratory system is another target of citrinin. Citrinin can interfere with the electron transport system, Ca2+ fluxes and membrane permeability.
Also several experiments have been conducted in livestocks, such as pigs and chickens, to see the effect of citrinin.
Experiments on pigs
Pigs are likely to consume citrinin from the feed. It is observed that after administration of 20 and 40 mg citrinin/kg bodyweight, pigs suffer from growth depression, weight loss and glycosuria and decreasing β-globulin after 3 days.
Experiments on chickens
In broiler chicken, diarrhea, haemorrhages in the intestine and enlargement of livers and kidneys are observed after the administration of 130 and 260 mg citrinin/kg bodyweight for 4–6 weeks.2 Different effects occur in mature laying hens which are exposed to 250 mg citrinin/kg bodyweight and 50 mg citrinin/kg bodyweight. This exposure resulted in acute diarrhea and increase of water consumption.
References
Mycotoxins
Penicillium
Beta hydroxy acids
Isochromenes
Ketones
Enols |
4536316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Florence | Music of Florence | The music of Florence is foundational in the history of Western European music. Music was an important part of the Italian Renaissance. It was in Florence that the Florentine Camerata convened in the mid-16th century and experimented with setting tales of Greek mythology to music and staging the result—in other words, the first operas, setting the wheels in motion not just for the further development of the operatic form, but for later developments of separate "classical" forms such as the symphony.
History
Pre-1450
Florence had a very important music history during the Italian Trecento and was one of the main centres of the Italian Ars nova.
Civic music
In Florence, the most substantial patron of music until the fall of the Republic was the city itself; therefore, music was primarily used as a symbol of the city's cultural achievements. Civic musicians first appeared in civic record starting in the 13th century. These musicians were all wind players and worked in civic ensembles. In 1383, Florence made clear subdivisions between its civic instrumental ensembles, singling out the pifferi (or piffero band) from the rest of the musicians. By 1390, three basic instrumental ensembles were all in clear formation: the pifferi (3 players), trombetti (trumpets 5-6 players), and the trombadori (8-10 players), including six large trumpets, 1 drummer, and a ciaramella player.
The Pifferi
The Pifferi provided music at important civic occasions, daily at the Palazzo Vecchio (City Hall), and private functions for the aristocratic families, especially the Medici. This group is commonly noted as the most sophisticated of the three groups. Sometimes this ensemble also played for religious services on the Virgil of the feast of the Blessed Virgin, Easter, and at solemn Matins on the Sundays when the image of the Mother of God was exhibited. In 1443, the Pifferi added a fourth member, so that the group included: 2 shawms, 1 bombard, and 1 trombone. As with the vocal performing groups, there was a strong preference for foreign musicians in these ensembles, especially for German trombonists. (German instrumentalists were known for both their strong performance proficiency as also their skills as improvisers.) When it was decided to hire a trombonist to join the pifferi forces, it was agreed to hire a German musician for this trombone position. When he was hired, officials subsequently fired the three native, Florentine shawm players and replaced them all with German speaking musicians. At this time, city officials also passed a motion declaring that only foreigners should hold positions in the pifferi. These positions generally ran in families: father to son, brother to brother. The addition of a 4th musician to the pifferi, and the funds needed for this addition, reflect the continual development of the group's musical repertory, as well as the ensemble's important function within Florentine culture.
Toward the end of the 15th century, string music (especially that played on viols) became widely popular in Italy and all of Europe. But this development is not reflected in Florence's civic financial records; instead, the three civic ensembles were all well maintained and only continued to grow. For example, around 1510 the pifferi expanded to 5 players (3 shawms, 2 trombones). Only 10 years later, it expanded again to 6 musicians (4 shawms, 2 trombones).
Life for civic musicians
Life for the members of these groups was very comfortable. The government provided their musicians with clothing, housing, meals, right to name their successor, and the opportunity to supplement their wages. They were also the highest paid of public servants, and were allowed to dine in the private dining room at the Palazzo. Needless to say, these positions were prestigious and highly desirable. After retiring, they received a pension. The trombetti and pifferi could travel to other nearby cities, always representing Florence. But only on the most special of occasions did the three civic ensembles all play together.
When the wave of humanism originated in Florence focused around Marsilio Ficino and his circles, there was a preference amongst the humanists for music performed for the bas groups: improvised poetry accompanied by soft instruments. However, this growing interest is not reflected in civic records. No bas musicians were being paid by the city for their music. During this time, however, the three main civic groups flourished, especially the pifferi.
Festival music
In addition to these important civic occasions, the city of Florence celebrated carnival twice annually. These festivals took place before Lent and during Calendimaggio, which celebrated the return of spring beginning on May 1 and ending on the feast day of John the Baptist, the patron saint of Florence. People from all classes of society gathered in the streets of Florence and participated in processions, parades, singing, dancing, and revelry. The evening festivities were particularly elaborate and involved collaboration between artists, poets, composers, and musicians. Their first task was to envision the concept and text for a carnival song (canti carnascialeschi) and then to present their creation on a float with costumes, singers, and musicians. A large portion of texts depicted a particular guild trade attempting to sell a product, and the mark of a good setting was in the poet's employment of double entendre. For example, the Song of the Chimney Sweepers (or canzona de' spazzacamini) has a number of witty references:
"Neighbours, neighbours, neighbours,
who wants their chimneys swept?
Your chimneys, signora?
who wants them to be swept,
swept inside and out,
who wants them well cleaned,
whoever can’t pay us
just give us some bread or wine."
Because carnival songs were primarily an oral tradition, only 300 texts have survived, and of these, about 70 contain music. Much of the repertory from the Laurentian period is preserved through the Italian devotional laude. These include the instruction cantasi come (translation: "to be sung to") followed by the title of a particular carnival song. One example of this is Lorenzo de' Medici's lauda, "O maligno e duro core", which is sung to "La canzona de' Valenziani" (Song of the Perfumers). In the later part of Lorenzo's life, more serious and philosophical texts were written, including his most famous poem, "Canzona di Bacco, ovvero Il trionfo di Bacco e Arianna" (Song of Bacchus, or The Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne).
Devotional music
As we have seen, the Italian lauda often shared the same music with the secular carnival song. However, the music grew out of a different and more spiritual tradition—namely the lay confraternities in Florence during the 12th and 13th centuries. These were groups of lay individuals that formed under the Dominican, Franciscan, and mendicant orders who devoted themselves to God, promoted the common good for themselves and the city, and practiced charitable works. Several different types of Florentine devotional companies formed, but the ones that concern us musically are the laudesi companies. These companies organized their own liturgical services and also met each evening to sing laude in veneration of the Virgin Mary. Because the laude were sung by members of the company, they were originally monophonic and often in the poetic form of the ballata, but beginning in the 14th and early 15th centuries, singers were paid for their service, instrumentalists were hired, and the number of singers increased. By 1470 and continuing into the 16th century, the companies had established choirs of around five to eleven singers who could perform three- or four-part polyphony.
The laudas form and style varied according to the musical and poetic culture. Some of the chief poets included Lorenzo de' Medici and his mother Lucrezia Tornabuoni de’ Medici, Feo Belcari, Francesco degli Albizzi, and Ser Michele Chelli. The musical style ranged from organal textures, simple note-against-note polyphony, works in the style of early Dufay, syllabic and homorhythmic declamation, and cantilena textures with supportive lower voices. Simple two-part settings were also prominent and could have been embellished or have included a third improvised part.
Savonarola’s dominance at the end of the Cinquecento led to a prolific period for the lauda. He was a Dominican
friar who sought to reform the church, preaching on repentance and foretelling Florence as the New Jerusalem. Adamantly opposed to the activities of carnival, he deputized his followers and the fanciulli (boys and adolescents) to sing laude throughout the streets during the festival season. Because of his outspoken criticisms, he was excommunicated by the pope and executed.
A major source for the lauda is Serafino Razzi’s Libro primo delle laudi spirituali published in 1563. Razzi was a Dominican friar who promoted Savonarola's veneration. His anthology contains 91 musical settings for 1-4 voices and transmits 180 lauda texts. Much of what we know about both the lauda and the carnival song repertory from the 15th century comes out of this important source.
Patronage of music
Several kinds of musical patronage existed in Florence during the 15th and early 16th centuries, with respect to both sacred and secular music: state, corporate, church, and private.State patronageThe Herald was one position supported by the Florentine government. Heralds performed music during the twice-daily meals for the Signoria, held in the Palazzo Vecchio. One type of songs which heralds performed were canzoni morali, or moral songs. Many of the Herald's songs would have likely been improvised because their subjects would have often been transitory, such as current events. Perhaps the best example of state patronage in Florence is the patronage of the civic groups, the trombadori, trombetti, and pifferi. Originally, the trombadori and the Herald served as the performers for public ceremonies. After the 1370s, the two other groups were added. Like the Herald, these two groups played a role both in public ceremony and the daily meals of the Signoria. The government also patronized the civic groups to provide the music required to honor visiting dignitaries. The civic musicians thus served a particular and necessary role in the complex system of rituals followed for visitors. In some cases, state and church patronage of music overlapped, such as when the Florentine government had the civic musicians perform for church services, for example when they performed at Orsanmichele on feast days. Corporate patronageIn Florence, the guilds were responsible for the upkeep and business of the Florence Cathedral, and the Florence Baptistery. Particularly, the Arte della lana, the wool guild, was responsible for the cathedral, and the Arte della calimala, the cloth guild, for the Baptistry. In addition to other responsibilities, these guilds oversaw the establishment and maintenance of the chapel that sang for services at these two institutions, as well as later at Santissima Anunnziata. A chapel was established as early as 1438, although polyphonic music had been performed at the cathedral for at least thirty years prior. It is believed that the Medici were responsible for, or at least involved in, the creation and continuation of the polyphonic chapel in Florence.
Cosimo de' Medici is credited with arranging the creation of the chapel, not because of documents supporting this, but rather because his name does not appear in any of the documents surrounding the chapel's founding, but as such a prominent figure, it seems unlikely he would not have been involved in the process. Further, when the chapel was disbanded at some point between 1458 and 1464, Cosimo was given the authority to reestablish a chapel with his own funds. During the period of Savonarola's influence, from about 1493–1498, the chapel was disbanded again. However, polyphonic music was returned to the cathedral soon after Savonarola's arrest; records show musicians were engaged to perform by April 27, 1498. The chapel was reestablished by December 1, 1501. It is important to note that the chapel was restored in 1501 during the Medici's exile from Florence. It is clear, then, that other forces in Florence besides the Medici were concerned with the chapel. In addition to patronage of the chapels, certain of the guilds also provided support for some of the confraternities in Florence, which performed laude.PrivateOutside of Florence, most major centers had a court and a system of nobility, such as the Dukes of Ferrara, the Este, the Sforza in Milan, etc. In these cases, the ruler kept his own musicians for his personal use, for military purposes or for religious services, or simply entertainment. However, in Florence, such a court did not exist until the establishment of the Medici as Dukes of Florence in 1532. Wealthy Florentine families, such as the Strozzi family, employed musicians for private use, but without the same level of display or extravagance that would be found in ducal or princely courts. Private patronage also appears in carnival songs. The city's inhabitants themselves served as patrons of certain kinds of music, such as the bench singers, or cantimpanca. A particular singer would often have a regular time and place for his performances – some even had sheets printed with the lyrics to the songs they would perform; these performers were also known for their ability to improvise. Florentines also patronized music through their bequests, through which they arranged to have laude and masses sung on their behalf during services held by the various Florentine laudesi companies.ChurchThe church itself supported some musicians through benefices. Musicians tried to attain the best benefices during their careers, as well as gathering more than one. In this way, musicians could guarantee their continued financial support. However, because benefices included an ecclesiastical post, married musicians could not benefit from them. Also, political turmoil, such as war or the seizure of lands, could interfere with the payment of benefices to a recipient. Church patronage of music can also be seen in the musical training given to boys who were educated at ecclesiastical institutions. They received education in grammar and music in return for singing with the chapel when needed.Patronage and the MediciThe connection between the Medici and music patronage in Florence is a complex one. Although there is no evidence that the Medici directly paid any of the Florentine public musicians, it is possible that the Medici had an arrangement with the pifferi whereby the group performed for the Medici without having to request their services through normal channels. A similar belief is held in the relationship between the Medici and the chapel; the Medici, beginning with Cosimo, may have given the chapel singers financial support in addition to the pay they received from the Cathedral and the Baptistery. Regardless of whether the family did so, it is clear that certain of the Medici influenced the selection of musicians for the chapels at the Cathedral and Baptistry, as well as playing a role in bringing musicians to Florence and, in some cases, finding them financial support.
The various types of patronage in Florence, then, most often were implemented as a means of bringing honor to either the city itself, its religious institutions, or both. Private patronage also served as a reflection of the patron's own wealth and standing. Despite the differences in government between Florence and the courts at Ferrara, Milan, and elsewhere, the motivations behind the patronage of music were quite similar. Patrons, whether dukes or guilds men, used music and musicians to demonstrate either their own wealth and prestige, or that of their city or institution. The groups of musicians who represented the honor of the city or cathedral not only had to exist, but their quality reflected on the city as well. For this reason, patrons sought to employ the best musicians, and competition over singers or other performers was common.
Song and instrumental musicA Florentine Chansonnier from the Time of Lorenzo the MagnificentA Florentine Chansonnier from the Time of Lorenzo the Magnificent (Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, compiled in Florence, c. 1490–1491) opens with Johannes Martini's work, and other works by him regularly alternates with those of Heinrich Isaac in the first nineteenth items. The opening repertoire has been interpreted as a "contest" between the two composers. Isaac has been long regarded as a composer with strong ties to Florence and the Medici from the mid-1480s, whereas there is no surviving evidence connecting Martini with Florence. Martini, indeed, was a prominent court musician in Ferrara, employed by the Este from 1473 until his death in the late 1490s.Martini and FlorencePerhaps Martini's music could have reached Florence during the 1480s. Martini traveled to Rome in 1487. During that trip, he could have stopped in Florence, because the city served as a normal stopover along the route from Ferrara to Rome. Martini's brother Piero joined the choir of the Florentine Cathedral and Santissima Annunziata from 1486 to 1487. Martini's trip to Rome could easily have included a stopover in Florence to visit his brother.Connections between Ferrara and FlorenceFerrara-Florence connections are supported by the shared repertoire between Florentine and contemporary Ferrarese manuscript, Cas. Cas is a major selection of what was available in Ferrara in the 1470s, compiled around 1480, about a decade earlier than 229. Despite a periodic gap between the two, a larger number of concordances suggest the spread of common material in the two important centers from which the manuscripts originated. In the case of Martini, it is not surprising that Martini's eight works in the opening contest section of Fl 229 also appear in Cas.
The two cities have a long-standing history of musical competition. Ferrara served as a place for recruitment of singers for the Baptistry in Florence (established in 1438). Throughout the eras of Lorenzo de'Medici (1466–1492) and Ercole I d'Este (1471–1505), musicians travelled and forged the ties to both cities. For instance, the singer Cornelio di Lorenzo in Ferrara moved to Florence in 1482, where he was serving as a member of Santissima Annunziata. He also maintained his position as a musical agent for Ercole. After his return to Ferrara, he continued contact with Florence.La Martinella'''Another example of such a connection is compositions of Martini and Isaac, entitled La Martinella. Both compositions are textless, and perhaps originally conceived as instrumental pieces, called "free fantasia." The title probably refers to the composer himself, Martini.
It is quite plausible that Isaac reworked Martini's Martinella for his setting of the same title. This is supported by the chronological relationship between the two pieces as well as shared thematic material and structure. Martini's work is written no later than the mid-1470s. Isaac had arrived in Florence around 1485 when Maritni's was probably circulated in the city. Isaac's was written no earlier than the mid-1480s.
Comparing these two compositions, Martini's Martinella consists of two nearly equal sections, like the majority of his secular works. The first section opens with an expansive duet between superius and tenor, followed by a shorter duet for tenor and contratenor. Next, a tutti for all three voices is interrupted by a series of short imitative duets. The short characteristic phrase, indeed, is one of the main stylistic traits of Martini.
Isaac seems to extensively borrow material from his model, but recomposes it. He reuses the melodic material from Martini in the opening and concluding sections as well as several places of his setting, yet with motivic elaboration. For instance, Isaac's opening phrase is based on the initial material of Martini, expanding the initial duet into three-part texture in imitation. In addition, a series of short motives is exchanged between various pairs of voices. This is a similar technique to that which Martini used in the same part of the form, although Isaac did not borrow any explicit melodic material from his model.
He also preserves the structural proportion of Martini, including the same number of measures and nearly equal two sections. In the first section just after the opening phrase, particularly, Isaac follows the sequence of two duets, tutti, alternation between short motives, and tutti. The technique of short motives in imitation is also indebted to Martini's. It is likely that Martini stimulated Isaac's interest in reworking three-part polyphonic instrumental music through Martinella.
The opening section of the Florentine manuscript may suggest the interrelationships between Martini and Isaac, and by extension, between Ferrara and Florence. The link of Martini and Isaac is strongly suggestive through the composition Martinella. It is not coincidence that Isaac chose Martinella's piece as a model for one of his pieces. During his visit, Martini may have influenced Isaac with regard to the compositional techniques, styles, and procedure portrayed in his Martinella. The two may have worked together, which in turn is possibly reflected in the impressive opening section, alternating the works between the two.
Humanism and music
Given this environment of collaboration among institutions and classes of society, it is worth considering the relationship between music and Renaissance humanism, one of the primary intellectual strands active in Quattrocento Florence. Humanism arose as a literary movement in Italy during the late 13th century and flowered in the 15th, particularly in the city of Florence. Humanists were initially identified as professors or students of the studia humanitatis, the curriculum of core subjects that formed the foundation of the humanists' education; these included grammar (i.e. Latin), rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. Classicism was the basis for their studies: humanists drew on the discoveries and revival of ancient Greek and Latin authors and attempted to imitate them in content, style, and form.
By 1600, humanism had come to affect nearly every discipline-every discipline, that is, except music. The common view has been that music lagged behind other fields such as the plastic arts, and, indeed, the application of humanism to music has been the subject of considerable debate. Only a few fragments of ancient Greek music were known during the 15th century, and, as very few humanists comprehended the notation, the sounding music of the ancients could not be revived in the same way as their literature. Yet there are a number of ways in which music can be understood as humanist.
Although the music of the ancients could not be recovered, their theories and attitudes about it could. Due in part to the collection efforts by Florentines such as Niccolo Niccoli (c. 1364–1437) and Pico della Mirandola (1463–94), much classical Greek and Latin music theory was known and studied during the 15th century. Humanists noted that the ancient authors had ascribed powerful effects to music and advocated that contemporary music too should move the affections of listeners. To this end, 15th-century theorists tried to understand the way in which ancient Greek music was constructed, including the concepts of mode and harmony, and apply it to modern music. The metaphor of the harmony in music as a representation of the universal harmony between man and cosmos or between body and soul was a particularly appealing one, prominently figuring in the writings of humanists, including the Florentine Neoplatonist Marsilio Ficino (1433–99).
Another manner of defining humanistic music regards a union of word and tone. One of the ways in which humanism exerted its influence on other disciplines was to encourage greater attention to clarity or elegance of style. This led to experiments with music that mirrored a text's syllable lengths, accents, and meaning. Guillaume Dufay (1397–1474), who spent time in Florence in the 1430s and wrote the motet "Mirandas parit" for the city, includes classical subjects and praise for Florence in a Latin text that employs a quantitative meter-all recognizable characteristics of humanistic writing. Moreover, Dufay uses a number of musical devices to explain and amplify the meaning of the text, in much the same way as a humanistic orator would employ rhetorical figures to decorate a speech.
Finally, there is the issue of the type of music that the humanists themselves cultivated. Very little of the literature by the humanists mentions contemporary art music. It does, however, include descriptions of an improvisatory tradition, particularly the singing of poetry to the accompaniment of a lyre or other stringed instrument. Such accounts typically take an effusive tone, calling on classical images of Orpheus or the Muses and emphasizing the rhetorical nature of the performance.
Venues and activities
A wave of urban expansion in the 1860s led to the construction of a number of theaters in Florence. Currently, the sites, activities, and musical groups is impressive. They include:
Teatro Comunale, seat of the Orchestra del Maggio Musicale Fiorentino and the main site of concerts in the series of the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, a music festival the name of which recalls the presumed folk music festivals of the Middle Ages that are speculated to have been one of the sources for early opera
Teatro della Pergola
the Fiesole School of Music (), open to all ages—an attempt to encourage amateur and semi-professional musical activity
Centro di Ricerca e di Sperimentazione per la Didattica Musicale
Teatro Verdi, seat of the Tuscany Symphony Orchestra
Teatro Goldoni
Luigi Cherubini music conservatory, also home to an impressive Museum of Musical Instruments
the music manuscript collection in the National Central Library
a great number of churches that host musical performances.
Furthermore, the town of Empoli in the province hosts the Busoni Center for Musical Studies, and Fiesole has an ancient Roman theatre that puts an annual summer music festival.
See also
Music of Tuscany
Notes
References
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External links
Florence music conservatory
Concerts today in Florence
Maggio (May) Musicale Fiorentino
Fiesole School
Italian Youth Symphony
Tuscany Symphony Orchestra
Busoni Center for Musical Studies
Centro di Ricerca e di Sperimentazione per la Didattica Musicale
Italian music by city
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4536514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian%20astronomy | Babylonian astronomy | Babylonian astronomy was the study or recording of celestial objects during the early history of Mesopotamia.
Babylonian astronomy seemed to have focused on a select group of stars and constellations known as Ziqpu stars. These constellations may have been collected from various earlier sources. The earliest catalogue, Three Stars Each, mentions stars of the Akkadian Empire, of Amurru, of Elam and others.
A numbering system based on sixty was used, a sexagesimal system. This system simplified the calculating and recording of unusually great and small numbers. The modern practices of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60 minutes each, began with the Sumerians.
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new empirical approach to astronomy. They began studying and recording their belief system and philosophies dealing with an ideal nature of the universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science, and some modern scholars have thus referred to this novel approach as the first scientific revolution. This approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astrology. Classical Greek and Latin sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were considered as priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination.
Only fragments of Babylonian astronomy have survived, consisting largely of contemporary clay tablets containing astronomical diaries, ephemerides and procedure texts, hence current knowledge of Babylonian planetary theory is in a fragmentary state. Nevertheless, the surviving fragments show that Babylonian astronomy was the first "successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena" and that "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West … depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."
The origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western advances in the exact sciences are descendants in direct line from the work of the late Babylonian astronomers.
Old Babylonian astronomy
"Old" Babylonian astronomy was practiced during and after the First Babylonian dynasty () and before the Neo-Babylonian Empire ().
The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their predictions. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena were recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enûma Anu Enlil—the oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enûma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years. It is the earliest evidence that planetary phenomena were recognized as periodic.
An object labelled the ivory prism was recovered from the ruins of Nineveh. First presumed to be describing rules to a game, its use was later deciphered to be a unit converter for calculating the movement of celestial bodies and constellations.
Babylonian astronomers developed zodiacal signs. They are made up of the division of the sky into three sets of thirty degrees and the constellations that inhabit each sector.
The MUL.APIN contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and settings of the planets, and lengths of daylight as measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences. There are dozens of cuneiform Mesopotamian texts with real observations of eclipses, mainly from Babylonia.
Planetary theory
The Babylonians were the first civilization known to possess a functional theory of the planets. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology. The Enuma anu enlil, written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC, comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.
Cosmology
In contrast to the world view presented in Mesopotamian and Assyro-Babylonian literature, particularly in Mesopotamian and Babylonian mythology, very little is known about the cosmology and world view of the ancient Babylonian astrologers and astronomers. This is largely due to the current fragmentary state of Babylonian planetary theory, and also due to Babylonian astronomy being independent from cosmology at the time. Nevertheless, traces of cosmology can be found in Babylonian literature and mythology.
In Babylonian cosmology, the Earth and the heavens were depicted as a "spatial whole, even one of round shape" with references to "the circumference of heaven and earth" and "the totality of heaven and earth". Their worldview was not exactly geocentric either. The idea of geocentrism, where the center of the Earth is the exact center of the universe, did not yet exist in Babylonian cosmology, but was established later by the Greek philosopher Aristotle's On the Heavens. In contrast, Babylonian cosmology suggested that the cosmos revolved around circularly with the heavens and the earth being equal and joined as a whole. The Babylonians and their predecessors, the Sumerians, also believed in a plurality of heavens and earths. This idea dates back to Sumerian incantations of the 2nd millennium BC, which refers to there being seven heavens and seven earths, linked possibly chronologically to the creation by seven generations of gods.
Omens
It was a common Mesopotamian belief that gods could and did indicate future events to mankind through omens; sometimes through animal entrails, but most often they believed omens could be read through astronomy and astrology. Since omens via the planets were produced without any human action, they were seen as more powerful. But they believed the events these omens foretold were also avoidable. The relationship Mesopotamians had with omens can be seen in the Omen Compendia, a Babylonian text composed starting from the beginning of the second millennium on-wards. It is the primary source text that tells us that ancient Mesopotamians saw omens as preventable. The text also contains information on Sumerian rites to avert evil, or “nam-bur-bi”, a term later adopted by the Akkadians as “namburbu”, meaning roughly, “[the evil] loosening”. The god Ea was the one believed to send the omens. Concerning the severity of omens, eclipses were seen as the most dangerous.
The Enuma Anu Enlil is a series of cuneiform tablets that gives insight on different sky omens Babylonian astronomers observed. Celestial bodies such as the Sun and Moon were given significant power as omens. Reports from Nineveh and Babylon, circa 2500-670 B.C., show lunar omens observed by the Mesopotamians. "When the moon disappears, evil will befall the land. When the moon disappears out of its reckoning, an eclipse will take place".
Astrolabes
The astrolabes (not to be mistaken for the later astronomical measurement device of the same name) are one of the earliest documented cuneiform tablets that discuss astronomy and date back to the Old Babylonian Kingdom. They are a list of thirty-six stars connected with the months in a year, generally considered to be written between 1800 and 1100 B.C. No complete texts have been found, but there is a modern compilation by Pinches, assembled from texts housed in the British Museum that is considered excellent by other historians who specialize in Babylonian astronomy. Two other texts concerning the astrolabes that should be mentioned are the Brussels and Berlin compilations. They offer similar information to the Pinches anthology, but do contain some differing information from each other.
The thirty-six stars that make up the astrolabes are believed to be derived from the astronomical traditions from three Mesopotamian city-states, Elam, Akkad, and Amurru. The stars followed and possibly charted by these city-states are identical stars to the ones in the astrolabes. Each region had a set of twelve stars it followed, which combined equals the thirty-six stars in the astrolabes. The twelve stars of each region also correspond to the months of the year. The two cuneiform texts that provide the information for this claim are the large star list “K 250” and “K 8067”. Both of these tablets were translated and transcribed by Weidner. During the reign of Hammurabi these three separate traditions were combined. This combining also ushered in a more scientific approach to astronomy as connections to the original three traditions weakened. The increased use of science in astronomy is evidenced by the traditions from these three regions being arranged in accordance to the paths of the stars of Ea, Anu, and Enlil, an astronomical system contained and discussed in the Mul.apin.
MUL.APIN
MUL.APIN is a collection of two cuneiform tablets (Tablet 1 and Tablet 2) that document aspects of Babylonian astronomy such as the movement of celestial bodies and records of solstices and eclipses. Each tablet is also split into smaller sections called Lists. It was comprised in the general time frame of the astrolabes and Enuma Anu Enlil, evidenced by similar themes, mathematical principles, and occurrences.
Tablet 1 houses information that closely parallels information contained in astrolabe B. The similarities between Tablet 1 and astrolabe B show that the authors were inspired by the same source for at least some of the information. There are six lists of stars on this tablet that relate to sixty constellations in charted paths of the three groups of Babylonian star paths, Ea, Anu, and Enlil. there are also additions to the paths of both Anu and Enlil that are not found in astrolabe B.
Relationship of calendar, mathematics and astronomy
The exploration of the Sun, Moon, and other celestial bodies affected the development of Mesopotamian culture. The study of the sky led to the development of a calendar and advanced mathematics in these societies. The Babylonians were not the first complex society to develop a calendar globally and nearby in North Africa, the Egyptians developed a calendar of their own. The Egyptian calendar was solar based, while the Babylonian calendar was lunar based. A potential blend between the two that has been noted by some historians is the adoption of a crude leap year by the Babylonians after the Egyptians developed one. The Babylonian leap year shares no similarities with the leap year practiced today. It involved the addition of a thirteenth month as a means to re-calibrate the calendar to better match the growing season.
Babylonian priests were the ones responsible for developing new forms of mathematics and did so to better calculate the movements of celestial bodies. One such priest, Nabu-rimanni, is the first documented Babylonian astronomer. He was a priest for the moon god and is credited with writing lunar and eclipse computation tables as well as other elaborate mathematical calculations. The computation tables are organized in seventeen or eighteen tables that document the orbiting speeds of planets and the Moon. His work was later recounted by astronomers during the Seleucid dynasty.
Aurorae
A team of scientists at the University of Tsukuba studied Assyrian cuneiform tablets, reporting unusual red skies which might be aurorae incidents, caused by geomagnetic storms between 680 and 650 BC.
Neo-Babylonian astronomy
Neo-Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomy developed by Chaldean astronomers during the Neo-Babylonian, Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian periods of Mesopotamian history. A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747–734 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time.
The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323–60 BC). In the 3rd century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting records.
Arithmetical and geometrical methods
Though there is a lack of surviving material on Babylonian planetary theory, it appears most of the Chaldean astronomers were concerned mainly with ephemerides and not with theory. It had been thought that most of the predictive Babylonian planetary models that have survived were usually strictly empirical and arithmetical, and usually did not involve geometry, cosmology, or speculative philosophy like that of the later Hellenistic models, though the Babylonian astronomers were concerned with the philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe. Babylonian procedure texts describe, and ephemerides employ, arithmetical procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events. More recent analysis of previously unpublished cuneiform tablets in the British Museum, dated between 350 and 50 BC, demonstrates that Babylonian astronomers sometimes used geometrical methods, prefiguring the methods of the Oxford Calculators, to describe the motion of Jupiter over time in an abstract mathematical space.
In contrast to Greek astronomy which was dependent upon cosmology, Babylonian astronomy was independent from cosmology. Whereas Greek astronomers expressed "prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion", such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers, for whom uniform circular motion was never a requirement for planetary orbits. There is no evidence that the celestial bodies moved in uniform circular motion, or along celestial spheres, in Babylonian astronomy.
Contributions made by the Chaldean astronomers during this period include the discovery of eclipse cycles and saros cycles, and many accurate astronomical observations. For example, they observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic was not uniform, though they were unaware of why this was; it is today known that this is due to the Earth moving in an elliptic orbit around the Sun, with the Earth moving swifter when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion.
Chaldean astronomers known to have followed this model include Naburimannu (fl. 6th–3rd century BC), Kidinnu (d. 330 BC), Berossus (3rd century BC), and Sudines (fl. 240 BC). They are known to have had a significant influence on the Greek astronomer Hipparchus and the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy, as well as other Hellenistic astronomers.
Heliocentric astronomy
The only surviving planetary model from among the Chaldean astronomers is that of the Hellenistic Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), who supported the Greek Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric model. Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch, Aetius, Strabo, and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi. The Greek geographer Strabo lists Seleucus as one of the four most influential astronomers, who came from Hellenistic Seleuceia on the Tigris, alongside Kidenas (Kidinnu), Naburianos (Naburimannu), and Sudines. Their works were originally written in the Akkadian language and later translated into Greek. Seleucus, however, was unique among them in that he was the only one known to have supported the heliocentric theory of planetary motion proposed by Aristarchus, where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system through reasoning, though it is not known what arguments he used.
According to Lucio Russo, his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of tides. Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the Moon, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the Earth's atmosphere. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.
According to Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used trigonometric methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus.
None of his original writings or Greek translations have survived, though a fragment of his work has survived only in Arabic translation, which was later referred to by the Persian philosopher Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925).
Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy
Many of the works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic writers (including mathematicians, astronomers, and geographers) have been preserved up to the present time, or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references. However, achievements in these fields by earlier ancient Near Eastern civilizations, notably those in Babylonia, were forgotten for a long time. Since the discovery of key archaeological sites in the 19th century, many cuneiform writings on clay tablets have been found, some of them related to astronomy. Most known astronomical tablets have been described by Abraham Sachs and later published by Otto Neugebauer in the Astronomical Cuneiform Texts (ACT). Herodotus writes that the Greeks learned such aspects of astronomy as the gnomon and the idea of the day being split into two halves of twelve from the Babylonians. Other sources point to Greek pardegms, a stone with 365-366 holes carved into it to represent the days in a year, from the Babylonians as well.
Since the rediscovery of the Babylonian civilization, it has been theorized that there was significant information exchange between classical and Hellenistic astronomy and Chaldean. The best documented borrowings are those of Hipparchus (2nd century BC) and Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century AD).
Early influence
Some scholars support that the Metonic cycle may have been learned by the Greeks from Babylonian scribes. Meton of Athens, a Greek astronomer of the 5th century BC, developed a lunisolar calendar based on the fact that 19 solar years is about equal to 235 lunar months, a period relation that perhaps was also known to the Babylonians.
In the 4th century BC, Eudoxus of Cnidus wrote a book on the fixed stars. His descriptions of many constellations, especially the twelve signs of the zodiac show similarities to Babylonian. The following century Aristarchus of Samos used an eclipse cycle called the Saros cycle to determine the year length. However, the position that there was an early information exchange between Greeks and Chaldeans are weak inferences; possibly, there had been a stronger information exchange between the two after Alexander the Great established his empire over Persia in the latter part of the 4th century BC.
Influence on Hipparchus and Ptolemy
In 1900, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that Ptolemy had stated in his Almagest IV.2 that Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon's periods known to him from "even more ancient astronomers" by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by "the Chaldeans", and by himself. However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "System B" (sometimes attributed to Kidinnu). Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations. Later Greek knowledge of this specific Babylonian theory is confirmed by 2nd-century papyrus, which contains 32 lines of a single column of calculations for the Moon using this same "System B", but written in Greek on papyrus rather than in cuneiform on clay tablets.
It is clear that Hipparchus (and Ptolemy after him) had an essentially complete list of eclipse observations covering many centuries. Most likely these had been compiled from the "diary" tablets: these are clay tablets recording all relevant observations that the Chaldeans routinely made. Preserved examples date from 652 BC to AD 130, but probably the records went back as far as the reign of the Babylonian king Nabonassar: Ptolemy starts his chronology with the first day in the Egyptian calendar of the first year of Nabonassar; i.e., 26 February 747 BC.
This raw material by itself must have been tough to use, and no doubt the Chaldeans themselves compiled extracts of e.g., all observed eclipses (some tablets with a list of all eclipses in a period of time covering a saros have been found). This allowed them to recognise periodic recurrences of events. Among others they used in System B (cf. Almagest IV.2):
223 (synodic) months = 239 returns in anomaly (anomalistic month) = 242 returns in latitude (draconic month). This is now known as the saros period which is very useful for predicting eclipses.
251 (synodic) months = 269 returns in anomaly
5458 (synodic) months = 5923 returns in latitude
1 synodic month = 29;31:50:08:20 days (sexagesimal; 29.53059413 ... days in decimals = 29 days 12 hours 44 min 3⅓ s) or 29.53 days
The Babylonians expressed all periods in synodic months, probably because they used a lunisolar calendar. Various relations with yearly phenomena led to different values for the length of the year.
Similarly various relations between the periods of the planets were known. The relations that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus in Almagest IX.3 had all already been used in predictions found on Babylonian clay tablets.
Other traces of Babylonian practice in Hipparchus' work are
first Greek known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes.
first consistent use of the sexagesimal number system.
the use of the unit pechus ("cubit") of about 2° or 2½°.
use of a short period of 248 days = 9 anomalistic months.
Means of transmission
All this knowledge was transferred to the Greeks probably shortly after the conquest by Alexander the Great (331 BC). According to the late classical philosopher Simplicius (early 6th century), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler Callisthenes of Olynthus, who sent it to his uncle Aristotle. It is worth mentioning here that although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the Sassanid (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title tèresis (Greek: guard) which is an odd name for a historical work, but is in fact an adequate translation of the Babylonian title massartu meaning "guarding" but also "observing". Anyway, Aristotle's pupil Callippus of Cyzicus introduced his 76-year cycle, which improved upon the 19-year Metonic cycle, about that time. He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of 28 June 330 BC (Julian proleptic date), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander's decisive battle at Gaugamela in fall 331 BC. So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu. Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as Berossus wrote a book in Greek on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the Babyloniaca, for the new ruler Antiochus I; it is said that later he founded a school of astrology on the Greek island of Kos. Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian astronomy/astrology was Sudines who was at the court of Attalus I Soter late in the 3rd century BC.
Historians have also found evidence that Athens during the late 5th century may have been aware of Babylonian astronomy. astronomers, or astronomical concepts and practices through the documentation by Xenophon of Socrates telling his students to study astronomy to the extent of being able to tell the time of night from the stars. This skill is referenced in the poem of Aratos, which discusses telling the time of night from the zodiacal signs.
In any case, the translation of the astronomical records required profound knowledge of the cuneiform script, the language, and the procedures, so it seems likely that it was done by some unidentified Chaldeans. Now, the Babylonians dated their observations in their lunisolar calendar, in which months and years have varying lengths (29 or 30 days; 12 or 13 months respectively). At the time they did not use a regular calendar (such as based on the Metonic cycle like they did later), but started a new month based on observations of the New Moon. This made it very tedious to compute the time interval between events.
What Hipparchus may have done is transform these records to the Egyptian calendar, which uses a fixed year of always 365 days (consisting of 12 months of 30 days and 5 extra days): this makes computing time intervals much easier. Ptolemy dated all observations in this calendar. He also writes that "All that he (=Hipparchus) did was to make a compilation of the planetary observations arranged in a more useful way" (Almagest IX.2). Pliny states (Naturalis Historia II.IX(53)) on eclipse predictions: "After their time (=Thales) the courses of both stars (=Sun and Moon) for 600 years were prophesied by Hipparchus,..." This seems to imply that Hipparchus predicted eclipses for a period of 600 years, but considering the enormous amount of computation required, this is very unlikely. Rather, Hipparchus would have made a list of all eclipses from Nabonasser's time to his own.
See also
Babylonian astrology
Babylonian calendar
Babylonian mathematics
Babylonian star catalogues
Egyptian astronomy
History of astronomy (Section on Mesopotamia).
Mayan astronomy
MUL.APIN
Pleiades
Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
Notes
References
Aaboe, Asger. Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. New York: Springer, 2001.
Jones, Alexander. "The Adaptation of Babylonian Methods in Greek Numerical Astronomy." Isis, 82(1991): 441-453; reprinted in Michael Shank, ed. The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000.
Kugler, F. X. Die Babylonische Mondrechnung ("The Babylonian lunar computation.") Freiburg im Breisgau, 1900.
Neugebauer, Otto. Astronomical Cuneiform Texts. 3 volumes. London:1956; 2nd edition, New York: Springer, 1983. (Commonly abbreviated as ACT).
Toomer, G. J. "Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy." In A Scientific Humanist: Studies in Memory of Abraham Sachs, ed. Erle Leichty, Maria deJ. Ellis, and Pamela Gerardi, pp. 353–362. Philadelphia: Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 9, 1988.
Chaldea |
4536518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid%20Khalidi | Rashid Khalidi | Rashid Ismail Khalidi (; born 1948) is a Palestinian-American historian of the Middle East and the Edward Said Professor of Modern Arab Studies at Columbia University. He served as editor of the Journal of Palestine Studies from 2002 until 2020, when he became co-editor with Sherene Seikaly.
He has authored a number of books, including The Hundred Years' War on Palestine and Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness; has served as president of the Middle East Studies Association; and has taught at the Lebanese University, the American University of Beirut, Georgetown University, and the University of Chicago.
Family, education and career
Khalidi was born in New York City. Khalidi is the son of Ismail Khalidi and the nephew of Husayin al-Khalidi. He is the father of playwright Ismail Khalidi and activist/attorney, Dima Khalidi. He grew up in New York City, where his father, a Saudi citizen of Palestinian origin who was born in Jerusalem, worked for the United Nations. Khalidi's mother, a Lebanese-American, was an interior decorator. Khalidi attended the United Nations International School.
In 1970, Khalidi received a B.A. from Yale University, where he was a member of the Wolf's Head Society. He then received a D.Phil. from Oxford University in 1974. Between 1976 and 1983, Khalidi "was teaching full time as an Assistant Professor in the Political Studies and Public Administration Dept. at the American University of Beirut, published two books and several articles, and also was a research fellow at the independent Institute for Palestine Studies". He has also taught at the Lebanese University.
Khalidi became politically active in Beirut, where he resided through the 1982 Lebanon War. "I was deeply involved in politics in Beirut" in the 1970s, he said in an interview. Khalidi was cited in the media during this period, sometimes as an official with the Palestinian News Service, Wafa, or directly with the Palestinian Liberation Organization. However, Khalidi has denied that he was a PLO spokesman, stating that he "often spoke to journalists in Beirut, who usually cited me without attribution as a well-informed Palestinian source. If some misidentified me at the time, I am not aware of it." Subsequently, sources disagreed as to the nature or existence of Khalidi's official relationship with the organization.
Returning to America, Khalidi spent two years teaching at Columbia University before joining the faculty of the University of Chicago in 1987, where he spent eight years as a professor and director of both the Center for Middle Eastern Studies and the Center for International Studies at the University of Chicago. During the Gulf War, while teaching at Chicago, Khalidi emerged "as one of the most influential commentators from within Middle Eastern Studies". In 2003 he joined the faculty of Columbia University, where he currently serves as the Edward Said Professor of Modern Arab Studies. He has also taught at Georgetown University.
Khalidi is married to Mona Khalidi, who served as assistant dean of student affairs and the assistant director of graduate studies of the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University. He is a member of the National Advisory Committee of the U.S. Interreligious Committee for Peace in the Middle East, which describes itself as "a national organization of Jews, Christians and Muslims dedicated to dialogue, education and advocacy for peace based on the deepest teachings of the three religious traditions".
He is member of the Board of Sponsors of The Palestine–Israel Journal, a publication founded by Ziad Abuzayyad and Victor Cygielman, prominent Palestinian and Israeli journalists. He is founding trustee of The Center for Palestine Research and Studies. He is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.
In October 2010, Khalidi delivered the annual Edward Said memorial lecture at the Palestine Center in Washington.
Academic work
Khalidi's research covers primarily the history of the modern Middle East. He focuses on the countries of the southern and eastern Mediterranean, with an eye to the emergence of various national identities and the role played by external powers in their development. He also researches the impact of the press on forming new senses of community, the role of education in the construction of political identity, and in the way narratives have developed over the past centuries in the region. Michael C. Hudson, director of the Center for Contemporary Arab Studies at Georgetown, describes Khalidi as "preeminent in his field". He served as president of the Middle East Studies Association of North America in 1994 and is currently co-editor of the Journal of Palestine Studies with Sherene Seikaly.
Much of Khalidi's scholarly work in the 1990s focused on the historical construction of nationalism in the Arab world. Drawing on the work of theorist Benedict Anderson who described nations as "imagined communities", he does not posit primordial national identities, but argues that these nations have legitimacy and rights. In Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (1997), he places the emergence of Palestinian national identity in the context of Ottoman and British colonialism as well as the early Zionist effort in the Levant. Palestinian Identity won the Middle East Studies Association's top honor, the Albert Hourani Book Award as best book of 1997.
His dating of the emergence of Palestinian nationalism to the early 20th century and his tracing of its contours provide a rejoinder to Israeli nationalist claims that Palestinians had no collective claims prior to the 1948 creation of Israel. His signature work, Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (Columbia University Press, 1997), argues that Arabs living in Palestine began to regard themselves as a distinct people decades before 1948, "and that the struggle against Zionism does not by itself sufficiently explain Palestinian nationalism".
In it, Khalidi also describes the late development, failings and internal divisions within the various elements of the Palestinian nationalist movement.
In Resurrecting Empire: Western Footprints and America's Perilous Path in the Middle East (2004), Khalidi takes readers on a historical tour of Western involvement in the Middle East, and argues that these interactions continue to have a colonialist nature that is both morally unacceptable and likely to backfire. Khalidi's book, Sowing Crisis, places the United States approach to the Middle East in historical context. He is sharply critical of U.S. policies during the Cold War, writing that Cold War policies "formulated to oppose the Soviets, consistently undermined democracy and exacerbated tensions in the Middle East".
Khalidi has written, "It may seem hard to believe today, but for decades the United States was in fact a major patron, indeed in some respects the major patron, of earlier incarnations" of radical, militant Islam, in order to use all possible resources in waging the Cold War. He adds, "The Cold War was over, but its tragic sequels, its toxic debris, and its unexploded mines continued to cause great harm, in ways largely unrecognized in American discourse."
Historian and Israeli Ambassador to the United States Michael Oren has stated that "Khalidi is mainstream" because "the stream itself has changed. The criteria for scholarship have become very political."
Palestinian Identity
Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (1997), is Khalidi's most influential and most widely cited book. In Palestinian Identity, Khalidi demonstrates that a Palestinian national consciousness had it origins near the beginning of the twentieth century. Khalidi describes the Arab population of British Mandatory Palestine as having "overlapping identities", with some or many expressing loyalties to villages, regions, a projected nation of Palestine, an alternative of inclusion in a Greater Syria, an Arab national project, as well as to Islam. Nevertheless, Palestinian Identity was the first to demonstrate substantive Palestinian nationalism in the early Mandatory period. Khalidi writes, "Local patriotism could not yet be described as nation-state nationalism."
Khalidi emphasized in his work that the Palestinian identity had been fundamentally fluid and changing, woven from multiple "narratives" due to individual and family experiences. He described the identity as organically developed due to the challenges of peasants forced from their homes due to Zionist immigrant pressure, but with Palestinian nationalism also being far more complex than merely an anti-Zionist reaction. Praise for his book appeared in the journal Foreign Affairs, with reviewer William B. Quandt viewing the work as "a major contribution to historical understanding of Palestinian nationalism."
Khalidi also documents active opposition by the Arab press to Zionism in the 1880s.
Response to The Iron Cage
Praise
In a review of Khalidi's The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood, for Middle East Policy, Philip Wilcox praised "Khalidi's brilliant inquiry into why Palestinians have failed to win a state of their own" calling the book "a welcome antidote to the propaganda and mythology that still dominate American discussion of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict." Writing in The Guardian, Ian Black said the book "brilliantly analyses the structural handicap which hobbled the Palestinians throughout 30 years of British rule". In a review for Salon, Jonathan Shainin wrote that "The Iron Cage is a patient and eloquent work, ranging over the whole of modern Palestinian history from World War I to the death of Yasser Arafat." In Foreign Affairs, L. Carl Brown wrote that "Khalidi's book is no exercise in victimology. He is tough on the British, the Israelis, and the Americans, but he is scarcely less hard-hitting in appraising the Palestinians". He went on to praise the final chapter's "excellent critique" of the development of the PLO's positions towards Israel and the Two-state solution.
Criticism
New York Times columnist Clyde Haberman said of Khalidi's book The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood: "But he makes this more than an exercise in self-pity by refusing to let the Palestinians themselves off the hook. If they indeed live in an iron cage, well, Khalidi says, they helped mold the bars themselves" and asks "When he talks about repressive Israeli measures having been 'sometimes imposed on the pretext of security,' critics are bound to ask: What pretext? How many suicide bombings of cafes and pizza shops does it take before a country has a right to end them by any method that seems to work?"
Efraim Karsh said about the same book "One would have hoped that after 80 years of stubborn adherence to the 'one-state solution' and an equally adamant rejection of the 'two-state solution,' which have resulted in Palestinian statelessness, all but the most fanatically self-deluded would grasp the root causes of the Palestinian debacle – not least a historian purporting to redress the 'continuing refusal to look honestly at what has happened in this small land over the past century or so.'"
Public life
Khalidi has written dozens of scholarly articles on Middle East history and politics, as well as op-ed pieces in many U.S. newspapers. He has also been a guest on radio and TV shows including All Things Considered, Talk of the Nation, Morning Edition, Worldview, The News Hour with Jim Lehrer, Charlie Rose, and Nightline, and has appeared on the BBC, the CBC, France Inter and the Voice of America. He served as president of the American Committee on Jerusalem, now known as the American Task Force on Palestine, and advised the Palestinian delegation at the Madrid Conference of 1991.
Views on Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Khalidi has written that the establishment of the state of Israel resulted in "the uprooting of the world's oldest and most secure Jewish communities, which had found in the Arab lands a tolerance that, albeit imperfect, was nonexistent in the often genocidal, Jew-hating Christian West." Regarding the proposed two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Khalidi has written that "the now universally applauded two-state solution faces the juggernaut of Israel's actions in the occupied territories over more than forty years, actions that have been expressly designed to make its realization in any meaningful form impossible." However, Khalidi also noted that "there are also flaws in the alternatives, grouped under the rubric of the one-state solution".
He supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement.
Regarding American support for Israel, Khalidi stated in an interview, "every other single place on the face of the earth is in support of the Palestinians, yet all of them together aren't a hill of beans compared to the United States and Israel, because the United States and Israel can basically do anything they please. They are the world superpower, they are the regional superpower."
A New York Sun editorial criticized Khalidi for stating that there is a legal right under international law for Palestinians to resist Israeli occupation. For example, in a speech given to the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, Khalidi said, "[k]illing civilians is a war crime. It's a violation of international law. They are not soldiers. They're civilians, they're unarmed. The ones who are armed, the ones who are soldiers, the ones who are in occupation, that's different. That's resistance." The Sun editorial argued that by failing to distinguish between Palestinian combatants and noncombatants, Khalidi implies that all Palestinians have this right to resist, which it claimed was incorrect under international law. In an interview discussing this editorial, Khalidi objected to this characterization as incorrect and taken out of the context of his statements on international law.
Khalidi has described discussions of Arab restitution for property confiscated from the Jewish refugees from Middle Eastern and North African countries after the creation of Israel as "insidious", "because the advocates of Jewish refugees are not working to get those legitimate assets back but are in fact trying to cancel out the debt of Israel toward Palestinian refugees".
NYC teacher training program
In 2005 Khalidi's participation in a New York City teacher training program was ended by the city's Schools Chancellor. Chancellor Joel I. Klein issued a statement that "Considering his past statements, Rashid Khalidi should not have been included in a program that provided professional development for Department of Education teachers and he won't be participating in the future." Following the decision, Columbia University president Lee Bollinger spoke out on Khalidi's behalf, writing: "The department's decision to dismiss Professor Khalidi from the program was wrong and violates First Amendment principles... The decision was based solely on his purported political views and was made without any consultation and apparently without any review of the facts."
2008 U.S. presidential campaign
Consequent to publication by the Los Angeles Times of an article about Obama's attendance at a 2003 farewell dinner for Khalidi, their relationship became an issue in the campaign. Some opponents of Barack Obama claimed that the relationship between Obama and Khalidi was evidence that Obama would not maintain a pro-Israel foreign policy if elected. When asked, Obama called his own commitment to Israel "unshakeable" and said he does not consult with Khalidi on foreign policy. Opponents of Republican candidate John McCain pointed out that he had served as chairman of the International Republican Institute (IRI) during the 1990s which provided grants worth $500,000 to the Center for Palestine Research and Studies, which was co-founded by Khalidi, for the purpose of polling the views of the Palestinian people.
WBEZ interview
In a January 2017 interview with public broadcaster WBEZ, Khalidi said pro-Israel people would ‘infest’ the incoming Trump Administration. Khalidi later referred to it as "infelicitous phrasing."
Published works
British Policy towards Syria and Palestine, 1906–1914. Ithaca Press for St. Antony's College, 1980.
Palestine and the Gulf (Co-editor), Institute for Palestine Studies, 1982.
Under Siege: PLO Decision-making during the 1982 War. Columbia University Press, 1986.
The Origins of Arab Nationalism (Co-editor), Columbia University Press, 1991.
Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, Columbia University Press, 1997.
Resurrecting Empire: Western Footprints and America's Perilous Path in the Middle East, Beacon Press, 2004.
Sowing Crisis: The Cold War and American Dominance in the Middle East, Beacon Press, 2009.
Brokers of Deceit: How the U.S. Has Undermined Peace in the Middle East, Beacon Press, 2013.
The Hundred Years War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017, Metropolitan Books 2020
References
External links
Columbia University faculty page
Profile on Rashid Khalidi at the Institute for Middle East Understanding
Rashid Khalidi on the futility of negotiations, since a one-state solution already exists Haaretz, December 5, 2011
Video: Rashid Khalidi – Palestine: 40 Years of Occupation, 60 Years of Dispossession (June 23, 2007)
Review of Rhashid Khalidi's Resurrecting Empire, Western Footprints, and America's Path in the Middle East at Logosjournal.com
Review of The Iron Cage by Rashid Khalid at the Institute for Middle East Understanding
Interview with the Author of The Iron Cage October 4, 2006 Alternative Radio. Fee charged.
Alumni of St Antony's College, Oxford
Middle Eastern studies in the United States
American foreign policy writers
American male non-fiction writers
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American Muslims
American writers of Palestinian descent
Columbia University faculty
Columbia School of International and Public Affairs faculty
Historians of the Middle East
Khalidi family
American people of Lebanese descent
University of Chicago faculty
Writers on the Middle East
Yale University alumni
1948 births
Living people
Palestinianists
Academic staff of Lebanese University
United Nations International School alumni
Historians from New York (state)
Palestinologists |
4536912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Romani%20people | History of the Romani people | The Romani people, also referred to as Roma, Sinti or Kale, depending on the sub-group, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group which primarily lives in Europe. The Romani may have migrated from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BC. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 AD. It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire.
The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to Northwest India as the Romani language shares a number of ancient isoglosses with Central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-Romani did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium.
Origin
There are many different theories about the origins of the Romani people, for example, that the Roma and Sinti people came from Sindh.
The Romani have been described by Diana Muir Appelbaum as unique among peoples because they have never identified themselves with a territory; they have no tradition of an ancient and distant homeland from which their ancestors migrated, nor do they claim the right to national sovereignty in any of the lands where they reside. Rather, Romani identity is bound up with the ideal of freedom expressed, in part, in having no ties to a homeland. The absence of a written history has meant that the origin and early history of the Romani people was long an enigma. Indian origin was suggested on linguistic grounds as early as the late 18th century.
In the Roma language ‘rom’ means husband/man, while ‘romňi’ means wife/woman, "roma" means "husbands/people". Theories suggest that the ancestors of the Romani were part of the military in Northern India. One modern theory is, when there were invasions by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi and these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire between AD 1000 and 1030.
The genetic evidence identified an Indian origin for Roma. Genetic evidence connects the Romani people to the descendants who emigrated from South Asia towards Central Asia during the medieval period.
Linguistic origins
Until the mid-to-late 18th century, theories about the origin of the Romani were mostly speculative. In 1782, Johann Christian Christoph Rüdiger published his research findings in which he pointed out the relationship between the Romani language and Hindustani. Subsequent work supported the hypothesis that Romani shared a common origin with the Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India.
Domari and Romani languages
Domari was once thought to be the "sister language" of Romani, the two languages had split after the Romani departed from the subcontinent, but based on more recent research findings, they should be considered two separate languages within the Central zone (Hindustani) Saraiki language group of languages because the differences which exist between them are extremely significant. Therefore, the Dom and the Rom are probably the descendants of two different groups of people who migrated from the Indian subcontinent in two different waves, the waves of migration occurred several centuries apart.
Genetic evidence
Further evidence for the South Asian origin of the Romanies came in the late 1990s. Researchers doing DNA analysis discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) and mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia.
47.3% of Romani men carry Y chromosomes of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside South Asia. Mitochondrial haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people. A more detailed study of Polish Roma shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India. Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise known only in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanis.
The Romanis have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations". The number of common Mendelian disorders found among Romanis from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect".
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group". Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations". The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males."
A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romanies are descended from "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Romani groups". The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".
There is genetic evidence of major mixing with Balkan peoples during the time of the Ottoman Empire.
Connection to the Burushos and Pamiris
The Burushos of Hunza have a paternal lineage genetic marker that is grouped with Pamiri speakers from Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and the Sinti ethnic group. This find of shared genetic haplogroups may indicate an origin of the Romani people in or around these regions.
Possible connection to the Domba people
According to a genetic study on the phylogeography of Y-chromosome haplogroup H1a1a-M82 in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.
Romani origins based on autosomal and mitochondrial data
Mitochondrial or Y-chromosome haplotype studies provide valuable information, but a limitation of these types of studies is that they each represent only one instantiation of the genealogical process. Autosomal data permits simultaneous analysis of multiple lineages, which can provide novel information about population history. According to a genetic study on autosomal data on Roma the source of South Asian Ancestry in Roma is North-West India. The two populations showing closest relatedness to Roma were Punjabis and Kashmiris which also happen to have the highest West Eurasian related ancestry amongst South Asians. However according to a study on genome-wide data published in 2019 the putative origin of the proto Roma involves a Punjabi group with low levels of West Eurasian ancestry. The classical and mtDNA genetic markers suggested the closest affinity of the Roma with Rajput and Punjabi populations from North-Western India.
Early records
Early records of itinerant populations from India begin as early as the Sassanid period. British linguist Donald Kenrick notes the first recorded presence of Zott in Baghdad in AD 820, Khanaqin in AD 834.
Contemporary scholars have suggested one of the first written references to the Romanies, under the term "Atsingani", (derived from the Greek ἀτσίγγανοι - atsinganoi), dates from the Byzantine era during a time of famine in the 9th century. In the year AD 800, Saint Athanasia gave food to "foreigners called the Atsingani" near Thrace. Later, in AD 803, Theophanes the Confessor wrote that Emperor Nikephoros I had the help of the "Atsingani" to put down a riot with their "knowledge of magic". However, the Atsingani were a Manichean sect that disappeared from chronicles in the 11th century. "Atsinganoi" was used to refer to itinerant fortune tellers, ventriloquists and wizards who visited the Emperor Constantine IX in the year 1054.
Roma skeletal remains exhumed from Castle Mall at Norwich, UK were radiocarbon dated by liquid scintillation spectrometry to circa 930-1050AD.
Arrival in Europe
Romani people first arrived in Europe from north India, through Iran, Armenia and Turkey.
In 1323 Simon Simeonis, an Irish Franciscan friar, described people in likeness to the "atsingani" living in Crete: We also saw outside this city [Candia] a tribe of people, who worship according to the Greek rite, and assert themselves to be of the race of Cain. These people rarely or never stop in one place for more than thirty days, but always, as if cursed by God, are nomad and outcast. After the thirtieth day they wander from field to field with small, oblong, black, and low tents, like those of the Arabs, and from cave to cave, because the place inhabited by them becomes after the term of thirty days so full of vermin and other filth that it is impossible to live in their neighbourhood.
In 1350 Ludolf von Sudheim mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called Mandapolos, a word which some theorize was possibly derived from the Greek word Mantipolos - Μαντιπόλος "frenzied" from mantis - μάντις (meaning "prophet, fortune teller") and poleo - πολέω.
Around 1360, a fiefdom (called the Feudum Acinganorum) was established in Corfu. It mainly used Romani serfs and the Romanies on the island were subservient.
By the 14th century, the Romanies had reached the Balkans and Bohemia; by the 15th century, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and Portugal; and by the 16th century, Russia, Denmark, Scotland and Sweden. (although DNA evidence from mid-11th century skeletons in Norwich suggest that at least a few individuals may have arrived earlier, perhaps due to Viking enslavement of Romani from the eastern Mediterranean or liaisons with the Varangians).
Some Romanies migrated from Persia through North Africa, reaching Europe via Spain in the 15th century. Romanies began immigrating to the United States in colonial times, with small groups in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale immigration began in the 1860s, with groups of Romnichal from Britain. The largest number immigrated in the early 20th century, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Romanies also settled in Latin America.
According to historian Norman Davies, a 1378 law passed by the governor of Nauplion in the Greek Peloponnese confirming privileges for the "atsingani" is "the first documented record of Romany Gypsies in Europe". Similar documents, again representing the Romanies as a group that had been exiled from Egypt, record them reaching Braşov, Transylvania in 1416; Hamburg, Holy Roman Empire in 1418; and Paris in 1427. A chronicler for a Parisian journal described them as dressed in a manner that the Parisians considered shabby, and reports that the Church had them leave town because they practiced palm-reading and fortune-telling.
Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia, they were issued safe conduct by Sigismund of the Holy Roman Empire in 1417. Romanies were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of Germany in 1416, Lucerne in 1471, Milan in 1493, France in 1504, Aragon in 1512, Sweden in 1525, England in 1530 (see Egyptians Act 1530), and Denmark in 1536. In 1510, any Romani found in Switzerland was ordered to be executed, and in 1554 a statute was passed in England that mandated all Romani in the country leave or face execution. Similar legislation was passed in numerous European nations, including Denmark in 1589, Sweden in 1637, whereas Portugal began deportations of Romanies to its colonies in 1538.
Later, a 1596 English statute, however, gave Romanies special privileges that other wanderers lacked; France passed a similar law in 1683. Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Romanies "crown slaves" (a status superior to serfs), but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital. In 1595, Ştefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery, and became the Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia.
In Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia, Romanies were enslaved for five centuries, until abolition in the mid-19th century.
In the late 19th century, the Romani culture inspired in their neighbors a wealth of artistic works. Among the most notable works are Carmen and La Vie de Bohème.
Ottoman Empire
In the Ottoman Empire, Muslim Romani people were preferred, in contrast to the Christian Roma. Muslim Roma were settled in Rumelia (Balkans) from Anatolia like the Arlije or Cyprus like the Gurbeti. There were also conversions to Islam in order to achieve better living conditions under Ottoman rule. There was a Sanjak of the Çingene, established for Muslim Roma in Rumelia from 1520 until the end of the Ottoman Empire, which was overseen by a Muslim Rom Baro. Muslim Roma were able to migrate from one part of the country to another within the vast Ottoman Empire. So Muslim Roma from Anatolia wandered to the Balkans, from the Balkans to Egypt, or migrated to the Crimean peninsula, there and back, again and again. In the case of the Zargari tribe, they migrated once from Ottoman Rumelia via Ottoman Damascus to the Persian Empire. The same Muslim Roma group did not always live in the same place; other groups often took their places. As an example, the popular belly dance came to Istanbul from Egypt with Roma groups after 1517.
In addition to their own native Balkan Romani, some Muslim Romani groups adopted the Turkish language, and deny their real Roma origin, and consider themselves as Turks. Other Muslim Romani groups adopted the Albanian language or one of the many South Slavic dialects, some mixed the language and create a Para-Romani, and others gradually forgot their mother tongue, and only speak the language of the majority population. Genetic studies showed the influence of the Ottoman empire of the Balkans. The Dom and Lom people also lived in the Ottoman Empire. Turkey is the only country where Romani, Domari and Lom people live in.
Forced assimilation
In 1758, Maria Theresa of Austria began a program of assimilation to turn Romanies into ujmagyar (new Hungarians). The government built permanent huts to replace mobile tents, forbade travel, and forcefully removed children from their parents to be fostered by non-Romani. By 1894, the majority of Romanies counted in a Hungarian national census were sedentary. In 1830, Romani children in Nordhausen were taken from their families to be fostered by Germans.
Russia also encouraged settlement of all nomads in 1783, and the Polish introduced a settlement law in 1791. Bulgaria and Serbia banned nomadism in the 1880s.
In 1783, racial legislation against Romanies was repealed in the United Kingdom, and a specific "Turnpike Act" was established in 1822 to prevent nomads from camping on the roadside, strengthened in the Highways Act of 1835.
Persecution
In 1530, England issued the Egyptians Act which banned Romani from entering the country and required those living in the country to leave within 16 days. Failure to do so could result in the confiscation of property, imprisonment and deportation. The act was amended with the Egyptians Act 1554, which ordered the Romani to leave the country within a month. Non-complying Romanies were executed.
In 1538, the first anti-ziganist (anti-Romani) legislation was issued in Moravia and Bohemia, which were under Habsburg rule. Three years later, after a series of fires in Prague which were blamed on the Romani, Ferdinand I ordered them to be expelled. In 1545, the Diet of Augsburg declared that "whoever kills a Gypsy, will be guilty of no murder". The massive killing spree that resulted prompted the government to eventually step in and "forbid the drowning of Romani women and children".
In 1660, Romanies were prohibited from residence in France by Louis XIV.
In 1685, Portugal deported Romani to Brasil.
In 1710, Joseph I issued a decree declaring the extermination of Romani ordering that "all adult males were to be hanged without trial, whereas women and young males were to be flogged and banished forever." In addition, they were to have their right ears cut off in the kingdom of Bohemia and their left ear in Moravia. In 1721, Charles VI, Joseph's brother and successor, amended the decree to include the execution of adult female Romani, while children were "to be put in hospitals for education".
Pre-war organization
In 1879, a national meeting of Romanies was held in the Hungarian town of Kisfalu (now Pordašinci, Slovenia). Romanies in Bulgaria held a conference in 1919 in an attempt to demand that they be given the right to vote, and a Romani journal, Istiqbal (Future) was founded in 1923.
In the Soviet Union, the All-Russian Union of Gypsies was organized in 1925 and a journal, Romani Zorya (Romani Dawn) was published two years later. The Romengiro Lav (Romani Word) writer's circle encouraged works by authors like Nikolay Aleksandrovich Pankov and Nina Dudarova.
A General Association of the Gypsies of Romania was established in 1933 with the holding of a national conference, and the publication of two journals, Neamul Țiganesc (Gypsy Nation) and Timpul (Time). An "international" conference was organized in Bucharest the following year.
In Yugoslavia, the publication of the Romani journal Romano Lil was started in 1935.
Porajmos
During World War II and The Holocaust, the Nazis murdered 220,000 to 500,000 Romanies in a genocide which is referred to as the Porajmos. Like the Jews, they were segregated and forced to move into ghettos before they were sent to concentration or extermination camps. They were frequently killed on sight by the Einsatzgruppen, especially on the Eastern Front. 25% of European Roma perished in the genocide.
Post-war history
In Communist Central and Eastern Europe, the Romanies experienced assimilation schemes and restrictions on their cultural freedom. In public, the speaking of the Romani language and the playing of Romani music were both banned in Bulgaria. In Czechoslovakia, tens of thousands of Romanies from Slovakia, Hungary and Romania were re-settled in the border areas of the Czech lands and their nomadic lifestyle was forbidden. In Czechoslovakia, where they were considered a “socially degraded stratum,” Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, threats to withhold future social welfare payments, misinformation and involuntary sterilization.
In the early 1990s, Germany deported tens of thousands of migrants to central and eastern Europe. Sixty percent of some 100,000 Romanian nationals who were deported under a 1992 treaty were Romani.
In 2005, the Decade of Roma Inclusion was launched in nine Central and Southeastern European countries in an attempt to improve the socio-economic status and increase the social inclusion of the Romani minority across the region.
A decade of Roma Inclusion 2005 - 2015 was not successful. It initiated crucially important processes for Roma inclusion in Europe and it also provided the impetus for an EU-led effort to cover similar subject matter, the EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 (EU Framework).
America
Romanies began to immigrate to the United States during colonial times, with small groups of them settling in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale immigration began in the 1860s, with groups of Romnichal from Britain.
Czech-Canadian Exodus
In August 1997, TV Nova, a popular television station in the Czech Republic, broadcast a documentary about the situation of Romanies who had emigrated to Canada. The short report claimed that Romanies in Canada were living comfortably with support from the state, and it also claimed that they were being sheltered from racial discrimination and violence. At the time, life was particularly difficult for many Romanies who were living in the Czech Republic. As a result of the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, many Romanies were left without citizenship in either the Czech Republic or Slovakia. Following the large flood in Moravia in July, many Romanies were left homeless but they were not welcome in other parts of the country.
Almost overnight, there were reports of Romanies preparing to emigrate to Canada. According to one report, 5,000 Romanies from the city of Ostrava intended to move. The mayors of some Czech towns encouraged the exodus, offering to help pay for flights so that Romanies could leave. The following week, the Canadian Embassy in Prague was receiving hundreds of calls from Romanies every day and flights between the Czech Republic and Canada were sold out until October. In 1997, 1,285 people from the Czech Republic arrived in Canada and claimed refugee status, a rather significant jump from the 189 Czechs who did so the previous year.
Lucie Cermakova, a spokesperson at the Canadian Embassy in Prague, criticized the program, claiming that it "presented only one side of the matter and picked out only nonsensical ideas." Marie Jurkovicova, a spokesperson for the Czech Embassy in Ottawa suggested that "the program was full of half-truths, which strongly distorted reality and practically invited the exodus of large groups of Czech Romanies. It concealed a number of facts."
The movement of Romanies to Canada had been fairly easy because visa requirements for Czech citizens had been lifted by the Canadian government in April 1996. In response to the influx of Romanies, the Canadian government reinstated the visa requirements for all Czechs as of 8 October 1997.
Romani nationalism
A small Roma nationalist movement exists.
The first World Romani Congress was held near London in 1971, it was partially funded by the World Council of Churches and the Government of India. It was attended by representatives from India and 20 other countries. At the congress, the green and blue flag which was unfurled at the 1933 conference, embellished with the red, sixteen-spoked chakra was reaffirmed as the national emblem of the Romani people, and the song "Gelem, Gelem" was adopted as the national anthem of the Romani people.
The International Romani Union was officially established in 1977, and in 1990, the fourth World Congress declared that April 8 is the International Day of the Roma, a day to celebrate Romani culture and raise awareness of the issues which are affecting the Romani community.
In 2000, the 5th World Romani Congress issued an official declaration in which it stated that the Romany people are a non-territorial nation.
See also
Timeline of Romani history
Anti-Indian sentiment
Demographics of India
Indian people
Rajasthani people
Names of the Romani people
References
Sources |
4537429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20Rugby%20World%20Cup | 2015 Rugby World Cup | The IRB 2015 Rugby World Cup was the eighth Rugby World Cup, the quadrennial rugby union world championship. The tournament was hosted by England from 18 September to 31 October. Of the 20 countries competing in the World Cup in 2011, there was only one change: Uruguay replaced Russia. This was the first World Cup with no new teams to the tournament.
Reigning champions New Zealand won the cup and defended their title by defeating Australia 34–17 in the final; South Africa defeated Argentina to take third place. This was the first Rugby World Cup where no Northern Hemisphere team got beyond the quarter-finals. New Zealand were the first team to retain their title and the first to win for a third time.
The highly contested match between Japan and South Africa on the opening weekend, in which Japan scored the winning try in the final minute, was widely considered the biggest upset in the history of rugby. Hosts England were eliminated at the pool stage, after defeats by Wales and Australia; this was the first time the knockout stage did not feature a host nation.
Host selection
Submission of interest
The International Rugby Board (IRB) requested that any member unions wishing to host this tournament or the 2019 Rugby World Cup should indicate their interest by 15 August 2008. This would be purely to indicate interest; no details had to be provided at this stage. A record 10 unions indicated formal interest in hosting the 2015 and/or the 2019 events: Australia, England, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Russia, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. Argentina had been reported in early 2008 as having given preliminary consideration to bidding, but did not ultimately formally indicate an interest in bidding.
Of the 10 nations that had expressed formal interest, many withdrew their candidacy in early 2009. Jamaica was the first to withdraw its candidacy. Russia withdrew in February 2009 to concentrate on bidding for the 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens, Australia and Ireland withdrew in spring 2009 due to financial reasons. Scotland withdrew in April 2009 after they were unable to secure co-hosting partners for the tournament. Wales was the last nation to officially pull out after they failed to submit a bid by 8 May 2009, but Wales backed England's bid and some games were played at Cardiff's Millennium Stadium.
Final bids
The final nations that bid for the right to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup were England, Japan, South Africa and Italy. Four confirmed bids was a record number for the Rugby World Cup.
On 28 July 2009, the IRB confirmed that England would host the 2015 Rugby World Cup, and Japan would host the 2019 event, having voted 16–10 in favour of approving the recommendation from Rugby World Cup Ltd (RWCL) that England and Japan should be named hosts. RWCL chairman Bernard Lapasset revealed the result on 28 July 2009 at IRB headquarters.
England
In September 2007, The Guardian reported that the Rugby Football Union had decided to submit a bid. BBC News reported in February 2009 that the intent was for a solo bid from the RFU, but with the possibility of some matches being played in Scotland, Wales or Ireland. It was hoped that the 2015 World Cup would add to Britain's "Decade of Sport" (including the 2012 Summer Olympics, 2013 Rugby League World Cup and 2014 Commonwealth Games).
It was also claimed that the bid had a very strong chance of success due to the IRB's belief that the 2011 tournament might make a loss, therefore making it particularly important to ensure a profit, which was considered a strong point of England's proposed bid. The chief executive of the Rugby Football Union, Francis Baron, said that the tournament would target sales of 3 million tickets. England's package was projected to generate £300 million for the IRB – £220 million in commercial returns from broadcasting, sponsorship and merchandising, and the £80 million tournament fee.
Italy
Italy stated its desire to host, and an Italian bid to host the Rugby World Cup in 2015 or 2019 was confirmed on 20 July 2008. Italy declared that it wanted to host "For the Enlargement of the Frontiers of Our Sport". It was a slogan relevant to the then-current landscape of World Cup rugby, given that 2007 was the first time that the Rugby World Cup was hosted by a primarily non-English-speaking country.
The Italian bid offered the largest cities and stadiums in the country and promised a fast domestic train system. The Italian Rugby Federation (FIR) also included the importance of the population and the growth of rugby since Italy joined the Six Nations in 2000 as reasons for hosting a World Cup. Rugby had been growing increasingly popular in Italy in recent years, with improved crowds at international matches.
The Stadio Olimpico in Rome had been proposed as the venue to host the final and the first match of the tournament. Milan and Naples were included as the other large venues. The entire list was a selection of large stadiums spread across the country. Stade Vélodrome in Marseille, France was also included as the tenth proposed venue.
Japan
The Japan Rugby Football Union officially submitted its tender to the IRB in May 2009. Japan was seen as a favourite to host after finishing as runner-up in the bidding for the 2011 event. Japan was seen as having a lot to offer rugby's growth in Asia. Its population of 127 million, its large economy, and its ability to place rugby before a new Asian audience made it a front-runner for hosting rights. Furthermore, rugby in Japan had developed a following, and with 126,000 registered players, Japan had more players than some of the Six Nations. Japan's Top League was a showcase for Japanese rugby, and there was excitement about Japan's entry into the RWC. Japan's experience in co-hosting the 2002 FIFA World Cup was also seen as a boost, with Japan already possessing the necessary stadiums and infrastructure.
South Africa
The South African Rugby Union (SARU) had confirmed its intent to bid for the 2015 tournament, and in May 2009 South Africa delivered its application to the IRB. South Africa had previously made an unsuccessful bid to host the 2011 RWC. The strengths of a South African bid would be that it is in the same time zone as Europe, the wealthiest television market from a rugby perspective, that South Africa were the current World Cup holders, that they had successfully hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup, won the 2007 Rugby World Cup and that they were in the process of building large new stadiums for the then-upcoming 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Venues
After England were appointed tournament hosts on 28 July 2009, the proposed stadia for the tournament were revealed. The final venues were confirmed, along with the tournament's schedule, on 2 May 2013. Twelve of the stadia were located in England, while the Millennium Stadium located in neighbour Wales was also to be used. In 2011, the IRB approved the use of the Millennium Stadium, despite being outside of the host country, due to its capacity and strategic location. Of the thirteen venues, two were dedicated rugby union grounds (Kingsholm Stadium and Sandy Park), two were national rugby stadia (Twickenham and the Millennium Stadium), two were multi-purpose stadia (Wembley Stadium and the Olympic Stadium), and the remainder were association football grounds.
Proposed venues that did not make the final selection were the Stadium of Light in Sunderland, Coventry's Ricoh Arena, St Mary's Stadium in Southampton, Pride Park Stadium in Derby, Anfield in Liverpool and Bristol's Ashton Gate. In April 2013, Old Trafford was withdrawn from consideration by its owners, Manchester United F.C., citing commitments to hosting rugby league and its Super League Grand Final and concerns about pitch degradation. The RWCL then approached neighbouring Manchester City about leasing their home stadium as a replacement. City agreed to let their stadium be used for the tournament but only for one match due to footballing commitments – down from the original three which were to be played at Old Trafford. Etihad Stadium, as it was known for football sponsorship purposes, would be called 'Manchester City Stadium' by organisers for the duration of the tournament.
Source: The Telegraph
Team bases
The 41 venues that acted as bases for the teams were announced on 26 August 2014. All prospective team bases were subject to a rigorous selection process, which included a programme of detailed site visits as well as liaison with the competing teams. Each team base included an outdoor and indoor training facility, a swimming pool, gym and hotel and would be used by the competing teams in the lead up to and during the World Cup.
Qualifying
Of the 20 teams competing at the 2015 World Cup, 12 of them qualified by finishing in the top three places in their pools in the 2011 Rugby World Cup. The other eight teams qualified through regional competition. As the host nation, England qualified automatically. The qualification process for the remaining teams incorporated existing regional competitions such as the European Nations Cup.
Qualified teams
Twenty teams played in the final tournament. They are listed below, along with their pre-tournament positions in the World Rugby Rankings. The list of teams was the same as in the 2003 tournament.
Asia Rugby (1)
(13)
Rugby Africa (2)
(3)
(20)
Sudamérica Rugby (2)
(8)
(19)
NACRA (2)
(18)
(15)
Rugby Europe (8)
(4)
(7)
(16)
(6)
(14)
(17)
(10)
(5)
Oceania Rugby (5)
(2)
(9)
(1)
(12)
(11)
Draw
Seedings for the pools of the 2015 World Cup were based on the teams' respective IRB Rankings. The draw, hosted by Will Greenwood, was conducted on 3 December 2012 in London, and used the World Rankings as of that day, just after the 2012 end-of-year rugby union internationals, which finished on 1 December 2012. The 12 automatic qualifiers from 2011 were allocated to their respective bands based on their rankings:
Band 1, made up of the top 4 automatic qualifiers, (1–4)
Band 2, made up of the next 4 automatic qualifiers, (5–8)
Band 3, made up of the next 4 automatic qualifiers (9–12)
The remaining 8 qualifying places were allocated to Bands 4 and 5, based on previous World Cup playing strength;
Band 4, made up of Oceania 1, Europe 1, Asia 1 and Americas 1
Band 5, made up of Africa 1, Europe 2, Americas 2 and play-off winner
This meant the 20 teams, qualified and qualifiers, were seeded thus:
The draw saw a representative randomly draw a ball from a pot, the first drawn ball goes to Pool A, the second Pool B, the third Pool C and the fourth Pool D. The draw began with Pot 5, drawn by All Blacks captain Richie McCaw, followed by Pot 4, drawn by RWC 2015 Ambassador and English women's international Maggie Alphonsi, then Pot 3, drawn by Mayor of London Boris Johnson, Pot 2, drawn by the then Chief Executive for RWC 2015 Debbie Jevans, and finally Pot 1, drawn by IRB chairman Bernard Lapasset.
Draw criticism
The timing of the draw drew criticism due to the long period between the draw occurring and the commencement of the tournament – three years. Indeed, by the time of the pool match between England and Wales on 26 September, pool A contained the 2nd, 3rd and 4th (Australia, England and Wales) ranked teams in the world. Following England's elimination at the pool stage after defeats by Australia and Wales, Wales coach Warren Gatland noted that "Everyone is making a thing about the first home country to hold a World Cup to miss out on the quarter-finals, but the stupid thing, as we all know, is why was the World Cup draw done three years ago? That's just ridiculous as far as I am concerned. If they had followed the football model, then we wouldn't be in this position. There are other people outside this who need to have a look at themselves and why those decisions were made, and you have got to feel sorry for the people involved and who this has affected". The chief executive of World Rugby Brett Gosper subsequently acknowledged criticisms, saying "We’ll look at that next time to see if it’s possible to make the draw closer to the tournament".
Squads
Each country was allowed a squad of 31 players for the tournament. These squads were to be submitted to World Rugby by a deadline of 31 August 2015. Once the squad was submitted, a player could be replaced if injured, but would not be allowed to return to the squad. There was also a stand-down period of 48 hours before the new player was allowed to take the field. Hence, a replacement player called into a squad on the eve of a game would not be permitted to play in that game.
Opening ceremony
The opening ceremony of the 2015 Rugby World Cup took place at Twickenham Stadium in London on 18 September 2015 at 19:20 (BST). The ceremony told the legend of how William Webb Ellis created the sport of rugby union, and featured the choir of Rugby School singing "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot", an anthem of rugby union in England. All the participating teams were represented by a former player in the ceremony; the host nation, England, was represented by World Cup-winning captain Martin Johnson. The ceremony was directed by Kim Gavin, who was also responsible for directing the closing ceremonies of both the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2012 Summer Paralympics. Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex, who had an acting part previously in the ceremony, declared the tournament officially open, ending his speech with the words, "We're ready. Game on." British Prime Minister David Cameron said on social media that the 2015 Rugby World Cup would be the best ever.
Pool stage
The first round, or pool stage, saw the 20 teams divided into four pools of five teams, using the same format that was used in 2003, 2007, and 2011. Each pool was a single round-robin of ten games, in which each team played one match against each of the other teams in the same pool. Teams were awarded four points for a win, two points for a draw and none for a defeat. A team scoring four tries in one match scored a bonus point, as did a team that lost by fewer than eight points.
The teams finishing in the top two of each pool would advance to the quarter-finals. The top three teams of each pool received automatic qualification to the 2019 Rugby World Cup (Japan had already automatically qualified as hosts).
Tie-breaking criteria
If two or more teams were tied on match points, the following tiebreakers would apply:
The winner of the match between the two teams;
Difference between points scored for and points scored against in all pool matches;
Difference between tries scored for and tries scored against in all pool matches;
Points scored in all pool matches;
Most tries scored in all pool matches;
Official World Rugby Rankings as of 12 October 2015.
If three teams were tied on points, the above criteria would be used to decide first place in the Pool, and then the criteria would be used again (starting from criteria 1) to decide second place in the Pool.
Pool A
Pool B
Pool C
Pool D
Knockout stage
Quarter-finals
Semi-finals
Bronze final
Final
Awards
At the 2015 World Rugby Awards, Japan's game-winning final try against South Africa was named the best match moment of the tournament. A dream team was named made up of the best performing players of the tournament.
2015 Rugby World Cup dream team
Statistics
The tournament's top point scorer was Argentine fly-half Nicolás Sánchez, who scored 97 points.
New Zealand wing Julian Savea scored the most tries, eight, equalling the record for one tournament set by his compatriot Jonah Lomu and South African Bryan Habana.
Match officials
World Rugby named the following twelve referees, seven assistant referees and four television match officials to handle the pool stage games:
Referees
Wayne Barnes (England)
George Clancy (Ireland)
JP Doyle (England)
Jérôme Garcès (France)
Pascal Gaüzère (France)
Glen Jackson (New Zealand)
Craig Joubert (South Africa)
John Lacey (Ireland)
Nigel Owens (Wales)
Jaco Peyper (South Africa)
Romain Poite (France)
Chris Pollock (New Zealand)
Assistant referees
Federico Anselmi (Argentina)
Stuart Berry (South Africa)
Mike Fraser (New Zealand)
Angus Gardner (Australia)
Leighton Hodges (Wales)
Marius Mitrea (Italy)
Mathieu Raynal (France)
Television match officials
George Ayoub (Australia)
Graham Hughes (England)
Ben Skeen (New Zealand)
Shaun Veldsman (South Africa)
Media coverage
ITV Sport was the UK and worldwide host broadcaster for the 2015 event, having signed a deal in 2011 to broadcast the 2011 and 2015 RWC tournaments. ITV won the rights after outbidding rivals including the BBC and Sky Sports. It showed every match from the tournament live in the UK on ITV or ITV4.
1 Except British Indian Ocean Territory – Chagos Archipelago, Cape Verde, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mayotte, North Africa, Réunion, Somalia, South Sudan and Tristan da Cunha
2 Except Belize
3 Except Brazil and South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
Video game
The officially licensed Rugby World Cup 2015 video game was released on 4 September 2015 on PC, PS3, PS4, PS Vita, Xbox 360 and Xbox One. IGN rated the game 1.5/10, calling it "unbearable to play".
Tickets
Ticket prices were announced in November 2013 with general sale applications launching in September 2014. Adult ticket prices started at £15 for pool matches and children's tickets were available from £7 at 41 of the 48 matches. Tickets for the final ranged from £150 to £715.
See also
2015 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches
Notes
References
External links
2015 RWC official website (Archived)
World Rugby – official site
2015
2015–16 in English rugby union
2015–16 in Welsh rugby union
2015 rugby union tournaments for national teams
International rugby union competitions hosted by Wales
International rugby union competitions hosted by England
Rugby World Cup 2015
Rugby World Cup 2015 |
4537548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby%20union%20in%20England | Rugby union in England | Rugby union in England is one of the leading professional and recreational team sports. In 1871 the Rugby Football Union, the governing body for rugby union in England, was formed by 21 rugby clubs, and the first international match, which involved England, was played in Scotland. The England national team compete annually in the Six Nations Championship, and are former world champions after winning the 2003 Rugby World Cup. The top domestic men's club competition is Premiership Rugby, and English clubs also compete in international competitions such as the European Rugby Champions Cup. The top domestic women's competition is the Premier 15s.
History
Rugby School and foundation of early clubs
Rugby in England is generally attributed to when William Webb Ellis "who with a fine disregard for the rules as played in his time, first took the ball in his arms and ran with it" in 1823 at the Rugby School, although modern scholars consider this story to be a myth. One of the earliest football clubs formed, some claim it to actually be the first, is the Guy's Hospital Football Club which was founded in 1843 in Guy's Hospital, Southwark, London. The club played an early version of rugby football and was formed by old boys of the Rugby School. Subsequent clubs established in this period include Dublin University Football Club in 1854 and the Blackheath Rugby Club in 1858.
The forming of the RFU
The Football Association was formed at the Freemasons' Tavern, Great Queen Street, on Lincoln's Inn Fields, London on 26 October 1863, with the intention to include the most acceptable points of play under the one heading of football. However, disagreements over what was being excluded led the Blackheath Club to withdraw from the association which was followed by a number of other clubs. In 1870, Richmond F.C. published an invitation in the newspapers which read "Those who play the rugby-type game should meet to form a code of practice as various clubs play to rules which differ from others, which makes the game difficult to play". In January of the following year, 21 clubs meet at the Pall Mall Restaurant and the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was founded.
First international and the schism in rugby
On 27 March 1871 the first ever international match took place, involving the England and Scotland. The Scottish side won the match, which was played at Raeburn Place in Edinburgh. In 1884, England opted not to join the International Rugby Football Board which was formed by Ireland, Scotland and Wales, as they thought they should have greater representation on the board as they have the larger number of clubs.
By the late 19th century, the issue over broken time in rugby had become important, particularly in the North of England, where a larger working class played rugby compared to the south, thus their work and injuries they received whilst playing came into conflict with the rules of amateurism. With mounting pressure regarding player payments and veiled professionalism, on 29 August 1895 at a meeting at the George Hotel, Huddersfield, 21 clubs met to form the Northern Rugby Football Union and thus resigned from the RFU. The game of rugby league was formed from the disaffected clubs.
During this period, rugby was played between counties similar to the system of first-class cricket in England now. In 1907, Cornwall won the county tournament and went on to represent Britain at Rugby union at the 1908 Summer Olympics.
Twickenham and centenary celebrations
The 1910 opening of the RFU's new home at Twickenham heralded a golden era for English rugby union. During the First World War, the Four Nations Championship became suspended in 1915 and it was not resumed until 1920. One hundred and thirty three international players were killed during the conflict. In 1923, a century of rugby was celebrated at the Rugby School, which saw an England and Wales XV play a Scottish-Irish team.
World War II
For duration of World War II the ban on rugby league players was temporarily lifted by the RFU. Many played in the eight rugby "Internationals" between England and Scotland which were played by Armed Services teams. The authorities also allowed the playing of two "Rugby League vs. Rugby Union" fixtures as fundraisers for the war effort (both matches were won by the rugby league teams playing rugby union). In 1958, long after the William Webb Ellis had become engraved as a legend in the history of rugby union, his grave was finally located by Ross McWhirter in the French town of Menton near the border with Monaco.
Formation of leagues
The RFU had long resisted leagues competitions, as it was thought that they would encourage player payments, thus most club matches were only organised friendlies, with competitions such as the County Cups and County Championship existing also. In 1972 the RFU sanctioned a knock-out competition, which was revamped in 2005 into a competition for top-tier English and Welsh sides now known as the LV= Cup. The league evolved over time since starting in 1987 when the Courage Leagues were formed, a league pyramid that had more than 1000 clubs playing in 108 leagues; each with promotion and relegation.
Professionalism
The Heineken Cup was formed in 1995 as a competition for twelve European clubs and ran through to the 2013–14 season, after which it was replaced by the European Rugby Champions Cup. Both competitions involve sides from England, France, Wales, Ireland, Scotland and Italy. The century-old competition for the European rugby powers became the Six Nations Championship in 2000 with the addition of Italy.
In November 2008 a proposal was made and adopted by the RFU to create a fully professional second tier of club rugby, to be called the Championship. It replaced National Division One starting with the 2009–10 season.
Governing body
The Rugby Football Union are the governing body for rugby union in England.
Competitions
Premiership
The 11-team Premiership is the top level of competition; it is fully professional, but has a salary cap in place. The RFU Championship (formerly National Division One) and National League 1 (formerly National Division Two) are the next levels down. The Championship became fully professional in 2009–10 but many teams have since returned to semi-professional; League 1 is semi-professional. Below this there are many regional leagues. Attendances at club rugby in England have risen strongly since the sport went professional. Some clubs have good all seater grounds in the 10,001–25,000 capacity range; some have older grounds which are still partly terraced, and others play in council-owned joint-use stadia. Some clubs rent stadia from football clubs.
Heineken Cup and European Rugby Champions Cup
From 1995 through to 2014, the top-level European club competition was the Heineken Cup, contested by the best teams from the Six Nations countries of England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. Through its history, it was viewed by some as the top prize in European rugby for club teams. In April 2014, after two years of negotiations, it was confirmed that the Heineken Cup would be replaced by the new European Rugby Champions Cup beginning in the 2014–15 season. The Champions Cup includes the top eight teams from the previous season's Premiership.
Anglo-Welsh Cup and Premiership Rugby Cup
The Anglo-Welsh Cup, known by several sponsored names during its history, was the successor to a tournament founded in the 1971–72 season as the RFU Club Competition. It was originally a national knock-out competition for English club teams, and went through several sponsored names in the next quarter-century. Starting in the 2005–06 season, it was changed into a competition for Premiership clubs plus the Welsh sides competing in the Celtic League, now Pro14. The EDF National Trophy was founded in 2005–06 as a new knock-out competition solely for English clubs, but Premiership sides do not take part. Through the 2013–14 season, the strongest Premiership teams took part in the Heineken Cup and the rest of the Premiership competed in the Amlin Challenge Cup. Since the 2014–15 season, the top Premiership sides compete in the Champions Cup, with the rest of the league involved in the new European Rugby Challenge Cup.
Following the 2017–18 edition of the Anglo-Welsh Cup, the Welsh regions pulled out of the competition in favour of creating a dedicated U-23 competition for that country alone. Premiership Rugby, the company that operates the top English flight, then announced that it would launch the new Premiership Rugby Cup, featuring all 12 league members, effective with the 2018–19 season. The competition will also feature Championship teams in 2023–24.
British and Irish Cup
The British and Irish Cup was a competition founded in 2009–10 by all four Home Unions for lower-tier professional and semi-pro teams throughout Great Britain and Ireland. In the competition's third season it was expanded to 32 sides from its original 24; it featured all twelve teams from both the RFU Championship and the Welsh Premier Division (the level below Pro14), "A" sides from all four Irish provinces, and the top four sides from the Scottish Premiership. The 32 teams were divided into eight pools, each with a round-robin format. The pool winners then advance to knockout quarter-finals, followed by semi-finals and a final. For season 2013–14 the competition returned to 24 sides with the reduction of Welsh clubs from twelve to four. The final English team to have won are Ealing Trailfinders in 2018. In England the tournament was replaced by the Championship Cup.
National Schools Cup
The National Schools Cup is the English school's rugby union cup competition. The cup and vase finals are held at Twickenham Stadium. Competitions are held at the U18 and U15 age group levels. At each age group there are four competitions, with stronger teams entering the cup and weaker teams in the vase, and first round losers of each entering the plate and bowl respectively.
Middlesex 7s
The Middlesex 7s is the premier club-level rugby sevens event held in England (note, however, that international sides have taken part on occasion).
London Sevens
National men's sevens teams compete annually in the London Sevens at Twickenham, which has usually been the final event in each season's World Rugby Sevens Series since 2011–12, though it is not the final event in the current 2017–18 series.
Premiership Derbies
The following games are considered premiership derbies.
Midlands derbies - between Northampton Saints and Leicester Tigers
West Country derbies - historically between Bath, Bristol and Gloucester, and now also including Exeter Chiefs
London derby - between Harlequins, London Irish and Saracens.
The North of England, in which Rugby league is dominant, does not have an established derby rivalry in the top tier; the two northern outposts of Sale Sharks and Newcastle Falcons represent the fifteen-man game in the region. In the past, Leeds Carnegie, Doncaster Knights and Rotherham Titans have contested Yorkshire derbies, while Liverpool St. Helens and Orrell R.F.C. have provided local Lancashire rivalries.
Popularity
Participation
According to World Rugby, England has 1,900 rugby union clubs; 6,060 referees; 362,319 pre-teen male players; 698,803 teen male players; 121,480 senior male players (total male players 1,182,602) as well as 11,000 senior female players.
But these statistics are somewhat unreliable. Sport England indicates that 170,200 people play rugby at least once a week.
Rugby union has often been considered, somewhat pejoratively, a 'posh' game. This may be historically linked to the split between Northern teams and the rest of the rugby fraternity over 'broken time payments', i.e. professionalism. This split led to the development of the separate sport of rugby league. The amateur ethos made it difficult for players who could not afford to take time off work to play away games or to go on tour - an integral part of the rugby tradition. Rugby union in many parts of England is associated with fee-paying independent schools such as Stonyhurst College or Sedbergh School who have historically provided many of the national players. It is also commonly played at Grammar schools, but Comprehensive schools in much of the country tended not to play the game, although this is no longer the case. Whilst rugby union was officially an amateur sport, many rugby union players came to play rugby league. In recent years this trend has reversed and some rugby league players have crossed codes to play union.
Due to the split with most of the Yorkshire and Lancashire clubs, rugby union remained more popular in the South and the Midlands than the North of England, although this trend is now nowhere near as prevalent, with many teams in the North able to field four or five senior sides per week. The Newcastle Falcons and Sale Sharks are the only Northern teams in the Premiership, whereas Yorkshire Carnegie has also competed there previously.
Although three of the teams in the Premiership have historic links with London, one of these has now moved to a neighbouring town, and only Harlequins and Saracens now play in the capital, respectively in the outer suburbs of Twickenham and Hendon (Saracens had also played in a neighbouring town before returning to London in early 2013). Historically, London was host to a number of gih level professional 'exiles' clubs, notably London Scottish, London Welsh and most successfully London Irish, as well as to the defunct Wasps before its ill-fated moved north to the city of Coventry. At an amateur level, however, rugby remains very strong in the London area.
As of July 2022, transgender women are prohibited from playing contact rugby in women's competition; they remain eligible for male competition, in line with World Rugby rules. Transgender men may play in male competition, but have to carry out a risk assessment and sign a disclaimer, as their inclusion in the men's game as seen as more dangerous to themselves than to opponents. Both rules have provoked controversy in terms of trans inclusion, and women's safety.
Interest in the population and viewing figures
English rugby union receives extensive coverage from major media outlets. Currently BT Sport covers the majority of Gallager Premiership games, the BBC and ITV share coverage of the Six Nations, Sky covers England's June & November internationals and ITV covers the Rugby World Cup. BT Sport and Sky Sports share coverage of the European club competitions.
The percentage of people declaring to be interested in rugby union in England has been fairly constant over the period 1996-2005, for which we have data. This proportion decreased slightly from 24% in 1995 to 18% before the 2003 Rugby World Cup, it jumped to 27% after England's victory over Australia in the World Cup final. In 2005, 23% of the population were declaring an interest in rugby union, placing this sport at the 6th place in England. To the question whether they watch rugby union on TV, 21% of sampled people answered positively in 2005, up two points relative to 1996 (19%). In this category, it places rugby union at the second place in England behind football. The viewing figures for the final of the Premiership indicate that 91,000 viewers watched the 2011 final on TV when it was broadcast on ESPN for the first time. In 2010, the final was watched by 225,000 viewers on Sky.
In terms of average attendance, the Aviva Premiership is the third best attended club competition in England behind the top two association football leagues, the Premier League and The Championship. The highest club attendances at Aviva Premiership matches are starting to become similar to some of the lower attended matches in football's Championship, with game attendances averaging 12,500 in 2011 compared with 17,400 in the football Championship.
Historically rugby union was a participatory sport rather than a spectator sport in England and attendances at club games were low. Leicester Tigers for example averaged less than a hundred spectators in the 1970s. However, attendances at Twickenham for the national team have always been very high. Games in the Six Nations Championship and Rugby World Cup have always been shown on network TV. Many people watch these games but don't follow club rugby, mainly due to the fact that the pay-TV Sky Sports owns the rights to the game broadcasts, and highlights are rarely shown on network television.
Research from 2003 stated that the majority of spectators are from the AB1 demographic group with a gender ratio of approximately 80% male and 20% female at live domestic professional matches. However, this is a general picture of the sport across the country as a whole and, in some parts of the country, the game has widespread grassroots support. This is particularly true of the West Country, especially in Cornwall and in the cities of Bristol, Bath and Gloucester, where the game is more popular without significant class differentiation. In the Midlands, the game competes with football and the larger clubs, such as Leicester Tigers, Northampton Saints and Coventry, have considerable fanbases and strong traditions.
The national team
The England national team is currently the second best team in the history of the Six Nations Championship with three titles and one Grand Slam. When taking into account the Home Nations and Five Nations tournaments, England has more title and Grand Slams than any other nation. England contest the Calcutta Cup with Scotland and the Millennium Trophy with Ireland as part of the Six Nations Championship. They were World Champions from 2003–2007 and also made the finals of the 1991 and 2007 World Cups. World Rugby currently ranks England at 3rd out of 95 union-playing countries. They play their home games at Twickenham in Middlesex. "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" is a song associated with the national rugby union team even though it was originally sung by black slaves on the cotton fields in the south of the U.S.A. Every four years the British and Irish Lions go on tour with players from England as well as Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
See also
Rugby union in the British Isles
Rugby union in London
Sport in England
Sport in London
Rugby league in England
English rugby union system
History of the English rugby union system
Concussions in rugby union
Bibliography
Collins, Tony (2009); A Social History of English Rugby Union, Routledge. .
Richards, Huw A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union (Mainstream Publishing, Edinburgh, 2007, )
References
External links
RFU
The Schools' Rugby Website
Rugby union on the BBC
Directory Information and Maps/Directions to every Rugby Union Club in England
RugbyClubs: Immediate Boarding Gate XV (archived)
English rugby union news from Planet Rugby (archived) |
4537559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1889%20in%20baseball | 1889 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
National League: New York Giants
American Association: Brooklyn Bridegrooms
World Series
New York defeated Brooklyn, six games to three.
Ohio Championship
First place: Columbus Solons
Second place: Cincinnati Red Stockings
Third place: Cleveland Spiders
Philadelphia Championship
Draw between the Philadelphia Quakers and the Philadelphia Athletics, who both won and lost five games apiece.
Minor League Baseball
Atlantic League: Worcester
California League: Oakland
Central Interstate League: Davenport
Michigan State League: Jackson
Middle States League: Harrisburg
New York State League: Auburn
Southern League: New Orleans
Tri-State League: Canton
Western Association: Omaha
College baseball
Tri-Collegiate League: Yale University
Major league baseball final standings
National League final standings
American Association final standings
Statistical leaders
National League statistical leaders
American Association statistical leaders
Notable seasons
Boston Beaneaters first baseman Dan Brouthers led the NL in batting average (.373). He was second in the NL in on-base percentage (.462), adjusted OPS+ (165), and runs batted in (118). He was third in the NL in slugging percentage (.507).
Boston Beaneaters pitcher John Clarkson had a win–loss record of 49–19 and led the NL in innings pitched (620), wins (49), shutouts (8), earned run average (2.73), adjusted ERA+ (150), and strikeouts (284).
Events
January–February
January 22 – The Indianapolis Hoosiers, with $30,000 in debt, surrender control of the franchise to the National League in the hopes of finding new ownership.
February 2 – John T. Brush heads up a group that assumes ownership of the Indianapolis Hoosiers.
February 8 – Demolition crews begin the dismantling of the Polo Grounds in order to run new streets through the property. The New York Giants will be forced to play their home games at the St. George Cricket Grounds until a new Polo Grounds is finished in early July.
February 19 – A tour of baseball players led by John Ward stages its first game in Europe, playing in Naples, Italy.
March–April
March 7 – Pittsburgh Allegheny players, Bill Kuehne and Ed Morris, are arrested and charged with operating a gambling house out of their billiard parlor. The charges against both are dropped when the prosecution's star witness fails to appear in court to testify against them.
March 20 – A New York City sporting goods house receives an order from Japan for baseball equipment. The corresponding letter states that a league will soon be formed as the game has been played there for several months already.
April 17 – The American Association season begins.
April 23 – New York Governor David Hill vetoes a bill from the state legislature that would block the street construction at the Polo Grounds.
April 29 – The New York Giants play their first home game at the St. George Cricket Grounds on Staten Island. The right fielder plays on a stage used for theatre productions in the multi-purpose complex.
May–June
May 1 – George Keefe of the Washington Nationals sets a record by walking seven batters in one inning in a game against the New York Giants.
May 2 – Yank Robinson of the St. Louis Browns is fined and suspended after getting into a shouting match with Browns owner Chris von der Ahe. His teammates nearly refuse to make a trip to Kansas City and do lose three straight games to the Cowboys amid suspicion they are throwing the games because of Robinson's suspension.
May 6 – Chris von der Ahe, owner of the Browns, rescinds Yank Robinson's suspension. The Browns respond by beating the Kansas City Cowboys, their first victory since the suspension.
May 7 – Yank Robinson returns to the Browns lineup and goes 4–6 at the plate, leading St. Louis to a 21–0 win over the Columbus Solons.
May 9 – Amos Rusie makes his major league debut with the Indianapolis Hoosiers.
May 14 – The Pittsburgh Alleghenys suspend pitchers Ed Morris and Pete Conway, so they will not have to pay the salaries for the two sore-armed pitchers. Morris will return in three weeks although he will never again be an effective pitcher while Conway, a 30-game winner in 1888, will never pitch again.
May 19 – Most of the seating is destroyed by fire at Brooklyn's Washington Park. The stands will be rebuilt within a month.
May 24 – Bill Kuehne of the Pittsburgh Alleghenys sets a record by handling 13 chances at third base in one game.
May 25 – When Dave Orr of the Columbus Solons refuses to leave the field after being ejected, umpire Fred Goldsmith declares the game forfeited to the visiting Brooklyn Bridegrooms. Both teams refuse to abide by the forfeit and complete the game after Orr is replaced by a substitute.
May 30 – The Brooklyn Bridegrooms defeat the St. Louis Browns 9–7 in front of the largest crowd in American Association history. 22,122 fans fill Washington Park, which has only 3,000 seats available after the fire 11 days earlier that destroyed the stands.
June 7 – Pete Browning hits for the cycle in a losing cause, as the Louisville Colonels fall to the Philadelphia Athletics, 9–7. It is Louisville's 14th consecutive loss and the second time Browning has hit for the cycle in his career.
June 11 – Dan Brouthers strikes out in a game for the first time this season. Brouthers will end the year with only six strikeouts in over 550 plate appearances.
June 13 – After the Louisville Colonels lose their 19th straight game, owner-manager Mordecai Davidson threatens to fine each player $25 if they lose their next game, even though the players are already owed back pay by Davidson.
June 15 – Protesting Mordecai Davidson's threat of fines, only six Louisville Colonels players show up for their game against the Baltimore Orioles. Davidson is forced to pick up three Baltimore amateurs to play the outfield. Charles Fisher, John Traffley and Mike Gaule each make the only appearance of their careers as Louisville loses their 20th in a row.
June 17 – After consulting Baltimore manager, Billy Barnie, the striking players of the Louisville Colonels return to the field for a doubleheader. The Colonels blow a ninth inning 6–3 lead in Game 1 to lose and manage only one hit while committing seven errors to drop the second game.
June 19 – Center fielder Dummy Hoy sets a major league record by throwing three runners out at the plate in one game.
June 22 – The Sporting News reports that major league players are unhappy with the classification system for pay and no say or share in their sale to other clubs, and that a strike is imminent beginning in early July.
June 22 – The Louisville Colonels drop a pair of games to the St. Louis Browns to extend their losing streak to 26 games, which still stands as the major league record.
June 23 – Louisville finally gets a win in defeating the Browns 7–3.
June 24 – Louisville owner-manager Mordecai Davidson resigns as manager and hires an Eclipse Park employee as the new manager, although right fielder Jimmy Wolf will actually run the team.
June 28 – Billy Hamilton hits three triples in the first game of a doubleheader and then adds another one in the nightcap to set a record for most triples in a doubleheader.
July–August
Early July – John Montgomery Ward convinces representatives for The Brotherhood of Professional Base-Ball Players to hold off on their planned strike for a couple of weeks until he can present them with a better long-term solution.
July 2 – Louisville Colonels owner Mordecai Davidson, unable to pay the players salaries, turns the team over to the American Association. The AA will announce new ownership for the team within 3 days.
July 6 – Player-manager John Morrill, with his team in last place in the National League at 13–40 and a personal batting average of .185, is let go by the Washington Nationals after leaving the team to go see ailing relatives in Worcester.
July 8 – The New York Giants play their first game at the newly relocated Polo Grounds. The stadium will remain a fixture in major league baseball until its demolition in 1964.
July 12 – John Clarkson of the Boston Beaneaters is taken out after pitching five innings of no-hit ball in order to rest him for his next start. His teammate, reliever Bill Sowders, allows one hit over the last four innings for the combined one-hitter.
July 14 – Albert Spalding publishes his ideas for the classification and structure of the minor leagues. His ideas will be the foundation of minor league baseball that last to the present day.
July 14 – At a secret meeting of the Brotherhood of Professional Base-Ball Players held at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City, John Montgomery Ward instructs Brotherhood representatives that "each player look up the feasibility of securing capital in his own city" for the purpose of starting a competing league that would give the players an equal say in all baseball matters.
July 24 – Joe Dowie will collect only 17 hits in his one season of major league baseball, but five of them come on this day in as he helps the Baltimore Orioles to an easy 17–3 win over the Louisville Colonels.
July 26 – Jay Faatz hits possibly the shortest grand slam ever when he hits a ball that ricochets off of the third baseman's foot and rolls under some temporary bleachers placed close to third base. Faatz circles the bases as the ball is still in play according to the park's ground rules.
July 29 – Mike "King" Kelly of the Boston Beaneaters robs the Philadelphia Quakers of a victory when, after Sam Thompson had apparently hit a long drive over the right field fence for a home run, he manages to throw a ball back into the infield that holds Thompson on the bases. While the Quakers argue that Kelly used a different ball, the umpire rules it is the game ball and allows the play to stand. Thompson is stranded on base as the Beaneaters go on to win 7–6 in extra innings.
August 7 – The Cleveland Spiders score 14 runs in the third inning, still a record for that inning, during a 20–6 win over the Washington Nationals.
August 8 – Shortstop Jack Glasscock of the Indianapolis Hoosiers hits for the cycle against the New York Giants. Indianapolis wins, 14–4.
August 12 – The first-place St. Louis Browns complete a three-game sweep in St. Louis over the second place Brooklyn Bridegrooms, with an 11–0 win in front of 32,911 fans.
August 15 – Cleveland Spiders outfielder Larry Twitchell hits for the cycle in a 19–8 victory over the Boston Beaneaters. In addition, the Spiders become the first Major League team to score a run in every inning of a game.
August 18 – The Cincinnati police stop a scheduled Cincinnati Red Stockings Sunday game after a court ruling prohibits Sunday baseball. The ban will be a factor in the Red Stockings' decision to jump to the National League in 1890.
August 25 – The Red Stockings are again stopped by police from playing a Sunday game.
September–October
September 1 – After having led the American Association all but three days of the season, the St. Louis Browns fall out of first place by losing in extra innings to the Columbus Solons.
September 3 – Con Daily of the Indianapolis Hoosiers makes the final out in a 7–6 loss to the Boston Beaneaters just after the umpire had apparently called time. Given a second chance, Daily hits a two-run single to give the Hoosiers an 8–7 win.
September 7 – In a critical two-game series, the St. Louis Browns leave the field in Brooklyn in the ninth inning leading 4–2 claiming it is too dark to continue play. Umpire Fred Goldsmith disagrees and forfeits the game to the Brooklyn Bridegrooms. Several Browns players are hit by thrown bottles as they leave the park.
September 8 – Citing safety concerns, the Browns fail to show for their game against Brooklyn and forfeit for the second day in a row, giving the Bridegrooms a 4½ game lead over the Browns.
September 11 – In a season that will have 135 rainouts between the two leagues, every scheduled game in both leagues is postponed due to rain on this day.
September 23 – The American Association, in an emergency meeting, overturns the forfeit by the St. Louis Browns on September 7 and awards them a 4–2 victory. The ruling draws the Browns back to within 4½ games of the Brooklyn Bridegrooms.
September 25 – The Brotherhood of Professional Base-Ball Players' organizational plan for a new Players' League is leaked to the press in New York City. It calls for clubs to be owned jointly by players and capitalists.
September 27 – Out of the pennant race, the Philadelphia Quakers make a largely symbolic move by releasing Brotherhood activists outfielder George Wood, who is batting .251, and pitcher Dan Casey, who has a 6–10 record.
October 5 – The New York Giants clinch the National League pennant on the last day of the season with a 5–3 win coupled with the Boston Beaneaters 6–1 loss. It was the first time in major league history that the pennant was determined on the last day of the season.
October 6 – The Brooklyn Bridegrooms complete their home schedule with a 9–0 victory. Brooklyn sets a new National League season attendance record by drawing 353,690 fans in a season.
October 15 – Having to win their final five games to win the American Association pennant, the St. Louis Browns lose in their first try, giving the flag to the Brooklyn Bridegrooms who have already completed their season.
October 18 – The Brooklyn Bridegrooms take Game 1 of the best-of-11 World Series with a 12–10 victory over the New York Giants.
October 19 – The Giants even the series by taking Game 2 by a score of 6–2.
October 22 – The Bridegrooms take Game 3 by a score of 8–7 in a game called because of darkness that ends with the Giants having the bases loaded and one out in the top of the ninth inning.
October 23 – In another game called early by darkness, New York scores five runs in the top of the sixth inning to tie the game at seven, only to see the Bridegrooms win it on a three-run homer by Oyster Burns in the bottom of the sixth.
October 24 – The Giants win Game 5 by a score of 11–3.
October 25 – New York evens the series at three games apiece by tying the game at 1 with a run in the ninth inning. The Giants then win it in the 11th inning as Hank O'Day outlasts Adonis Terry in the 2–1 extra inning thriller.
October 26 – New York wins again, taking an 11–7 triumph over the Bridegrooms.
October 28 – The Giants win their fourth straight game by defeating Brooklyn 16–7.
October 29 – The New York Giants win their second consecutive World Series title by beating the Brooklyn Bridegrooms, 3–2, for their fifth straight win in taking the series 6 games to 3.
November–December
November 4 – The Brotherhood of Professional Base-Ball Players issues its Manifesto stating that "players have been bought‚ sold and exchanged as though they were sheep instead of American citizens."
November 7 – The Brotherhood meets to begin formal preparation for their new Players' League to begin in the 1890 season.
November 13 – The Brooklyn Bridegrooms and the Cincinnati Red Stockings jump from the American Association to the National League in the middle of an AA league meeting.
November 14 – The Kansas City Cowboys drop out of the American Association in order to join the Western League.
November 21 – The National League issues its reply to the Players' League manifesto. Claiming that the League saved baseball in and that under the reserve rules players' salaries had "more than trebled", the NL denounces the Brotherhood movement as "the efforts of certain overpaid players to again control [baseball] for their own aggrandizement. . . to its ultimate dishonor and disintegration."
November 25 – Former Indianapolis Hoosiers shortstop Jack Glasscock, claiming that his pledge to the Players' League does not constitute a binding contract, becomes the first defection from the Brotherhood when he signs with the New York Giants of the National League, thus becoming the first "double jumper" in major league history.
November 30 – The Baltimore Orioles drop out of the American Association, leaving the AA with only four teams.
December 16 – The Players' League is formally organized, selecting Colonel Edwin A. McAlpin as president.
December 17 – The Players' League votes to utilize a two-man umpiring crew for their 1890 season and also set their pitching distance at 57 feet, a 1½ foot increase over the NL and AA.
December 18 – The Players' League votes to expel any Brotherhood member who has signed an 1890 contract with either the National League or American Association. Some of these players will be later reinstated after they jump back to the PL.
December 20 – The Toledo Maumees are admitted to the American Association, bringing the AA to five teams.
December 20 – In the first of many court battles, Charlie Buffinton and Bill Hallman are served with papers for allegedly breaking their contracts with the National League Philadelphia Quakers.
December 23 – The New York Giants go to court seeking an injunction to prevent John Montgomery Ward from playing baseball for another team in 1890.
Births
January–April
January 7 – Leo Murphy
January 16 – Erskine Mayer^
January 22 – Amos Strunk
January 25 – Les Nunamaker
February 12 – George Cochran
February 18 – George Mogridge
March 5 – Jeff Tesreau
March 12 – Reb Russell
April 4 – Dutch Lerchen
April 13 – Claude Hendrix
April 27 – Hy Myers
^Some sources show 1890
May–August
May 7 – Wilson Collins
May 19 – Wally Snell
June 1 – Otto Miller
June 4 – Lee Magee
July 8 – Pearl Webster
July 13 – Stan Coveleski
June 14 – Ray Morgan
July 16 – Joe Jackson
June 24 – Paul Musser
July 28 – Bullet Rogan
July 31 – Dan Marion
August 22 – Wally Schang
August 24 – Hank Gowdy
September–December
September 5 – Bingo DeMoss
September 18 – Heinie Groh
September 22 – Hooks Dauss
September 25 – Dave Robertson
September 28 – Jack Fournier
October 5 – Jim Bagby
October 23 – Hugh Bedient
October 25 – Smoky Joe Wood
October 26 – Tommy Griffith
November 24 – George J. Burns
December 1 – Willie Mitchell
December 10 – Jimmy Johnston
December 13 – Fritz Coumbe
December 14 – Lefty Tyler
December 19 – Sam Dodge
December 23 – Cozy Dolan
December 26 – John Henry
Deaths
January 15 – Lew Brown, 30, catcher for NL champion Boston Red Caps and who batted .305 for the Providence Grays.
January 26 – Tom Gillen, 26, catcher for the Philadelphia Keystones of the Union Association.
February 24 – Jim McElroy, 26, pitched for 2 teams in .
March 28 – Tom Smith, 37?, played in 3 games for the Brooklyn Atlantics.
April 12 – Frank Ringo, 28, journeyman utility player from 1883 to 1886.
May 20 – Oscar Walker, 35, center fielder and first baseman who led the American Association in home runs with the St. Louis Browns.
June 9 – Mike Burke, 35?, reserve for the Cincinnati Reds.
June 20 – Pat McGee, age unknown, utility player from 1874 to 1875.
July 22 – John Greason, 37, back-up pitcher for the 1873 Washington Blue Legs.
August 8 – Harry McCormick, 33, pitcher who won 41 games from 1879 to 1883.
September 9 – Jack Gorman, 30?, journeyman utility player in 1883–1884.
References
Nemec, David (1994). The Beer and Whiskey League: The Illustrated History of the American Association-Baseball's Renegade Major League. New York: Lyons & Burford, Publishers
External links
1889 National League season at Baseball-Reference.com
1889 American Association season at Baseball-Reference.com
Charlton's Baseball Chronology at BaseballLibrary.com
Year by Year History at Baseball-Almanac.com
Retrosheet.org
Business of Baseball.com article on the formation and history of the Players' League |
4537794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Walker%20%28native%20police%20commandant%29 | Frederick Walker (native police commandant) | Frederick Walker (14 April 1820 – 19 November 1866) was a British public servant of the Colony of New South Wales, property manager, Commandant of the Native Police, squatter and explorer, today best known as the first Commandant of the Native Police Force that operated in the colonies of New South Wales and Queensland. He was appointed commandant of this force by the NSW government in 1848 and was dismissed in 1854. During this time period the Native Police were active from the Murrumbidgee/Murray River areas through the Darling River districts and into what is now the far North Coast of NSW and southern and central Queensland. Despite this large area, most operations under Walker's command occurred on the northern side of the Macintyre River (i.e., Queensland). Detachments of up to 12 troopers worked on the Clarence and Macleay Rivers in NSW until the early 1860s and patrols still extended as far south as Bourke until at least 1868. After his dismissal from the Native Police, Walker became involved in the pastoral industry as a squatter, as well as organising a private native police force and leading a number of expeditions into Northern Queensland.
Early years
Walker was born in Hampshire, England in 1820. His father, John Walker, an officer in the British Army, lived until 1837 and was a landholder at Purbrook Park. His mother, the French-born Maria Teresa Henrietta Swinburne, was a daughter of Henry Swinburne, and granddaughter to Sir John Swinburne 3rd Baronet. Frederick's sister, Harriet Walker, was married to Reginald Yorke, a rear-admiral in the Royal Navy. Two other siblings of Frederick were apparently handicapped. It has been claimed that Robert George Walker, who also became a Native Police officer, achieving the rank of first lieutenant in 1861, was also a brother but it has been argued that this officer was not a relative.
Frederick emigrated to Australia by the Ceylon in 1844 and was shortly after employed on William Charles Wentworth's massive Murrumbidgee River station Tala (also known as Yanga) where he served as superintendent. In the same year, he was made a corporal in the paramilitary Border Police unit based in the Murrumbidgee District. In 1845, Walker was appointed as Clerk of Petty Sessions in Tumut and in April 1847 he attained the same position at Wagga Wagga. On 18 August 1848 he was appointed "Magistrate of the Territories and its Dependencies" and Commandant of newly established Native Police Force on the recommendation of his former employers William Charles Wentworth (1790–1872) and Augustus Morris (1820?-1895), both members of the New South Wales Legislative Council.
Native Police
Walker had attracted attention, it was later stated, by his capacity to engage local Aborigines, understand their culture, speak their language and use this to secure peaceful coexistence between them and the white settlers. He also had previous practical experience in the Murrumbidgee District of utilising intertribal hostility for the benefit of colonisation. In 1847, Walker was called upon by frontier squatter Edmund Morey to punish the local Tati Tati people for interfering with the formation of his Euston pastoral station on the Murray River. Walker set out with two armed Aboriginals named Robin Hood and Marengo from the neighbouring Edward River tribe. At Lake Benanee, with the aid of other squatters they shot dead a number of Tati Tati in a skirmish that ended the tribe's resistance. Walker appears to have obtained his Aboriginal name of Morum Billak or Muroo Billi while living in the Murray River area. There is conjecture as to the actual meaning of the name but it has been stipulated to mean either Long Legs or Big Nose.
The Native Police Force that Walker was to command was formed in August 1848 in the Deniliquin area on the Edward River and commenced training later that year. Fourteen 15- to 25-year-old Aboriginal troopers were picked from four different Murrumbidgee tribes, by all accounts a well drilled and highly disciplined band greatly committed and attached to their Commandant who remained exceedingly proud and protective of his men. Subsequently, Walker travelled with his force up the Darling River, arriving at the Macintyre River (at the present-day southeastern border of Queensland) on 10 May 1849. Once arriving on the Macintyre River on 10 May 1849, the force aggressively pacified the local aboriginals resulting in "some lives lost". They were then deployed to the Condamine River where the "Fitzroy Downs blacks" were routed and another group were "compelled to fly" from the area.
Walker found most of the squatters and magistrates in the region thought the Native Police were there to shoot down the natives so they wouldn't have to. Walker encouraged the squatters to admit the local aboriginals onto their runs so that they could be easily observed and controlled. This was done and Walker's measure of success was the resulting increase in land values. These first actions of the Native Police reduced to great effect Aboriginal attacks and resistance against squatters in the Macintyre and Condamine regions. Walker was successful in ending the attacks of the Bigambul people in the Macintyre district. His stated aim was their annihilation, and by 1854 only 100 of the Bigambul people were left alive.
Walker expanded the Native Police force during the early 1850s into the Wide Bay-Burnett, Maranoa, Clarence River, Macleay River, Dawson River, Port Curtis and Darling Downs regions. They conducted wide-ranging and frequent operations resulting in many dispersals and summary mass killings. Governor Fitzroy noted in the 1851 end of year report "that a great many blacks were killed," however no official action was taken to change the aggressive functioning of the force.
On 11 October 1854, Walker referred to his report from 2 January 1854, of a collision between the Wide Bay Aboriginal people and the Native Police when the group had resisted the passing of the police at Obi Creek. The cause of the collision had been unknown. Although a wanted Aboriginal man named Durobberee was present, Walker had not thought this sufficient. The Aboriginal people easily escaped. Walker later reported he had discovered that the real reason was to prevent the police from observing a runaway convict named Gilberry.
Walker wrote that he had arranged a plan for his capture. It had appeared strange to Walker that none of the patrol parties had ever discovered the tracks of this man as the track of a white man was different from that of an Aborigine. However, this could be explained as some of the women followed Gilburri and covered his tracks.
A large contingent of Native Police troopers were utilised in an invasion of Fraser Island. Walker with Lieutenant Richard Purvis Marshall and Sergeant Doolan and three divisions of troopers, together with local landholders set out from Maryborough. The force landed on the west coast of the island where the divisions split up to scour the region. Marshall's section shot a number of Badtjala and captured several. Bad weather hampered operations and Commandant Walker subsequently allowed his division to track down other groups of Badtjala without him. This group chased the local Aboriginals across to the east coast where they mustered them into the ocean. When the first overlanding pastoralists entered the Port Curtis area, the 1st Division of Native Police under Commandant Walker was sent into the region to "have a month's sharp shooting."
The size of the Native Police expanded further in 1854 to 10 Divisions and as a consequence their violent methods were becoming increasingly noticeable. Supporters of the force had to defend charges of "wanton cruelty" perpetrated by the force by justifying the need of "cutting a lane to the culprit through the bodies of his defenders". Further official complaints to the government in Sydney of massacres of peaceful "station blacks" by the Native Police were brushed off in parliament by the Attorney-General as unfounded or exaggerated. Embarrassing information like these reports and further complaints from squatters, such as William Forster, who felt they didn't get enough protection from the force, as well as certain financial irregularities, pushed the NSW Government into organising an inquiry into the Native Police. Commandant Walker was suspended from duty in September and the inquiry, to be held in Brisbane, was set for December. The inquiry was closed to the public and the report was kept secret for two years and even then only fragments of information were released. It revealed that Walker arrived at the inquiry completely drunk and surrounded by nine of his black troopers. The troopers were denied entry, and after an attempt to continue with proceedings, the inebriation of Walker forced an adjournment to the inquiry which was later quickly and conveniently abandoned altogether. An attempt by 2nd Lieut. Irving to confront Walker, resulted in the ex-Commandant drawing a sword against him. Eventually, Walker wandered off and was subsequently dismissed from the Native Police. He was later apprehended at Bromelton, charged with the embezzlement of £100 and sent to Sydney.
Run-hunter and private militia
By 1857, Walker was back on the northern frontier of European colonisation in Australia, employed on Serocold and Mackenzie's Cockatoo station. Here he formulated plans with squatter George Serocold to examine land for occupation in the upper reaches of the Comet River. He set out with another squatter named Wiggins and three Aboriginal men, two of whom were Peabody and Jamie Sandeman, to hunt for these pastoral runs. On returning to Cockatoo, Walker's camp was attacked by local Aboriginals at Conciliation Creek in the Zamia Valley. Walker received two severe spear wounds and with difficulty made his recovery at nearby Palm Tree Creek station owned by squatters Scott and Thompson. At this time the Hornet Bank massacre occurred and Andrew Scott requested assistance from the now recovered Walker to assist with the protection of his newly acquired land. Walker recruited ten of his ex-Native Police troopers and formed a private militia that roamed the Dawson River area conducting punitive missions against local Aboriginal groups. Walker utilised Hornet Bank station as a base and travelled as far as Mount Abundance during his patrols. His troopers included Larry, Boney, Jingle, Billy, Coreen Jemmy and Coreen Neddy. The troopers were actively recruited from the discharged members of the Native Police and were financed by local squatters unhappy with the government run force. George Serocold described the situation as a Border War and even called for the importation of the Cape Mounted Rifles from Africa to give a lesson to "these savages as will enable us to gain our moral ascendency, let them be made to feel the miseries of war". The Queensland Government eventually determined that Walker's private militia was illegal and ordered its dissolution in 1859. William Wiseman, the Commissioner for Crown Lands in the region, was sent to the Dawson River to enact the order. He found that Walker's troops were conveniently already dissolved and working on Andrew Scott's Hornet Bank and Pollet Cardew's Eurombah stations as shepherds earning £35 per annum. Frederick Walker was also employed as overseer and ex-Native Police officer Ross was superintendent.
In September 1859, Walker officially became a pastoral squatter, taking up the Meteor Creek, Clematis, Carnarvon Creek and Consuelo runs in conjunction with established squatters Serocold, Wiggins and Mackenzie. He expanded his property interests in 1860 by establishing the Planet Downs station on the Comet River with Daniel Cameron, and helped Rolleston and the Dutton brothers take up their runs nearby. Walker continued his method of pacification of local Aboriginals by allowing those who submitted to European colonisation to remain on their land as indentured labour. This strategy went against official Queensland Government policy at the time which encouraged the forcible removal or elimination of Aboriginals from desirable frontier grazing lands. As a result, Walker and the other squatters who associated with him made frequent official complaints against the actions of magistrates and Native Police in the area. Walker wrote letters to the Attorney-General complaining of the actions of Lieutenant Patrick of the Native Police killing peaceable Aboriginals on his run. He also described how magistrates in the area viewed the "native blacks" as aliens in their own land, legally voiding them of any rights and refusing to prosecute white people who had murdered them. Walker also wrote about the Juandah massacre, where many innocent Aboriginals were shot and killed by vigilantes in the Juandah courthouse.
Around this time, Walker was also commissioned by a Sydney pastoral company to locate a suitably large area of land to graze 100,000 head of sheep. Walker located this area on the Barcoo River and as a result of this expedition became one of the first British people to enter this region.
1861 Burke and Wills recovery expedition
In 1861 Walker led a party, ostensibly in search of the ill-fated Burke and Wills expedition, but his focus was more upon hunting for new pastoral runs. His meticulous journal of the search is often transcribed from the abridged version published by the Royal Geographical Society, but the full version is found in the correspondence of the Gulf of Carpentaria exploration expedition of Commander Norman.
On 25 August 1861, Walker set out from Rockhampton accompanied by ex-Native Police troopers Jingle, Rodney, Patrick, Coreen Jemmy and Jemmy Cargara. These aboriginal men had served Walker for many years and were vital in ascertaining the terrain and communicating with the local indigenous people. Walker acknowledged their importance by naming mountains and rivers after them. However, this mutual respect was not extended to some aboriginal groups met with along the way. On 30 October near the Stawell River, the party met with a group of locals who they deemed hostile. Walker writes that 'It was now for us to be doing...Now was shown the benefit of Terry's breech loaders, for such a continued steady fire was kept up.' Out of around 30 aboriginals armed with spears, 12 were killed and 'few if any escaped unwounded.' On 1 December near the Leichardt River, Walker's party charged another group of aboriginals resulting in 'a heavy loss.' Despite the obvious advantages in weaponry, Walker managed to find himself in a dangerous situation on 4 December. Walker and Jingle, being separated from the others and with only limited ammunition and one horse, were being surrounded and had to flee in panic for eighteen miles before considering themselves safe. Three days later, the group, having reformed, achieved the rendezvous point with Captain Norman. They had failed to locate Burke and Wills and their party.
1866 Electric Telegraph survey and death
In 1866, Walker was employed by the Superintendent of Electric Telegraph to survey a 500-mile route from Bowen to Burketown in a bid to compete against South Australia for the end of the Trans-Oceanic link from Europe. Although the South Australian project won the race and Darwin became the terminus, Walker did manage to lead an expedition to survey a route for the Burketown line. His expedition consisted of himself as leader, H.E.Young, Mr. Perrier, Mr. Ewan, Mr. Merryweather and four Aboriginals who went by the names of Paul, Alfred, Charley and Tommy. On making their way to the starting point of Bowen, Walker had a severe fall from a horse and was subsequently unwell for most of the remainder of his journey. He arrived in Burketown with his party at the height of the Gulf Fever – a typhoid which affected the Gulf after the arrival in Burketown of a vessel on which all the crew except the Captain died. To compound matters, Walker's camp just outside the settlement was described by H.E.Young as the "worst camp that I had ever seen", with no shade and poor water. Walker had chronic diarrhoea while he was at this camp. The party commenced their return journey but at Floraville, Walker became too weak to continue and after several days he died on 19 November 1866. The entry in H.E.Young's journal recorded Walker's passing: "as soon as the horses were brought up and a couple saddled, Perrier and Ewan were starting for the doctor of the Leichhardt search expedition which was camped about six miles off. But he died before they mounted. He died at noon and was buried on the evening of the same day."
The administration of Walker's will was completed in London on 13 April 1867. His entire effects of £1160 14s 11d were left to his sister Harriet Yorke.
Legacy
Walkers Creek, located near Marathon Station in far north Queensland is named after Frederick Walker.
Frederick Walker's grave is located south of the township on Floraville Station, in far north Queensland. The inscription reads:
On August 17 1848 Frederick Walker, aged 28, was appointed to the position of Commandant of the Corps of Native Police having emigrated from Australia from England. The Corps commenced with fourteen troopers recruited from four different New South Wales tribes. In 1850 Walker had three units and two lieutenants in the corps and by 1852 he increased the Corps with 48 additional Aboriginal troopers who were drilled and trained in the use of carbines, swords, saddles and bridles. On 12 October 1854 Walker was dismissed from the service for impropriety of conduct due to his heavy drinking. After his dismissal he continued to live on the frontier and briefly formed an illegal force of ten ex-troopers from the Native Police Corps to protect settlers in the Upper Dawson region. In August 1861 fears had grown for the safety of the Burke and Wills expedition and Walker was sent at the insistence of the Royal Society of Victoria to search for the ill-fated expedition.
There are two memorial plaques to Frederick Walker in Hughenden commemorating his actions in attempting to find the Burke and Wills expedition party.
The original letter from Frederick Walker to the Colonial Secretary regarding an attack of the Native Police on "Friendly Blacks" at a station in Central Queensland, killing and wounding several of them. was ranked #45 in the ‘Top 150: Documenting Queensland’ exhibition when it toured to venues around Queensland from February 2009 to April 2010. The exhibition was part of Queensland State Archives’ events and exhibition program which contributed to the state’s Q150 celebrations, marking the 150th anniversary of the separation of Queensland from New South Wales.
References
Further reading
Paul Dillon, Frederick Walker Commandant of the Native Police (Brisbane: Connor Court Publishing, 2018). .
External links
J. T. S Bird of Rockhampton account of events in the early 20th century
1820 births
1866 deaths
Explorers of Australia
Year of birth uncertain
History of Indigenous Australians
Defunct law enforcement agencies of Australia
Burke and Wills expedition
19th-century Australian public servants
Pre-Separation Queensland
Colony of Queensland people |
4538124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated%20gasification%20combined%20cycle | Integrated gasification combined cycle | An integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is a technology using a high pressure gasifier to turn coal and other carbon based fuels into pressurized gas—synthesis gas (syngas). It can then remove impurities from the syngas prior to the electricity generation cycle. Some of these pollutants, such as sulfur, can be turned into re-usable byproducts through the Claus process. This results in lower emissions of sulfur dioxide, particulates, mercury, and in some cases carbon dioxide. With additional process equipment, a water-gas shift reaction can increase gasification efficiency and reduce carbon monoxide emissions by converting it to carbon dioxide. The resulting carbon dioxide from the shift reaction can be separated, compressed, and stored through sequestration. Excess heat from the primary combustion and syngas fired generation is then passed to a steam cycle, similar to a combined cycle gas turbine. This process results in improved thermodynamic efficiency, compared to conventional pulverized coal combustion.
Significance
Coal can be found in abundance in the USA and many other countries and its price has remained relatively constant in recent years. Of the traditional hydrocarbon fuels - oil, coal, and natural gas - coal is used as a feedstock for 40% of global electricity generation. Fossil fuel consumption and its contribution to large-scale emissions is becoming a pressing issue because of the adverse effects of climate change. In particular, coal contains more CO2 per BTU than oil or natural gas and is responsible for 43% of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion. Thus, the lower emissions that IGCC technology allows through gasification and pre-combustion carbon capture is discussed as a way to addressing aforementioned concerns.
Operations
Below is a schematic flow diagram of an IGCC plant:
The gasification process can produce syngas from a wide variety of carbon-containing feedstocks, such as high-sulfur coal, heavy petroleum residues, and biomass.
The plant is called integrated because (1) the syngas produced in the gasification section is used as fuel for the gas turbine in the combined cycle and (2) the steam produced by the syngas coolers in the gasification section is used by the steam turbine in the combined cycle.
In this example the syngas produced is used as fuel in a gas turbine which produces electrical power. In a normal combined cycle, so-called "waste heat" from the gas turbine exhaust is used in a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) to make steam for the steam turbine cycle. An IGCC plant improves the overall process efficiency by adding the higher-temperature steam produced by the gasification process to the steam turbine cycle. This steam is then used in steam turbines to produce additional electrical power.
IGCC plants are advantageous in comparison to conventional coal power plants due to their high thermal efficiency, low non-carbon greenhouse gas emissions, and capability to process low grade coal. The disadvantages include higher capital and maintenance costs, and the amount of released without pre-combustion capture.
Process overview
The solid coal is gasified to produce syngas, or synthetic gas. Syngas is synthesized by gasifying coal in a closed pressurized reactor with a shortage of oxygen. The shortage of oxygen ensures that coal is broken down by the heat and pressure as opposed to burning completely. The chemical reaction between coal and oxygen produces a product that is a mixture of carbon and hydrogen, or syngas. CxHy + (x/2)O2 → (x)CO + (y/2)H2
The heat from the production of syngas is used to produce steam from cooling water which is then used for steam turbine electricity production.
The syngas must go through a pre-combustion separation process to remove CO2 and other impurities to produce a more purified fuel. Three steps are necessary for the separation of impurities:
Water-gas-shift reaction. The reaction that occurs in a water-gas-shift reactor is CO + H2O CO2 + H2. This produces a syngas with a higher composition of hydrogen fuel which is more efficient for burning later in combustion.
Physical separation process. This can be done through various mechanisms such as absorption, adsorption or membrane separation.
Drying, compression and storage/shipping.
The resulting syngas fuels a combustion turbine that produces electricity. At this stage the syngas is fairly pure H2.
Benefits and drawbacks
A major drawback of using coal as a fuel source is the emission of carbon dioxide and pollutants, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, mercury, and particulates. Almost all coal-fired power plants use pulverized coal combustion, which grinds the coal to increase the surface area, burns it to make steam, and runs the steam through a turbine to generate electricity. Pulverized coal plants can only capture carbon dioxide after combustion when it is diluted and harder to separate. In comparison, gasification in IGCC allows for separation and capture of the concentrated and pressurized carbon dioxide before combustion. Syngas cleanup includes filters to remove bulk particulates, scrubbing to remove fine particulates, and solid adsorbents for mercury removal. Additionally, hydrogen gas is used as fuel, which produces no pollutants under combustion.
IGCC also consumes less water than traditional pulverized coal plants. In a pulverized coal plant, coal is burned to produce steam, which is then used to create electricity using a steam turbine. Then steam exhaust must then be condensed with cooling water, and water is lost by evaporation. In IGCC, water consumption is reduced by combustion in a gas turbine, which uses the generated heat to expand air and drive the turbine. Steam is only used to capture the heat from the combustion turbine exhaust for use in a secondary steam turbine. Currently, the major drawback is the high capital cost compared to other forms of power production.
Installations
The DOE Clean Coal Demonstration Project helped construct 3 IGCC plants: Edwarsport Power Station in Edwardsport, Indiana, Polk Power Station in Tampa, Florida (online 1996), and Pinon Pine in Reno, Nevada. In the Reno demonstration project, researchers found that then-current IGCC technology would not work more than 300 feet (100m) above sea level. The DOE report in reference 3 however makes no mention of any altitude effect, and most of the problems were associated with the solid waste extraction system. The Wabash River and Polk Power stations are currently operating, following resolution of demonstration start-up problems, but the Piñon Pine project encountered significant problems and was abandoned.
The US DOE's Clean Coal Power Initiative (CCPI Phase 2) selected the Kemper Project as one of two projects to demonstrate the feasibility of low emission coal-fired power plants. Mississippi Power began construction on the Kemper Project in Kemper County, Mississippi, in 2010 and is poised to begin operation in 2016, though there have been many delays. In March, the projected date was further pushed back from early 2016 to August 31, 2016, adding $110 million to the total and putting the project 3 years behind schedule. The electrical plant is a flagship Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) project that burns lignite coal and utilizes pre-combustion IGCC technology with a projected 65% emission capture rate.
The first generation of IGCC plants polluted less than contemporary coal-based technology, but also polluted water; for example, the Wabash River Plant was out of compliance with its water permit during 1998–2001
because it emitted arsenic, selenium and cyanide. The Wabash River Generating Station is now wholly owned and operated by the Wabash River Power Association.
IGCC is now touted as capture ready and could potentially be used to capture and store carbon dioxide. (See FutureGen)Poland's Kędzierzyn will soon host a Zero-Emission Power & Chemical Plant that combines coal gasification technology with Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS). This installation had been planned, but there has been no information about it since 2009. Other operating IGCC plants in existence around the world are the Alexander (formerly Buggenum) in the Netherlands, Puertollano in Spain, and JGC in Japan.
The Texas Clean Energy project planned to build a 400 MW IGCC facility that would incorporate carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) technology. The project would have been the first coal power plant in the United States to combine IGCC and 90% carbon capture and storage. The sponsor Summit Power filed for bankruptcy in 2017.
There are several advantages and disadvantages when compared to conventional post combustion carbon capture and various variations
Cost and reliability
A key issue in implementing IGCC is its high capital cost, which prevents it from competing with other power plant technologies. Currently, ordinary pulverized coal plants are the lowest cost power plant option. The advantage of IGCC comes from the ease of retrofitting existing power plants that could offset the high capital cost. In a 2007 model, IGCC with CCS is the lowest-cost system in all cases. This model compared estimations of levelized cost of electricity, showing IGCC with CCS to cost 71.9 $US2005/MWh, pulverized coal with CCS to cost 88 $US2005/MWh, and natural gas combined cycle with CCS to cost 80.6 $US2005/MWh. The levelized cost of electricity was noticeably sensitive to the price of natural gas and the inclusion of carbon storage and transport costs.
The potential benefit of retrofitting has so far, not offset the cost of IGCC with carbon capture technology. A 2013 report by the U.S. Energy Information Administration demonstrates that the overnight cost of IGCC with CCS has increased 19% since 2010. Amongst the three power plant types, pulverized coal with CCS has an overnight capital cost of $5,227 (2012 dollars)/kW, IGCC with CCS has an overnight capital cost of $6,599 (2012 dollars)/kW, and natural gas combined cycle with CCS has an overnight capital cost of $2,095 (2012 dollars)/kW. Pulverized coal and NGCC costs did not change significantly since 2010. The report further relates that the 19% increase in IGCC cost is due to recent information from IGCC projects that have gone over budget and cost more than expected.
Recent testimony in regulatory proceedings show the cost of IGCC to be twice that predicted by Goddell, from $96 to 104/MWh. That's before addition of carbon capture and sequestration (sequestration has been a mature technology at both Weyburn in Canada (for enhanced oil recovery) and Sleipner in the North Sea at a commercial scale for the past ten years)—capture at a 90% rate is expected to have a $30/MWh additional cost.
Wabash River was down repeatedly for long stretches due to gasifier problems. The gasifier problems have not been remedied—subsequent projects, such as Excelsior's Mesaba Project, have a third gasifier and train built in. However, the past year has seen Wabash River running reliably, with availability comparable to or better than other technologies.
The Polk County IGCC has design problems. First, the project was initially shut down because of corrosion in the slurry pipeline that fed slurried coal from the rail cars into the gasifier. A new coating for the pipe was developed. Second, the thermocoupler was replaced in less than two years; an indication that the gasifier had problems with a variety of feedstocks; from bituminous to sub-bituminous coal. The gasifier was designed to also handle lower rank lignites. Third, unplanned down time on the gasifier because of refractory liner problems, and those problems were expensive to repair. The gasifier was originally designed in Italy to be half the size of what was built at Polk. Newer ceramic materials may assist in improving gasifier performance and longevity. Understanding the operating problems of the current IGCC plant is necessary to improve the design for the IGCC plant of the future. (Polk IGCC Power Plant, https://web.archive.org/web/20151228085513/http://www.clean-energy.us/projects/polk_florida.html.) Keim, K., 2009, IGCC A Project on Sustainability Management Systems for Plant Re-Design and Re-Image. This is an unpublished paper from Harvard University)
General Electric is currently designing an IGCC model plant that should introduce greater reliability. GE's model features advanced turbines optimized for the coal syngas. Eastman's industrial gasification plant in Kingsport, TN uses a GE Energy solid-fed gasifier. Eastman, a fortune 500 company, built the facility in 1983 without any state or federal subsidies and turns a profit.
There are several refinery-based IGCC plants in Europe that have demonstrated good availability (90-95%) after initial shakedown periods. Several factors help this performance:
None of these facilities use advanced technology (F type) gas turbines.
All refinery-based plants use refinery residues, rather than coal, as the feedstock. This eliminates coal handling and coal preparation equipment and its problems. Also, there is a much lower level of ash produced in the gasifier, which reduces cleanup and downtime in its gas cooling and cleaning stages.
These non-utility plants have recognized the need to treat the gasification system as an up-front chemical processing plant, and have reorganized their operating staff accordingly.
Another IGCC success story has been the 250 MW Buggenum plant in The Netherlands, which was commissioned in 1994 and closed in 2013, had good availability. This coal-based IGCC plant was originally designed to use up to 30% biomass as a supplemental feedstock. The owner, NUON, was paid an incentive fee by the government to use the biomass. NUON has constructed a 1,311 MW IGCC plant in the Netherlands, comprising three 437 MW CCGT units. The Nuon Magnum IGCC power plant was commissioned in 2011, and was officially opened in June 2013. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries has been awarded to construct the power plant. Following a deal with environmental organizations, NUON has been prohibited from using the Magnum plant to burn coal and biomass, until 2020. Because of high gas prices in the Netherlands, two of the three units are currently offline, whilst the third unit sees only low usage levels. The relatively low 59% efficiency of the Magnum plant means that more efficient CCGT plants (such as the Hemweg 9 plant) are preferred to provide (backup) power.
A new generation of IGCC-based coal-fired power plants has been proposed, although none is yet under construction. Projects are being developed by AEP, Duke Energy, and Southern Company in the US, and in Europe by ZAK/PKE, Centrica (UK), E.ON and RWE (both Germany) and NUON (Netherlands). In Minnesota, the state's Dept. of Commerce analysis found IGCC to have the highest cost, with an emissions profile not significantly better than pulverized coal. In Delaware, the Delmarva and state consultant analysis had essentially the same results.
The high cost of IGCC is the biggest obstacle to its integration in the power market; however, most energy executives recognize that carbon regulation is coming soon. Bills requiring carbon reduction are being proposed again both the House and the Senate, and with the Democratic majority it seems likely that with the next President there will be a greater push for carbon regulation. The Supreme Court decision requiring the EPA to regulate carbon (Commonwealth of Massachusetts et al. v. Environmental Protection Agency et al.)[20] also speaks to the likelihood of future carbon regulations coming sooner, rather than later. With carbon capture, the cost of electricity from an IGCC plant would increase approximately 33%. For a natural gas CC, the increase is approximately 46%. For a pulverized coal plant, the increase is approximately 57%. This potential for less expensive carbon capture makes IGCC an attractive choice for keeping low cost coal an available fuel source in a carbon constrained world. However, the industry needs a lot more experience to reduce the risk premium. IGCC with CCS requires some sort of mandate, higher carbon market price, or regulatory framework to properly incentivize the industry.
In Japan, electric power companies, in conjunction with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries has been operating a 200 t/d IGCC pilot plant since the early '90s. In September 2007, they started up a 250 MW demo plant in Nakoso. It runs on air-blown (not oxygen) dry feed coal only. It burns PRB coal with an unburned carbon content ratio of <0.1% and no detected leaching of trace elements. It employs not only F type turbines but G type as well. (see gasification.org link below)
Next generation IGCC plants with CO2 capture technology will be expected to have higher thermal efficiency and to hold the cost down because of simplified systems compared to conventional IGCC. The main feature is that instead of using oxygen and nitrogen to gasify coal, they use oxygen and CO2. The main advantage is that it is possible to improve the performance of cold gas efficiency and to reduce the unburned carbon (char).
As a reference for powerplant efficiency:
With Frame E gas turbine, 30bar quench gas cooling, Cold Temperature Gas Cleaning and 2 level HRSC it is possible to achieve around 38% energy efficiency.
With Frame F gas turbine, 60 bar quench gasifier, Cold Temperature Gas Cleaning and 3 level+RH HRSC it is possible to achieve around 45% energy efficiency.
Latest development of Frame G gas turbines, ASU air integration, High temperature desulfurization may shift up performance even further.
The CO2 extracted from gas turbine exhaust gas is utilized in this system. Using a closed gas turbine system capable of capturing the CO2 by direct compression and liquefication obviates the need for a separation and capture system.
CO2 capture in IGCC
Pre-combustion CO2 removal is much easier than CO2 removal from flue gas in post-combustion capture due to the high concentration of CO2 after the water-gas-shift reaction and the high pressure of the syngas. During pre-combustion in IGCC, the partial pressure of CO2 is nearly 1000 times higher than in post-combustion flue gas. Due to the high concentration of CO2 pre-combustion, physical solvents, such as Selexol and Rectisol, are preferred for the removal of CO2 vs that of chemical solvents. Physical solvents work by absorbing the acid gases without the need of a chemical reaction as in traditional amine based solvents. The solvent can then be regenerated, and the CO2 desorbed, by reducing the pressure. The biggest obstacle with physical solvents is the need for the syngas to be cooled before separation and reheated afterwards for combustion. This requires energy and decreases overall plant efficiency.
Testing
National and international test codes are used to standardize the procedures and definitions used to test IGCC Power Plants. Selection of the test code to be used is an agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, and has some significance to the design of the plant and associated systems. In the United States, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers published the Performance Test Code for IGCC Power Generation Plants (PTC 47) in 2006 which provides procedures for the determination of quantity and quality of fuel gas by its flow rate, temperature, pressure, composition, heating value, and its content of contaminants.
IGCC emission controversy
In 2007, the New York State Attorney General's office demanded full disclosure of "financial risks from greenhouse gases" to the shareholders of electric power companies proposing the development of IGCC coal-fired power plants. "Any one of the several new or likely regulatory initiatives for CO2 emissions from power plants - including state carbon controls, EPA's regulations under the Clean Air Act, or the enactment of federal global warming legislation - would add a significant cost to carbon-intensive coal generation"; U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton from New York has proposed that this full risk disclosure be required of all publicly traded power companies nationwide. This honest disclosure has begun to reduce investor interest in all types of existing-technology coal-fired power plant development, including IGCC.
Senator Harry Reid (Majority Leader of the 2007/2008 U.S. Senate) told the 2007 Clean Energy Summit that he will do everything he can to stop construction of proposed new IGCC coal-fired electric power plants in Nevada. Reid wants Nevada utility companies to invest in solar energy, wind energy and geothermal energy instead of coal technologies. Reid stated that global warming is a reality, and just one proposed coal-fired plant would contribute to it by burning seven million tons of coal a year. The long-term healthcare costs would be far too high, he claimed (no source attributed). "I'm going to do everything I can to stop these plants.", he said. "There is no clean coal technology. There is cleaner coal technology, but there is no clean coal technology."
One of the most efficient ways to treat the H2S gas from an IGCC plant is by converting it into sulphuric acid in a wet gas sulphuric acid process WSA process. However, the majority of the H2S treating plants utilize the modified Claus process, as the sulphur market infrastructure and the transportation costs of sulphuric acid versus sulphur are in favour of sulphur production.
See also
Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources
Environmental impact of the coal industry
Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell Cycle
References
External links
Huntstown: Ireland's most efficient power plant @ Siemens Power Generation website
Natural Gas Combined-cycle Gas Turbine Power Plants Northwest Power Planning Council, New Resource Characterization for the Fifth Power Plan, August 2002
Combined cycle solar power
Thermodynamic cycles
Chemical processes
Power station technology
Energy conversion |
4538269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20United%20States%20immigration%20reform%20protests | 2006 United States immigration reform protests | In 2006–2007, millions of people participated in protests over a proposed change to U.S. immigration policy. These large scale mobilizations are widely seen as a historic turn point in Latino politics, especially Latino immigrant civic participation and political influence, as noted in a range of scholarly publications in this field. The protests began in response to proposed legislation known as H.R. 4437, which would raise penalties for illegal immigration and classify illegal individuals and anyone who helped them enter or remain in the US as felons. As part of the wider immigration debate, most of the protests not only sought a rejection of this bill, but also a comprehensive reform of the country's immigration laws that included a path to citizenship for all illegal immigrants.
The 2006 immigration protests were a series of demonstrations that began in Chicago and continued throughout major cities nationwide for a period of eight weeks. The first major demonstration in Chicago was held on March 10, 2006, and was estimated to have about 100,000 participants. It was the initial impetus for many of the other protests which followed throughout the country. The largest single protest occurred on March 25, 2006, in downtown Los Angeles with an official estimate of more than 500,000 people marching in what organizers called "La Gran Marcha" ("The Great March") . Organizers of La Gran Marcha, however, state that the actual revised number of participants is somewhere between 1.25 and 1.5 million estimated through later photographic analysis. The largest nationwide day of protest occurred on April 10, 2006, in 102 cities across the country, with 350,000–500,000 in Dallas. The overwhelming majority of the protests were peaceful and attracted modest media attention. Additional protests took place on May Day.
May Day
The marches reached a climax on May 1, 2006, and were nicknamed "A Day Without Immigrants." Naming the protests in such way encouraged immigrants and others to quit their daily labor-intensive jobs for a day to draw attention to their significant contributions to U.S. daily life. Latino immigrants and others across the country were urged to boycott work, school and other economic activities. Those outside the Latino community were shocked to see the growing workforce of janitors, nannies, restaurant workers and many other service workers leave their jobs to join the protests. The mobilization of working-class illegal individuals was intended to challenge the belief that the United States would be able to prosper without illegal immigrants.
The protests took place on May 1, a date meant to honor workers throughout the country. The May 1st marches reflected the immigrant protesters' identities as workers and significant contributors to U.S. society. Most immigrants of Latin American descent come to the United States seeking economic prosperity for themselves and their families, they infrequently accept low wage jobs to survive in the United States. Therefore, missing work for a day burdened their families. Yet, thousands of immigrants risked their jobs and joined the marches to demand political recognition.
Illegal immigration
Mexicans were not considered "immigrants" until 1960, when the United States issued visas to emigrate to America. Before 1960, Mexicans could only apply for work visas as Braceros or cross the border without inspection. Mexicans didn't have a "legal" way to enter the United States before then.
To understand the 2006 immigrant protests and the discourse behind illegal immigration as a leading topic in U.S. political debate, it is necessary to understand the history of illegal immigration. Since the 19th century, mass illegal immigration from Latin American countries to the United States has greatly impacted Latino politics. Illegal immigrants are individuals who arrive and live in the United States without legal documentation. In many cases, individuals arrive to the United States with legal documentation such as tourist or student visas and overstay the amount of time they are allowed to remain in the United States, thus becoming illegal immigrants. Many others cross the borders between the United States and Mexico, or the United States and Canada, without legal documentation. Today, undocumented entry to the United States is a misdemeanor.
Illegal immigration did not always exist to the extent that it does today. Before 1965, the United States did not have numerical restrictions on immigration from countries in the western hemisphere. In 1965, the United States passed the Immigration Nationality Act and repealed the 1924 National Origins Act designed to limit migration from southern and eastern European countries, thus making it possible for eastern-hemisphere countries to have equal access to visas in addition and consequently restricting migration from the western hemisphere for the first time. Furthermore, the 1965 Act provided unlimited number of visas for family reunification because it allowed naturalized U.S. citizens and permanent residents to request permission to bring their family members to the United States. The 1965 Act influenced Latinos/as citizens and permanent residents to request visas that allowed their family members to immigrate to the United States. This resulted in a shift of the country's ethno racial makeup and the creation of a large Latino population in the United States. The 1965 Act's restriction on the number of visas allotted to western hemisphere countries created the phenomenon of large scale illegal western hemisphere migration, particularly from Latin American countries like Mexico.
In the 1980s, the United States government began to express concern about the large scale flow of illegal immigration, which led to the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986. First, the Act made it illegal for employers to hire workers who could not provide proof of legal immigration to the United States. Second, it allowed for the legalization of immigrants who could prove residency in the U.S. since January 1, 1982 and agricultural workers who began working in the United States prior to May 1986. Out of the 3 million migrants that applied for IRCA, 2.7 million, many of whom were Mexican, were given a path to citizenship. However, in the long term, IRCA was not successful in reducing the flow of illegal immigration to the United States. As a result, the U.S. government began to increase the funding of Border Patrol as a means to regulate the flow of undocumented immigrants to the United States. These actions proved to have little impact on illegal immigration, resulting in about eleven million illegal immigrants living in the United States, the majority being of Mexican origin. Therefore, discourse about the flow of illegal immigration has been known as a "Mexican" or "Latino" problem. The large scale flow of illegal migrants and the significant ethno-racial shift that occurred as a result of 1965 Act, have resulted in anti-immigrant backlash that targets Latino immigrants.
Role of Spanish-language media and religious leaders
Spanish-language media outlets, in particular Univision, Telemundo, Azteca América and La Opinión (Los Angeles' largest Spanish newspaper), advertised the protests on their front page. They called it a "Mega Marcha", a mega march, as a way to emphasize the large scale of the marches. This strategy allowed for the spread of mobilizations throughout the country. KMEX- TV in Los Angeles, an Univision owned and operated television station, called the protests "Pisando Firme", stepping strong, to remind protesters to march "with pride, with dignity, with order, for your children, for your people, for your community." Although television and newspapers effectively mobilized protesters, it was radio stations which truly promoted the protests.
Various Spanish-language radio stations across the country, in large part aided in mobilizing people for the protests. Eddie "Piolín" Sotelo, a Spanish-language radio personality from Los Angeles, persuaded eleven of his counterparts from Spanish-language radio stations based in Los Angeles to also rally listeners to attend planned protests. Piolin Por La Mañana, is known to be one of the most popular radio shows in the country. The Piolín's radio show, recorded near Los Angeles, is broadcast in 47 markets across the country including Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Miami, Phoenix, San Francisco and New York, many of the cities where the protests took place. In addition to mobilizing thousands of immigrant protestors, Eddie "Piolin" Sotelo made multiple appearances during protests, which increased his moral authority towards his Latino audience.
Religious leader Cardinal Roger M. Mahony, from the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, showed his support of immigrant protesters and urged Catholics, many of whom are Latino, to support the protests. He urged the Catholic community to spend Lent fasting and praying for an immigration reform that would counteract HR-4437 and the criminalization of immigrants. Cardinal Mahony made an official statement against HR-4437 through which he instructed Catholic priests to defy any law that required them to ask immigrants for legal documents. He stated that immigration was not about politics, rather the way in which human beings treat one another, while asserting that all Americans are of immigrant ancestry and share universal citizenship.
It was not media alone that mobilized protesters, rather the media in partnership with migrant organizations and leaders. When analyzing the immigrant civic participation in the 2006 protests simply acknowledging the media's influence is not enough. It absolutely necessary to understand the "meta-network" of activists and leaders that used media as a call to action.
Controversy and backlash over flag symbolism and protests
The initial protests caused much controversy after some protesters waved Mexican and Central American flags instead of American flags. Various talk-radio hosts and columnists played up the contentious nature of displaying non-U.S. flags during the protests. One particular incident referred to involved a protest at Montebello High School in California, where a Mexican flag was raised on a flagpole over a United States flag flying in the distressed (or upside-down) position.
As part of the backlash over the protests and the controversy over the flag symbolism issue, a group calling themselves "Border Guardians" burned a Mexican flag in front of the Mexican Consulate in Tucson, Arizona, on April 9, 2006. The following day the group proceeded to burn two Mexican flags during protest in Tucson which was estimated to have had 15,000 participants. After the police seized a student who had thrown a water bottle at the "Border Guardians", they followed the police officers calling for them to let the student go. As the situation escalated violence broke out and 6 were arrested with dozens being pepper-sprayed. The next day the police arrested the leader of the Border Guardians, Roy Warden, for charges including assault and starting a fire in a public park.
Because of the controversy, organizers of the protests encouraged protesters to leave their Mexican flags at home, with Cardinal Roger Mahony telling Los Angeles protesters to not fly any flag other than the United States flag because, "...they do not help us get the legislation we need." As a result of this controversy later protests featured fewer Mexican flags and more protesters carrying American flags.
In addition, California's Oceanside Unified School District banned flags and signs from its campuses after "Mexican flag-wavers clashed with U.S. flag-wavers."
Backlash
The Washington Post reported that, in the Washington, D.C., suburb of Herndon, a day labor center at which suspected illegal individuals gathered was closed and its mayor and two aldermen lost reelection, in part due to immigration concerns.
Membership in the Minuteman Project increased due in part to backlash from the protests. On May 3, responding to the May 1 boycotts, the Minutemen embarked on a caravan across the United States in an effort to bring attention to a need for border enforcement. The caravan was expected to reach Washington, D.C., on May 12.
Regarding the Tucson-based anti-immigration movement: In 2006, the Southern Poverty Law Center wrote: "Roy Warden, 59, emerged this spring as one of the country's most controversial, volatile, and, many believe, dangerous characters of the anti-immigration movement."
Consequences of the 2006 immigration protests
Although HR-4437 failed to pass through the Senate, it left a trail of consequences that affected the immigrant community. One of those consequences was intensive Immigration Customs Enforcement (ICE) raids during the final years of the Bush administration which continued throughout the Obama presidency. In the next couple of years, more than 300,000 undocumented immigrant were deported to their home countries, that is 100,000 more than the number of deported immigrants in 2005, a year before the protests. The increase in deportations caused fear of retaliation within the undocumented community and resulted in rapid demobilization.
Although HR-4437 did not become a law at the federal level, it did not prevent individual states from passing similar laws. In 2006, Pennsylvania passed the Illegal Immigration Relief Act, which fined landlords who rented housing to undocumented immigrants and also fined business owners who hired them. The State of Arizona passed S.B. 1070, which led to racial profiling and required police officers to request legal documentation from anyone they suspected was undocumented. Both laws, along with similar others, were deemed unconstitutional in part because the U.S. Constitution assigns control over immigration to the federal government, not individual states.
Social policy attitudes
The effects of the protests were not limited to governmental and policy changes, either. Public opinion in the Latino community showed clear development based on both temporal and spacial exposure to the protests. The Latino National Survey (LNS) took place during the course of the protests, with approximately 37% of respondents being surveyed before the protests began. Using the data from respondents before and after the advent of the protests, a study from The American Journal of Political Science compared immigration sentiments from before and after exposure to the 2006 protests. The table divided sentiments into three categories: amnesty, supporting immediate legalization; citizenship after time as a guest worker; or allowing guest workers temporary residence. Support for immediate legalization showed a 10% increase postprotest, while support for the temporary residence of guest workers dropped by 4%.
The LNS also showed that 75% of Latino citizens believed the passing of the bill through the House and resulting discourse would prompt more Latinos to vote. The portion of Latinos who said they thought neither political party had acceptable immigration policy also increased from the 9% reported in 2004 to 20% in the 2006 report. The effects of the immigration reform protests were felt across the United States, both in policy and public opinion.
Latino political contributions and civic engagement
Since undocumented immigrant communities were unable to vote, lobby, or influence politicians in more traditional ways, Latino leaders mobilized immigrants through non-voting activities, such as protests. Many Latinos indicated that the marches were the beginning of a new social and political movement that sought to gain civic empowerment. A report released by the Pew Hispanic Center indicated that Latinos would most likely vote in subsequent elections and The National Immigration Forum found that Latino voters were more enthusiastic to vote in 2006 due to the immigration debate, and the need to prevent legislation like HR-4437 from being approved by Congress. "Today we march, tomorrow we vote," was one of the most popular slogans during the 2006 immigrant protests. Such slogan indicated the value and need for Latino/a political contribution and recognition.
Timeline
March
March 10: 100,000 marched from Union Park to Federal Plaza in Chicago but organizers say that about 250,000- 500,000 actually marched.
March 24: 20,000 marched to Senator Jon Kyl's office in Phoenix. Tens of thousands of workers participate in a work stoppage in Georgia.
March 25: more than 500,000 (casual police estimate) march in downtown Los Angeles, but organizers claim more than 1.25 million based on photographic analysis
March 26: 7,000 people rallied at the Statehouse in Columbus, Ohio.
March 27: Hundreds of high school students walk out of class in protest in Northern Virginia .
March 29: 8,000–9,000 marched from The Coliseum to Legislative Plaza in Nashville.
March 30: Robert Pambello, the principal of Reagan High School in Houston, placed a Mexican flag below the American and Texan flags and was ordered to remove it. He later resigned from his position for apparently unrelated reasons. In South West Houston, high school students from Robert E. Lee High, Bellaire High, Sam Houston High School (joining from Houston's Northside) and other middle schoolers joined in a march that was taken to city hall.
March 31: 3,000 high school and middle school students in Las Vegas walk out of class to protest. Some college and community college students join them on their protest.
April
April 1: 10,000 marched across the Brooklyn Bridge to Foley Square in New York City.
April 6: Hundreds of Aurora, Illinois students left school to march downtown to protest.
April 8: Several hundred people rally at Chicano Park in San Diego.
April 9: Demonstrations in several cities across the United States, including:
50,000 marched in San Diego from Balboa Park, through downtown to the County Administration Building.
6,000 protested in Des Moines, Iowa at Nollen Plaza in support of comprehensive immigration reform., April 9
April 10: Demonstrations were staged in many cities and towns across the United States;
Atlanta, Georgia, at least 50,000 people rallied both for and against amnesty.
Boston, Massachusetts, approximately 2,000 demonstrators march from Boston Common to Copley Square.
Charleston, South Carolina, at least 4,000 people gathered and protested the inability of lawmakers to agree on legislation that would lead to citizenship.
Fort Myers, Florida, an estimated 75,000 people took part in "The Great March" which affected traffic in nearby areas of the march. The stream of protesters was at least a mile long at times.
Las Vegas, a well-organized march of approximately 3,000 people was held. Protesters marched two miles from Jaycee Park to the Federal Courthouse during the first day of the Clark Country Spring Break, waving Mexican and American flags alike. They protested in favor of amnesty.
New York City, between 70,000 and 125,000 people demonstrated in front of City Hall. Senators Hillary Clinton and Chuck Schumer spoke at the rally. Neither called for amnesty, though many of the crowd's signs and chants did.
Oakland, California, an estimated 10,000 people took part in the demonstration.
Salt Lake City, Utah, a unity rally was held at the City-County Building; there were an estimated 15,000 protesters.
San Jose, California, an estimated 25,000 demonstrators marched several miles from King and Story to city hall. Highway access to US 101 and I-680 was closed, causing significant traffic backups.
Seattle, between 15,000 and 25,000 marched to a rally at the federal building where speakers in support of the demonstrators, such as Mayor Greg Nickels and County Executive Ron Sims spoke. Just five thousand were expected.
April 11: Several protests occurred in Nevada.
In Las Vegas, a rally with an estimated minimum of 300+ was held at the Cashman Center; several important opposition figures showed up, such as Jim Gilchrist, the Nevada Secretary of State, local radio host Mark Edwards, and numerous state Minuteman Project branches to protest against amnesty.
In Carson City, Nevada, an estimated 200 students walked out of class, rallying in front of the Governor's Mansion.
In Reno, Nevada, between 2,000 and 4,000 protesters marched through the downtown area, from the University of Nevada, Reno campus to the Bruce R. Thompson Federal Building, and continued to a designated spot near the Meadowood Mall. Traffic was held and diverted along South Virginia Street during the march.
April 13: Students from several Woodburn, Oregon (a town with a large Hispanic community) schools marched out of class.
April 19: Students from various Denver high schools and middle schools walked out of class and marched to the capitol.
April 27: Approximately 200 volunteers and supporters built a 6 foot high, quarter mile section of barbed wire fencing along the Mexico and United States border to send a clear message to Americans and leaders in Washington regarding the lack of security at our borders.
April 28: Nuestro Himno, a Spanish language rendition of the Star Spangled Banner, is played simultaneously on about 500 Spanish language radio stations across the country. The controversy died in a few days, after it was revealed that Cuban immigrant Jon Secada had sung the anthem in Spanish at Bush inauguration ceremony , and that a Spanish version of the anthem had been commissioned by the Bureau of Education of the United States in 1919 .
May
May 1: The "Great American Boycott" takes place across the United States and at a few locations abroad.
An estimated 400,000 marched in Chicago, according to police, though organizers pegged the total at closer to 700,000; "Latinos were joined by immigrants of Polish, Irish, Asian and African descent."
An estimated 400,000 marched in Los Angeles, according to police
The boycott was said to have had "little economic impact" in Arizona
Modesto, California saw close to 10,000 people marching in the streets, possibly the largest assembly of people in the city's history. Major city streets were shut down as a direct result.
Over 15,000 protesters were reported in Santa Barbara, California.
Some supporters have hailed this as "the most important boycott since the days of the civil rights movement".
Over 100,000 marched in the Bay Area of California.
At least 10,000 marched in Orange County
A minor disturbance in Vista, California was disbursed by 200 police officers.
Local news estimates that 3,000+ people marched from Jaycee Park in Las Vegas, Nevada; some local businesses suffered but the majority of businesses felt no financial impact.
According to LA Observed, an altercation occurred between protestors and police at MacArthur Park in Los Angeles.
Thousands of immigrants and their supporters did not go to work or school in Iowa United for the Dignity and Safety of Immigrants (UDSI) (organizing group estimates)
May 2: The Minuteman Project says that 400 new members joined in April in response to the protests.
May 3: In response to the pro-immigration reform boycott, the Minutemen started a two-vehicle caravan across the United States which reached Washington, D.C., on May 12.
May 25: The United States Senate passes S. 2611 which includes a path to citizenship for up to 8.5 million illegal individuals. The bill eventually failed and was never enacted.
Legislation
H.R. 4437 (The Border Protection, Anti terrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005) was passed by the United States House of Representatives on December 16, 2005, by a vote of 239 to 182. It is also known as the "Sensenbrenner Bill", for its sponsor in the House of Representatives, Jim Sensenbrenner. H.R. 4437 was seen by many as the catalyst for the 2006 U.S. immigration reform protests.
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 previously gave "amnesty" to 2.7 million undocumented immigrants. Proponents of the measure, including then-President Reagan, said the measure, paired with stricter employer rules and a better path for legal entry, would reduce illegal immigration.
The companion bill passed by the United States Senate was S. 2611, which never passed conference committee. The House Republican leadership stated that it rejected S. 2611 wholly and would only pass legislation that addressed border security. The end of the 109th Congress marked the death of this bill.
Kennedy ruling
The USA Supreme Court on June 16, 2008, ruled in Dada v. Mukasey, per ponente Justice Kennedy ruled (5–4) "that someone who is here illegally may withdraw his voluntarily agreement to depart and continue to try to get approval to remain in the United States." The Court held that complying with a deportation order did not strip an immigrant of the right to appeal that deportation order. The lawsuit is about 2 seemingly contradictory provisions of immigration law. One prevents deportation by voluntary departure from the country. The other section allows immigrants who are here illegally but whose circumstances have changed to build their case to immigration officials, and who must remain in the US. In the case, Samson Dada, a Nigerian citizen, overstayed beyond the expiration of his tourist visa in 1998. Immigration authorities ordered him to leave the country as he agreed to leave voluntarily, but to allow his legal re-entry, unlike if he had been deported.
Organizations
The following organizations mobilized from hundreds (FAIR) to millions of people (Great American Boycott) around immigration reform in the United States during 2006.
May 1, 2006 'A Day Without Immigrant' National Mobilization Endorsers' – national coalition of 215 organizations that mobilized one million protesters across the U.S. on May 1, 2006, for the Great American Boycott.
We Are America Alliance – national network of hundreds of regional coalitions that mobilized 2 million protesters across the U.S. on April 10, 2006, and coordinated protests in the May 1 national protests
El Paro and the Day Without and Immigrant Coalition (Philadelphia Region) Philadelphia regional coalition of dozens of organizations invited and mobilized thousands of protesters in 7 marches from February 14 to April 10, 2006.
Kentucky Coalition for Immigrant and Refugee Rights – Kentucky coalition that mobilized an estimated 10,000 people in downtown Lexington, Kentucky on April 10, 2006, with other mobilizations around the state.
March 25 Coalition – Southern California-based coalition that mobilized 750,000 protesters in Los Angeles on March 25, 2006
Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) – mobilized dozens of people in various counter-protests
Minuteman Project – held sporadic counter-protests in some major US cities
Recruiting methods
Typically anti-illegal immigration movements focus on grassroots recruiting tactics; the Minutemen Civil Defense Corps and Minuteman Project use these methods to boost membership. After the 2006 immigration reform protest, anti-immigration movement participation increased by 600%.
Cooperation between anti-illegal immigration groups
Anti-illegal immigration groups often do not pursue the same agenda in the same ways; however, they do form coalitions when their agendas match other movements. One of the major joint efforts that these groups engage in is access to mailing lists for individuals who have donated money in the past to support the movement; Federation for American Immigration Reform and Minutemen Civil Defense Corps have shared lists of mailers with one another in recent years.
See also
H.R. 4437
Immigrant Nation! The Battle for the Dream, documentary movie
March 2006 LAUSD student walkouts
S. 2611
United States immigration debate
References
External links
Immigration Debate Resources – A website with education facts concerning the immigration debate
Conflicts in 2006
Immigration reform protests
Immigrant rights activism
Civil disobedience
Immigration to the United States
Mexican-American history
Protests in the United States
United States immigration reform
Protest marches in Chicago
Immigration-related protests
Hispanic and Latino American-related controversies |
4538473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani%20society%20and%20culture | Romani society and culture | The Romani people are a distinct ethnic and cultural group of peoples living all across the globe, who share a family of languages and sometimes a traditional nomadic mode of life. Though their exact origins are unclear, central India is a notable point of origin. Their language shares a common origin with, and is similar to, modern-day Gujarati and Rajasthani, borrowing loan words from other languages as they migrated from India. In Europe, even though their culture has been victimized by other cultures, they have still found a way to maintain their heritage and society. Indian elements in Romani culture are almost non-existent, with the exception of their language. Romani culture focuses heavily on family. The Roma traditionally live according to relatively strict moral codes.
Origins
Linguistic and phonological research has traced the Roma people's origin to places in the Indian subcontinent. Many report in extracts from popular literature that Romani emerged from the North-west regions of India, rather than from Central India. Features of phonological developments which emerged during the early transition stage from Old to Middle Indic prove that the history of Romani began in Central India. The Romani language shares many features with the Central Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi and Rajasthani; it also shares connections with Northern Indo-Aryan languages like Kashmiri, and the language itself contains a cluster of Persian and Arabic words. Linguists use these phonological similarities as well as features of phonological developments which emerged during the early transition stage from Old Sanskrit to Middle Indic Prakrit to conclude that the history of Romani began in Central India.
Another legend described the Persian king Bahram V, who took musicians from India to Iran at A.D. 420–438, then wandered over the Silk Road to Europe. Some believe the Roma are their descendants.
Names
The Romani people are today found across the world. Typically, Roma adopt given names that are common in the country of their residence. Seldom do modern Roma use the traditional name from their own language, such as . Romanes is the only Indo-Aryan language that has been spoken exclusively around Europe since the Middle Ages. Speakers use many terms for their language. They generally refer to their language as or translated as 'the Romani language', or , 'in a Rom way'. The English term, Romani, has been used by scholars since the 19th century, where previously they had used the term 'Gypsy language'.
Family and life stages
Traditionally, Roma place a high value on the extended family.
Marriage and controversies
Marriage in Romani society underscores the importance of family and demonstrates ties between different groups, often transnationally. Traditionally an arranged marriage is highly desirable. It is custom for the parents of the groom to pay the family of the daughter. Parents of the potential bridal couple help identify an ideal partner for their child. Parents may pressure a particular spouse on their child, because it is an established norm to be married by your mid-twenties. School, church, Mosques, circumcision ceremonies, fiancée and weddings, and other events are also popular environments for finding a prospective spouse. Potential couples are expected to be supervised or chaperoned by an adult. With the emergence of both social media such as Facebook and mobile phones, and the advancing education of women, many traditional mores and conservative views have become less rigid. In some Romani groups, for example the Finnish Roma, the idea of a legally registered marriage is ignored altogether.
The Romani practice of child marriage has generated substantial controversy across the world. In 2003, one of the many self-styled Romani "kings", Ilie Tortică, prohibited marriage before the parties were of legal age in their country of residence. A Romani patriarch, Florin Cioabă, ran afoul of Romanian authorities in late 2003 when he married off his youngest daughter, Ana-Maria, at the age of twelve, well below the legal marriageable age.
Bride kidnapping (not to be confused with the Romanian bride kidnapping tradition) is believed to be a traditional part of Romani practice. Girls as young as twelve years old may be kidnapped for marriage to teenage boys. This practice has been reported in Ireland, England, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Slovakia. Bride kidnapping is thought to be a way to avoid a bride price or a means for a girl to marry a boy she wants but that her parents do not want. The tradition's normalisation of kidnapping puts young women at higher risk of becoming victims of human trafficking.
The practices of bride kidnapping and child marriage are not universally accepted throughout Romani culture. Some Romani women and men seek to eliminate such customs.
The Muslim Roma adopted the Islamic marital practices
Romani mothers breastfeed their children for optimal health and increased immunity. They also view this as a gift from God, and a help to building healthy relationships between mothers and children.
Feud
The blood revenge, blood feud or vendetta is an old form of private vengeance, which is usually intended to restore Romani family honor by killing an opponent. It only occurs after serious damage to honor, such as the killing itself, which no other damage compensation within the feud can do justice to.
Purity and death
Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of menstruating women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are washed in a different place.
Childbirth is considered "impure" and must occur outside the dwelling place; the mother is considered "impure" for 40 days.
The Muslim Roma (Horahane) in the Balkans adopted the Islamic culture during the Ottoman Empire period, and so did the Ritual purity in Islam.
Childraising
Christian Romani people incorporate their values into how they raise their children. There is an element of impurity placed upon both the mother and father after the mother gives birth. This impurity is lessened if the child is a male and the family is considered "lucky". Traditionally, the couple will live with the father of the groom until their first child is born. Romani people place high value on extended family so godparents, along with this other family, are active in the child's life to ensure its well-being.
Moral values
The culture and tradition of Dasikane (Christian) Roma and Horahane (Muslim) Roma is very different. There is no single roma culture or tradition, it differs from country, subgroups and religion.
(also , , , , , ) is a concept of Romani philosophy encompassing totality of the Romani spirit, culture, law, being a Rom, a set of Romani strains.
An ethnic Rom is considered to be a Roma in Romani society if the person has no . Sometimes a , usually an adopted child, may be considered to be a Rom if the person has . As a concept, has been the subject of interest to numerous academic observers. It has been hypothesized that it owes more to a framework of culture than simply an adherence to historically received rules.
Significant changes in Romani culture following the Second World War have been attributed to the suspension of these social norms, as strict rules relating to food and contact with certain classes of people broke down. This period also coincided with a perceived loss of authority invested in traditional leaders, the primary maintainers of . Furthermore, the Roma who found themselves under Soviet control during the war, while deported to the east of the Urals and often persecuted, were generally left alone to follow their orthodox practices and thus preserved strict interpretations of . However, the Roma who lived in other countries of eastern Europe, in the face of widespread discrimination and society's attempts at forced assimilation, often had to compromise their strict interpretation of the customs to survive. As a result, the whole concept of became interpreted differently among various Roma groups. Muslim Roma, as one example, considered an uncircumcised man to be impure.
Being a part of Romani society
A considerable punishment for a Christian Rom is banishment from Romani society. An expelled person is considered to be "contaminated" and is shunned by other Christian Romanis.
Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians like the Turcoman Gypsies and Crimean Roma are not part of the Romani society due to the lack of Romanipen and the Romani language.
Romani Code
Romani Code, or , is the most important part of . It is a set of rules for Romani life. It differs from Groups and Religions.
Though Romani ethnic groups have different sets of rules, Oral Romani cultures are most likely to adhere to the Romani code, these communities are geographically spread. There are proverbs about the Romani Code and customs, such as:
There exist as many customs as there are Romani groups. ( in Ruska Roma's dialect)
Rules of Romani Code describe relationships inside the Romani community and set limits for customs, behavior and other aspects of life.
The Romani Code is not written; Romani people keep it alive in oral tradition.
The is a traditional institution for upholding and enforcing the Romani Code.
The code can be summarised in pillars; the main pillar representing the polar ideas of (, ) meaning 'honour' and (or , , ) meaning 'shame'.
It is honourable, in some Romani cultures, to celebrate by being generous and displaying your success to the public. The focus on generosity means sharing food is of great importance to some groups of Roma. Making lavish meals to share with other Romani visitors is commonplace and in some cases not having food to share is considered shameful.
Faith and religion
The vast majority of Roma are Christians. They are Catholic Manouche, Mercheros, and Sinti; Muslim Ashkali and Romanlar; Pentecostal Kalderash and Lovari; Protestant Travellers; Anglican Roma; and Baptist Roma. The Roma's religious beliefs are occupied by God and Virgin Mary.
Hinduism
While in India, the ancestors of the Romani people followed the Hindu religion. This theory is supported by the Romani word for 'cross', , which is the word which describes Shiva's trident (Trishul). A Hindu foundation means that the concept of , a universal balance, is central to the people's spirituality. means that all things belong in the universe according to their natural place. If something does not fit into its natural place, it is considered to be out of balance, and therefore bad luck. For example, birds are supposed to fly, so flightless birds like hens are considered to be out of balance and bad luck. For this reason, Christian Roma traditionally do not eat hens' eggs. With the exception of the Muslim Roma, who eat eggs, even have special recipes for it.
Dasikane Roma
In Balkan Romani an Orthodox Christian Roma is named Dasikane or Daskane or Das, the meaning is sometimes given as a slave or servant.
Deities and saints
Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla is considered a patron saint of the Romani people in Roman Catholicism. Virgin of Hope of Macarena is considered a patron saint of the Spanish Gypsies.
Saint Sarah, or Kali Sara, has been revered as a patron saint in the same manner as the Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla, but a transition occurred in the 21st century, whereby Kali Sara is understood as an Indian deity brought by the refugee ancestors of the Romani people, thereby removing any Christian association. Saint Sarah is progressively being considered as "a Romani goddess, the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India". The Roma pilgrimage for the dark-skinned Saint Sara in Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer is said to have possibly been the Egyptian servant of the three Marys. The day of the pilgrimage honouring Sarah is May 24; her statue is carried down to the sea on this day to re-enact her arrival in France.
Christian Roma ceremonies and practices
Roma often adopt the dominant religion of their host country if a ceremony associated with a formal religious institution is necessary, such as a baptism or funeral (their particular belief systems and indigenous religion and worship remain preserved regardless of such adoption processes). Some Roma continue to practice "Shaktism", a practice with origins in India, whereby a female consort is required for the worship of a god. Adherence to this practice means that for the Romani who worship a Christian God, prayer is conducted through the Virgin Mary, or her mother, Saint Anne. Shaktism continues over 1,000 years after the people's separation from India.
Romani elders serve as spiritual leaders; there are no specific Christian Roma priests, churches, or Christian Roma scriptures, the exception being the Pentecostal Roma, most in Western society.
Within the United Kingdom, a large proportion of British Roma (40% by some estimates) are members of Light and Life, a Charismatic Pentecostal Christian movement.
Burial of the foreskin
It is a custom among Muslim Roma that the foreskin must be buried after Sunet Bijav, (Religious male circumcision ceremony). They believe the foreskin will come back to men in Paradise (Jannah), based a Hadith from Sahih al-Bukhari 6524: The Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi wa Sallam) said: "You will be raised on the Day of Judgement barefooted, naked, and uncircumcized (with foreskin)." Burying the foreskin is also a tradition among Malaysian Muslims.
Balkan Roma Muslims
Balkan Roma Muslims are mostly cultural Muslims or nominal Muslims. For the Muslim Romani communities that have resided in the Balkans for centuries, often referred to as Horahane Roma or "Turkish Gypsies", all Muslim Roma got a Religious male circumcision, the following histories apply for religious beliefs:
Bulgaria: In northwestern Bulgaria and Sofia and Kyustendil, Islam has been the dominant religion. In southwestern Bulgaria (Pirin Macedonia), Islam is the dominant religion, with a smaller section of the population, declaring themselves as "Turks", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.
Romania: Muslim Roma Minority at the Dobruja.
Greece: Muslim Roma in Western Thrace.
Albania: Albania's Romani people are all Muslims.
Macedonia: The majority of Romani people believe in Islam.
Serbia: in the disputed territory of Kosovo the vast majority of the Romani population is Muslim.
Bosnia, Montenegro and Herzegovina: Islam is the dominant religion.
Croatia: Following World War II, a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia (the majority moved from Kosovo).
In the Balkans, the Roma of North Macedonia and southern Serbia, including the disputed territory of Kosovo, have been particularly active in Islamic mystical brotherhoods (Sufism)—Muslim Roma immigrants to Western Europe and America have brought these traditions with them.
Other regions
Ukraine and Russia contain Romani Muslim populations, as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live there. The descendants' ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but most descendants migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align themselves with, and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity.
Most Eastern European Roma are Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or Muslim. Those in Western Europe and the United States are mostly Roman Catholic or Protestant. In southern Spain, many Roma are Pentecostal, but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times. In Egypt, the Roma are split into Christian and Muslim populations. For countless years, dance has been considered a religious procedure for the Egyptian Roma. In Turkey, the Romani people are Muslim and the males are circumcised, while the majority of Roma in Latin America have maintained their European religions, with most following Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Evangelicalism
Since World War II, a growing number of Roma have embraced Evangelical movements. For the first time, Roma became ministers and created their own, autonomous churches and missionary organizations. In some countries, the majority of Roma belong to Romani churches. This unexpected change has greatly contributed to a better image of Roma in society. The work they perform is seen as more legitimate, and they have begun to obtain legal permits for commercial activities.
Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism linked to the Dalit Buddhist movement of B.R. Ambedkar has spread among European Roma, particularly in Hungary, although it is still a minority.
Dance
Romani dances are influenced by Indian dances. A Romani dance that originated from India is the snake dance. Romani women perform the sapera dance with a cobra to awakened their reptilian powers, mantras and to curse menacing victims forever.
Belly dance is performed by the Romani people in Turkey
Music
As the Roma traveled to other countries from India to Europe, the Roma introduced many influences in their music, beginning with their Indian roots and adding elements of Greek, Persian, Turkish, Romanian, Czech and Slavic influence, as well as Western European such as German, French and Spanish influences.
The lăutari who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Roma, although their music draws heavily from a vast variety of ethnic traditions—for example Romanian, Turkish, Jewish, and Slavic—as well as Romani traditions. Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performer in the lăutari tradition is Taraful Haiducilor. Zdob şi Zdub, one of the most prominent rock bands in Moldova, although not Roma themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do Spitalul de Urgenţă in Romania.
Flamenco music and dance came from the Roma in Spain; the distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, and Cante Jondo in Europe. European-style Gypsy jazz is still widely practised among the original creators (the Romani People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was Django Reinhardt.
Belly dancing Is a form of dance invented by The domari of egypt or as they're called there, Ghawazi, however it was originally seen as "ghetto" and "low class" until the native egyptians and the europeans saw it and emulated it. Nowadays there are very few original ghawazi dancers due to the exile and expulsions and discrimination which caused many to go out of work and emigrate.
Classical music
Romani music is very important in Eastern European cultures such as Hungary, Russia, and Romania. Performance practices by Romani musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms.
Language
The Romani language is spoken by millions of Romani people throughout the world. It is of the Indo-Aryan branch. Many Romani people can speak two or more languages. It is not considered an official language because it varies from tribe to tribe.
Observances
Each June, Gypsy Roma Traveller History Month is celebrated in London. International Romani Day is a holiday celebrated in Europe, especially in Budapest, Bulgaria, Romania and Eastern Europe, on April 8. World Roma Festival is a festival celebrated in Prague. Ederlezi and Kakava are holidays celebrated in spring by the Turkish Roma.
Romani Christians celebrate Christmas on December 25th and Easter in either April or May.
Romani adults may also fast on these holidays and may eat special foods for these holidays.
Theatre, circus and cinema
There exist four well-known Romani theatres in the world, Romen Theatre, Romance Theatre, Romanothan and Phralipe, and also many small theatres.
Museums
Museum of Romani Culture is located in Brno in the Czech Republic.
Cuisine
Romani people don’t eat food prepared by a non-Roma.
Horse meat is forbidden by Christian Roma. Any Christian Roma who eats horse meat, are punished and banished from their tribe. Cat meat and dog meat are also forbidden and are considered unclean.
Christian Romani tea is similar to Russian tea and stuffed cabbage is popular among the Roma. Berries, vegetables, mushrooms, hedgehog, game and fowl are favored by the Roma.
The Muslim Roma (Horahane) in the Balkans adopted the Islamic culture during the Ottoman Empire period.
There is a Romani restaurant called Romani Kafenava in Maribor, Slovenia. Rabbit stew is a Romani favorite. Other Romani dishes are fried bread dishes, including xaritsa (fried cornbread), pufe (fried wheat bread) and bogacha (baked bread). A Romani dessert is pirogo, a sweet noodle casserole similar to Jewish kugel made with raisins, cream cheese, and butter.
Medicine
Romanian Roma uses parsley leaves to heal bruises. Roma suffering from illness often seek treatment from a Romani doctor, a elderly Roma who uses traditional medicines such as herbs. Roma refuse to seek medical help from non-Roma and use healers, magic, prayer or herbal remedies for illnesses. A drabarni is a Romani female healer.
Fashion
Turkish Roma wear Ottoman pants whereas as Christian Roma wear long skirts.
In most traditional Romani communities, Romani women tend to wear gold bracelets and gold necklaces and headscarves that are decorated with golden coins.
Literature
Romani literature is written by Romani people.
Superstitions
Romani culture is steeped in superstition. Many Roma hold on to belief in charms, amulets, curses, bad luck, and ghosts.
Folklore
Romani people have their own ethnic hero. Among the Vlach Roma, it is Mundro Salamon or Wise Solomon. Other Romani groups call this hero O Godjiaver Yanko. Among the Welsh Kale, he is Merlinos (the Wizard), taken from Celtic folklore.
Fortune-telling
A stereotype that Romani people have psychic powers (e.g. fortune-teller) is still sometimes present, and some romantics attribute the invention of the Tarot cards to them.
Relations with other people
Because of their nomadic lifestyle and differences in language and culture, Roma and their more settled neighbours have held each other in distrust. The popular image of Roma as tramps and thieves unfit for work contributed to their widespread persecution. This belief is often cited as the etymological source of the term gyp, meaning to "cheat", as in "I got gypped by a con man."
There are still tensions between Roma and the majority population around them. Common complaints are that Roma steal and live off social welfare and residents often reject Romani encampments. This has led to Roma being described as "perhaps the most hated minority in Europe." In the UK, travellers (referring to both Irish Travellers and Roma) became a 2005 general election issue, with Michael Howard, the then-leader of the Conservative Party promising to review the Human Rights Act 1998. This law, which absorbs the European Convention on Human Rights into UK primary legislation, is seen by some to permit the granting of retrospective planning permission for Romani communities. Severe population pressures and the paucity of greenfield sites have led to travellers purchasing land and setting up residential settlements almost overnight, thus subverting the planning restrictions imposed on other members of the community. Travellers argued in response that thousands of retrospective planning permissions are granted in Britain in cases involving non-Romani applicants each year and that statistics showed that 90% of planning applications by Roma and travellers were initially refused by local councils, compared with a national average of 20% for other applicants, potentially disproving claims of preferential treatment favouring Roma. They also argued that the root of the problem was that many traditional stopping-places had been barricaded off and that legislation passed by the previous Conservative government had effectively criminalised their communities by removing local authorities' responsibility to provide sites, thus leaving the travellers with no option but to purchase unregistered new sites themselves.
Law enforcement agencies in the United States hold regular conferences on the Roma and similar nomadic groups.
In Denmark, there was much controversy when the city of Helsingør decided to put all Romani students in special classes in its public schools. The classes were later abandoned after it was determined that they were discriminatory and the Romani students were put back in regular classes.
Romani people have traditionally avoided gadje because non-Romani are believed to be polluting and defile the Romani world.
The Greek Doctor A. G. Paspati made the statement in his Book from 1860, that Turks married often Roma Woman, and the Rumelian Romani dialect is nearly lost by the Muslim Turkish Roma, who speak entirely Turkish.
Ernest Gilliat-Smith, explained in 1915, that this Turkish Roma in Bulgaria can't speak Romani language, and compare them with very poor Turks rather than Romani people. The French orientalist Henri Bourgeois referred too the Turkish Roma as Pseudo Chingiane, especially the newspaper Laço who was published in 1910 by Emin Resa.
Roma in Eastern Europe
In Eastern Europe, Roma often live in depressed squatter communities with very high unemployment, while only some are fully integrated in the society. However, in some cases—notably the Kalderash clan in Romania, who work as traditional coppersmiths—they have prospered. Although some Roma still embrace a nomadic lifestyle, most migration is actually forced, as most communities do not accept Romani settlements. However, each year in May approximately 10,000 to 15,000 Romani people go on a pilgrimage to Les-Saintes-Marie-de-la-Mer in Southern France. Roma arrive in caravans for celebrations, weddings and religious ceremonies.
Many countries that were formerly part of the Eastern bloc and former Yugoslavia have substantial populations of Roma. The level of integration of Roma into society remains limited. In these countries, they usually remain on the margins of society, living in isolated, ghetto-like settlements (see Chánov). Only a small fraction of Romani children graduate from secondary schools, though numerous official efforts have been made, past and present, to compel their attendance. Roma frequently feel rejected by the state and the main population, creating another obstacle to their integration. The Muslim Roma (Horahane) in the Balkans adopted the Islamic culture during the Ottoman Empire period.
In the Czech Republic, 75% of Romani children are educated in schools for people with learning difficulties and 70% are unemployed, compared with a national rate of 9%. In Hungary, 44% of Romani children are in special schools, while 74% of men and 83% of women are unemployed. In Slovakia, Romani children are 28 times more likely to be sent to a special school than non-Roma, whilst Romani unemployment stands at 80%.
In 2004, Lívia Járóka and Viktória Mohácsi of Hungary became the two current Romani Members of the European Parliament. The first Romani MEP was Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia of Spain.
Seven former Communist Central European and Southeastern European states launched the Decade of Roma Inclusion initiative in 2005 to improve the socioeconomic conditions and status of the Romani minority.
See also
Flag of the Romani people
Gadjo (non-Romani)
Museum of Romani Culture
Rom baro (tribal leader)
Romani dress
Romani folklore
Romani studies
Romani cuisine
References
External links
A Roma Journey—explores Romani culture in the Balkans and beyond, including digitised texts, photographs, paintings and recordings of traditional songs.
Gypsy law by Peter T. Leeson ()
The Economics of Gypsies—Freakonomics
Romani Lives—Lungo Drom
Mention of romanipe as being a Rom
Roma culture and traditions: the ROMANIPEN
Mention of romanipe as the Romani Code
Mention of romanipe as Romani culture
Mention of romanipe as being a Rom
Romowie - bliscy i dalecy. A short definition of romanipe in the text
Romanipen-sistemul valorilor rome—BBC News |
4538610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886%20in%20baseball | 1886 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
National League: Chicago White Stockings
American Association: St. Louis Browns
World Series
St. Louis Browns 4, Chicago White Stockings 2
Minor League Baseball
Eastern League: Newark
International League: Utica
New England League: Portland
Northwestern League: Duluth
Western League: Denver
College baseball
Inter-Collegiate Association: Yale University
Major League Baseball final standings
National League final standings
American Association final standings
Statistical leaders
National League statistical leaders
American Association statistical leaders
All-Time Statistical Leaders (Strikeouts)
The 1886 season was memorable as the top two all-time Major League Baseball single season strikeout totals were established that year:
Notable seasons
Guy Hecker of the Louisville Colonels not only compiled a 26–23 record with a 2.87 Earned Run Average as the Colonels number 2 pitcher, he also won the American Association batting crown with a .341 average. Hecker remains the only pitcher to ever win a batting title.
Matt Kilroy of the Baltimore Orioles throws 4 2-hitters, 3 1-hitters and a no-hitter in his rookie season in 1886. Kilroy also sets the single season major league record with 513 strikeouts.
Jocko Flynn of the Chicago White Stockings goes 23–6 in his rookie season in 1886. Flynn develops arm trouble and never pitches again in the major leagues. His 23 wins are still a record for a pitcher who only pitched in 1 season.
Events
January–March
January 4 – St. Louis Browns owner Chris von der Ahe sells the reserve rights of Sam Barkley to the Pittsburgh Alleghenys for $1,000. von der Ahe had previously sold the rights to the Baltimore Orioles on December 24, 1885 but had not received payment from Baltimore. Barkley, in the interim, had already signed a contract with Baltimore. The resulting power struggle within the American Association to resolve the situation would lead to the ouster of league president, Denny McKnight.
January 16 – The Washington Nationals are admitted to the National League.
February 5 – The lawsuit brought by Fred Thayer and George Wright against Albert Spalding and his Spalding sporting goods company for infringement upon Thayer's patent rights to the catching mask goes to trial. Spalding will be forced to pay royalties to Thayer and Wright when the case is settled.
February 9 – The Kansas City Cowboys are admitted to the National League for a one-year trial. This brings the NL back to 8 teams for 1886.
February 27 – The Cincinnati Red Stockings of the American Association is sold by Aaron Stern to Louis Huack, a wealthy brewer and banker.
March 2 – The American Association meets, overruling its own president Denny McKnight, and suspends Sam Barkley for signing with the Pittsburgh Alleghenys after he had already signed with the Baltimore Orioles.
March 2 – The American Association reduces the number of balls needed for a walk to six and adopts the stolen base as an official statistic.
March 4 – The National League makes the stolen base an official statistic as well but keeps the number of balls for a walk at seven.
March 5 – In breaking from official league policy, the National League allows the St. Louis Maroons and the Philadelphia Quakers to drop their ticket prices to 25¢. The removal of the 50¢ requirement for those teams is due to competing teams from the American Association in their respective cities.
March 17 – The Sporting News, founded by Alfred H. Spink, publishes its first issue. It will quickly become the leading source of baseball information in the country.
March 22 – The American Association removes Denny McKnight as president due to his handling of the Sam Barkley incident. Wheeler Wikoff is selected as his replacement.
April–June
April 13 – The American Association resolves the Sam Barkley case by allowing Barkley to play for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys and sending Milt Scott from Pittsburgh to the Baltimore Orioles as compensation for losing Barkley. Additionally, the St. Louis Browns are allowed to keep the $1,000 they received from Pittsburgh for Barkley's reserve rights.
April 16 – The final exhibition games between various National League and American Association teams are played with the AA holding a 19–16 advantage over the NL in the games played.
April 19 – Wilbert Robinson makes his major league debut with the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association. Robinson will remain in the majors as a player, coach or manager through 1931.
April 22 – The New York Metropolitans open their new 5,000-seat stadium, the St. George Cricket Grounds. The new park boasts illuminated fountains, with an amusement park and restaurants next to it.
April 29 – The New York World prints woodcuts of live action photographs taken during a game.
April 30 – The first National League game is played in Kansas City, Missouri. The Cowboys lose to the Chicago White Stockings 6–5 in 13 innings as the game is "broadcast" in Chicago by using a baseball stadium diagram and player transparencies.
May 1 – Al Atkinson throws a no-hitter for the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association. It is the 2nd no-hitter in Atkinson's career.
May 2 – The game between the Brooklyn Grays and the Philadelphia Athletics is called as a 19–19 tie after eight innings due to darkness.
May 3 – Pat Dealy of the Boston Beaneaters sets a National League record by allowing 10 passed balls, while pitcher Bill Stemmeyer throws 5 wild pitches in a 12–11 loss.
May 17 – Jim Gifford is fired as manager of the American Association New York Metropolitans and is replaced by AA umpire Bob Ferguson.
May 24 – St. Louis Maroons second baseman Fred Dunlap hits for the cycle in an 11–8 loss to the New York Giants.
May 31 – The first crowd in major league history of over 20,000 (20,632) watches the Detroit Wolverines win 4–1 against the New York Giants at the Polo Grounds.
June 3 – St. Louis Browns teammates Arlie Latham and Doc Bushong are each fined $100 for a fist fight between the two during a Brown's game in Baltimore.
June 4 – Tony Mullane of the Cincinnati Red Stockings gives more ammunition to those suspicious of him throwing games when he gives up 12 runs in the last 2 innings after 7 shutout innings in a 12–7 loss to the Brooklyn Grays.
June 12 – Charlie Sweeney of the St. Louis Maroons sets the major league record by allowing 7 home runs in 1 game in a 14–7 loss to the Detroit Wolverines.
June 18 – The Cincinnati Enquirer publishes a letter it has received accusing Tony Mullane of throwing games on the Red Stockings previous road trip. When the writer fails to produce evidence after being challenged, Mullane is exonerated by the team.
June 26 – George Stovey makes his professional league debut in the Eastern League with the Jersey City Jerseys.
July–September
July 5 – Fred Carroll of the Pittsburgh Alleghenys sets a major league record with 9 hits in a doubleheader.
July 5 – The Louisville Colonels suspend Pete Browning for a month due to Browning playing in games while drunk.
July 8 – Jumbo McGinnis of the St. Louis Browns, making only his 10th start of the season, shuts out the Baltimore Orioles 10–0. Hours later, McGinnis is sold to the Orioles.
July 9 – Joe Start, one of baseball's original stars, plays in the final game of his career. The 43-year-old veteran played in the original season of the National Association in 1871, although his playing days as an amateur started before the American Civil War.
July 24 – Adonis Terry of the Brooklyn Grays pitches a no-hitter against the St. Louis Browns.
July 27 – The Brotherhood of Professional Base-Ball Players, led by John Montgomery Ward, publicly announces its existence. The Brotherhood boasts chapters in virtually every major league city. This group will be behind the formation of the Players' League in 1890.
July 29 – Tom Ramsey of the Louisville Colonels throws a 1-hitter against the Baltimore Orioles, allowing only a supposed single to Pat O'Connell leading off the first inning. Curiously, though The Baltimore Sun and Louisville Courier both report the game as a no-hitter, Ramsey is officially credited with a 1-hitter.
July 31 – Tom Ramsey of the Louisville Colonels pitches his 2nd consecutive 1-hitter, striking out 16 in a 2–1 win over the Baltimore Orioles. It also marks the 3rd time in 4 games that the Colonels have 1-hit the Orioles as Dave Foutz had also thrown a 1-hitter against them on July 28.
August 8
The St. Louis Maroons sell second baseman Fred Dunlap to the Detroit Wolverines for $4,700, prompting rumors that the Maroons are about to disband.
Louisville Colonels outfielder Pete Browning hits for the cycle in an 11–6 win over the New York Metropolitans.
August 14 – John Clarkson of the Chicago White Stockings beats the St. Louis Maroons for the 17th consecutive game, a record which still stands.
August 15 – Guy Hecker of the Louisville Colonels pitches a 4-hitter in a 22–5 win over the Baltimore Orioles. More impressively, Hecker gets 6 hits and scores 7 runs in the game which sets a major league record. 3 of Heckers hits are inside the park home runs, another major league record that will be tied in 1897. In addition, it gives Hecker 17 hits in his last 4 games, another major league record that has since been tied. Hecker's 15 total bases for the game also set a record that will be broken in 1894.
August 16 – 1 day after pitcher Guy Hecker's hitting exhibition, St. Louis Brown hurler Bob Caruthers provides his own offensive fireworks by becoming the first pitcher to have 4 extra-base hits in one game by smacking a double, triple and 2 home runs in a game he loses 11–9 after allowing 10 runs in the 8th inning. Caruthers will not only go on to win 30 games in 1886, he will also lead the American Association in slugging percentage and on-base percentage.
August 20 – Matt Kilroy of the Baltimore Orioles defeats Cyclone Miller of the Philadelphia Athletics 1–0 in a game in which both pitchers had a 1-hitter.
August 21 – Jack Rowe of the Detroit Wolverines hits for the cycle in an 8–6 win over the Kansas City Cowboys.
September 10 – Dan Brouthers smacks 3 home runs to go along with a single and double and ties the record for 15 total bases in 1 game. Despite Brouthers' heroics, his 2nd place Detroit Wolverines lose to the league leading Chicago White Stockings 14–8.
September 11 – Connie Mack makes his major league debut with the Washington Nationals.
September 15 – The St. Louis Browns clinch their 2nd consecutive pennant in the American Association with a 4–3 victory over the Brooklyn Grays.
September 23
Pud Galvin walks all 3 batters he faces in one inning in a game against the Brooklyn Grays. Galvin escapes the potential jam by picking all 3 runners off of first base in succession.
Third baseman Chippy McGarr of the Philadelphia Athletics hits for the cycle in a 15–6 win over the St. Louis Browns.
September 24 – Looking to possibly jump from the American Association to the National League, the Pittsburgh Alleghenys play an exhibition game against the Chicago White Stockings and defeat them 10–3.
September 25 – St. Louis Browns owner Chris von der Ahe challenges Albert Spalding and his Chicago White Stockings to a post-season series.
September 30 – The Chicago White Stockings accept the challenge issued by the St. Louis Browns to play a World Championship Series. The teams agree on a best-of-7 game format with the winner taking the entire gate money from the series.
October–December
October 6 – Matt Kilroy of the Baltimore Orioles pitches a no-hitter against the Pittsburgh Alleghenys.
October 8 – Lady Baldwin of the Detroit Wolverines wins his 42nd game of the season, a National League record which still stands for a left-handed pitcher.
October 9 – The Chicago White Stockings clinch the National League pennant by beating the Boston Beaneaters 12–3.
October 18 – The Chicago White Stockings win game 1 of the World Championship Series with a 6–0 win over the St. Louis Browns.
October 19 – The St. Louis Browns even the series with a 12–0 romp over the Chicago White Stockings. Bob Caruthers pitches a 1-hitter in the win and Tip O'Neill becomes the first player to hit 2 home runs in a post-season game.
October 20 – The White Stockings beat the Browns 11–4 to take a 2–1 advantage in the series.
October 21 – The Browns tie the series at 2–2 with an 8–5 win over the White Stockings.
October 22 – With Jim McCormick and Jocko Flynn hurt and John Clarkson tired, the White Stockings are forced to use position players to pitch and the Browns take full advantage, winning easily 10–3 to take a 3–2 lead in the series.
October 23 – The St. Louis Browns win the World Championship Series with a 4–3 win over the Chicago White Stockings. Chicago pitcher John Clarkson, pitching his 4th game in 6 days, holds St. Louis hitless for 6 innings as Chicago takes a 3–0 lead. The Browns tie the game with 3 runs in the 8th inning and win it in the bottom of the 10th when Curt Welch scores on a wild pitch in what became known as "the $15,000 slide". The Browns win the entire gate receipts from the series which total $13,920, with each St. Louis player receiving roughly $580 for the championship.
November 12 – The first trade ever of two reserve players takes place as the St. Louis Browns send Hugh Nicol and cash to the Cincinnati Red Stockings for Jack Boyle.
November 16 – The joint rules committee between the National League and the American Association announce the new rules for the 1887 season which include 5 balls for a walk, 4 strikes for an out, the batter calling for pitch location being abolished and establishing a strike zone between the knees and shoulders of the batter. The pitcher can now only take 1 forward step in his pitching delivery and by changing the dimensions of the pitcher's box, the pitching distance is now at 55½ feet.
November 18 – The National League officially admits the Pittsburgh Alleghenys who jump from the American Association. The Alleghenys made a reported profit of $160,000 in 1886 and finished 2nd in the AA, making the decision a fairly easy one for the NL.
November 22 – The American Association admits the Cleveland Blues to take the place of the Pittsburgh Alleghenys, who had jumped to the National League.
November 26 – Albert Spalding of the National League champion Chicago White Stockings sells his 2nd starter within a week in his attempt to rid the team of players who drink alcohol.
December 15 – The American Association adopts a rule that allows a club to reserve a player for as long it wishes, rather than for just one year as had previously been the case.
Births
January 26 – Hick Cady
March 6 – Bill Sweeney
March 13 – Frank Baker
April 6 – Smokey Joe Williams
April 7 – Ed Lafitte
April 23 – Harry Coveleski
May 2 – Larry Cheney
May 13 – Larry Gardner
May 13 – Frank Miller
May 24 – Hi Jasper
June 10 – Jack Graney
July 26 – Roy Witherup
July 31 – Larry Doyle
August 7 – Bill McKechnie
September 9 – Dots Miller
September 20 – Eustaquio Pedroso
October 9 – Rube Marquard
October 5 – Bill Steele
October 6 – Scotty Barr
October 23 – Lena Blackburne
October 26 – Swede Carlstrom
November 9 – Nick Maddox
November 17 – Fred Beck
December 11 – Joe Riggert
December 18 – Ty Cobb
December 19 – Doc McMahon
December 25 – Morrie Rath
Deaths
January 30 – Jim Hall, age unknown, played 2nd base for the Brooklyn Atlantics.
February 13 – Fred Warner, 30?, utility man who played for 6 different teams from 1875 to 1884.
March 4 – Tom Lee, 23, pitcher in in both the National League and Union Association.
May 21 – David Lenz, 35, played 4 games in for the Brooklyn Eckfords.
June 4 – Jim Ward, 31, played in 1 game for the Philadelphia Athletics in , catching and going 2–4 at the plate.
June 27 – George Creamer, 30?, second baseman for four teams who led league in fielding with Pittsburgh in his final season.
July 11 – Denny Driscoll, 30, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in 1882–1883 and led the American Association with a 1.21 Earned Run Average in .
August 9 – Bill Smith, 26, played in 1 game for the Cleveland Blues in .
August 20 – Dick Blaisdell, 24, pitched three games in for the Kansas City Cowboys in the Union Association.
September 22 – Tom Oran, 39?, outfielder for the short-lived St. Louis Red Stockings in 1875.
October 30 – Bernie Graham, 26?, outfielder for the Baltimore Monumentals of the Union Association in .
References
General references
Inline citations
External links
1886 National League season at Baseball-Reference.com
1886 American Association season at Baseball-Reference.com
Charlton's Baseball Chronology at BaseballLibrary.com
Year by Year History at Baseball-Almanac.com
Retrosheet.org |
4538945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency%20of%20Dwight%20D.%20Eisenhower | Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower | Dwight D. Eisenhower's tenure as the 34th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1953, and ended on January 20, 1961. Eisenhower, a Republican from Kansas, took office following a landslide victory over Democrat Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election. John F. Kennedy succeeded him after winning the 1960 presidential election.
Eisenhower held office during the Cold War, a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. Eisenhower's New Look policy stressed the importance of nuclear weapons as a deterrent to military threats, and the United States built up a stockpile of nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons delivery systems during Eisenhower's presidency. Soon after taking office, Eisenhower negotiated an end to the Korean War, resulting in the partition of Korea. Following the Suez Crisis, Eisenhower promulgated the Eisenhower Doctrine, strengthening U.S. commitments in the Middle East. In response to the Cuban Revolution, the Eisenhower administration broke ties with Cuba and began preparations for an invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, eventually resulting in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. Eisenhower also allowed the Central Intelligence Agency to engage in covert actions, such as the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état.
In domestic affairs, Eisenhower supported a policy of "modern Republicanism" that occupied a middle ground between liberal Democrats and the conservative wing of the Republican Party. Eisenhower continued New Deal programs, expanded Social Security, and prioritized a balanced budget over tax cuts. He played a major role in establishing the Interstate Highway System, a massive infrastructure project consisting of tens of thousands of miles of divided highways. After the launch of Sputnik 1, Eisenhower signed the National Defense Education Act and presided over the creation of NASA. Though he did not embrace the Supreme Court's landmark desegregation ruling in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education, Eisenhower enforced the Court's holding and signed the first significant civil rights bill since the end of Reconstruction.
Eisenhower won the 1956 presidential election in a landslide and maintained positive approval ratings throughout his tenure, but the launch of Sputnik 1 and a poor economy contributed to Republican losses in the 1958 elections. In the 1960 presidential election, Vice President Richard Nixon lost by a narrow margin to Kennedy. Eisenhower left office popular with the public but viewed by many commentators as a "do-nothing" president. His reputation improved after the release of his private papers in the 1970s. Polls of historians and political scientists rank Eisenhower in the top quartile of presidents.
Election of 1952
Republican nomination
Going into the 1952 Republican presidential primaries, the two major contenders for the Republican presidential nomination were General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio. Governor Earl Warren of California and former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota also sought the nomination. Taft led the conservative wing of the party, which rejected many of the New Deal social welfare programs created in the 1930s and supported a noninterventionist foreign policy. Taft had been a candidate for the Republican nomination twice before but had been defeated both times by moderate Republicans from New York: Wendell Willkie in 1940 and Thomas E. Dewey in 1948.
Dewey, the party's presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948, led the moderate wing of the party, centered in the Eastern states. These moderates supported most of the New Deal and tended to be interventionists in the Cold War. Dewey himself declined to run for president a third time, but he and other moderates sought to use his influence to ensure that 1952 Republican ticket hewed closer to their wing of the party. To this end, they assembled a Draft Eisenhower movement in September 1951. Two weeks later, at the National Governors' Conference meeting, seven Republican governors endorsed his candidacy. Eisenhower, then serving as the Supreme Allied Commander of NATO, had long been mentioned as a possible presidential contender, but he was reluctant to become involved in partisan politics. Nonetheless, he was troubled by Taft's non-interventionist views, especially his opposition to NATO, which Eisenhower considered to be an important deterrence against Soviet aggression. He was also motivated by the corruption that he believed had crept into the federal government during the later years of the Truman administration.
Eisenhower suggested in late 1951 that he would not oppose any effort to nominate him for president, although he still refused to seek the nomination actively. In January 1952, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. announced that Eisenhower's name would be entered in the March New Hampshire primary, even though he had not yet officially entered the race. The result in New Hampshire was a solid Eisenhower victory with 46,661 votes to 35,838 for Taft and 6,574 for Stassen. In April, Eisenhower resigned from his NATO command and returned to the United States. The Taft forces put up a strong fight in the remaining primaries, and, by the time of the July 1952 Republican National Convention, it was still unclear whether Taft or Eisenhower would win the presidential nomination.
When the 1952 Republican National Convention opened in Chicago, Eisenhower's managers accused Taft of "stealing" delegate votes in Southern states, claiming that Taft's allies had unfairly denied delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters and put Taft delegates in their place. Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict the pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates; they called this proposal "Fair Play." Although Taft and his supporters angrily denied this charge, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and Taft lost many Southern delegates. Eisenhower also received two more boosts: first when several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, decided to support him; and second, when Stassen released his delegates and asked them to support Eisenhower. The removal of many pro-Taft Southern delegates and the support of the uncommitted states decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor, which he won on the first ballot. Afterward, Senator Richard Nixon of California was nominated by acclamation as his vice-presidential running mate. Nixon, whose name came to the forefront early and often in preconvention conversations among Eisenhower's campaign managers, was selected because of his youth (39 years old) and solid anti-communist record.
General election
Incumbent President Harry S. Truman fared poorly in the polls and decided to not run in 1952. There was no clear frontrunner for the Democratic presidential nomination. Delegates to the 1952 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, nominated Illinois governor Adlai E. Stevenson for president on the third ballot. Senator John Sparkman of Alabama was selected as his running mate. The convention ended with widespread confidence that the party had selected a powerful presidential contender who would field a competitive campaign. Stevenson concentrated on giving a series of thoughtful speeches around the nation. Although his style thrilled intellectuals and academics, some political experts wondered if he were speaking "over the heads" of most of his listeners, and they dubbed him an "egghead," based on his baldness and intellectual demeanor. His biggest liability however, was Truman's unpopularity. Even though Stevenson had not been a part of the Truman administration, voters largely ignored his record and burdened him with Truman's. Historian Herbert Parmet says that Stevenson:
Republican strategy during the fall campaign focused on Eisenhower's unrivaled popularity. Ike traveled to 45 of the 48 states; his heroic image and plain talk excited the large crowds who heard him speak from the campaign train's rear platform. In his speeches, Eisenhower never mentioned Stevenson by name, instead relentlessly attacking the alleged failures of the Truman administration: "Korea, Communism, and corruption." In addition to the speeches, he got his message out to voters through 30-second television advertisements; this was the first presidential election in which television played a major role. In domestic policy, Eisenhower attacked the growing influence of the federal government in the economy, while in foreign affairs, he supported a strong American role in stemming the expansion of Communism. Eisenhower adopted much of the rhetoric and positions of the contemporary GOP, and many of his public statements were designed to win over conservative supporters of Taft.
A potentially devastating allegation hit when Nixon was accused by several newspapers of receiving $18,000 in undeclared "gifts" from wealthy California donors. Eisenhower and his aides considered dropping Nixon from the ticket and picking another running mate. Nixon responded to the allegations in a nationally televised speech, the "Checkers speech," on September 23. In this speech, Nixon denied the charges against him, gave a detailed account of his modest financial assets, and offered a glowing assessment of Eisenhower's candidacy. The highlight of the speech came when Nixon stated that a supporter had given his daughters a gift—a dog named "Checkers"—and that he would not return it, because his daughters loved it. The public responded to the speech with an outpouring of support, and Eisenhower retained him on the ticket.
Ultimately, the burden of the ongoing Korean War, Communist threat, and Truman administration scandals, as well as the popularity of Eisenhower, were too much for Stevenson to overcome. Eisenhower won a landslide victory, taking 55.2 percent of the popular vote and 442 electoral votes. Stevenson received 44.5 percent of the popular vote and 89 electoral votes. Eisenhower won every state outside of the South, as well as Virginia, Florida, and Texas, each of which voted Republican for just the second time since the end of Reconstruction. In the concurrent congressional elections,
Republicans won control of the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Administration
Eisenhower entered the White House with a strong background in organizing complex operations (such as the invasion of Europe in 1944). More than any previous president he paid attention to improving staff performance and defining duties. He paid special attention to having a powerful Chief of Staff in Sherman Adams, a former governor.
Cabinet
Eisenhower delegated the selection of his cabinet to two close associates, Lucius D. Clay and Herbert Brownell Jr. Brownell, a legal aide to Dewey, became attorney general. The office of Secretary of State went to John Foster Dulles, a long-time Republican spokesman on foreign policy who had helped design the United Nations Charter and the Treaty of San Francisco. Dulles would travel nearly during his six years in office. Outside of the cabinet, Eisenhower selected Sherman Adams as White House Chief of Staff, and Milton S. Eisenhower, the president's brother and a prominent college administrator, emerged as an important adviser. Eisenhower also elevated the role of the National Security Council, and designated Robert Cutler to serve as the first National Security Advisor.
Eisenhower sought out leaders of big business for many of his other cabinet appointments. Charles Erwin Wilson, the CEO of General Motors, was Eisenhower's first secretary of defense. In 1957, he was replaced by president of Procter & Gamble, Neil H. McElroy. For the position of secretary of the treasury, Ike selected George M. Humphrey, the CEO of several steel and coal companies. His postmaster general, Arthur E. Summerfield, and first secretary of the interior, Douglas McKay, were both automobile distributors. Former senator Sinclair Weeks became Secretary of Commerce. Eisenhower appointed Joseph Dodge, a longtime bank president who also had extensive government experience, as the director of the Bureau of the Budget. He became the first budget director to be given cabinet-level status.
Other Eisenhower cabinet selections provided patronage to political bases. Ezra Taft Benson, a high-ranking member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was chosen as secretary of agriculture; he was the only person appointed from the Taft wing of the party. As the first secretary of the new Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW), Eisenhower named the wartime head of the Army's Women's Army Corps, Oveta Culp Hobby. She was the second woman to ever be a cabinet member. Martin Patrick Durkin, a Democrat and president of the plumbers and steamfitters union, was selected as secretary of labor. As a result, it became a standing joke that Eisenhower's inaugural Cabinet was composed of "nine millionaires and a plumber." Dissatisfied with Eisenhower's labor policies, Durkin resigned after less than a year in office, and was replaced by James P. Mitchell.
Eisenhower suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Lewis Strauss as a later Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the U.S. Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in the Oppenheimer security hearing.
Vice presidency
Eisenhower, who disliked partisan politics and politicians, left much of the building and sustaining of the Republican Party to Vice President Nixon. Eisenhower knew how ill-prepared Vice President Truman had been on major issues such as the atomic bomb when he suddenly became president in 1945, and therefore made sure to keep Nixon fully involved in the administration. He gave Nixon multiple diplomatic, domestic, and political assignments so that he "evolved into one of Ike's most valuable subordinates." The office of vice president was thereby fundamentally upgraded from a minor ceremonial post to a major role in the presidential team. Nixon went well beyond the assignment, "[throwing] himself into state and local politics, making hundreds of speeches across the land. With Eisenhower uninvolved in party building, Nixon became the de facto national GOP leader."
Press corps
In his two terms he delivered about 750 speeches and conducted 193 news conferences. On January 19, 1955, Eisenhower became the first president to conduct a televised news conference.
Reporters found performance at press conferences as awkward. Some concluded mistakenly that he was ill-informed or merely a figurehead. At times, he was able to use his reputation to deliberately obfuscate his position on difficult subjects.
His press secretary, James Hagerty, was known for providing much more detail on the lifestyle of the president than previous press secretaries; for example, he covered in great detail Eisenhower's medical condition. Most of the time, he handled routine affairs such as daily reports on presidential activities, defending presidential policies, and assisting diplomatic visitors. He handled embarrassing episodes, such as those related to the Soviet downing of an American spy plane, the U-2 in 1960. He handled press relations on Eisenhower's international trips, sometimes taking the blame from a hostile foreign press. Eisenhower often relied upon him for advice about public opinion, and how to phrase complex issues. Hagerty had a reputation for supporting civil rights initiatives. Historian Robert Hugh Ferrell considered him to be the best press secretary in presidential history, because he "organized the presidency for the single innovation in press relations that has itself almost changed the nature of the nation's highest office in recent decades."
Continuity of government
A group of three federal government officials and six private U.S. citizens was secretly tasked by the president in 1958 to serve as federal administrators in the event of a national emergency, such as a nuclear attack. Eisenhower discussed the issues with each appointee and then personally sent letters of confirmation. The selection and appointment of these administrator-designates was classified Top Secret. In an emergency, each administrator was to take charge of a specifically activated agency to maintain the continuity of government. Named to the group were:
Theodore F. Koop, Vice President of CBSEmergency Censorship Agency
Frank Stanton, President of CBSEmergency Communications Agency
John Ed Warren, Senior Vice President of First National City BankEmergency Energy and Minerals Agency
Ezra Taft Benson, Secretary of AgricultureEmergency Food Agency
Aksel Nielsen, President of Title Guaranty CompanyEmergency Housing Agency
James P. Mitchell, Secretary of LaborEmergency Manpower Agency
Harold Boeschenstein, President of Owens-Corning FiberglassEmergency Production Agency
William McChesney Martin, Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board of GovernorsEmergency Stabilization Agency
Frank Pace, Executive Vice President of General DynamicsEmergency Transport Agency (resigned January 8, 1959)
George P. Baker, Dean of Harvard Business SchoolEmergency Transport Agency (after January 8, 1959)
Judicial appointments
Eisenhower appointed five justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1953, Eisenhower nominated Governor Earl Warren to succeed Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson. Many conservative Republicans opposed Warren's nomination, but they were unable to block the appointment, and Warren's nomination was approved by the Senate in January 1954. Warren presided over a court that generated numerous liberal rulings on various topics, beginning in 1954 with the desegregation case of Brown v. Board of Education. Eisenhower approved of the Brown decision. Robert H. Jackson's death in late 1954 generated another vacancy on the Supreme Court, and Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge John Marshall Harlan II to succeed Jackson. Harlan joined the conservative bloc on the bench, often supporting the position of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter.
After Sherman Minton resigned in 1956, Eisenhower nominated state supreme court justice William J. Brennan to the Supreme Court. Eisenhower hoped that the appointment of Brennan, a liberal-leaning Catholic, would boost his own re-election campaign. Opposition from Senator Joseph McCarthy and others delayed Brennan's confirmation, so Eisenhower placed Brennan on the court via a recess appointment in 1956; the Senate confirmed Brennan's nomination in early 1957. Brennan joined Warren as a leader of the court's liberal bloc. Stanley Reed's retirement in 1957 created another vacancy, and Eisenhower nominated federal appellate judge Charles Evans Whittaker, who would serve on the Supreme Court for just five years before resigning. The fifth and final Supreme Court vacancy of Eisenhower's tenure arose in 1958 due to the retirement of Harold Burton. Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge Potter Stewart to succeed Burton, and Stewart became a centrist on the court.
Eisenhower paid attention to Supreme Court appointments. Other judicial nominees were selected by the Attorney General, Herbert Brownell, usually in consultation with the state's senators. The administration appointed 45 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 129 judges to the United States district courts. Since nearly all were appointed to serve specific geographical area, their regional origins matched the national population. All were white men. Most judges had an upper-middle-class background. One in five attended an Ivy League undergraduate college; half attended an Ivy League law school. Party affiliation was decisive: 93% of the men were Republicans, 7% Democrats; relatively few had been conspicuous in elective politics. Nearly 80% of the men were Protestants, 15% Catholic, and 6% Jewish.
Foreign affairs
Cold War
The Cold War dominated international politics in the 1950s. As both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed nuclear weapons, any conflict presented the risk of escalation into nuclear warfare. The isolationist element led by Senator Taft would avoid war by staying out of European affairs. Eisenhower's 1952 candidacy was motivated by his opposition to Taft's isolationist views in opposition to NATO and American reliance on collective security with Western Europe. Eisenhower continued the basic Truman administration policy of containment of Soviet expansion but added a concern with propaganda suggesting eventual liberation of Eastern Europe.
Eisenhower's overall Cold War policy was codified in NSC174, which held that the rollback of Soviet influence was a long-term goal, but that NATO would not provoke war with the Soviet Union. Peace would be maintained by being so much stronger in terms of atomic weapons than the USSR that it would never risk using its much larger land-based army to attack Western Europe. He planned for to mobilize psychological insights, CIA intelligence and American scientific technological superiority counter conventional Soviet forces.
After Joseph Stalin died in March 1953, Georgy Malenkov took leadership of the Soviet Union. Malenkov proposed a "peaceful coexistence" with the West, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill proposed a summit of the world leaders. Fearing that the summit would delay the rearmament of West Germany, and skeptical of Malenkov's intentions, Eisenhower rejected the summit idea. In April, Eisenhower delivered his "Chance for Peace speech," in which he called for an armistice in Korea, free elections to re-unify Germany, the "full independence" of Eastern European nations, and United Nations control of atomic energy. Though well received in the West, the Soviet leadership viewed Eisenhower's speech as little more than propaganda. In 1954, a more confrontational leader, Nikita Khrushchev, took charge in the Soviet Union. Eisenhower became increasingly skeptical of the possibility of cooperation with the Soviet Union after it refused to support his Atoms for Peace proposal, which called for the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency and the creation of peaceful nuclear power plants.
National security policy
Eisenhower unveiled the New Look, his first national security policy, on October 30, 1953. It reflected his concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the risk of overwhelming the nation's financial resources. The new policy emphasized reliance on strategic nuclear weapons, rather than conventional military power, to deter both conventional and nuclear military threats. The U.S. military developed a strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), strategic bombers, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower insisted on having plans to retaliate, fight, and win a nuclear war against the Soviets, although he hoped he would never feel forced to use such weapons.
As the fighting in Korea ended, Eisenhower sharply reduced the reliance on expensive Army divisions. Historian Saki Dockrill argues that his long-term strategy was to promote the collective security of NATO and other American allies, strengthen the Third World against Soviet pressures, avoid another Korean stalemate, and produce a momentum that would steadily weaken Soviet power and influence. Dockrill points to Eisenhower's use of multiple assets against the Soviet Union:
Ballistic missiles and arms control
Eisenhower held office during a period in which both the United States and the Soviet Union developed nuclear stockpiles theoretically capable of destroying not just each other, but all life on Earth. The United States had tested the first atomic bomb in 1945, and both the superpowers had tested thermonuclear weapons by the end of 1953. Strategic bombers had been the delivery method of previous nuclear weapons, but Eisenhower sought to create a nuclear triad consisting of land-launched nuclear missiles, nuclear-missile-armed submarines, and strategic aircraft. Throughout the 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBMs) and intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBMs) capable of delivering nuclear warheads. Eisenhower also presided over the development of the UGM-27 Polaris missile, which was capable of being launched from submarines, and continued funding for long-range bombers like the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress.
In January 1956 the United States Air Force began developing the Thor, a Intermediate-range ballistic missile. The program proceeded quickly, and beginning in 1958 the first of 20 Royal Air Force Thor squadrons became operational in the United Kingdom. This was the first experiment at sharing strategic nuclear weapons in NATO and led to other placements abroad of American nuclear weapons. Critics at the time, led by Democratic Senator John F. Kennedy levied charges to the effect that there was a "missile gap", that is, the U.S. had fallen militarily behind the Soviets because of their lead in space. Historians now discount those allegations, although they agree that Eisenhower did not effectively respond to his critics. In fact, the Soviet Union did not deploy ICBMs until after Eisenhower left office, and the U.S. retained an overall advantage in nuclear weaponry. Eisenhower was aware of the American advantage in ICBM development because of intelligence gathered by U-2 planes, which had begun flying over the Soviet Union in 1956.
The administration decided the best way to minimize the proliferation of nuclear weapons was to tightly control knowledge of gas-centrifuge technology, which was essential to turn ordinary uranium into weapons-grade uranium. American diplomats by 1960 reached agreement with the German, Dutch, and British governments to limit access to the technology. The four-power understanding on gas-centrifuge secrecy would last until 1975, when scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan took the Dutch centrifuge technology to Pakistan. France sought American help in developing its own nuclear program, but Eisenhower rejected these overtures due to France's instability and his distrust of French leader Charles de Gaulle.
End of the Korean War
During his campaign, Eisenhower said he would go to Korea to end the Korean War, which had begun on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea. The U.S. had joined the war to prevent the fall of South Korea, later expanding the mission to include victory over the Communist regime in North Korea. The intervention of Chinese forces in late 1950 led to a protracted stalemate around the 38th parallel north.
Truman had begun peace talks in mid-1951, but the issue of North Korean and Chinese prisoners remained a sticking point. Over 40,000 prisoners from the two countries refused repatriation, but North Korea and China nonetheless demanded their return. Upon taking office, Eisenhower demanded a solution, warning China that he would use nuclear weapons if the war continued. South Korean leader Syngman Rhee attempted to derail peace negotiations by releasing North Korean prisoners who refused repatriation, but Rhee agreed to accept an armistice after Eisenhower threatened to withdraw all U.S. forces from Korea. On July 27, 1953, the United States, North Korea, and China agreed to the Korean Armistice Agreement, ending the Korean War. Historian Edward C. Keefer says that in accepting the American demands that POWs could refuse to return to their home country, "China and North Korea still swallowed the bitter pill, probably forced down in part by the atomic ultimatum." Historian William I. Hitchcock writes that the key factors in reaching the armistice were the exhaustion of North Korean forces and the desire of the Soviet leaders (who exerted pressure on China) to avoid nuclear war.
The armistice led to decades of uneasy peace between North Korea and South Korea. The United States and South Korea signed a defensive treaty in October 1953, and the U.S. would continue to station thousands of soldiers in South Korea long after the end of the Korean War.
Covert actions
Eisenhower, while accepting the doctrine of containment, sought to counter the Soviet Union through more active means as detailed in the State-Defense report NSC 68. The Eisenhower administration and the Central Intelligence Agency used covert action to interfere with suspected communist governments abroad. An early use of covert action was against the elected Prime Minister of Iran, Mohammed Mosaddeq, resulting in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. The CIA also instigated the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état by the local military that overthrew President Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, whom U.S. officials viewed as too friendly toward the Soviet Union. Critics have produced conspiracy theories about the causal factors, but according to historian Stephen M. Streeter, CIA documents show the United Fruit Company (UFCO) played no major role in Eisenhower's decision, that the Eisenhower administration did not need to be forced into the action by any lobby groups, and that Soviet influence in Guatemala was minimal.
Defeating the Bricker Amendment
In January 1953, Senator John W. Bricker of Ohio re-introduced the Bricker Amendment, which would limit the president's treaty making power and ability to enter into executive agreements with foreign nations. Fears that the steady stream of post-World War II-era international treaties and executive agreements entered into by the U.S. were undermining the nation's sovereignty united isolationists, conservative Democrats, most Republicans, and numerous professional groups and civic organizations behind the amendment. Believing that the amendment would weaken the president to such a degree that it would be impossible for the U.S. to exercise leadership on the global stage, Eisenhower worked with Senate Minority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson to defeat Bricker's proposal. Although the amendment started out with 56 co-sponsors, it went down to defeat in the U.S. Senate in 1954 on 42–50 vote. Later in 1954, a watered-down version of the amendment missed the required two-thirds majority in the Senate by one vote. This episode proved to be the last hurrah for the isolationist Republicans, as younger conservatives increasingly turned to an internationalism based on aggressive anti-communism, typified by Senator Barry Goldwater.
Europe
Eisenhower sought troop reductions in Europe by sharing of defense responsibilities with NATO allies. Europeans, however, never quite trusted the idea of nuclear deterrence and were reluctant to shift away from NATO into a proposed European Defence Community (EDC). Like Truman, Eisenhower believed that the rearmament of West Germany was vital to NATO's strategic interests. The administration backed an arrangement, devised by Churchill and British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden, in which West Germany was rearmed and became a fully sovereign member of NATO in return for promises not establish atomic, biological, or chemical weapons programs. European leaders also created the Western European Union to coordinate European defense. In response to the integration of West Germany into NATO, Eastern bloc leaders established the Warsaw Pact. Austria, which had been jointly-occupied by the Soviet Union and the Western powers, regained its sovereignty with the 1955 Austrian State Treaty. As part of the arrangement that ended the occupation, Austria declared its neutrality after gaining independence.
The Eisenhower administration placed a high priority on undermining Soviet influence on Eastern Europe, and escalated a propaganda war under the leadership of Charles Douglas Jackson. The United States dropped over 300,000 propaganda leaflets in Eastern Europe between 1951 and 1956, and Radio Free Europe sent broadcasts throughout the region. A 1953 uprising in East Germany briefly stoked the administration's hopes of a decline in Soviet influence, but the USSR quickly crushed the insurrection. In 1956, a major uprising broke out in Hungary. After Hungarian leader Imre Nagy promised the establishment of a multiparty democracy and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev dispatched 60,000 soldiers into Hungary to crush the rebellion. The United States strongly condemned the military response but did not take direct action, disappointing many Hungarian revolutionaries. After the revolution, the United States shifted from encouraging revolt to seeking cultural and economic ties as a means of undermining Communist regimes. Among the administration's cultural diplomacy initiatives were continuous goodwill tours by the "soldier-musician ambassadors" of the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra.
In 1953, Eisenhower opened relations with Spain under dictator Francisco Franco. Despite its undemocratic nature, Spain's strategic position in light of the Cold War and anti-communist position led Eisenhower to build a trade and military alliance with the Spanish through the Pact of Madrid. These relations brought an end to Spain's isolation after World War II, which in turn led to a Spanish economic boom known as the Spanish miracle.
East Asia and Southeast Asia
After the end of World War II, the Communist Việt Minh launched an insurrection against the French-supported State of Vietnam. Seeking to bolster France and prevent the fall of Vietnam to Communism, the Truman and Eisenhower administrations played a major role in financing French military operations in Vietnam. In 1954, the French requested the United States to intervene in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, which would prove to be the climactic battle of the First Indochina War. Seeking to rally public support for the intervention, Eisenhower articulated the domino theory, which held that the fall of Vietnam could lead to the fall of other countries. As France refused to commit to granting independence to Vietnam, Congress refused to approve of an intervention in Vietnam, and the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu. At the contemporaneous Geneva Conference, Dulles convinced Chinese and Soviet leaders to pressure Viet Minh leaders to accept the temporary partition of Vietnam; the country was divided into a Communist northern half (under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh) and a non-Communist southern half (under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem). Despite some doubts about the strength of Diem's government, the Eisenhower administration directed aid to South Vietnam in hopes of creating a bulwark against further Communist expansion. With Eisenhower's approval, Diem refused to hold elections to re-unify Vietnam; those elections had been scheduled for 1956 as part of the agreement at the Geneva Conference.
Eisenhower's commitment in South Vietnam was part of a broader program to contain China and the Soviet Union in East Asia. In 1954, the United States and seven other countries created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), a defensive alliance dedicated to preventing the spread of Communism in Southeast Asia. In 1954, China began shelling tiny islands off the coast of Mainland China which were controlled by the Republic of China (ROC). The shelling nearly escalated to nuclear war as Eisenhower considered using nuclear weapons to prevent the invasion of Taiwan, the main island controlled by the ROC. The crisis ended when China ended the shelling and both sides agreed to diplomatic talks; a second crisis in 1958 would end in a similar fashion. During the first crisis, the United States and the ROC signed the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, which committed the United States to the defense of Taiwan. The CIA also supported dissidents in the 1959 Tibetan uprising, but China crushed the uprising.
In Indonesia in February 1958 rebels in Sumatra and Sulawesi declared the PRRI-Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the government of Sukarno. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received money, weapons, and manpower from the CIA. This support ended when Allen Lawrence Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government-held Ambon in April 1958. In April 1958, the central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions on Padang and Manado, the rebel capitals. By the end of 1958, the rebels had been militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerrilla bands surrendered in August 1961.
Middle East
The Middle East became increasingly important to U.S. foreign policy during the 1950s. After the 1953 Iranian coup, the U.S. supplanted Britain as the most influential ally of Iran. Eisenhower encouraged the creation of the Baghdad Pact, a military alliance consisting of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Pakistan. As it did in several other regions, the Eisenhower administration sought to establish stable, friendly, anti-Communist regimes in the Arab World. The U.S. attempted to mediate the Arab–Israeli conflict, but Israel's unwillingness to give up its gains from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and Arab hostility towards Israel prevented any agreement.
Suez crisis
In 1952, a revolution led by Gamal Abdel Nasser had overthrown the pro-British Egyptian government. After taking power as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1954, Nasser played the Soviet Union and the United States against each other, seeking aid from both sides. Eisenhower sought to bring Nasser into the American sphere of influence through economic aid, but Nasser's Arab nationalism and opposition to Israel served as a source of friction between the United States and Egypt. One of Nasser's main goals was the construction of the Aswan Dam, which would provide immense hydroelectric power and help irrigate much of Egypt. Eisenhower attempted to use American aid for the financing of the construction of the dam as leverage for other areas of foreign policy, but aid negotiations collapsed. In July 1956, just a week after the collapse of the aid negotiations, Nasser nationalized the British-run Suez Canal, sparking the Suez Crisis.
The British strongly protested the nationalization, and formed a plan with France and Israel to capture the canal. Eisenhower opposed military intervention, and he repeatedly told British Prime Minister Anthony Eden that the U.S. would not tolerate an invasion. Though opposed to the nationalization of the canal, Eisenhower feared that a military intervention would disrupt global trade and alienate Middle Eastern countries from the West. Israel attacked Egypt in October 1956, quickly seizing control of the Sinai Peninsula. France and Britain launched air and naval attacks after Nasser refused to renounce Egypt's nationalization of the canal. Nasser responded by sinking dozens of ships, preventing operation of the canal. Angered by the attacks, which risked sending Arab states into the arms of the Soviet Union, the Eisenhower administration proposed a cease fire and used economic pressure to force France and Britain to withdraw. The incident marked the end of British and French dominance in the Middle East and opened the way for greater American involvement in the region. In early 1958, Eisenhower used the threat of economic sanctions to coerce Israel into withdrawing from the Sinai Peninsula, and the Suez Canal resumed operations under the control of Egypt.
Eisenhower Doctrine
In response to the power vacuum in the Middle East following the Suez Crisis, the Eisenhower administration developed a new policy designed to stabilize the region against Soviet threats or internal turmoil. Given the collapse of British prestige and the rise of Soviet interest in the region, the president informed Congress on January 5, 1957, that it was essential for the U.S. to accept new responsibilities for the security of the Middle East. Under the policy, known as the Eisenhower Doctrine, any Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression. Eisenhower found it difficult to convince leading Arab states or Israel to endorse the doctrine, but he applied the new doctrine by dispensing economic aid to shore up the Kingdom of Jordan, encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it, and sending U.S. troops into Lebanon to prevent a radical revolution from sweeping over that country. The troops sent to Lebanon never saw any fighting, but the deployment marked the only time during Eisenhower's presidency when U.S. troops were sent abroad into a potential combat situation.
Douglas Little argues that Washington's decision to use the military resulted from a determination to support a beleaguered, conservative pro-Western regime in Lebanon, repel Nasser's pan-Arabism, and limit Soviet influence in the oil-rich region. However, Little concludes that the unnecessary American action brought negative long-term consequences, notably the undermining of Lebanon's fragile, multi-ethnic political coalition and the alienation of Arab nationalism throughout the region. To keep the pro-American King Hussein of Jordan in power, the CIA sent millions of dollars a year of subsidies. In the mid-1950s the U.S. supported allies in Lebanon, Iraq, Turkey and Saudi Arabia and sent fleets to be near Syria. However, 1958 was to become a difficult year in U.S. foreign policy; in 1958 Syria and Egypt were merged into the "United Arab Republic", anti-American and anti-government revolts started occurring in Lebanon, causing the Lebanese president Chamoun to ask America for help, and the very pro-American King Feisal the 2nd of Iraq was overthrown by a group of nationalistic military officers. It was quite "commonly believed that [Nasser] ... stirred up the unrest in Lebanon and, perhaps, had helped to plan the Iraqi revolution."
Though U.S. aid helped Lebanon and Jordan avoid revolution, the Eisenhower doctrine enhanced Nasser's prestige as the preeminent Arab nationalist. Partly as a result of the bungled U.S. intervention in Syria, Nasser established the short-lived United Arab Republic, a political union between Egypt and Syria. The U.S. also lost a sympathetic Middle Eastern government due to the 1958 Iraqi coup d'état, which saw King Faisal II replaced by General Abd al-Karim Qasim as the leader of Iraq.
South Asia
The 1947 partition of British India created two new independent states, India and Pakistan. Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru pursued a non-aligned policy in the Cold War, and frequently criticized U.S. policies. Largely out of a desire to build up military strength against the more populous India, Pakistan sought close relations with the United States, joining both the Baghdad Pact and SEATO. This U.S.–Pakistan alliance alienated India from the United States, causing India to move towards the Soviet Union. In the late 1950s, the Eisenhower administration sought closer relations with India, sending aid to stem the 1957 Indian economic crisis. By the end of his administration, relations between the United States and India had moderately improved, but Pakistan remained the main U.S. ally in South Asia.
Latin America
For much of his administration, Eisenhower largely continued the policy of his predecessors in Latin America, supporting U.S.-friendly governments regardless of whether they held power through authoritarian means. The Eisenhower administration expanded military aid to Latin America, and used Pan-Americanism as a tool to prevent the spread of Soviet influence. In the late 1950s, several Latin American governments fell, partly due to a recession in the United States.
Cuba was particularly close to the United States, and 300,000 American tourists visited Cuba each year in the late 1950s. Cuban president Fulgencio Batista sought close ties with both the U.S. government and major U.S. companies, and American organized crime also had a strong presence in Cuba. In January 1959, the Cuban Revolution ousted Batista. The new regime, led by Fidel Castro, quickly legalized the Communist Party of Cuba, sparking U.S. fears that Castro would align with the Soviet Union. When Castro visited the United States in April 1959, Eisenhower refused to meet with him, delegating the task to Nixon. In the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, the Eisenhower administration began to encourage democratic government in Latin America and increased economic aid to the region. As Castro drew closer to the Soviet Union, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations, launched a near-total embargo, and began preparations for an invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles.
U-2 Crisis
U.S. and Soviet leaders met at the 1955 Geneva Summit, the first such summit since the 1945 Potsdam Conference. No progress was made on major issues; the two sides had major differences on German policy, and the Soviets dismissed Eisenhower's "Open Skies" proposal. Despite the lack of agreement on substantive issues, the conference marked the start of a minor thaw in Cold War relations. Khruschev toured the United States in 1959, and he and Eisenhower conducted high-level talks regarding nuclear disarmament and the status of Berlin. Eisenhower wanted limits on nuclear weapons testing and on-site inspections of nuclear weapons, while Khruschev initially sought the total elimination of nuclear arsenals. Both wanted to limit total military spending and prevent nuclear proliferation, but Cold War tensions made negotiations difficult. Towards the end of his second term, Eisenhower was determined to reach a nuclear test ban treaty as part of an overall move towards détente with the Soviet Union. Khrushchev had also become increasingly interested in reaching an accord, partly due to the growing Sino-Soviet split. By 1960, the major unresolved issue was on-site inspections, as both sides sought nuclear test bans. Hopes for reaching a nuclear agreement at a May 1960 summit in Paris were derailed by the downing of an American U-2 spy plane over the Soviet Union.
The Eisenhower administration, initially thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a "weather research aircraft" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed "difficulties with his oxygen equipment" while flying over Turkey. Further, Eisenhower said that his administration had not been spying on the Soviet Union; when the Soviets produced the pilot, Captain Francis Gary Powers, the Americans were caught misleading the public, and the incident resulted in international embarrassment for the United States. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee held a lengthy inquiry into the U-2 incident. During the Paris Summit, Eisenhower accused Khrushchev "of sabotaging this meeting, on which so much of the hopes of the world have rested", Later, Eisenhower stated the summit had been ruined because of that "stupid U-2 business".
International trips
Eisenhower made one international trip while president-elect, to South Korea, December 2–5, 1952; he visited Seoul and the Korean combat zone. He also made 16 international trips to 26 nations during his presidency. Between August 1959 and June 1960, he undertook five major tours, travelling to Europe, Southeast Asia, South America, the Middle East, and Southern Asia. On his "Flight to Peace" Goodwill tour, in December 1959, the president visited 11 nations including five in Asia, flying 22,000 miles in 19 days.
Domestic affairs
Modern Republicanism
Eisenhower's approach to politics was described by contemporaries as "modern Republicanism," which occupied a middle ground between the liberalism of the New Deal and the conservatism of the Old Guard of the Republican Party. A strong performance in the 1952 elections gave Republicans narrow majorities in both chambers of the 83rd United States Congress. Led by Taft, the conservative faction introduced numerous bills to reduce the federal government's role in American life. Although Eisenhower favored some reduction of the federal government's functions and had strongly opposed President Truman's Fair Deal, he supported the continuation of Social Security and other New Deal programs that he saw as beneficial for the common good. Eisenhower presided over a reduction in domestic spending and reduced the government's role in subsidizing agriculture through passage of the Agricultural Act of 1954, but he did not advocate for the abolition of major New Deal programs such as Social Security or the Tennessee Valley Authority, and these programs remained in place throughout his tenure as president.
Republicans lost control of Congress in the 1954 mid-term elections, and they would not regain control of either chamber until well after Eisenhower left office. Eisenhower's largely nonpartisan stance enabled him to work smoothly with the Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn and Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson. Though liberal members of Congress like Hubert Humphrey and Paul Douglas favored expanding federal aid to education, implementing a national health insurance system, and directing federal assistance to impoverished areas, Rayburn and Johnson largely accepted Eisenhower's relatively conservative domestic policies. In his own party, Eisenhower maintained strong support with moderates, but he frequently clashed with conservative members of Congress, especially over foreign policy. Biographer Jean Edward Smith describes the relationship between Rayburn, Johnson, and Eisenhower:
Fiscal policy and the economy
Eisenhower was a fiscal conservative whose policy views were close to those of Taft— they agreed that a free enterprise economy should run itself. Nonetheless, throughout Eisenhower's presidency, the top marginal tax rate was 91 percent—among the highest in American history. When Republicans gained control of both houses of the Congress following the 1952 election, conservatives pressed the president to support tax cuts. Eisenhower however, gave a higher priority to balancing the budget, refusing to cut taxes "until we have in sight a program of expenditure that shows that the factors of income and outgo will be balanced." Eisenhower kept the national debt low and inflation near zero; three of his eight budgets had a surplus.
Eisenhower built on the New Deal in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency and cost-effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self-financed program. He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wage and public housing—he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built the Interstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than a jobs program). In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote:
The 1950s were a period of economic expansion in the United States, and the gross national product jumped from $355.3 billion in 1950 to $487.7 billion in 1960. Unemployment rates were also generally low, except for in 1958. There were three recessions during Eisenhower's administration—July 1953 through May 1954, August 1957 through April 1958, and April 1960 through February 1961, caused by the Federal Reserve clamping down too tight on the money supply in an effort to wring out lingering wartime inflation. Meanwhile, federal spending as a percentage of GDP fell from 20.4 to 18.4 percent—there has not been a decline of any size in federal spending as a percentage of GDP during any administration since. Defense spending declined from $50.4 billion in fiscal year 1953 to $40.3 billion in fiscal year 1956, but then rose to $46.6 billion in fiscal year 1959. Although defense spending declined compared to the final years of the Truman administration, defense spending under Eisenhower remained much higher than it had been prior to the Korean War and consistently made up at least ten percent of the U.S. gross domestic product. The stock market performed very well while Eisenhower was in the White House, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average more than doubling (from 288 to 634), and personal income increased by 45 percent. Due to low-cost government loans, the introduction of the credit card, and other factors, total private debt (not including corporations) grew from $104.8 billion in 1950 to $263.3 billion in 1960.
Immigration
During the early 1950s, ethnic groups in the United States mobilized to liberalize the admission of refugees from Europe who had been displaced by war and the Iron Curtain. The result was the Refugee Relief Act of 1953, which permitted the admission of 214,000 immigrants to the United States from European countries between 1953 and 1956, over and above existing immigration quotas. The old quotas were quite small for Italy and Eastern Europe, but those areas received priority in the new law. The 60,000 Italians were the largest of the refugee groups. Despite the arrival of the refugees, the percentage of foreign-born individuals continued to drop, as the pre-1914 arrivals died out, falling to 5.4% in 1960. The percentage of native-born individuals with at least one foreign-born parent also fell to a new low, at 13.4 percent.
Responding to public outcry, primarily from California, about the perceived costs of services for illegal immigrants from Mexico, the president charged Joseph Swing, Director of the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, with the task of regaining control of the border. On June 17, 1954, Swing launched Operation Wetback, the roundup and deportation of undocumented immigrants in selected areas of California, Arizona, and Texas. The U.S. Border Patrol later reported that over 1.3 million people (a number viewed by many to be inflated) were deported or left the U.S. voluntarily under the threat of deportation in 1954. Meanwhile, the number of Mexicans immigrating legally from Mexico grew rapidly during this period, from 18,454 in 1953 to 65,047 in 1956.
McCarthyism
With the onset of the Cold War, the House of Representatives established the House Un-American Activities Committee to investigate alleged disloyal activities, and a new Senate committee made Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin a national leader and namesake of the anti-Communist movement. Though McCarthy remained a popular figure when Eisenhower took office, his constant attacks on the State Department and the army, and his reckless disregard for due process, offended many Americans. Privately, Eisenhower held McCarthy and his tactics in contempt, writing, "I despise [McCarthy's tactics], and even during the political campaign of '52 I not only stated publicly (and privately to him) that I disapproved of those methods, but I did so in his own State." Eisenhower's reluctance to publicly oppose McCarthy drew criticism even from many of Eisenhower's own advisers, but the president worked incognito to weaken the popular senator from Wisconsin. In early 1954, after McCarthy escalated his investigation into the army, Eisenhower moved against McCarthy by releasing a report indicating that McCarthy had pressured the army to grant special privileges to an associate, G. David Schine. Eisenhower also refused to allow members of the executive branch to testify in the Army–McCarthy hearings, contributing to the collapse of those hearings. Following those hearings, Senator Ralph Flanders introduced a successful measure to censure McCarthy; Senate Democrats voted unanimously for the censure, while half of the Senate Republicans voted for it. The censure ended McCarthy's status as a major player in national politics, and he died of liver failure in 1957.
Though he disagreed with McCarthy on tactics, Eisenhower considered Communist infiltration to be a serious threat, and he authorized department heads to dismiss employees if there was cause to believe those employees might be disloyal to the United States. Under the direction of Dulles, the State Department purged over 500 employees. With Eisenhower's approval, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) stepped up domestic surveillance efforts, establishing COINTELPRO in 1956. In 1957, the Supreme Court handed down a series of decisions that bolstered constitutional protections and curbed the power of the Smith Act, resulting in a decline of prosecutions of suspected Communists during the late 1950s.
In 1953, Eisenhower refused to commute the death sentences of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, two U.S. citizens who were convicted in 1951 of providing nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union. This provoked a worldwide outburst of picketing and demonstrations in favor of the Rosenbergs, along with editorials in otherwise pro-American newspapers and a plea for clemency from the Pope. Eisenhower, supported by public opinion and the media at home, ignored the overseas demand. The Rosenbergs were executed via electric chair in July 1953.
Among Eisenhower's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) into McCarthy's witch hunt for communists, which might interfere with the AEC's work on hydrogen bombs and other weapons programs. In December 1953, Eisenhower learned that one of America's nuclear scientists, J. Robert Oppenheimer, had been accused of being a spy for the Soviet Union. Although Eisenhower never really believed that these allegations were true, in January 1954 he ordered that "a blank wall" be placed between Oppenheimer and all defense-related activities. The Oppenheimer security hearing was conducted later that year, resulting in the physicist losing his security clearance. The matter was controversial at the time and remained so in later years, with Oppenheimer achieving a certain martyrdom. The case would reflect poorly on Eisenhower as well, but the president had never examined it in any detail and had instead relied excessively upon the advice of his subordinates, especially that of AEC chairman Lewis Strauss.
Civil rights
First term
In the 1950s, African Americans in the South faced mass disenfranchisement and racially segregated schools, bathrooms, and drinking fountains. Even outside of the South, African Americans faced employment discrimination, housing discrimination, and high rates of poverty and unemployment. Civil rights had emerged as a major national and global issue in the 1940s, partly due to the negative example set by Nazi Germany. Segregation damaged relations with African countries, undercut U.S. calls for decolonization, and emerged as a major theme in Soviet propaganda. After General Eisenhower had desegregated Army units in the European Theater of Operations in 1944, President Truman continued the process of desegregating the Armed Forces in 1948, but actual implementation had been slow. Southern Democrats strongly resisted integration, and many Southern leaders had endorsed Eisenhower in 1952 after the latter indicated his opposition to federal efforts to compel integration.
Upon taking office, Eisenhower moved quickly to end resistance to desegregation of the military by using government control of spending to compel compliance from military officials. "Wherever federal funds are expended," he told reporters in March, "I do not see how any American can justify a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds." Later, when Secretary of the Navy Robert B. Anderson stated in a report, "The Navy must recognize the customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating," Eisenhower responded, "We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step. There must be no second class citizens in this country." Eisenhower also sought to end discrimination in federal hiring and in Washington, D.C. facilities. Despite these actions, Eisenhower continued to resist becoming involved in the expansion of voting rights, the desegregation of public education, or the eradication of employment discrimination. E. Frederic Morrow, the lone black member of the White House staff, met only occasionally with Eisenhower, and was left with the impression that Eisenhower had little interest in understanding the lives of African Americans.
On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court handed down its landmark ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, declaring state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. Right before the decision passed, Eisenhower's Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in favor of desegregation in the landmark case. Nevertheless, Eisenhower told Chief Justice Earl Warren, in private, that "These [southern whites] are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes." After the decision, Eisenhower condemned the Supreme Court's holding, in private, stating that he believed it "set back progress in the South at least fifteen years." The president's public response promised to enforce the decision, but he did not praise the decision, saying "The Supreme Court has spoken and I am sworn to uphold the constitutional processes in this country and I will obey." Over the succeeding six years of his presidency, author Robert Caro notes, Eisenhower would never "publicly support the ruling; not once would he say that Brown was morally right". His silence left civil rights leaders with the impression that Eisenhower did not care much about the day-to-day plight of blacks in America, and it served as a source of encouragement for segregationists vowing to resist school desegregation. These segregationists conducted a campaign of "massive resistance," violently opposing those who sought to desegregate public education in the South. In 1956, most of Southern members of Congress signed the Southern Manifesto, which called for the overturning of Brown.
Second term
As Southern leaders continued to resist desegregation, Eisenhower sought to answer calls for stronger federal action by introducing a civil rights bill. The bill included provisions designed to increase the protection of African American voting rights; approximately 80% of African Americans were disenfranchised in the mid-1950s. The civil rights bill passed the House relatively easily, but faced strong opposition in the Senate from Southerners, and the bill passed only after many of its original provisions were removed. Though some black leaders urged him to reject the watered-down bill as inadequate, Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law. It was the first federal law designed to protect African Americans since the end of Reconstruction. The act created the United States Commission on Civil Rights and established a civil rights division in the Justice Department, but it also required that defendants in voting rights cases receive a jury trial. The inclusion of the last provision made the act ineffectual, since white jurors in the South would not vote to convict defendants for interfering with the voting rights of African Americans.
Eisenhower hoped that the passage of the Civil Rights Act would, at least temporarily, remove the issue of civil rights from the forefront of national politics, but events in Arkansas would force him into action. The school board of Little Rock, Arkansas created a federal court-approved plan for desegregation, with the program to begin implementation at Little Rock Central High School. Fearing that desegregation would complicate his re-election efforts, Governor Orval Faubus mobilized the National Guard to prevent nine black students, known as the "Little Rock Nine," from entering Central High. Though Eisenhower had not fully embraced the cause of civil rights, he was determined to uphold federal authority and to prevent an incident that could embarrass the United States on the international stage. In addition to Faubus's refusal to withdraw the National Guard, a mob prevented the black students from attending Central High. In response, Eisenhower signed Executive order 10730, which federalized the Arkansas National Guard and ordered them to support the integration after which they protected the African American students in defiance of the Governor's command. Furthermore, Eisenhower also sent the army into Little Rock, who also ensured that the Little Rock Nine could attend Central High. Defeated, Faubus derided Eisenhower's actions, claiming that Little Rock had become "occupied territory," and in 1958 he retaliatory shut down Little Rock high schools, though the shut down was temporary.
Towards the end of his second term, Eisenhower proposed another civil rights bill designed to help protect voting rights, but Congress once again passed a bill with weaker provisions than Eisenhower had requested. Eisenhower signed the bill into law as the Civil Rights Act of 1960. By 1960, 6.4% of Southern black students attended integrated schools and thousands of black voters had registered to vote, but millions of African Americans remained disenfranchised.
Lavender Scare
Eisenhower's administration contributed to the McCarthyist Lavender Scare with President Eisenhower issuing his Executive Order 10450 in 1953. During Eisenhower's presidency, thousands of lesbian and gay applicants were barred from federal employment and over 5,000 federal employees were fired under suspicions of being homosexual. From 1947 to 1961, the number of firings based on sexual orientation were far greater than those for membership in the Communist party, and government officials intentionally campaigned to make "homosexual" synonymous with "Communist traitor" such that LGBT people were treated as a national security threat stemming from the belief they were susceptible to blackmail and exploitation.
Interstate Highway System
Eisenhower's most enduring achievements was the Interstate Highway System, which Congress authorized through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. Historian James T. Patterson describes the act as the "only important law" passed during Eisenhower's first term aside from the expansion of Social Security. In 1954, Eisenhower appointed General Lucius D. Clay to head a committee charged with proposing an interstate highway system plan. The president's support for the project was influenced by his experiences as a young army officer crossing the country as part of the 1919 Army Convoy. Summing up motivations for the construction of such a system, Clay stated,
Clay's committee proposed a 10-year, $100 billion program, which would build 40,000 miles of divided highways linking all American cities with a population of greater than 50,000. Eisenhower initially preferred a system consisting of toll roads, but Clay convinced Eisenhower that toll roads were not feasible outside of the highly populated coastal regions. In February 1955, Eisenhower forwarded Clay's proposal to Congress. The bill quickly won approval in the Senate, but House Democrats objected to the use of public bonds as the means to finance construction. Eisenhower and the House Democrats agreed to instead finance the system through the Highway Trust Fund, which itself would be funded by a gasoline tax. Another major infrastructure project, the Saint Lawrence Seaway, was also completed during Eisenhower's presidency.
In long-term perspective the Interstate Highway System was a remarkable success, that has done much to sustain Eisenhower's positive reputation. In larger cities poor rental neighborhoods were paved over—the land owners were compensated but not the black and poor white residents. Otherwise the system has been well received in retrospect. As the nation's rail system for passengers collapsed, the new highways created opportunities for city workers to commute from suburbia and delivery trucks to reach towns remote from the rail net. Suburbs became even more attractive as thousands of new subdivisions provided better schools and larger, cheaper housing than was available in the overcrowded central cities. Shopping malls were invented around 1960, and flourished for a half century. Tourism dramatically expanded as well, creating a demand for more service stations, motels, restaurants and visitor attractions. There was much more long-distance movement to the Sunbelt for winter vacations, or for permanent relocation. In rural areas, towns and small cities off the grid lost out as shoppers followed the interstate, and new factories were located where land was cheap, workers could drive instead of taking the city bus, and trucks were no longer slowed by clogged street traffic.
Space program and education
In 1955, in separate announcements four days apart, both the United States and the Soviet Union publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites within the next few years. The July 29, announcement from the White House stated that the U.S. would launch "small Earth circling satellites" between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of the American contribution to the International Geophysical Year. Americans were astonished when October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched its Sputnik 1 satellite into orbit. Three months later, a nationally televised test of the American Vanguard TV3 missile failed in an embarrassing fashion; the missile was facetiously referred to as "Flopnik" and "Stay-putnik."
To many, the success of the Soviet satellite program suggested that the Soviet Union had made a substantial leap forward in technology that posed a serious threat to U.S. national security. While Eisenhower initially downplayed the gravity of the Soviet launch, public fear and anxiety about the perceived technological gap grew. Americans rushed to build nuclear bomb shelters, while the Soviet Union boasted about its new superiority as a world power. The president was, as British prime minister Harold Macmillan observed during a June 1958 visit to the U.S., "under severe attack for the first time" in his presidency. Economist Bernard Baruch wrote in an open letter to the New York Herald Tribune titled "The Lessons of Defeat": "While we devote our industrial and technological power to producing new model automobiles and more gadgets, the Soviet Union is conquering space. ... It is Russia, not the United States, who has had the imagination to hitch its wagon to the stars and the skill to reach for the moon and all but grasp it. America is worried. It should be."
The launch spurred a series of federal government initiatives ranging from defense to education. Renewed emphasis was placed on the Explorers program (which had earlier been supplanted by Project Vanguard) to launch an American satellite into orbit; this was accomplished on January 31, 1958, with the successful launch of Explorer 1. In February 1958, Eisenhower authorized formation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency, later renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), within the Department of Defense to develop emerging technologies for the U.S. military. The new agency's first major project was the Corona satellite, which was designed to replace the U-2 spy plane as a source of photographic evidence. In 1959 he promoted the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which established NASA as a civilian space agency. It represented a consensus that he forged among key interest groups, including scientists committed to basic research; the Pentagon which had to match the Soviet military achievement; corporate America looking for new business; and a strong new trend in public opinion looking up to space exploration. NASA took over the space technology research started by DARPA, as well as the air force's manned satellite program, Man In Space Soonest, which was renamed as Project Mercury. The project's first seven astronauts were announced on April 9, 1959.
In September 1958, the president signed into law the National Defense Education Act, a four-year program that poured billions of dollars into the U.S. education system. In 1953 the government spent $153 million, and colleges took $10 million of that funding; however, by 1960 the combined funding grew almost six-fold as a result. Meanwhile, during the late 1950s and into the 1960s, NASA, the Department of Defense, and various private sector corporations developed multiple communications satellite research and development programs.
Labor unions
Union membership peaked in the mid-1950s, when unions consisted of about one-quarter of the total work force. The Congress of Industrial Organizations and the American Federation of Labor merged in 1955 to form the AFL–CIO, the largest federation of unions in the United States. Unlike some of his predecessors, AFL–CIO leader George Meany did not emphasize organizing unskilled workers and workers in the South. During the late 1940s and the 1950s, both the business community and local Republicans sought to weaken unions, partly because they played a major role in funding and campaigning for Democratic candidates. The Eisenhower administration also worked to consolidate the anti-union potential inherent in Taft–Hartley Act of 1947. Republicans sought to delegitimize unions by focusing on their shady activities, and the Justice Department, the Labor Department, and Congress all conducted investigations of criminal activity and racketeering in high-profile labor unions, especially the Teamsters Union. A select Senate committee, the McClellan Committee, was created in January 1957, and its hearings targeted Teamsters Union president James R. Hoffa as a public enemy. Public opinion polls showed growing distrust toward unions, and especially union leaders—or "labor bosses," as Republicans called them. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition, with the support of liberals such as the Kennedy brothers, won new congressional restrictions on organized labor in the 1959 Landrum-Griffin Act. The main impact of that act was to force more democracy on the previously authoritarian union hierarchies. However, in the 1958 elections, the unions fought back against state right-to-work laws and defeated many conservative Republicans.
Environmental issues
The environmental movement was starting to grow—it gained national stature by 1970. Liberals (and the Democratic Party) wanted national control of natural resources—the level at which organized ideological pressures were effective. Conservatives (and the Republican Party) wanted state or local control, whereby the financial benefit of local businesses could be decisive. In a debate going back to the early 20th century, preservationists wanted to protect the inherent natural beauty of the national parks, whereas economic maximizers wanted to build dams and divert water flows. Eisenhower articulated the conservative position in December 1953, declaring that conservation was not about "locking up and putting resources beyond the possibility of wastage or usage," but instead involved "the intelligent use of all the resources we have, for the welfare and benefit of all the American people." Liberals and environmentalists mobilized against Secretary of the Interior Douglas McKay – a businessman with little knowledge of nature. They alleged he promoted "giveaways" to mining companies regardless of environmental damage. They forced his resignation in 1956.
Eisenhower's personal activity on environmental issues came in foreign policy. He supported the Geneva Convention of 1958 that provided a strong foundation for international accords governing the use of the world's high seas, especially regarding fishing interests. Eisenhower also promoted the peaceful use of atomic energy for the production of electricity, with strong controls against diversion into nuclear weapons. However, there was little attention to nuclear waste.
Mid-term elections of 1958
The economy began to decline in mid-1957 and reached its nadir in early 1958. The Recession of 1958 was the worst economic downturn of Eisenhower's tenure, as the unemployment rate reached a high of 7.5%. The poor economy, Sputnik, the federal intervention in Little Rock, and a contentious budget battle all sapped Eisenhower's popularity, with Gallup polling showing that his approval rating dropped from 79 percent in February 1957 to 52 percent in March 1958. A controversy broke out in mid-1958 after a House subcommittee discovered that White House Chief of Staff Sherman Adams had accepted an expensive gift from Bernard Goldfine, textile manufacturer under investigation by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Adams denied the accusation that he had interfered with the FTC investigation on Goldfine's behalf, but Eisenhower forced him to resign in September 1958. As the 1958 mid-term elections approached, the Democrats attacked Eisenhower over the Space Race, the controversy relating to Adams, and other issues, but the biggest issue of the campaign was the economy, which had not yet fully recovered. Republicans suffered major defeats in the elections, as Democrats picked up over forty seats in the House and over ten seats in the Senate. Several leading Republicans, including Bricker and Senate Minority Leader William Knowland, lost their re-election campaigns.
Twenty-third Amendment
Under the original constitutional rules governing the Electoral College, presidential electors were apportioned to states only. As a result, the District of Columbia was excluded from the presidential election process. Several constitutional amendments to provide the district's citizens with appropriate rights of voting in national elections for president and vice president were introduced in Congress during the 1950s. Eisenhower was a persistent advocate for the voting rights of D.C. residents. On June 16, 1960, the 86th Congress approved a constitutional amendment extending the right to vote in presidential election to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the district electors in the Electoral College, as if it were a state. After the requisite number state legislatures ratified the proposed amendment, it became the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution on March 29, 1961.
States admitted to the Union
Eisenhower had called for the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states during his 1952 campaign, but various issues delayed their statehood. Hawaii faced opposition from Southern members of Congress who objected to the island chain's large non-white population, while concerns about military bases in Alaska convinced Eisenhower to oppose statehood for the territory early in his tenure. In 1958, Eisenhower reached an agreement with Congress on a bill that provided for the admission of Alaska and set aside large portions of Alaska for military bases. Eisenhower signed the Alaska Statehood Act into law in July 1958, and Alaska became the 49th state on January 3, 1959. Two months later, Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admission Act, and Hawaii became the 50th state on August 21, 1959.
Health issues
Eisenhower was the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office. However, people around him covered up medical information that might hurt him politically by raising doubts about his good health. On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack. Howard Snyder, his personal physician, misdiagnosed the symptoms as indigestion, and failed to call in the help that was urgently needed. Snyder later falsified his own records to cover his blunder and to protect Eisenhower's need to project that he was healthy enough to do his job. The heart attack required six weeks' hospitalization, and Eisenhower did not resume his normal work schedule until early 1956. During Eisenhower's period of recuperation, Nixon, Dulles, and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the president. Eisenhower suffered a stroke in November 1957, but he quickly recovered. His health was generally good for the remainder of his second term.
Elections during the Eisenhower presidency
1954 mid-term elections
In the 1954 mid-term elections, Democrats took control of both houses of Congress.
1956 re-election campaign
In July 1955, TIME Magazine lauded the president for bringing "prosperity to the nation," noting that, "In the 29 months since Dwight Eisenhower moved into the White House, a remarkable change has come over the nation. Blood pressure and temperature have gone down; nerve endings have healed over. The new tone could be described in a word: confidence." This sentiment was reflected by Eisenhower's Gallup poll approval rating, which ranged between 68 and 79 percent during his first term. Eisenhower's September 1955 heart attack engendered speculation about whether he would be able to seek a second term, but his doctor pronounced him fully recovered in February 1956, and soon thereafter Eisenhower announced his decision to run for reelection. Eisenhower had considered retiring after one term, but decided to run again in part because he viewed his potential successors from both parties as inadequate.
Eisenhower did not trust Nixon as able to lead the country if he acceded to the presidency, and he attempted to remove Nixon from the 1956 ticket by offering him the position of Secretary of Defense. Nixon declined the offer, and refused to take his name out of consideration for re-nomination unless Eisenhower demanded it. Unwilling to split the party, and unable to find the perfect replacement for Nixon, Eisenhower decided not to oppose Nixon's re-nomination. Though Harold Stassen and some other Republicans worked to coax someone to challenge Nixon, the vice president remained highly popular among the Republican leadership and rank-and-file voters. He was unanimously re-nominated at the 1956 Republican National Convention. Eisenhower, meanwhile, was renominated with no opposition.
At the 1956 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois, Adlai Stevenson was renominated on the first ballot, despite a strong challenge from New York governor W. Averell Harriman, who was backed by former president Truman. Stevenson announced that he would leave the choice of the candidate for vice president to the convention; he gave no indication of who he would prefer to have for a running mate. Delegates chose Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee on the second ballot.
Eisenhower campaigned on his record of economic prosperity and his Cold War foreign policy. He also attacked Democrats for allegedly blocking his legislative programs and derided Stevenson's proposal to ban the testing of nuclear weapons. Stevenson called for an acceleration of disarmament talks with the Soviet Union and increased government spending on social programs. Democrats introduced the tactic of negative television ads, generally attacking Nixon rather than Eisenhower. The Suez Crisis and the Hungarian Revolution became the focus of Eisenhower's attention in the final weeks of the campaign, and his actions in the former crises boosted his popularity.
On election day, Eisenhower won by an even greater margin than he had four years earlier, taking 457 electoral votes to Stevenson's 73. He won over 57 percent of the popular vote, taking over 35 million votes. Eisenhower maintained his 1952 gains among Democrats, especially white urban Southerners and Northern Catholics, while the growing suburbs added to his Republican base. Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia, while losing Missouri. In interviews with pollsters, his voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time, "was the response to personal qualities— to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness." Eisenhower's victory did not provide a strong coattail effect for other Republican candidates, and Democrats retained control of Congress.
1958 mid-term elections
In the 1958 mid-term elections, Democrats retained control of both houses of Congress.
1960 election and transition
The 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1951, established a two-term limit for the presidency. As the amendment had not applied to President Truman, Eisenhower became the first president constitutionally limited to two terms. Eisenhower nonetheless closely watched the 1960 presidential election, which he viewed as a referendum on his presidency. He attempted to convince Secretary of the Treasury Robert Anderson to seek the Republican nomination, but Anderson declined to enter the race. Eisenhower offered Nixon lukewarm support in the 1960 Republican primaries. When asked by reporters to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one. I don't remember." Eisenhower and Nixon in fact had become unequal friends, but learned from and respected each other. Despite the lack of strong support from Eisenhower, Nixon's successful cultivation of party elites ensured that he faced only a weak challenge from Governor Nelson Rockefeller for the Republican nomination.
The 1960 campaign was dominated by the Cold War and the economy. John F. Kennedy become the Democratic nominee; to keep Southern Democrats he chose Johnson as his running mate. Kennedy alleged a serious "missile gap" and endorsed federal aid for education, an increased minimum wage, and the establishment of a federal health insurance program for the elderly. Nixon, meanwhile, wanted to win on his own, and did not take up Eisenhower's offers for help. To Eisenhower's great disappointment, Kennedy defeated Nixon in an extremely close election.
During the campaign, Eisenhower had privately lambasted Kennedy's inexperience and connections to political machines, but after the election he worked with Kennedy to ensure a smooth transition. He personally met twice with Kennedy, emphasizing especially the danger posed by Cuba. On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office. In his farewell address, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method ..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex." Eisenhower's address reflected his fear that military spending and the desire to ensure total security would be pursued to the detriment of other goals, including a sound economy, efficient social programs, and individual liberties.
Historical reputation
Eisenhower was popular among the general public when he left office, but for a decade or two commentators viewed Eisenhower as a "do-nothing" president who left many of the major decisions to his subordinates. Paul Holbo and Robert W. Sellen state that critics portrayed Eisenhower "typically with a golf club in his hand and a broad but vapid grin on his face. [...] [L]iberal intellectuals compared him unfavorably with their standard for president, Franklin D. Roosevelt. They gave 'Ike' especially low marks for his seeming aloofness from politics, his refusal to battle publicly with Senator Joseph McCarthy, and his reluctance to assume active party leadership."
Historians writing in the 1960s were negative on Eisenhower's foreign policy, seeing "the popular general as an amiable but bumbling leader who presided over the 'great postponement' of critical national and international issues during the 1950s. They were disappointed about the lack of excitement and depth but one lesson of the Vietnam War is that excitement can be a terrible experience. Historians obtained access for the first time to Eisenhower's private papers in the 1970s, leaving historians "virtually unanimous in applauding Ike's consistent exercise of mature judgment, prudence, and restraint and in celebrating his signal accomplishment of maintaining peace and during unusually perilous periods in international relations." Liberal historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. a staunch supporter of Adlai Stevenson at the time, had his eyes opened: "the Eisenhower papers...unquestionably alter the old picture....Eisenhower showed much more energy, interest, self-confidence, purpose, cunning, and command than many of us supposed in the 1950s."
Eisenhower's reputation peaked in the early 1980s; by 1985 a postrevisionist reaction had set in, and a more complex assessment of the Eisenhower administration was being presented. The new factor was the availability of previously closed records and papers showed that Eisenhower shrewdly maneuvered behind the scenes, avoiding controversial issues while retaining control of his administration. Historians have also noted the limits of some of Eisenhower's achievements; he avoided taking strong public stances on McCarthyism or civil rights, and Cold War tensions were high at the end of his presidency. Recent polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked Eisenhower in the top quartile of presidents. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Eisenhower as the seventh best president. A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians ranked Eisenhower as the fifth best president.
Historian John Lewis Gaddis has summarized the turnaround in evaluations:
Historians long ago abandoned the view that Eisenhower's was a failed presidency. He did, after all, end the Korean War without getting into any others. He stabilized, and did not escalate, the Soviet-American rivalry. He strengthened European alliances while withdrawing support from European colonialism. He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism. He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a "military–industrial complex" that could endanger the nation's liberties. Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do.
Notes
References
Works cited
Bohri, László. "Rollback, Liberation, Containment, or Inaction? US Policy and Eastern Europe in the 1950s." Journal of Cold War Studies 1.3 (1999): 67–110. online
Dockrill, Saki (1994). "Cooperation and suspicion: The United States' alliance diplomacy for the security of Western Europe, 1953–54". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 5#1: 138–182 online
Dockrill, Saki. (1996) Eisenhower's New-Look National Security Policy, 1953–61 excerpt
The major scholarly synthesis; 645pp; online review symposium
online free to borrow
McMahon, Robert J. "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101#3 (1986), pp. 453–473, online
Further reading
References
Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation 1945–1964 (1965), Highly detailed and factual coverage of Congress and presidential politics; 1784 pages
Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961 (2002)
Kaufman, Burton I. The A to Z of the Eisenhower era (2009) online
Kaufman, Burton I. and Diane Kaufman. Historical Dictionary of the Eisenhower Era (2009), 320pp
Mayer, Michael S. The Eisenhower Years (Facts on File, 2009), 1024pp; short biographies by experts of 500 prominent figures, with some primary sources.
Olson, James S. Historical Dictionary of the 1950s (2000)
Pach, Chester J. ed. A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower (2017), new essays by experts; stress on historiography.
Schoenebaum, Eleanora, ed. Political Profiles the Eisenhower Years (1977); 757pp; short political biographies of 501 major players in politics in the 1950s.
Biographical
Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier and President (2003). A revision and condensation of his earlier two-volume Eisenhower biography.
Galambos, Louis. Eisenhower: Becoming the Leader of the Free World (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2020).
Gellman, Irwin F. The President and the Apprentice: Eisenhower and Nixon, 1952–1961 (2015).
Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002)
Hoopes Townsend, Devil and John Foster Dulles (1973) . a scholarly biography
Krieg, Joann P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman (1987). 24 essays by scholars.
Mason, Robert. "War Hero in the White House: Dwight Eisenhower and the Politics of Peace, Prosperity, and Party." in Profiles in Power (Brill, 2020) pp. 112–128.
Newton, Jim, Eisenhower: The White House Years (Random House, 2011) online; popular history
Nichols, David A. Eisenhower 1956: The President's Year of Crisis—Suez and the Brink of War (2012).
Stebenne, David L. Modern republican: Arthur Larson and the Eisenhower years (Indiana UP, 2006).
Scholarly studies
Alexander, Charles C. Holding the line: the Eisenhower era, 1952–1961 (1979) online
Allen, Craig. Eisenhower and the mass media: peace, prosperity, & prime-time TV (U of North Carolina Press) (1993)
Anderson J. W. Eisenhower, Brownell, and the Congress: The Tangled Origins of the Civil Rights Bill of 1956–1957. (U of Alabama Press, 1964).
Blas, Elisheva. "The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways: The Road to Success?." History Teacher 44.1 (2010): 127–142. online
Burrows, William E. This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. New York: Random House, 1998. 282pp
Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (Oxford UP, 1981)
Eulau Heinz, Class and Party in the Eisenhower Years. Free Press, 1962. voting behavior
Greene, John Robert. I Like Ike: The Presidential Election of 1952 (2017) excerpt
Greenstein, Fred I. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1991). online
Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption" Presidential Studies Quarterly, 27#2 (1997) pp. 333–41 in JSTOR.
Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962)
Heller, Francis H. "The Eisenhower White House." Presidential Studies Quarterly 23.3 (1993): 509–517 online.
Hitchcock, William I. The Age of Eisenhower: America and the World in the 1950s (2018). The major scholarly synthesis; 645pp; online review symposium
Holbo, Paul S. and Robert W. Sellen, eds. The Eisenhower era: the age of consensus (1974), 196pp; 20 short excerpts from primary and secondary sources online
Kabaservice, Geoffrey. Rule and ruin: The downfall of moderation and the destruction of the Republican Party, from Eisenhower to the Tea Party (Oxford UP, 2012).
Kahn, Michael A. "Shattering the myth about President Eisenhower's Supreme Court appointments." Presidential Studies Quarterly 22.1 (1992): 47–56 online.
King, James D., and James W. Riddlesperger Jr., "Presidential leadership of congressional civil rights voting: the cases of Eisenhower and Johnson." Policy Studies Journal 21.3 (1993): 544–555.
Kingseed, Cole Christian. Eisenhower and the Suez Crisis of 1956 (1995)
Krieg, Joanne P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Soldier, President, Statesman (1987), 283–296.
Medhurst; Martin J. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator (Greenwood Press, 1993).
Nichols, David A. A matter of justice: Eisenhower and the beginning of the civil rights revolution (Simon and Schuster, 2007).
Sylvia, Ronald D. "Presidential Decision Making and Leadership in the Civil Rights Era." Presidential Studies Quarterly 25#3 (1995), pp. 391–411. online
Foreign and military policy
Andrew, Christopher. For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (1995), pp. 199–256.
Bose, Meenekshi. Shaping and signaling presidential policy: The national security decision making of Eisenhower and Kennedy (Texas A&M UP, 1998).
Bowie, Robert R. and Richard H. Immerman, eds. Waging peace: how Eisenhower shaped an enduring cold war strategy (1998) online
Brands, Henry W. Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (Columbia UP, 1988).
Broadwater; Jeff. Eisenhower & the Anti-Communist Crusade (U of North Carolina Press, 1992)
Bury, Helen. Eisenhower and the Cold War arms race:'Open Skies' and the military-industrial complex (2014).
Chernus, Ira. Apocalypse Management: Eisenhower and the Discourse of National Insecurity. (Stanford UP, 2008).
Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (1981)
Divine, Robert A. Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952–1960 (1974).
Dockrill, Saki. Eisenhower's New-Look National Security Policy, 1953–61 (1996) excerpt
Falk, Stanley L. "The National Security Council under Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy." Political Science Quarterly 79.3 (1964): 403–434. online
Kaufman, Burton Ira. Trade and aid: Eisenhower's foreign economic policy, 1953–1961 (1982).
Little, Douglas. "His finest hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East crisis." Diplomatic History 20.1 (1996): 27–54. online
Melanson, Richard A. and David A. Mayers, eds. Reevaluating Eisenhower: American foreign policy in the 1950s (1989) online
Rabe, Stephen G. Eisenhower and Latin America: The foreign policy of anticommunism (1988)
Rosenberg, Victor. Soviet-American relations, 1953–1960: diplomacy and cultural exchange during the Eisenhower presidency (2005).
Taubman, William. Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (2012), Pulitzer Prize
Historiography
Broadwater, Jeff. "President Eisenhower and the Historians: Is the General in Retreat?." Canadian Review of American Studies 22.1 (1991): 47–60.
Burk, Robert. "Eisenhower Revisionism Revisited: Reflections on Eisenhower Scholarship", Historian, Spring 1988, Vol. 50, Issue 2, pp. 196–209
Catsam, Derek. "The civil rights movement and the Presidency in the hot years of the Cold War: A historical and historiographical assessment." History Compass 6.1 (2008): 314–344. online
De Santis, Vincent P. "Eisenhower Revisionism," Review of Politics 38#2 (1976): 190–208.
Hoxie, R. Gordon. "Dwight David Eisenhower: Bicentennial Considerations," Presidential Studies Quarterly 20 (1990), 263.
Joes, Anthony James. "Eisenhower Revisionism and American Politics," in Joanne P. Krieg, ed., Dwight D. Eisenhower: Soldier, President, Statesman (1987), 283–296;
Lee, R. Alton. Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Bibliography (1991) 3,660 citations to books and articles with short annotation.
McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", Journal of American History 68 (1981), pp. 625–32
McMahon, Robert J. "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly (1986) 101#3 pp. 453–73
Melanson, Richard A. and David Mayers, eds. Reevaluating Eisenhower: American Foreign Policy in the 1950s (1987)
Polsky, Andrew J. "Shifting Currents: Dwight Eisenhower and the Dynamic of Presidential Opportunity Structure," Presidential Studies Quarterly, March 2015.
Rabe, Stephen G. "Eisenhower Revisionism: A Decade of Scholarship," Diplomatic History (1993) 17#1 pp 97–115.
Reichard, Gary W. "Eisenhower as President: The Changing View," South Atlantic Quarterly 77 (1978): 265–82
Schlesinger Jr., Arthur. "The Ike Age Revisited," Reviews in American History (1983) 11#1 pp. 1–11
Streeter, Stephen M. "Interpreting the 1954 U.S. Intervention In Guatemala: Realist, Revisionist, and Postrevisionist Perspectives," History Teacher (2000) 34#1 pp 61–74. online
Primary sources
Adams, Sherman. Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration. 1961. by Ike's chief of staff
Benson, Ezra Taft. Cross Fire: The Eight Years with Eisenhower (1962) Secretary of Agriculture * Brownell, Herbert and John P. Burke. Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell (1993).
Eisenhower, Dwight D. Mandate for Change, 1953–1956, Doubleday and Co., 1963; his memoir
Eisenhower, Dwight D. The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961, Doubleday and Co., 1965; his memoir
Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower The 21 volume Johns Hopkins print edition of Eisenhower's papers includes: The Presidency: The Middle Way (vols. 14–17) and The Presidency: Keeping the Peace (vols. 18–21), his private letters and papers online at subscribing libraries
Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers, covers 1953 through end of term in 1961. based on White House press releases online
Hughes, Emmet John. The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years. 1963. Ike's speechwriter
Nixon, Richard M. The Memoirs of Richard Nixon 1978.
Documentary History of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidency (13 vol. University Publications of America, 1996) online table of contents
External links
Miller Center on the Presidency at U of Virginia, brief articles on Eisenhower and his presidency
Papers and Records of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Eisenhower, Dwight D.
1950s in the United States
1960s in the United States
Dwight D. Eisenhower
1953 establishments in the United States
1961 disestablishments in the United States |
4539191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario%20Highway%208 | Ontario Highway 8 | King's Highway 8, commonly referred to as Highway 8, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The route travels from Highway 21 in Goderich, on the shores of Lake Huron, to Highway 5 in the outskirts of Hamilton near Lake Ontario. Before the 1970s, it continued east through Hamilton and along the edge of the Niagara Escarpment to the American border at the Whirlpool Bridge in Niagara Falls. However, the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW) replaced the role of Highway8 between those two cities, and the highway was subsequently transferred from the province to the newly formed Regional Municipality of Niagara in 1970. In 1998, the remaining portion east of Peters Corners was transferred to the city of Hamilton.
Between Stratford and Kitchener, Highway8 is concurrent with Highway 7. The two highways widen into a four-lane freeway east of New Hamburg, eventually becoming the Conestoga Parkway within Kitchener, where it splits with Highway7. It follows a short connector freeway – known as the Freeport Diversion, King Street Bypass, or Highway 8 expressway – south to Highway 401. The route continues as the locally maintained Regional Road 8 (King Street East) through downtown Cambridge before resuming as a provincial highway at Branchton Road and soon after that entering the city of Hamilton. Highway8 ends east of Peters Corners at an intersection with Hamilton Road8.
Highway8 was one of the first roads assumed when the provincial highway system was established, though it was not numbered until 1925. The routes that predate the highway, including the Huron Road, and the Queenston Stone Road, were established during the settlement of Southwestern Ontario between 1780 and 1830. These early trails served as the principal routes in the regions through which they passed and eventually became part of the provincial highway system circa 1918.
Route description
Highway8 is a route that connects the shores of Lake Huron at Goderich with the head of Lake Ontario in Hamilton. Portions of the highway through Goderich, Clinton, Seaforth, Mitchell and Stratford are locally-maintained under a Connecting Link Agreement with the provincial government.
Highway8 begins at its western terminus in downtown Goderich, at a junction with Highway 21, within Huron County. It exits the town travelling southeast as a rural two-lane highway running roughly parallel and south of the Maitland River, passing through farmland outside of the many small communities it serves. At Holmesville, the river moves northwards while the highway continues southeast, now parallel to and north of the Goderich–Exeter Railway. Soon after, it passes through Clinton, where it intersects the northern terminus of Highway 4. Highway8 is completely straight for approximately between Clinton and Stratford. After bisecting Seaforth, the highway enters Perth County and passes through the communities of Dublin, Mitchell (where it intersects Highway 23) and Sebringville.
Entering Stratford as Huron Street, Highway8 widens to four lanes. It crosses the Avon River, then turns east onto Ontario Street before encountering Highway7 at Erie Street. The two routes become concurrent for the next , between Stratford and Kitchener. East of Stratford, the highway narrows back to two lanes and travels north of and parallel to the CN railway Guelph Subdivision. After passing through the village of Shakespeare, the route enters the Regional Municipality of Waterloo as it widens to four lanes and curves onto the New Hamburg Bypass. It travels south of New Hamburg and crosses the Nith River before becoming a divided four-lane freeway near Baden. At Trussler Road, the combined Highway7/8 enters the city of Kitchener, where it is known as the Conestoga Parkway.
The Conestoga Parkway runs through Kitchener, widening to a six-lane freeway near Fischer Hallman Road. At King Street in the city's centre, Highway8 splits off southeastward at an interchange, while Highway7 continues along the Conestoga Parkway. Traffic on Highway8 heading northwest can continue under the Conestoga Parkway onto King Street into downtown Kitchener.
Between the Conestoga Parkway and Highway401, Highway8 follows an eight-lane freeway known as the Freeport Diversion or Highway8 Expressway.
The expressway initially travels southeast, passing under Franklin Street before swerving slightly south. It crosses over the Grand River at its midpoint, followed by a partial interchange with King Street East that provides access to Highway401 westbound to London. The expressway narrows to six lanes and later to four lanes at Sportsworld Drive. It merges to eastbound Highway401 and from westbound 401.
The maintains approximately of King Street and Shantz Hill Road at the Highway401 interchange as an unsigned portion of Highway8.
Within Cambridge, the route continues as Waterloo Regional Road 8 along Shantz Hill Road, Fountain Street, King Street, Coronation Boulevard, and Dundas Street.
Highway8 resumes at Branchton Road, where it exits urban Cambridge into farmland travelling southeast. After approximately , the route enters Hamilton. It bypasses the communities of Sheffield and Rockton before eventually reaching Peters Corners, where it meets the western terminus of Highway5 at a multilane roundabout. Highway8 ends to the east at an intersection with Hamilton Road8.
History
Predecessors (1780–1918)
While its history as a provincial highway dates back to 1918, significant portions of the roads that would be taken over by the province and eventually designated as Highway8 had existed for nearly a century or longer. These include the Huron Road between Berlin (renamed Kitchener in 1916) and Goderich, which was built ;
the Dundas and the Hamilton Stone Road that were established in 1819 along a trail blazed between Hamilton and Berlin in 1798;
and the Queenston Road (later the Queenston Stone Road or the Queenston and Grimsby Stone Road),
established along an aboriginal trail at the foot of the Niagara Escarpment in the 1780s.
When settlers began arriving in the Niagara Peninsula following the American Revolution and the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, natives were non-existent in the area, the local tribe having been ravaged over a century earlier. Trails crisscrossed the peninsula, with the dominant routes favouring an east–west orientation. The most significant of these was the Iroquois Trail that traversed along the foot of the Niagara Escarpment. In the east, Queenston provided an ideal crossing of the Niagara River. In the west, the escarpment breaks at Dundas, where the trail continued towards the Grand River at present-day Brantford, thus providing a portage between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. The Iroquois Trail was utilised by famous historical figures, including John Graves Simcoe in 1793 on his voyage to Detroit, as well as during the War of 1812. It was widened to accommodate wagon traffic by 1785.
Between approximately 1800 and 1820, large numbers of German and Dutch settlers from Pennsylvania travelled west across the Niagara Peninsula and onward to the Waterloo area. A trail cut from Hamilton to the Grand River, at Galt, in 1798 or 1799, was gradually widened to be fit for wagons by 1819. While Niagara-on-the-Lake served as the initial focal point of settlement into southwestern Ontario, Hamilton emerged in 1816 at the head of Lake Ontario, and immediately became the new hub for settlers. The route between Hamilton and Waterloo was improved to a stone road circa 1836.
Over the years the route was known by various names, including the Waterloo Road, the Galt Road, the Old Dutch Road, the Beverly Road, and most often the Dundas and Hamilton Stone Road.
Settlement beyond Waterloo was accomplished by the Canada Company, which acquired the Huron Tract in 1826.
In order to implement the grand settlement plan, a trail was surveyed by Mahlon Burwell and William Dunlop from Guelph to Lake Huron at the mouth of the Maitland River beginning in 1827. After company commissioner Thomas Mercer Jones rode the muddy trail from Guelph to Goderich in June 1829, he recommended that it be widened to four rods (), which was done by the end of that year by Colonel Anthony Van Egmond. The trail was further improved to allow for the passage of wagons by 1832. The Canada Company venture would ultimately fail, but not before establishing the present-day settlement patterns.
Designation and paving (1918–1949)
Until 1918, the majority of the primary roads through southern Ontario formed part of the County Road System. The Department of Public Works and Highways paid up to 60% of the construction and maintenance costs for these roads, while the counties were responsible for the remaining 40%. The Ontario government passed an act in 1917 to permit the newly formed Department of Public Highways (DPHO) to take over (or assume) responsibility and upkeep of a provincial highway system. The initial system, between Windsor and Quebec, was bookended by branches to Niagara and Ottawa.
The branch to Niagara would become the first provincial highway connection to the United States, and later become the easternmost portion of Highway8.
The Hamilton–Queenston Highway was assumed as part of "The Provincial Highway" in August 1918.
In 1919, the federal government passed the Canada Highways Act, which provided C$20,000,000 to provinces under the condition that they establish an official highway network; up to 40% of construction costs would be subsidized. The first network plan was approved on February26, 1920, and included the Queenston Road.
Most of the remainder of what would become Highway8 – from Goderich to Hamilton – was assumed by the department throughout July 1920.
On October13, several roads were taken over by the province between St. David's near Queenston and the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge in Niagara Falls. The new route followed the present Four Mile Creek Road, St. Paul Avenue, and Portage Road south to Thorold Stone Road, which it followed east to Stanley Avenue, thence south to Bridge Street.
However, none of these roads would receive a route number until the summer of 1925.
Initially Highway8 was almost entirely unpaved, except within towns and portions between Stratford and Shakespeare as well as between Kitchener and Hamilton. During the initial few years of the existence of the highway network, which were spent rebuilding culverts, bridges, and ditches, paving took a low priority. The first sections of Highway8 paved by the DPHO were in 1922 between Hamilton and Stoney Creek, as well as between Sebringville and Stratford.
The rest of the highway between Hamilton and Niagara Falls, as well as the remaining gaps between Kitchener and Hamilton, were paved the following year. Work was completed between Shakespeare and New Hamburg, as well as on the gaps between Petersburg and Kitchener in 1924. In 1925, paving between Mitchell and Sebringville was completed.
At this time, Highway8 was paved from Mitchell to New Hamburg, and from Petersburg to Niagara Falls.
In 1926, paving was completed for southeast of Goderich, as well as between Dublin and Mitchell. The following year, it was completed on the remaining gap between Goderich and Clinton, as well as between Seaforth and Dublin.
The final unpaved section of Highway8, between Clinton and Seaforth,
was completed in 1928.
Bypasses and the Conestoga Parkway (1949–1970)
Highway8 would remain unchanged for approximately 20years until bypasses of several cities and towns along the route were built. The first such bypass was in Kitchener, where until 1949, the highway travelled into and out of the downtown core along King Street and Queen Street before following Highland Road west towards Stratford.
By 1950, to divert truck traffic from the King and Queen Street intersection, it was redirected slightly along Ottawa Street and Courtland Avenue.
The New Hamburg Diversion opened in 1957, bypassing its namesake as well as the community of Baden. The original route – following Huron Street, Waterloo Street, and Snyder's Street West – met the new bypass at Gingerich Road east of Baden.
Farther east, two bypasses were constructed around the villages of Rockton and Sheffield beginning in 1958 that opened the following year.
Within Hamilton, growing congestion in the 1950s led the city to hire American traffic engineer Wilbur Smith, who had made a business of consulting for cities to develop one-way street plans.
Smith proposed a complete reorganisation of the downtown area, including converting Main Street – which Highway8 followed through the city
– to an eastbound one-way. King Street served the opposing direction in the one-way pairing. The switch from two-way to one-way traffic took place on October28, 1956. It immediately drew condemnation from local businesses, which saw a significant reduction in customers. A special council meeting to discuss the matter was held on July15, 1957, which drew a large public audience. At it, alderman Ramsey Evans, a member of the committee that had first suggested the one-way conversion, sought to undo it. The motion was defeated, and Main Street and King Street remain one-way streets.
In the fall of 1961, the Department of Highways began construction of the Freeport Diversion, providing a new divided highway crossing of the Grand River. The diversion, connecting with King Street south of the Grand River and at Fergus Street, was completed in 1963.
Although the concept of a ring road around Kitchener and Waterloo originated from the Kitchener-Waterloo and Suburban Planning Board in 1948,
actual consideration was not given to it until it was recommended by a 1961 traffic study.
By then, the opening of Highway401 was attracting business away from the rapidly growing twin cities. Land was gradually purchased over the intervening years and picked up considerably when plans for the expressway system were first raised in late 1962.
The provincial government reached a funding arrangement with Kitchener and Waterloo to cover 75% of the expected C$22 million cost, and officially announced the Kitchener–Waterloo Expressway on May21, 1964.
The province eventually took over authority for the entire project in August 1965.
Construction of the Kitchener–Waterloo Expressway began in February 1966 with the awarding of a C$3 million contract to rebuild of King Street into a four lane divided highway from Fairway Road (renamed from Block Line Road) to Doon Road,
including the half cloverleaf interchange that would serve the western and northern legs of the expressway system.
In the mid-to-late 1960s, Highway8 was redirected along Fairway Road, Mill Street (now Vanier Drive) and a new road named Henry Sturm Boulevard that travelled east from Ottawa Street and Highland Road to Mill Street.
The expressway was renamed the Conestoga Parkway in January 1967, after being chosen by a joint committee from a shortlist of 12 publicly-submitted names.
The reconstruction of King Street was completed and opened in November 1967.
Construction began several months later in October on a C$3.6 million contract to build a segment of the parkway from King Street to west of Homer Watson Boulevard.
This section, which was built along the alignment of Henry Strum Boulevard, was opened to traffic between Courtland Avenue and King Street on November25, 1968,
at which point the Highway8 designation was redirected along King Street and the Conestoga Parkway to Homer Watson Boulevard, via Henry Strum Boulevard, and onto Highland Road.
Transfers and expressway extensions (1970–1997)
During the 1960s, the Department of Highways undertook several regional transportation studies to determine traffic patterns, which had changed significantly since the highway network was established in the 1920s. Among these was the Niagara Peninsula Planning Study, released in 1964. It indicated that several highways were no longer provincially significant, and responsibility for them should be transferred to local government. Having largely been supplanted by the Queen Elizabeth Way, opened in the 1940s, the winding route of Highway8 east of Winona was transferred to the new Regional Municipality of Niagara on September1, 1970.
The region designated the former highway as Regional Road81.
Meanwhile, work continued on the Conestoga Parkway in the early 1970s, with a section between Courtland Avenue and Fischer-Hallman Drive opening on September1, 1971.
Around this time, construction was underway on a new two lane alignment of Highway7/8, first announced in 1963, to connect the New Hamburg Diversion with the Conestoga Parkway. It opened on August13, 1973, bypassing Baden; the former alignment east of New Hamburg is now known as Gingerich Road.
During the mid-1970s, proposals for a Highway8 bypass of Cambridge were floated, but never gained traction.
Although the proposal was shelved in 1988,
the bypass idea was briefly revived as a result of recommendations in the Cambridge Area Transportation Study, released in June 1992. It recommended construction of a C$54.5 million bypass of Highway8 around the west side of Cambridge, from Highway401 to south of the city. The proposal faced public backlash due to the cost as well as environmental concerns of crossing the Grand River and five environmentally sensitive areas.
Following the completion of an environmental assessment in 1984,
construction began by 1985 on a new freeway link between the Freeport Diversion and Highway401, which was known as Highway8 New during construction.
Highway8 New was completed by 1988, and received the non-public designation Highway7187, since the Highway8 designation continued along King Street East and Shantz Hill Road towards Cambridge. However, in 2008, Highway8 was rerouted along the freeway segment, while King Street East and Shantz Hill Road were re-designated as Waterloo Regional Road8.
The province continues to maintain approximately of Waterloo Regional Road8 at the Highway401 interchange as an unsigned portion of Highway.8.
The two lane segment of Highway 7/8 from Fischer-Hallman Road west to Baden was originally slated to be twinned to four lanes in the 1980s, but the project was put off for a decade. Early works tree clearing got underway in 1991 before the project was put on hold for archeological excavations.
Construction began to widen the route as far west as Waterloo Regional Road12 (Queen Street), south of Petersburg, on July6, 1992, with a planned completion by August 1993.
Budget constraints brought on by a recession in the 1990s resulted in the Mike Harris provincial government forming the Who Does What? committee to determine cost-cutting measures in order to balance the budget after a deficit incurred by former premier Bob Rae.
It was determined that many Ontario highways no longer served long-distance traffic movement and should therefore be maintained by local or regional levels of government. The MTO consequently transferred many highways to lower levels of government in 1997 and 1998, which resulted in the removal of a significant percentage of the provincial highway network.
As a result of this, the portion of Highway8 east of Highway5 at Peters Corners, through Dundas, Hamilton and Stoney Creek, was transferred to the Regional Municipality of Hamilton–Wentworth on April1, 1997. A section of King Street in Kitchener, from north of the Highway401 interchange to the Freeport Diversion, was also transferred on that day to the Regional Municipality of Waterloo.
Since 1997
In the early 1990s, the provincial government announced plans to widen the Conestoga Parkway and Freeport Diversion, as well as to improve the interchange between the two.
The project was broken into several phases, and included rebuilding the Ottawa Street and Franklin Street overpasses.
Construction began in August or September 1998 to widen the Conestoga Parkway from four to six lanes between Courtland Avenue and King Street.
It was completed, along with widening of the parkway between King Street and Frederick Street, in July 2000.
The expansion of Highway8 from four lanes to eight lanes between the Conestoga Parkway and Fergus Avenue was originally scheduled to begin in 2001, but was delayed as businesses along Weber Street fought expropriation.
Construction instead began in April 2002, which involved shifting one of the retaining walls further north and a new Franklin Street bridge to accommodate the eight lane cross-section freeway. Included with this project was a reconstruction of the bottle-necked interchange of the Conestoga Parkway and Highway8, including a new flyover ramp from westbound Conestoga Parkway to eastbound Highway8 to replace one of the two loop ramps, and realignment of the northbound to eastbound ramp.
Both were completed and opened on June11, 2004.
Work began on the next phase, widening Highway8 from four to eight lanes from Fergus Avenue to northwest of the Grand River, in April 2006. This work included rebuilding the Fairway Road interchange.
Construction to twin Highway8 over the Grand River and widen it northwest of the Sportsworld Drive interchange began in the summer of 2009, following the relocation of approximately 50 Wavy-rayed lampmussel, considered a species at risk in Canada.
Both projects were completed and opened, except for one westbound lane over the Grand River, in November 2011; the fourth westbound lane was opened the following year.
An operational and safety review of the three intersections at Peters Corners near Hamilton was undertaken in February 2001. Studies, including an environmental assessment were conducted between 2004 and 2009, and settled upon a roundabout as the ideal replacement, with traffic signals at the two intersections with Westover Road.
Construction began in the spring of 2012, and the C$6.3 million roundabout was opened on September25, 2012.
Future
The interchange between the Freeport Diversion and Highway401 is incomplete, providing access only between eastbound Highway8 and eastbound Highway401, and between westbound Highway401 and westbound Highway8.
Although a detailed design for two additional ramps to provide access to and from the west to Highway8 was prepared in 2010, there is no schedule or funding as of 2021 for this work.
Suffixed routes
Major intersections
See also
Royal eponyms in Canada
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Highway 8 – Length and Route on Google Maps
Video of the King Street Bypass (Highway 8)
History of Highway 8 in Niagara (pp. 15–26)
008
Roads in Hamilton, Ontario
Roads in Kitchener, Ontario
Transport in Stratford, Ontario
Roads in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo |
4539254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20compositions%20by%20Max%20Reger | List of compositions by Max Reger | Max Reger was a German composer of the late-Romantic period. His works are initially listed by Opus number (Op.), followed by works without Op. number (WoO). Other features shown are translation of titles, key, scoring, year of composition, genre, information about texts and their authors, a link to the Max-Reger-Institute, which provides detailed information about times of composition, performance and publishing, and a link to the free score when available.
History
Reger was a German composer, born in Brand in 1873. He studied music theory in Sondershausen, then piano and theory, in Wiesbaden. The first compositions to which he assigned opus numbers were chamber music and Lieder. A pianist himself, he composed works for both piano and organ.
Reger returned to his parental home in 1898, where he composed his first work for choir and orchestra, (Hymn to singing), Op. 21. He moved to Munich in 1901. In 1907 he was appointed musical director at the Leipzig University and professor at the Royal Conservatory in Leipzig.
In 1911 Reger was appointed Hofkapellmeister (music director) at the court of Duke Georg II of Saxe-Meiningen, retaining his master class at the Leipzig conservatory. In 1913 he composed four tone poems on paintings by Arnold Böcklin (Vier Tondichtungen nach A. Böcklin), including Die Toteninsel (Isle of the Dead), as his Op. 128. He gave up the court position in 1914 for health reasons. In response to World War I, he thought in 1914 already to compose a choral work to commemorate the fallen of the war. He began to set the Latin Requiem but abandoned the work as a fragment. In 1915 he moved to Jena, still teaching in Leipzig. He composed in Jena the Hebbel Requiem for soloist, choir and orchestra. Reger died in Leipzig on 11 May 1916.
Reger assigned opus numbers to major works himself. In his compositions for solo voices and for choirs, he set poems by notable lyricists, including contemporaries, such as Gabriele D'Annunzio, Otto Julius Bierbaum, Joseph von Eichendorff, Friedrich Hebbel, Detlev von Liliencron and Friedrich Rückert.
Table of compositions
Reger's works with an opus number are listed first, then works designated as WoO (work without opus number). Details to compositions follow, such as song titles and names of poets for a collection of songs. The scoring is given if it cannot be recognized from the title or the genre: for example songs (Lieder, Gesänge) are normally for voice and piano, in a sonata the named solo instrument is usually accompanied by piano, and choral works are for four-part choir a cappella, unless otherwise noted.
When the opus number provides a link, it leads to more details about a work, such as the titles, markings and keys of its parts. The last column provides two link for reference, when available: one to the detailed information on the piece by the Max-Reger-Institute (in German), which appears as "MR" and the number on the website, the other to a free score (sc).
sc
Other works
Castra vetera, incidental music (1889-1890)
Heroide, symphonic movement for orchestra, D minor (1889)
Symphonic movement for orchestra, D minor (1890)
Grande Valse de Concert for piano, "Op. 378" (1891)
Six chorale preludes for organ (1893–1908)
"O Traurigkeit"
"Komm, süßer Tod"
"Christ ist erstanden"
"O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden"
"Es kommt ein Schiff, geladen"
"Wie schön leucht't uns der Morgenstern"
Violin parts for six sonatinas, Op. 36 by Clementi (before 1895)
Etude Brillante for piano, C minor (1896)
Three Album Leafs for piano (1898/1899)
Miniature Gavotte (s.a.)
Allegretto grazioso
Andante
Introduction and Passacaglia for organ, D minor (1899)
Prelude for organ, C minor (1900)
Three sacred songs for mezzo / baritone and organ (1900/1903)
Variations and Fugue on "Heil unserm König" for organ, C major (1901)
Fünf Spezialstudien (Bearbeitungen Chopin'scher Werke) (1898–1899) MR203
Four pieces for piano (1901/1906)
Romanze, D major (1906)
Improvisation, E minor (1901)
Nachtstück (1903)
Perpetuum mobile, C major (1902)
Prelude and Fugue for organ, D minor, (1902)
Romanze for harmonium, A minor (1904)
Two pieces for piano (1906)
Caprice, F-sharp minor
Prelude and fugue for organ, G-sharp minor (1906)
Vater unser for 12-part choir (1909) (completed by Hasse)
An Zeppelin for 4-part men's or children's choir (1909)
Twenty Responsories for choir (1911)
Prelude and fugue for organ, F-sharp minor (1912)
Marsch der Stiftsdamen for piano (1914)
Details of sets of compositions with Opus number
Drei Orgelstücke (Three organ pieces), Op. 7 (1892)
Prelude and Fugue, C major
Fantasy on 'Te Deum laudamus', A minor
Fugue, D minor
Fünf Lieder (Five songs), Op. 8 (1892)
"Waldlied" (Uhland)
"Tränen im Auge" (v. Wildenbruch)
"Der Kornblumenstrauss" (v. Wildenbruch)
"Scherz" (v. Chamisso)
"Bauernregel" (Uhland)
Twelve Waltz-Caprices for 4-hand Piano, Op. 9 (1892)
Allegro, A major
Presto, D major
Andante (con passione), F-sharp minor
Lento impetuoso, F-sharp major
Allegro moderato (quasi andantino), D major
Prestissimo, A major
Moderato, C-sharp minor
Allegro non tanto, A-flat major
Andantino, E-flat major
Vivace, B-flat minor
Allegro scherzando, A-flat major
Allegro impetuoso, D-flat major
Zwanzig Deutsche Tänze (Twenty German Dances) for 4-hand piano, Op. 10 (1892) (also in orchestral arrangement for small orchestra by L. Artok)
Allegretto, D major
G minor
Innocente, A major
D minor
Con anima ed scherzando, E major
Allegro, C-sharp minor
Cantabile, A-flat major
Appassionato, F minor
Allegretto, B-flat major
Grazioso andantino, D major
Impetuoso, E major
Allegretto, A major
Andantino ma non troppo, B minor
Innocente, F major
Scherzando, G minor
Appassionato (non allegro), F minor
Andantino, A-flat major
Presto, C-sharp minor
Giocoso, B major
Con bravoura, E major
Seven Waltzes for piano, Op. 11 (1893)
Allegro ma non troppo, A major (also in arrangement for violin and piano by S. Dushkin)
Semplice, C-sharp minor
Moderato, D major
Grazioso, A-flat major
Commodo, E major
Melancolique (Lento), F-sharp minor
Allegro vivace, A major
Five songs (in the style of Franz Schubert), Op. 12 (1893)
"Friedhofgesang" (Kleinschmidt)
"Das arme Vögelein" (v. Gilm)
"Wenn ich's nur wüsst" (Ehlen)
"Gruß" (Michaeli)
"Um dich" (Kurz)
Lose Blätter for piano, Op. 13 (1894)
Petite Romance (Andante), F minor
Valsette (Allegretto grazioso), A-flat major
Scherzoso (Vivace), B-flat major
Moment Musical (Andantino), A-flat major
Petite Caprice (Allegretto), B flat minor
Prélude et Fugue (Andantino (semplice) – Allegretto), F major
Sarabande (Grave), D minor
(Largo), B minor
Danse des Paysans (Commodo), A major
Chant sans Paroles, E major
Appassionato (Vivace), C-sharp minor
Choral (Andante), D major
Marcia Funèbre, C minor (also in orchestral arrangement by Lothar Windsperger)
À la Hongroise (Allegro), F minor
Five duets for soprano, alto and piano, Op. 14 (1894)
"Nachts" (Eichendorff)
"Abendlied" (Goethe)
"Sommernacht" (Saul)
"Gäb's ein einzig Brünnelein" (from Tuscany)
"O frage nicht" (Nawrocki)
Ten songs for medium voice and piano, Op. 15 (1894)
"Glück" (Rohrscheidt)
"Das Blatt im Buche" (Grün)
"Nelken" (Storm)
"Traum" (Eichendorff)
"Das Mädchen spricht" (Prutz)
"Scheiden" (Saul)
"Der Schelm" (R.)
"Leichtsinniger Rat" (Saul)
"Verlassen hab' ich mein Lieb" (Engel)
"Trost" (Falke)
Suite for organ No. 1, E minor, Op. 16 (1894–1895) (also in 4-hand piano arrangement by Reger)
Introduction (Grave) and Fugue (Allegro ma non tanto)
Adagio assai
Intermezzo (Un poco Allegro, ma non troppo) and Trio (Andantino)
Passacaglia (Andante)
Aus der Jugendzeit for piano, Op. 17 (1895)
Frohsinn (Allegretto), A major
Hasche mich! (Grazioso), C major
Ein Spielchen! (Andantino), F major
Das tote Vöglein (Andante espressivo), E minor
Über Stock und Stein (Presto), D minor
Was die Grossmutter erzählt (Andante espressivo), G major
Ein Tänzchen (Allegro), G minor
Bange Frage (Andante), A minor
Weihnachtstraum (Andantino), A major (Fantasy on Silent Night)
Großes Fest (Allegro à la marcia), B flat major
Abendgesang (Andante con espressione), D major
Fast zu keck! (Allegro vivace), F major
Frühlingslust (Vivace), C major
Kleiner Trotzkopf (Vivace), E minor
Reigen (Allegretto grazioso), G major
Fast zu ernst! (Fughette – Andante con espressione), G minor
A la Gigue (Presto assai), E minor
Nordischer Tanz (Allegretto), D major
Erster Streit (Agitato), D minor
Versöhnung (Cantabile), A major
Eight improvisations for piano, Op. 18 (1896)
Allegretto con grazia, E major
Andantino, B minor
Caprice (Allegro vivace), G minor
Andante sepmlice, D major
Moderato, ma marcato, C minor
Allegretto con grazia, C-sharp minor
Vivace assai, F major
Etude brillante (Allegro con brio), C minor
Two sacred songs for medium voice and organ, Op. 19 (1898)
"Passionslied"
"Doch du ließest ihn im Grabe nicht!"
Five Humoresques for piano, Op. 20 (1898)
Allegretto grazioso, D major
Presto – Andante (con grandezza), B minor
Andantino grazioso, A major
Prestissimo assai, C major
Vivace assai, G minor
Six Waltzes for 4-hand piano, Op. 22 (1898)
Allegro, E major
Più vivace, A major
Allegretto, B major
Moderato (quasi Andantino), C-sharp minor
Vivace, B major
Allegro vivace, E major
Four songs, Op. 23 (1898)
"Das kleinste Lied" (Hamerling)
"Pythia" (Ritter)
"Das sterbende Kind" (Geibel)
"Vom Küssen!" (Ritter)
Six pieces for piano, Op. 24 (1898)
Valse-Impromptu (Grazioso) E major
Menuett (Allegretto grazioso) B minor (reworked for orchestra and salon orchestra by Ernst Schmidt-Köthen)
Rêverie fantastique (Quasi improvisato) F-sharp minor
Un moment musical (Andantino) C major
Chant de la nuit (Moderato) E major
Rhapsodie (in the style of J. Brahms) (Agitato) E minor
Aquarellen for piano, Op. 25 (1897–1898)
Canzonetta (Allegretto con espressione) A minor
Humoreske (Allegro molto e con leggierezza) G major
Impromptu (Poco agitato) E minor
Nordische Ballade (Pesante) C minor
Mazurka (Allegretto grazioso) E-flat major
Seven fantasy pieces for piano, Op. 26 (1898)
Elegie (Andante sostenuto con espressione) E minor (also in orchestral arrangement)
Scherzo (Allegro grazioso) E major
Barcarole (Andantino) F major
Humoreske (Vivace (ma non troppo)) C minor
Resignation (Andante espressivo) A major (composed 3 April 1898, the anniversary of Brahms's death, using the main theme from the slow movement of his Symphony No. 4) (reworked for organ by Richard Lange)
Impromptu (Presto agitato) B minor
Capriccio (Vivace assai) C minor
Fantasia and Fugue for organ, C minor, Op. 29 (1898) (reworked for Piano 4-hand by Richard Lange)
Six Poems by Anna Ritter for medium voice, Op. 31 (1898)
"Allein"
"Ich glaub', lieber Schatz"
"Unbegehrt"
"Und hab' so große Sehnsucht doch"
"Mein Traum"
"Schlimme Geschichte"
Seven character pieces for piano, Op. 32 (1899)
Improvisation (Agitato ed appassionato) C-sharp minor
Capriccio (A study) (Vivace assai) B minor
Burleske (Vivo) C major
Intermezzo (Agitato ed apassionato (Vivace, ma non troppo)) F-sharp minor
Intermezzo (Andante) C major
Humoreske (Prestissimo assai) G minor
Impromptu (Con passione e vivace) B minor
Five pittoresque pieces for 4-hand piano, Op. 34 (1899)
Allegretto con moto B minor
Prestissimo A minor
Vivace assai G minor
Andantino (Con moto) A minor
Con moto (Vivace) D minor
Nine Bunte Blätter for piano, Op. 36 (1899)
Humoreske (Vivace assai) G minor
Albumblatt (Andantino) F major
Capriccietto (Vivace assai) E minor
Reigen (Allegretto grazioso) D major
Gigue (Vivace assai) A minor
Elegie (Andantino sostenuto (ma non troppo)) E minor
Valse-Impromptu (Con moto) D minor
Capriccio (A study) (Vivace assai) C minor
Rêverie (Andante con espressione) F major
Five songs, Op. 37 (1899)
"Helle Nacht" (Verlaine)
"Volkslied" (Ritter)
"Glückes genug" (Liliencron)
"Frauenhaar" (Bierbaum)
"Nächtliche Pfade" (Stieler)
Seven songs for men's chorus, Op. 38 (1899)
"Ausfahrt" (Scheffel)
"Frühlingsruf" (Kleber)
"Über die Berge!" (Ernst)
"Wie ist doch die Erde so schön!" (Reinick)
"Frohsinn" (after v. Klump)
"Abendreihn" (Müller)
"Hell ins Fenster" (Groth)
Three songs for 6-part (SAATBB) choir, Op. 39 (1899)
"Schweigen" (Falke)
"Abendlied" (Plinke)
"Frühlingsblick" (Lenau)
Four violin solo sonatas, Op. 42 (1900)
D minor
A major
B minor
G minor
Eight songs, Op. 43 (1900)
"Zwischen zwei Nächten" (Falke)
"Müde" (Falke)
"Meinem Kinde" (Falke)
"Abschied" (Wiener)
"Wiegenlied" (Dehmel) (also in orchestral arrangement)
"Die Betrogene spricht" (Ritter)
"Mein Herz" (Wiener)
"Sag es nicht" (Wiener)
Ten little pieces for piano, Op. 44 (1900)
Albumblatt (Mit Ausdruck, nicht zu langsam) B minor
Burletta (Sehr lebhaft, mit Humor) G minor
Es war einmal (Mässig langsam und ausdrucksvoll) E minor
Capriccio (Sehr rasch) A minor
Moment musical (Anmutig, etwas lebhaft) C-sharp minor
Scherzo (Sehr schnell) D major
Humoreske (Lebhaft) B minor
Fughette (Mässig langsam) A minor
Gigue (So schnell als möglich) D minor
Capriccio (Sehr schnell; mit Humor) C major
Six intermezzi for piano, Op. 45 (1900)
(Sehr aufgeregt und schnell) D minor
(Äußerst lebhaft, anmutig) D-flat major
(Langsam, mit leidenschaftlichem, durchaus phantastischem Ausdruck) E-flat minor
(So schnell als möglich, mit Humor) C major
(Mit großer Leidenschaft und Energie) G minor
(So schnell als nur irgend möglich) E minor
Six organ trios, Op. 47 (1900)
Canon (Andante) E major
Gigue (Vivacissimo) D minor
Canzonetta (Andantino) A minor
Scherzo (Vivacissimo) A major
Siciliano (Andantino) E minor
Fugue (Vivace) C minor
Seven songs for medium voice, Op. 48 (1900)
"Hütet euch" (Geibel)
"Leise Lieder" (Morgenstern)
"Im Arm der Liebe" (Hartleben)
"Ach, Liebster, in Gedanken" (Stona)
"Junge Ehe" (Ubell) (on a theme from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde)
"Am Dorfsee" (Wiener)
"Unvergessen" (Frey)
Two clarinet sonatas, Op. 49 (1900)
A-flat major
F-sharp minor
Two romances for violin and small orchestra, Op. 50 (1900)
(Andante sostenuto) G major
(Larghetto) D major
Twelve songs, Op. 51 (1900)
"Der Mond glüht" (Diderich)
"Mägdleins Frage" (Dorr-Ljubljaschtschi)
"Träume, träume, du mein süßes Leben!" (Dehmel)
"Geheimnis" (Evers)
"Mädchenlied" (Morgenstern)
"Schmied Schmerz" (Bierbaum)
"Nachtgang" (Bierbaum)
"Gleich einer versunkenen Melodie" (Morgenstern)
"Frühlingsregen" (Morgenstern)
"Verlorne Liebe" (Galli)
"Frühlingsmorgen" (Müller)
"Weiße Tauben" (Morgenstern)
Seven Silhouettes for piano, Op. 53 (1900)
(Äußerst lebhaft) E minor
(Ziemlich langsam) D major
(Sehr bewegt und ausdrucksvoll) F-sharp major
(Sehr schnell und anmutig) F-sharp minor
(Ziemlich schnell) C major
(Langsam, schwermütig) E major
(Äußerst lebhaft und mit viel Humor) B major
Fifteen songs, Op. 55 (1901)
"Hymnus des Hasses" (Morgenstern)
"Traum" (Evers)
"Der tapfere Schneider" (Falke)
"Rosen" (Itzerott)
"Der Narr" (v. Jacobosky)
"Verklärung" (Itzerott)
"Sterne" (Ritter)
"Zwei Gänze" (De Capitolio)
"Ein Paar" (Braungart)
"Wären wir zwei klein Vögel" (Greiner)
"Viola d'amour" (Falke)
"Nachtsegen" (Evars)
"Gute Nacht" (Falke)
"Allen Welten abgewandt" (Stona)
"Der Alte" (Falke)
Five organ preludes and fugues, Op. 56 (1901)
E major
D minor
G major
C major
B minor
Twelve organ pieces, Op. 59 (1901)
Prelude
Pastorale
Intermezzo
Kanon
Toccata
Fuge
Kyrie
Gloria
Benedictus
Capriccio
Melodia
Te Deum
Organ Sonata No. 2, D minor, Op. 60 (1901)
Improvisation
Invocation
Introduction and Fugue
16 songs, Op. 62 (1901)
"Wehe" (Boelitz)
"Waldeseligkeit" (Dehmel)
"Ruhe" (Evers)
"Menschen und Natur" (Baumgart)
"Wir zwei" (Falke)
"Reinheit" (Boelitz)
"Vor dem Sterben" (Boelitz)
"Gebet" (Braungart)
"Strampelchen" (Bluethgen)
"Die Nixe" (Falke)
"Fromm" (Falke)
"Totensprache" (Jacobovsky)
"Begegnung" (Mörike)
"Ich schwebe" (Henkel)
"Pflügerin Sorge" (Henkel)
"Anmutiger Vertrag (Morgenstern)
Monologues for organ, Op. 63 (1902)
Prelude, C minor
Fugue, C major
Canzona, G minor
Capriccio, A minor
Intro, F minor
Passacaglia, F minor
Ave Maria
Fantasy, C major
Toccata, E minor
Fugue, E minor
Kanon, D major
Scherzo, D minor
Twelve songs, Op. 66 (1902)
"Sehnsucht" (Itzerott)
"Freundliche Vision" (Bierbaum)
"Aus der ferne in der Nacht" (Bierbaum)
"Du bist mir gut!" (Boelitz)
"Maienblüten" (v. Jacobovsky)
"Die Primeln" (Hamerling)
"Die Liebe" (Dehmel)
"An dich" (Itzerott)
"Erlöst" (Itzerott)
"Morgen" (Mackay)
"Jetzt und immer" (Dehmel)
"Kindergeschichte" (v. Jacobovsky)
Six songs, Op. 68 (1902)
"Eine Seele" (Jacobovsky)
"Unterwgs" (Boelitz)
"Märchenland" (Evers)
"Engelwacht" (Muth)
"Nachtseele" (Evers)
"An die Geliebte" (Falke)
Ten organ pieces, Op. 69 (1903)
Prelude, E minor
Fugue, E minor
Basso ostinato, E minor
Moment musical, D major
Capriccio, D minor
Toccata, D major
Fugue, D major
Romance, G minor
Prelude, A minor
Fugue, A minor
Seventeen songs, Op. 70 (1903)
"Präludium" (Boelitz)
"Der König bei der Krönung" (Mörike)
"Ritter rät dem Knappen dies" (Bierbaum)
"Die bunten Kühe" (Falke)
"Gruß" (Genischen)
"Elternstolz" (folk song)
"Meine Seele" (Evers)
"Die Verschmäte" (Falke)
"Sehnsucht" (Jacobovsky)
"Hoffnungstrost" (from East Preussia)
"Gegen Abend" (Bierbaum)
"Dein Bild" (Jacobovsky)
"Mein und dein" (Fischer)
"Der Bote" (Fick)
"Thränen" (Braungart)
"Des Durstes Erklärung" (Fick)
"Sommernacht" (Evers)
18 songs, Op. 75 (1904)
"Markspruch" (Weigand)
"Mondnacht" (Evers)
"Der Knabe an die Mutter" (Serbian)
"Dämmer" (Boelitz)
"Böses Weib" (16th century)
"Ihr, ihr Herrlichen!" (Hölderlin)
"Schlimm für die Männer" (Serbian)
"Wäsche im Wind" (Falke)
"All' mein Gedanken, mein Herz und mein Sinn" (Dahn)
"Schwäbische Treue" (Seyboth)
"Aeolsharfe" (Lingg)
"Hat gesangt – bleibt nicht dabei" (folk song)
"Das Ringlein" (Jacobovsky)
"Schlafliedchen" (Busse)
"Darum" (Seyboth)
"Das Fenster klang im Winde!" (Evars)
"Du brachtest mir deiner Seele Trank" (Braungart)
"Einsamkeit" (Goethe)
Simple songs, Op. 76 (1903–1912)
"Du meines Herzens Krönelein"
"Daz tuwer min Engel walte"
"Waldeinsamkeit"
"Wenn die Linde blüht"
"Herzenstausch"
"Beim Schneewetter"
"Schlecht' Wetter"
"Einen Brief soll ich schreiben"
"Am Brünnelle"
"Warte nur"
"Mei Bua"
"Mit Rosen bestreut"
"Der verliebte Jäger"
"Mein Schätzelein"
"Maiennacht"
"Glück"
"Wenn alle Welt so einig wär"
"In einem Rosengärtelein"
"Hans und Grete"
"Es blüht ein Blümlein"
"Minnelied"
"Des Kindes Gebet"
"Zwiesprache"
"Abgeguckt"
"Friede"
"Der Schwur"
"Kindeslächeln"
"Die Mutter spricht"
"Schmeichelkätzchen"
"Vorbeimarsch"
"Gottes Segen"
"Von der Liebe"
"Das Wölklein"
"Reiterlied"
"Mittag"
"Schelmenliedchen"
"Heimat"
"Das Mägdlein"
"Abendlied"
"Wunsch"
"An den Frühlingsregen"
"Der Postillon"
"Brunnensang"
"Klein Marie"
"Lutschemäulchen"
"Soldatenlied"
"Schlaf' ein"
"Zwei Mäuschen"
"Ein Tänzchen"
"Knecht Ruprecht"
"Die fünf Hühnerchen"
"Mariae Wiegenlied" (also arranged by the composer as a piano solo)
"Das Brüderchen"
"Das Schwesterchen"
"Furchthäschen"
"Der Igel"
"Die Bienen"
"Mäusefangen"
"Zum Schlafen"
"Der König aus dem Morgenland"
Ten pieces for piano, Op. 79a (1900–1904)
Humoreske
Humoreske
Intermezzo
Melodie
Romanze
Impromptu
Impromptu
Caprice
Capriccio
Melodie
Chorale preludes for organ, Op. 79b (1900–1904)
Ach Gott, verlaß mich nicht
Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott
Herr, nun selbst den Wagen halt
Morgenglanz der Ewigkeit
Wer weiß, wie nahe mir mein Ende
Auferstehn, ja auferstehn wirst du
Christ ist erstanden von dem Tod
Christus, der ist mein Leben
Nun danket alle Gott
Herr, nun selbst den Wagen halt
Warum sollt ich mich denn grämen
Eight songs, Op. 79c (1900–1904)
"Abend" (Schäfer)
"Um Mitternacht blühen die Blumen" (Stona)
"Volkslied" (Itzerott)
"Friede" (Huggenberger)
"Auf mondbeschienen Wegen" (Huggenberger)
"Die Glocke des Glücks" (Ritter)
"Erinnerung" (Schäfer)
"Züge" (Huggenberger)
Suite for violin and piano', Op. 79d (1902–1904)
Wiegenlied
Capriccio
Burla
Two pieces for cello and piano, Op. 79e (1904)
Caprice
Kleine Romanze
14 chorales for 4-, 5- or 6-part choir, Op. 79f (1900–1904)
"Jesu, meines Lebens Leben" (4-part)
"Auferstanden" (4-part)
"Nun preiset alle" (4-part)
"Nun preiset alle" (4-part)
"Such, wer da will" (4-part)
"Ach, Gott, verlaß mich nicht" (4-part)
"Ich weiß, mein Gott" (4-part)
"" (5-part)
"Jesu, großer Wunderstern" (5-part)
"Jesus soll die Losung sein" (5-part)
"Trauungsgesang"
"Auferstanden" (5-part)
"Gib dich zufrieden" (5- or 6-part)
Aus meinem Tagebuch, fünfunddreißig Stücke für Pianoforte, Op. 82 (1904–1912)
Vol. 1, No. 1 Vivace
Vol. 1, No. 2 Adagio
Vol. 1, No. 3 Andante sostenuto
Vol. 1, No. 4 Vivace
Vol. 1, No. 5 "Gavotte" (Moderato)
Vol. 1, No. 6 Sostenuto
Vol. 1, No. 7 Vivace
Vol. 1, No. 8 Andantino—Presto
Vol. 1, No. 9 Vivace
Vol. 1, No. 10 Andante innocente
Vol. 1, No. 11 Sostenuto ed espressivo
Vol. 1, No. 12 Larghetto
Vol. 2, No. 1 Allegretto con grazia
Vol. 2, No. 2 Andantino
Vol. 2, No. 3 Andante espressivo
Vol. 2, No. 4 Andantino
Vol. 2, No. 5 Allegretto con grazia; sempre poco agitato
Vol. 2, No. 6 Andante espressivo
Vol. 2, No. 7 Larghetto
Vol. 2, No. 8 Vivacissimo—Andante—Vivacissimo
Vol. 2, No. 9 Andantino
Vol. 2, No. 10 Scherzando e vivace
Vol. 3, No. 1 "Lied" (Andante sostenuto)
Vol. 3, No. 2 "Albumblatt" (Andante sostenuto)
Vol. 3, No. 3 "Gavotte" (Allegretto)
Vol. 3, No. 4 "Romanza" (Andante sostenuto)
Vol. 3, No. 5 "Melodie" (Andante sostenuto)
Vol. 3, No. 6 "Humoreske" (Vivace)
Vol. 4, No. 1 "Präludium" (Poco con moto)
Vol. 4, No. 2 "Fuge" (Sostenuto)
Vol. 4, No. 3 "Intermezzo" (Andante)
Vol. 4, No. 4 "Arabeske" (Allegretto)
Vol. 4, No. 5 "Silhouette" (Con moto)
Vol. 4, No. 6 "Melodie" (Molto sostenuto)
Vol. 4, No. 7 "Humoreske" (Poco vivace)
Four preludes and fugues for organ, Op. 85 (1905)
C-sharp minor
G major
F major
E minor
Two compositions for violin and piano, Op. 87 (1905)
Albumblatt
Romanze
Four songs, Op. 88 (1905)
"Notturno" (Boelitz)
"Stelldichein" (Hörmann)
"Flötenspielerin" (Evers)
"Spatz und Spätzin" (Meyere)
Four sonatinas for piano, Op. 89 (1905–1908)
E minor
D major
F major
A minor
Seven sonatas for violin solo, Op. 91 (1905)
A minor
D major
B-flat major
B minor
E minor
G major
A minor
Suite for organ No. 2, Op. 92 (1905)
Prelude, G minor
Fugue
Intermezzo, B minor
Basso ostinato, G minor
Romance, A-flat major
Toccata, G minor
Fugue, G minor
Four songs, Op. 97 (1906)
"Das Dorf" (Boelitz)
"Leise, leise weht ihr Lüfte" (Brentano)
"Ein Drängen ist in meinem Herzen" (Stefan Zweig)
"Der bescheidene Schäfer" (Weisse)
Five songs, Op. 98 (1906)
"Aus den Himmelsaugen" (Heine)
"Der gute Rath" (Schatz)
"Sonntag" (folk song)
"Es schläft ein stiller Garten" (Hauptmann)
"Sommernacht" (Triepel)
Six songs, Op. 104 (1907)
"Neue Fülle" (Zweig)
"Warnung" (anon.)
"Mutter, tote Mutter" (Hartwig)
"Lied eines Mädchens" (13th century)
"Das Sausewind" (Busse)
"Mädchenlied" (Boelitz)
Two sacred songs for mezzo / baritone and organ / harmonium / piano, Op. 105 (1907)
"Ich sehe dich in tausend Bildern" (Novalis)
"Meine Seele ist still zu Gott" (Psalm 62)
Three duets for soprano, alto and piano, Op. 111a (1909)
"Waldesstille" (Rafael)
"Frühlingsfeier" (Steindorff)
"Abendgang" (Brandtl)
Episodes, eight pieces for piano, Op. 115 (1910)
Andante, D major
Andante con moto
Allegretto, C major
Andante sostenuto
Larghetto
Vivace
Vivace quasi presto
Vivace
Eight preludes and fugues for solo violin, Op. 117 (1909–1912)
B minor
G minor
E minor
G minor (Chaconne)
G major
D minor
A minor
E minor
Nine pieces for organ, Op. 129 (1913)
Toccata, D minor
Fugue, D minor
Canon, E minor
Melodia, B-flat major
Capriccio, G minor
Basso ostinato, G minor
Intermezzo, F minor
Prelude, B minor
Fugue, B minor
Six preludes and fugues for solo violin, Op. 131a (1914)
A minor
D minor
G major
G minor
D major
E minor
Three suites for solo cello, Op. 131c (1915)
G major
D minor
A minor
Three suites for solo viola, Op. 131d (1915)
G minor
D major
E minor
Twelve sacred songs with piano / harmonium / organ accompaniment, Op. 137 (1914)
"Bitte um einen seligen Tod" (Herman. gest. 1561)
"Dein Wille, Herr, geschehe!" (Eichendorff)
"Uns ist geboren ein Kindlein" (anon.)
"Am Abend" (anon.)
"O Herre Gott, nimm du von mir" (anon.)
"Christ, deines Geistes Süßigkeit" (anon.)
"Grablied" (Arndt)
"Morgengesang" (Alberus)
"Lass dich nur nichts nicht dauern" (Flemming)
"Christkindleins Wiegenlied" (anon.)
"Klage vor Gottes Leiden" (v)
"O Jesu Christ, wir warten dein" (Alberus)
5 Neue Kinderlieder, Op. 142 (1915)
"Wiegenlied" (Stein)
"Schwalbenmütterlein"(Reinick)
"Maria am Rosenstrauch" (Schellenberg)
"Klein-Evelinde" (Weber)
"Bitte" (Holst)
Träume am Kamin, 12 Kleine Klavierstücke, Op. 143 (1915)
Larghetto, B-flat major
Con moto, E-flat major
Molto adagio, A major
Allegretto grazioso, E major
Agitato, B minor
Poco vivace, A-flat major
Molto sostenuto, D major
Vivace, C major
Larghetto, C minor
Vivace, D minor
Andantino, G minor
Larghetto, D major
Details of sets of compositions with WoO number
"Grüße an die Jugend" for piano (1898) WoO III/6
Fughette
Caprice fantastique
Abenddämmerung
Albumblatt
Scherzo
Humoresque
Blätter und Blüten for piano (1900/1902) WoO III/12
Albumblatt
Humoresque
Frühlingslied
Elegie
Jagdstück
Melodie
Moment Musical No. 1
Moment Musical No. 2
Gigue
Romanze No. 1
Romanze No. 2
Scherzino
Four "Spezialstudien" for piano left hand (1901) WoO III/13
Scherzo
Humoresque
Romanze
Prelude and Fugue
Fünf ausgewählte Volkslieder für TTBB (1898) WoO VI/6
Herzweh (1817, Gotha, with an additional second stanza by Hermann Kurz)
Liebchens Bote (Flugblatt 1756)
Das Sternlein (Matthias Claudius)
Dianderl tief drunt im Thal (from Carinthia)
Ich hab' die Nacht geträumet
Sechs ausgewählte Volkslieder für SATB (1899) WoO VI/10
Liebesschmerz (from Swabia)
Das Sternlein (Matthias Claudius)
Liebesqual (from Swabia)
Vergebens (from Franconia)
Liebchens Bote (Flugblatt 1756)
Das Mädchen vom Lande (Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim)
Acht ausgewählte Volkslieder. Neue Folge, für SATB (1899) WoO VI/11
Mailied (Friedrich Richter)
Ach, Bäumchen, du stehst grüne (überliefert by Karl Simrock
Liebesleid
Ich hab' die Nacht geträumet
Trutze nicht (from the Odenwald 1839)
Wie kommt's? (from Thuringia and Franconia)
Schwäbisches Tanzliedchen (Ländler from Upper Swabia)
Es waren zwei Königskinder
Notes
References
Bibliography
Lists of compositions by composer |
4539445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenore%20Romney | Lenore Romney | Lenore LaFount Romney (; November 9, 1908 – July 7, 1998) was an American actress and political figure. The wife of businessman and politician George W. Romney, she was First Lady of Michigan from 1963 to 1969. She was the Republican Party nominee for the U.S. Senate in 1970 from Michigan. Her younger son, Mitt Romney, is a U.S. Senator from Utah, a former Governor of Massachusetts, and was the 2012 Republican presidential nominee.
Lenore LaFount was born in Logan, Utah, and raised in Salt Lake City. She went to Latter-day Saints High School, where she developed an interest in drama and first met George Romney. She attended the University of Utah and George Washington University, graduating from the latter in 1929. She studied acting at the American Laboratory Theatre in New York, then went to Hollywood, where she became a bit player who appeared in a number of films with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Turning down a contract offer with them, she married George Romney in 1931. The couple had four children together; she was a stay-at-home mother, eventually living in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, while he became a success in business and politics.
Lenore Romney was a popular First Lady of Michigan, and was a frequent speaker at events and before civic groups. She was involved with many charitable, volunteer, and cultural organizations, including high positions with the Muscular Dystrophy Association, YWCA, and American Field Services, and also was active in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, of which she was a life-long member. She was an asset to her husband's 1968 presidential campaign. Although a traditionalist, she was an advocate for the greater involvement of women in business and politics.
In 1970, she was urged by her husband and state Republican Party officials to run against popular, two-term Democratic incumbent Senator Philip Hart. However, she struggled to establish herself as a serious candidate, apart from her husband, and failed to capture the support of conservatives within the party, only narrowly defeating State Senator Robert J. Huber in the party primary. Her difficulties continued in the general election, and she lost to Hart by a two-to-one margin. She returned to volunteer activities during the 1970s, including stints on the boards of the National Center for Voluntary Action and the National Conference of Christians and Jews, and gave speeches to various organizations.
Early life and education
Lenore LaFount was born on November 9, 1908, in Logan, Utah, the second of four daughters of Alma Luella (née Robison; 1882–1938) and Harold Arundel Lafount (1880–1952). Her father was born in Birmingham in England, and her mother, born in Montpelier, Idaho, was of colonial English ancestry (with more distant French roots). She had three sisters, one older and two younger. The family belonged to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints; her father had converted to it in England and then came to the U.S., while her maternal grandmother, Rosetta Berry, had been one of the Mormon handcart pioneers. Her father worked as a headphone manufacturer while her mother was prominent in local charities.
Lenore was raised in Salt Lake City, in a house located at Fifteenth South and Ninth East. She played the ukulele and was a member of the LDS girls club The Seagulls. She attended Latter-day Saints High School, where she had a strong interest in drama. In 1924, during her junior year, she and senior George W. Romney became high-school sweethearts. She was from a more assimilated Mormon family than his, which had struggled with financial failure and debt. Although she was a "reach" for him in terms of social standing, he pursued her relentlessly from that point on, studying at a nearby junior college while she was a senior.
She graduated from high school in 1926 after only three years and attended the University of Utah for two years, while George went to England and Scotland to serve as a Mormon missionary (making her "promise never to kiss anybody" while he was away). At the university, she was a member of the Chi Omega sorority. In 1927, she was one of six attractive young women chosen to welcome Charles Lindbergh to Salt Lake City following his historic Spirit of St. Louis flight, and she was featured on the front page of the Salt Lake Telegram as a result. Later that year, on the strength of his friendship with U.S. Senator Reed Smoot, Harold Lafount was appointed by President Calvin Coolidge to serve on the new Federal Radio Commission. The family moved to Washington, D.C., and Lenore transferred to George Washington University, where she graduated with an A.B. degree in English literature in June 1929 after spending only three years total in college. George returned from his missionary stint and soon followed her to Washington.
Acting career
LaFount's mother wanted her to explore a theatrical career before marrying, and an aunt offered her further encouragement and assistance. LaFount thus moved to New York and enrolled in the American Laboratory Theatre to study acting, where she was taught Stanislavski's system under school co-founder Maria Ouspenskaya. She found the experience inspiring. In student productions there, she starred in the Shakespearean roles of Ophelia and Portia and also appeared in roles from Ibsen and Chekhov plays. She received a performance award there in 1930. Talent scouts attending the productions were impressed, and she received an offer from the National Broadcasting Company to perform in a series of Shakespeare radio programs and from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to go to Hollywood under an apprentice actress contract. She decided on the latter, despite strenuous arguments against doing so from a threatened George, who had been visiting her on weekends. By then, he had a job with Alcoa, and arranged to be transferred to Los Angeles to be with her. In September 1930, the couple became engaged.
A slender woman with porcelain skin and naturally curly chesnut colored hair, LaFount earned bit parts in Hollywood. These included appearing as a fashionable young French woman in a Greta Garbo film and as an ingenue in the William Haines film A Tailor Made Man. She also appeared in films that starred Jean Harlow and Ramon Navarro and was a stand-in for Lili Damita. Her trained voice made her valuable during this dawn of the talking pictures era, and she worked as a voice actor in animated cartoons, sometimes doing the parts of speaking cats and dogs. She appeared in a promotional film clip with Buster, MGM's star dog. George's long-time jealousy about her being in contact with other men became even worse as she met stars like Clark Gable, and in reaction to his attempts to control her, she threatened to break off their engagement.
After a few months in Hollywood, she had the opportunity to sign a three-year contract with MGM that was worth $50,000 if all the options were picked up. However, she was dismayed by some of the seamier aspects of Hollywood, including the studio's request that she pose for cheesecake photos and the constant gambling among the extras. She also found the long waits between shots unsatisfying as a thespian, and read Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky novels on the set to pass the time. Romney finally convinced her to go ahead with marriage and return to Washington, where he worked for Alcoa as a lobbyist, earning $125 a month.
Although Lenore had been more independent than many women of the time, she later stated that she "never had any regrets about giving up movies." Another time she said that she had never had a choice of both marriage and an acting career: "In an acting career, I would have been upstaging him, and he couldn't stand that. It was never either and; it was always either or." George would later consider his successful seven-year courtship of her to be his greatest sales achievement.
Marriage and family
Lenore LaFount married George Romney on July 2, 1931, at the Salt Lake Temple. Their wedding reception in the Chi Omega house at the University of Utah was attended by about four hundred guests.
In Washington, Lenore's cultural refinement and hosting skills, along with her father's social and political connections, helped George in his business career, and the couple met the Hoovers, the Roosevelts, and other prominent Washington figures. George often called upon her to host short-notice parties. During 1933–1934, Lenore hosted a 15-minute weekly program, Poetical Hitchhiking, on Washington's famed radio station WRC where she selected and read the poems. (The staff announcer who introduced her was Arthur Godfrey.) She also directed student plays at George Washington University.
The couple's first child, Margo Lynn (known as Lynn) was born in 1935 after a difficult childbirth, and Lenore became a stay-at-home mother. A second daughter, Jane, followed in 1938. In 1939, the family moved to the Detroit, Michigan, area when George took a job with the Automobile Manufacturers Association. They rented a house in Grosse Pointe, Michigan, for two years, then bought one in the Palmer Woods section of Detroit. The couple's first son, George Scott (known as G. Scott), was born in 1941. The couple longed for another child, but doctors told them that Lenore probably could not become pregnant again and might not survive if she did. By 1946, they had begun the process of adopting a war orphan living in Switzerland. However, Lenore became pregnant, and after a difficult pregnancy – lying still on her back for a month in a hospital during one stretch – and delivery, Willard Mitt (known as Mitt) was born in 1947. After the birth she required a hysterectomy. Lenore would subsequently refer to Mitt as her miracle baby.
The family moved to affluent Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, around 1953. In 1953, Lenore suffered another health crisis when a blood transfusion of the wrong type put her life in danger, but she recovered. In 1954, George was named president and chairman of American Motors Corporation. During this time a bad attack of bursitis left her with no movement in her left arm for five years, and the rest of the family took up her chores. The couple spent summers at a cottage on the Canadian shore of Lake Huron. A slipped disk suffered there gave her further trouble, and that and the bursitis caused her to switch from golf to swimming as her main exercise.
The couple's marriage reflected aspects of their personalities and courtship. George was devoted to Lenore, and tried to bring her a flower every day, often a single rose with a love note. George was also a strong, blunt personality used to winning arguments by force of will, but the more self-controlled Lenore was unintimidated and willing to push back against him. The couple quarreled often, so much that their grandchildren would later nickname them "the Bickersons" (there being a classic radio show of that name). In the end, their closeness would allow them to settle arguments amicably, often by her finally accepting what he wanted. She still had a restive nature; Mitt later recalled that, "It always seemed that she wanted something a little more for herself." (Mitt himself would later show a more reserved, private, and controlled nature than George's, traits he got from Lenore.)
First Lady of Michigan
When her husband decided to enter electoral politics by running for Governor of Michigan in 1962, Lenore Romney said she and the family supported him: "I know it will be difficult – not easy. But we're all dedicated with him for better government." She played a productive role in the 1962 campaign, making speeches before groups of Republican women at a time when it was unusual for women to campaign separately from their husbands. She was given the task of campaigning in the rural and small urban, Republican-leaning outstate areas while he focused on the Democratic-leaning Detroit area.
Following George's victory in November 1962, Lenore became the state's First Lady. About her new role, she said her goal was to make "a real breakthrough in human relations by bringing people together as people – just like George has enunciated. Women have a very interesting role in this, and I don't expect to be a society leader holding a series of meaningless teas."
She proved popular as a First Lady. She was a frequent speaker at events and before civic groups and became known for her eloquence. She was thus useful to his political career, just as she had been to his business one. Like her husband, she did not make public appearances on Sundays. He was re-elected in 1964 and 1966, and she campaigned frequently with him. Moreover, she played more of an active and partisan role within her party than any other Michigan first lady in the 20th century. She knew his policy positions at least as well as any of his official aides, went with him on almost all of his out-of-state trips, and gave his speeches for him if sudden events made him unable to attend. Over time an impression grew among some in the public that she was smarter than he was. George Romney biographer T. George Harris concluded in 1967 that "she has been considerably more than a first lady."
Lenore was a traditionalist who decried the women's liberation movement as being one of "strident voices" and "burning bras and railing against male-chauvinistic pigs." She decried relaxed sexual mores and talk of a "New Morality", saying "the morality they discuss is the barnyard morality and it is as old as the hills." However, she was also an advocate for the involvement of women in business and politics. By 1966, she was telling audiences around the state, "Why should women have any less say than men about the great decisions facing our nation?" She added that women "represent a reservoir of public service which has hardly been tapped."
She explicitly criticized the counterculture phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out", saying "What kind of a philosophy is that?" Instead she urged young people to "Think of something outside of yourselves. Have something in yourself that is greater than self." She told one high school audience, "You have the right to rebel, but make sure what you're rebelling for is greater than what you're rebelling against."
She was a devout and faithful member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who taught Sunday School lessons at her church for many years, including a stint during the early 1960s teaching 14-year-olds. Her views on many social issues were more liberal than most of the Republican Party, and she appeared on stage with Martin Luther King Jr. at Michigan State University on March 9, 1966, when King gave his "Chicago Wall" speech. On the issue of the LDS Church policy of the time that did not allow black people in its lay clergy, she defended the church, saying, "If my church taught me anything other than that the Negro is equal to any other person, I could not accept it." She was a member of the Women's City Club in Detroit, but in 1967, said she would resign unless the club dropped a policy barring black guests from eating in its dining room.
During her husband's 1968 presidential campaign, Lenore continued to exert a calming influence on him and helped keep his sometimes problematic temper in check. She was adept at campaigning, appearing at ease and speaking in a lively, fluent manner without notes before audiences of various types. The Associated Press wrote that she was probably "the most indefatigable campaigner on the New Hampshire primary circuit, including the candidates". The New York Times wrote, "To see Mrs. George Romney in action is to watch an authentic, stand-up evangelist weave a spell. ... in the view of seasoned politicians, Lenore Romney is a far more effective speaker than the wife of any national candidate in recent memory. She may even be among the select group of political wives who win votes for their husbands through their own speeches and contacts." As the campaign went on, George fell far behind Republican rival Richard Nixon in polls and withdrew in February 1968 before the first primaries took place.
Lenore continued to have health difficulties, visiting medical centers around the country but unable to get a clear diagnosis. One specialist attributed her problems to a failure to absorb sufficient calcium, for which she was given once-a-week shots. She was found to have several food allergies and spent time at Chicago's Swedish Covenant Hospital in 1967. She suffered an injury outside her house around 1967 and another the next year when she fell and suffered a shoulder dislocation that turned into bursitis. During October 1968 she was hospitalized at Barnes-Jewish Hospital in St. Louis, seeing a bone and mineral specialist.
Lenore Romney worked on behalf of many volunteer organizations over a number of years. In 1963, she was co-chair of the Muscular Dystrophy Association. Starting in 1965, she was a member of a special committee of the American Mothers Committee. By 1970, she was on the national board of directors of the YWCA and a member of the national advisory board to American Field Services. She had also held high positions with Goodwill Industries, United Community Services, Child Guidance Study, Association for Retarded Children, Michigan Association for Emotionally Disturbed Children, and the Michigan Historical Society. She worked with Project HOPE. She was chair of the Detroit Grand Opera Association and was active with the Women's Association for the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. The Boston Globe later characterized her as a "pillar of Detroit society".
1970 U.S. Senate campaign
After the 1968 presidential election, George Romney was named the U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development in the administration of the newly elected President Nixon. Lenore was not enthusiastic about leaving Michigan to return to Washington after three decades away, but said, "Any wife wants to be with her husband wherever he is, whether state or federal government, just so he can develop his creative ideas." By then, the couple had 12 grandchildren.
For the 1970 U.S. Senate election from Michigan, state Republicans were looking for someone to run against Democrat Philip Hart, a two-term incumbent. Hart was heavily favored to win re-election, but Republicans thought he might be vulnerable on ideological grounds (for being too liberal) and owing to an anti-war protest arrest involving his wife. George Romney's name was mentioned as a possible candidate. Indeed, Nixon, who never had good relations with Romney either personally or on policy grounds, had by then decided he wanted Romney out of his administration but did not want to fire him, and hatched a plot to get Romney to run in the Senate race. However, George came up with the idea of Lenore running, and sprung it on Lenore and the children at the end of 1969. Lenore's name began being mentioned by other Republicans, even though she professed not to want to run unless no other candidate could be found. U.S. House Minority Leader Gerald Ford from Michigan thought she could unite the state party's different factions, but Governor William Milliken, who had succeeded George and was not eager to see more Romneys in power, opposed the notion. And while Lenore had achieved a good reputation for campaigning on her husband's behalf, there were some who suspected that her Senate candidacy was just a stalking horse for keeping George's options open. Such sentiments were exacerbated when George did not completely rule himself out of a possible race.
The state party had a system wherein there would be a series of meetings of its 355 leaders in order to declare a "consensus" candidate that the party would support in any primary election.
During the initial February 21, 1970, meeting, Lenore Romney faced opposition from liberal U.S. Representative Donald W. Riegle, Jr. and conservative State Senator Robert J. Huber. The meeting became contentious, and with Milliken helping to block her, in three ballots she was unable to reach the three-fourths majority needed for the consensus nod.
On February 23, she formally entered the contest for the Republican nomination for the Senate seat. George successfully pressured Milliken to endorse her, but gained bad publicity when The Detroit News exposed his actions. At the next party meeting, on March 7, she won 92 percent of the leaders and gained the consensus candidate position, and talk of George running ended.
Riegle did not continue his run, but Huber did. In the ensuing primary contest, Romney's effort emphasized her sex, saying as a campaign theme, "Never before has the voice and understanding of a concerned woman been more needed." Billboards featuring her face were everywhere, captioned only as "Lenore" and omitting any reference to political party. She was still photogenic, but so thin that she was sometimes described as "frail" or "waiflike", and her husband sometimes worried about her weight. She issued a half-hour campaign film that featured endorsements from many national and state party leaders as well as from celebrities Bob Hope and Art Linkletter, and showcased her family role and her concern for disadvantaged people. Huber, in contrast, emphasized his edge in political experience, derided her "motherly concern", and criticized the "bossism" that he said was trying to force another Romney into statewide office.
Regarding the Vietnam War, Romney called for the withdrawal of all American troops by the end of 1971, and characterized the war as "disastrous". She was troubled by the ongoing Cambodian Incursion and said that if elected she would vote to cut off its funds if Nixon did not abide by his pledge to withdraw from there by the end of the month. On other issues, she sometimes took overly broad stances that appeared to come down on multiple sides. The conservative wing of the party, which had never trusted her husband, had the same reaction to her. The largely male press corps tended to deal with her in a paternalistic way, and she was often identified as "Mrs. George Romney" in stories and photo captions. Initially heavily favored over Huber, her campaign failed to gain momentum and polls showed a close race; in response, she shifted her ads to focus more on her stands on issues. In the August 4, 1970, primary, Lenore Romney won a narrow victory, with 52 percent of the vote compared to Huber's 48 percent.
In the general election, with lost prestige, a divided party, and with her campaign resources partly drained by the primary fight, Romney was behind incumbent Democrat Hart from the beginning. Romney issued position papers and emphasized the themes of dealing with crime and social permissiveness; she also advocated a national healthcare plan and increased attention to environmental damage caused by industry. She never made any personal attacks against Hart. The only woman running for the U.S. Senate that year, she was a tireless campaigner, traveling around the state in a chartered Cessna and making as many as twelve stops a day. Nevertheless, the perception grew that she did not have any vision for what she would do as a senator and was only in the race because she was George Romney's wife. In response, she said at one point, "I'm not a stand-in or a substitute for anyone". Her campaign material continued to just refer to "Lenore". She also was negatively impacted, in both the primary and general election, by fallout from her husband's effort as HUD Secretary to enforce housing integration in Warren, Michigan. Consistently far ahead in polls, Hart staged a low-key campaign with few public appearances; he mostly ignored her and sometimes acted condescendingly towards her in private.
The Romney children campaigned for her, including Mitt, who took student leave to work as a driver and advance man at schools and county fairs during the summer. Together, Lenore and Mitt visited all 83 Michigan counties. George was in Washington most of the time and did not publicly campaign for her until the campaign's final day.
In the November 3, 1970, general election, Hart handily won a third term with 67 percent of the vote to her 33 percent. Romney made an unusual election-night visit to congratulate Hart in person, and in saying "I hope all good things will be his," gave what the victor termed "the most graceful and really moving concession speech I've ever heard."
The campaign and loss left Lenore in emotional pain. In her election night remarks she had said, "I thought [running as a woman] would be an asset. It was disappointing to find that many people closed their minds just because I was a woman." She expounded on this in an article she published the following year in Look magazine, describing the openly dismissive reaction she had gotten from both men and women. She wrote that, "In factories, I encountered men in small groups, laughing, shouting, 'Get in the kitchen. George needs you there. What do you know about politics?'" To a friend she wrote, "[I had no idea] how open and bare and wide my own vulnerability would be ... the body wounds are deep." She told one of her children that she wished she had not run, and concluded that "It's the most humiliating thing I know of to run for office."
Later years
Following the campaign, Lenore Romney returned to Washington and to being a cabinet wife. George, who had also long been interested in volunteerism, had helped found the National Center for Voluntary Action in 1970, and Lenore was made a member of its executive committee. By late 1971, she assumed some of First Lady Pat Nixon's role as a public advocate for volunteerism, visiting regional volunteer centers with other cabinet and administration wives. She was on the board of the National Conference of Christians and Jews, serving as brotherhood chair during 1970–1971 and as vice chair in 1972. She was also a main force behind the Urban Service Corps, which sought to apply volunteer efforts to the problems of large cities. She worked with the National Women's Political Caucus to promote the electoral candidacies of women, and gave some speeches at colleges. She came out as explicitly anti-abortion. (Abortion was illegal in Michigan in this pre-Roe v. Wade era, and she had previously been ambivalent about expanding legal access to it; in any case, it had not been an issue in the 1970 Senate campaign.)
In the 1972 U.S. presidential election, Lenore Romney worked in the women's surrogate program for the Committee for the Re-Election of the President. Nevertheless, her husband's relationship with Nixon and the administration became even worse and, in August 1972, she wrote a fruitless letter to presidential aide John Ehrlichman urging a change in the "low regard" and poor treatment that the administration showed him.
After George Romney left the administration and politics in January 1973, Lenore continued with volunteerism, as vice president of the National Center for Voluntary Action. In 1974, she became a commentator on the WJR radio show Point of View. Subsequently, she receded from the public political eye, but still remained active. She gave speeches to various local religious and civic organizations in the Midwest, focusing on her faith, the potential of "people power", and the role of women.
At age 85, Lenore Romney emerged to give interviews during her son Mitt's 1994 campaign for the U.S. Senate seat from Massachusetts. She contrasted Mitt to his opponent, long-time incumbent Senator Ted Kennedy; while Kennedy had been much in the news for his drinking and sexual escapades, Lenore noted that Mitt and wife Ann Romney had waited until marriage to have sex. Mitt lost the race to Kennedy.
On July 26, 1995, George Romney died of a heart attack at the age of 88 while he was exercising on his treadmill at the couple's home in Bloomfield Hills; he was discovered by Lenore (after she went looking for him, not having found her rose for the day), but it was too late to save him. They had been married for 64 years, and the press noted the strength of that marriage.
Lenore's health declined during her final years. But she was still doing fairly well when, at the age of 89, she suffered a stroke at her Bloomfield Hills home. She died several days later at William Beaumont Hospital in Royal Oak, Michigan, on July 7, 1998. Besides her four children, she was survived by 24 grandchildren and 41 great-grandchildren. She is interred in Fairview Cemetery in Brighton, Michigan, in the same family plot as her husband.
Following her death, many state political figures paid tribute to her, including Governor John Engler and his wife Michelle, who called her "Michigan's rose", and Lieutenant Governor Connie Binsfeld, who characterized her as a "beloved role model for our state".
Awards and honors
In 1969, Lenore Romney received the Woman of the Year Award from Brigham Young University. She was named one of the National Top Ten Women News Makers for 1970. She was given the Salvation Army's Humanitarian Award, Michigan State University's Distinguished Citizen Award, and also received recognition from Hadassah and the International Platform Association.
For many years beginning in 1987, the successor organizations to the National Center for Voluntary Action (VOLUNTEER: The National Center, National Volunteer Center, Points of Light Foundation, and Points of Light Foundation & the National Network of Volunteer Centers) have given out an annual Lenore and George W. Romney Citizen Volunteer Award (later retitled the George and Lenore Romney Citizen Volunteer Award).
Lenore Romney was awarded six honorary degrees. She received an L.H.D. from Hillsdale College in 1964, from Hope College in 1967, and from Gwynedd–Mercy College in 1971. She received an LL.D. from Central Michigan University in 1966. She received a Doctor of Humanities degree from Eastern Michigan University in 1968 and from Detroit College of Business in 1970.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
"Lenore", the half-hour film from the 1970 U.S. Senate campaign
Finding Aid for Lenore LaFount Romney Papers, 1960–1974 at Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan
Lynn Romney Keenan collection of George W. and Lenore Romney papers, MSS 8486 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
|-
1908 births
1998 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from Salt Lake City
Actresses from Washington, D.C.
American people of English descent
American people of French descent
American philanthropists
First ladies and gentlemen of Michigan
George Washington University alumni
George W. Romney
Latter Day Saints from Michigan
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Michigan Republicans
Mitt Romney
People from Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
People from Logan, Utah
Lenore
Radio personalities from Detroit
Radio personalities from Washington, D.C.
University of Utah alumni |
4539862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka%20Institute%20of%20Technology | Osaka Institute of Technology | , abbreviated as Dai kōdai (大工大), Han kōdai (阪工大), or Osaka kōdai (大阪工大) is a private university in Osaka Prefecture, Japan. OIT has 3 campuses, Omiya campus located in Asahi-ku, Osaka City, Umeda campus located in Kita-ku, Osaka City and Hirakata campus located in Hirakata City.
History
OIT was originally founded in 1922 as Kansai Engineering Technical School by business man Kyosaburo Honjo, together with architect Yasushi Kataoka, who graduated from Tokyo Imperial University (present University of Tokyo) and also served as the school's first principal. The Mission is "For the World, for the People and for the Community", to develop specialists with science-based practical skills who play an important role in society.
In 1940, the school foundation established Kansai Advanced Technical School, a three-year college for men (for ages 17–20). Kansai Advanced Technical School was renamed to Setsunan Advanced Technical School in 1942, further renamed Setsunan Engineering Technical School in 1944.
In April 1949, Setsunan Engineering Technical School was upgraded to Setsunan Institute of Technology, a four-year university under Japan's new educational systems. In October 1949, it was renamed to Osaka Institute of Technology (OIT).
At first, OIT had one faculty: the so-called Faculty of Engineering, which consisted of three departments (Architecture, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering). Later on, OIT added several departments (Mechanical Engineering, Electronics Engineering, Applied Chemistry, Environmental Engineering, Biomedical Engineering), three faculties (Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Faculty of Intellectual Property, Faculty of Robotics and Design), and a graduate school which includes doctoral-level courses.
1949: Faculty of Engineering
1965: Graduate School (Department of Engineering Research; master's courses only)
1967: Ph.D. courses offered
1996: Faculty of Information Science and Technology
2003: Faculty of Intellectual Property
2017: Faculty of Robotics and Design
As of April 2017, OIT has four faculties. The Faculty of Intellectual Property was the first-ever and is still the only one of its kind in Japan. Moreover, the Faculty of Robotics and Design provides design thinking education to stress an innovative and creative approach towards design.
OIT has three campuses:
Omiya campus: Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Intellectual Property
Umeda campus: Faculty of Robotics and Design
Hirakata campus: Faculty of Information Science and Technology
The Umeda campus was opened in 2017 near Osaka station and is housed in the 21-storey OIT Umeda Tower, located in the central business district (CBD).
Education
From Academic Year 2017, OIT offers 16 undergraduate degrees and 6 master's degrees in the field of engineering, robotics and design, information science and technology, and intellectual property. It also offers 5 doctoral degrees in the fields of engineering, robotics and design, information science and technology.
OIT offers a number of project-based learning opportunities, including:
Solar car project
Challenge of the OIT MONOLAB robot project
Human-powered aircraft project
Development of wireless electric vehicle charging system (Kawakami-mura eco project)
Science à la carte école project
Smartphone application design project
Computer design project
The IP (intellectual property) PR project
Faculties (undergraduate schools)
Intellectual property (in Omiya) – the only one and first-ever Faculty in Japan
Department of Intellectual Property
Engineering (in Omiya)
Department of Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering and Urban Design
Department of Electrical and Electronic Systems Engineering
Department of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Applied Chemistry
Department of Environmental Engineering
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Robotics and design (in Umeda) *"Design thinking" education as innovative & creative approach
Department of Robotics
Department of Design and Architecture
Department of System Design *IoT, AI
Information Science and Technology (in Hirakata)
Department of Computer Science
Department of Data Science
Department of Information Systems
Department of Media Science
Department of Information Networks
Graduate schools
Intellectual property (professional degree course)
Major in intellectual property
Engineering (master's and Ph.D. courses)
Major in architecture, civil engineering and urban design
Major in electrical, electronic, and mechanical engineering
Major in applied chemistry, environmental, and biomedical engineering
Robotics and design (master's and Ph.D. dourses)
Major in robotics and design
Information science and technology (master's and Ph.D. courses)
Major in information science and technology
Research centers
Omiya campus:
Center for Monodzukuri management
Nanomaterials microdevices research center
Umeda campus:
Human robotics R&D center
Robotics & design denter
Hiyakata campus:
Yawata Engineering Laboratories
Structure research center
Hydraulic research center
High voltage research center
Digital archive center
Virtual reality laboratory
Visualization software developing center
Rankings
Times Higher Education World University Rankings(THE)
Focusing on the field of Engineering & Information Technology, OIT was ranked 801–1000th in the World University Rankings 2021 and ranked in TOP10 Private Universities in Japan. Especially in terms of the Score of “Citations”, OIT was placed next to Osaka University in Japan Universities and higher ranking than Tokyo University of Science and Shibaura Institute of Technology in the Private Universities. Moreover, OIT was ranked 401+ in the Asia University Rankings 2021 as well.
SCImago Institutions Rankings(SIR)
OIT was ranked 58th in the Japan University Rankings 2019 focusing on the field of “Innovation” and
75th in Japan University Rankings 2018 focusing on the field of “Research”.
”Truly Strong Universities" for Employment(Toyo Keizai Japan University Rankings)
OIT was ranked 2nd in the Japan University Rankings 2020 and it was the higher ranking than Tokyo University of Science and Shibaura Institute of Technology in the Private Universities. Especially focusing on the field of Information Technology & Digital media, OIT at Faculty of Information Science and Technology was ranked No.1 in 2019 from Institute of technology in Japan.
Innovations
Research
2023: According to “Scientist Database based on Standardized Citation Indicators” updated by Stanford University and Elsevier as a comprehensive list that identifies “TOP 2% of the world's most influential researchers” (*Category: Career-long), OIT’s 4 professors from Department of Applied Chemistry, Biomedical Engineering, and Mechanical Engineering were selected.
2022: OIT researchers at Department of Applied Chemistry and UMET that is the joint research unit of Lille University of Science and Technology and French National Centre for Scientific Research(CNRS) developed an innovative ‘Micro reaction vessel’ that can initiate a reaction by irradiating light using droplets (Liquid Marbles).
This research was supported by JSPS(Japan Society for the Promotion of Science), and the research paper was published in ‘ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces’.
2021: An international collaborative research group of OIT at Department of Applied Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology and National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University developed an innovative method for preparing ‘Chiral Silica’ consisting of a molecular-scale helical structure by an extremely simple process.
This research was promoted by the moonshot-type research and development project of the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization(NEDO), and was published in the Open Access Journal ‘JACS Au’ of the American Chemical Society (ACS).
2020: A research group of University of Tokyo at Department of Applied Physics, RIKEN(Institute of Physical and Chemical Research) and OIT at Faculty of Information Science and Technology succeeded in developing an innovative “Transportable Optical lattice clock(OLC) with Ultra-precise measurements(10 to the power of minus 18)“ for the first time in the world through a verification testing on validity of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity at Tokyo Skytree. Compared to conventional space experiments, using the transportable OLC on satellite and rocket, the equivalent experiments are available with a height difference of 10,000 times less.
2019: OIT researchers at Department of Applied Chemistry discovered that poly-3-hexylthiophene(P3HT), a conductive polymer widely used as a material for solar cells and transistors, has a new ability to convert light into heat. Since P3HT dissolves in organic solvents, it can be used as a paint, and can be applied to substrates of various shapes. Also it can be expected to be applied to local heating in a vacuum space or a fine space, such as hyperthermia, which uses heat in an outer space(space station or space shuttle) or kills cancer cells by heat. This innovative research was highly evaluated and published by the American Chemical Society (ACS) in the field of polymer. (Macromolecules 2019, 52, 2,708-717)
2018: OIT researcher at Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Information Science and Technology participated in “KAGRA”(Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector) Project, a national project managed by Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) of University of Tokyo and National Institutes of Natural Sciences(NINS)/National Astronomical Observatory of Japan(NAOJ)/High Energy Accelerator Research Organization(KEK) for Astrophysics & Information systems research on Gravitational-wave observatory. From Institute of technology in Japan, only Tokyo Institute of Technology and OIT were engaged in the project.
2017: OIT researcher at Department of System Design, Faculty of Robotics and Design jointly developed an innovative Odor Measuring Platform that allows them to analyze and evaluate different kinds of odors objectively together with Konica Minolta through open innovation. Based on the platform, Konica Minolta unveiled "Kun Kun"(or "Sniff Sniff") body. "Kun Kun" body, simply consisting of a device and a smartphone application, can measure odors of the scalp, armpits, skin behind the ears, and feet. Measured odor data are sent via Bluetooth and displayed in the smartphone app in 20 seconds or so. Odors are classified into 10 levels, allowing users to objectively decide whether they need to take some deodorizing measures. OIT has been researching ways of distinguishing different odors through neural network-based AI technology using gas sensor.
2016: OIT researcher at Department of Applied Chemistry jointly developed an innovative material transfer technology combining Liquid droplets (Liquid marble) covered with solid particles and Light together with Asahikawa Medical University and Max Planck Institutes. As it makes the Light directly convert into propulsion force, there is no power conversion process like photovoltaic power generation. It is eco-friendly and low-cost as well. The research paper was published in German scientific journal "Advanced Functional Materials".
2015: OIT researcher at Department of Applied Chemistry jointly developed an innovative technology, so-called "Non-sticky powdery adhesive" in the field of Biomimetics materials together with Max Planck Institutes. It was developed with hint that Aphids covers the surface of honey which they discharge by solid wax particles and prevents drowning due to honey in the nest by liquid marble. It was introduced to journal cover published by the Royal Society of Chemistry and Chemistry World in UK.
2012: An innovative Small satellite with Pulsed plasma thruster(PPT), named PROITERES(Project of OIT Electric-Rocket-Engine Onboard Small Space Ship) was developed by OIT researcher and students mainly from Department of Mechanical Engineering and it was launched in Sep 2012 on PSLV-C21 Rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre operated by Indian Space Research Organisation in India.
Business
2020: For acceleration of start-up business from Kansai region in Japan, OIT and Kobe University started a joint collaboration to support the University-led ventures in formulating Intellectual Property strategies and business models toward innovation with their venture funds.
2017: Japan's first "Robot Service Business School" was launched by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) at OIT's Robotics & Design Center in OIT Umeda campus in order to provide an integrated education in the technology, design, and business expertise necessary with robotics innovation.
Achievements and awards
International
Joint team "SHINOBI" from Kyoto University and OIT students at Department of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineering won the “1st prize“ in RoboCup Japan Open 2023(Category: Rescue robot league).
Students from Faculty of Information Science and Technology monopolistically won the “Best prize” and “1st prize” with defeating University of Tokyo etc in the Japan tournament 2019(Category: C/C++ Programming, 19,967 participants) of “Lan Qiao Cup” that is the largest Collegiate Programming competition in China. As of 2019, the OIT’s winner was ranked as “No.1 C/C++ Programmer” in Japan universities.
OIT researcher at Department of System Design, Faculty of Robotics and Design won the “Sensors and Actuators Award 2018” for his outstanding research achievements at the International Association of Advanced Materials international conference in Stockholm. From the universities in Japan, the Advanced Materials Award was provided only to University of Tokyo and OIT.
Joint team "JoiTech" from Osaka University and OIT won the "World Championship"(*Category: Humanoid League Adult Size) in RoboCup 2013 for Robotics in Eindhoven.Moreover, OIT’s own team ”OIT Trial” from Faculty of Robotics and Design together with Faculty of Information Science and Technology won the “World's No. 7 place” (*Category: @Home) in RoboCup 2017 in Nagoya.
Student team from Department of Electrical and Electronics Systems Engineering won the "3rd prize" and "Best Innovative Design Award" in the international student contest on IFEC(International Future Energy Challenge) 2015 hosted by IEEE at the University of Michigan–Dearborn. The topic was "High-efficiency Wireless Charging System for Electric Vehicles (EV) and other Applications". As Japanese university, OIT got through to the Final Competition and also won the award for the first time ever.
Student from Department of Electrical and Electronics Systems Engineering won the "Excellent Paper Award" in the International Conference on IEEE PEAC(Power Electronics Application Conference) 2014 in Shanghai. The topic was "A New V2H System with Single-Ended Inverter Drive Bidirectional Wireless Resonant IPT.
Student team from Faculty of Information Science and Technology passed the Domestic Preliminary competition(82 universities, 372 teams in Japan) on ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest(“ACM-ICPC”) 2015 and got through to the Asia Regional competition in Tsukuba. From the private universities in Japan, the qualifiers were only 3 universities, Keio University, Meiji University and OIT.In addition, back to the Asia Regional competition 2006, only Tokyo Institute of Technology and OIT were in the “Top 10” from Institute of technology in Japan, and also OIT was the only ranked from private universities in Japan. The OIT graduates who experienced this event joined Google, Yahoo and Information technology(IT) companies.
Graduate student from Electronics, Information and communication Engineering won the "Student Award" in the International symposium on ALC(Atomic Level Characterizations) 2015 for New Materials and Devices in Nagoya. The topic was "Surface potential distribution of insulating film on a conductive substrate irradiated by electron beam with an application of the bias-voltage". From the private universities in Japan, it was awarded only to Tokyo University of Science and OIT.
Graduate student from Electronics, Information and communication Engineering won the "Best Paper Award" in Photomask Japan 2014 organized by SPIE(Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers). The topic was "Electron beam current dependence on a surface potential distribution at a resist film on a conductive substrate".
Graduate student from Electronics, Information and communication Engineering won the "Student Travel Award" in the International Conference on EIPBN(Electron, Ion, and Photon Beam Technology and Nanofabrication) 2012 organized by IEEE Electron Devices Society in Hawaii. The topic was "Measurement of Surface Potential Distribution at an Insulating Film Produced by Fogging Electrons in a Scanning Electron Microscope". A variety of universities, countries, and topics were represented among the students receiving support. Students from 10 countries (including the US) and 33 universities(including MIT, Stanford University, Yale University, Carnegie Mellon University, Princeton University, University of British Columbia and more.) were among the recipients of student travel financial support. From the universities in Asia, it was awarded only to National University of Singapore, Peking University and OIT.
Student from Department of Architecture got through to "The 3rd Asian Contest of Architectural Rookie's Award" in Dalian as a member of Japan national team after winning the “1st prize” in "Kenchiku SHINJINSEN"(Architectural Rookie’s Contest)2014 in Japan.
Notable alumni
Susumu Fujita, Politician and former Chairman of OIT.
Hiroichi Sakai, Politician, a former member of the House of Representatives.
Akio Yamaguchi, President at IBM Japan.
Naosumi Tada, President at ZF Japan.
Hiroyuki Koba, Chief engineer of TOYOTA C-HR.
Hiroshi Yamamoto, Chief engineer of MAZDA Eunos Cosmo.
Masahiro Umemura, CFO of KYOCERA.
Takakuni Happo, Deputy president of TOKYU RAILWAYS.
Masao Sakaguchi, Deputy president at KINDEN and former Chairman of OIT.
Shinichi Hasegawa, Chairman of PACIFIC CONSULTANTS(PCKK).
Tetsuo Kure, CEO at ALFRESA PHARMA and former Chairman of OIT.
Takehiko Hasegawa, Founder of HASEKO.
Katsuhiko Wakabayashi, Founder of HARDLOCK INDUSTRY providing an innovative nut that never comes loose used by NASA and Railway companies in UK, Australia, Japan and more.
Keiichi Sato, Professor Emeritus at IIT Institute of Design.
Weixing Ma, former Associate professor of School of design & arts at Beijing Institute of Technology.
Masatoshi Tomoi, MS(University of British Columbia), Japanese pioneer in the research of 2x4 Framing by wooden construction of North America in the Architecture.
Masami Tanigawa, PhD(University of Tokyo), AIJ emeritus member, Japanese pioneer in the research of Frank Lloyd Wright.
Yasushi Nishimura, PhD(Kyoto University), Professor Emeritus/Chairman of OIT and former visiting researcher specialised in Architectural engineering at UT Austin.
Akimitsu Kurita, Professor Emeritus at OIT, former visiting researcher at Ruhr University Bochum(RUB) in the research of steel construction for bridge in the Civil engineering.
Takahiro Tanaka, LLM(Washington University in St. Louis), Lawyer, Visiting professor at OIT.
Yoshihide Yanagino, MSc(University of Portsmouth), Patent Attorney, Adjunct instructor at OIT.
Kojiro Kitayama(younger brother of Tadao Ando), Architect and winner of AIA Honor Award together with Peter Eisenman.
Kohki Hiranuma, Architect and winner of Grand Designs Awards (England), Innovative Architecture International Architectural Award (Italy).
Koichiro Ikebuchi, Interior designer in Singapore and winner of Singapore President’s Design Award (Designer of The Year, 2009).
Sadatoshi Gassan, Japanese Swordsmith and holder of Intangible Cultural Property who has been continuing Gassan Samurai sword tradition for approximately 800 years.
Koshu Tani, Science fiction writer.
Yoshichika Iwasa, Explorer of Polynesia.
Itaru Oki, Jazz trumpeter and flugelhornist.
Carlos Kanno, former Percussionist of Orquesta de la Luz that was salsa band.
Bin Kato, Film director and screenwriter.
Yoshiyuki Abe, Racing cyclist.
Membership/Cooperating organization
IAESTE (International Association for the Exchange of Students for Technical Experience)Japan:
OIT is one of the "University member" and "Business supporting member" as well as The University of Tokyo, Tohoku University, Hokkaido University, Yokohama National University, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo University of Science and Waseda University. Especially from the universities in Kansai region, OIT is only listed as "Business supporting member" who can receive foreign trainees.
OIT accepts a limited number of international research students under this program each year, and also dispatches students to other universities.
- Trainees Accepted in OIT from; 2018: Slovak University of Technology (Slovakia)
2017: Gdańsk University of Technology, Lodz University of Technology (Poland)
2016: Brno University of Technology (Czech Republic), Budapest University of Technology and Economics (Hungary)
2015: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Republic of Ghana), Tomas Bata University in Zlín (Czech Republic)
2014: Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Norway), Federal University of Minas Gerais (Brazil)
- Trainees Dispatched from OIT to;
2017: Manipal University (India)
2016: University of Information Science and Technology "St. Paul The Apostle" (North Macedonia)
2014: Karunya University (India)
WIPO(World Intellectual Property Organization)
OIT cooperates with WIPO on organizing the conferences in order to evangelize the Intellectual Property(IP) in Asia. For instance, “Conference for Presidents/Vice-Presidents and Technology Transfer Officers of Universities and Research Institutions on Creating an Enabling Intellectual Property(IP) Environment for Technology Development, Management and Commercialization” in 2017.
The overseas participants were mainly from Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Sri Lanka.
JICA(Japan International Cooperation Agency)
OIT supports as Training Institution for JICA Training Course mainly related to Intellectual Property, such as "Japan-Mexico Strategic Global Partnership Training Program - Intellectual property rights".
Other than Mexico, OIT received the trainees from Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay.
Overseas Partner Universities
Australia
Queensland University of Technology
Swinburne University of Technology
Austria
Vienna University of Technology
Canada
OCAD University
Hong Kong
City University of Hong Kong
China
Tsinghua University
Zhejiang University
Tongji University
East China University of Science and Technology
University of Science and Technology Beijing
Finland
Tampere University of Technology
France
EPITECH(Paris Graduate School of Digital Innovation, formerly European Institute of Information Technology)
University of Montpellier
University of Bordeaux
Germany
Technical University of Munich
Bundeswehr University Munich
University of Wuppertal
Hochschule Hildesheim/Holzminden/Göttingen
India
Manipal University
Indonesia
Hasanuddin University
University of Palangka Raya
Widya Mandala Catholic University
Mulawarman University
Bakrie University
Malaysia
University of Technology Malaysia
University of Science Malaysia
University Technology Petronas
University Malaysia Sabah
Mexico
University of Guanajuato
Mongolia
Mongolian Institute of Engineering and Technology
Netherlands
Delft University of Technology
Eindhoven University of Technology
Norway
University of Stavanger
Philippines
University of San Jose–Recoletos
Poland
Wrocław University of Technology
Saudi Arabia
King Abdulaziz University
Senegal
Ziguinchor University
Singapore
Singapore University of Technology and Design
South Korea
Chung-Ang University
Inje University
Kookmin University
Daejeon University
Spain
University of Salamanca
Technical University of Madrid
Sweden
Uppsala University
Taiwan
National Taipei University of Technology
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
National Tsing Hua University
National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University
National Chung Hsing University
National Formosa University
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology
National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology
Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Shih Hsin University
Tatung University
Thailand
Chulalongkorn University
Thammasat University
Chiang Mai University
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi
Thai-Nichi Institute of Technology
United States
Georgia Institute of Technology
San Jose State University
Rice University
Clemson University
University of Nevada, Reno
San Francisco State University
Angelo State University
Vietnam
Da Nang University of Technology
Can Tho University
References
External links
Official site
Private universities and colleges in Japan
Engineering universities and colleges in Japan
Education in Osaka
Universities and colleges in Osaka Prefecture
Kansai Collegiate American Football League |
4540087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katerina%20Stikoudi | Katerina Stikoudi | Aikaterini "Katerina" Stikoudi (; born 16 April 1985) is a Greek singer, actress, host, model, businesswoman and former champion swimmer. After first gaining fame in 2001 by finishing fifth in the national swimming championship as PAOK swimming athlete she pursued a career in modeling, television, cinema and theatre. In 2005 she won the title of Miss Hellas 2005, on National Annual Beauty Pageant of Greece, followed by her participation on Miss World 2005 representing Greece.
On the following year, Stikoudi followed a career as a hostess and actress hosting the talk shows La Sousourela (2005), Proinos Kafes (2006), Mega Star from 2008 to 2011, Guinness World Record Show (2009), My Style Rocks (2020) and Just the 2 Of Us (2021). She also appeared in television series as Erotas (2005), Daddy's Girls (2007), If I were rich (2019) and movies as Soula Ela Xana (2009), The treasure (2017), We did it all together! (2018), The Black Bachelor 4 (2021).
In 2009, Stikoudi cooperated with dj-LAVA, as a singer, in his single Tora. After then she started her solo career as a pop and rap singer. In 2011 she released her first music album I Mousiki mou (My Music). The next ten years she released four more albums I yefsi tis zois mou (2013), Cliche (2015), Soundtrack (2018) and Grande (2021).
Early life
Aikaterini Stikoudi was born on 16 April 1985, in Thessaloniki, to Nikos Stikoudis, a greengrocer, and Dina Stikoudi (née Drapsa), an elementary school teacher. She has an older brother, named Telemachos.
From the early age of 8 she started her swimming career when her parents gave her the opportunity to register in PAOK swimming academy. In her adolescence, she signed with PAOK Swimming Team as a professional athlete. In 2001, at the age of 16, she finished fifth at the national championship.
Career
Modeling Career, Beauty Pageants, Hosting and Acting Debut (2002-2008)
At the age of 17, Stikoudi started her modeling career in her hometown, Thessaloniki, signed with her first model agency having some photoshoots and model television appearances alongside her final school years. In 2003, after graduating from school, she entered in college. This year she moved to Larissa where she started studying Medical Laboratories and Dentistry on Technological Educational Institute of Thessaly. Alongside her college life as a helping doctor she started studying Arts and Theatre on Art Theatre of Christos Dimitriadis also in Larissa. After she completed three semesters on both of her studies she quitted to take part on National Beauty Pageant of Greece.
In early 2005, Stikoudi decided to sign up with Nation Annual Beauty Pageant of Greece, the most important and popular Beauty Contest on the country, holding by ANT1 Television Network. On April 18, after she passed the first steps of the competition, she took part on the semi-finals night. The next day she was on the Finals of the show where, at the end of the night, completed as the runner-up of the year with the title of Miss Hellas 2005. The following days she moved to Athens and signed with model agency Cristi's Models, having her first covers on Telerama, OK! Greece and others. On December 10 she represented Greece at the Miss World 2005 televised by E! NBC in Sanya, China, where she finished in top 20 countries. By the end of the year Stikoudi made her acting television debut on ANT1 Daytime soap opera Erotas, where she portrayed Violetta from 2005 to 2006. Moreover she signed with STAR Channel for the upcoming morning television talk show La Sousourela as the hostess of the show next to the journalist Themis Mallis.
She hosted the show until July 2006 when she signed with ANT1 for entering the morning television show Proinos Kafes. There she was the hostess of beauty and fashion column for two seasons, taking also part on the whole of the show next to the hostess Eleonora Meleti. In 2006, she also was the hostess of Model of the Year Beauty Contest and Peloponnesian Beauty Pageant in Greece. In 2007 she entered the cast of comedy series Daddy's Girls as Celia Roda and she also hosted the Peloponnesian Beauty Pageant for an other year. In 2008 she posed almost naked for the Greek men's magazine Nitro, for the cover of August, and she also made a guest appearance on the telenovela Lola portraying herself.
Mega Star, Television Hits, Singing Career and First Albums (2008-2011)
In August 2008, Stikoudi signed with biggest Greek television network Mega Channel, known as MEGA, as the new host of the most long-running talk show in Greek television Mega Star. On October 11, she made her first appearance on the show on the premiere of the 20th season. There she was presenting all the news about the music industry in Greece and worldwide and hosting singers and celebrities of the country, every Saturday afternoon. Her successful presence on the show made her continue hosting the show till May 2011, when Mega Channel decided to cancel the show after 22 years because of economic reasons.
Alongside the hosting of Mega Star, in 2009 she made a guest appearance on the family comedy hit My Beloved Neighbours and also made her film debut with an uncredited role in romance Soula Ela Xana. In the same period DJ Lava proposed her to sing together his new rap-influenced song Tora (Now). After she accepting the proposal, the sing became a big hit in Greece, being at the top of the charts for weeks. On June 24, 2009 she and DJ Lava won the award of "The Sexiest Video Clip of the Year", for their song Tora (Now), on MAD Video Music Awards. In August, she moved in Milan for a month to host the Greek version of talent show Guinness World Record Show, with the Greek top model Kostas Fragkolias, for MEGA. From 2009 to 2010, apart from the Guinness World Record Show and Mega Star, she appeared on four episodes of the comedy hit I Polykatoikia portraying herself. In 2010 she decided to start her singing career, apart from hosting and acting, signing with Cobalt Music, a Universal Music Group company in Greece. Her first cooperation as singer was with the rap boy band NEBMA on the hit Emmoνι (Οbsession) which was one of the biggest hits in Greece for 2010. Moreover she appeared as a guest on tv series M+M and Talk Dirty to me, she made a singing appearance on National Annual Beauty Pageant of Greece 2010 and she was a judge on Playmate of the Year Beauty Contest of Greece. From July to September 2010 she made her first singing summer tour across the country, named "NEBMA feat. Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour".
From 2010 to 2011 she took part on the first season of celebrity singing talent show Just the 2 Of Us, as a celebrity contestant, next to the singer Nikos Mihas. In early 2011 she appeared on the successful MEGA Daytime soap opera The life of the other woman, for four episodes. On the same year she was placed 8th on the list of the sexiest woman celebrities worldwide for a survey of American's men magazines. On June 8 she was the host of the 15th Greek annual beauty pageant Playmate of the Year, organized by Playboy Greece and STAR Channel. On June 14, she made a duet performance with Mohombi on MAD Video Music Awards with the new version of the song Coconut Tree gaining the media attention in Greece. In the same period, after the cancellation of Mega Star, she decided to pause her hosting career for some years in order to focus on the release of the first music album. I Mousiki Mou (My Music), the name of her first album, released on winter of 2011 by Universal Music Group Greece including songs as Tora (Now), Emmoni (Obsessation), 6 ekatommyria (6 million ways) and I Mousiki Mou (My Music).
First professional singing steps, Cinema and Your Face Sounds Familiar (2012-2020)
Her first stage shows performance was in early 2012 was next to Nikos Oikonomopoulos and Elli Kokkinou on Thea Music Hall, Athens. In the same year she made a performance on MadWalk - The Fashion Music Project with the Greek boy bands Kokkina Chalia and NEBMA. On June she performed for a second time on MAD Video Music Awards with Nikos Ganos on the song Break me in the dark. Moreover she released, with Universal Music Group, her video-clips for her songs "Scenario", "Mi", "Ap'tin arhi (From the beginning)", "OK" and "San na min yparcho". She also continued her cooperation with Nikos Oikonomopoulos, and also Stamatis Gonidis, on Fever Music Hall, Athens from September 2012 to January 2013. She cooperated with the band Melisses in early 2013. This period released her new pop song "Psila Takounia (High Heels)", which became a big hit on radio and charts of the country. Followed the trap song "Milia Makria (Miles Away)" with the Cypriot singer Ablaze and the ballad "Me ena sou fili (With only one kiss)". On October 20, 2013 she entered on the fourth season of the show Dancing with the Stars. On February 2, 2014 she completed the show as a runner-up.
In 2014, she released her second music album named "I Gefsi tis Zois mou (The Flavor of my Life)". The album has basically romance influences and ballads as "S' ena oneiro (In a dream)", "I Gefsi tis Zois mou (The Flavor of my Life)" and "Tatouaz (Tattoo)". On June 23, 2014 she gained media attention for her sexy performance on MAD Video Music Awards next to the rapper BO and Nikiphoros. She also performed on music halls Vox and Astra Live with the artists Panos Kallidis, Christos Holidis, Chrispa and Ilias Vrettos. In late 2014 she made a guest appearance on the successful family comedy series Your Family as herself. In 2015, she released her third music album with the title "Cliché" contained pop songs. On April she performed on MadWalk - The Fashion Music Project with a Greek version of Nicki Minaj's and David Guetta hit "Hey Mama". On this period she was continuing her music tour through the country for almost nine months. From 2015 to 2016 she performed with Stamatis Gonidis and Giorgos Tsalikis to the Fix Live Music Hall in Thessaloniki for one season. In May 2016 she was photographed with the brothers Giannis Antetokounmpo and Thanasis Antetokounmpo, after their huge success on NBA, for the cover of lifestyle magazine Down Town Magazine. This issue of the magazine was one of the most successful of the year. On summer of 2016 she appeared for fourth time on MAD Video Music Awards performed with Konstantinos Koufos on the hit "I Pio Oraia stin Ellada (The most beautiful woman in Greece)". In 2017 she started working more actively on her next music album Soundtrack. She was also part of the cast of the comedy The Treasure, directed by Stratos Markidis, which was the remake of the classic Greek 50's comedy Dead Man's Treasure where she portrayed Sharon Chaido Manolakou. In 2018 she had the lead in the comedy We did it all together! as Margarita. In the same year the release of her new video music song "Enthade Koite (She rested in peace there)", in which Stikoudi was presenting her funeral, concentrate negative reviews and millions of views. Followed her next song Botox, in which she appeared foul of botox and plastic surgeries after hours of make-up and special effects work, she also garnered negative reviews. Followed her song 16 April in which her mother, Dina Stikoudi, was narrating her first hours in life after birth. On June 27, 2018 she performed with the pop artist Claydee on MAD Video Music Awards with his song Dame Dame. On December 11, 2018 she appeared on the late night talk show After Midnight with Eleonora Meleti talked about the impact of her last music songs and video clips. She revealed that all this was part of a concept for her fourth album Soundtrack in which she presents twelve new songs which were twelve different eras of a woman's life, and her own life, from the day her mother gave birth to her till the day of her funeral. The other songs ten songs was about the power and strength of her making her career with the song "Ap'tin archi (For zero point) or "Botox" was about the middle-age crisis a woman lives and the thinking of changing something up to her face and body with plastic surgeries.
In 2019 she became part of the cast of the celebrity talent show Your Face Sounds Familiar, on its fifth season. There she embodied various artists as Paola, Dimitra Galani, Cher, Vanilla Ice, Maria Farantouri, Nicki Minaj, Alice Cooper, Conchita Wurst and others. She was the weekly winner for three, to twelve, weeks and on the finals she was the runner-up of the show havings very positive reviews for her shows from the greek media. In March she finally presented her fourth music album Soundtrack. Followed her guest appearance on the popular comedy series Throw the fryer away next to Giannis Bezos as Kirki. On June 18, she performed for EuroPride 2019, being one the ambassadors of the annual show from now on, in Vienna. In August she signed with ANT1 for the lead role on the prime time telenovela If I were rich portraying Froso Vrouva, from September 2019 to May 2020. In October she signed with Minos EMI, for the continuing of her singing career. In November she returned on stage performances corporating with Vasilis Karras, Yannis Ploutarchos and Elli Kokkinou on Iera Odos, for 4 months. In December, she made her theater debut on the musical Annie for limited shows. Moreover at the same period she signed with Skai TV and Acun Medya for her television hosting comeback after nine years. In January 2020, she started hosting the daytime fashion reality show My Style Rocks. Her presence on the show continued until December, for two season of the show. In October she hosted the annual Madame Figaro Beauty Awards of Cyprus. In December she released her new Christmas song titled Ta Christougenna Mou Esy (My Christmas is You).
Her comeback on tv, YFSF: All Star, Greek-trap influences and EuroPrides (2021-today)
In 2021 she was again in the cast of Your Face Sounds Familiar in its All Star version, as one of the most successful contestants on the show's history. There she embodied artists as Shakira, Dimitra Papiou, James Blunt, Dimitra Galani, Billy Idol, Hadise and others being the weekly winner for one, to ten, weeks. On the finals she had the 7th place to 9 all star contestants. In early 2021 she also released her new singles, All Grande, Grande, Revenge, Rio, influenced by the popular greek-trap music and corporating with the artists DJ Stephan, Lil Pop, Kings, KG, Dinamiss.
In September 2021 she signed with BarkingWell Media and Alpha TV to be the new duet hostess of Nikos Koklonis in the upcoming season of Just the 2 Of Us, coming back to the show eleven years after her participation as celebrity contestant. Her first appearance on the show was on September 25 until today, in the seventh season. On October 15, three days before the birth of her first child, she released her fifth album Grande mainly consisted of her trap songs and balads. Before the end of the year she was part of the cast of the popular, fourth part of comedy movie-series, The Black Bachelor 4 portraying Eda one nymphomaniac woman living on an isolated tower. On June 10, 2022 she appeared as guest judge on the tenth episode of The Masked Singer. On June 22, she appeared after a long time on MAD Video Music Awards collaborating with Vegas, KG and Greg on the songs Yalla & Tous Ponaei. From July to September she was appearing with Stamatis Gonidis and Christos Menidiatis on Stage by Frangelico. On June 25, 2022 she had the lead performance on EuroPride 2022 held in front of the White Tower of Thessaloniki. In September she also performed in EuroPride 2022 in Belgrade. In October she returned on the theatre, performing in the musical The Full Monty on Theatre Vembo as Laura. In March 2023 she has the lead on the new comedy of Stratos Markidis The groom is shaved in the end.
Filmography
Television
Film
Music videos
Discography
Albums
I Mousiki Mou (2010)
I Yefsi Tis Zois Mou (2013)
Cliche (2015)
Soundtrack (2018)
Grande (2021)
Singles
2009: Τώρα / Tora (Feat. LAVA)
2010: Εμμονή / Emmoni (Feat. NEBMA)
2011: 6 Εκατομμύρια / 6 Ekatommyria
2011: Η Μουσική Μου / I Mousiki Mou
2012: Σενάριο / Senario
2012: Μη / Mi
2012: Απ' Την Αρχή / Ap' Tin Arxi
2012: Ο.Κ. (Δεν Τρέχει Τίποτα) / O.K. (Den Trexei Tipota)
2012: Σαν Να Μην Υπάρχω / San Na Min Yparxo
2013: Ψηλά Τακούνια / Psila Takounia
2013: Μίλια Μακριά / Milia Makria (Feat. Ablaze)
2013: Μ' Ένα Σου Φιλί / M' Ena Sou Fili
2014: Σ' Ένα Όνειρο / S' Ena Oneiro
2014: Η Γεύση Της Ζωής Μου / I Geysi Tis Zois Mou
2014: Τατουάζ / Tatouaz
2015: Cliche
2015: Συννεφιά / Synnefia
2015: Θα Σου Περάσει / Tha Sou Perasei (Feat. NEBMA)
2016: Voices
2016: I Like The Way
2016: Πιράνχας / Piranxas (Feat. TNS)
2017: Retro
2018: Intuited
2023: Évidemment
Stage
Theater
Tours
LAVA feat. Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour (2009)
NEBMA feat. Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour (2010)
Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour (2011)
Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour (2012)
Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour (2013)
Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour (2014)
Katerina Stikoudi Live Tour (2014-2015)
Katerina Stikoudi Summer Tour (2017)
Soundtrack Tour (2018)
Stage Shows
Thea (along with Nikos Oikonomopoulos & Elli Kokkinou) - (2012)
Fever (along with Nikos Oikonomopoulos & Stamatis Gonidis) - (2012-2013)
Fix Live (along with Nikos Oikonomopoulos, Melisses & Maria Egglezou) (2013)
VOX (along with Panos Kalidis, Christos Holidis & Chrispa) - (2013-2014)
Astra Live (along with Panos Kalidis & Ilia Vrettos) - (2014)
Dames (along with Kostas Doxas) (2015)
Fix Live (along with Stamatis Gonidis & Giorgos Tsalikis) - (2015-2016)
Fix Live (along with Adypas & Andreas Stamos) - (2017)
EuroPride 2019: Visions of Pride in Vienna - (2019)
Ieros Odos (along with Vasilis Karras, Yannis Ploutarchos & Elli Kokkinou) - (2019-2020)
EuroPride 2022: Welcome to the future, where everyone can join in Thessaloniki - (2022)
Stage by Frangelico (along with Stamatis Gonidis & Christos Menidiatis) - (2022)
EuroPride 2022: It's time in Belgrade - (2022)
Personal life
In January 2009, Stikoudi started dating with music producer, rapper and philologist Vangelis Serifis after he appeared as a guest on her show Mega Star to talk about his group new released songs. On August 25, 2018, after a longtime relation, they married in the church of Serifi's origin place in Thesprotia. On October 18, 2021 she brought in life his son, named Byron Serifis.
Appearances
FHM
STATUS Magazine
Maxim
References
External links
Living people
Greek female models
Miss World 2005 delegates
Greek beauty pageant winners
P.A.O.K. swimmers
Singers from Thessaloniki
1985 births
Greek actresses
Greek television presenters
Greek women television presenters
Greek dance musicians
21st-century Greek women singers
Greek pop singers
Greek stage actresses
Minos EMI artists
Singers from Athens
Models from Thessaloniki
Mass media people from Thessaloniki |
4540178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Orlando | Roman Catholic Diocese of Orlando | The Diocese of Orlando () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory, or diocese, of the Catholic Church in central Florida in the United States. St. James Cathedral serves as the seat of the diocese. The current bishop is John Gerard Noonan.
The Diocese of Orlando is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Miami.
Statistics
The Diocese of Orlando encompasses about spanning the following counties:
Orange, Osceola, Seminole, Marion, Lake, Volusia, Brevard, Polk, and Sumter.
In 2010, the diocese contained 81 parishes, 10 missions, and 37 schools. It has two minor basilicas, Mary, Queen of the Universe Shrine, which ministers to Catholic tourists, and St. Paul's in Daytona Beach. In 2011, the estimated population of the diocese was approximately 400,923 Catholics. There were 208 priests, 87 religious nuns, and 181 permanent deacons.
Moon claim
William Borders, the first bishop of the diocese, called himself the "bishop of the Moon", saying that under the then-active 1917 Code of Canon Law, newly explored territory came under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the port of departure, making the Diocese of Orlando responsible for the moon following the flight of Apollo 11 from the Kennedy Space Center. If true, the total area of the diocese would be , making it the largest Catholic diocese (beating the Diocese of Saint Joseph at Irkutsk, at ).
Borders is reported to have made this claim to Pope Paul VI in 1969; it is unknown whether Pope Paul VI confirmed or rejected the claim, which is required for jurisdiction to actually be granted. A spokesperson for the current bishop said in 2019 that he did not consider himself to be bishop of the Moon (or of the International Space Station, also launched from the diocese).
History
Early history
Florida was first part of the Archdiocese of Havana, Cuba, as early as 1606. Bishops of Santiago de Cuba ministered to Catholics in Florida until 1763, when England acquired Florida from Spain. The first mass migration to the New World took place when hundreds of Catholics from Menorca settled in New Smyrna in 1768. They were members there of San Pedro Church until they abandoned that Atlantic coastal site in 1777 and moved north to St. Augustine. Cuban bishops resumed control after Florida was returned to Spain in 1783.
In the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded all of Florida to the United States, which established the Florida Territory in 1821. For Catholics, the territory was still under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Havana. In 1825, Pope Leo XII erected the Vicariate of Alabama and Florida, which included all of Florida.
A quarter century later, Pope Pius IX erected the Diocese of Savannah in 1850, including the new state of Florida minus the Florida Panhandle region. However, seven years later, he stripped Florida from the Diocese of Savannah and created a new Apostolic Vicariate of Florida. In 1858, Augustin Verot became Vicar Apostolic of part of Georgia and all of Florida. He became Bishop of Savannah in 1861 and remained Vicar Apostolic of Florida. In 1870, the Diocese of St. Augustine, including all of Florida, was formed with Verot its first bishop. The Orlando area would remain part of the Diocese of St. Augustine for the next 98 years.
In 1881, the first Catholic church in Orlando, St. James, was founded. In 1898, St. Paul's Church was dedicated in Daytona Beach, the first Catholic church in that community.
1968 to 1974
Pope Paul VI erected the Diocese of Orlando on June 18, 1968, taking its present territory from the Diocese of St. Augustine and making it a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Miami. He appointed William Borders of the Diocese of Baton Rouge as the first bishop of Orlando. At its formation, the new diocese consisted of fifty parishes and served 128,000 Catholics.
During his tenure in Orlando, Borders laid the foundations for the new diocese while also implementing the directives of the Second Vatican Council. He oversaw the creation of parish councils and education boards, allowed the laity to serve as extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, and formed a Sisters' Council for the nuns of the diocese. A Social Services Board correlated the work of already-existing agencies, and developed an educational program aimed at coordinating efforts in Catholic schools, campus ministry, and religious education. Borders also initiated social outreach centers to minister to migrant workers and the poor. In 1974, Paul VI named Borders as archbishop of the Archdiocese of Baltimore.
1974 to 1993
The second bishop of Orlando was Auxiliary Bishop Thomas Grady from the Archdiocese of Chicago, appointed by Paul VI in 1974. He oversaw the establishment of 18 new parishes, the San Pedro Spiritual Development Center on the shores of Lake Howell, and a Mission Office to forge a relationship with the Diocese of San Juan de la Maguana in the Dominican Republic. Grady also wrote a weekly column called "The Bishop's Corner" for the Florida Catholic weekly newspaper.
During Grady's tenure, the diocese saw significant growth. In 1976, St. Charles Borromeo Church in the College Park section of Orlando, the original cathedral, was burned in an electrical fire. St. James Church in downtown Orlando became the new Cathedral. To provide ministerial outreach to vacationers visiting Walt Disney World and the Lake Buena Vista Resort, Grady created a parish in the Lake Buena Vista area. In 1984, he started construction of the Shrine of Mary, Queen of the Universe in the same area. The diocese also expanded ministries to migrants and minorities, founded a scholarship program for African American students, and built apartment buildings for the elderly. Grady resigned in 1989. At the end of his tenure in 1990, the Catholic population of the diocese had grown over 76% and the number of parishes had increased by more than a third.
1993 to present
Pope John Paul II named Auxiliary Bishop Norbert Dorsey of Miami as the next bishop of Orlando. In August 1993, the Shrine of Mary was dedicated. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops designated it as a national shrine in 2004. Dorsey's tenure saw further growth especially due to the growing Hispanic community. Radio Paz and health clinics for migrant and farm workers were established to minister to this community. Bishop Grady Villas, which opened in 2004, was constructed as a residential community for adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. A cemetery at San Pedro Retreat Center for priests of the diocese was established. Dorsey retired in 2004.
Auxiliary Bishop Thomas Wenski of Miami was selected by John Paul II to replace Dorsey as bishop of Orlando in 2004. Wenski convoked the first synod for the diocese in 2004. During his tenure, Wenski created six new parishes and two missions. A capital and endowment campaign raised $100 million. The Spanish language radio station, Buena Nueva FM, an newspaper, El Clarin were also started. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops held their spring convocation in the diocese in 2008. Wenski also designated 2008 as the "Year of Evangelization,". He persuaded the Vatican to raise the Basilica of St. Paul in Daytona Beach and the Shrine of Mary to the status of minor basilicas. In 2010, the diocese began both a $150 million capital campaign and an extensive renovation of St. James Cathedral in Orlando
Benedict XVI named Wenski as archbishop of Miami in 2010.Richard Walsh, pastor of St. Margaret Mary Parish in Winter Park, served diocesan administrator, until Auxiliary Bishop John Noonan was appointed by the pope that same year. In June 2017, Noonan attended a memorial service at St. James Cathedral for victims of the Pulse nightclub shooting in Orlando.
Reports of sex abuse
In February 1995, a man sued the Diocese of Orlando, saying that he had been sexually abused as a youth by former priest Thomas Pagni. The plaintiff claimed that Pagni, then a mental health counselor in Brevard County, sexually assaulted him for several months in 1992. The boy's father witnessed the aftermath of the final assault in his son's bedroom. The plaintiff said that the diocese has concealed Pagni's history of sexual abuse as a priest and had paid for his college courses to enter the counseling field.
Pagni was arrested in March 1995 on charges of engaging in sexual activity with a minor and engaging in lewdness.Another victim was added to the criminal case in June 1995. In January 1996, Pagni pleaded no contest to the ten charges against him and was sentenced to ten years in prison.
In 2004, the diocese announced that it had removed from ministry 12 priests accused of committing sex abuse since the founding of the diocese in 1968.
Wladyslaw Gorak (also known as Walter Fisher) of the Church of the Resurrection in South Lakeland was arrested in October 2004 after breaking down the door at the residence of a female acquaintance and sexually assaulting her. Gorak had transferred to Orlando in 2000 from the Archdiocese of Newark. Despite him having a record of inappropriate behavior with women in Newark, the archdiocese did not mention that to diocesan officials in Orlando. Gorak was sentenced to four years of probation in 2007 The woman later sued the Archdiocese of Newark and received a settlement from them.
In November 1985, the families of four boys sued the diocese, claiming sexual abuse by William Authenrieth at St. Mary's Church in Rockledge. That same year, Bishop Grady permanently removed Authenrieth from ministry; he left the priesthood in 1986. In December 1987, the diocese settled the case with the Rockledge families for $3 million.In August 2014, an Orlando man sued Bishop Noonan and the diocese. The plaintiff claimed that he was sexually assaulted when an altar boy at All Souls Church in Sanford by Authenrieth between 1976 and 1978.The abuse took place in the church sacristy and Authenrieth's quarters. After receiving a complaint in 1978 from a parishioner that Authenrieth had molested his son, the diocese moved the priest to St. Mary's in Rockledge.
In August 2018, Noonan removed David Gillis, parochial administrator of the Our Savior Parish in Cocoa Beach, Florida. Gillis had been accused in a Pennsylvania investigation of sexual abuse of a minor years earlier.Authorities in Pennsylvania determined that the allegations against Gillis were false in September 2018.
Bishops
Bishops of Orlando
William Donald Borders (1968–1974), appointed Archbishop of Baltimore
Thomas Joseph Grady (1974–1989)
Norbert Dorsey (1990–2004)
Thomas Wenski (2004–2010), appointed Archbishop of Miami
John Gerard Noonan (2010–present)
Other diocesan priests who became bishops
Gregory Lawrence Parkes, appointed Bishop of Pensacola-Tallahassee in 2012
Stephen Douglas Parkes, appointed Bishop of Savannah in 2020
Present administration
The Diocese of Orlando has five deaneries:
Eastern Deanery (Volusia County) – Daytona Beach
Southern Deanery (Brevard County) – Melbourne. In 2009, there were approximately 80,000 Catholics in Brevard.
Northern Deanery (Marion, Sumter, and Lake Counties) – The Villages
Western Deanery (Polk County) – Lakeland
Central Deanery (Osceola, Orange, Seminole Counties) – Orlando
The diocese operates the San Pedro Center for the benefit of over 10,000 retreatants during 2008.
Diocese administration contains the following organizations: Office of Communication, Office of Advocacy and Justice, Office of Hispanic Ministry, Office of Family Life and Pastoral Care, Campus Ministry, Office of Finance and Accounting, Office of Human Resources, Buena Nueva FM 104.1, El Clarin, The Florida Catholic, IT, Media Center, Youth/Young Adults, Catholic Charities of Central Florida (including Pathways to Care), Bishop Grady Villas, Tourism Ministries, Mission Office, Propagation of the Faithm and Farmworker Ministry.
The diocese raised $10 million from its parishes in 2007 to support its ministries.
Ministries
A total of 1,342 couples in the Diocese of Orlando participated in the marriage program under the Family Life Office in 2007. In 2008, the office prepared 1,000 people to enter the church. It trained 900 people to minister to the sick as of 2007. The diocese has a sister diocese in the Dominican Republic. Missioners built two churches and one community center there and the medical mission helped 2,000 patients in 2007.
An Apostleship of the Sea ministry is located at the Stella Maris Center at Port Canaveral for the benefit of sailors.
Catholic charities
In 2007, Catholic charities in the Diocese of Orlando gave food and financial assistance to 23,000 families; helped over 290 refugee families and 4,000 people with immigration issues; and visited 2,000 prisoners. Pathways to Care assisted 290 homeless people with medical and shelter.
Other diocesan ministries
Catholic Cemeteries of Central Florida oversees the three parish cemeteries: All Souls Catholic Cemetery, St. Joseph Catholic Cemetery, and St. Matthew Catholic Cemetery.
Council of Catholic Women. In 2008, there were 32 such parish groups in the diocese. In 2007, they donated $240,759 to charitable causes and recorded an estimated 130,615 volunteer hours.
Education
In 2007 the Diocese of Orlando had 12,116 elementary, and 2,687 high school students enrolled in the Catholic School District. The district employed 816 elementary and 221 high school teachers. The diocese supported the Catholic Campus Ministry at the University of Central Florida. The Superintendent of Schools was Henry Fortier.
In 2011, the diocese had 14,500 students in 38 schools. This included 32 elementary schools, five high schools and one special education school.
In 2008, the National Catholic Educational Association recognized the diocesan school board as "outstanding", the only diocesan board to be so recognized. At the same time, the Father Lopez Catholic High School board in Daytona Beach was simultaneously recognized as outstanding; also the only school board to be so designated.
From 2009 to 2010, the diocesan schools received more than $1 million in Title I and Title II funds through the federal government.
Secondary schools
Bishop Moore High School – Orlando
Father Lopez Catholic High School – Daytona Beach
Melbourne Central Catholic High School – Melbourne
Santa Fe Catholic High School – Lakeland
Trinity Catholic High School – Ocala
Elementary schools
The Diocese of Orlando had 32 elementary schools in 2011. Since 1985,18 of those have been awarded the designation of National Blue Ribbon School of Excellence.
Brevard County
Ascension Catholic School – Melbourne, 2003 and 1985 National Blue Ribbon School
Divine Mercy Catholic School – Merritt Island, 2004 National Blue Ribbon School
Holy Name of Jesus Catholic School – Indialantic, 2003 and 2000 National Blue Ribbon School
Our Lady of Lourdes Catholic School – Melbourne
Our Saviour Catholic School, Cocoa Beach, 2004 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Joseph Parish School – Palm Bay, 2006 and 1993 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Mary Catholic School – Rockledge, 2004 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Teresa Catholic School – Titusville
Lake County
St. Paul Catholic School – Leesburg
Marion County
Blessed Trinity Catholic School – Ocala
Orange County
Good Shepherd Catholic School – Orlando, 2000 National Blue Ribbon School
Holy Family Catholic School – Orlando, 2006 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Andrew Catholic School – Orlando, 2009 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Charles Borromeo Catholic School – Orlando, 2007 National Blue Ribbon School
St. James Cathedral School – Orlando, 2005 National Blue Ribbon School
St. John Vianney Catholic School – Orlando, 2005 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Margaret Mary Catholic School – Winter Park, 2006 National Blue Ribbon School
Osceola County
Holy Redeemer Catholic School – Kissimmee
St. Thomas Aquinas Catholic School – St. Cloud
Polk County
Resurrection Catholic School – Lakeland, 2004 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Anthony Catholic School – Lakeland
St. Joseph Catholic Academy – Lakeland
St. Joseph Catholic School – Winter Haven
Seminole County
All Souls Catholic School – Sanford, 2004 National Blue Ribbon School
Annunciation Catholic Academy – Altamonte Springs, 2003 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Mary Magdalen Catholic School – Altamonte Springs, 2006 National Blue Ribbon School
Volusia County
Basilica School of St. Paul – Daytona Beach
Lourdes Academy – Daytona Beach, 2006 National Blue Ribbon School
Sacred Heart Catholic School – New Smyrna Beach, 2008 National Blue Ribbon School
St. Brendan Catholic School – Ormond Beach
St. Peter Catholic School – DeLand
Special education
Morning Star School – Orlando
Parishes
The Diocese of Orland has 93 parishes. They include:
*All Souls – Sanford. 1,776 registered families; average attendance 1,700 each weekend.
Corpus Christi – Celebration. 920 registered families; average attendance 1,700 each weekend.
Most Precious Blood – Oviedo. 1,900 registered families; 2,200 average weekend attendance
St. Faustina – Clermont. 700 registered families.
St. Mark the Evangelist – Summerfield. 2,067 registered families.
St. Mary – Rockledge. 1400 registered families. In 2002 the congregation opened a new church designed by architect Michael Graves.
St. Philip Phan van Minh – Orlando. for people of Vietnamese descent
Basilicas
Basilica of Mary, Queen of the Universe – Orlando. Benedict XVI raised it to a minor basilica in 2009.
Basilica of St. Paul – Daytona Beach. Benedict XVI raised it to a minor basilica in 2006.
Other
Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage – West Melbourne. a Roman Catholic Hermitage that receives its sacramental support from Ascension Catholic Community
St. Jude Maronite Church – Orlando. a Catholic church under the jurisdiction of the Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn (Maronite Catholic Church).
Media
Spanish-language radio station Buena Nueva FM 104.1 subcarrier reached eight counties of the nine comprising the diocese and also broadcast on the Internet before going silent in 2017.
Newspaper
Florida Catholic newspaper is published 38 times a year. Diocesan circulation is 40,200, the highest in the Eccesiastical Province of Miami.
See also
Catholic Church by country
Catholic Church hierarchy
List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States
References
External links
Roman Catholic Diocese of Orlando Official Site
Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage, West Melbourne
Simulcast of Buena Nueva 104.1 FM
Christianity in Orlando, Florida
Christian organizations established in 1968
Orlando
Orlando
1968 establishments in Florida |
4540334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Catholic%20universities%20and%20colleges%20in%20the%20United%20States | List of Catholic universities and colleges in the United States | There are 197 US members of ACCU (Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities) as of 2014. They make up a significant number of the total of Catholic universities and colleges in the world.
Adorers of the Blood of Christ
Newman University (Wichita, Kansas)
Assumptionists (Augustinians of the Assumption)
Assumption University (Worcester, Massachusetts)
Augustinian (Order of Saint Augustine)
Merrimack College (North Andover, Massachusetts)
Villanova University (Villanova, Pennsylvania)
Basilian (Congregation of St. Basil)
University of St. Thomas (Houston, Texas)
Benedictine (Order of Saint Benedict)
- Association of Benedictine Colleges and Universities
Belmont Abbey College (Belmont, North Carolina)
Benedictine College (Atchison, Kansas)
Benedictine University (Lisle, Illinois)
Catholic Distance University (Charles Town, West Virginia)
College of Saint Benedict (St. Joseph, Minnesota)
The College of St. Scholastica (Duluth, Minnesota)
Donnelly College (Kansas City, Kansas)
Mount Marty University (Yankton, South Dakota)
Saint Anselm College (Goffstown, New Hampshire)
Saint John's University (Collegeville, Minnesota)
Saint Leo University (St. Leo, Florida)
Saint Martin's University (Lacey, Washington)
Saint Vincent College (Latrobe, Pennsylvania)
University of Mary (Bismarck, North Dakota)
Brothers of Christian Instruction
Walsh University (North Canton, Ohio)
Christian Brothers (Congregation of Christian Brothers)
Iona University (New Rochelle, New York)
Congregation of Sisters of St. Agnes
Marian University (Fond du Lac, Wisconsin)
De La Salle Christian Brothers / Lasallian (Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools)
Christian Brothers University (Memphis, Tennessee)
La Salle University (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
Lewis University (Romeoville, Illinois)
Manhattan College (Riverdale, Bronx, New York)
Saint Mary's College of California (Moraga, California)
Saint Mary's University of Minnesota (Winona, Minnesota)
Diocesan
Carroll College (Helena, Montana)
Catholic Distance University (Charles Town, West Virginia)
Donnelly College (Kansas City, Kansas)
Gannon University (Erie, Pennsylvania)
Loras College (Dubuque, Iowa)
Mount St. Mary's University (Emmitsburg, Maryland)
St. Ambrose University (Davenport, Iowa)
St. Thomas University (Miami, Florida)
Seton Hall University (South Orange, New Jersey)
Thomas More University (Crestview Hills, Kentucky)
University of St. Thomas (Saint Paul, Minnesota)
Dominican (Order of Preachers)
Albertus Magnus College (New Haven, Connecticut)
Aquinas College (Grand Rapids, Michigan)
Aquinas College (Nashville, Tennessee)
Aquinas Institute of Theology (St. Louis, Missouri)
Barry University (Miami, Florida)
Bayamón Central University (Bayamón, Puerto Rico)
Caldwell University (Caldwell, New Jersey)
Dominican School of Philosophy and Theology (Berkeley, California)
Dominican University (River Forest, Illinois)
Dominican University (Orangeburg, New York)
Dominican University of California (San Rafael, California)
Edgewood College (Madison, Wisconsin)
Molloy University (Rockville Centre, New York)
Mount Saint Mary College (Newburgh, New York)
Ohio Dominican University (Columbus, Ohio)
Providence College (Providence, Rhode Island)
St. Thomas Aquinas College (Sparkill, New York)
Siena Heights University (Adrian, Michigan)
Edmundite (Society of Saint Edmund)
Saint Michael's College (Colchester, Vermont)
Franciscan
First Order of Saint Francis (Order of Friars Minor)
Franciscan School of Theology (Oceanside, California)
Quincy University (Quincy, Illinois)
St. Bonaventure University (Olean, New York)
Siena College (Loudonville, New York)
Second Order of Saint Francis (Poor Clares)
Third Order of Saint Francis
Alvernia University (Reading, Pennsylvania) - Bernardine Sisters of St. Francis
Alverno College (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) - School Sisters of St. Francis
Briar Cliff University (Sioux City, Iowa) - Sisters of St. Francis of Dubuque
Cardinal Stritch University (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) - Sisters of St. Francis of Assisi
Felician University (Lodi, New Jersey) - Felician Sisters
Franciscan Missionaries of Our Lady University (Baton Rouge, Louisiana) - known as Our Lady of the Lake College until 2016
Franciscan University of Steubenville (Steubenville, Ohio) - Franciscan Friars of the Third Order Regular
Hilbert College (Hamburg, New York) - Franciscan Sisters of St. Joseph
Lourdes University (Sylvania, Ohio) - Sisters of St. Francis Sylvania
Madonna University (Livonia, Michigan) - Felician Sisters of Livonia
Marian University (Indianapolis, Indiana) - Sisters of St. Francis Oldenburg
Neumann University (Aston, Pennsylvania) - Sisters of St. Francis of Philadelphia
St. Francis College (Brooklyn Heights, New York) - Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn
Saint Francis University (Loretto, Pennsylvania) - Franciscan Friars of the Third Order Regular
University of Saint Francis (Fort Wayne, Indiana) - Sisters of St. Francis of Perpetual Adoration
University of St. Francis (Joliet, Illinois) - Sisters of St. Francis of Mary Immaculate
Villa Maria College (Buffalo, New York) - Felician Sisters
Viterbo University (La Crosse, Wisconsin) - Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration
Grey Nuns
D'Youville University (Buffalo, New York)
Holy Cross (Congregation of Holy Cross)
Holy Cross College (Notre Dame, Indiana) - also associated with Brothers of Holy Cross
King's College (Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania)
Our Lady of Holy Cross College (New Orleans, Louisiana)
St. Edward's University (Austin, Texas)
Saint Mary's College (Notre Dame, Indiana) - Sisters of the Holy Cross
Stonehill College (Easton, Massachusetts)
University of Notre Dame (Notre Dame, Indiana)
University of Portland (Portland, Oregon)
Jesuit (Society of Jesus)
Boston College (Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts) Official site
Canisius College (Buffalo, New York) Official site
College of the Holy Cross (Worcester, Massachusetts) Official site
Creighton University (Omaha, Nebraska) Official site
Fairfield University (Fairfield, Connecticut) Official site
Fordham University (Bronx, New York, New York, New York & West Harrison, New York) Official site
Georgetown University (Washington, D.C.) Official site
Gonzaga University (Spokane, Washington) Official site
John Carroll University (University Heights, Ohio) Official site
Le Moyne College (Syracuse, New York) Official site
Loyola Marymount University (Los Angeles, California) Official site
Loyola University Chicago (Chicago, Illinois) Official site
Loyola University Maryland (Baltimore, Maryland) Official site
Loyola University New Orleans (New Orleans, Louisiana) Official site
Marquette University (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) Official site
Regis University (Denver, Colorado) Official site
Rockhurst University (Kansas City, Missouri) Official site
Saint Joseph's University (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) Official site
Saint Louis University (St. Louis, Missouri) Official site
Saint Peter's University (Jersey City, New Jersey) Official site
Santa Clara University (Santa Clara, California) Official site
Seattle University (Seattle, Washington) Official site
Spring Hill College (Mobile, Alabama) Official site
University of Detroit Mercy (Detroit, Michigan) Official site
University of San Francisco (San Francisco, California) Official site
University of Scranton (Scranton, Pennsylvania) Official site
Xavier University (Cincinnati, Ohio) Official site
Missionaries of the Precious Blood
Calumet College of St. Joseph (Whiting, Indiana) Official site
Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
Cabrini University (Radnor, Pennsylvania) Official site
Norbertine (Order of Canons Regular of Prémontré)
St. Norbert College (De Pere, Wisconsin) Official site
Oblates of St. Francis de Sales
DeSales University (Center Valley, Pennsylvania) Official site
Pontifical
The Catholic University of America (Washington, D.C.) Official site
Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico (Ponce, Puerto Rico) Official site
School Sisters of Notre Dame
Mount Mary University (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)
Notre Dame of Maryland University (Baltimore, Maryland)
Sinsinawa Dominican Sisters
Dominican University (River Forest, Illinois) Official site
Edgewood College (Madison, Wisconsin) Official site
Sisters of Charity
Clarke University (Dubuque, Iowa), Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary
College of Mount Saint Vincent (Riverdale, Bronx, New York), Sisters of Charity of New York
College of Saint Elizabeth (Morristown, New Jersey), Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth of New Jersey
Mount St. Joseph University (Cincinnati, Ohio), Sisters of Charity of Ohio Official site
Seton Hill University (Greensburg, Pennsylvania), Sisters of Charity of Seton Hill of Greensburg
Spalding University (Louisville, Kentucky), Sisters of Charity of Nazareth
University of the Incarnate Word (San Antonio, Texas), Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word
University of Saint Mary (Leavenworth, Kansas), Sisters of Charity of Leavenworth Official site
Sisters of Divine Providence (Congregation of Divine Providence)
La Roche College (McCandless, Pennsylvania), Sisters of Divine Providence, Maria de la Roche Province
Our Lady of the Lake University (San Antonio, Texas)
Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth
Holy Family University (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary
Holy Names University (Oakland, California) Official site
Sisters of Mercy
- Conference for Mercy Higher Education
Carlow University (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) Official site
College of Saint Mary (Omaha, Nebraska) Official site
Georgian Court University (Lakewood, New Jersey) Official site
Gwynedd Mercy University (Gwynedd Valley, Pennsylvania) Official site
Maria College (Albany, New York) Official site
Mercyhurst University (Erie, Pennsylvania) Official site
Misericordia University (Dallas, Pennsylvania) Official site
Mount Aloysius College (Cresson, Pennsylvania) Official site
Mount Mercy University (Cedar Rapids, Iowa) Official site
Saint Joseph's College of Maine (Standish, Maine) Official site
St. Xavier University (Chicago, Illinois) Official site
Salve Regina University (Newport, Rhode Island) Official site
Trocaire College (Buffalo, New York) Official site
University of Detroit Mercy (Detroit, Michigan) Official site
University of Saint Joseph (West Hartford, Connecticut) Official site
Sisters of Notre Dame of Coesfeld
Notre Dame College (South Euclid, Ohio), Sisters of Notre Dame of Chardon, Ohio
Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur
Emmanuel College (Boston, Massachusetts)
Trinity Washington University (Washington, D.C.)
Sisters of the Presentation of Mary
Rivier University (Nashua, New Hampshire)
Sisters of Providence (Montreal)
University of Providence (Great Falls, Montana) Official site
Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods
Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College (Terre Haute, Indiana)
Sisters of Saint Anne
Anna Maria College (Paxton, Massachusetts)
Sisters of St. Basil the Great (Ukrainian Catholic Church in the US)
Manor College (Jenkintown, Pennsylvania)
Sisters of St. Joseph
- Association of Colleges of Sisters of Saint Joseph
Avila University (Kansas City, Missouri)
Chestnut Hill College (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
The College of Saint Rose (Albany, New York) Official site
Elms College (Chicopee, Massachusetts) Official site
Fontbonne University (St. Louis, Missouri)
Mount St. Mary's University (Los Angeles, California) Official site
Regis College (Weston, Massachusetts)
St. Catherine University (St. Paul, Minnesota)
St. Joseph's University (Brooklyn, New York)
Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary
Immaculata University (Malvern, Pennsylvania)
Marywood University (Scranton, Pennsylvania)
Society of the Holy Child Jesus
Rosemont College (Rosemont, Pennsylvania)
Society of Mary (Marianists)
- Association of Marianist Universities
Chaminade University of Honolulu (Honolulu, Hawaii) Official site
St. Mary's University (San Antonio, Texas) Official site
University of Dayton (Dayton, Ohio) Official site
Spiritans (Congregation of the Holy Spirit)
Duquesne University of the Holy Spirit (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) Official site
Ursuline (Sisters of Mount Saint Joseph)
Brescia University (Owensboro, Kentucky) Official site
Vincentian (Congregation of the Mission)
DePaul University (Chicago, Illinois)
Niagara University (Lewiston, New York)
St. John's University (Jamaica, New York)
Independent
Augustine Institute (Denver, Colorado) Official site
Ave Maria University (Ave Maria, Florida) Official site
Bellarmine University (Louisville, Kentucky) Official site
Catholic Distance University (Charles Town, West Virginia) Official site
Christendom College (Front Royal, Virginia) Official site
Dominican University of California (San Rafael, California) Official site, founded in 1890 by the Dominican Sisters of San Rafael as an independent university of Catholic heritage
Holy Apostles College and Seminary (Cromwell, Connecticut) Official site
Holy Spirit College (Atlanta, Georgia)
John Paul the Great Catholic University (San Diego, California) Official site
Magdalen College of the Liberal Arts (Warner, New Hampshire) Official site
Marymount University (Arlington, Virginia) Official site, founded in 1950 by the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary
Mexican American Catholic College (San Antonio, Texas) Official site, the Americas' only bilingual, bi-cultural Catholic college, formerly the Mexican American Cultural Center
Sacred Heart University (Fairfield, Connecticut)
Thomas Aquinas College (Santa Paula, California) Official site
Thomas More College of Liberal Arts (Merrimack, New Hampshire) Official site
University of Dallas (Irving, Texas) Official site
University of the Sacred Heart (San Juan, Puerto Rico) Official site
University of San Diego (San Diego, California) Official site
Ursuline College (Pepper Pike, Ohio) Official site, maintains close ties to its founding religious congregation, the Ursuline Sisters of Cleveland
Wyoming Catholic College (Lander, Wyoming) Official site
Xavier University of Louisiana (New Orleans, Louisiana), the only Catholic HBCU, founded by the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament
Catholic dental schools
Creighton University School of Dentistry (Omaha, Nebraska)
Marquette University School of Dentistry (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)
University of Detroit Mercy School of Dentistry (Detroit, Michigan)
Catholic engineering schools
Catholic University School of Engineering (Washington, D.C.)
Christian Brothers University School of Engineering (Memphis, Tennessee)
Fairfield University School of Engineering (Fairfield, Connecticut)
Gannon University College of Engineering and Business (Erie, Pennsylvania)
Gonzaga University School of Engineering and Applied Science (Spokane, Washington)
Loyola Marymount University College of Science and Engineering (Los Angeles, California)
Manhattan College School of Engineering (Riverdale, New York)
Marquette University College of Engineering (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)
Saint Louis University Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology (St. Louis, Missouri)
Sacred Heart University (Fairfield, Connecticut)
Saint Martin's University Hal and Inge Marcus School of Engineering (Lacey, Washington)
St. Mary's University School of Science, Engineering and Technology (San Antonio, Texas)
Santa Clara University School of Engineering (Santa Clara, California)
Seattle University College of Science and Engineering (Seattle, Washington)
University of Dayton School of Engineering (Dayton, Ohio)
University of Detroit Mercy College of Engineering and Science (Detroit, Michigan)
University of Mary School of Engineering
University of Notre Dame College of Engineering (South Bend, Indiana)
University of Portland Shiley School of Engineering (Portland, Oregon)
University of St. Thomas School of Engineering (St. Paul, Minnesota)
University of San Diego Shiley-Marcos School of Engineering (San Diego, California)
Villanova University College of Engineering (Villanova, Pennsylvania)
Catholic law schools
Ave Maria School of Law (Naples, Florida)
Barry University School of Law (Orlando, Florida)
Boston College Law School (Newton, Massachusetts)
Columbus School of Law (The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C.)
Creighton University School of Law (Omaha, Nebraska)
DePaul University College of Law (Chicago, Illinois)
Duquesne University School of Law (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
Fordham University School of Law (New York, New York)
Georgetown University Law Center (Washington, D.C.)
Gonzaga University School of Law (Spokane, Washington)
Loyola Law School (Los Angeles, California)
Loyola University Chicago School of Law (Chicago, Illinois)
Loyola University New Orleans College of Law (New Orleans, Louisiana)
Marquette University Law School (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)
Notre Dame Law School (Notre Dame, Indiana)
Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico School of Law (Ponce, Puerto Rico)
St. John's University School of Law (Jamaica, New York)
Saint Louis University School of Law (St. Louis, Missouri)
St. Mary's University School of Law (San Antonio, Texas)
St. Thomas University School of Law (Miami, Florida)
Santa Clara University School of Law (Santa Clara, California)
Seattle University School of Law (Seattle, Washington)
Seton Hall University School of Law (Newark, New Jersey)
University of Dayton School of Law (Dayton, Ohio)
University of Detroit Mercy (Detroit, Michigan)
University of St. Thomas School of Law (Minneapolis, Minnesota)
University of San Diego School of Law (San Diego, California)
University of San Francisco School of Law (San Francisco, California)
Villanova University School of Law (Villanova, Pennsylvania)
Catholic medical schools
Creighton University School of Medicine (Omaha, Nebraska)
Georgetown University School of Medicine (Washington, D.C.)
Loyola University Chicago - Stritch School of Medicine (Maywood, Illinois)
Marian University College of Osteopathic Medicine (Indianapolis, Indiana)
Saint Louis University School of Medicine (St. Louis, Missouri)
University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine (San Antonio, Texas)
Catholic schools of professional psychology
Divine Mercy University, Institute for the Psychological Sciences (Arlington, Virginia)
Catholic Honor Society
Delta Epsilon Sigma is the official national scholastic honor society for students, faculty, and alumni of colleges and universities with a Catholic tradition.
Formerly Catholic universities and colleges
Schools that have ended or renounced their affiliation with the Church:
Daemen University (Amherst, New York) – founded by the Sisters of St. Francis of Penance and Christian Charity
Lynn University (Boca Raton, Florida) – formerly Marymount College of Boca Raton
Manhattanville College (Purchase, New York) – ended affiliation with the Catholic Church in 1971
Marist College (Poughkeepsie, New York) – ownership transferred to a lay board of trustees in 1969
Marymount Manhattan College (New York, New York)
Maryville University (St. Louis, Missouri) – renounced affiliation with the Catholic Church in 1972
Medical College of Wisconsin (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) – formerly Marquette University College of Medicine
Mercy College (Dobbs Ferry, New York) - renounced affiliation with the Catholic Church in the 1970’s.
Nazareth College (Rochester, New York) – founded by the Sisters of St. Joseph (SSJ) of Rochester
New York Medical College (Valhalla, New York) – now part of Touro University System
St. John Fisher University (Rochester, New York) – founded by the Basilian Fathers (CSB); renounced affiliation with the Catholic Church in 1968
Stevenson University (Stevenson, Maryland) – formerly Villa Julie College; founded by the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur in 1947; renounced affiliation with the Catholic Church in 1967
University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (Newark, New Jersey) – sold by Seton Hall University to the State of New Jersey in the 1960s
Webster University (Webster Groves, Missouri) – founded by the Sisters of Loretto; renounced affiliation with the Catholic Church in 1967
Defunct Catholic universities and colleges
Barat College (Lake Forest, Illinois)
Cardinal Cushing College (Brookline, Massachusetts)
College of Santa Fe (became secular as Santa Fe University of Art and Design, then closed) (Santa Fe, New Mexico)
Cardinal Newman College (St. Louis, Missouri)
Claver College (Guthrie, Oklahoma)
College of New Rochelle (New Rochelle, New York) - founded in 1904 as New York state's first Catholic college for women; merged into Mercy College (Dobbs Ferry, New York)
College of Saint Mary-of-the-Wasatch (Salt Lake City, Utah)
College of Saint Teresa (Winona, Minnesota)
College of Saint Thomas More (Fort Worth, Texas) Official site
Duchesne College (Omaha, Nebraska)
Dunbarton College of the Holy Cross (Washington, D.C.)
Holy Family College (Manitowoc, Wisconsin)
Holy Name College (Washington, D.C.)
Immaculate Heart College (Los Angeles, California)
Ladycliff College (Highland Falls, New York)
Lexington College (Chicago, Illinois) Official site
Marian Court College (Swampscott, Massachusetts) Official site
Mary Manse College (Toledo, Ohio), active from 1922 to 1975, was operated by the Ursuline Order of nuns.
Marycrest College (Davenport, Iowa)
Marygrove College (Detroit, Michigan)
Marylhurst University (Portland, Oregon) Official site
Marymount College (Salina, Kansas)
Marymount College (Tarrytown, New York)
Mount Saint Mary College (Hooksett, New Hampshire)
Notre Dame College (Manchester, New Hampshire)
Notre Dame de Namur University (Belmont, California), now a graduate school; founded in 1851 by the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur
Oblate College (Washington, D.C.)
St. Catharine College (St. Catharine, Kentucky)
St. Gregory's University (Shawnee, Oklahoma)
Saint Joseph's College (Rensselaer, Indiana) Official site
St. Mary of the Plains College (Dodge City, Kansas)
St. Viator College (Bourbonnais, Illinois)
Southern Benedictine College (Cullman, Alabama)
Southern Catholic College (Dawsonville, Georgia)
Trinity College of Vermont (Burlington, Vermont)
University of Albuquerque (Albuquerque, New Mexico)
References
Further reading
Wodon, Quentin. "Catholic Higher Education in the United States: Exploring the Decision to Enroll from a Student’s (or a Student Advisor’s) Point of View." Religions 13.8 (2022): 732+ online.
United States
Lists of universities and colleges in the United States |
4540433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Pretty%20Sammy%20characters | List of Pretty Sammy characters | This article is a list of fictional characters from the anime series Magical Girl Pretty Sammy with characters from both the OVA's and the Pretty Sammy television series (Magical Project S in the US).
Main
/
Based on Sasami Masaki Jurai, Sasami is a schoolgirl whose parents run a music store, CD Vision. Sasami was sent off by her parents to deliver a CD to a house she has never been to, and discovers that the customer was actually Tsunami, who then introduces herself to Sasami. Sasami was given a magical baton that would allow her to transform into the magical girl, Pretty Sammy. She was also given Ryo-Ohki as her advisor.
Sasami is voiced by Chisa Yokoyama. and by Sherry Lynn in the English version of the OVA series
/
Misao Amano is Sasami's best friend. A kind, soft-spoken, and rather shy girl with dark purple hair, she tends to take a passive role, quietly following and watching the more energetic Sasami. She is transformed into Pixy Misa, a boisterous magical girl villain with blonde hair who uses a bow-like weapon to summon Love-Love Monsters to foil Pretty Sammy's day. She speaks in "weird English" (or with a French accent in the English dub)
Misao is voiced by Rumi Kasahara and by Sue Turner-Cray in the English version of the first OVA episode and Debi Derryberry for the English version of the remaining two OVA episodes.
Ryo-Ohki, the cabbit, serves as Sasami's advisor. In contrast to the counterpart at Tenchi Muyo!, Ryo-Ohki is male, can speak, and can also transform into a boy.
Ryo-Ohki is voiced by Etsuko Kozakura and by Debi Derryberry in the English version of the OVA series.
Based on her Tenchi Muyo! counterpart, Tsunami is a candidate to be the queen of Juraihelm. After she was chosen, she chose Sasami to act as her representative on Earth. In contrast to her Tenchi Muyo! character, she is not connected or related to Sasami, and she is far more carefree, relaxed, and air-headed.
Tsunami is voiced by Chisa Yokoyama. and by Sherry Lynn in the English version of the first OVA episode, and by Lara Cody for the English version of the remaining 2 OVA episodes.
Passed over by the council of Juraihelm to be the candidate for Queen, Ramia attempts to undermine Tsunami's bid by having her brother Rumiya transform someone on Earth to be a magical girl villain. She has long red hair.
Ramia is voiced by Maya Okamoto. and by Susan Brecht in the English version of the OVA series.
Ramia's little brother. He can transform into a bird that uses hypnosis to transform Misao into magical girl Pixy Misa.
Rumiya is voiced by Mifuyu Hiiragi. and by Susan Marie Brecht in the English version of the OVA series.
Tenchi Muyo! characters
Tenchi Muyo! characters were recast in both the OVA and TV in different roles:
For the characters that were recast for the OVA series include:
, a college student who works at CD Vision, based on Mihoshi Kuramitsu
, a co-worker at CD Vision who didn't get into college, based on Kiyone Makibi
, a child genius high school science teacher who knows of Sasami's identity, based on Washu Hakubi
Tenchi Kawai, Sasami's brother and a high school student, based on Tenchi Masaki.
Ryoko Hakubi and Ayeka Masaki Jurai also make appearances as high school students fighting for Tenchi's affections.
For the Tenchi Muyo! character that were recast for Pretty Sammy TV series include:
, Sasami's homeroom teacher, based on Mihoshi Kuramitsu
, a teacher at Sasami's school, based on Kiyone Makibi
, an American child genius who graduated from MIT, and comes to Sasami's school as a science teacher, based on Washu Hakubi
, a bodyguard to Tsunami, based on Ryoko Hakubi
, a third candidate for Queen of Juraihelm, based on Ayeka Masaki Jurai
Other Tenchi Muyo! characters have cameos in the TV series including:
Tenchi Masaki as a high school kid that Sasami admires
Genjuro Hagakure, based on Katsuhito Masaki
Binpachi Hagakure, based on Yosho
Shinobi Hagakure, based on Achika Masaki
Nobuyuki Onjigoku, based on Nobuyuki Masaki
Pretty Sammy OVA minor characters
Chihiro Kawai
is Sasami's and Tenchi's mother and the owner of the CD-Vision music store. Once a successful pop singer, she is a huge fan of karaoke and regularly leaves her daughter no choice but to sing with her, much to Sasami's annoyance. Her biggest hit song was Ai no Makeikusa (Losing the Fight of Love; Your Hiroshi in the dubbed version), which is featured in the beginning of the first episode, and as the ending theme for the second episode of the Pretty Sammy OVA.
Her addiction to karaoke is ceaseless, and she even goes as far as to raid the cash register in order to buy a new high-end personal computer, mistaking it for a high-tech karaoke machine. When Pixy Misa causes the software to malfunction, she goes into extreme withdrawals. Kiyone and Mihoshi are left dealing with her while Tenchi and Sasami go to Akihabara to look for software, a search that is complicated by Bif Standard's takeover.
She appears again as one of the members of the Team Sexy Mrs. in Magical Project S, but she has no relationship with Sasami or Tenchi.
Voiced by: Rica Matsumoto (Japanese), Ellen Gerstell (English, ep. 1), Rebecca Forstadt (English, ep. 2-3)
Yuri Kouzuki, Yuka Shinjo, and Yuma Shiratori
, , and
Yuri, Yuka, and Yuma are Ayeka's servants. Other than providing basic services for Ayeka, such as dragging her carriage around and handling her stuff, they are usually sent out to spy on Ryoko's activities, as Ryoko also has a huge crush on Tenchi as well.
Shigeki Amano
Shigeki is Misao's father. He is a world-famous composer. One of his compositions serves as Misao's theme song.
Shigeki left his wife, Kotoe, and his family, after a bitter argument with her, leaving Misao heartbroken. He was seen in Misao's flashbacks.
Kotoe Amano
Kotoe is Misao's mother and Shigeki's estranged wife (though she is unnamed in the OAV).
After Shigeki abandoned his family, Kotoe was left in charge of taking care of Misao. Although she seems to be a very busy business woman that is hardly around, she does deeply care about her daughter and works hard to support her. Her only appearances in the OVA series are during Misao's flashbacks, when she was arguing with Shigeki when he was leaving them, and when Misao reminiscing about how her parents would take her out for a walk.
High Priest
The is an old man who is leader of a council of 108 priests that select the candidate who will become the next Queen of Juraihelm. The priest announces Tsunami, much to Ramia's dismay, and asks her to choose her champion. Ramia and the priest are perplexed to see her choice, Sasami, caught in an eccentric moment of singing karaoke with Chihiro.
High Priest's appearance in the OVA is brief, but he also appears in the Magical Girl Pretty Sammy manga story. Tsunami reveals her prankster side as she marks on the High Priest's face, writing "Ramia was here", after she had stopped time in order to aid Sammy. After the time freeze is over, the Priest is confused as to what happened but becomes furious upon seeing his face in the mirror. He forces Ramia to do menial tasks such as cleaning the floor.
Bif Standard
is an incredibly rich computer software mogul meant to be a parody of Bill Gates, with his company StandardSoft being a parody of Microsoft. Appears in Episode 2 of the Pretty Sammy OVA. He is shown to be quite eccentric and wants to "standardize" the world through his software, aptly named "World Standard". In his mind, there should be no individuality, and everyone should be peaceful, happy conformists. Bif is in Japan, very agitated that the country is not using his software, used by 95% of the world. Ramia comes to him offering to help. At first he is suspicious, but upon seeing Ramia's great magical powers, he reconsiders.
The boost from Ramia and Misa's powers to his plans only causes him to become even more obsessive with his goals. Tenchi, who is only trying to find some karaoke software for his mother, gets on Bif's bad side after insulting his software and then acquiring the Pineapple Mach 8 OS (a parody of the Apple Macintosh) from an underground software dealer. He sends Pixy Misa and her monsters to attack Tenchi, which brings Pretty Sammy to the scene. Bif supports Ramia's plan to crash the Moon into Earth because he thinks he will be able to build his standardized empire anew after the impact.
With some help from Washu who disabled Bif's connection to his network, Sammy is finally able to knock some sense into him upon using her magic on him, or so it seems... Although Bif is no longer evil, he is still as eccentric as ever and completely devoted, hoping to carry on his company in a different manner.
Voiced by: Ryusuke Ohbayashi (as Ryunosuke Ohbayashi) (Japanese), John DeMita (English)
Sam Hikari Langley
appears in Episode 2, Sam is Biff's personal butler and right-hand man. He seems completely devoted to his master's cause and helps as a go-between for him in communicating with the Police at one point. Sam tries to listen in carefully when Ramia and Rumiya are discussing plans with each other, showing that he may be slightly suspicious of them.
Makoto Mizushina
is a boy that Sasami meets while on a company-sponsored CD Vision trip in Episode 3. He works at a nearby resort and bears a resemblance to Tenchi in Sasami's eyes. Kiyone tries hitting on him at first, but finds herself rejected much to her dismay. Since he seems interested in Sasami, Kiyone, Mihoshi, and Chihiro take him to be a pedophile. He generally has a friendly demeanor and tries to help Sasami find Misao when she has gone missing. Ryo-Ohki is a little annoyed by Sasami's interest in Makoto.
Makoto is actually an alien that arrived on a comet that struck Earth, and his true form is a small green blob-like creature. They had the ability to link up with people and acquire their characteristics, and in his case, he linked up with Pretty Sammy. This gave him the capability to read Sasami's feelings, but did not reveal them to Sasami herself. After Hiroshi made his threat to Sasami, Makoto revealed who he truly was to Ryo-Ohki. After Sammy was knocked unconscious, he tried to take on Hiroshi, but ended up being no match and his link to Sasami was broken. Makoto was forced back to his real form, but before he did he told Ryo-Ohki that he was envious of him because he knew from linking with Sasami "you're the one she...". He is cut off before he can say the rest, but it is implied Ryo-Ohki is the one Sasami likes, given his earlier conversation with Sasami.
Sammy shows up later and never found out what happened to Makoto. She bumps into a boy who looks exactly like Makoto, and is confused when the boy had no recollection of her. In the end, Ryo-Ohki explains that Makoto said he had to go away for a while. Nothing is known about what happened to Makoto's true form.
Hiroshi
is a sinister, psychotic man with dark purple hair and sunglasses who had found Ramia on the beach when she was stricken with amnesia in Episode 3. He possesses enormous magical powers, so much so that he harmed Pixy Misa greatly in his first encounter. Hiroshi was searching for Pretty Sammy, as the only thing on his mind was destroying her and then taking out Tsunami in Juraihelm afterwards. He decided to go on a destructive rampage when Pixy Misa said all he had to do to bring Sammy out was to cause a disturbance. Sasami is horrified when she finds Misao unconscious and badly hurt, and in order to appease Hiroshi's desire and keep him from causing further harm, shows up for a challenge.
It is revealed that Hiroshi possesses his great powers because he belongs to the same race as Makoto, and he had linked up to Ramia, acquiring her urge to destroy Sammy and Tsunami. At first, Pretty Sammy tries her hardest, using all of her magical strength to defeat Hiroshi, but that alone is not enough to defeat the man who had linked up with a powerful sorcerer. Badly beaten and unconscious, Sammy was able to get a recharge to her magical power from Ryo-Ohki. Misa, back in full health, joined the battle this time, and they were able to defeat Hiroshi with their combined magical power.
In the end, Hiroshi's true form was collected in a jar by Washu, who knew about the alien race through one of them who had linked up with herself.
Magical Project S minor characters
Heita Hirata ("Peter")
, nicknamed is a young boy who breeds Love-Love Monsters on a remote island. Pixy Misa wants Peter to strengthen the monsters so they can defeat Pretty Sammy. Peter, however, is actually a friendly personality who loves and respects the monsters, which makes them disloyal to Misa and useless against Sammy. After convincing Pretty Sammy that the Love-Love Monsters weren't evil, Pretty Sammy was able to transport him and the Love-Love Monsters to safety just before the island's volcano erupted, and afterwards they are able to live in peace.
Principal Miura
is the principal of the school Sasami attends, Umi no Hoshi Elementary, and is a namesake of AIC producer Toru Miura who worked on the Tenchi and Pretty Sammy series. Miura has a somewhat eccentric personality and is blunt in speech. Between the appearance of the magical girls, Mihoshi and Kiyone's rivalry, and Washu's scientific meddling, the school is involved in countless incidents, but Miura never seems to be that concerned by all of this.
Voiced by: Ryusuke Ohbayashi (as Ryunosuke Ohbayashi)
Keiko
works as the assistant to director to Tenchi Masaki for the Blue Sky Cool Rangers show. When Sasami went to meet Tenchi as he was moving to Tokyo to work as a theatrical director, to her dismay she found out that Keiko is already Tenchi's girlfriend and she was moving to Tokyo with him.
Andou Toyokawa
is a handsome and charming gentleman who was to marry Kiyone Amayuri in an arranged marriage set up by Kiyone's mother. When she went to meet Andou, a thinly disguised Mihoshi, Principal Miura, Sasami, Sasami's parents, Ryo-Ohki, Misao, Konoha, Eimi, Kenji, and Hiroto (all wearing sunglasses) were observing them to see how things would go.
During the meeting, Andou seemed to share all of Kiyone's interests, and Kiyone felt that he is perhaps the one that she should marry. However, Pixy Misa exposed him as a fraud by bringing all the girls that were jilted by him. However, after Pretty Sammy defeated Break-Up Girl, Andou tried to propose to Sammy. A heartbroken Kiyone then fell into shock. Mihoshi, who was offended by this, knocked Andou into the distance with a powerful uppercut.
Boss
is an intimidating tough guy figure that has a band of three followers and claims his mission is to take over the school. He looks like he could be much older, but Gariko claims that he is "10 years, 6 months" old, a boy about the same age as the rest of the class. Somewhat dimwitted, Boss mistakes Sasami for a guy when she rather haphazardly gets pointed out as the strongest in the class. Pixy Misa shows up and says to Boss that Pretty Sammy is the strongest in the school, not Sasami, and gets the challenge set up.
Thinking that Misao is in danger and has been kidnapped, Sammy shows up for the challenge. Initially, Boss has lost by falling off a ledge, but Pixy Misa imbues him with power by using "Calling Mistakes". Boss becomes gigantic, crushing Sammy, and making Misa finally believe that she had won. Boss's gang cannot stand the sight of their leader turned into a monster, and upon seeing their reaction, Boss gets all emotional too. Sammy is able to restore him to normal, and afterwards Boss and his gang leave, but with a newfound respect for Pretty Sammy. Boss and his gang also make a brief cameo appearance to watch Pretty Sammy's duel against Pixy Misa just before Team Sexy Mrs. showed up.
He and Gariko make a cameo appearance in Majokko Tsukune-chan.
Boss' Gang
Chibiroku
is a member of Boss's gang whose talent is being really quick and hard to catch. Sammy easily outwits him by just standing and doing nothing, making him waste his energy.
Dosumasa
is a member of Boss's gang who is an expert at throwing knives. Sammy retorts that dealing with knives is dangerous, and eventually Dosumasa messes up while he is juggling knives and injures himself. Sammy defeats him, but first reinforces a "never try this at home kids" message.
Gariko
is a boy with glasses in Boss's gang who is the brains behind the group. He carries around a dictionary which he consults often, and it contains entries on all kinds of subjects, even Pretty Sammy herself. When he is the last to challenge Sammy, he is brimming with confidence, saying he has formulated a perfect strategy. Pretty Sammy just whacks him with her baton while he is in the middle of babbling about his strategy.
Team "Lovely Madams" (Team "Sexy Mrs.")
(translation: Married Women Squad) a.k.a. are a villainess team set up by Ramia in her attempt to defeat Pretty Sammy. Ramia goes to Earth disguised in a bird costume and uses her "Magical Eyes" to transform a group of housewives into a magical team. Team Sexy Mrs. arrive on the scene after Misa has supposedly challenged Sammy to a "final battle" and lost. They have their own special ability, called ("Lovely Space" in Pioneer's subtitles), which overwhelms Pretty Sammy's Pretty Space and causes her to lose initially.
Misa rejoices in the victories of the Team Sexy Mrs. and the chance to make Sammy suffer, even though she sits back and does nothing the whole time. With the situation looking hopeless, military forces of the JSDF, United States 7th Fleet, and United Nations attempt to stop them, but they are no match for the powers of the Sexy Mrs. With some advice from Ginji (who was able to distract the team with his "Dandy Power") and Washu, Sammy is able to come up with a strategy that enhances her Pretty Space and makes it stand up against the Sexy Space. Before they are defeated, the Team informs Misa that she could use Sexy Power just like them, allowing her to use stronger abilities in the future.
Miyuki ("Mrs. One")
a.k.a. is a rather ordinary housewife with a loving husband and baby girl who lives in the apartment right next door to Misao, and she is also a great cook. As a member of Team Sexy Mrs., Miyuki possesses related to usual housewife duties, like lobbing a shopping basket at her foes. She is also apparently the leader and the closest to Misa. Her team number is 1, in English cardinal numbering. Miyuki is the only housewife who shows up later after being turned back to normal, coming across Misao when she is in despair and offering advice.
Kaori ("Mrs. Zwei")
a.k.a. is a housewife who is vain about her beauty. As a member of Team Sexy Mrs., Kaori distracts men with her beauty and destroys them while they are caught off guard. Her team number is 2, in German.
Yumi ("Mrs. Third")
a.k.a. is a college student that married young in life and is the envy of her friends, since she appears so happy to them. As a member of Team Sexy Mrs., Yumi has athletic attacks and a magical tickling device that she tortures Sammy with when Misa calls for it. Her team number is 3, in English ordinal numbering.
Chihiro ("Mrs. Si")
a.k.a. is a housewife who is rather obsessed with singing karaoke and a cameo of Chihiro Kawai from the OVA's. As a member of Team Sexy Mrs., Chihiro's karaoke singing possesses destructive powers. Her team number is 4, in Chinese (pronounced "suh").
Yukie ("Mrs. Cinq")
a.k.a. is an office lady who is married to a man who works in the same office and often brings meals with her to work. As a member of Team Sexy Mrs., Yukie can turn flirtatious gestures like a wink into an attack. Her team number is 5, in French.
Chisato ("Mrs. Roku")
a.k.a. is a young girl and only member of the team who is not actually married, though she is arranged to marry someone. Her attacks as a member of Team Sexy Mrs. are of the playful variety, like using cat's cradle to entangle foes. Her team number is 6, in Japanese.
Hikari
, Earth disguise name is a girl from Juraihelm who is a childhood friend of Ryo-Ohki. Ramia sends her to Earth thinking she will hate Sasami and cause trouble. When Hikari transfers into Sasami's class, though, she becomes friends rather quickly and finds nothing wrong about her. Misao gets somewhat jealous of the situation, with Hikari proving to be a talented, athletic girl who can also play the piano.
Ramia, not pleased with the situation, finds a way to convince Hikari that Sasami had been mistreating Ryo-Ohki. It was more the other way around, with Sasami complaining that Ryo-Ohki had been too tough in training her. Hikari kidnaps Ryo-Ohki and kept him bound with a magic spell. Sasami gets worried and goes around searching for Ryo-Ohki, who eventually tries to reach her with telepathy. Hikari challenges Sasami, initially having the upper hand since she had the ability to reflect magic back at Sasami using a barrier. Seeing Ryo-Ohki cover for Sammy weakened her resolve, allowing Sammy to purge her of Ramia's evil spell.
Hikari makes two cameo appearances. In Episode 23, she is weakened when her powers are absorbed by Romio and in Episode 26, she prayed for Pretty Sammy and Pixy Misa to defeat Romio.
Love Love Monsters listing
OVA Love Love Monsters
Love-Love Monsters
(Ryoko (Tenchi Muyo!) and Ayeka Masaki Jurai transformed. In the manga, there are two similar monsters that are Tenchi and a female gym teacher transformed).
Created when Pixy Misa transformed Ryoko and Ayeka into Love Love Monsters when they were fighting over Tenchi. In this form they were able to fight over Tenchi, as they were loving him to death, that is until Pretty Sammy intervened. However Pretty Sammy was at a disadvantage, as this was her first battle and they began to love her to death as well. But when Tenchi was able to reach out to them and they remembered when Tenchi had comforted them which Pretty Sammy could sense and was able to restore them to normal with her Pretty Coquettish Bomber.
The term "Love-Love Monsters" is originally applied to the monsters for the first episode of Pretty Sammy OVA. But past that point it is used as a generic term for monsters spawned by Ramia or those who possess her powers (like Misa and Hiroshi).
Digital Love-Love Monsters
("Voltaic Vacuum Boy" in English dub)
("Mach 12 Monkey Monster" in English dub)
("Panther Patty" in English dub)
Created through a combination of Bif Standard's Network and Pixy Misa's magic. Vacuum Boy, and Monkey Man were easily overwhelming Sammy, while Leopard Girl stole the Music Software CD from Tenchi.
After finding out from Rumiya about Bif and Ramia's plan to crash the moon on Earth to create a digitized network, Pixy Misa chose to help Pretty Sammy. Vacuum Boy was destroyed when Pixy Misa used her Magical Wind to send him into an electric signboard, Leopard Girl was destroyed when she tried to use her Kamikaze Claw attack and missed, Monkey Boy was destroyed when Pixy Misa turned her baton into a gun and shot him.
Vacuum Boy
Monkey Boy
Leopard Girl
Queen Girl
- Summoned by Pixy Misa to deal with Hiroshi. Easily killed by Hiroshi's Tank Girl.
Tank Girl
- Summoned by Hiroshi to destroy Pixy Misa's Queen Girl.
Also, Hiroshi summoned a hoard of unnamed Love Monsters to fight Pretty Sammy, and she was able to destroy them, but had exhausted herself in the process.
TV Series Love Love Monsters
CD Girl
is created from a CD from CD Vision that Sasami had delivered to Pixy Misa. CD Girls special ability is that she uses razor sharp CDs that are stored in two mounted spots in her chest area, but even she has a limited supply of CDs. She can also shoot fireballs from the tip of her guitar when she plays it. An inexperienced Pretty Sammy lost to her during their first battle, but despite not getting any training done, Sammy was able to defeat CD Girl by protecting her friends Hiroto and Kenji, and then summoning Pretty Space for the first time. However, the original CD that CD Girl was created from was covered in scratches after the battle.
Comic Girl
is created from the Dragon A comic book that Konoha had hidden away at her prep school. Comic Girl's special abilities are that she can alter her face by turning her pages, trap innocent children into her body and literally turn them into comic strip, as well as bring objects to life (such as a giant comic book and knife) to use as weapons. Luckily when Konoha slammed into Comic Girl it canceled out Comic Girl's weapons, which enabled Pretty Sammy to destroy her.
PE Girl
is created from the Vault Box that Mihoshi was attempting to get her class to jump over. PE Girl's abilities are that she can shoot the vaults and shot puts from the cannons all over her body. PE Girl also can transform by rearranging her body with other vault box parts into a gigantic form, but when she tried to step on Pretty Sammy, PE Girl forgot that vault boxes are hollow and could not harm Sammy. Sammy destroyed PE Girl after performing a vault jump that toppled PE Girl over.
Karaoke Girl
first fought Pretty Sammy and was able to use her song to keep Pretty Sammy at bay until her song's time ran out and Sammy then destroyed her. Pixy Misa later brought out Pro-Karaoke Girl during Pretty Sammy's debut concert to boost sales at CD Vision. Pro-Karaoke Girl has a few minor improvements, but none of them are very useful. But she was still able to overwhelm Pretty Sammy again, until Ginji was able to disrupt her song with an electric guitar and Sammy was encouraged by her fans to sing. Pro-Karaoke Girl overloaded when she tried to create feedback, giving Pretty Sammy the chance to destroy her.
Ball Girl & Line Girl
& are two Love Love Monsters created from a ball and a painted line during a dodgeball game between Mihoshi and Kiyone's classes. Ball Girl could flatten people with her weight and Line Girl could reduce the size of the playing field. After Ryo-ohki arrived it gave Sasami an excuse to run off and become Pretty Sammy. Once on the field Pretty Sammy kept dodging Ball Girl's attacks until she was worn out. Pretty Sammy then immediately destroyed both of them.
Ball Girl
Line Girl
Chemistry Girl
was created from a flask from Washu's science class. Chemistry Girl used her power to trap Washu in a beaker with potatoes that were being turned to starch. Despite being drowned in it, Washu was more preoccupied with gathering the data on Chemistry Girl. It was easy for Pretty Sammy to destroy Chemistry Girl as she had no legs and couldn't move.
Ghost Girl
was created by Pixy Misa during Sasamis sleepover at Misao's apartment. Because she is a ghost, Ghost Girl is immune to Pretty Sammy's attacks. However Washu came to help dressed as Santa Claus (including coming in on a sleigh driven by a mechanical reindeer) to give Pretty Sammy her invention that would give Ghost Girl a body. Although Sammy had no difficulty identifying Washu, she was able to use her invention for her Sammy Flash attack and then finished off Ghost Girl.
Fake Sick Girl
was a Love-Love monster that pretends to be sick while using a hidden weapon to fight back with. She and the other Love-Love Monsters (the ones from the previous TV series episodes) were sent to Peter, a trainer who lived on a secluded island that would train them to become stronger. Fake Sick Girl encountered Sasami's class (with the addition of Washu and Kiyone) to try to find Peter. After Peter was able to convince Sammy to spare them, she transported Peter, Fake Sick Girl, and the other Love-Love Monsters to another safe place before the volcano on the island erupted.
Gunman Girl
was created to assist Nobuyuki Onijigoku in taking over Genjuro Hagakure's theme park. Gunman Girl's speciality is that she can use guns and rocket launchers as her weapons. Gunman Girl's excessive shooting is so great that not even Pixy Misa can control her. When she was about to shoot Binpachi Hakakure, his grandfather took the shot for him. After being convinced by Genjuro that "ninjas are cool", Binpachi rejoined his family's side and distracted Gunman Girl with his ninja skills long enough for Pretty Sammy to destroy Gunman Girl.
Chicken Girl
Chicken Girl was a Love-Love monster that could splatter eggs on people's faces. Although Pretty Sammy had no trouble destroying Chicken Girl, she accidentally lost her magical baton when she was trying to catch the eggs (to avoid wasting them) that Chicken Girl had left behind.
Cheesecake Girl
was created from the Cheesecake that Kotoe Amano had made for Misao and Sasami. Deciding to take full advantage since Sasami had lost her baton, Pixy Misa had Cheesecake Girl drown Sasami and the other townspeople in cream cheese. Luckily, when Konoha threw away the baton after failing to win Hiroto's love as Funky Connie, Sasami recovered her baton and easily destroyed Cheesecake Girl.
Special Effects Girl
was used by Pixy Misa when Pretty Sammy guest starred on a Cool Ranger episode to save the career of director Tenchi Masaki. Special Effects Girl's special ability is that she can transform people into dinosaur costumes which would slowly transform them into monsters. Pixy Misa threatens to have Pretty Sammy follow the script and sacrifice herself to save Tenchi and the others. With some encouragement from Tenchi, Sammy refused and destroyed Special Effects Girl and then had the courage to ask Tenchi to change that line into something better.
Break-Up Girl
was created by Pixy Misa from the jilted brides of womanizer Andou Toyokawa during his arranged marriage meeting with Kiyone Amayuri. Break-Up Girl's special ability is that she can create a powerful barrier to resist attacks. However Genji Kawai was able to charm Break-Up Girl and although he was smacked by a jealous Honoka, it gave Pretty Sammy the chance to destroy Break-Up Girl.
Baby Goods Girl
- When Sasami is turned into a baby by one of Washu's experiments to turn Sasami into an Adult, Pixy Misa creates this Love-Love Monster. With its milk bottle it threatened to put Baby Pretty Sammy to sleep. Luckily Washu performed the same experiment on Pixy Misa which briefly powered up Baby Goods Girl, but then her power was reduced when Pixy Misa became a baby. Ryo-Ohki then used a line cart to help Sammy finish off Baby Goods Girl.
Cigarette Butt Girl and Empty Can Girl
When Pixy Misa injured her wrist during her duel against Pretty Sammy, she created these two from a Cigarette and an empty Pop Can. However being no bigger than the objects they were created from, Sammy easily batted them away with her baton.
Hyper Love-Love Monster
The was a giant rose created from the Sexy Power that Pixy Misa had inherited from Team Sexy Mrs., and the bouquet of roses that Misao had bought to welcome her father home. Its special pollen can infect anyone (aside from Pretty Sammy) and fill them with a strong hatred if they were to breathe it in, unless if someone were to cover their face (or in Washu's case, where she insulated her house). Pretty Sammy had a difficult battle and was losing until Misao's parents arrived looking for their daughter. Once Misao heard them, her powers as Pixy Misa weakened, giving Sammy the chance to use the power of Shigeki and Kotoe Amano's love to destroy this monster.
Lovely Monsters
The Right and Left were created by Love-Me Eimi. Their hair is razor sharp and they can use it as a weapon. Their team attack Cross Attack is where they combine their hair and use it as a giant saw to literally cut the Earth in half. While Pretty Sammy was forced to retreat in the first battle, but during the second battle, Sammy had Oryo's assistance, who was disguised as the Cool Ranger's Cool Red. Oryo fought both Right and Left and easily destroyed them after Sammy freed Eimi from Romio's control.
Note
Pretty Sammy
Tenchi Muyo! spin-offs |
4540726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica%20Simpson | Jessica Simpson | Jessica Ann Simpson (born July 10, 1980) is an American singer and actress. After performing in church choirs as a child, Simpson signed with Columbia Records in 1997, aged seventeen. Her debut studio album, Sweet Kisses (1999), sold two million copies in the United States and saw the commercial success of the single "I Wanna Love You Forever". Simpson adopted a more mature image for her second studio album, Irresistible (2001), and its title track became her second top 20 entry on the Billboard Hot 100, while the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In This Skin (2003), Simpson's third studio album, sold three million copies in the United States.
During her earlier career, Simpson became known for her relationship with and later marriage to Nick Lachey, with whom she also appeared on the MTV reality television series Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica (2003–2005). Following the release of her first Christmas album ReJoyce: The Christmas Album (2004), which was certified gold, Simpson made her film debut as Daisy Duke in The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). She also recorded a cover of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" for the film's soundtrack. In 2006, she released her fifth studio album, A Public Affair and appeared in the romantic comedy film Employee of the Month. With the release of her sixth studio album Do You Know (2008), she moved into the country music genre. Simpson has sold 20 million albums worldwide.
Aside from her musical pursuits, Simpson launched The Jessica Simpson Collection in 2005, a fashion-focused line with 34 product categories. To date, the brand has earned over $1 billion in revenue and is the most successful celebrity licensing brand in history. She also starred in the reality television series The Price of Beauty in 2010 and judged clothing designs on two seasons of Fashion Star between 2012 and 2013.
Life and career
1980–1998: Childhood and career beginnings
Simpson was born on July 10, 1980, in Abilene, Texas. She is the first child of Tina Ann Simpson (née Drew), a homemaker, and Joseph Simpson, Simpson's parents married in 1978; they divorced in 2013. Simpson has stated that she grew up in Dallas and Waco, but her parents now live in McGregor, Texas. Simpson has a younger sister, Ashlee. In her preteens she briefly attended Amelia Middle School while her father did outreach in Cincinnati, Ohio. After moving back to Texas 20 months later, she attended J. J. Pearce High School in Richardson during her teenage years, though she had to drop out in 1997 as her career began to take off; a year later she later earned her GED via distance learning through Texas Tech High School. Simpson was raised in the Christian faith, and was given a purity ring by her father when she was twelve years old. Jessica and her family moved frequently due to her father's job as a minister, though they remained in Texas for the most part; however, they did live in the Midwest for a few years.
She began singing in the church choir as a child. When she was eleven, she dreamed of success as a singer while at a church retreat. Simpson auditioned for The Mickey Mouse Club at the age of twelve, auditioning with a performance of "Amazing Grace" and dancing to "Ice Ice Baby" (1990). She advanced through multiple rounds, eventually being a semi-finalist for the show alongside artists such as Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, and Justin Timberlake. Simpson claimed that she became nervous about her final audition after seeing Aguilera perform, and she was not selected for the show, ultimately. Simpson resumed performing in her church choir, being discovered by the head of a Christian music label eventually. He asked her for an audition initially and signed her immediately after she performed "I Will Always Love You" (1973) by Dolly Parton. She began working on her debut album with Proclaim Records and touring to promote the project. Jessica's father later claimed that she had to quit touring as the size of her breasts led to her being deemed too "sexual" for the genre.
Her debut album, Jessica, remained unreleased after Proclaim Records went bankrupt; despite this, her grandmother funded a limited pressing of the album personally. Shortly after this, Simpson landed several auditions as Jessica was sent to numerous labels and producers. Ultimately, she caught the attention of Tommy Mottola, then married to Mariah Carey and the head of Columbia Records. He went on to sign her to the label at the behest of Columbia talent scout Teresa LaBarbera Whites, claiming "She had a great little look and a great attitude, a fresh new face, and something a bit different than Britney and all of them; she could actually sing." Simpson began working on her debut album in Orlando, Florida. Mottola hoped to market Simpson as a contrast to Spears and Aguilera, both of whom had launched successful careers focused on dancing and sexuality. While working on her musical debut, Simpson enlisted her father Joe as her manager; her mother became her stylist. While at a Christmas party in 1998, Simpson met 98 Degrees singer Nick Lachey, and the two began dating; Lachey claimed that he left the party and told his mother that he would marry Simpson someday.
1999–2001: Breakthrough with early musical releases
Simpson began working on her debut studio album in 1998. Mottola wanted Simpson to embrace an "anti-sex appeal" image while promoting the record, in contrast to those of highly successful artists Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera. He believed the image would make Simpson more "relatable" to listeners, therefore aiding in sales. Simpson went on to announce her plans to remain abstinent until marriage as a result of Mottola's decision. Her debut single, "I Wanna Love You Forever" (1999), was released on September 28. The single became a success in numerous territories, most notably reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. The song earned a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales exceeding one million copies in the country. The album had some success in other territories as well, most notably in several European countries.
Simpson's debut studio album, Sweet Kisses (1999), was released on November 23. The album sold 65,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at number sixty-five on the Billboard 200 chart in the United States. To promote the record, "Where You Are" (2000) was released as the second single from the album; Simpson's boyfriend Nick Lachey was featured on the track. "I Think I'm in Love with You" (2000) served as the album's third and final single and achieved success in the United States. With the success of the album's third single, Sweet Kisses rose to a new peak of number twenty-five on the Billboard 200 in August 2000. The album sold over two million copies in the United States, earning a double platinum certification from the RIAA. Simpson embarked on the Heat It Up Tour with her boyfriend's band, 98 Degrees, as their opening act to promote Sweet Kisses throughout 2000.
Work on her second album began in 2000, opting to record more "radio-friendly" and upbeat songs for the record. During the recording of the album, Simpson adopted a more mature public image, a decision Simpson and her record label made in hopes to achieve the success of artists such as Spears. While working on the record, Simpson ended her relationship with Lachey to focus on furthering her career; however, the two reconciled romantically that September. In a July 2001 interview with Coventry Newspapers, Simpson explained "I recorded [Sweet Kisses] when I was seventeen years old and I'm twenty-one [this month] so there is four years of growth involved." Simpson released the record's title track, "Irresistible" (2001) as the lead single from the project in April. The single received a generally mixed reaction from critics due to its sexual themes, though it became her second top twenty hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
Simpson released her second studio album, Irresistible (2001), in May. The album sold 127,000 copies in the United States during its first week of release, debuting at number six on the Billboard 200 chart. Though the album's first week sales nearly doubled those of her previous effort, Irresistible failed to match the success of her debut album; the record earned a gold certification from the RIAA for sales of 500,000 copies. "A Little Bit" (2001), the album's second and final single, failed to achieve much success. To promote the record, Simpson embarked as a co-headliner on the Total Request Live Tour (2001) alongside artists such as Destiny's Child and Nelly. She later left the tour to launch her own DreamChaser Tour (2001), for which Simpson added choreography and backup dancers to her performances; the tour was canceled following the September 11 attacks.
2002–2005: Marriage to Nick Lachey and heightened success
Simpson announced her engagement to Nick Lachey in February 2002, with the two holding their wedding ceremony on October 26 in Austin, Texas. Simpson also began working on her third studio album in 2002. The album's lead single, "Sweetest Sin" (2003), dealt with the topic of Simpson losing her virginity to Lachey lyrically. The song failed to achieve commercial success. Simpson's father pitched an idea to MTV about a reality show starring the couple, resulting in the creation of Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica. The series focused on the marriage between Michael Jackson and Lisa Marie Presley initially, but the two backed out, allowing Simpson and Lachey to replace them. The show, which focused on the couple's marriage and the recording of Simpson's third studio album primarily, premiered on August 19, 2003. The show became a pop culture phenomenon instantly, with Simpson's perceived "dumb blonde" antics on the show helping to make the couple a household name. The series was a ratings success for MTV and aired for three seasons until 2005.
Simpson's third studio album, In This Skin (2003), was released the day that Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica premiered, with the show serving as a promotional tool for the record. In This Skin debuted at number ten on the Billboard 200, selling 64,000 copies in its first week of release. The album's opening numbers served as the lowest of Simpson's career at the time. In This Skin quickly declined the chart, and by December 2003 had sold just over 565,000 copies in the United States. Simpson released "With You" (2003) as the second single from the album in October. The single became a hit, reaching the top twenty of the Billboard Hot 100 and topping the Mainstream Top 40 chart based on radio airplay. Simpson appeared in the halftime show of the Super Bowl XXXVIII. She recorded new material for a re-release of In This Skin, which was released in March 2004. The re-release aided in album sales dramatically; In This Skin went on to sell three million copies in the United States. Both "Take My Breath Away" (2004) and "Angels" (2004) were released as singles from the re-release.
Simpson and Lachey starred in the ABC special The Nick and Jessica Variety Hour in April, which featured guest appearances by celebrities such as Jewel and Mr. T, among others. That same month, she launched her Jessica Simpson Desserts by Jessica Simpson cosmetics line along with Randi Shinder; all of the products in the line were edible. Simpson embarked on her Reality Tour (2004) throughout North America beginning in June; the tour was a financial success, and ended in October. During this time, Simpson and her husband began making guest appearances on The Ashlee Simpson Show, chronicling the start of Jessica's sister's music career. Simpson's fourth studio album, a collection of Christmas themed songs titled ReJoyce: The Christmas Album (2004), was released on November 23. The album reached a peak of number fourteen on the Billboard 200, and was certified gold by the RIAA for sales exceeding 500,000 copies. Also in 2004, Simpson filmed a sitcom pilot for ABC, which the network did not pick-up. In February 2005, Simpson and Shinder launched the Dessert Treats edible cosmetics line, similar to their prior line but targeted towards a younger audience. Both lines were canceled following a string of lawsuits.
Simpson performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" at the Indy 500 in 2005. Simpson launched The Jessica Simpson Collection in 2005, initially partnering with Tarrant Apparel Group to release the Princy and JS by Jessica Simpson clothing lines. The company has continued to grow throughout the years, and in 2014 was reported to earn $1 billion in annual sales. Simpson made her film debut as Daisy Duke in the film adaption of The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). While the film was met with negative reviews from film critics generally, it grossed over $111 million worldwide. Simpson recorded the song "These Boots Are Made For Walkin'" (2005) to promote the film; it both samples and shares the title of a Nancy Sinatra song. The song entered the top twenty of the Billboard Hot 100, becoming one Simpson's most successful singles to date. The music video, which featured Simpson in character as Daisy Duke, was controversial for featuring Simpson in "revealing" outfits and washing the General Lee car in her bikini. The controversy resulted in the music video being banned in some countries. In November 2005, Simpson and Lachey announced they were separating. Simpson filed for divorce in December 2005, citing "irreconcilable differences." Their divorce was publicized worldwide and finalized on June 30, 2006. Reportedly, she had to pay Lachey $12 million in their divorce since she had not signed a pre-nuptial agreement before they wed. In a 2015 interview, Simpson called her marriage to Lachey her "biggest financial mistake".
2006–2009: A Public Affair, other movies, and Do You Know
Simpson began working on her fifth studio album in 2005. March 2006 saw her parted ways with Columbia Records, with whom she had worked since the launch of her career, and had signed a new recording contract with Epic Records. Simpson and stylist Ken Pavés launched a line of hair and beauty products on the Home Shopping Network in 2006. Simpson released her new single, "A Public Affair" (2006) on June 29. The song entered the top twenty of the Billboard Hot 100, and earned a gold certification from the RIAA for sales exceeding 500,000 copies in the United States. The single, an upbeat breakup song, was released the day before her divorce from Lachey was finalized. Most notably, the song entered the top ten of the iTunes Store at the same time as her sister's single "Invisible" (2006), marking the first time that two siblings had appeared in the store's top ten simultaneously.
Her fifth studio album, A Public Affair (2006), debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 101,000 copies. The album failed to match the success of In This Skin (2003), selling just over 500,000 copies in the United States. The empowerment anthem "I Belong to Me" (2006), which served as the album's second and final single, failed to achieve commercial success. Simpson starred alongside Dane Cook and Dax Shepard in the comedy film Employee of the Month (2006), released that October. The film received a negative critical reaction and failed to achieve commercial success. Simpson performed a cover of the Dolly Parton song "9 to 5" (1980) as a tribute to the artist at the Kennedy Center Awards in December 2006. Simpson forgot the lyrics to the song and the performance received harsh criticism; she also received a chance to redo the song for the cameras, though her performance was cut from the broadcast ultimately. Critics noted the underperformance of both Simpson's fifth studio album and her second film as her sister Ashlee experienced a similar decline in success.
Simpson had an on-again, off-again relationship with singer-songwriter John Mayer from August 2006 to May 2007. Long after their breakup, Simpson described her relationship with Mayer in her 2020 memoir, Open Book.
In November 2007, Simpson began dating Dallas Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo. Cowboys fans considered the relationship controversial, as some blamed Simpson for Romo's poor performance in games after the pair got together. Some fans dubbed Simpson "Yoko Romo," a reference to Yoko Ono, to whom many fans of The Beatles attributed the quartet disbanding in 1970. Even then-president George W. Bush commented on the pair's relationship, blaming Simpson implicitly for Romo's lackluster performances. Reportedly, Simpson and Romo ended their relationship in July 2009. During the relationship, Simpson also appeared alongside Luke Wilson in the film Blonde Ambition (2007); it had a limited release in Texas before being released on home media. Later, she starred in the direct-to-video film Private Valentine: Blonde & Dangerous (2008), portraying an actress who joins the military. The film received a negative reaction overwhelmingly upon its release. Simpson collaborated with Parlux Fragrances to launch her first scent, Fancy, in 2008. The fragrance, unlike Private Valentine, received a positive commercial reaction.
Simpson began working on her sixth studio album in 2007, with her father claiming that she was experimenting with country music for the record. Simpson claimed to have grown up around country music, and wanted to "give something back." She released "Come On Over" (2008) as the project's lead single on June 20. The song debuted at number forty-one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, making it the highest debut for an artist's first entry on that chart. Do You Know (2008) was released on September 9. The project sold 65,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at number four on the Billboard 200 chart. The album has sold just over 200,000 copies in the United States as of 2012. Simpson opened for country music group Rascal Flatts on their Bob That Head Tour (2009) from January to March 2009. Simpson's attempt to transition into country music received a negative reaction. Most notably, a crowd booed her following a performance at the Country Thunder Festival in Wisconsin. Simpson's work also garnered references in Eminem's 2009 song "We Made You" and Trisha Paytas portrayed her.
2010–present: Motherhood, second marriage, and focus on business ventures
Simpson's VH1 documentary series, The Price of Beauty, began airing in March 2010. The series followed Simpson around the world, introducing viewers to the different perceptions of beauty in different cultures. The premiere episode attracted one million viewers, but Simpson revealed that the series would return in 2011 with a format change; these plans never came to fruition. Simpson planned to record her seventh studio album as her final release through Epic Records initially, though released the compilation album Playlist: The Very Best of Jessica Simpson (2010) ultimately. Epic Records released the album with no promotion and to little success. Simpson later signed a new recording contract with eleveneleven and Primary Wave Music and began working on her Christmas-themed seventh studio album. She released Happy Christmas (2010) on November 22 and it appeared on the lower half of the Billboard 200 chart only briefly. Simpson began dating retired NFL tight end Eric Johnson in May 2010 and the couple announced their engagement in November of that year.
Soon, Simpson appeared alongside Nicole Richie as a mentor on the NBC reality television series Fashion Star. The series revolved around a group of designers who competed each week to create clothing; each week, the judges eliminated one contestant. The series aired the second season in 2013, though NBC canceled it afterward. Following months of speculation, Simpson confirmed on Halloween of 2011 that she was pregnant with her first child. Simpson signed a multimillion-dollar deal with Weight Watchers in 2012, vowing to use their diet plan to shed the weight she gained during her pregnancy. Simpson filmed television commercials for the company, with the first airing in September 2012. Simpson gave birth to a daughter, Maxwell Drew Johnson, on May 1, 2012, and she also launched a maternity clothing line that year. She later released a perfume, Vintage Bloom, which motherhood inspired. Simpson confirmed in December 2012 that she was expecting a second child with Johnson. Following the announcement, Weight Watchers announced that she would discontinue following the company's diet plan during her pregnancy. Simpson gave birth to her son, Ace Knute Johnson, on June 30, 2013. She launched a bedroom decor line including bedding and draperies offered in a romantic bohemian style, with floral patterns. In August 2014, she added a signature fragrance. Simpson and Johnson married in July 2014 in Montecito, California.
In 2013, it was announced that Simpson was in talks with NBC to star in a semi-autobiographical comedy series, but the project never materialized.
Simpson confirmed in 2015 that she would begin working on her album, as her contract with Primary Wave had ended officially. Simpson is working with Linda Perry on the project, which she revealed in 2016. In August 2015, Simpson was a host on the HSN channel while promoting her products. The sales were a success. Simpson launched her Warm Up brand of workout clothing, available at retailers in the United States. She expanded the brand in August 2016 to include trainers, with Simpson commenting that she would focus more on the line in the future.
In September 2018, Simpson announced she was pregnant with her third child, a daughter. She gave birth to their daughter, Birdie Mae Johnson, on March 19, 2019.
On February 2, 2020, Simpson released her memoir Open Book, which topped The New York Times Best Seller list selling over 59,000 copies across all platforms in its first week. In the book, she discussed topics such as her marriage to Nick Lachey, her relationship with musician John Mayer, sexual abuse she experienced during her childhood, dependence on alcohol and prescription drugs, and the pressure she felt to lose weight, which caused her body image issues.
Six new songs were released as part of the book, marking her first release in music since Happy Christmas in 2010.
Musical style
Simpson has listed Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, Aretha Franklin and Sade as influences on her music. She attempted to launch her career as a Christian music singer, and at one point completed a self-titled album of Christian music. When she signed with Columbia Records in 1998, she began working on an album of pop music. Simpson has recorded songs with Christian themes in later years, including "Pray Out Loud" (2008). The music on her debut album consisted of pop ballads primarily, with the intention of showcasing Simpson's vocals. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine opined that the album "position[ed] her as the teen Celine Dion". Most notably, it featured the power ballad "I Wanna Love You Forever" (1999). The work drew comparisons to Mariah Carey. With the release of Irresistible (2001), Simpson recorded more upbeat songs, likening herself to artists such as Britney Spears. Songs such as "Irresistible" and "A Little Bit" had more provocative lyrics in comparison to her previous release, with Simpson citing the age difference between the recording of the two albums as the main reason. During the Total Request Live Tour (2001) and her DreamChaser Tour (2001), Simpson incorporated more choreography and backup dancers into her live performances.
Simpson began working on her third studio album in 2002 initially, on which rapper Missy Elliott would serve as the primary producer. The record later took on a new direction, which her then-husband Nick Lachey described as "organic" in comparison to her two prior albums. Simpson also began co-writing songs for the record, something she had been nervous to do in the past. The result was In This Skin (2003), a record that AllMusic said "stay[ed] within the contemporary dance-pop realm while inching toward the middle-of-the-road diva that she's always yearned to be." Simpson worked with elements of country music with the release of "These Boots Are Made For Walkin'" (2005), recorded for Simpson's feature film debut The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). She continued to experiment with the genre on the song "Push Your Tush" (2006). Numerous songs on her fifth studio album feature elements of dance and disco music, most notably "A Public Affair" and her cover of "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)". Inspired by artists such as Faith Hill, Shania Twain, and Martina McBride, Simpson recorded a country music album titled Do You Know (2008). Throughout her career, Simpson has delved into other genres as well, releasing Christmas-themed albums in 2004 and 2010, respectively.
Public image
Simpson came to prominence as a teen idol in the late 1990s and the media described her as Columbia Records's "blond response to Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera", who had achieved recent success with their respective debut albums. Her debut album, Sweet Kisses (1999) mostly explores themes such as love, and Simpson announced that she would remain abstinent until marriage. She went through a "carefully orchestrated sexy makeover" while she promoted her second album, Irresistible (2001). Simpson later described Columbia's record executive Tommy Mottola as abusive, as he attempted to control her image and told her to "lose fifteen pounds" after she signed her contract in 1997.
Upon Simpson's rise to stardom with the success of Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica in 2003, media critics and the public perceived her as a "ditzy blonde" based on her antics and comments on the show. The Washington Posts Emily Yahr called her "one of our first reality TV stars, before anyone could absorb the psychological damage it could cause." Simpson recalled her time in the show in her 2020 memoir Open Book, saying: "Nowadays, I see so many people performing their identities on social media, but I feel like I was a guinea pig for that. How was I supposed to live a real, healthy life filtered through the lens of a reality show? If my personal life was my work, and my work required me to play a certain role, who even was I anymore?"
In April 2004, Simpson performed in VH1's benefit concert Divas Live 2004 alongside Ashanti, Cyndi Lauper, Gladys Knight, Joss Stone and Patti LaBelle to support the Save the Music Foundation. In May 2004, Simpson did a benefit concert to aid the Skin Care Foundation. In March 2007, Simpson donated a new Chrysler minivan to the Elim orphanage in Nuevo Laredo. Simpson is Soles4Souls's Ambassador and participated in autographing shoes to donate the money from communities across the United States. Simpson also works with Make-A-Wish Foundation.
The media also described her as a sex symbol. Simpson's portrayal of Daisy Duke furthered her sex-symbol image, and she portrayed the character in her "These Boots Are Made For Walkin" music video, which presents "footage of Simpson writhing suggestively against a suds-soaked motor vehicle." The scene was parodied in Pink's "Stupid Girls" music video. Simpson also appeared as Daisy Duke in several television commercials for Pizza Hut airing during the Super Bowl in 2006 and 2007. Simpson claimed that the "[Daisy Duke] role created a "gold standard" that she would be judged by in the years that followed", and the media scrutinized her intensely following her weight gain in 2009. At the 2006 MTV Movie Awards Borat made a comment about Jessica Simpson, saying that he liked her mouth and that he could see it clearly through her denim pants.
Simpson is a registered Republican as of 2011. She endorsed George W. Bush during his presidential campaign in 2004, though she canceled an appearance at a 2006 Republican fundraiser as she felt it was not "appropriate". Though a Republican, Simpson praised former First Lady Michelle Obama during her husband's time in office, stating, "She's such an incredible woman, and she's with such a powerful man...Everything she does she exudes confidence."
Filmography
Films
Television
Discography
Sweet Kisses (1999)
Irresistible (2001)
In This Skin (2003)
ReJoyce: The Christmas Album (2004)
A Public Affair (2006)
Do You Know (2008)
Happy Christmas (2010)
Tours
Headlining
DreamChaser Tour (2001)
Reality Tour (2004)
Co-headlining
Total Request Live Tour (with various artists) (2001)
Opening act
Livin' la Vida Loca Tour (Ricky Martin) (1999)
Heat It Up Tour (98 Degrees) (2000)
Bob That Head Tour (Rascal Flatts) (2009)
See also
List of awards and nominations received by Jessica Simpson
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
1980 births
Living people
Actresses from Texas
American child singers
American contemporary R&B singers
American dance musicians
American dancers
American fashion designers
American female dancers
American film actresses
American sopranos
American television actresses
American women country singers
American women fashion designers
American women pop singers
Baptists from Texas
Columbia Records artists
Epic Records artists
Participants in American reality television series
Musicians from Abilene, Texas
Singers from Texas
Southern Baptists
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
Texas Republicans |
4540804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Morrison | Andy Morrison | Andrew Charles Morrison (born 30 July 1970) is a Scottish football manager and former footballer who is currently head coach of the Sri Lanka national team.
As a player he was a central defender who played in the Premier League with Blackburn Rovers and Manchester City. Although only playing 38 League games over four seasons for City he captained the club in the 1999 Football League Second Division play-off final victory over Gillingham and would play for the club in three different divisions. He also played in the Football League for Plymouth Argyle, Blackpool, Crystal Palace, and Sheffield United.
Following retirement, Morrison became assistant manager of Bury, later having a similar role at Northwich Victoria and Airbus UK Broughton. He later had a spell as director of football of Connah's Quay Nomads before going on to manage the club for six years. He has also mixed his coaching roles with being the fan ambassador for Manchester City.
Playing career
Early career
Born in Inverness though a native of Kinlochbervie, Morrison moved to Plymouth at the age of eight. At the age of 13, Morrison had a trial at Southampton along with 39 other hopefuls including Alan Shearer, Tim Flowers and Matt Le Tissier. Morrison began his career at Plymouth Argyle. He made his Football League debut as a substitute in a 5–2 defeat at Aston Villa, in 1987, in which David Platt scored the winning goal. Morrison did not establish himself in the Argyle first team until the 1989–90 season. An uncompromising centre-half with a broad Plymothian accent, Morrison scored his first senior goal in a 1–0 win at home to Ipswich Town in March 1990.
Morrison was a regular fixture in the Plymouth side under manager Dave Kemp, but the arrival of Peter Shilton as player-manager in February 1991 marked the beginning of the end of his time at Plymouth. Morrison took exception to Shilton's managerial style, while Shilton, for his part, was keen to cash in on one of his most saleable assets to bring in signings of his own. Morrison spent one final season at Home Park following the club's relegation from the second tier in 1992, before Shilton accepted a £500,000 offer from Blackburn Rovers, then managed by Kenny Dalglish.
Blackburn Rovers
Morrison made 5 appearances for Blackburn Rovers in the 1993–94 season, in which the club finished second in the premier league. He made his Premier League debut for the club when he replaced Tim Sherwood in a 3–0 victory over Wimbledon F.C. in February 1994. Morrison started, and almost scored, in a 1–0 defeat to Charlton Athletic in the FA Cup. He subsequently replaced Kevin Moran in a 1–0 defeat to Arsenal (in which Paul Merson scored the winner) and David Batty in a 3–1 defeat to Southampton (in which Stuart Ripley scored Blackburn's goal). Morrison started for Blackburn in a 2–1 victory against West Ham United (in which Henning Berg and Ian Pearce scored Blackburn's goals) in April 1994. His last game for Blackburn was a 2–1 defeat to Coventry City, in May 1994, which ended Blackburn's title hopes that season. Morrison was given a 'torrid time' by Peter Ndlovu in the game and later claimed that Ndlovu had ruined his career with Blackburn. Morrison also played for Blackburn's reserve team, alongside Shay Given and former Plymouth teammate Nicky Marker. Morrison played in the reserve team defeat against Manchester United's reserve team, which featured Bryan Robson and Dion Dublin, in which Marker's tackle on Ben Thornley led to the latter being sidelined for over a year and ultimately to legal action. Morrison was unable to break into the Rovers side on a regular basis, as he faced competition from Colin Hendry, Henning Berg and Ian Pearce. Morrison began the 1994–95 season as a member of the Blackburn squad that went on to win the Premier League that season. He was an unused substitute in the 1994 FA Charity Shield in which Blackburn were beaten 2–0 by Manchester United after goals from Eric Cantona and Paul Ince. In December 1994 Morrison was bought by Sam Allardyce for Blackpool. The transfer fee was £245,000, which was then a Blackpool club-record. Celtic F.C. were also interested in Morrison, but ended up signing John Hughes from Falkirk F.C.
Blackpool
Allardyce described Morrison as a "horrible in-your-face" centre-back and a "complete nutter". Morrison made his debut for the Tangerines on 10 December, in a 3–1 victory over AFC Bournemouth. He was suspended for the next two games, however, after picking up a booking during the match and, thus, hitting the relevant number of disciplinary points. Morrison spent two years at Blackpool and was made club captain by Allardyce In a match against Plymouth Argyle, in January of the 1994–95, Morrison was moved from defence into midfield, at half time (at which time Blackpool were losing 2–0), which proved to be the catalyst for a 5–2 victory. In the 1995–96 season Blackpool finished in the playoff places. Blackpool won the first leg of their play-off game against Bradford City (who were managed by Chris Kamara) 2–0. Kamara changed his tactics in the second leg, to dissipate Morrison's influence in the game, and Blackpool were defeated 3–0. Bradford went on to beat Notts County in the final to earn promotion. Blackpool's defeat led to Allardyce's departure. Morrison also moved on from Blackpool.
Huddersfield Town
Morrison was signed by Brian Horton for Huddersfield Town in the 1996–97 season. Horton used the £2.7 million that Sheffield Wednesday had used to purchase Andy Booth from Huddersfield, to invest in Morrison as well as Marcus Stewart from Bristol Rovers and Andy Payton from Barnsley. Horton, like Allardyce before him, also made Morrison captain. Morrison scored in his debut for Huddersfield against Charlton (which Huddersfield won 2–0). Morrison's Huddersfield teammate Ben Thornley described him as 'the hardest person to have ever played football'. Morrison won the respect of fans 'with his braveheart style warrior performances'. A knee injury restricted Morrison's appearances for Huddersfield in the 1996–97 season. He was replaced by Sam Collins in a 1–0 defeat to Tranmere Rovers in September 1996 and did not play for Huddersfield again until a 0–0 draw with Manchester City in November 1996, in which he was replaced by Kevin Gray just after half time. He did not play again until April 1997 when he replaced David Beresford, at half time, in a 2–1 defeat to Charlton Athletic. In the 1997–98 season, Morrison played in Huddersfield's 3–0 defeat to West Ham United in the League Cup, in which John Hartson scored a hat trick. He also played in Huddersfield's 1–0 defeat to Wimbledon, in the FA Cup, in which Neal Ardley scored the only goal. Huddersfield's poor results in the league that season (they went nine games without a win) led to Horton being sacked. Horton was replaced by Peter Jackson, who managed to keep the team up. Morrison played in Huddersfield's first victory that season, a 3–1 win against Stoke City (in which Lee Richardson, Stewart and Paul Dalton scored Huddersfield's goals). He also played in Huddersfield's second win of the season, a 1–0 victory against Manchester City at Maine Road, in which Rob Edwards scored the winner. In the 1998–99 season, Morrison played in Huddersfield's 2–1 defeat to Everton, in the League Cup, in which Olivier Dacourt and Marco Materazzi scored Everton's goals and Stewart scored Huddersfield's goal. Morrison fell out with Jackson early that season when the latter decided to make Barry Horne Huddersfield captain, leading to Morrison's departure.
Manchester City
Morrison was signed by Joe Royle for Manchester City, in the 1998–99 season, following their relegation to Division Two. The transfer fee was £80,000. Morrison made his debut in a 2–1 victory against Colchester United in October 1998. Morrison headed in City's second goal of the game and received a man of the match award, which was presented to him by former City winger Dennis Tueart. Morrison also scored in his second game for City, a 3–0 victory against Oldham Athletic. Morrison endeared himself to the City fans and was soon made captain. He scored his third goal for City in a 1–1 draw with Luton Town. One fanzine asked: "Where can we get another half-dozen Andy Morrisons?" According to goalkeeper Nicky Weaver: "Morrison was a huge signing for us. Joe made him captain straight away. He was an intimidating figure for the opposition and he could be intimidating as a team-mate as well. I'd stand behind him in the tunnel and he'd be beating his chest, ready for battle. The other team would be thinking, 'I don't fancy tangling with him today'. But to be fair to Andy, he wasn't just a brute and growling pitbull. He had a great touch, too." In an 1–0 defeat to Wimbledon, in the FA Cup, Morrison was sent off after a scuffle with Carl Cort. Morrison scored his fourth goal of the season, via a thundering header from a corner, in a 6–0 victory against Burnley (Shaun Goater scored a hat trick and Kevin Horlock and Danny Allsopp scored the other goals). City finished in the play-off places in the league. Morrison captained City to victory over Gillingham in the 1999 Football League Second Division play-off final at Wembley in May 1999. In the match Morrison's teammates Kevin Horlock and Paul Dickov scored late goals to take the match to extra time and penalties (which City won). Morrison was presented with the playoff trophy at the end of the game and became the fifth City captain (following Sam Cowan, Roy Paul, Tony Book and Mike Doyle) to lift a trophy at Wembley. He has been succeeded, in this respect, by Carlos Tevez (who captained City to victory in the 2011 FA Cup Final) and Vincent Kompany (who has won the EFL Cup four times with City), although they captained City to victories at the new Wembley Stadium.
In City's first game in Division One, they lost 1–0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers. Robbie Keane scored the only goal of the game. In City's second game in Division One, Morrison was famously sent off for sticking out his tongue at Stan Collymore in a 0–0 draw with Fulham. Morrison remonstrated angrily before leaving the pitch, pushing Collymore in the face as he left. Collymore mentioned the incident in his autobiography, stating that Morrison 'stuck his tongue in my mouth' and that he was one of three players (along with Andy Todd and Darren Purse) who sought to 'prove that they were real hard men when they were up against me'. City's first victory of the season came in 6–0 defeat of Sheffield United. Morrison's performances endeared him to then Scotland manager Craig Brown. Brown was reportedly interested in calling Morrison up to the international team to play in the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying play-offs against England. However, twelve games into the season, Morrison picked up an injury, in a 2–1 victory against Port Vale. As a result, Morrison was not available to be picked by Brown for Scotland and he missed the rest of the 1999–2000 season. The season ended with City being promoted to the Premier League (a rare second successive promotion). Morrison spent 14 months attempting to return to the Manchester City team, even requesting that Royle loan him out to his former club Blackpool who were managed by Steve McMahon at the time. Morrison played 6 times and scored once (in a game against Hartlepool United) for Blackpool. In one of his appearances for Blackpool, they beat Kidderminster Harriers 4–1 with both Brett Ormerod and Paul Simpson scoring braces. Morrison then joined Crystal Palace (then managed by Alan Smith), on a months loan in October 2000, to continue improving his match fitness. Palace signed Morrison, on loan, as a replacement for Andy Linighan, who was sacked following a dispute with Palace Chairman Simon Jordan. At Crystal Palace, Morrison played alongside both Neil Ruddock and Steve Staunton in defence. Morrison made his debut for Palace in a 2–1 defeat to Birmingham City. In Morrison's second game for Palace, despite defending 'in a ruggedly efficient manner', they lost 3–1 to Fulham (with Louis Saha scoring once and Lee Clark scoring a brace for Fulham). Morrison subsequently played in a 3–2 defeat to Portsmouth and a 1–0 defeat to Grimsby Town After the defeat to Grimsby, Morrison farted during a team talk by Smith, enraging Simon Jordan. Morrison's final game for Palace was a 3–3 draw with Bolton Wanderers, in which Dougie Freedman and Clinton Morrison scored late goals to earn a point. Morrison returned to City at the end of his loan spell.
Morrison's absence had prompted Royle to sign Spencer Prior to help City earn promotion, and subsequently Steve Howey and Richard Dunne to help the team stay in the top flight. Morrison returned to the City team in a League Cup game against Ipswich in December 2000. However, due to the number of yellow cards he had picked up in reserve-team games he could not play Premier League football until New Year's Day 2001, when he played in a 1–1 draw with Coventry City. In his next outing, an FA Cup game against Birmingham City, he scored with a bullet header in a 3–2 victory (Darren Huckerby and Shaun Goater scored the other goals for City). Morrison made two further appearances for City in the league: a 4–0 defeat to Leeds United and a 1–1 draw with Liverpool. In the latter, Morrison was replaced, by Andrei Kanchelskis (on loan from Rangers), at half time, due to a hamstring injury. Morrison was forced to withdraw from the squad, which drew 1–1 with Middlesbrough in early February, due to the same hamstring injury (he was replaced, in the squad, by Shaun Wright-Phillips). Morrison played in City's 1–0 victory against Coventry City in the fourth round of the FA Cup (in which Goater scored the only goal). Morrison also played in the fifth round of the FA Cup, against eventual winners Liverpool (which ended in a 4–2 defeat). Morrison was spoken to by a police officer for squirting water at a Liverpool fan after he had been replaced by Tony Grant. After the game, Royle dismissed speculation that Morrison had played his last game for the club. However, the defeat did prove to be Morrison's last appearance for City, as Royle became concerned about his injury record. Morrison was subsequently loaned out to Sheffield United, who were then managed by Neil Warnock. Morrison played alongside another former Manchester City captain, Keith Curle, in defence at Sheffield United. The wisdom of allowing Morrison to be loaned out was questioned when Howey suffered an injury whilst playing for City. Morrison made his debut for Sheffield United in a 4–1 defeat to Gillingham. He came on as a substitute, replacing Gus Uhlenbeek, in a 1–0 defeat to Wimbledon in United's next game, in which he almost scored a late equaliser.
In Morrison's third game for Sheffield United they beat Grimsby Town 1–0, with Peter Ndlovu scoring the only goal. In Morrison's final game for Sheffield United, a 2–0 victory against Burnley, Morrison picked up the injury that ended his career. City were subsequently relegated to Division One once more. Shaun Goater contended that City 'missed Andy Morrison's presence that season' and that 'with his motivational skills things might have turned out differently'.
Royle was sacked following City's relegation and Kevin Keegan became manager at Maine Road. It was speculated that Morrison's time at the club was over. Morrison was linked with moves to Burnley, Stoke City and Bristol City. Nevertheless, Keegan praised the Scot for his hard work in training, and with City's defence leaking goals (they conceded 52 goals in the 2001–02 season), fans hoped Morrison would be given his chance. Keegan hoped that Morrison could provide leadership in the dressing room to address the drinking culture at the club, but lamented that he 'couldn't get him in the team' (due to his continuing injury woes), which led to the signing of Stuart Pearce. Morrison ultimately failed to recover from the injury that he sustained while he was at Sheffield United and he was released by the club at the end of the season. This was not before he was given his chance to say farewell to the Manchester City fans in a match against Crystal Palace. Keegan said of Morrison: "Andy received cult status when the club gained promotion. He is a first-class professional and deserves a chance to further his career." City went on to win the 2001–02 Football League First Division, thereby earning promotion to the Premier League.
Later career
In late 2002, Morrison was given a trial at Bury. He played 45 minutes for Bury's reserve team, but his injury prevented him taking any further part.
Playing legacy
Morrison is remembered by Manchester City fans as one of their best-ever captains, and was voted so in the club's official magazine. Only Roy Paul and Tony Book were deemed to be better captains than him. The magazine also listed Morrison second in a list of hard men, behind Mike Doyle but above the likes of Stuart Pearce and Gerry Gow. Some feel that it was Morrison's leadership skills and ability to get the players around him to raise their game that enabled Manchester City to return to the Premier League after their fall into Division Two. In an interview with the BBC on 23 September 2005, Joe Royle spoke of his sympathy for Nottingham Forest, a club which, like Manchester City, had fallen two divisions. He said, "Big clubs in that division are a scalp and everyone wants to beat them. We had that at City and it was hard for us, but we got the hang of it. The catalyst for us was signing Andy Morrison. He was the man for the job and the man for the division. He dragged us up kicking and screaming. He is the kind of player that Forest need – if they can find somebody like him. We only got him because of his injury record, and because he had had a major fall-out with the manager at Huddersfield. He was as strong as they come and feared nobody – he played a big part in turning things round for us."
Coaching career
After Morrison's departure from Bury, he decided to retire from the playing side of the game. He became assistant manager to Andy Preece at Worcester City.
During a pre-season friendly match against Kidderminster Harriers on 5 August 2006, an incident in the changing-room area caused the game to be abandoned after 71 minutes. Harriers' manager Mark Yates called the referee over to him and said he was going to take his team off due to an off-the-field incident involving Morrison. On 17 August, Worcester City announced the results of an internal enquiry into the incident. The club fined Morrison the maximum allowed under FA guidelines, suspended him for three games, and warned him of his future conduct. The Football Association itself fined Morrison £750 and also gave him a six-match touchline ban.
Morrison resigned in April 2007.
In September 2010 it was announced that he had been appointed as manager of the Seychelles national football team. In fact, they had appointed Andrew Amers-Morrison who was visiting the country on holiday and whom the Seychellois football officials mistakenly believed was Andy Morrison. Suketu Patel, chairman of the Seychelles Football Federation (SFF) conceded that "we thought we were getting the real Andy Morrison". Initially the SFF offered Andrew Amers-Morrison a two-year contract, but they reduced it to six months when they realised their error. The SFF sacked Andrew Amers-Morrison two weeks later because they "could no longer be certain if he was still the right person to head the coaching staff of the national team".
Morrison continued to be part of Andy Preece's management team, working with him at Northwich Victoria. He resigned from the club on 16 January 2012 along with the rest of the first team management, with the club reporting that Preece was expected to be appointed Director of Football at Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton the next day. The next day he was appointed as Assistant Manager at Airbus UK. Morrison left his role at Airbus in July 2015.
On 2 November 2015 Morrison was appointed Director of Football at Welsh Premier League club Connah's Quay. Morrison led The Nomads to their highest ever finish in his first season in charge, leading the side to a fourth-placed finish in the Welsh Premier League, and winning the play-off final against Airbus UK Broughton, leading to the club's first ever venture into the UEFA Europa League. In 2016, Morrison won the 20th edition of the Footballers' Golf Classic at the world-famous La Manga Club in Spain, defeating his former boss Kenny Dalglish in the process.
Connah's Quay won its first Welsh Cup with a 4–1 victory over Aberystwyth Town on 6 May 2018.
The Nomads were the first non-Scottish side to reach the Scottish Challenge Cup Final, but lost to 3-1 Ross County on 23 March 2019. The final was held at the Caledonian Stadium in Inverness, the city of Morrison's birth.
On 28 September 2021, Connah's Quay Nomads announced that Morrison had resigned from his position as manager.
On 11 May 2022, he was appointed as the new head coach of the Sri Lanka national football team.
Personal life
In August 2006, Morrison pleaded guilty to four charges of fraud concerning income support, jobseeker's allowance, and council tax benefits, dating from August 2003 to July 2005. He failed to inform the Department for Work and Pensions and Vale Royal Borough Council in Cheshire that he had £58,000 in his bank account while he was still claiming benefits. He defrauded the authorities out of more than £6,500 and was ordered to pay £95 court costs and carry out a fifty-hour community punishment order. In mitigation it was said that he "was dissipating the capital very quickly, spending his own money on operations. He blames no-one apart from himself. He is not financially astute at all. He is very naive when it comes to finance. He has little or no knowledge of the financial world".
Morrison was inducted into the Hall of Fame at Bloomfield Road when it was officially opened by former Blackpool player Jimmy Armfield in April 2006. Organised by the Blackpool Supporters Association, Blackpool fans around the world voted on their all-time heroes. Five players from each decade are inducted; Morrison is in the 1990s.
In 2013, Morrison returned to Manchester City as the club's fan ambassador.
Career statistics
Club
Honours
As a Player
Manchester City
Division Two play-off final winner: 1998–99
Division One runner-up (promoted): 1999–2000
As a Manager
Connah's Quay Nomads
Cymru Premier: 2019–20, 2020–21
Welsh Cup: 2017–18
Welsh League Cup: 2019–20
Cymru Premier Manager of the Year: 2019–20
References
Further reading
External links
Morrison in the Blackpool Supporters Association Hall of Fame
1970 births
Living people
Scottish men's footballers
Footballers from Inverness
Men's association football defenders
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Blackburn Rovers F.C. players
Blackpool F.C. players
Huddersfield Town A.F.C. players
Manchester City F.C. players
Crystal Palace F.C. players
Sheffield United F.C. players
Sri Lanka national football team managers
Premier League players
English Football League players
Cymru Premier managers
Connah's Quay Nomads F.C. managers
Scottish football managers
Scottish expatriate football managers |
4540969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20media%20in%20North%20Korea | Mass media in North Korea | The mass media in North Korea is amongst the most strictly controlled in the world. The constitution nominally provides for freedom of speech and the press. However, the government routinely disregards these rights, and seeks to mold information at its source. A typical example of this was the death of Kim Jong Il, news of which was not divulged until two days after it occurred. Kim Jong Un, who replaced his father as the leader, has largely followed in the footsteps of both his grandfather, Kim Il Sung, and his father. However, new technologies are being made more freely available in the country. State-run media outlets are setting up websites, while mobile phone ownership in the country has escalated rapidly. "There is no country which monopolizes and controls successfully the internet and information as North Korea does," said Kang Shin-sam, an expert on North Korean technology and co-head of the International Solidarity for Freedom of Information in North Korea, a nonprofit based in South Korea. North Korea has about four million mobile-phone subscribers circa 2022—roughly one-sixth of the population and four times the number in 2012, according to an estimate by Kim Yon-ho, a senior researcher at Johns Hopkins University's School of Advanced International Studies.
Reporters Without Borders has consistently ranked North Korea at or near the bottom of its yearly Press Freedom Index since it was first issued in 2002. The latest report, published in 2023, puts North Korea at the 180th slot just below China, which is the lowest possible.
The state news agencies are the only outlets in North Korea.
Press freedom
Article 67 of the North Korean Constitution protects freedom of speech and freedom of the press. In practice, however, the press is tightly controlled by the state, and the government only allows speech that supports it and the ruling Workers' Party of Korea. , North Korea occupies the last place on Reporters Without Borders' annual Press Freedom Index.
The late Kim Jong Il's book, The Great Teacher of Journalists, advises that "newspapers carry articles in which they unfailingly hold the president in high esteem, adore him and praise him as the great revolutionary leader". Media reports in North Korea are often one-sided and exaggerated, playing "little or no role in gathering and disseminating vital information true to facts" and providing propaganda for the regime.
All North Korean journalists are members of the Workers' Party. Candidates for journalism school must not only prove themselves ideologically clean but also come from politically reliable families. Journalists who do not follow the strict laws face punishment in the form of hard labour or imprisonment, or sometimes even execution. Only news that favours the regime is permitted, whilst news that covers the economic and political problems in the country, or criticisms of the regime from abroad is not allowed. Domestic media and the population itself are not allowed to carry or read stories by foreign media and can be punished for doing so.
Cult of personality
The media have consistently upheld the personality cult of the Kim family since the country's formation. It frequently reported on the activities of late leader Kim Jong Il, regularly reporting on his daily activities, including "prayers" to founding leader Kim Il Sung. Previously, media would refer to Kim Jong Il as the "Dear Leader", though this was dropped in 2004. However, in January 1981, during the first few months of Kim Jong Il's entry into politics, a survey revealed economic concerns in the media, rather than upholding the cult—60% to 70% of media coverage was focused on the economy in January that year, and between January and September, 54% of editorials in the Rodong Sinmun also referred to economic problems, with only 20% on politics, 10% on reunification and 4% on foreign affairs. All indications are that this has continued under the country's third and current leader, Kim Jong-un; soon after his father's death he was acclaimed as the "Great Successor".
Approximately 90% of airtime on international news broadcasts in North Korea is propaganda spent describing the publication of works by Kim Jong Il and showing various study groups in foreign countries, to allegedly mislead the North Korean public as to the outside world's perceptions of the country. When Kim Jong Il visited Russia in August 2001, official DPRK media reported Russians as being "awestruck" by the encounter, revering Kim Jong Il's ability to "stop the rain and make the sun come out".
Domestic and international coverage
The media is used to promote contrasting domestic and international agendas. Kim Il Sung was said to recognise its power to influence North Koreans and confuse the outside world. Often, the news is released to the international community and withheld from the domestic North Korean population, and other news is released domestically but not internationally.
Though some international news coverage is given in DPRK media, much is ignored, is mentioned very briefly, or is announced several days after the event, as was the case with the Ryongchon disaster in 2004. Reports are also notoriously secretive. The media remained silent on domestic issues, by not reporting on economic reforms introduced by the government such as increasing wages and food prices, rarely mentioning Kim Jong Il until his first party position in 1980 and the launching of missiles. Restrictions on the dissemination of information do not only apply to the civilian population but North Korean officials themselves, depending on ranking.
In contrast, the idea of reunification of the two Koreas is a pervasive theme in the North Korean media, as is the near-constant "threat" of an "imminent attack" by the foreign countries. In recent years, the media describes in detail satellite launches launched by the country as a sign of the DPRK's "economic prowess." The media rarely reports bad news from the country; however on one rare occasion, the press acknowledged a famine and food shortages in the 1990s.
It has had a role in supporting anti-government demonstrations in South Korea; in the late 1980s, it launched a propaganda campaign urging South Koreans to "fight against the 'government' without concessions and compromise", using false claims to portray the demonstrations as fighting for communism, which, rather, were in support of liberal democracy. It continues to support South Korean anti-government groups, quoting relevant societies and unions critical of the government policy and denouncing government "crackdowns", calling for freedom of expression and democracy for South Korean citizens. From January 1 to June 22, 2009, North Korean media was reported to have criticised the South Korean president 1,700 times — an average of 9.9 times daily.
During the Khrushchev era of the Soviet Union when relations were tense, North Korean media would openly reprint articles critical of the USSR, often written by North Korean officials. However, once relations between the DPRK and the Soviet Union improved, the articles would no longer appear. In the following years, both North Korean and Soviet media would play down sensitive anniversaries.
Newspapers
North Korea has 12 principal newspapers and 20 major periodicals, all published in Pyongyang. Foreign newspapers are not sold on the streets of the capital. Every year, North Korean press jointly publishes a New Year editorial, also broadcast by KCNA, which regularly attracts the attention of the international news media.
Newspapers include:
Rodong Sinmun (Labour Daily) – (Central Committee of the WPK)
Joson Inmingun (Korean People's Army Daily)
Minju Choson (Democratic Korea) – government organ
Rodongja Sinmun (Workers' Newspaper)
The Pyongyang Times (English-language; published in the capital)
Several newspaper journalists from North Korea were secretly trained in China to covertly report on events inside North Korea. November 2007 marked the first publication of the Rimjingang magazine, which is distributed secretly in North Korea and neighbouring countries. The magazine covers the economic and political situation in the country. The journalists have also provided footage of public executions to South Korean and Japanese media.
Photojournalism
Photojournalism is heavily regulated by the government. Due to the extremely limited flow of information out of the country, there is no consensus over what rules are actually in place to govern photojournalism by members of foreign press services. The government-owned Korean Central News Agency employs many photojournalists and photo editors.
North Korean leaders believe that their rules and censorship system is necessary in order to keep people under control, "to prevent the rise of criticism about the government."
Television and radio
Television broadcasting is managed by the Central Broadcasting Committee of Korea (until 2009 called Radio and Television Committee of the DPRK). Radio and TV sets in North Korea are supplied pre-tuned to North Korean stations and must be checked and registered with the police, though some North Koreans own Chinese radios which can receive foreign stations. It is prohibited to tune into foreign broadcasts. There are four major television stations: Korean Central Television, (former ), Kaesong Television (which targets South Korea) and (since August 15, 2015) State television is always off-air until its 5:00 pm evening news broadcast, except on weekends, which start at 6:00 am, and in emergency events, live events and national holidays. In August 2016, North Korea introduced an over-the-top streaming service known as Manbang (meaning "everywhere" or "every direction"), which carries live TV (including educational station Mansudae Television), on-demand video, and newspaper articles (from the state newspaper Rodong Sinmun) over the internet. KCTV described the service as a "respite from radio interference".
North Korean newscasts are known for their showmanship. KCTV's principal newsreader from 1974 to 2012, Ri Chun-hee, was well known for the wavering, exuberant tone she used when praising the nation's leaders and the hateful one she used in denouncing countries seen as hostile to the regime. Some North Korean journalists who have defected to the South have noted the contrasts with the more conversational South Korean broadcasting style.
All broadcast media in some way promotes the regime's ideologies and positions, such as Juche, and regularly condemns actions by South Korea, Japan, China, Israel, the United States, and other nations. The media in recent years condemns the United Nations, and its position against the country's nuclear program. Media is generally without adverts, though some advertisement of local brands occurs on Mansudae Television.
Due to the economic conditions in the country and the short broadcast day, radio is the most widely used medium. In 2006, there were 16 AM, 14 FM, and 11 shortwave radio broadcast stations. The main radio stations are the Pyongyang FM Station, Voice of Korea, and the Korean Central Broadcasting Station. There is also a black propaganda station called Propaganda Radio – which purports to be broadcasting from South Korea. Some foreign broadcast radio stations that target North Korea are often jammed, though this can vary. The authorities designate such foreign media as "enemies of the regime".
Some particularly politically sensitive material is available only through wired radio connections. The system was likely built with infrastructure imported from the Soviet Union, which operated a similar system known as radiotochka ("radio socket" in English). The cable radio transmissions are known by North Koreans as the "Third Broadcast" or the 'Third Network. It was reported that the third network was complete in 1982. After Kim Jong Un's stated the intention of improving 'wire broadcasting', the third network has seen installation in new apartment units, although in the 90s, distribution cables were apparently plundered for scrap metal. Similar to the Soviet wired radio system the radio sets are technologically simple affairs with few electronic components inside them besides a loudspeaker and a control coil for the volume, they have no "off" switch but can be unplugged.
South Korean television programmes cannot be received in North Korea due to incompatibilities between the television systems (PAL in North Korea and NTSC/ATSC in South Korea) and the sets being pre-tuned. South Korean soap operas, films and Western Hollywood films according to defectors, are said to be spreading at a "rapid rate" throughout North Korea despite the threat of punishment; As of 2011, USB flash drives were selling well in North Korea, primarily used for watching South Korean dramas and films on personal computers.
North Korean broadcasts have been picked up in South Korea, and are monitored by the Unification Ministry in Seoul, which handles cross-border relations and media exchanges.
Defectors are also streaming North Korean television broadcasts on the Internet.
Internet
Internet access in North Korea is restricted to Internet cafés or hotels designated for foreign tourists in Pyongyang, and is limited for North Koreans to essential users like international businesses. Nearly all of North Korea's Internet traffic is routed through China. The general population of North Korea does not have internet access, however, they do have access to Kwangmyong, an intranet set up by the government. North Korea itself has a limited presence on the internet, with several sites on their national .kp domain. The Mosquito Net filtering model used in North Korea attempts to attract foreign investment, while the filter simultaneously blocks foreign ideas.
Video games
Accessibility to video games increased over the late 2000s and 2010s as mobile phones began to enter the North Korean market, with simple domestically produced mobile games becoming more common. Web games developed by North Korean companies have also been developed throughout the 2010s, often with a focus on education.
In September 2019 state-run media announced the release of a motion-based video game system named the Moranbong. The system appears to exhibit similar features to the Nintendo Wii and PlayStation Move. The system has two wands similar in appearance to Wii controllers, a motion detector similar in appearance to the Kinect, and a sensor-based mat that detects foot-based input. The system is effectively a rebranded version of the Subor G80, a Chinese console running Android OS.
Access to foreign media
Despite extremely strict regulations and draconian penalties, North Koreans, particularly elite citizens, have increasing access to news and other media outside the state-controlled media authorized by the government. While access to the internet is tightly controlled, radio, DVDs, and USB drives are common media accessed, and in border areas, television. Penalties vary depending on the source of the media; being found with South Korean media may be punished more harshly than access to Chinese media. One estimate is that approx. 92% of North Koreans access foreign media at least once a month.
See also
Censorship in North Korea
Propaganda in North Korea
Telecommunications in North Korea
Radio jamming in Korea
Media of South Korea
Media coverage of North Korea
References
Bibliography
Chong, Bong-uk. (1995). North Korea, the land that never changes: before and after Kim Il-sung. Naewoe Press.
Clippinger, Morgan E. (1981). "Kim Chong-il in the North Korean Mass Media: A Study of Semi-Esoteric Communication." Asian Survey. 21(3), 289—309.
Djankov, Simeon; McLeish, Caralee; Nenova, Tatiana & Shleifer, Andrei. (2003). "Who owns the media?" Journal of Law and Economics. 46, pp. 341–381.
Ford, G.; Kwon, S. (2008). North Korea on the brink: struggle for survival. Pluto Press. .
Goodkind, Daniel; West, Loraine. (2001). "The North Korean Famine and Its Demographic Impact." Population and Development Review. 27(2), 219—238.
Hassig, Kongdan Oh; Bermudez Jr, Joseph S.; Gause, Kenneth E.; Hassig, Ralph C.; Mansorov, Alexandre Y.; Smith, David J. (2004). "North Korean Policy Elites." Institute for Defense Analysis..
Hodge, Homer T. (2003). "North Korea's Military Strategy." Parameters. 33.
Kim, Mike. (2008). Escaping North Korea: Defiance and Hope in the World's Most Repressive Country. Rowman & Littlefield. .
Kim, Samuel S. (2006). The two Koreas and the great powers. Cambridge University Press. .
Kun, Joseph H. (1967). "North Korea: Between Moscow and Peking." The China Quarterly. 31, 48—58.
Hunter, Helen-Louise. (1999). Kim Il-song's North Korea. Greenwood Publishing Group. .
Marshall Cavendish Corporation; Macdonald, Fiona; Stacey, Gillian; Steele, Phillip. (2004). Peoples of Eastern Asia. Marshall Cavendish. .
Oh, Kang Dong & Hassig, Ralph C. (2000). North Korea through the looking glass. Brookings Institution Press. .
Pervis, Larinda B. (2007). North Korea Issues: Nuclear Posturing, Saber Rattling, and International Mischief. Nova Science Publishers. .
Pinkston, Daniel A. (2003). "Domestic politics and stakeholders in the North Korean missile development program." The Nonproliferation Review. 10(2), 51—65.
Quick, Amanda, C. (2003). World Press Encyclopedia: N-Z, index. Gale. .
Savada, Andrea Matles. (1994). North Korea: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division Library of Congress. .
Shin, Rin-Sup. (1982). "North Korea in 1981: First Year for De Facto Successor Kim Jong Il." Asian Survey. 22(1), 99—106.
Zagoria, Donald S. (1977). "Korea's Future: Moscow's Perspective." Asian Survey. 17(11), 1103—1112.
Zhebbin, Alexander. (1995). "Russia and North Korea: An Emerging, Uneasy Partnership." Asian Survey. 35(8), 726—739.
External links
News agency
Korean Central News Agency (KCNA)
Korean News (KCNA)
KNS Photo Service
Newspapers
Rodong Sinmun
Rodong Sinmun on KCNA
The People's Korea (based in Japan)
Choson Sinbo (based in Japan)
North Korean online media aimed at foreign audience
Uriminzokkiri (Among Our Nation)
Uriminzokkiri
North Korean TV Segments (in Korean with English subtitles)
Foreign media targeted at North Korea
Open Radio for North Korea (ORNK)
Radio Free Asia
The Daily NK
Radio Free Chosun
Analysis
Internet Enemies: North Korea, Reporters Without Borders
Behind the Curtain
North Korea
North Korea |
4541171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxnet | Foxnet | Foxnet is an American cable television channel that was owned by the Fox Entertainment division of Fox Corporation. Serving as a national feed of the Fox Broadcasting Company (known simply as Fox), the service is intended for American television markets ranked #100 and above by Nielsen Media Research estimates that lacks availability for a locally based Fox broadcast affiliate.
In addition to carrying Fox's prime time and sports programming, as well as its children's programming blocks, Foxnet also carries syndicated and brokered programs outside of network programming time periods. Fox handled programming, advertising, and promotional services for Foxnet at its corporate headquarters on Pico Boulevard in Los Angeles.
History
Background
At the time of the service's launch in 1991, Fox's programming reached only 91.75% of all U.S. households with at least one television set. This was because, around the time of the network's launch in October 1986, most large and mid-sized markets were served by at least four commercial over-the-air television stations – three that were affiliated with one of the three established broadcast networks, ABC, NBC and CBS, and one that usually operated as an independent station. The vast majority of Fox's charter affiliates consisted of independent stations that had no existing network partner (in most cases, aligning with the highest-rated independent within the market).
Many smaller markets were served by three or fewer commercial stations, most of which were already affiliated with at least one of the existing major broadcast networks, leaving Fox's only options to reach these areas being to either settle for a secondary affiliation with one of the major network stations (which would have forced Fox programs to air in off-peak timeslots subject to lower viewership), going with a station owned by a religious broadcaster which could block portions of their schedule based on moral concerns (and been the cause of Fox terminating several affiliations in its early days), or affiliate with a spare low-power station, which often carried low-quality schedules prevalent with home shopping or paid programming outside of primetime and were usually associated with networks such as Channel America; the network rarely utilized either option in order to not associate their programming with low-effort stations and networks, leaving it with gaps in national clearance in several smaller markets, while it only carried secondary affiliations on Big Three stations only starting in 1994 to distribute their NFL coverage in some scattered markets until a stand-alone station could launch. To expand its distribution to these areas, original network president Jamie Kellner (who would remain in the role until his departure in 1993, when he co-founded Time Warner and the Tribune Company's network venture The WB) developed the concept of a national cable feed of Fox that would provide Fox network programming to smaller television markets throughout the United States where the network could not maintain an exclusive over-the-air affiliation – known as "white areas" – due to the limited number of commercial television stations available or where a local cable provider did not import the signal of an out-of-market Fox station to act as a default affiliate of the network.
Development and launch
On September 6, 1990, Fox reached an agreement with Tele-Communications Inc. – at the time, the nation's largest cable operator – in which TCI systems in certain markets would become charter affiliates of a cable-only version of the network, breaking the traditional method of broadcast networks offering their programming to over-the-air television stations that distribute content to local cable systems. John C. Malone, then the chief executive officer of TCI, referred to the agreement as "precedent setting" since it allowed TCI systems to obtain "network affiliate status" in places where Fox programming was not available. When it launched, Fox charged smaller cable providers that agreed to carry Foxnet a flat annual carriage fee of $100, instead of the monthly fees traditionally charged by other broadcast and cable channels; in turn, TCI agreed to pay Fox a subscriber fee of 6¢ per month, a precursor to the reverse compensation revenue model that Fox and other broadcast networks would adopt for their conventional stations by the early 2000s.
Foxnet launched on June 6, 1991, originally maintaining an 18-hour daily schedule (from 6:00 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. Eastern and Pacific Time). By 1992, Foxnet reached 1.3 million subscribers throughout the United States, and served nearly two million viewers at its peak. During its existence, the network never officially identified itself specifically as "Foxnet" on-air; its network identification consisted solely of the Fox logo in use at the time, with a voiceover reading "you're watching Fox."
As Fox expanded its presence to most television markets through primary affiliations with full-power or low-power broadcast television stations (the latter now more well-associated under the ownership of other full-power stations and refusing the low-quality networks and paid programming prevalent in the early low-power era), and by the mid-2000s, carriage on digital subchannels of stations affiliated with other broadcast networks, Foxnet's coverage had in turn shrunk to the point where very few areas had a need for the service. In addition, most cable providers in markets that remained unserved by a local Fox station until it acquired a standalone primary or subchannel-only affiliation began importing out-of-market affiliates to relay the network's programming (in many cases, replacing Foxnet on the provider's lineup), or in rare cases, partnered with an already-existing major network affiliate to create a dedicated Fox cable channel (one such example was CGEM in the Hannibal, Missouri/Quincy, Illinois media market, which was initially operated by NBC affiliate WGEM-TV and Continental Cablevision at the time of its launch in 1994 before migrating to a digital subchannel of WGEM-TV in 2006). Foxnet was also carried in portions of some larger media markets where a reliable signal from an over-the-air affiliate or a translator was not receivable; one such example included Eastern Iowa (where KOCR's signal only covered Cedar Rapids and Iowa City and not the cities of Waterloo or Dubuque; Foxnet was carried across most of Eastern Iowa between October 1994 and KFXB-TV's affiliation with Fox in August 1995 as KOCR was off the air during that time owing to financial issues). Viewers in Foxnet markets that had a subscription to a direct broadcast satellite service also had the ability to watch an out-of-market Fox station via a given provider after receiving permission from the network: DirecTV and Dish Network subscribers could receive network-owned KTTV (channel 11) from Los Angeles or WNYW (channel 5) from New York City; until that provider's 1999 merger with DirecTV, subscribers of Primestar could receive either Oakland/San Francisco affiliate KTVU (channel 2, also now a Fox owned-and-operated station) or Philadelphia affiliate-turned-O&O WTXF-TV (channel 29). However, in some cases, satellite subscribers could receive the Fox station with rights to the network's programming within the market. As a result, some areas that were not served by a Fox affiliate at the time of the network's launch never offered Foxnet; examples included Palm Springs, California (which was served by KTTV prior to KDFX-CD's affiliation with Fox), the South Bend region (which was served by WFLD, WXMI, and WFFT-TV prior to WSJV's affiliation with Fox) and the western portion of the Plattsburgh/Burlington market (which was mostly served by WNYW prior to WFFF-TV's sign-on).
From October 2001 to April 2003, most Fox programming in the state of Maine was only available via Foxnet, as WPXT (which served as the network's Portland affiliate) disaffiliated from the network to join The WB; that station had been carried by cable providers in Bangor since the network's launch. When WPFO and WFVX-LD affiliated with Fox, Foxnet was relegated to the Presque Isle area, which was one of the last few areas to not have a Fox affiliate of its own. A similar situation happened in southwestern Mississippi when WDBD initially disaffiliated from the network at that time also to join The WB; WDBD would eventually reaffiliate with the network in 2006, taking the affiliation from WUFX (which signed on in September 2003, now WLOO).
Discontinuation
As time went on, more local or adjacent-market Fox affiliates became available over-the-air or on cable in smaller markets. Eventually, Foxnet's national coverage was reduced to the level where it was only carried on a few small cable systems, none of which had more than 1,000 subscribers. As such, it no longer made economic sense for the service to remain on the air. It was for this reason that Fox's then-owner News Corporation (whose entertainment assets were largely spun off into 21st Century Fox in July 2013) made the decision to discontinue Foxnet. The service officially shut down on September 12, 2006; it was originally slated to cease operations two weeks earlier on September 1, but the shutdown was delayed in order to allow ABC affiliate WABG-TV (channel 6) in Greenwood, Mississippi and CBS affiliate WAGM-TV (channel 8) in Presque Isle time to quickly launch Fox affiliates on their second digital subchannels.
Because of Foxnet's shutdown, 13,000 cable subscribers nationwide were estimated to have lost access to Fox network programming. By this time, the network's market share had increased to 98.97% of all U.S. television households. Indeed, network executives had been looking forward to the point that its national penetration had increased to the level that Foxnet would no longer be needed.
The concept and programming strategy behind Foxnet served as the basis for The WB 100+ Station Group, a service owned by Time Warner and Tribune that operated from September 1998 to September 2006 – which was succeeded by The CW Plus, once The WB and UPN were shut down and replaced by The CW in September 2006 – for markets that did not have a WB-affiliated station; though unlike Foxnet, The WB 100+ – which was also co-founded by Kellner – was stylized (to an extent) similarly to an over-the-air broadcast station and local operators were allowed to tailor the service to their individual market with their own branding, with some of the outlets even carrying local news or sports programming. Foxnet, meanwhile, was formatted in the manner of a traditional cable channel with no local programming content provided by its carriers.
2017-present: Partial revival with Hulu and as emergency backup service
In May 2017, the video streaming service Hulu (then partially owned by 21st Century Fox, Fox's owner at the time) launched a live TV option which included live streams of the Fox affiliates and O&Os which had agreed to terms with the service to offer their stations to Hulu. In June 2017, The Wall Street Journal (a sister newspaper to Fox through their News Corp ownership) mentioned a secondary national feed was offered by Fox in several markets where the network's affiliates had not come to terms with Hulu to offer their streams to Hulu, mainly those involving Fox affiliates owned by Sinclair Broadcast Group and Raycom Media. However, the national Fox live stream differs in that secondary programming from Fox's sister cable networks, including Fox News Channel, Fox Business Network, and former sister networks National Geographic Channel and Nat Geo Wild (both now owned by The Walt Disney Company), is offered outside of network hours rather than any syndicated content, differing drastically from the structure of Foxnet. Like Foxnet, this national feed is likely to eventually end as the network's affiliates and Fox agree to terms to allow full streaming of stations under the Hulu live TV service and other streaming services under future affiliation agreements.
After the landfall of Hurricane Laura in August 2020, the Fox affiliate for Lake Charles, Louisiana, KVHP, was taken off the air as its studio facility (shared with fellow Gray Television NBC affiliate KPLC) took damage caused by the toppling of the studio transmitter link tower into the studio building. Fox then fed their default national feed meant for streaming use to local cable providers until KVHP resumed full operations at the end of 2020.
Programming
Foxnet airs the Fox network's primetime schedule and its children's programming blocks (originally Fox Kids, then FoxBox/4Kids TV from September 2002 onward); beginning with the network's assumption of rights to the NFL's National Football Conference in September 1994, it also carries telecasts of sporting events produced by the Fox Sports division, though being a national service having to choose from certain games rather than taking regional coverage, it was possible for an NHL, NFL or MLB matchup with teams with no rooting interest in a certain area to be of no interest to those viewers. In some areas where Foxnet was offered, affiliates of other networks carried secondary affiliations with Fox to air the network's sports programming (and in some areas children's programming) over-the-air; during this time, some cable systems blacked out Foxnet whenever sports programming was aired due to syndex laws.
Otherwise, a dual programming model was utilized for Foxnet that differed from the traditional affiliate model – in which the local station handled responsibilities for acquiring and scheduling syndicated and local programming to fill timeslots not occupied by network content – that is used by Fox stations in large and medium-sized markets. Fox maintained responsibility over the programming of timeslots within Foxnet's schedule that were not occupied by Fox network programming, absolving the local cable provider of the duty of having to acquire syndicated programming to fill timeslots outside of Fox's network schedule. The acquired programs primarily consisted of shows that were airing at the time in national syndication and classic television series; syndicated film packages – with most titles being sourced from the 20th Century Fox library – usually filled select weekend timeslots (which following the incorporation of Fox Sports in 1994, began to be limited to weekend time periods that were not occupied by sports programming), and, until 1993, primetime slots (Fox began offering primetime shows seven nights a week in the fall of that year). Fox also leased time to direct response program producers and ministries to carry brokered programming (such as infomercials and religious programs) during overnight and some morning and early afternoon timeslots.
Foxnet is designed for the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones; as such, the Fox Kids and (from September 2002 to September 2006, after the network leased its children's programming to 4Kids Entertainment) 4Kids TV blocks, which were designed to be tape-delayed, were aired an hour early on affiliates in other time zones. As the network was carried as a cable network without any broadcast distribution, the FCC's educational content regulations for children's programming did not need to be fulfilled, nor was it subject to any FCC regulations which applied to broadcast networks.
Foxnet carried one original program, The Spud Goodman Show, a talk show that aired Sunday nights at 10:00 p.m. Eastern Time – following the conclusion of Fox's primetime lineup – from 1996 to 1998. Though Fox did not carry any national news programming of its own at the time of its launch (and only has one news program presently on its schedule in the form of the political talk show Fox News Sunday), Foxnet did carry a simulcast of sister network Fox News Channel's daily evening newscast Fox Report in the 10:00 p.m. (Eastern) time slot from February 1999 until the service's discontinuation.
Dramas
Comedies
Reality/other
Children's programming
See also
WGN America – a cable channel that originally operated as a superstation feed of WGN-TV, which broadcast programming from The WB Television Network for markets without an affiliate from January 1995 to October 1999
The WB 100+ Station Group – a similar cable-only network for markets without an affiliate of The WB, that operated from September 1998 to September 2006
The CW Plus – a successor of The WB 100+; most of the remaining cable-only channels and some over-the-air stations that are outlets of The CW Plus formerly served as affiliates of The WB 100+ Station Group
Univision – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
UniMás – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
Telemundo – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
Azteca América – American Spanish-language network that formerly offered a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
Estrella TV – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
CTV 2 Alberta – a similar cable-only affiliate of CTV 2 in the Canadian province of Alberta (formerly known as Access)
CTV 2 Atlantic – a similar cable-only affiliate of CTV 2 in Atlantic Canada (formerly known as the Atlantic Satellite Network and A Atlantic)
Citytv Saskatchewan – a similar cable-only affiliate of Citytv in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan (formerly known as the Saskatchewan Communications Network)
Notes and references
Fox Broadcasting Company
Defunct television networks in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 1991
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2006
1991 establishments in the United States
2006 disestablishments in the United States |
4541200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garth%20Ranzz | Garth Ranzz | Garth Ranzz, also known as Live Wire and Lightning Lad, is a superhero appearing in media published by DC Comics, usually those featuring the Legion of Superheroes, a 30th and 31st century group of which he is a founding member. He has the superhuman ability to generate electricity, usually in the form of lightning bolts.
Garth Ranzz made his live-action debut in an episode of Smallville, portrayed by Calum Worthy.
Publication history
The character first appeared in Adventure Comics #247 (April 1958), and was created by Otto Binder and Al Plastino.
Fictional character biography
Silver Age
Lightning Lad is a Winathian who was a founding member of the Legion of Super-Heroes along with Saturn Girl and Cosmic Boy. Born on the planet Winath, he is the twin brother of fellow Legionnaire Ayla Ranzz (Lightning Lass), the younger brother of the supervillain Mekt Ranzz (Lightning Lord), and the father of two sets of twins; sons Garridan (Validus) and Graym Ranzz and daughters Dacey and Dorrit Ranzz.
Early in the Legion's history, he sacrificed himself battling Zaryan the Conqueror, but was later resurrected by the sacrifice of Proty, Chameleon Boy's shapeshifting pet. A later retcon revealed that Proty's mind had actually taken over Lightning Lad's form, but this has since been eliminated from Legion canon.
An incident against a monster dubbed the "Super Moby Dick of space" resulted in the loss of Lightning Lad's right arm, which was replaced with a bionic appendage. He eventually had his arm regrown, but in the interim a criminal scientist used the situation to hypnotize Lightning Lad into acting as the super-criminal Starfinger, who used the bionic arm as a weapon. After The Great Darkness Saga, his son was abducted by Darkseid and subsequently transformed into the monster Validus.
During the "Five Year Gap" following the Magic Wars, Earth fell under the covert control of the Dominators, and withdrew from the United Planets. A few years later, the members of the Dominators' highly classified "Batch SW6" escaped captivity. Originally, Batch SW6 appeared to be a group of teenage Legionnaire clones, created from samples apparently taken just prior to Ferro Lad's death at the hands of the Sun-Eater. Later, they were revealed to be time-paradox duplicates, every bit as legitimate as their older counterparts. After Earth was destroyed in a disaster reminiscent of the destruction of Krypton over a millennium earlier, a few dozen surviving cities and their inhabitants reconstituted their world as New Earth. The SW6 Legionnaires remained, and their version of Lightning Lad assumed the code name Live Wire. Unlike the adult Garth, he did not possess Proty's mind or personality. Thus, the teenage Live Wire was far more reckless and rebellious than any previous depiction of Garth.
Zero Hour - Reboot
In the aftermath of Crisis on Infinite Earths, Superman's origin was revamped and Superboy was erased from Superman's past. However, the Legion's history greatly revolved around Superboy, and that version of the character was retconned into being part of a "pocket universe", a solution which caused several continuity errors. After the Zero Hour miniseries, Legion history was completely rebooted. Garth's new history started when the twins went with Mekt on a trip in their parents' new space cruiser and became stranded on the barren planet Korbal after the cruiser's power cells drained. Ayla suggested that they use the "Lightning Beasts" (the only living things on the planet) in an attempt to recharge their cruiser. The only result of this, however, was that all three were found in comas the following day as a result of massive electrocution.
Months later, Garth and Ayla awoke simultaneously to find that Mekt had awoken around a week earlier, displayed electrical powers like the Beasts, threatened the staff, and vanished. After hearing this, they kept the fact that they had developed similar powers from their parents before Garth, thinking that the lightning had corrupted Mekt somehow and would soon corrupt them and refusing to believe that Mekt had developed into a sociopath just because he had been a "solo" on a world of twins, ran away from home to find Mekt (telling his parents he was going to visit his Aunt Ryth), despite Ayla's attempts to dissuade him.
Legion
Hearing that Mekt might be on Earth, he got on a shuttle bound for Earth via Titan, and met Rokk Krinn there. The two hit it off immediately, but although he developed a crush on her at first sight, Imra Ardeen gave him a frosty reception. Nonetheless, when she shouted that four "maintenance men" were actually assassins after R. J. Brande, the three worked together to stop them. This gave Brande an idea. Shortly after, a bar-room brawl caused Garth to be arrested, but just as his cellmates were about to beat him up, Triad-Orange came and posted his bail - Brande wanted a word. There, he found the other two Luornus had fetched Imra and Rokk. Brande, a follower of the 21st century "Heroic Age", proceeded to talk the three of them into founding "a Legion of Super-Heroes", with Garth taking the codename Live Wire.
Despite early tension between him and Saturn Girl, Garth's initial period with the Legion passed with little trouble, until his sister showed up. At this point, they were only permitted to have one Legionnaire per world and Garth, classed as a runaway, was not who Winath wanted to represent them. Ayla, codenamed Spark, was apologetic, but neither of them had much choice in the matter and after he nearly leveled Legion Plaza in his fight with Ultra Boy (after UB had threatened Ayla), he quit rather than embarrass Rokk or Imra any more by letting them plead to let him stay.
Solo
After this, Garth joined Leland McCauley's Workforce to try to get the money to follow Mekt again, but only stayed with them a short time before McCauley's complete lack of morals became too much and he quit. Shortly afterward, he went to ask Brande if he could borrow a ship to find his brother. Since several stargates (the standard means of traveling faster than light, which Brande manufactured) had recently been destroyed and Brande didn't want to take any chances, he turned him down, but told him to go and visit Saturn Girl, who was in the hospital, having been mentally regressed to childhood by the strain from shutting down Composite Man's mind. Upon seeing her have a toddler-style temper tantrum, though, he could not bring himself to go in.
Shortly after, several Daxamites attacked Earth, and when Garth visited Legion HQ to see if he could help, he was given a flight ring by Rokk and ordered to go and see Imra (who he'd seen pleading for Garth earlier). When she saw him, she threw her arms around him, and, by telling her that the Legion needed her - and that HE needed her - he talked her back to sanity.
At the end, the three founders stood on Legion HQ as Saturn Girl called the Daxamites there, just in time for Element Lad and Brainiac 5 to send them to a planet where they would be powerless, ending the threat.
Mekt
In the aftermath, however, he was once more forced off the team—and stung by Ayla's charge that he talked a good game on finding Mekt, but never actually did anything about it - he went on his travels again to try once more to find his wayward brother. After spending 27060 credits in his search, he found himself on the planet Bisbe, having been robbed of his last 512 credits. When trying to get his money back, he was arrested for murder under Mekt's name. Rather than protesting that he wasn't Mekt, he stayed silent, and just as the truth was discovered, Mekt broke through the wall and killed the police officer who was trying to dissuade Garth from taking Mekt's fall. When Garth saw just how insane Mekt had become, he tried to blast him, but was knocked out by his brother. Meanwhile, Ayla was told of Garth's arrest and the cop's electrocution, and she rushed straight to Bisbe.
Garth awoke just as they were entering Korbal's orbit, where Mekt started killing more beasts to increase his own power, so he would be the only one with lightning powers, a plan that did not involve Garth or Ayla. As Garth realized this, several Science Police cruisers flew overhead announcing that he was under arrest for the murder of a policeman. Mekt immediately began to down the cruisers, while Garth pleaded with Mekt to stop. Finally, when Ayla showed up, a ranting Mekt attacked her. Garth was finally forced to face the truth about Mekt, but Mekt, now more powerful than both of the twins together, retaliated by vaporizing Garth's right arm. Ayla grabbed Mekt's laser pistol and shot him in the leg, delaying him while she saw that Garth's wound had cauterized itself. Finally, as Mekt prepared to finish them off, Garth prompted Ayla to hold his remaining hand and let their powers run together freely. The resulting blast was enough to not only knock Mekt off his feet, but completely discharge him (not to mention turn his hair white). Mekt was finally arrested by the S.P., and (after a short stay in hospital) Garth was cleared of all charges.
While he was recovering from the ordeal, and getting used to his artificial arm, he was contacted by Cosmic Boy, who knew that President Chu was up to something, but he didn't know what and thus had to play along with her wishes (which included keeping Live Wire off the team). Rokk thus had Live Wire put together a secret "Rescue Squad". After recruiting Ultra Boy, Element Lad, Andromeda, Valor and XS, they saved the Legion from the Fatal Five. Both teams then divided into three, and all the heroes combined to have Chu impeached and arrested, and to prevent her (with the Fatal Five's help) from reviving the Braal-Titan War. R.J. Brande was then reluctantly drafted as the new U.P. president, and his first act was to abolish the U.P.-installed membership restrictions on the team, allowing Garth to rejoin.
Garth was killed during the "Legion Lost" storyline, sacrificing himself in battle with the Progenitor (actually an insane Element Lad). A few crystals were left from the destruction of the Progenitor, which Kid Quantum took with her upon the Lost Legion's return to the "first" galaxy; she left the crystals on Shanghalla (the heroes' graveyard). It turned out Garth's essence survived in the crystals and Jan's body regrew but with Garth's mind. He was apparently able to use both the Element Lad and Lightning Lad powers in the new crystalline body. His relationship with other Legionnaires, including Saturn Girl, was strained due to his outward resemblance to the Progenitor.
In the Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds miniseries, the post-Zero Hour Legion is brought to the pre-crisis Legion's timeline, to help battle Superboy Prime and the Legion of Super-Villains. During this time, the pre-crisis Brainiac 5 uses a specially charged lightning rod to increase the transmutation ability of Element Lad's body, allowing Garth to mutate the body itself into a match for his own.
Threeboot
In the 2005 Waid/Kitson revamp, Garth Ranzz (again as Lightning Lad) remains a charter member of the galactic youth movement the Legion has become (it is revealed that he coined the first Legion motto—"Eat it, Grandpa!") He and Saturn Girl share an intimate connection, and Garth notes that one has to be "way honest" to date a telepath. He is protective of his twin, Light Lass, and bears a slight grudge against Brin Londo for his treatment of Ayla. One of the Legion's fiercest fighters, he almost single-handedly routed the terrorist group Terra Firma in their first skirmish with the Legion. Made acting leader in the wake of the Lemnos crisis, it was Lightning Lad who signed the accord which officially named the Legion as an arm of the United Planets and saved hundreds of Legionnaires from being brutally deported by the Science Police. He is the Legion member who has logged the least time on Earth, tending to prefer exploring space, as if searching for something, revealed to be his older brother, Mekt, who ultimately came to Earth, himself, leading his own super team known as "The Wanderers". This fact, and his almost total dedication to the Legion's cause puts a serious strain on his relationship with Saturn Girl, eventually putting her in Ultra Boy's arms.
Post-"Infinite Crisis"
The events of the 2005–2006 "Infinite Crisis" storyline restored a close analogue of the Pre-"Crisis on Infinite Earths" Legion to continuity, as seen in "The Lightning Saga" story arc in Justice League of America and Justice Society of America, and in the "Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes" story arc in Action Comics. Lightning Lad is included in their number, and is still married to Saturn Girl.
Garth later escorts Superman back to the present, where the two take time to reminisce on certain teenage misadventures in the Fortress of Solitude. The two are then joined by Batman, who reveals that the bodies of Karate Kid and Una were found in Gotham City. Garth and Batman react with hostility towards one another, given Batman's distrust of time travelers. Garth goes back to the 31st Century with Karate Kid and Una's bodies, but not before giving Superman a new flight ring and giving Batman a veiled warning about upcoming struggles.
In the 2009 revival of Adventure Comics Garth is sent by an imprisoned Mekt to uncover the truth about whether Mekt was in fact a single birth, or whether his suspicions are correct that he does have a twin and that his parents have covered this up. It remains to be seen whether he is telling the truth, is lying, or has deluded himself into believing this. If it is true, this revelation would be a significant alteration to the characters' backstory.
In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock", Lightning Lad is among the Legionnaires that appear in the present after Doctor Manhattan undid the experiment that erased the Legion and the Justice Society of America.
Powers and abilities
Lightning Lad has the ability to generate electricity within his own body without harming himself. This electricity he is able to discharge in the form of potent "lightning bolts". He can also create flashing lettering which can be seen from great distances. He has occasionally displayed limited control of the weather. In more recent versions of the character, Garth is also able to direct his electric powers internally so as to move at superhuman speed, with his top speed being approximately one-third the speed of light. Lightning Lad is immune to the harmful effects of electric currents, not only those currents that he himself generates.
As a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes, Garth is additionally provided a Legion Flight Ring, which allows him to fly and protects him from the vacuum of space and other dangerous environments.
In other media
Television
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the Superman: The Animated Series episode "New Kids In Town".
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the Justice League Unlimited episode "Far From Home".
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad appears in Legion of Super-Heroes (2006), voiced by Andy Milder. This version is brash, hot-headed, and sports glowing blue eyes and a lightning-shaped scar over his right eye, both of which he obtained during the incident that gave him his powers. Additionally, he displays a competitive rivalry with Superman that later becomes a closer relationship as the series progresses. In his most notable appearance in the episode "Chained Lightning", Lightning Lad loses his right arm while fighting his brother Mekt before gaining a prosthetic arm called the Cybernetic 4000 capable of firing explosive electric blasts from Brainiac 5 and Shrinking Violet. Following this, he and Mekt work together to restore their sister Ayla after discovering that she had been turned into a disembodied energy being.
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad appears in the Smallville episode "Legion", portrayed by Calum Worthy. This version is an overzealous fan of Clark Kent, who initially expresses disappointment in his attitude before rallying him, Cosmic Boy, and Saturn Girl to defeat Brainiac.
Film
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad appears in Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Cosmic Clash, voiced again by Andy Milder. This version comes from a future Earth that Brainiac conquered by the year 2116. As the only Legionnaires left, Lightning Lad, Saturn Girl, and Cosmic Boy help Batman defeat Brainiac before helping the former return to the present.
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad makes a non-speaking appearance in Legion of Super-Heroes (2023).
The Legion of Super Heroes (2006) incarnation of Lightning Lad makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the crossover film Scooby-Doo! and Krypto, Too!.
Video games
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Brainiac's ending in Injustice 2.
Miscellaneous
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad appears in Adventures in the DC Universe #10.
Garth Ranzz as Lightning Lad appears in the one-shot comic Batman '66 Meets the Legion of Super-Heroes.
References
External links
LIGHTNING LAD at the LEGION Collection
Characters created by Otto Binder
Comics characters introduced in 1958
DC Comics aliens
DC Comics cyborgs
DC Comics extraterrestrial superheroes
DC Comics superheroes
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Fictional amputees
Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities
Fictional characters with weather abilities
Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Twin characters in comics |
4541314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola%20Empire | Chola Empire | The Chola Empire, often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval Indian thalassocratic empire established by Pottapi branch of the Chola dynasty that rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century CE and successfully united southern India under their rule.
The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak is evident through their expeditions to the Ganges, naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya Empire based on the island of Sumatra, and their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian maritime capacity. Around 1070 the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories, but the later Cholas (1070–1279) continued to rule portions of southern India. The Chola empire went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall.
The Cholas established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. Moreover, their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for building temples has resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. A UNESCO world heritage site, the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, commissioned by the Rajaraja in 1010, is a prime example for Chola architecture. They were also well known for their patronage to art. The development of the specific sculpturing technique used in the 'Chola bronzes', exquisite bronze sculptures of Hindu deities built in a lost wax process was pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.
Founding
Vijayalaya, the successor of Srikantha Chola was the founder of the Chola empire in 848 CE. Vijayalaya belonging to Pottapi Chola family, a Telugu Chola branch which claimed descent from ancient Tamil king Karikala Cholaand possibly a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya empire and Pallava empire in c. 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola empire.
Under Aditya I, the Pallava dynasty and defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty. In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka (known as Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of Vallala. Later Parantaka I was defeated by Rashtrakutas under Krishna III and Cholas' heir apparent Rajaditya Chola was killed in the Battle of Takkolam. Cholas lost Tondaimandalam region to Rashtrakutas in that battle.
The Chola power recovered under the reign of Parantaka II. The Chola army under the command of the crown prince Aditha Karikalan defeated the Pandyas and expanded the kingdom up to Tondaimandalam. Aditha Karikalan was assassinated in a political plot. After Parantaka II, Uttama Chola became the Chola emperor followed by Raja Raja Chola I, the greatest Chola monarch.
Imperial Era
Under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, the Empire would reach it's impereal state. At its peak, the Chola empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari–Krishna river basin in the north, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep, and Maldives. Rajaraja Chola I was a ruler with inexhaustible energy, and he applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal that he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight administrative grid under royal control, and at the same time strengthened local self-government. Therefore, he conducted a land survey in 1000 CE to effectively marshall the resources of his empire. He also built the Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010.
Rajendra conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated the forces of the Pala dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India. Rajendra built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there. This expedition had such a great impression to the Malay people of the medieval period that his name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu. He also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V as a prisoner, in addition to his conquests of Rattapadi (territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad, and Kolar, where the Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue) in Kannada country. Rajendra's territories included the area falling on the Ganges–Hooghly–Damodar basin, as well as Rajarata of Sri Lanka and Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Three diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077.
permanent territorial gain and the kingdom was returned to the Srivijaya king for recognition of Chola superiority and the payment of periodic tributes.
Chola–Chalukya Wars
The history of the Cholas from the period of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into two sibling dynasties of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas. Rajaraja's daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, who ruled from Vengi. The Western Chalukyas felt that the Vengi kingdom was under their natural sphere of influence. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas. For the most part, the frontier remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms and resulted in the death of king Rajadhiraja.
Rajendra's reign was followed by three of his sons in succession: Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, and Virarajendra. In his eagerness to restore the Chola hegemony over Vengi to its former absolute state, Rajadhiraja I (1042–1052) led an expedition into the Vengi country in 1044–1045. He fought a battle at Dhannada and compelled the Western Chalukyan army along with Vijayaditya VII to retreat in disorder. He then entered into the Western Chalukyan dominions and set fire to the Kollipaka fort on the frontier between the Kalyani and Vengi territories.
This brought relief for Rajaraja Narendra who was now firmly in control at Vengi, with Rajadhiraja I proceeding all the way up to the Chalukyan capital, displacing the Chalukyan king Someshvara I and performing his coronation at Manyakheta and collecting tribute from the defeated king, who had fled the battlefield. However, while the Chalukyans kept creating trouble through Vijayaditya VII Vengi remained firmly in control of the Cholas. Someshvara I however, again launched an attack on Vengi and then the Cholas in 1054.
After Rajadhiraja died, Rajendra II crowned himself on the battlefield. He galvanized the Chola army, crushing the Chalukyas under Someshvara I in the process. Again, the Chalukya king fled the battle field leaving his queen and riches behind in the possession of the victorious Chola army. The Cholas consolidated their hold on both Vengi and Kalinga. Although from time to time there were skirmishes with the Chalukyas, they were repeatedly crushed by both the Cholas and the Vengi princes, who openly professed loyalty to the Chola empire. The death of Rajaraja Narendra in 1061 offered another opportunity for the Kalyani court to strengthen its hold on Vengi. Vijayaditya VII seized Vengi. With the consent of the Kalyani court, which he had served for many years, he established himself permanently in the kingdom. Meanwhile, prince Rajendra Chalukya, son of Rajaraja Narendra through the Chola princess Ammangai was brought up in the Chola harem. Rajendra Chalukya, married Madhurantakidevi, the daughter of RajendraII. In order to restore him on the Vengi throne, RajendraII sent his son Rajamahendra and brother ViraRajendraagainst the Western Chalukyas and Vijayaditya VII. The Chola forces marched against Gangavadi and drove away the Chalukyas. Virarajendra then marched against Vengi and probably killed Saktivarman II, son of Vijayaditya VII.
In the midst of this, in 1063, Rajendra II died and, as his son Rajamahendra had predeceased him, Virarajendra went back to Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was crowned the Chola king (1063–1070). He managed to split the Western Chalukya kingdom by convincing a Chalukya prince, Vikramaditya IV, to become his son-in-law and to seize the throne of Kalyani for himself. When Virarajendra died in 1070, he was succeeded by his son Adhirajendra, but the latter was assassinated a few months later, leaving the Chola dynasty was without a lineal successor in the Vijayalaya Chola line.
Later Cholas
Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra. Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola, was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.
The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga I, his son Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja II, Rajadhiraja II, and Kulothunga III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja III, to the last emperor Rajendra III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.
In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.
For three generations the Eastern Chalukyan princes had married in to the imperial Chola family and they had come to feel that they belonged to it as much as the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. One of the Chalukya princes was Rajendra Chalukya of Vengi, who had "spent his childhood days in Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was a familiar favourite to the princes and the people of the Chola country" according to Kalingathuparani, an epic written in praise of him. He moved into the political vacuum created by the death of Adhirajendra and established himself on the Chola throne as Kulottunga I (1070–1122), beginning the Later Chola or Chalukya-Chola period.
Kulothunga I reconciled himself with his uncle Vijayaditya VII and allowed him to rule Vengi for the rest of his life. With Vijayaditya's death in 1075 CE, the Eastern Chalukya line came to an end. Vengi became a province of the Chola Empire. Kulottunga Chola I administered the province through his sons by sending them as Viceroys. However, there was a prolonged fight between him and Vikramaditya VI. Kulothunga's long reign was characterized by unparalleled success and prosperity. He avoided unnecessary wars and earned the true admiration of his subjects. His successes resulted in the wellbeing of the empire for the next 100 years. However the first seeds of the impending troubles were sown in his reign. Kulothunga lost the territories in the island of Lanka and more seriously, the Pandya territories were beginning to slip away from Chola control.
Diminished empire
The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for sometime. At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III
The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of the Tamil country during this period. They thoroughly exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other thereby preventing both the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During the period of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas and established a presence in the Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III, who succeeded Rajaraja III, was a much better ruler who took bold steps to revive the Chola fortunes. He led successful expeditions to the north as attested by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah. He also defeated two Pandya princes one of whom was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II and briefly made the Pandyas submit to the Chola overlordship. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, were quick to intervene and this time they sided with the Pandyas and repulsed the Cholas in order to counter the latter's revival. The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu or Kannada country, who were allies of the Cholas from Tamil country and the demise of the Cholas themselves ultimately was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well as territories in Sri Lanka, southern Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha. The Pandyans gradually became major players in the Tamil country from 1215 and intelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-southern Chera country and Kanyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the Kaveri Delta, i.e. Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally marching all the way up to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250.
The Pandyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas. They also dispossessed the Hoysalas, by defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam. At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers. The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince. The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 by Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus the Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century and until period of the Vijayanagara Empire. In the early 16th century, Virasekhara Chola, king of Tanjore rose out of obscurity and plundered the dominions of the then Pandya prince in south. The Pandya who was under the protection of the Vijayanagara appealed to the emperor and the Raya accordingly directed his agent (Karyakartta) Nagama Nayaka who was stationed in the south to put down the Chola. Nagama Nayaka then defeated the Chola but to everyone's surprise the once loyal officer of Krishnadeva Raya defied the emperor for some reason and decided to keep Madurai for himself. Krishnadeva Raya is then said to have dispatched Nagama's son, Viswanatha who defeated his father and restored Madurai to Vijayanagara. The fate of Virasekhara Chola, the last of the line of Cholas is not known. It is speculated that he either fell in battle or was put to death along with his heirs during his encounter with Vijayanagara.
Administration
Government
In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government.
The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier period and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later on at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on his morality and belief in Dharma. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting the community as a whole. Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The Chola empire was divided into several provinces called which were further divided into , which were subdivided into units called or . According to Kathleen Gough, during the Chola period the Vellalar were the "dominant secular aristocratic caste ... providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry".
Before the reign of Rajaraja Chola I huge parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 when the Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes virtually vanished from the Chola records and were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. Through these dependent officials the administration was improved and the Chola kings were able to exercise a closer control over the different parts of the empire. There was an expansion of the administrative structure, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja Chola I onwards. The government at this time had a large land revenue department, consisting of several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I, the state initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment and there was a reorganisation of the empire into units known as .
The order of the King was first communicated by the executive officer to the local authorities. Afterwards the records of the transaction was drawn up and attested by a number of witnesses who were either local magnates or government officers.
At local government level, every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a , or , depending on the area. A number of constituted a . These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.
Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or confiscation of property.
Military
The Chola military had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry and a navy. The Emperor was the supreme commander. There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen while the swordsmen were the most permanent and dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams. The elephants played a major role in the army and the empire had numerous war elephants. These carried houses or huge Howdahs on their backs, full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and who fought with spears at close quarters. The Chola army composed chiefly of Kaikolars (men with stronger arms), which were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury (e.g. Arul mozhideva-terinda-kaikola padai; in this, arulmozhideva is the king's name, terinda means well known, and padai means regime).
The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made up of bricks but other materials like stone, wood and mud were also used. According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, the Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains and traps.
The soldiers of the Chola empire used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears and shields which were made up of steel. Particularly the famous Wootz steel, which has a long history in south India dating back to the period before the Christian era, seems also be used to produce weapons. Kallar served in the armies of the Chola kings.
The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya. The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. The Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas fought land battles subjugating the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India.
A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers. Ancient and medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam. The medieval Kalingathu Parani text, which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail.
Economy
Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers—at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the international trade. At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups (samayam) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade.
One of the main articles which were exported to foreign countries were cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a famous centre for cotton textiles which were praised by Tamil poets. The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue from it. During this period the weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. The weavers had their own residential sector in all towns. The most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar. During the Chola period silk weaving attained a high degree and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.
Metal crafts reached its zenith during the 10th to 11th centuries because the Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major export item.
The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group. Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there were others dependent on agriculture. The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry.
In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the land-tax (iraikudigal) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on the estates of other people and received a daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure which can be distinguished as peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts. The vellan-vagai was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to revision from time to time. The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes: one directly remitting a variable annual revenue to the state and the other paying dues of a more or less fixed character to the public institutions like temples to which they were assigned. The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the Chola rulers threw mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers.
There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organised mercantile corporations in various parts of the country. The metal industries and the jewellers art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea-salt was carried on under government supervision and control. Trade was carried on by merchants organised in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade. They had their own mercenary army for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called "nagaram" in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.
Hospitals
Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows that a hospital was named after Vira Chola. Many diseases were cured by the doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician who was paid annually 80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, barber (who performed minor operations) and a waterman.
The Chola queen Kundavai also established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for the perpetual maintenance of it.
Society
During the Chola period several guilds, communities, and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence. The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group. The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry. The Vellalar were also sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers. The Ulavar community were working in the field which was associated with agriculture and the peasants were known as Kalamar.
The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants but they also maintained armies. During the Chola period they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th centuries) there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership. There was more involvement of non-Brahmin elements in the temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in money power. Skilled classes like the weavers and the merchant-class had become prosperous. Land ownership was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners.
There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.
The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses. Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received government support.
Under the Chola Kings, there was generally an emphasis on a fair justice system, and the Kings were often described as Sengol-valavan, the king who established just rule; and the king was warned by the priests that royal justice would ensure a happy future for him here, and that injustice would lead to divine punishment.
Foreign trade
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The south Indian guilds played a major role in interregional and overseas trade. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds who followed the conquering Chola armies. The encouragement by the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Ayyavole and Manigramam guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya Empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies."
Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in 1077, and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with copper coins in exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices. Probably, the motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants' interests.
Canals and water tanks
There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola dynasty (c. 900–1270) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. Most of the canals of the Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g. Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal. There was a well-developed and highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of and lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory. About 16 miles long, it was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating the lands in the neighbouring areas. Another very large lake of this period, which even today seems an important source of irrigation was the Viranameri near Kattumannarkoil in South Arcot district founded by Parantaka Chola. Other famous lakes of this period are Madurantakam, Sundra-cholapereri, Kundavai-Pereri (after a Chola queen).
Art and architecture
Architecture
The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design. They built a number of Shiva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. The template for these and future temples was formulated by Aditya I and Parantaka. The Chola temple architecture has been appreciated for its magnificence as well as delicate workmanship, ostensibly following the rich traditions of the past bequeathed to them by the Pallava Dynasty. Architectural historian James Fergusson says that "the Chola artists conceived like giants and finished like jewelers". A new development in Chola art that characterised the Dravidian architecture in later times was the addition of a huge gateway called gopuram to the enclosure of the temple, which had gradually taken its form and attained maturity under the Pandya dynasty. The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola empire under Rajendra. The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Shiva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Shaivite saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.
Literature
Literature florished in the Chola Empire. Kambar flourished during the reign of Kulothunga III. His Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. He imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.
Jayamkondar's Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga's war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the field. The Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors. Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.
Nannul is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant today and is one of the most distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil.
The Telugu Choda period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions. Tikkana Somayaji wrote Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu and Andhra Mahabharatamu. Abhinava Dandi Ketana wrote Dasakumaracharitramu, Vijnaneswaramu and Andhra Bhashabhushanamu. Marana wrote Markandeya Purana in Telugu. Somana wrote Basava Purana. Tikkana is one of the kavitrayam who translated Mahabharata into Telugu language.
Of the devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century. However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent animosity towards them.
Religion
In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism. While the Cholas did build their largest and most important temple dedicated to Shiva, it can be by no means concluded that either they were followers of Shaivism only or that they were not favourably disposed to other faiths. This is borne out by the fact that the second Chola king, Aditya I (871–903), built temples for Shiva and also for Vishnu. Inscriptions of 890 refer to his contributions to the construction of the Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam in the country of the Western Gangas, who were both his feudatories and had connections by marriage with him. He also pronounced that the great temples of Shiva and the Ranganatha temple were to be the Kuladhanam of the Chola emperors.
Parantaka II was a devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil, on the banks of the Kaveri river on the outskirts of Tiruchy, to whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments. He also prayed before him before his embarking on war to regain the territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and while leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka). Parantaka I and Parantaka Chola II endowed and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu. Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery in Nagapattinam, at the request of Sri Chulamanivarman, the Srivijaya Sailendra king.
During the period of the Later Cholas, there are alleged to have been instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites especially towards their acharya, Ramanuja. A Chola sovereign called Krimikanta Chola is said to have persecuted Ramanuja. Some scholars identify Kulothunga Chola II with Krimikanta Chola or worm-necked Chola, so called as he is said to have suffered from cancer of the throat or neck. The latter finds mention in the vaishnava Guruparampara and is said to have been a strong opponent of the vaishnavas. The work Parpannamritam (17th century) refers to the Chola king called Krimikanta who is said to have removed the Govindaraja idol from the Chidambaram Nataraja temple. However, according to "Koil Olugu" (temple records) of the Srirangam temple, Kulottunga Chola II was the son of Krimikanta Chola. The former, unlike his father, is said to have been a repentant son who supported vaishnavism. Ramanuja is said to have made Kulottunga II as a disciple of his nephew, Dasarathi. The king then granted the management of the Ranganathaswamy temple to Dasarathi and his descendants as per the wish of Ramanuja. Historian Nilakanta Sastri identifies Krimikanta Chola with Adhirajendra Chola or Virarajendra Chola with whom the main line (Vijayalaya line) ended. There is an inscription from 1160 AD which states that the custodians of Shiva temples who had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. However, this is more of a direction to the Shaivite community by its religious heads than any kind of dictat by a Chola emperor. While Chola kings built their largest temples for Shiva and even while emperors like Rajaraja Chola I held titles like Sivapadasekharan, in none of their inscriptions did the Chola emperors proclaim that their clan only and solely followed Shaivism or that Shaivism was the state religion during their rule.
Family tree
Emperors
Notes
Works cited
Further reading
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D., P. G. PUBLISHERS
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1935). The Cōlas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
Dynasties of India
Chola dynasty
Medieval India
History of Tiruchirappalli
Empires and kingdoms of India |
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